THE

CYCLOPEDIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

arts, ^cimces, anb l^iterattire.

BY '

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXIIL

LONDON:
Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & DROWN, Paternostkk-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAIIAN, PAYNK AND FO.SS, SCATCIIKHD AN/) LKTTEUMAN, J. C UTIIELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON IIUGIIK.S IIAUDING MAVOK AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBLRY AND ALLEN, U. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HUUST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J.DICKINSON, J. PATERiON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BKODIIi AND DOWDING.

1819.

CYCLOPMDIA:

V,33

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

SINES.

SINE, or Right Sine, in Trigonometry, a right line drawn
from one extremity of an arc, perpendicular to the radius
drawn from the other extremity : or, the fine is half the
chord of twice the arc.

Thus the line A D [Plate 1. Trigonometry, Jig. 4.) which
is half the chord, A B, of the double arc A E B, is the
right fine ; or, fimply, the fine of the arc A E.

Sine, Whole, Sinus tatus, is the fine of the quadrant H E,
or of 90° ; that is, the whole fine is the fame with the ra-
dius H C.

Sine, Verfed, is a part, E D, of the whole fine or radius
intercepted between the right fine A D and the arc A E.

It is demonftrated, i. That, the right fine A D being
perpendicular to the radius E C, all fines drawn to the fame
radius are parallel to each other.

2. Since the arc A E is the meafure of the angle ACE,
and A I the meafure of the contiguous angle A C I, and
the quadrant H E the meafure of the right angle ; A D is
alfo the right fine, and E D the verfed fine, of t he angles
ACE and A C I, and the whole fine is the fine of the
right angle.

3. Two angles contiguous, as A C E and A C I, have
the fame fine.

4. The fines of obtufe angles are the fame with thofe of
their complements to two right angles : or tiie fine of any
angle, and the fine of its fiipplement, are the fame ; or the
fines of arcs Icfs than 90^, lerve equally for arcs as much
greater than 90° ; i. e. the fines of 80° and loo", of 60'' and
120°, &c. are refpeftivcly equal.

5. All fines of fimilar arcs have the fame ratio to their
radii.

6. In every triangle the fides arc ar. the fines of the oppo-
fite angles.

Vol. XXXIII.

SisE-Complementj or Cofine, is the fine of an arc A E,
which is the complement of another arc AH, to a qua-
drant.

Thus alfo the fine of the arc A H is called the fine-
complement of the arc A E. And it is plain, that the verfed
ftne and cofine, taken together, are equal to the radius.

The fine D E {fg. 10.) and the verfed fine A E, being
given in common mejfure, not in parts of the radius, to And tht
arc D A in degrees. Find the fcraidiaiiieter A C : "ib'^n in
the triangle DEC, befides the right angle E, by the iides
DE and DC we find the angle ECD (A CD), which
fiiews the number of degrees in the arr D A ; the double
of which is the arc DAD. This problem is of ufe in
finding the fegment of a circle. See Segment.

Arithmetic of Sines is a term commonly employed to de-
note what is perhaps more properly called nnniyticnl trigo-
nometry, being a modern branch of the analytical calciilii.i,
which we owe in a great meafure to the celebrated Euler,
though the principal geomelrical theorem on which it is
founded was firit pointed out by Mayer, in a memoir ])ub-
lifhed in the Afta Pctro. for 1 727 ; hut the extenfion of the
method, and a fuitable mode ot notation, are undoubtedly
due to Euler.

The objeit of this branch of fcience is to exhibit the re-
lations of the fines, cofines, tangents, cotangents, &c. of
area, multiple arcs, &c. ; and it is, without doubt, owing,
in fonie meafure, to tlie facilities this calculus has afforded,
of cxprclling in a fimple manner formula;, which, without
its aid, would have exceeded the powers of the human mind,
that allronomy, v^hich depends fo much on thcfe relations,
has attained its prefent high dejjree of perfection.

In common arithmetic, our objedl is to combine together

different fimple numbern, by addition, multiplication, &c. ;

B or

444()74

SINES.

or to decompofe them by the reverfe operations of fubtrac-
tion, divifion, or evolution ; and the rules for all thefe cafes
are plain and dired, becaufe the units of the feveral parts
are equal and identical. But after we quit this fpecies of
calculation, we are no longer able to proceed with the fame
facihty ; the quantities we have to combine are only the re-
prefentatives of others, and have no longer the fame relation
with each other; whatever we fix upon as an unit, it will not
have ta its reprefentative the ratio of number to number, and
confequently different modes of operation then become ne-
ced'ary. The firft cafe of this kind occurs in the theory of
logarithm?, or, as it may be called, logarithmic arithmetic.
Here, if we add two quantities together, w'z. two loga-
rithms, the fum thus obtained does not reprefent a quantity
that is equal in value to the two quantities ; becaufe neither
of the two original logarithms, nor that which is obtamed
by the addition of them, are quantities connefted with our
refearch, othervvife than as they are the reprefentatives of
certain numbers, ivhofe relation or conneftion is fought ;
and the combinations, therefore, of thefe artificial numbers
have not the fame relation with each other as thofe they are
taken to reprefent.. If, for example, we have given the
log. a, and with to find the log. of 3 a, we cannot, as in
fimple arithmetic, call the latter 3 log. a, but log. 3 +
log. a ; fo alfo, in trigonometry, if we have given the fine a,
and wifh from thence to find the fine 3 a, we can neither find
it by multiplication, as in arithmetic ; nor by addition, as
in logarithms ; but muft proceed in a manner wholly different
from either : and this procefs, ( which we will now endea-
vour to illullrate) is what is here to be underftood by the
arithmetic of fines.

The notation ufed in this calculus is very fimple, being as
follows ; w'z. a being any angle, we denote

tlie fine of a, by fin. a
the cofine of a, by cof. a
the fine of 2 a, 3 a, 1 by fin. 2 a, fin.
4 a, &c. n a, 3 fin. 4. a, &c. fin
the cofine of 2 a, 3 a, 7 by cof. 23, col.
J cof.

1 a

4 a, &c,

cof. » a

In

4 a, &c. n a,
fimilar manner,

the tangent of a is denoted by tan. a
the cotangent of a, by cot. a
the fecant of a, by fee. a
the cofecant of a, by cofec. a
the verfed fine of a, by verf. a

And the feveral multiples of thefe in the fame manner as
above explained for the fines and cofines ; thus the tangent,
fecant, cofecant, &c. of 2 a, 3 a, n a, &c. are written
tan. 2 a, fee. 3 a, cofec. n a. Sec.

Again, the powers of any of thofe lines are denoted by
placing the index of the power over the name of the line ;
thus,

the fquare of the fine of a, by fin.' a
the cube of the cofine of a, by cof.^ a
the cube of the tangent of a, by tan. 3 a
the «//j power of the cotangent a, by cot." a
&c. &c. &c.

Having thus (hewn the nature of the notation which is
row univerfally adopted, it will not be amifs to fay a few
words relative to the value of the feveral trigonometrical
lines, as the arc increafes from o to the whole circum-
ference ; for though, in the more fimple application of fines
and cofines, as in the dotlrine of plane trigonometry, we

have never to contemplate an arc greater than a femicircle ;
we have, in the more extended doftrine of fines, to confider
angles of all poflible magnitudes, and generally as funftious
of the arcs to which they correfpond, or as general analyti-
cal expreflions, whofe values depend entirely on thofe of the
arcs, and which may be of any magnitude. We have,
therefore, frequently to treat of arcs, which it would be im-
poflible to exhibit geometrically : and it is, therefore, of the
higheft importance to underlland clearly the nature of the
changes and variations which take place in the numerical va-
lues, and in the pofitions or figns of the different trigono-
metrical Unes, while the arc increafes from o to the whole
circumference.

The value of thefe lines at certain determinate points, as
at the lit, 2d, 3d, and 4th quadrant, is abfolutely neceflarv
for laying the foundation of our analytical calculus ; but
with regard to the variation of pofition of thofe lines, which
is analytically exhibited by a change of fign, we might dif-
penfe with it in this place, and depend wholly upon the de-
duftions arifing out of our general fo.mulae : but as it is fa-
tisfaAory to fee the precife agreement between the analytical
and geometrical mode of confidering the fubject, and as it
will occupy but a few words, we (hall trace the variation,
both in fign and magnitude, of the fines and cofines through
the firft circumference, and afterwards fhew the fame from
the analytical expreflions. For this purpofe, let A B C D
(J'S' ^•) ^^ ^ circle, having the feveral lines as exhibited
in the figure, and fuppofe one of the extremities, as A,
of an arc A M, to remain fixed, while the other extremity,
M, pades fucceflively over the circumference of the circle,
through C B D, to A again.

Then, as the fine M P continually recedes from A, till
the point M arrives at B, and afterwards approaches towards
A, on the other fide of the diameter A B, till it is united
with it again, it is evident that the fines of all arcs in the
firft femicircle have a different direftion to thofe in the fe-
cond, and we therefore confider the firft as affirmative, or -j- ,
and the others as negative, or — .

It is alfo obvious that the fine M P increafes from o,
during the firft quadrant A C, till at the end of it, it be-
comes equal to the radius ; and that it decreafes in the fecond
quadrant to B, where it is again equal to zero. In the
third quadrant it increafes from B to D, where it is
again equal to radius ; but the figns being here negative
throughout, it is equal to — rad. ; after which it de-
creafes till it arrives at A, where the fine is once more
equal to o.

In like manner, the cofine O P, being referred to the
centre O, will become negative as often as it palfes that
point ; and as this takes place both when the arc A M be-
comes greater than A C, and when by its farther increafe
it is greater than A B C D, it is evident that the cofines of
all arcs in the firft and fourth quadrants are affirmative or +,
and thofe of the fecond and third quadrants negative
or — .

It is alfo obvious that the cofine O P is equal to the
radius, when the arc A M is = o, and that it continually
decreafes during the firft quadrant A C ; and at the end of
it, becomes zero or o. It then increafes negatively during
the fecond quadrant, and is at B = — rad. It then de-
creafes negatively in the third quadrant, and at D is attain
equal to zero. It then increafes pofitively, till at A it is
equal to radius, as before.

The fame changes of fign will again obvioufiy recur, both
in the fine and cofine, if we fuppofe the radius A M to pafs
a fecond, a third, &c. time over the circumference. We

6 may.

SINES.

may, therefore, from what has been faid, draw the following general conclufion.
circumference, and making rad. =; i ; then.

Let V be taken to reprefent the fetni-

fin. o 5r = o,

fin. 4- TT = I,

fin. tr = 0, fin.

4 ;r = — I, fin. 2 T = o;

cof. 0 T = I ,

cof. 4 •s- = 0,

cof. T =: — I,

cof. 4 T = o, cof. 2 T = I.

the fame principles, demonflrate that

tan. o r = o.

tan. 4 TT = 00 ,

tan. T = o,

tan. 4 ?r = 00 , tan. 2 x = o ;

cot. o r = 00 ,

cot. 4 T = o,

cot. T = OS,

cot. 4 ff = o, cot. 2 X — oo;

fee. o TT = I,

fee. 4 T = 00 ,

fee. TT = — I,

fee. 4 X = 00 , fee. 2 r = I ;

cofec. o cr = 00 ,

cofec. 4 T = I,

cofec. T = 00 ,

cofec. 4"" = — i» cofec. 2 ir = oo

In addition to the precedinjT deductions, it may not be definitions themfelves, it will, we prefume, be deemed quite

amifs to refer, in this place, to the relations fubfiftinir be- fiifficient, if we exhibit them only, without going over the

tween the different trigonometrical lines ; but as thefe are operations by which they are obtained. The moft im-

mere fimple analogies, which follow immediately from the portant of thefe are as follow, -viz.

cof. a

fin.

tan. a = ^/ (i — cof. ^ a)

cot. a

fin. a -

= fin. a

tan. a

cot. a = ^/ (i — fin.'/i)

3f. a =

We may now eftablifh our fundamental propofition,
which, ill words at length, may be ftated thus.

Theorem. — The fine of the fum of two arcs is equal to
the fum of the produfls of the fine of each, multiplied by
the cofine of the other, divided by radius ; or, according
to our notation, in which we denote one arc by a, and the
other by b, and make the radius = i, it becomes

fin. {a + b) — fin. a . cof. b + fin. b . cof. a.

Let A B (Jig. 9. ) reprefent the arc a, and A C the
arc i ; B D and O D being the fine and cofine of the former,
apd A F and O F the fine and cofine of the latter ; alfo
B G the fine of the fum ; we have to prove that

OA.BG = BD.OF + AF.OD.

Draw D H parallel to O C, or perpendicular to B G ;
thcnthe three right-angled triangles, HBD, ODE, OAF,
are fimilar, and we have

AO : OF :
AO : OD :

BD
AF

BH

D E or H G.

BD.OF + AF.OD,
. OF + AF . OD.

Alfo,

Confequently,

OA.BH + AO.HG=3
orOA.BG^BD

And confequently, when the radius O A = 1, we have

fin. [a + b) = fin. a . cof. b -f- fin. b . cof. a.

This one general formula would be fufficient for all our
purpofe, in eftablifhing the doctrine of fines ; but we prefer
drawing alfo a fecond, as it follows immediately from the
fame principles as the above ; viz..

cof. (a + b) =. cof. a . cof. b — fin. a . fin. b.

For as O.^l : AF :: BD
OA : OF .: OD

therefore,

OA . OE - OA. GE =
orOA.OG = OF.

And when O A = radius =

cof. (a + b) = cof. a

HD or
OE;

GE

OF.OD-AF.BD,
OD - AF . BD.

1, this becomes
cof. b — fin. u .

fin. b.

^{1 -hcot.'a)
I

tan. a
^/ ( I 4- tan.
cot. a

<')

cofec. a
I

^/ ( I -f tan.' a) ^/ ( • + cot.' a) fee. a

If now we repeat thefe two, w's.

fin. (a -^ b) ^ fin. 3 . cof. 3 + fin. i . cof. <i
cof. (a -\- b) = cof. a . cof. b — fin. a . fin. i ;

and multiply the firft by cof. b, and the fecond by fin. b,
and fubtraft the refults, we fhall have

fin. [a + b) cof. b — cof. (a -(- b) fin. b =
fin. a (cof.'* + fin." 3);

or, fincecof.'^ + fin.' i = i, this is

fin. a = fin. (a + b) . cof. b — cof. (a -f b) fin. i.

If now we make a -|- i = a', then a =: a' — b, and we
have fin. (a' — i) = fin. a' cof. b — fin. b . cof. a', which is
a third general formula.

Again, multiplying the firft of the above formula by
fin. b, and the latter by cof. b, and adding the refults, we
obtain

fin. (a + b) fin. b + cof. (a + /) cof. b ~
cof. a (cof.' b + fin.-" b) )

or, fince cof.* b + fin.' i = 1,

cof. a = cof. (a + b) cof. b 4- fin. (a 4- b) fin. b.

Or making a -f /^ = a', as above,

cof. (a' — b) + cof. a' cof. b = fin. a' fin. b ;

which is a fourth general formula.

In the two latter exprcflions we have ufed a' for a ; but
it is obvious that this was merely for the fake of diilinc-
tion, and that it is not ncccllary to retain it in our future
operations.

Thefe four formulae bring the foundation of the whole
calculus of fines, we (liall repeat tliem here in a connefted
order, whereby their an.ilogy and relation will be more
readily difcovercd ; it will alio be convenient for the fake
of reference.

I.

fin.

(a + b) ■= fin. a .

cof. b -f fin.

/.

cof

2.

cof.

(a + b) = cof. a

cof. b — fin.

a

fin.

^•

fin.

(a — b\ = fin. a

cof. b — fin.

b

cof

4-

cof.

(a — i) = cof. a

. cof. i -t- fin.

a

fin.

of. a]

£ 2

Or

SINES.

Or they may be reduced to two, by means of the double
fign +, thus :

1. fin. {a + i) = fin. a . cof. b + fin. b . cof. a.

2. cof. (a + 3) = cof. a . cof. b f fin. a . fin. i.

In order to find fimilar formulx for the tangents, co-
tangents, fecants, eofecants, &c. we may put our fecond
expreffion under the form,

r f . i\ /' _ fin. a . fin. 3\ ^ ^ ,

cof. (a + b) =1 + —= jT-r cof. a . cof. b.

V col. a . col. b/

And if now we divide formula i by this, we have, by
obferving that — ^ = tan. a.

cof. a

3. tan. {a ±b) =

4. cot. (a + b) =

tan. a ± tan. 5
I '^ tan. a . tan. b'

cot. a . cot. i + I
cot. b -)- cot. a

the latter being obtained by dividing the fecond formula
by tlie firft.

Again, taking the reciprocal of formula 2, we have

cof. (a + 3) J + tan. a . tan. b ' cof. a . cof. b ''

fee. a . fee. 3

5. fee. (a + 3) :=:

6. cof. {a±b) =

I 4- tan. a . tan. i'
cofec. a . cofec. b

cot. b + cot. a
In like manner may be found,

7. cho. {a ±b) = cho. a . fup. cho. i + clio. I . fup.

cho. a.

8. verf. (a + 3) = ^' (verf, a . fup. verf. I) +

^ (verf. b . fup. verf. a).

The reader will find a different invefttgation of thefe pro-
perties under the article Geometry of Position.

Let us now fee how far thefe general formulse will indi-
cate the changes of figns in the trigonometrical lines, as
connefted with the feveral different magnitudes of their
refpeftive arcs ; a fubjecT; that we have already confidered
geometrically.

L,et T denote the iemicircle, and let the arc a = i t ;
then becaufe fin. ^ ir ~ I, and cof. i ^ = o, we have
from

Formula (i) fin. (i:r + i) = + cof. 3.

(2) cof. (iff +3) = _ fin. b.

(3) fin. (iff - (5) =1 -f cof. b.

(4) cof. (iff ~ b) = + fin. b.

Here we obtai" the fame refu'.tp as before deduced ; that
is, it is obviou; n thefe, that if we conlider the fine and
cofine of an arr i ; than a qHadr.int as pofitive quantities,
the cofine of an .i:c greater than a quadrant, but lefs than
a femicii-cle, will be negative, but its fine pofitive.

Again, let the arc a — -x ; then becaufe fin. v — o,
cof. TT =: — I, we have

fin. {■;r + b) =z - fin. 3 ; cof. (- 4 3) = - cof 3 ;
fin. [v — b) — + fin. b; cof. [-r — b) — — cof. b.

Whence it follows, that the fines of angles greater than a
femicircle, but kfs than a circle, have negative figns ; while
12

thofe that are lefs than a femicircle are pofitive : whereas
the cofines of angles equally above and below the femicircle
have the fame figns.

If now we aifume the arc a = i ir ; then, becaufe fin.
-J T = — I, and cof. i tt = o, we have

fin. (-3- n- 4- i) = - cof. i ; cof. (4^4- b) = -f fin. b ;
fin. (4 ff — i) = — cof. b ; cof. (i 7: — b) = — fm. b.

Therefore, when the arc is comprehended betvreen 4 'r, 2 ir,
its cofine is pofitive, and its fine negative. Thefe refults
have all been previoufly eilablifhed geometrically ; but they
are here very readily extended to any arcs expreffed by

— ~ + 3 ; « being any number whatever. Thefe are all

contained in the following general formulae, viz.

fin.

4« + I

±') =

li.L

n.. (ilJ-J = ± j) = If r,„. t
r,n. (l^--3 . ± «) = -

co(. b.

+ fin. b.

fin. b.

P

4« + 3

+ i) = - cof. b.

fin. 3.

^ + b^ =z ±

cof.

fil±A ^ + i^ = + cof. b.

Hence it follows, that there is an indefinite number of

arcs that have the fame fine and cofine, as alfo the fame

fecant and tangent ; the conditions of which latter are

readily deduced from the above, by means of the formula

fin. a 1

fee. a = ■■ , &c.

cof. a
tan. a =1 , cot. a

fin.

^a'

_ . fin. a , ^

ror imce tan. a = —-. — , and cotan. a

cof. a
cof. a

, it fol-

cof. a fin. a

lows, that the tangent will be pofitive, while fin. a and
cof. a have the fame figns ; and negative, when the figns are
different ; and the fame alfo with the cotangents ; thefe are,
therefore, both pofitive in the firll and third quadrants, and
negative in the fecond and fourth. Alfo the tangent is in-
finite when the cof. :;:; o, and cotangent infinite when

fin. =: o. Again, fince fee. a= — ^— , and cofec. a = ;; ,

col. a nn. a

it follows that thefe lines have the fame figns as the cof. and
fin. rcfpeftively ; and that the fecaiit is infinite when cof.
= o, and the cofec. infinite when fin. = o.

Having thus fhewn the relations; between the feveral tri-
gonometrical lines, tlieir mutations and determinate values,
under certain magnitudes of the arcs to which they apper-
tain, we (hall proceed in the next place to inveftigate fome
of the principal formuls for the fines, cofines, &c. of mul-
tiple arcs.

0/

SINES.

Of Multiple Arct.
By referring to our formula (I), we have

fin. {a -V i) = fin. a . cof. b + fin. b . cof. a;

which, by writing (n — l ) a for a, and a for b, becomes

fin. n a = fin. (n — i) a • cof. a + cof. (n — \) a . fin. a.

By fubftituting in this formula for fin. (n — i)fl, and cof. (n — i)a, under the form

fin. ^ (n — 2) a + a [ and cof. j (n — i ) a + a [ , we obtain

fin. n a = •< fin. (n — 2) . cof. a + cof. (n — 2) a . fin. a {■ cof. a

+ 4 cof. (n — 2) a . cof. a — fin. (n — 2) a . fin. a [• fin. a

Subftituting here again for (n — 2) a, under the form (n — 3) a + a, and obferving that the fecond term of the firft
line is the fame as the firft of the fecond, we have

fin. n a — X fin. (n — 3) a . cof. a + cof, {n — 3) a . fin. a >■ cof.' a

-(- 2 -J cof. (n — 3) a . cof. a — fin. (n — 3) a . fin. a [ cof. a . fin. a
— j fin. (n — 3) a . cof. a + cof. (« — 3) a . fin. a [ fin.' a

= fin. (n — 3) a . cof.' a + 3 cof. {n — i) a . cof.' a . fin. a — 3 fin. (n — 3) a cof. a . fin.' a — cof. (n — ^) a . fin.^ a ;

the laft term of each of thofe lines being ftill the fame as the firft term of the following ; and therefore, without purfuiijg
the operation any farther, the law of continuation is obvious ; -viz. the feveral coefficients will be exadlly thofe of the
binomial ; but the figns will be two plus and tvio minus alternately, whence generally

fin. na = fin. {n — m) a . cof." a + A cof. (n — m) a . cof."'^ ' a fin. a — B fin. {n — m) a . cof.'" ~' a fin.' a — C

cof (n — m) acoi."'"' a . fin.^ a -j- &c.

where A, B, C, &c. are the coefficients of (i + i)'".

And exaftly in the fame manner, we find

cof. na = cof. {n — m) a. cof." a — A fin. {n — m) a cof." - ' a fin. a — B cof. (n — m) a . cof."- ' a . fin.' a + C fin.

(n — m) a . cof." ^3 ^ , f,t,.i ^ ^ ^^^

In thefe formulae m is indeterminate, and may be afl'umed at pleafure ; let us therefore take m = n, and we have

fin. na = A cof.""' a . fin. a — Ccof."-'a. fin.' a -)- E cof."-^ a .fin.' a — &c. (II.)
and

cof. «a = cof." a — B cof." 'a . fin.' a + D cof." ^ a . fin.^ a — &c. (HI.)

where A, B, C, &c. reprcfent the coefficients of (i -f i)".

From thefe two general formulae we readily deduce the following particular cafes ; viz.

1. fin. a = I fin a

2. fin. 2 a = 2 cof. a . fin. a

3. fin. 3 a = 3 cof.' a . fin. a — fin.' a

4. fin. 4 a = 4 cof.3 a . fin. a — 4 cof. a fin.' a

5. fin. ^ a — S cof.'' a . fin. a — 10 cof.' a fin.' a + fin.' a
&c. = &c.

1. cof. a z: cof. a

2. cof. 2 a = cof.' a — fin.' a

3. cof. 3 a = cof.3 (2—3 cof. a . fin.^ a

4. cof. 4 a = cof.* a -. 6 cof.' a . fin.' a + fin.* a

5. cof. 5 a =: cof.' a — 10 cof.J « . fin.^ " + 5 cof. a . fin.* a
&c. = &c.

formulae" " °^'"°^'' "^^ ""^ continued at pleafure, the law of the coefficients being exhibited in the above general

In

SINES.

In the formula of (II) and (III), the fin. a and cof. a both enter ; but as fin.- a= l - cof.' a, we may, by fubfti-
lon in the latter, exprefs the cof. n a in terms of the cof. a only ; but in the former, in confequence of the odd powers

In

tution m the latter, expr , , ^ , „ „ r , r -, , r i. l

of the fine, we cannot exterminate either the fm. a or cof. a entirely ; the fimplell itate of thefe formula, after the above

fubititution, is as follows ; viz.

fm. n a

cof.

{ (a cof. .)-' - '^-^- (2 cof. .)"- + (!LzJU1^A<^ cof. a)"

_ (r^_-^^(n-_s)^n-_6l (^cof.a)""' + &c.j fin. <z (IV.)

1.2.3 J

a= if (2 cof. a)" - « (2 cof. «)"-' + —"-^ (z cof- ")"*

_ njn_-4)_^L_-Z_ll (2 cof. fl)--^ + &c.| (V.)

1.2.3 J

1.2.3

From which the following particular cafes are readily
drawn, 173.

1. fin. a = I fin «

2. fin. 2 a =. 2 cof. a . fin. n

3. fin. 3 a ^ ( 4 cof." n — i) fin. a

4. fin. 4 ^ = ( 8 cof. 'a — 4 cof. a) fin. a

5. fin. 5 a =z (16 cof.^ rt — 12 cof ' rt + l) fin. /i
&c. = &c.

1. cof. ff = I cof. a

2. cof. 2 n =r 2 cof.' a — I

3. cof, 3 a = 4 cof.' a — 3 cof. a

4. cof. 4 a = 8 cof.'' a — 8 cof.' a + l

5. cof. 5 a = 16 cof' a — 20 cof.' a + 3 cof. a
&c. = 8cc.

If we refer again to our formula (I), viz.

fin. (a 4- i) = fin. a . cof. i + fin. b . cof. a
cof. {a + b) = cof. a . cof. i — fin. a . fin. A

■we readily draw from thefe the following, viz.

fin. (n + l) a = fin. « a . cof. a 4 cof. n a fin. a
cof. (n 4- I ) a = col. n a . cof. a — fin. n a fin. a

Multiplying now the firft by any indefinite quantity 11, and
adding it to the fecond, we obtain

cof. (n 4- l) a + Ti fin. (n ^- i) a

(cofv a + V fin. a) cof. n a

4- (cof. a fin. a) -y fin. « <«

If, inftead of addinjr the two formulx, after multiplyin]^
the firit by v, we fubtraft the firft from the fecond, we fhall
get

cof (n 4- I ) a — -u fin. ^n -f i ) a

(cof. a — V fin. a) cof. n a
(cof. a H fin. a) v fin. n a

v/ — I, to II, we

{-

-^{

Where, by taking for the indefinite quantity ti, the particular

value V — 1' f° t^3' ■" = ' thefe will become

cof. (n + I) a 4- -u fin. (n 4- l) a = (cof. a -f i; fin. a)
(cof. n a 4- ■" fin- " ")

whence, making n fucceffively = i, 2, 3, &c. we obtain

cof. 2 a 4- I* fin. 2 a = (cof. a -\- v fin. a)^
cof, 3 a 4- t) fin. 3 a = (cof. a 4- t fin. a)^
cof. 4 a 4- t* fin. 4 a = (cof. a -|- ^| fin. a)*
cof. f a + V fin. 5 a = (cof. a + v fin. a)''

cof, n a + ^ fin, n a = (cof. a 4- ai fin. a)" (VI.)

Where, by giving the fame value, vi
have

cof. (n 4 I ) a — v fin. (n + I ) a
(cof. a — "u fin. a) (cof. n a — "u fin. n a)
and making again n = i, 2, 3, &c. we obtain

cof. 2 a — V fin. 2 a — (cof. a — v fin. a)^
cof. 3 a — V fin. 3 a := (cof. a ~ v fin. a)'
cof. 4a — ■ufin.4a=: (cof. a — v fin. a)*
cof, ^ a — V fin. 5 a = (cof, a — -u fin, a)'

cof. n a — 11 fin. n a = (cof. a — v fin. a)" (VII.)

Whence by addition and fubtraftion, and eftablifhing the
value of V,

cof, n a = ^ i (cof. a 4- ^/ — I . fin. a)''4-
(cof. a — ^/ — I , fin. a)' {■

fin, n a = J (cof. a + ^^ — I fin. a)' —

2 x/ - I 1

(cof. a — v' — 1 • fin- ")" f
If in thefe two formula we fubftitute cof. a 3= *, fin. a =1
•v/ I — «- ; then ^/ — I (fin. a) zzz V x^ — I, and we have

= i I (* + aV— I)" 4- (*• — A''.r'- — 1)»

cof.

f

fin. n a z= — ) (* 4- aV — l)" + (j — V.r^ — l)"

And afluming .r s= jr 4. — , fo that x' — i may be a

complete fquare, or .\/a:' — i = jj ; thefe expreflions

reduce to

coL«a= i (/+-J;) (VIII.)

rin.„a= -^—[r-r) (IX.)

From

SINES.

From which tire following particular cafes readily flow ; wiiich are the moft elegant expreflions we have for the fines

r>\x, the 2 cof. a being denoted by y + — , we have

2 cof. a = y H

y

2 cof. 2 a = y' -\- — ;

y

2 cof. 7a—y'-\ :

J,!

. I

2 cof. 4 a = _)' ' H ,

y

2 cof. n a = y" -{-

2 v' — I fin- a — y

2 ^/ — I fin. 2 a = y''

y'

2 v' - I fin. 3a=j.3 .

y

r , I

2^—1 lin. 4 a = y'

2 V — I fin. n a = v"

fin. n a ^ A cof." ' a fin. a — C cof,
col. n a ::=^ cof." a — B cof.""- a . fin.

where i. A, B, C, &:c. reprefent the coefficients of ( i + i)".
Writing thefe under the form

r , fin. a _, fin.^ a _ fin.^ a

in. n a — JA — ^^ — C — p - + E - ,. — — &c
I col. a --J i -

and cofines of multiple arcs.

For a farther application of thefe formulx to the doftrine
of fines and cofines, fee the article Colefian THEf)REM.

It may not be amifs to add, with res^ard to the hillory of
the invention of thefe formula;, that both the general and par-
ticular cafes ot the numbers (II) and (III) were firft,
given by Juhn Bernoulli, in the Leipfic Afts for 1701 ;
thofe of numbers (IV) and (V) were pubhilied by Vieta,
under the denomination angular fe Sl'ions ; hut he regarded them
not as properties of fines and cofines, but as thofe of chords
and tlieir fupplements, to which they are eafily reduced.
The other four formula:, TOz. (VI), (VII), (VIII), ( IX),
are all derived from a formula publilhed by De Moivre in his
" Mifcelianea Analvtica."

la order to inveltigate formula for tlie multiple tangents
and cotangents, we may repeat here our formula (II)
and (III) ; ijiz.

~^ a . fin.^ a + E cof."~= a fin.' a — &c.
a + D cof." -* a fin.' — &c.

fin.
cof. n a

B

fin.^ a
cof.' a

jf.^a
h D

fin.'

jf.'a

af. ' a

&c.

f cof." a

-A:

and dividing the former by the latter, and obferving that — '— = tan. a ; we have

col. a

A tan. a — C tan.3 a + E tan.' a — &c.

tan. a =
Or writing them under the form

fin

cof.

B tan.- a -t- D tan.* a

cof." ~ ' a ,, cof." ~ = a

^' a

cof."

&c.

(X.)

f col."-' a ,, col."-= a col."-= a 1

n a — \A -f—„'sT- — *- ?— V^-l" + ^ ?—irT~ — &t. J- fin. « a

I fin." ' a ha." ' a fin."-* a J

f cof." a cof."-^a , .-^ cof."-' a , 1 ^

cof." a
fi
and dividing the latter by the former, we have

A cot."-' a — C cot
cot." a

cot. n a ^.

a + E cot."-' a — &c.

B cot."-" a + D cot."-* a — &c. ^ •'

From thefe we draw the following particular cafes.
I. tan. a = tan. a

2. tan. 2 a =::

2 tan.

1. cot. a = cot. a '

cot.' a — I

2. cot. 2 a =

3. tan. 3 a = -^

4. tan. 4 a

1 — tan.- a

3 tan. a — tan.'

I — 3 tan.- a
4 tan. a — 4 tan.

3. cot. 3 a =

2 cot. a
cot.3 a — 3 cot. a

3 cot.- a — I

5. tan. 5 a = - -

&c.

1—6 tan.' a + tan.' a
5 tan. a — 10 tan.' a + tan.' a
I — 10 tan. a -f 5 tan.-* a

= &c.

cot. 4 a — 6 cot.' a + 1

4. cot. 4 a = ~

4 cot. 3 a — 4 cot. a

cot.' a — 10 cot.3 a -I- r cot. n

5. cot. 5 a =. — - — =•

5 cot.* a — 10 cot.- a + 1

&c.

&c.

In order to obtain fimilar formulx for the fecants and cofccants, we mud avail ourfelves of the formulae (IV) and (V),
which may be written

t I cof. a 1.2 cof.' a J

fm

cof. n a =z ^ ^

cof,

■ I " (" — 3) > .7

cof.' a ' 1.2 cof.< a J

fin.

af." a

SINES.

or, fin. „ a = I2-' - ^!— -? . 2— fee' a + (« -3) (" - 4) , ,„-. f^^ , ^ 7^ 1

J^ I '1.2 j fee." ^ ' a . cofec. a

cof. n a = X2"-' — n , 2"-' fee." a + ~ ^' .2"-^ fee.^a — SlC.Ij^-^ —

I 1.2 J fee." a

The reciproeal of the latter gives,

fee. n a = -j — — r (XII.)

2"-' - n . 2"-' fee' a + — ^" ~ ^^ . 2"-' fee.-* a - See.

I . 2

And the reeiprocal of the former,

fee " — ' a . cofec. a

cofec. n a = 7 tw 7^ (XIII.)

2"-. - :^-:^ 2»- fee' a + ^" - 3) (" - 4) , ^„_, f^^_, ^ _ ^^_
I 1.2

From thefe we draw the following particular cafes ;

1. fee. a = fee. a '■ cofec. a = cofec. a

fee ' a r fsc, a . cofec. a

2. fee. 2 a = — il£vV *• ''°'^"^- ^ " = ;

2 — fee.' a 2

fec.^ a r fee-' a . cofec. a

3. fee. 3 a = . . - 3- cofec. 3 a = — ^ ,- ,

■' •' 4—3 fee' a 4 — fee' a

fee* a fec.^ a cofec. a

A., fee 4 a =E = — =— ; — ; ; — 7 — : 4- coiee. ,< a = ^ ^ — ; — -

T- ^ 8 — 8 iee' a + fee a ^ 8—4 fee' a

fee' a r f'^c.'' a cofec. a

- A._ - ^ — I — C. COleC. C a = -;^ ;= ; f ■

5. lee. 5 a - ^g _ ^^ ^^^., ^ + ^ fee* a ^ ^ 16-12 fee" a + fee* a

&c. = &c. &e = &e.

Thefe latter formulse have the fame defeft as thofe ef the fines from which they are derived ; viz. that both the fecant
and cofecant of the fiiip;le arc enter in the geueral expreffion for the eofecant of the multiple .ire

We (hall not inveftigate the formula for the multiple verfed fine, but (hall content ourlelves with merely exhi-
biting the refult, which is as follows :

verf, na-re verf. a - — ~ - ( A ) verf.' a ( B ) verf.3 a - -^ ( C ) verf.*a - &e

where A, B, C, &e are the coefficients of the preceding terms.

A variety of other formuli for multiple arcs might be here inveIHgated, but our limits forbid a farther extenfion ;
thofe which we have given above are chiefly exhibited by means of the powers of the fingle arc j a few others, in the
form of continued produfts, may be here enumerated, but we muft not attempt their inveftigation,

Let % denote the femicireumference, and we (hall have

fin. na = 2"-' . fin. a . fin. T- — aj . fin. (— -^r a\ . fin. r— - a\ . fin. T— + aj . fin. {^ — a^

"'•"■='•"■"'■ ('T;r'+'") ■'°'- (tt'-') ■"'■■ (tv'+'") ■'»'■ (^''-')

. cof. r-^^ v ■\- a\ . cof. f ^^^ ■n — a\ &c.
. na — tan. a . tan. {- a\ tan. f - -f a j tan. ( aj tan. { y a\ tan. f — — a j

■Tn"^") ""' *^"- (2^ + ")

fin.

tan

tan

To thefe we add the following, which are very fimple ; viz.
fin. a + fin. {a + 6) + fin. (a + 2^) + fin. (a + 3 i) + &c. aJ iiifinitum = '— — j^' ; and

fin. a + fin. (a + 4) + fin. ( a + 2 i) + &c. fin. (a + « i) =

fin, (a + i*)fin.i (« + 1 ) *

fin. i b

cof. a + cof. (a + i) + coL (a + 2^) + cof. (a + 3 ^) + &e. ad infinitum = '-^ , ^ ■■

r . r / , i\ . r I . i\ » r/ ,\ cof- (a + i n^) fin. 5 (n + l) B
eof. a + cof. {a + i) + cof. (a + 2 i) + &c. cof. {a -^ n b) = i — ' i , —

Of

SINES.

Of the Powers tf the Sines, Coftnes, i^e. offingle Arcs.

In order to exhibit the powers of the fine, cofine, &c. of the fingle arcs, in terms of the fines and cofinei of the multiple
arcs, we may refer to our formulae (VIII) and (IX), "ulz.

2 Cof.

2 cof. na =. y" -if

I

+ -
3
I

(-■r

(-0^

2 fin.
2 fin. na

a = y -

f -

From the firft of thefe we have z " . cof." a = fy+ -^ = j-" + A ji" -^ + B >" -" + C j;"
A, B, C, &c. reprefenting the binomial coefficients ; or, coUefting the terms from each extreme,

= (/ +y) + ^ (y-' +~r:) + B(y-^ + -i^,) + &c. or

+ ace. A

+

cof.'

2'~' cof." a = cof. na + n . cof. (n — 2) a +

n. (n - i)

cof. (n- 4)a + &c. (XIV.)

It is only neceffary to obferve here, that when n is even, the number of terms in the original expanfion will be odd, and
its middle term, into which no power of j enters, will form the laft term of the latter feries ; and having, therefore, no co-
fine in it, it will be only one-half of the coefficient given in the general term.

Whence the following particular cafes.

cof. a = cof. a

2 cof.^ a = cof. 2 a -I- I

4 cof.3 a = cof. 3 a -I- 3 cof. a

8 cof.-* a = cof. 4 a -t- 4 cof. 2 a -f- 3

16 cof.5 a = cof. 5 a -I- 5 cof. 3 a + 10 cof. a

&c. = &c.

For the fines, we have ( — i )"^. 2" . fin." a

= (^-7)"=^-

+ By"-' - C/-'

+ &c. ± -, the

y

iaft fign being + when n is even, but — when n is oJJ. Collefting the terms from the two extremes, we have firft,
^vhen n is even,

(-,)-. 2-. fin." a = (y' + ^)- A(y-' +-_l_).fB(/- +y^)- &'^-°^'

(— i)'^ . 2"-' . fin." a = cof. na — n cof. (n — 2) a ■}- "— cof. (n - 4) a — &c. (XV.)

•bferving here the fame as above in refpeft to n, an even number ; and <when n is odd,

(- 0^ . ^' fin.- a = (/ - ^) - A (/ -' - -i:,) + B (/- - -^)

(-1)^' . 2"

&c. or

fin." a = fin. na — n fin. [n — 2) a -\ — ■ fin. (n — 4) a — &c. (XVI.)

Obferving now the change of fign, which takes place in the moll important and ufeful transformations ; and the fol-

... n- ■ , T , / \"-^ V lowing refults, whicli would occupy too much fpace to de-

the imaginary coefficient ( - i )^ and ( - i ) > , according ^^j^ ^^ ^^^ ^j,;^^ ^^ ^^e fame time arc too Important to be

as n IS of the form 4, «, 4 m -|- i, 4 m +2, at^m + 3, we n^j ^^^^ unnoticed, the reader will be able to deduce,

draw from the above two formulas the following particular ^j^^ facihty, from the formulx drawn fmmour general ex-

preffion, (No. I.) and many others equally curious may be
feen in Cagnoli's " Traitc dc Trigonometrie ;" vol. i. of
Eulcr's " Analyfis Infiuitorum ;" Bonnycaltlc's and Keith's
Treatifes of Trigonometry, Vc. &c.

The formulx to which wc iiave above referred are the

refults

I.
2.

3-
4-
5-

I fin. a = -f fin. a

a fin.^ a = — cof. 2 a — 1

fin.

4 fin.' a ^ — fin. 3 a -|-

5 fin.^a = -f- cof. 4a — 4 cof. 2a -|- 3
16 fin.' a = -(- fin. 53—5 fin. 32 -|- 10 lin. a

&c- =

&c.

We muft now come to a conclufion of our iiivcftigations
relative to the doftrjnc of fines ; had our limits admitted of
it, wc might have carried them to a much greater extent, but
the above will he fufficient for illullrating the principles of

Vol. XXXIII.

following.

Mifcellaneous Formula of frequent /Implication in the Arith-
metic of Sines,

1. fin. a . cof. A = i fin. {a + i) + ^ fin. (a - i)

2. cof. a . fin. i = J- fin. (a -\- i) — ^ fin. (a — i)

3. iin. a . fin. A = 5 cof. (a ^ A) — 5 cof. (a + i)

C 4. cof.

SINES.

4. cof. a . cof. b = I cof. {a + l') + i cof. (a w I)

5. fin. a + fin. i = 2 fm. i (a + A) . cof. i (a .c i)

6. cof. a + cof. b = 2 cof. ^ (1 + A) . cof. i (a >jo i)
fin. (a + 3)

tan. a + tan. ^ = -f:^^"^^

, r 2 fin. i (j. _ z) , cof. l{x + x)
therefore ^-^ ' =

A (x- - 2^ + B (,: ' - S 0 + C (»' - Z')

7-

8. cot. a + cot. b =

9

fin. {a + 6)

fin. a . fin. b
fin. a - fin. i = 2 fin. ^ {a - I) . cof. i (« f b)
10. cof. a ,.r cof. A = 2 fin. i (a - A) . fin. ^ {a + b)
fin, (a - 3) _
cof. a . cof. i
fin. (a-b)

1 1, tan. a — tan. i =

12. cot. a i/^ cot. b ^

•3-
14.

16.

fin. (a + 3)
fin. (a — b)
cof. (a + b)
cof. (a c/5 i)
fin. a + fin. i
fin. a — fin. 3
cof. a + cof. i

fin. a . fin. i
tan. a + tan. 3

tan. a
cot. 3

tan. b
tan. a

cot. A + tan. a
tan. ■§ {it + b)
tan. i (a — i)
co^t. i {a -\-b)
tan. i (a — i)

cot. a + cot. i

cot. a — cot. A

cot. a — tan. b

~ cot. a + tan. b

cof. a w col. i

1 7. fin. (a — i) fin. (a + i)

18. cof. (a U5 i) cof. (a + A) = cof. '
fin, (a-i^)fin. (a + b)

cof.' a . cof.' b
fin, (a -A) fin, (a +3)

19

f fin.'a - fin.'*, or
I cof.' a >/> cof.^ i '

= tan.* a

20

= cot.' a

fin.' *

— tan.' A

— cot.' b

fin.' a . fin.'i

If a + i + c = 180°, then

21. tan. a . tan. b . tan. c = tan. a + tan. 3 + tan. c

22. fin. a. fin. A . fin. c = :^ (fin. 2a + fin. 2* + fin.2c)

It only remains now to exhibit the method of expreffing
the fine, cofine, &c. of an arc, in terms of the arc itfelf ; and
reverfedly, to exprefs the arc in terms of its fine, cofine, &c.
This is performed with great facihty, if we allow ourfekes
to employ the principles of the doftrine of fluxions ; but our
objeft, in this place, is to perform the fame by means of the
arithmetic of Jints only.

For this purpofe, let x reprefent any arc, then it is obvious
that its fine will be fome funftion of this arc, and fuch a
funftion that it will change its fign, without changing its
magnitude, when the arc, without changing its magni-
tude changes its fign, becaufe fin. — .t; = — fin. x ; confe-
quently the developement of the fine in funftions of the arc,
will contain only the odd powers of that arc ; if, therefore, wc
reprefent the coefficients of the odd powers of x by A, B, C,
&c. we (hall have, or may ailume.

+ D.»', &c.

(«)

fin. * = Ax + Bx' + C
And if z is another arc,

fin, z = Az + Bz' + Cz^ + Da' + &c.

by fiibtrafticm,

fin. a: - fin. z = A (x - 2) + B (x' - z') + C
(x» — z') + &c.
but fin, jf — fin. « = 2 fin. § (j — z) . cof. \{x -\- z).

■I- &c.

Subftituting now for 2 fin. \ (.r — z), its expanded value,
by changine .v, in the firft feries, into \ (x — z), "uiz. 2 fin.
i(..-z) = A(.r- z) +iB(«-z)' + TVC (.»•-=)*
-|- &c. and dividing both fides by {x — z), we have, by
malting, after the divifion, jr = z,

Acof..'t= A + 3B.V' + iQ.x' + yD.v'^ f &c. 03)
and confequently,

A cof. z = A + 3B2' + sCz" + 7 Dz* + &c.
AVhence, by fubtraftion, and obferving that

cof. .X — cof. z = — 2 fin. i (.r + z) fin. \ (.v — 2)

= - fin. i (« + ^) {a (.V - z) + B (.X - z)
+ C (a- - 2)^ + &c. I

we fhall have, after dividing both members by .r — 2, and
then making x =2, .

— A' fin. .V = 2 . 3 B .V + 4 . 5 C .v3 + 6 . 7 D .T^ + iScc.

But fin. ^ = A .V + B ;r3 + C X ' + &c.

therefore

- A'fin. .v= - A'x- A'Bx'- A'Cx*-|- &c.

Whence, by equating the coefiicients of the homologous
terms, we have

2.3 B = - A3; 4.5C = - A'B;
6. 7 D = - A'C, &c.

B=::i^;c =

A*

fo that
fin. .V

2-3
= A .V

2-3-4-5

; D =

A'

+

A';

2-3-

A' J

&c.

+ &c.

2.3 2.3.4.5 2.3.-7

and it remains only to find the value of A ; which is readily
drawn from the following cor.fideration ; vix. if we divide
both fides of this equation by x, it becomes

fin. X

X

A -

h?x'
2-3

+ &c.

which ought to anfwer to every value of .r ; but when x is
indefinitely fmall, fin. .v = x, and therefore the firtt number
of the equation = i ; therefore the fecond alfo equal I,
confequently A = i ; and we have therefore

fin. ."« = *• -1

2.3 2.3.4.5

^ +&c.(XVII.)

2. 3. ..7

and by fubftituting, in equation (/S), the above values of
A, B, C, &c. we obtain

cof,

X' a"

— +

2 2.3.4

-—:- — , + &c. (XVIII.)
2. 3. ..6

In order to exprefs the arc in terms of the fine and co-
fine, let .V and 2 be two arcs ; let y be the fine of the former,
and u the fine of the latter ; and fince, for the fame reafon as
above, the expanded funftions oan contain only odd powers
of jr and u, we will fuppofe that

x= Ajr + Bjr' + C>> + D^' + &c. (7)

2 = A«+B«'-i-C«^ + D«'+ fcc.

and,

SINES.

and, by fubtraftion,'we have

,■ _ , — A (» — u) + B (y' - n') + C (v' — u") + &c. '^"^^'^ '"'•° "^''^ expreflions ; ailuming, therefore, x and a aa
, , \. ,,..,,' two arcs, whofe tangents are / and /!, we may allume

Dividing liere both fides by ^ — u, and after the divifion
making « = _y, it will become

for the fines, that only the odd powiru of tiie tangent can

and :

(0

X — z

tange

X = At + Bl^ + Cl' + Sec.

z = A/' + Bt" + C/" + Sec.
\ + SBy' + sCy* + yD y'' + Sec. Q) and, by fubtraftion, we ftiaU have

In order to ellablifli an identity, we muft afcertain what •'^ - * = A {<-<') + B (<'-/<:) + C (/» - t'') + &c.
tlic firll member becomes, on the fuppofition of a = _y, after Dividing both members by / — /', and afterwards makint'
dividing by j* — u. Now / =: /', we have

'j^u = fm.T^^. = 2 fin. i (X -\~coi. 4 (* + .)• }~! = ^+ i^^' + SCt^+^Dr+Scc. (0)

Subftituting, in the latter denominator, for 2 fin. 5 ( .v — z), Alfo, to eftabliih an identity, we have
Its value, as exhibited in No. (XVII.), and dividing both
its members by .r — z ; that frattion becomes

z)' + Sec. [ cof. ^{x + z);
3-4 J

and if now we make .v = z, we (hall find the refult will be
I

L 2. •? .4

.V

—

a
1'

_-

X —

z

_(■-

— z) fin.

(«

—

*)

/

tan

X —

-z)

tan.
cof.

z

X

. cof.

cof. X .
z

cof.

z

fin.

(x

—

»)

cof. X
I

Now

cof.

,/(i-fin.^x) v{^-y)

= (•-/)-

But fin. Ix — z) = (x — z) (x

2 . ^

+ —- (x - z)' - Sec.

2 ■ 3 •4-5

0'

If, therefore, we fiibftitute this value for fin. (.v — z),
y' 'I ■} I'?.? i^.?7 in the denominator of the latter fradtion, it becomes, after

i + - + — y' + T^f'y'+ T^^iy' + ^'^^ dividing both members by (.V - z),

,4' 2 . 4 . 0 " 2.4

and confequently this feries is identical with equation (S),
viz. with

A + i'E-y' + sCy^ 4 i^y' + 9'E-y' + &c-
Comparing the homologous terms, we have

A = I ; B

X — z

cof. X . cof.

+

Z)3

2.3.4.5

— &C.

2.3 2. 4. J 2.4.6.7

■7- ; &c.

which, on the fuppofition we have made of / ^ /' ; and,
confequently, x = z, reduces to

3f.^

carrying, therefore, thefe values into the equation {■>), and
fubftituting fin. x for j, we have

fin.'.v i.3fin.''j.- i.3.5fin.'j' , ,,,,,,

.■« = fin.,v+ +—^ +—S-^ +&C.XIX.]

2.3 2.4.5 2.4.6.7

I I

1 + tan.-.v ~ 1 -I- /*
■ t" + t' - Sec.

Icc.'x

I _ /^ -f. /•>

which is therefore identical with our equation (5), t'l'z.

A + 3Br + 5C/' + 7n'' + &c.

whence, by comparing the coefficients of the like powers
and fince the fin. x= cof. (-'- — .vj, we have, by fubfti- of'' we have

^ . . . A = I, B = - „ C = ,', D = -- J, &c.

luting this expreflion for fin. x, in the above feries, , . , , r 1 ,i- i , , ■

winch values tubititutcu ui equation (;), gives

iT ^ cof.'x l.3Cof.^x i.3.ccof.'« . ,.-,,.

•c — _ _ cof. X — ' ■ =^ A' = t~n ■*' — i tan.' x- -|- i tan. ' .v — .'

2 ■ 2.3 2.4.5 2.4.6.7 tan.'x + &c. (XXI.)

-Sec. (XX.) in winch the arc is cxprefl'ed in terms of its We fliall „ow conclude this article by exhibiting, in a

coline. connected order, a few of tlie moll im];ortai;t developemcnts

In order to invelligate a formula, which fliall exprefs of angular funiliions ; obferviiig that A, B, C, &c. are tU'i

the arc in terms ol its tangent, it may be fliewn, as before, preceding terms.

{in.- 11 . 3- fin. -a _ c'fin.'a _, 7' fin. a

2-3 4-S 6-7 8.9

D h &c.

where A, B, C, Sec. are tlie preceding terms.

2. fin. a z= ,1 — A +

2-3 4

0^, - - »•;-, "

3. .-J = 90° —

4. cof. a = I

.r. rt

cof.' a 3 cof.' a 3-5 e"''.' n

2.3 2.4.5" 2^4 •6-7

A - -^^ B - -- C - -'

3-4 5-6 7

- &c.

D

&c.
C 2

J. a

SINES.

«' la'' IT a^ 62a' , ,

6. tan. a =a + — + ^^ + - — + -5— + &c-
3 15 315 2835

^. a =

I

+

I

cot. a 3 cot.' a 5 cot. ^ a 7 cot.' a

+ &c.

I a a' 2 a

8. cot. a — ■ —

a

3 4; 945 4725

I 1 3

- &c.

&c.

^' " ^° fee. a 2 . 3 fee. ' a 2 • 4 • 5 ^c. "• a

rfec.a - 1 fee. ' a -13 (fec.^a " 0 , 3 -5 (fec.'a - 1) ,

5

_ i^_ i_ I • 3 I • 3 • 5

~ eofec. a 2-3 cofec a 2.4.5 cofec.^a 2.4.6. 7 cofec.'a

I a 7a' 31a' 127a'

12. cofec. a = — + -V- + -^ + -^ + ;^ — 5 f" &c.

a 6 360 15120 604800

+ &c.

-— — r verf. a

verf. a

^ + &c. \

2^ . 4 . 6 . 7 5

,- -— r verl. a I . 3 verl. a i • 3 • S ^^''f- ''

13. a = a ^/2verf.aJ. + _- + -^TT^rTi + -^T^.-^T

I f a' a< a' - 1

14. locr. fin. a = log. a — i-;. J + — + —. + &c. 5-

^ ^ ^ M (.2. 33'. 3. 5 3-5-7 J

I fa" a'* a' „ 1

I f . locr. cof- a = log. I —^Ti \ — + + -r — — + &c. \

16. log. tan. a - log. " + ^ j^ +

2 • 3-5

02 a" ,7
+ &c. [

* ■ 5 -7 S

In all thefe feries, as alfo throughout the entire article,
we have fuppofed radius = i ; if in any cafe the radius r
be required, it may be introduced by giving it fuch a
power as will render the quantities on both fides of the
equation of the fame dimenfion with regard to the powers of
its faftors.

Sines, Cofints, IsSc. Figures of, are figures made by con-
ceiving the circumference of a circle extended out in a right
line, upon every point of which are erefted perpendicular
ordinates, equal to the fines, cofines, &c. of the correfpond-
ing arcs, and drawing a curve line through the extremities
of all the ordinates, which is then the figure of the fines,
cofines, &e.

It appears that thefe figures took their rife from the eir-
tumftance of the extenfion of the meridian line by Edward
Wright, who computed that line by collefting the fuc-
ceffive fums of the feeants, which is the fame thing as the
area of the figures of the feeants. This being made up of
all the ordinates or feeants by the conftruAion of the figure,
and in imitation of this, the figures of the other lines have
been invented. By means of the figures of the feeants,
James Gregory (hewed how the logarithmic tangents may
be eonltrufted in his " Exercitations Geometricae," 410.
1668.

ConflruSion of the Figures of the Sines, Cofines, l^c. — Let
A D B, &e. {Plate I. fg. 10.) be the circle, A D an arc,
D E its fine, C E its eofine, A E the verfed fine, A F the
tangent, G H the cotangent, C F the feeant, and C H the
cofecant.

Drawalineaa {fig. ll.),equalto the whole circumference
A D G B A of the circle, upon which lay off alfo the
length of feveral arcs, ae of every ten degrees, from o at a,

to 360° at the other end at a ; upon thefe points rai(e per-
pendicular ordinates upwards or downwards, according as
the fine, eofine. Sec. is affirmative or negative in that part
of the circle ; laftly, upon thefe fet off the length of the
fines, cofines, &c. correfponding to the arcs at thofe
points, or circumference a a, drawing a curve line through
the extremities of all thefe ordinates, which will be the
figure of the fines, cofines, verfed fines, tangents, cotangents,
feeants, and eofecants, as m Jigs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
1 7, where it may be obferved, that the following curves are
the fame, namely, thofe of the fines and cofines, tangents
and cotangents, and thofe of the feeants and eofecants, only
fome of their parts a little differently placed.

It may be known when any of thefe lines, vi%. the fines,
cofines, &c. are pofitive or negative ; that is, to be fet up-
wards or downwards ; by obferving the following general
rules for thofe lines, in the lit, 2d, 3d, and 4th quadrants
of the circle.

fin the lit and 2d
\ in the 2d and 4th
fin the ift and 4th
1^ in the 2d and 3d

{in the i(t and 3d
in the 2d and 4th
J in the i ft and 3d
^ in the 2d and 4th
fin the ift and 4th
J^in the 2d and 3d

and all the verfed fines are affirmative.

To find the Equation and Area of each
Draw an ordinate, de, putting r = the

The fines
The cofines
The tangents
The cotangents
The feeants

are affirmative,
negative,
aflirmative,
negative,
affirmative,
negative,
affirmative,
negative,
affirmative,
negative.

of thoft Curves. —
radius A C of the

given

SINES.

given eircle, *■ = ad, or AD any abfcifs or arc, andj- = de,
Its ordinate, which will be either the fine D E = j, cofine
C E = <r, verfed line A E = i", tangent A F = /, cotan-
gent G H = T, fecant C F = /, or cofecant C H = j-,
according to the nature of the particular conllruftion.
Now, from the nature of the circle are obtained thefe fol-
lowing general equations, exprefling the relations between
the fluxions and the circular arc, and its fine, cofine, &c.

r^tt

— -; the corredl fluent of which is ^ r' . hyp. log.

•llAll = r' . hyp. log. :;Ltl+-^ = r^ . hyp. log.

r' / — r' T r'f _ ~ r'' <^

r' + t- r» + T^ f^f{f-r-) a- ^ {cr^ - r')

and thefe alfo exprefs the relation between the abfcifs and
ordinatcs of the curves in queftion, each in the order in
which it ftands ; where x is the common abfcifs to all of
them, and the refpeilive ordinates are /, c, v, t, t,/, and o- ;
and hence the area of any of thefe curves may be found as
foUowi.

I. In the Figure of the Sines, (Jig. II.) Here x = ad,

and s = the ordinate de, and the equation of the curve, as r / [f- r^)'

— ; and hence the figure of the tangents may be ufcd for

the conftruftion of the logarithmic fecants ; a property firft
pointed out by Gregory at the end of his " Exercit. Geo-
metricje."

When a d becomes the quadrant af, t being then infinite,
this becomes infinite for the area afg : and the fame for
the figure of cotangents, beginning at /, inftead of a.
See A- 15-

5. Figure of the Secants, (fg. 16.) Here .r =. ad, and
_/" =: d e ; and the equation of the curves is x =

— , and the fluxion of the area is fx =

the fluent of which is r'' . hyp. log.

ab

ove, IS jr =

area, or /at =

V (r- - '1

Hence the fluxion of the /+_^/l ll!) for the general area ade; which is

, — ■ — , the correft fluent of which is

V {'■ - ' )

r'^ + r ^ (r^ — s^) = r' — re ■= rv =: the reftangle
of radius and verfed fine minus or pius, according as s is
increafing or decreafing ; which is a general expreflion for
the area a de in the figure of fines. When j =: o, as at a,
or i, this expreifion becomes o, or 2 r^ ; that is, o at a,
and 2 r' at i ; that is, the whole area acb =■ 2 r\

2. In the Figure of the Coftnes, {fig. 1 2.) Here x — ad, and
c ■=. de; and the equation of the curve is x ;

^(r~n'

hence the fluxion of the area ^=. c x

; and

the correA fluent of this ■=z r ^ (r^ — ^ ) = s r, the
reftangle of the radius and fine for the general area a dec.
When s =■ r, or c = o, this becomes r ' = area afc, whofe
abfcifs af is equal to a quadrant of the circumference ;
the fame as the figure of the fines upon an equal abfcifs.

3. In the Figure of the verfed Sines, {fig. 13.) Here
X =■ ad, and -v =1 de, and the equation of the curve is ;«■ =

; hence the fluxion of the area is v x :=
rv j^/ V

^/ {zrv — I)')
r w

, ,. — , , : and the fluent of this

V (-2 r 1) — 1;^) ^ (2 r — t»)

isrx — r s := r (x — s) ■= the general area in the figure
of the verfed fines. When a </ is a quadrant, this becomes

—~ — r' — r' = the area afg ; and when a 7 is a femi-
2

circle it becomes 3.i4l6r', the whole area of the figure

of verfed fines.

4. In the Figure of theTangents, (fig. 14.) Here x =:ad,

and t =. d e ; and the equation of the curve becomes x =

r'' t
; ; and hence the fluxion of the area \t t x =■

infinite when a d becomes equal to a quadrant. The fame
procefs anfwers for the cofecants, beginning at/ inftead of
a. See fig. 17.

Hence the meridional parts in Mercator's chart may be
calculated for any latitude A D or a ^. For the meridional
parts : arc of latitude :: the fum of the fecants : the fum
of as many radii, or :: area ade : ad x rad. ac ; or A D
X A C in fig. 10.

Sines, Line of, a line on the feftor, Gunter's fcale, &c.
the defcription and ufe of which fee under the articles
Sector, and Gunter'j Sca/e.

In eltimacing the quantity of fines, &c. we afluiiie radius
for unity ; and determine the quantity of the fines, tan-
gents, and fecants, in fraftions thereof. From Ptolemy's
Almageil we learn, that the ancients divided the radius into
60 parts ; which they called degrees, and thence deter-
mined the chords in minutes, feconds, and thirds ; that is,
in fexagefimal fraftions of the radius, which they likewife
ufed in the refohuion of triangles.

The fi.Tcs, or half chords, for aught that appears, were
firft ufed by the Saracens.

Regiomontanus, at firft, witli the ancients, divided the
radius into fixty degrees, and determined the fines of the
fevcTal degrees in decimal fraftions of it. But he after-
wards found it would be more commodious to alTumc radius
for I ; and thus introduced the prefent method into trigo-
nometry.

In the common tables of fines and tangents, the radius is
conceived divided into looooooo parts, beyond wliich we
never go, in determining the quantity of the fines and tan-
gents. Hence, as the fide of an hexagon lubtends the
fixth part of a circle, and is ecjual to radius, the fine of 30"
is half the radius, or joooooo.

1. The fine A D heing given (fig. /[.),to find the fine-complement.
From the fquare of the radius AC hiljtraft the Iquare of
the fine A D ; the remainder will be the fquare of the fine-
complement DC or AG: whence the iquare root being
extrafted, we have the fine-complement. E.gr. Suppofing
AC 1 0000000, and AD 500000O1 AG will be found
86602 J4, the fine of 60°.

2. Thefime AD of the arc A E iting^iven (fig, 1 8.), to find

tit

SINES.

iht fine of the half arc, or half o/" A B. Find the chord of
the arc A B ; for half of this is its fine. Thus fup-
pofinc; A G and A D, as in the preceding problem : we
(l\all find the fine of half the arc A B, or the fine of 15°,
= 2588190.

3. The fine D G of the arc D F being given, tofnd the fine
D E of the double arc D B {fig. 19.) Since the angles at E
and G are right angles, and the angle B is common to each
triangle B C G and D E B, we fliall have BC : CG ::
B D : D E ; wherefore C G being found by the firll pro-
blem, and B D being double of D G, D E is found by
the rule of proportion.

4. The fines F G and D E {fg, 20.) of the arcs F A and
D A, tuhofe difference D F is not greater than 45 minutes, be-
ing given, to fnd any intermediate fine, as I L. To the dif-
ference F D of the arcs, whofe fines are given, the difference
of the arc A I, whole fine is required, and A F, viz. I F,
and the difference of the given fines D H, find a fourth
proportional: this, added to the lefs given fine F G, the
aggregate will be the fine required.

5. Tofnd the fine of 45 degrees. Let H I {fg. 4.) be
a quadrant of a circle ; then will H C I be a right angle ;
confequently the triangle rectangular ; therefore H I - =
HC^-1-CI'=2HC'; wherefore, fince H C the whole
fine is 1 0000000; if from 2 H C ', 200000COOOOOOOO,
be extraftcd the fquare root 14142136; we ftiall have
the chord HI, whole half 7071068, is the fine of 45°
required.

6. The fide of a pentagon being given (fee Polygom), the
fine of 36^ may he eafily found. For the fine of 36° is equal

'to half 1 1755706, i. e. = 5877853.

7. The fine of a minute, or 60", FG {fg. iO.\ being given,
to fnd the fine of one or more fronds M N. Since the arcs
A M and A F are very fmall, A M F may be taken for a
right line, without any fenfible error in the decimal fradtions
of the radius, in which tlie fine is expreffed ; that is, the
arcs A M and A F may be taken proportional to their
chords. Wherefore, fince M N is parallel to F G, we
fhall have AF:FG::AM:MN; therefore, A F,
F G, and A M, being given, M N is eafily had.

Sines, to confnift a canon of. The fines of 30°, 15°, 45%
and 36^ (which we have already fhewn how to find) be-
ing had ; we can thence condriift a canon of all the fines
to every minute, or every fecond. For from the fine of 36^
we find thofe of iS"" 9° 4° 30', and 2° 15', by the fecond
problem : the fines of 54° 72° 81° 85° 3c', and 87° 45',
&c. by the firit problem.

Again, from the fine of 45-', find the fine of 22" 30' ii"
15', Sec. From the fine of 30^, and the fine of 54", find
the fine of 12^. From the fine of 12°, find the fines of
6^ 3° 1° 30' 45' 78= 84°, &c. From the fine of 15°, find
the fine of 7° 30' 3° 45', &c. till you have i 20 fines fuc-
ceeding each other orderly, at an interval of 44 minutes.
Between thefe, find the intermediate fines by the fourth
problem : thus will the canon be complete.

From the fine of an arc given, to find the tangent
and fccant. See Taxoent, Secant, and fequel of this
article.

To find the logarithm of a given fine, called the artificial
fine, fee Logarithm. Wolfii Element. Math. vol. i.
p. 214, &c.

There are various other methods of conffrufting the tri-
angular or trigonometrical canon. We (hall here fubjoin
thp following, as the rcoft fimple and eafy. But it will be
neceHary to premife the three iubfcquciit propofitions.

I . The fine "EV of an arc A E {fg. 21.) being given, to
find its crfiie C F, verfed fine A F, tangent A T, cotangent

I

D H, fecant C T, and cofecant C H. The cofine C F is

evidently = v/C E' — E F% and the verfed fine = C E
or C A - C F. And the triangles C F E, CAT, and
CDH being fimilar, we (hall have CF : FE :: CA :
AT ; or the tangent will be a fourth proportional to the
cofine, the fine, and radius; and C F : CE (C A) :: CA
: C T, whence the fecant is a third proportional to the
cofine and radius ; and EF:CF::CD:DH, or the
cotangent is a fourth proportional to the fine, cofine, and
radius ; and E F : E C (C D) :: C D : D H, or the co-
fecant, is a third proportional to the fine and radius. More-
over, becaufe A T : A C :: C D (A C) : D H, the redan-
gle of the tangent and cotangent is equal to the fquare
of the radius, and, therefore, the tangent of half a right
angle, being equal to its cotangent, is equal to the radius;
and the cotangents of any two different arcs (reprefented
by P and Q), are to one another inverfely as their tan-
gents ; for tang. P x cotang. P = rad.^ = tang. Q x
cotang. O : therefore cotang. P : cotang. Q :: tang. Q :
tang. P, or cotang. P : tang. Q :: cotang. Q : tang. P.

2. If there be three equidifferent arcs A B, AC, AD,
{fis- ^'^•) ""-uc fliall have radius to the cofine of their common
difference B C, or C D, as the fine CY of the mean, to half
ihefum of the fines B E -|- D G of the two extremes ; and as
radius to the fine of the common difference, fo is the cofine of the
mean to half the difference of the fines of the two extremes.
For let BD be drawn, interfering O C in m ; alio draw
m n parallel to C F, and B H and m v parallel to A O.
The arcs B C and C D being equal, O C is perpendicular
to B D, and bifcfts it ; and, therefore, B to or Dm will
be the fine of B C or DC, and O m its cofine. More-
over mn, being an arithmetical mean between the fines
B E, D G, of the two extremes (becaufe Bm = Dm) is,
therefore, equal to half their fum, and D v equal to half
their difference. But the triangles O C F, O m n, and
D V m, being fimilar, we (hall have OC:OOT::CF:m«

and O C : D m :: F O : D u. Whence mn /Pg.+ BEN
and D.f5^^a = ^->LlO.

V 2 y oc '

and confequently D G -f B E =
2 D «7 X F O

20m X CF

and DG

- BE =

OC

OC

And, moreover, if the mean arc

A C be 6o^ O F its cofine will be = fine 30° = i chord
60° = :§ O C ; confequently D G — B E will, in th'is cafe,
be barely = D m, and D G = Dw; 4- B E. Hence it
follows: I. That if the fine of the mean of three equi-
different arcs (radius being unity) be multiplied by twice
the cofine of the common difference, and the fine of either
extreme be fubtrafted from the produft, the remainder
will be the fine of the other extreme. And, 2. The fine
of any arc above 60* is equal to the fine of another arc,
as much below 60^, together with the fine of its excefs
above 60°.

3. To fnd the fine of a very fmall arc, e, gr. of \^' .
The chords of very fmall arcs being to each other nearly
as the arcs thenifelves, we fliall have ^^^th of the femi-
periphery : -,,l^th (:: 360 : 384) :: .00818121, the chord
of ~^th: .008726624, the chord of ,,hrth of the femi-
periphery, or half a degree, wliofe half, or .004363312, i»
the fine of 15', very nearly; and, therefore, 15': i' ::
.004363312 : .000290888, the fine of the arc of 1' nearly.

Upoi»

SINES.

Upon tlie forf going principles the canon may be eafily
conftrufted. For, the line of l' being .0002908882, its
fquare is .00000008461594, which fubtrafted from the
fquare of the radius 1, leaves .99999991538406, whofe
fquare root .9999999577 's tha cofine of i', or the fine
of 89° 59'. Now having the fine and cofine of l', the
other fines may be found in the following manner. Let
the cofine of 1' be called C, and we fliall have by prep. 2.
fupra.

2 C X fine i' — fine o' — fine 2' = .0005817764
2 C X fine 2' — fine i' = fine 3' = .0008726645
2 C X fine 3' — fine 2' = fine 4' = .0011635526
2 C X fine 4' — fine 3' = fine 5' = .0014544406
zCx fine 5' — fine 4' == fine 6' = .0017453283, &c.

Tims are the fines of 7', 8', 9', &c. fuccefllvely derived
from each other. The fines oi every degree and minute,
up to 60°, being thus found ; thofe of above 60° will be
liad by addition only, by prop. 2. fupra ; and the fines be-
ing all known, the tangents and fecants will likewife be-
come known by prop. i. fupra. If all thefe numbers be
multiplied by the radius of any table (radius being here
fuppofed unity), we ftiall have the natural fines, tangents,
&c. of fuch a table. It will be fufficient to compute the
fine of every fifth minute only by the preceding method ;
becaufe the fines of all the intermediate arcs may be had
from them, by taking the proportional parts of the dif-
ferences fo near, as to give the firft fix places true in each
number. E. gr. 2 C 5' x fine 5' — fine o' ::= fine 10' ; fub-
tra£l the fine 5' from that of 10' ; add ^th of the remainder
to the fine 5', for the fine of 6', to which add the fame
-jth for the fine of 7', &c. to 10'. Again, 2 C 5' x fine
10' — fine 5' = fine 15', &c. Simpfon's Trigonometry,
p. 10, &c. Robertfon's Elem. Navig. book iii. § 2.

The tables now chiefly ufed in trigonometrical compu-
tations, exhibit the logarithms of thofe numbers, which
exprefs the lengths of the fines, tangents, &c. which, in
order to dillinguifh them from the natural ones, are called
logarithmic or artificial fines, tangents, &c. A table of
this kind, the ufe of which often occurs in the courfe of
this work, is here annexed. The fines, tangents, &c. of

any arc are eafily found, by feeking the degree at the top,
if the arc be Icfs than 45% and the minutes at the fide, be-
ginning from the top, and by feeking the degree, &c. at
the bottom, if the arc be greater than 45-. If a given
logarithmic fine, or tangent, falls between thofe in the
tables, the correfponding degrees and minutes may be
reckoned 4, 4, or 4, &c. minutes more than thofe belong-
ing to the nearell lefs logarithm in the tables, according as
its difference from the given one is 4, or !, or 4, &c. of the
difference betvi'een the logarithm next greater and next lefs
than the given log. Or generally, as 60" is to the dif-
ference between any two confecutive tabular fines ; fo is the
number of feconds beyond the lefs tabular fine, to the pro-
portional part that is to be added to it. Thus if it were re-
quired to iind the fine of i'^ 28' 45" :

Sine 1° 29' is
Sine 1° 28' is

Difference

Then as 60" : 49062 ;

Therefore to
Add

Sine 1° 28' 45" is

■■■ 4S" : 36796-

8.4130676
8.4081614

49062

8.4081614
36796

8.41 18410

And in the fame manner may the tangent or cotangent of
any angle be found to feconds. The fecants and cofecants
are not given in the t;ible, but they are readily found as fol-
lows ; viz. any colecant is found by fubtratling the fine
from 20.0000000, and the fecant by fubtrafting the cofine
from 20.0000000. See Sherwin's Mathematical Tables,
which contain both the natural and artificial fines, &c. and
Gardiner's Tables of Logarithms, &c. in which the loga-
rithms of the fines are computed to every fecond in the firft
feventy-two minutes of the quadrant. But the moil cor-
redl EngHfh table at prefent extant is Dr. Hutton's, con-
taining the logarithms of all numbers to lococo, and the
natural and logarithmic fines, cofines, tangents, &c. to
every minute of the quadrant.

T\BLr.

SINES.

Table of Logarithmic Sines and Tangents to every Minute of the Quadrant.

0 Degree.

o.ooooooo

9

lO

II

12
13
14
15
16

17
18

19
20
21
22

23
24
25
26

27
28

29

30

3'
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

41
42
43
44
45
46

47
48
49
50
5'
52
55
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

Cofine.

0.0000000

6 4637261
6.7647561
6.9408473
7.0657860
7.1626960

7-2418771
7-3088239
7.3668157
7.4179681

7-4637255
7.5051181
7.5429065
7.5776684
7.6098530
7.6398160
7.6678445

7-6941733
7.7189966

7-7424775
7-7647537
7.7859427
7.8061458
7.8254507

7-8439338

7.8616623

7.8786953

7.8950854

7.9108793

7.9261 190

7.9408419

7.9550819

7.9688698

7.9822334

7.995198c

8.0077867

8.0200207

8-0319195

8.0435009

8.0547814

8.0657763

8.0764997

8.0869646

8.0971832

8.1071669

8. 1 1 69262

8.1264710

8.1358104

8.1449532

8,1539075

8.1626808

8.1712804

8.1797129

8.1879848

8.1961020

8.2040703

8.21 18949

8.2195811

8-227'335
8.2345568
8-2418553

Cofine.

Tang

0.0000000

9-9999999
9-9999999
9.9999998

9-9999997
9.9999995

9-9999993
9.9999991
9.9999988
9.9999985
9.9999982
9.9999978

9-9999974
9.9999969
9.9999964
9.9999959

9-9999953
9-9999947
9.9999940

9-9999934
9.9999927
9.9999919
9.999991 1
9.9999903
9.9999894
9.9999885
9.9999876
9.9999866
9.9999856
9.9999845

9-9999835
9.9999823
9.9999812
9.9999800
9.9999788

9-9999775
9.9999762
9.9999748

99999735

9.9999721

9.9999706

9.9999691

9.9999676

9.9999660

9.9999644

9.9999628

9.999961 1

9.9999594

9-9999577

9-9999559

9.9999541

9.9999522

9.9999503

9.9999484

9.9999464

9.9999444

9.9999424

9.9999403

9.9999382

9.9999360

9-9999338

6.4637261
6.7647562
6.9408475
7.0657863
7.1626964
7.2418778
7.3088248
7.3668169
7.4179696

7-4637273
7.5051203
7.5429091
7.5776715
7.6098566
7.6398201
7.6678492
7.6941786
7.7190026
7.7424841
7.7647610
7-7859508
7.8061547
8254604

Cotanirent.

Infinite.

60

8439444
7.8616738

7-8787077
7-8950988
7.9108938
7.9261344
7.9408584
7.9550996
7.9688886
7-9822534
7.9952192
8.0078092
8.0200445
8.0319446

8-0435274
8.0548094
8.0658057
8.0765306
8.0869970
8.0972172
8.1072025
8.1 169634
8.1265099
8.1358510
8.1449956
8.1539516
8.1627267
8.1713282
8.1797626
8.1880364
8.1961556
8.2041259
8.2119526
8.2196408
8.2271953
8.2346208
8.2419215

Sine.

13-5362739
'3-2352438
13.0591525

12-9342137

12-8373036

12.7581222

12.691 1752

12.6331831

12.5820304

12.5362727

12.4948797

12.4570909

12.4223285

12.3901434

12.3601799

12.3321508

12.3058214

12.2809974

12.2575159

12-2352390

12.2140492

12.1938453

12.1745396

12.1560556

12.1383262

12.1212923

12.1049012

12.0891062

12.0738656

12.0591416

12.0449004

12.031 1 I 14

12.0177466

12.0047808

I 1. 9921908

J 1-9799555
11.9680554
1 1.9564726
1 1.9451906

11-9341943
11.9234694

11.9130030

11.9027828
11.8927975
11.8830366
11.8734901
1 1.8641490
1 1.8550044
11.8460484

11-8372733
11.8286718
11.8202374
1 1.81 19636
11.8038444
11.7958741
11.7880474
11.7803592
1 1.7728047
11.7653792
11.7580785

Cotangent.

59

58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50

49

48

47
46
45
44
43
42

4'
40

39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30

29

28

27
26

25
24

23
22
21

20

19
18

17
16

15
H
13
12
II
10

9

8

7
6

5
4
3
2
1
o

Tancf.

89 Desiees.

1 Des

Coline.

Tang. f Co

o 8.2418553 9-9999338

8.2490332 I9-9999316
8.2560943] 9.9999294

8.2630424 9.9999271

8.2698810 9.9999247

8.2766136 9.9999224

8.2832434 9.9999200

8.2897734 9.9999175

8.2962067 9.9999150

8.3025460 9.9999125

8.3087941 9.9999100

8-3149536 9-9999074

8.3210269 9.9999047

8.3270163 9.9999021

8-3329243 9-9998994
8-3387529 9-9998966

8-3445043 9-9998939
8.3501805 9.9998911

8-3557835 9-9998882

8.3613150 9.9998853

8.3667769 9.9998824

8.3721710 9.9998794

8.3774988 9.9998764

8.3827620 9.9998734

8.3879622 9.9998703

8.3931008 9.9998672

8-3981793 9-9998641

8.4031990 9.9998609

8.4081614 9-9998577

8.4130676 9.9998544

8.4179190 9.9998512

8.4227168 9.9998478

8.4274621 9.9998445

8.432I561 9.9998411

8-4367999 9-9998376

8-4413944 9-9998342

8-4459409 9-9998306

8.4504402 9.9998271

8-4548934 9-9998235

8-4593013 9-9998199

8.4636649 9.9998162

8.4679850 9.9998125

8.4722626 9.9998088

8.4764984 9.9998050

8.4806932 9.9998012

8.4848479 9.9997974

8-4889632 9.9997935

8.4930398 9.9997896

8.4970784 9.9997856

8.5010798 9.9997817

8.5050447 9.9997776

8.5089736 9.9997736

8.5128673 9.9997695

8.5167264 9.9997653

8.5205514 9.9997612

8-5243430 9.9997570

8.5281017 9.9997527

9.9997484

9.9997441

9-9997398

9-9997354

8.2419215 (11.7580785

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
1 1

12

13
H
■5
16

17
18

19

20

21

22

23
24
25
26

27
28

29

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

39
40

41

42

43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
5''
53
54
55
56

57 8.5318281

58 8.5355228

59 8.5391863
00 8.5428192

Cofine.

8.2491015
8.2561649
8.2631153
8.2699563
8.2766912
8.2833234
8.2898559
8.2962917
8-3026335
8.3088842
8.3150462
8.321 1221
8.3271143

8-3330249
8-3388563
8.3446105
8.3502895

8-3558953
8.3614297
8.3668945
8.3722915
8.3776223
8.3828886
8.3880918

8-3932336
8.3983152

8-4033381
8.4083037
8.4132-132
8.4180679
8.4228690
8.4276176
8.4323150
8.4369622
8.4415603
8.4461 103
8.4506131
8.4550699
8.4594814
8.4638486
8.4681725
8-4724538

8-4766933
8.4808920
8.4850505
8.4891696
8.4932502
8.4972928
8.5012982
8.5052671
8.5092001
8.5130978
8.5169610
8.5207902
8.5245860
8.5283490
8.5320797

8-5357787
8-5394466
8.5430838

Sine.

Cotangent.

1 1.7508985

11-7438351
11.7368847
11.7300437
11.7233088
I 1.7166766
H.71OI44I
11.7037083
11.6973665
I 1.691 1158
11.6849538
11.6788779
11.6728857
1 1.6669751
1 1. 661 1437
11.6553895
11.6497105
11.6441047
11.6385703
11.6331055
1 1.6277085
11.6223777
1 1.61711 14
1 1.61 19082
1 1.6067664
11.6016848
1 1.5966619
I 1.5916963
11.5867868
II. 5819321
11.5771310
11.5723824
I 1.5676850
11.5630378

11-5584397
11.5538897
11.5493869

11-5449301
11.5405186
II.53615I4
11.5318275
11.5275462
11.5233067
1 I.5191080
11.5149495
I 1.5108304
11.5067498
1 1.5027072
1 1.4987018

11-4947329
11.4907999
I 1.4869022

11-4830390
1 1.4792098
11.4754140
1 1. 47 I 65 10
11.4679203
II.4642213
11.4605534
1 1.4569162

60

Tang.

88 Degrees.

SINES.

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
lo
1 1

12

•3
H
15
16

17
18

19

20

2 Degrees,

8.5428192

Cofine.

8.5464218
8.5499948
8.5535386

8-5570536
8.5605404

8-5639994
8.5674310

8-5708357
8.5742139
8.5775660
8.5808923

8-5841933,

8.5874694 9.9996749

9-99973_54
9.9997309
9.9997265
9.9997220
9.9997174
9.9997128
9.9997082
9.9997036
9.9996989
9.9996942
9.9996894
9.9996846
9.9996798

8.5907209

8-55^9483
8.5971517
8.6003317
8.6034886
8.6066226
8.6097341
8.6128235
22 1 8.6158910

23
24
^5
26

46

47
48

49
50
51
52

8.6189369
8.6219616
8.6249653
8.6279484
8.6309111
8-6338537
8.6367764
8.6396796
8.6425634
8.6454282
8.6482742
8.6511016
8.6539107
8.6567017
8.6594748
8.6622303
8.6649684
8.6676893
8.670393a
8.6730804
43 I 8.6757510
44 1 8.6784052
45 8.6810433
8.6836654
8.6862718
8.6S88625
8.6914379
8.6939980
8.6965431
8.6990734
^^\ 8.7015889
54} 8.7040899
55 I 8.7065766
56^8.7090490
5718.7115075
5« I 8.7139520
59,8.7163829
60 8.7188002

(''•line.

9.9996700
9.9996650
9.9996601
9.9996550
9.9996500
9.9996449
9.9996398
9.9996346
9.9996294
9.9996242
9.9996189
9.9996136
9.9996082
9.9996028

9-9995974
9.9995919
9.9995865
9.9995809

9-9995753
9.9995697

9.9995641
9.9995584

9-9995527
9.9995469
9.999541 1

9-9995353
9.9995295
9.9995236
9.9995176
9.9995116
9.9995056
9.9994996

9-9994935
9.9994874
9.9994812
9-9994750
9.9994688
9.9994625
9.9994562
9.9994498

9-9994435
9-9994370
9.9994306
9.9994241

9-9994176
9.99941 10
9.9994044

Sine

Tang.
8^430838
8.5466909
8.5502683
8.5538166
8-5573362
8.5608276
8.5642912
8.5677275
8.5711368
8.5745197
8.5778766
8.5812077
8.5845136

8-5877945

8.5910509

8.5942832

8.5974917

8.6006767

8.6038386

8.6069777

8.6100943

8.6131889

8.6162616

8.6193127

8.6223427

8.6253518

8.6283402

8.6313083

8.6342563

8.6371845

8.6400931

8.6429825

8.6458528

8.6487044

8-6515375

8.6543522

8.6571490

8.6599279

8.6626891

8.6654331

8.6681598

8.6708697

8.6735628

8.6762393

8.6788996

8.6815437

8.6841719

8.6867844

8.6893813

8.6919629

8.6945292

8.6970806

8.6996172

8.7021390

8.7046465

8.7071395

8.7096185

8.7120834

8-7 '45345
8.7169719

8^7^395^

(-oianjr'*nt.

Cotangent.
I 1. 4569162

'■•453309'

"•44973 '7
11.4461834
1 1.4426638
11.4391724
11.4357088
11.4322725
11.4288632
11.4254803
1 1.4221234
11.4187923
1 1. 4154864
1 1.4122055
1 1.4089491
1 1.4057 168
1 1.4025083

"•3993233
1 1.3961614
11.3930223
11.3899057
II. 3868111

"•3837384
1 1.3806873

"■3776573
11.3746482
11.3716598
1 1.3686917

"•3657437
1 1.3628155
11.3599069

"•3570175
11.3541472
1 1. 3512956
11.3484625
"•3456478
"•3428510
1 1.3400721
"•3373109
"•3345669
11.3318402

"•329i.?o3
"•3264372
11.3237607
11.321 1004
1 1.3 1 84563
1 1.3158281
1 1.3132156
1 1.31061S7
11.3080371
11.3054708
11.3029194
1 1.3003828
1 1.2978610

"■29535.^5
1 1.2928605
11.2903815
1 1.2879166
11.2854655
1 1.28302S1
1 1.2806042

60

59

58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5'
50
49
48

47
46

45

44

43

42

41

40

39

38

37

36

$5

34

33

32

3'

30

29

28

27
26

25
24
23
22
21
20

'9

18

'7
16

15
'4
'3

Tanc.

87 Degrees.

/
8

9
10
1 1
12

13
14
'5
16

'7
18

19

20
21
22
23
24
25
26

27
28

29
30
3'
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

39

40

4'
42
43

44

3 De

8.7188002

8.7212040
8.7235946
8.7259721
8.7283366
8.7306882
8.7330272

8-7353535
8.7376675
8.7399691
8.7422586
8.7445360
8.7468015

8-7490553
8.7-512973

8.7535278
8-7557469
8-7579546
8.7601512
8.7623366
8.76451 1 1
8.7666747
8.7688275
8.7709697
8.7731014
8.7752226

8-7773334
8-7794340
8.7815244
8.7836048
8.7856753

8-7877359
8.7897867
8.7918278

8-7938594
8.7958814

8-797894'
8-7998974
8.S018915
8.8038764
8.8058523
8.8078192
8.8097772
8.81 17264
8.S136668

45 I 8.8155985

46 8.S175217

47 8.8194363
8.8213425
8.8232404
8.8251299
8.8270112
8.8288844

8-8307495
8.8326066

8-8344557
8.8362969
8.83S1304
5818.8399561

59 8.8417741

60 8.8435845

Cufin

9.9994044

9-9993978
9.999391 I
9.9993844

99993776
9.9993708
9.9993640
9-9993572
9-9993503

9-9993433
9-9993364
9-9993293
9.9993223
9.9993152
9.9993081
9.9993009
9.9992938
9.9992865

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9.999 1 50 1

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9 999 '342
9-9991262
9.9991 182
9-9991101
9-9991020
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9-9990856
9.9990774

8.7193958

9-9990691

8.7218063
8.7242035
8.7265877
8.72S9589

8-73i3'74
8.7336631

8-7359964

8.7383172
8.7406258
8. 7429222
8.7452067

8-7474792
8.7497400
8.7519892
8.7542269

8-756453'
8.7586681
8.7608719
8.7630647
8.7652465
8.7674175
8.7695777
8.7717274
8.7738665
8.7759952
8.7781136
8.7802218
8.7823199

8-7844079
8.7864861

8-7885544
8.7906130

8.7926620

8-7947014
8.7967313
8.7987519
8.8C07632
8-8027653
8-8047583
8.8067422
8.8087172
8.8106834
8.8126407
8.8145894

Cotaiifrent.

I 1.2806042

11.2781937
"•2757965

n. 2734123

II.27IO4II
11.2686826
1 1.2663369
11.2640036
11.2616828

"•2593742 ^^
11.2570778 50

_6o

59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5'

42
4'

40

39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
3'
30

29

28

Cofine.

9 9990608

9.9990525
9.9990441
9-9990357
9.9990273

9-99901 88
9.9990103
9.9990017
9.9989931
9.9989845
9,9989758
9.9989671
9.9989584
9.9989496
9.9989408

Sine.

8.8165294

8. 8 1 84608
8.8203838
8.8222984
8.8242046
8.8261026

8. 8279924
8.8298741
8.8317478
8-8336134

8-83547 '2
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8.8409977
8.8428245
8.8446437

I C'utanjTcnt.
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11.2525208
1 1.2502600
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11.2176801

1 1. 2155921

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11.1720076
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11.16S2522
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11.1590023 I
"•'571755
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■Ian.'.

Vni.. XXXIII.

D

SINES.

4 Degrees.

Sine.

8.8435845

I

2

3
4
5

6

7
8

9
10
II
12
13
H
15
16

17
18

19
20
21
22

23
24

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

39

40

4'

42

43
44
45
46

47
48

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

Cofin

8.8453874
8.8471827
8.8489707
8.8507512
8.8525245
8.8542905
8.8560493
8.8578010

8-8595457
8.8612833

8. 8630139
8.8647376
8.8664545
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8.8865418
8.8881743
8.8898007
8.8914209
8.8930351
8-8946433
8.8962455
8.8978418
8.8994322
8.9010168
8.9025955
8.9041685

8-9057358
8.9072975
8.9088535
8.9104039
8.9119487
8.9 1 3488 1
8.9150219
8.9165504
8.9180734
8.9195911
8.921 1034
8.9226105
8.9241123
8.9256089
8.9271003
8.9285866
8.9300678

8-9315439
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8-9373983
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8.9402960
Cuiine.

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9.9989408

9.9989319
9.9989230
9.9989I4I
9.9989052
9.9988962
9.9988871
9.9988780
9.9988689
9.9988598
9.9988506
9.9988414
9.9988321
9.9988228
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9-9987375
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9.9985886
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9.9985682
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9-9985475
9.9985372
9.9985268
9.9985163
9.9985058

9-9984953
9.9984848
9.9984742
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9.9984422
9.9984315
9.9984207
9.9984099
9.9983990
9.9983S81
9.9983772
9.9983663
9-9983553
9-9983442

8.8446437

Onanst^ui-

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Sine.

8.8464554
8.8482597
8.8500566
8.8518461
8.8536283

S. 8554069

8.8571713
8.8589321
8.8606859
8.8624327
8.8641725
8.8659055
8.8676317
8.8693511
8.8710638
8.8727699

8. S 744694
8.8761623
8.877S487
8.8795286
8.8812022
8.8828694
8.8845303
8.8861850
8.8878334
8-8894757
8.891 1119
8.8927420
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8.8959842
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8.9164952
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8.9226186
8.9241363
8.9256487
8.9271560
8.92865S1
8.9301552
8.9316471

8-933 '340
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8.9360929
8.9375650
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Cuianuenl.

60

I 1. 1535446
II. 1517403
11.1499434
11.1481539
11.1463717
I I. 1445946
II.I4282S7
11.1410679

H-I393HI
11-1375673
11.1358275

11.1340945
II. 1323683
1 1. 1 306489
II. 1289362
1 1.1272301
1 1. 1 255306

11-1238377
1 1.1221513

1 1.1204714
11.1187978
11.1171306
1 1. 1 154697
11.1138150
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I i.i 105243
11.1C88881
11.1072580
11.1056340
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11.0944303
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11.0881540
11.0865988
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11-0743513
11.0728440
11.0713419
1 1 .0698448
1 1.0683529
1 1.0668660
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11.0639071
11.0624350
1 1.0609679
1 1.0595956 1
11.0580482

' Teng.

59

58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50

49
48

47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30

29
28

27
26

25

24

23
22

21

20

19
18

17
16

15
14
13
12
II
10

9
8

7
6

5

4

3
2
1
o

85 Degrees.

5

s Degrees.

60

59

Sine.

Cofine.

Tang.

Cotangent.

0

8.9402960

9-9983442
9-9983332

8.9419518

11.0580482
11.0565956

I

8.9417376

8-9434044

2

8-9431743

9.9983220

8-9448523

11.0551477

58

3

8.9446063

9.9983109

8.9462954

11.0537046

57

4

8-9460335

9.9982997

8-9477338

I 1.0522662

56

5

8.9474561

9.9982885

8.9491676

11.0508324

55

6

8-9488739 19-9982772

8.9505967

11.0494033

54

7

8.9502871

9.9982660

8.952021 1

11.0479789

53

8

8.9516957

9.9982546

8.9534410

11.0465590

52

9

8.9530996

9-9:>i82433

8-9548564

11.0451436

51

10

8-9544991

9.9982318

8.9562672

11.0437328

50

1 1

8.9558940

9.9982204

8-9576735

11.0423265

49

12

8-9572843

9.9982089

8.9590754

11.0409246

48

13

8.9586703

9-9981974

8.9604728

11.0395272

47

14

S.9600517

9.9981859

8.9618659

II.O38134I

46

15

8.9614288

9-9981743

8-9632545

11.0367455

45

16

S. 9628014

9.9981626

8.9646388

11.0353612

44

17

8.9641697

9.9981510

8.9660188

I 1.0339812

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18

8-9655337:9-9981393

8-9673944

11.0326056

42

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8. 9668934 9.9981275

8.96S7658

11.0312342

41

20

8.96S2487 9.9981 15S

8.9701330

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40

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8.9695999

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8.9714959

1 1. 0285041

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8.970946S

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8-97 28547

11.0271453

38

23

8.9722895

9.9980802

8.9742092

11.0257908

37

24

8.9736280

9.9980683

8-9755597

11.0244403

36

25

8-9749624

9.9980563

8.9769060

11. 0230940

35

26

8.9762926

9.9980443

8.9782483

II.0217517

34

27

8.9776188

9.9980323

8.9795865

11.0204135

33

28

8.9789408

9.9980202

8.9809206

11-0190794

32

29

8.9802589

9.9980081

8.9822507

1 1. 0177493

31

30

8.9815729

9.9979960

8.9S35769

11.0164231

30

31

8.9828829 1 9.9979838

8.9848991

II.OI5IOO9

29

32

8.9841889

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8.9862173

11.0137827

28

33:8.9854910

9-9979593

8.9875317

11.0124683

27

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9.9979470

8.9888421

II.OIII579

26

35

8.9880834

9-9979347

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I 1. 00985 1 3

25

36

8-9893737

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11.0085486

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11.0072497

23

38-8.9919429

9.9978975

8.9940454

11.0059546

22

39

8.9932217

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8-9953367

II.CO46633

21

40

8.9944968

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11-0033757

20

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15

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14

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13

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12

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9.0058053

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9.0080471

10.9919529

II

50

9.0070436

9-9977453

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10

51

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9-9977323

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9

52

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8

53

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7

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6

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5

56

9.0143996

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9-0167325

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4

57

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3

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9.0168239

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2

59

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I

60

9.0192346

9.9976143

9.0216202

10.9783798

0

c

Ci.llne.

Sine.

Cotangent.

Tai«.

84 Degrees.

SINES.

O

I

(» Degrees.

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7 Degrees.

Sine,
g. 0192346

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Cotangent.

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9.9976143

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60

59

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9-0858945

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60

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9.02 163 1 8

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58

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58

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9.02282J4

9-9975743

9.0252510

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57

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9.9967040

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57

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9.0240157

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54

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9.0275669

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48

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9.036S958

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42

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42

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41

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40

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40

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39

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38

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38

23

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10.9512730

37

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37

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36

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36

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35

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26

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10.9478561

34

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9.0538588

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30

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g.g662686

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10.8805709

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9.0549661

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29

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28

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10.8786227

28

33

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9-997 '559

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10.9399836

27

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g. 1223482

10.8776518

27

34

9.0582711

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9.061 1297

10.9388703

26

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9.0622403

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25

35

g. 1 204688

9.9961849

9.1242839

10.8757161

25

36

9.0604604

9.9971122

9.0633482

10.9366518

24

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9.1214167

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g.1252486

10.8747514

24

37

9.0615509

9.9970976

9-0644533

10.9355467

23

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9.1223624

9.9961512

9.12621 12

10.8737888

23

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9.0626386

9.9970829

9.0655556

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22

38

9.1233061

9-9961343

9.127171S

10.8728282

22

39

9-0637235

9.9970682

9.0666553

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21

39

9.1242477

9.9961174

g. 128 1303

io.87iS6g7

21

40

9.0648057

9-9970535

9.0677522

10.932347S

20

40

g. 1251872

9.9961004

g. 1290868

10.8709132

20

4'

9.0658852

9.9970387

9.0688465

10-93 "535

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9.1261246

9-9960834

g. 1 30041 3

10.8699587

IV

42

9.0669619

9-9970239

9.0699381

ro.9300619

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42

g. 1270600

9.9960663

9-1309937

10.S690063

18

43

9.0680360

9.9970090

9.0710270

10.9289730

17

43

9.1279934

9.g96o492

9-1319442

10.S68055S

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44

9.0691074

9.9969941

9.0721 133

10.9278867

16

44

9.1289247

9-9960321

g. 13 28926

10.8671074

16

45

9.0701761

9.9969792

9.0731969

10.926803 1

15

45

9.1298539

9.g96oi49

9-133839'

10.8661609

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9.07 1 242 1

9.9969642

9.0742779

10.9257221

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9.1376051

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9.0796441

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10.8558790

4

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9.0859996

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g. 1450442

10.8549558

3

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9.9967817

9.0870501

10.9129499

2

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10.8467308

54

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9.1550769

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52

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9-99559 5

9.1559780

10.8440220

51

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9-9955734

9.1568773

10.8431227

50

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9.1577748

10.8422252

49

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9.9955188

9.1595646

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9.1604569

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9.1613473

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10.836S769

43

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9.9954271

9.1640083

10.S359917

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9.9954087

9.1648919

10.8351081

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9.9953902

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10.8333462

39

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9.1675322

10.8324678

38

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9.1684989

10.83 1591 '

37

24

9.1645998

9-9953'59

9.1692839

10.8307161

36

25

9.1654544

9.9952972

9.1701572

10.829S428

35

26

9.1663074

9.9952785

9.1710289

10.8289711

34

27

9.16715S6

9-9952597

9.1718989

10.S281011

33

28

9.1680081

9.9952409

9.1727672

10.8272328

32

29

9.1688559

9.9,152221

9-1736338

10.8263662

31

30

9.1697021

9-9952033

9.17449S8

10.S255012

30

31

9.1705465

9.9951844

9.1753622

10.8246378

29

32

g. 17 13893

9.9951654

9.1762239

10.8237761

28

33

9.1722305

9.9951464

9.1770840

10.8.129160

27

34

9.1730699

9.9951274

9.1779425

10.8220575

26

35

9.1739077

9.9951084

9-1787993

10.8212007

25

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9.1796546

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22

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9.1822106

10.8177894

21

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9.1830595

10.8169405

20

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9-9949933

9.1839068

10.8160932

19

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9-9949740

9.1847525

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18

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9^805512

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10.8144034

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10.8135608

16

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9.9949158

9.1872802

10.8127198

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9.9948964

9.1881196

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9.1897939

10.8102061

12

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9.1906287

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9.9948 1 Si

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5

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9.1964302

10.8035698

4

57

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10.8027470

3

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10.8019257

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9. 1997 125

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0

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8 1 Dej^rces.

0
I

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60

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10.8002875

9- '943 3 24
9.1951293

9.9946199

9-9945999

9. 1997 1 25

9

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2

9.1959247

9.9945798

9

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10.7986551

58

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9-9945597

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2197097

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35

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9

2204917

10.7795083

34

27

9-2153384

9-9940659

9

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33

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9.9940449

9

2220518

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32

29

9.2168536

9.9940238

9

2228298

10.7771702

31

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9.211 76092

9.9940027

9

2236065

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3 c

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9.9939815

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2243819

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29

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9.2191 164

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26

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16

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0

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80 Degrees.

SINES.

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10 Degrees.

60

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9.2565472 . 10.7434528

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36

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9.2644283

10.7355717

35

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10.7348618

34

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9.2658470

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9.9927129

9.2665547

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32

29

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9-9926895

9.2672613

107327387

31

3°

9.2606330

9-9926661

9.2679669

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30

3'

9.261314I

9.9926427

9.26.86714

10.7313286

29

32

9. 26 I 994 1

9-9926192

9-2693749

10.7306251

28

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9-9925957

9.2700772

10.7299228

27

34

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9-9925722

9.2707786 10.7292214

26

35

9.2640274

9-9925486

9.27147881 10.7285212

25

36

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9.9925250

9.2721780 10.7278220

24

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9-9925013

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10.7271238

23

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9.2660509

9.9924776

9-2735733

10.7264267

22

39

9 2667232

9-9924539

9.2742694

10.7257306

21

40

9 2673945

9-992430'

9.2749644 10.7250356

20

4'

9.2680647

9.9924063

9.2756584

10.7243416

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9.2687338

9.9923S24

9.2763514

10.7236486

18

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9-2770434

10.7229566

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9.9923346

9-2777343

10.7226257

16

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9-9923 106

9-2784242

10.7215758

15

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9.9922866

9.2791131

10.720886Q

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10.7201991

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9.2S04878

10.71951 21

12

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9-9922144

9.28ii7?6

10.7188264

1 1

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9.2740487 9.9921902

9.2818585

10.7181415

10

5'

92747083 9.9921660

9.2825423

io.7'74577

9

52

9.275366919.9921418

9.2S32251

10.7167749

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9-99 "97"

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10.71 20227

I

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9.9919466

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9.2886523

'0-7I 13477

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9.9918974

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10.710CC07 1 ^8

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9.2825441

9.9918727

9.2906713

10.7093287

57

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9.2831905

9.9918480

9.2913424

10.7086576

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9-2838359

9-9918233

9.2920126

10.7079874

55

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9.29268 17

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9-9917737

9-2933500

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9-2953489

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9-9916741

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9-2973395

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9-9915739

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10-7013382! 4?!

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9.2908704

9.9915488

9.2993216

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43

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9.2921367

9.9914984

9.3006383

10.6993617

42

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9.2927685

9.9914731

9.3012954

10.6987046

41

20

9-2933993

9.9914478

9.3019514

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9.9914225

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37

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9.9913462

9.3045667

10-6954333

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25

9-2965390

9.9913207

9.3052183

10.6947817 135

26

9.2971641

9.9912952

9.3058689

10.694131 1 '34

27

9.2977883

9.9911696

9.3065187

10.6934813 33

28

9.2984116

9.9912440

9.3071675

10.6928325132

29

9-2990339

9.9912184

9.3078155

10.6921845 31

30

9.2996553

9.991 1927

9.3084626

10.6915374130

3'

9.3002758

9.9911670

9.3091088

10.6908912 1 29

32

9.3008953

9.9911412

9-3097541

10.6902459

28

S3

9.3015140

9.9911154

9-3103985

10.6896015

27

34

9.3021317

9.9910896

9.3 11042 I

10.6889579

26

35

9.3027485

9.9910637

9.3 I I 6848

10.6883152

25

36

9-30336^4

9.9910378

9.3123266

10.6S76734

24

37

9-3039794

9.99101 19

9-3 1 29675

10-6870325 123!

38

9-3045934

9.9909859

9.3136076

10.6S63924

22

39

9.3052066

9-99-9598

9.3142468

10.6S57532

21

40

9.3058189

.9.9909338

9.3148851

10.6851149

2C

4'

9.3064303

9.9909077

9.3155226

10.6844774

19

42

9.3070407

9.9908815

9.3161592

10.6838408, i8|

43

9.3076503

9.9908553

9.3167950

10.6832050

17

44

9-3082590

9.9908291

9-3 '74299

10-6825701

16

45

9.30S8668

9.9908029

9.3180640

1 0.68 193 60

15

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9-3094737

9.9907766

9.3186972

10.6S 13028

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9.3100798

9 9907502

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10.6806705

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9.3106849

9.9907239

9-31996"

10.6800389

12

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9.3112892

9.9906974

9.3205918

10-6794082

11

50

9.3I1S926

9.99067 10

9.321 22 16

10.67S7784

10

5'

9.3124951

9.9906445

9.321S506

10.6781494

9

52

9.3130768

9.9906180

9.3224788

10.6775212

8

53

9-3 • 36976

9.9905914

9.3231061

10.6768939

7

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9-3142975

9-9905648

9-3237327

10.6762673

6

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9.3148965

9-99053 "2

9-3243584

10.6756416

5

56

9- 3 •549-: 7

9.9905115

9-3249832

10.6750168

4

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9.3160921

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9-3256073

10-6743927

3

58

9.3166885

9.9904580

9-3262305

1 0.673 7695

2

59

9.3172841

9.99043 1 2

9.3268529

10-6731471

1

60

9-3 '78789

9.9904044

9-3274745

t'otanpent.

10.6725255

0

Ci)li(ie. 1 Sine.

'I'lnfi-

7S Deprrcs.

SINES.

s

5
o

12 Decrees.

60

59

Sine.

Cofine.

Taug.

Cotangent.

9.3178789

9.9904044

9-3274745

10.6725255

I

9-3 '84728

9-9903775

9-3280953

10.6719047

2

9.3190659

9-9903506

9-3287153

10.6712847

58

3

9.3196581

9-9903237

9-3293345

10.6706655

57

4

9.320249,-

9.9902967

9.3299528

10.6700472

56

5

9.3208400

9.9902697

9-3305704

10.6694296

55

6

9.3214297

9.9902426

9.3311872

10.6688128

54

7

9.3220186

9,9902155

9-33 J 803 T

10.6681969

J3

8

g. 3226066

9.9901883

9-3324183

10.6675817

52

9

93231938

9.9901612

9-3330327

10.6669673

5'

10

9.3237S02

9-9901339

9-3336463

10.6663537

50

II

9-3243657

9.9901067

9-3342591

10.6657409

49

12

9.3249505

9.9900794

9-33487 1 1

10.6651289

48

13

9-3255344

9.9900521

9-3354823

10.6645177

47

14

9-3261174

9.9900247

9.3360927

10.6639073

46

15

9.3266997

9.9899973

9-3367024

10.6632976

45

)6

9.3272S11

9.9899698

9-3373113

10.6626887

44

17

9.3278617

9.9899423

9-3379194

10-6620806

43

18

9.3284416

9.9899148

9-3385267

10.6614733

42

19

9.3290206

9.9898873

9-3391333

10.6608667

41

20

9.3295988

9.9898597

9-3397391

10.6602609

40

21

9.3301761

9.9898320

9-3403441

IC.6596559

39

22

9-3307527

9.989804^

9.3409484

10.6590516

38

23

9-33 '3285

9.9897766

9-341-5519

10.6584481

37

24

9-3319059

9.9897489

9.5421546

10.6578454

36

25

9-3324777

9.9897211

9-3427566

10.6572434

35

26

9-33305'!

9.9896932

9-3433578

10.6566422

34

27

9-3336237

9.9896654

9-3439583

10.6560417

33

28

9-3341955

9.9896374

9.3445580

10.6554420

32

29

9.3347665

9.9896095

9-345>57o

10.6548430

3>

.•?°

9-3353368

9.9895815

9-3457552

10.6542448

30

3'

9-3359062

9-9895535

9-3463527

10.6536473

29

32

9-3364749

9.9895254

9-3469494

10.6530506

28

33

9-3370428

9-9894973

9-3475454

10.6524546

27

34

9-3376099

9.9894692

9.3481407

10.6518593

26

3J

9-3381762

9.9894410

93487352

10.6512648

35

36

9-3387418

9.9894128

9.3493290

10.6506710

24

37

9-3393065

9.9893845

9-3499220

10.6500780

23

38

9-3398706

9.9893562

9-3505143

10.6494857

22

39

9.3404338

9.9893279

9.351 1059

10.6488941

21

40

9.3409963

9-9892995

9.3516968

10.6483032

20

41

9.3415580

9.98927 I I

9.3522869

10.6477131

19

42

9.342 1 190

9.9892427

9-3528763

10.6471237

18

43

9-3426792

q. 9892 142

9-3534650

10.6465350

17

44

9.3432386

9.9891856

9-3540530

10.6459470

16

4;

9-3437973

9-9891571

9.3546402

10.6453598

15

46

9-3443552

9.9891285

9.3552267

10.6447733

H

47

9-3449124

9.9890998

9.3558126

10.6441874

13

48

9.3454688

9.989071 1

9-3563977

10.6436023

12

49

9.3460245

9.9890424

9.3569821

10.6430179

II

S°

9-3465794

9.9890137

9-3575658

10.6424342

10

51

9-3471336

9.9889849

9.3581487

10.6418513

9

52

9.3476870

9.9889560

9-3587310

10.6412690

8

53

9-3482397

9.9889271

9-3593126

10.6406874

7

54

9-3487917

9.9888982

9-3598935

10.6401065

6

55

9-3495429

9.98S8693

9.3604736

IG.6395264

5

56

9-3498934

9.988840:;

9.3610531

10.6389469

4

57

9.3504432

9.9888113

9.3616319

10.6383681

3

58

9.3509922

9.9887822

9.3622100

10.6377900

2

59

9-3515405

9.98S7531

9.3627874

10.6372126

1

60

9.3520880

9.9887239

9-3633641

Cotangent.

10.6366359

0

c

Cofme.

Sine.

Tang.

77 Degrees.

3

4

5
6

7
8

9
10
1 1
12
13
14
15
16

17
18

19
20
21
22

23
24
25
26

27
28
2(3
30
31
32

33
34
35
36
37
38

39
40

41
42
43
44

45
46

47
48
40
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58

59
60

13 De

9.3520880

9-3526349
9.3531810

9-3537264
9.3542710
9-3548150
9-3553582
9-3559007
9.3564426
9.3569S36

9-3575240
9.3580637

9.3586027
9.3591409

9-3596785
9.3602154
9.3607515
9.3612870
9.3618217
9.362355S
9.3628892
9-3634219

9-3639539
9.3644852
9.365CI5S

9-3655458

9.3660750
9.3666036

9-367 13 1 5
9.3676587
9.36S1S53
9.3687111
9.3692363
9.3697608
9.3702847
9.3708079

9-3713304
9-3718523

9-3723735
9.3728940

9-3734139
9-373933 '
9-37445 '■"
9.3749696

9.3754868
9-3760034

9-3765194

9-3770347
9-3775493
9.3780633

9-3785767
9.3790894
9.3796015
9.3801 1 29
9.3806237

9-3811339
9.3816434

9.3821523

9 3S26605

9.3831682

9-3836752

(Jofine.

Cofine.

9^98^7239

9.9886947
9.9886655
9.9886363
9.9886070
9.9885776
9.9885482
9.9885188
9.9884894
9.9884599
9-9884303
9.9884CX58
9.9S83712
9.9883415
9.9883118
9.9882S21
9-9882523
9.9882225
9.9881927
9.98S162S
9.9881329
9.9881029
9.9880729
9.9880429
9.9880128
9.9879827
9.9879525
9.9879223
9.9878921
9.9878618
9.9878315
9.9878012
9.9877708
9.9877404

9-9877099
9.9876794
9.9876488
9.9876183

9.9S75876
9.9875570
9.9875263
9.9874955
9.9874648
9-9874339
9-9874031
9.9873722

9-9S73413
9-9873103

9-9872793
9.9872482
9.9S72171
9.9871 S60

9-9871549
9.9871236
9.9870924
9.987061 1
9.9870298
9.9869984
9.9869670
9.9869356
9.9869041

Tang.

Sine.

9-3633641
9-3639401

9-3645155
9.3650901
9.3656641
9.3662374
9.3668100
9.3673819

9-3679532
9.3685238

9-3690937
9.3696629

9-3702315

9-3707994
9.3713667

9-3719333
9.3724992

9-3730645
9-3736291
9-3741030
9-3747563
9-3753190
9.3758810

9-3764423
9.3770030

9.3775631
9-3781225
9.3786813

9-3792394
9.3797969

9-3803537

9.3S09100

9,3814655

9.3820205 I

9.3825748

9.3831285

9.3836816

9.3842340

9.3847858

9-3853370
9.3858876
9.3864376
9.3869869

9-3875356
9.3880837
9.3886312

9-3891781
9.3897244
9.3902700
9.3908151

9-3913595
9-3919034
9.3924466
9.39298931

9-3935313 I
9.3940727 j
9.3946136

9-395' 538!

9-3956935
9.3962326
9.39677 1 1

Cotangent.

C otanjren;.

10.6366359

10.6360599

10.6354845

10.6349099

10.6343359

10.6337626

10.6331900

10.6326181

10.6320468

10.6314762

10.6309063

10.6303371

10.6297685

10.6292006

10.6286333

10.6280667

10.6275008

10.6269355

10.6263709

10.6258070

10.6252437

10.6246810

10.6241 190

10.6235577

10.6229970

10.6224369

10.6218775

10.6213187

10.6207606

10.6202031

10.6196463

10.6190900

10.6185345

10.6179795

10.6174252

10.6168715

10.6163184

IC.6157660

10.6152142

10.6146630

TO.6141 124

10. 6135624

10.6130131
10.6124644
10.6119163
10.6113688
10.6108219
10.6102756
10.6097300
10.6091849
IO.60S6405
10.6080966
10.6075534
10.6070107
10.6064687
10.6059273
10.6053864
10.6048462
10.6043065
10.6037674
10.6032289
Tang.

76 Degrees.

60

59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48

47
46

45
44
43
42

41
40

39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28

27
26

25

24
23
22

21

20

19

18

17
16

15
14
13
12
II
10

9
8

7
6

5
4
3
2
I
o

.•SINES.

5'

o
I

14 Degrees.

60
59

•Sine.

Cofine.

'I'aeii;.

Coiangent.

9-3836752

9.9869041

9-39677"

10.6032289

9.3841815

9.9868726

9-3973089

10.602691 1

2

9.3846873

9.9868410

9.3978463

10.6021537

58

3

9.3851924

9.9868094

9-3983830

10.6016170

57

4

9.3856969

9.9867778

9.3989I9I

10.6010809

56

5

9.3862008

9.9867461

9-3994547

10.6005453

55

6

9.3867040

9.9867144

9.3999896

10.6000104

54

7

9.3872067

9.9866827

9.4005240

10.5994760

>i

8

9.3877087

9.9866509

9.4010578

10-5989422

52

9

9.38S2101

9.9866191

9.4015910

10.5984090

51

lO

9.38S7109

9.9865872

9.4021237

10.5978763

50

11

9-3892111

9-9865553

9.4026558

10-5973442

49

(2

9.3R97106

9-9865233

9-4031873

10.5968127

48

L?

9.3902096

9.9864913

9.4037182

10.5962818

47

'4

9.3907079

9.9864593

9.4042486

10.5957514

46

'5

9-3912057

9-9864273

9.4047784

10.5952216

45

i6

9-3917028

9.9S63952

9-4053076

10-5946924

44

17

9.3921993

9.9863630

9-4058363

10.5941637

43

i8

9-3926952

9.9863 30S

9.4063644

10.5936356

42

'9

9-393 '9^5

9.986:986

9.4068919

10.5931081

41

20

9.3936852

9 9862663

9.4074189

10.5925811

40

21

9-3941794

9.9862340

9.4079453

10.5920547

39

2 2

9.3946729

9.9862017

9.4084712

10.5915288

38

23

9.3951658

9.9861693

9.4089965

10.5910035

37

24

9.3956581

9.9861369

9.4095212

10.5904788

36

25

9.3961499

9.9861045

9.4100454

10.5899546

35

26

9.3966410

9.9860720

9.4105690

10.5894310

34

27

9-397 '315

9.9860394

9.41 10921

10.5889079

33

28

9.3976215

9.9860069

9.41 16146

10.5883854

32

29

9.39S1109

9.9859742

9.4121366

10.5878634

3'

3°

9.3985996

9.9859416

9.4126581

10.5873419

30

3'

9.3990878

9.9S59089

9.4131789

10.5868211

29

32

9-3995754

9.9858762

9-4136993

10.5863007

28

33

9.4000625

9.9858434

9.4142191

lo. 5857809

27

34

9.4005489

9.9858106

9-4147383

10.5852617

26

3|

9.4010348

9-9857777

9-4152570

'0-5847430

25

36

9.4015201

9-9857449

9-4157752

10.5842248

24

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9.9770832
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9.9768720
9.9768296
9.9767872
9.9767.147
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9-9765745
9.9765318
9.9764891
9.9764.}64
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9.9763179
9.9762750
9.9762321
9.9761891
9.9761461
9.9761030
9.9760599
9.9760167
9-9759736

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9.9757570

9-9757 > 35
9.9756701

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9-5
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9-5
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9-5 "7760
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9.5232589

9-5236795
9.5240999
9.5245199
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9.5266150

9-5270331
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9.5278682

9.5282853

9.5287021

9.5291 186

9-5295347
9.5299505

9-5303661

9-5307813
9.5311961
9.5316107
9.5320250

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9-5332659

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0.4S82240

0-4877943
0.4873649
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0.4865073

0.4860790
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0.4847961
0.4843691

0-4839425
0.4835162

0.4830903
0.4826647
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0.4813899

0.4809656

0.4805417
0.4801 181
0.4796948
0.4792718
0.4788492
0.4784270
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0.4775834

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0.4650839

0.4646722
0.4642607

0.4638495
0-4634387

0.4630281

Taii^.

60

71 Dcgrpps.

59

58

57

56

55

54

53

52

5'

50

49
48

47
46
45
44

43
42

4'
40

39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
3'
30
29
28

27
26

25
24

23
22
21

20

19
18

17
16

15
14

13
12

1 1

10

9

8

7
6

5

4

3
2
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0

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9.9756701
9.9756265

9.5369719

10.4630281

60

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9-5373821

10.4626179

2

9-5133750

9-9755830

9.5377920

10.4621080

58

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9.5137410

9-9755394

9.5382017

10.4617983

57

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9.5141067

9-9754957

9.53861 10

10.4613890

56

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9.5144721

9.9754521

9.5390200

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6

9.5148371

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9-5394287

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54

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9.5152017

9-9753646

9-5398371

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9-9746587

9-5463312

10.4536688

37

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9.9746142

9-5467346

10.4532654

36

25

9.5217074

9.9745697

9-5471377

10.4528623

35

26

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9.9745252

9-5475405

10.4524595

34

27

9-5224235

9.9744806

9.5479430

10.4520570

33

28

9.5227811

9-9744359

9.5483452

10.4516548

32

29

9-5231383

9-9743913

9.5487471

10.4512529

31

30

9-5234953

9-9743466

9.5491487

10.4508513

30

31

9.5238518

9.9743018

9.5495500

10.4504500

29

32

9.5242081

9.9742570

9.5499511

10.4500489

28

33

9.5245640

9.9742122

9-5503519

10.4496481

27

34

9.5249196

9.9741673

9-5507523

10.4492477

26

35

9.5252749

9.9741224

9.551 1525

10.4468475

25

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9-5256298

9-9740774

9-5515524

10.4484476

24

37

9.5259844

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9.5519521

10.4480479

23

38

9-5263387

9-9739873

9-5523514

10.4476486

22

39

9.5266927

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9-9738971

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9-973398"

9-S575'7'

10.4424829

9

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9.5312649

9-9733523

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0

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70 D^jri'-fs.

Vol. XXXIII.

SINES.

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20 Degrees.

60

59

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Cftianppiit.

O

I

9.5340517
9.5343986

9.9729858
9.9729398

9.5610659

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9

56 145 8 8

10.4385412

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9-5347452

9.9728938

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9-5350915

9.9738477

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5622439

10.4377561

57

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5649831

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50

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9.5378508

9-9724775

9

5653733

10.4346267

49

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9-5381943

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9

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9-9723845

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5661530

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5665424

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5669316

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9.9722448

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5673205

10.4326795

44

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9-5399073

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5677091

10.4322909

43

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9.5402489

9-9721514

9

5680975

10.4319025

42

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9.5405903

9.9721047

9

5684856

10.4315144

4'

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9.5409314

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9

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10.4311265

40

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9

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34

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9

5715811

10.4284189

33

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9.5436489

9.9716820

9

5719669

10.4280331

32

29

9-5439873

9.9716348

9

5723524

10.4276476

3'

30

9-5443253

9.9715876

9

5727377

10.4272623

30

31

9.5446630

9.9715404

9

5731227

10.4268773

29

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9.5450005

9-97 1493 1

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10.4264926

28

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9-5453376

9-9714457

9

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10.4261081

27

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26

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22

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9.6064096

Culaiisedt.

10.3935904

0

Cofine.

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f.8 Degrees.

SINES.

2i Degrees.

Sine.

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9-5735754

9.9671659

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9.5742003

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9-5751356

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9.9574522

9.6676823

'o-3323'77

3

57 9.641064U

9.9538448

9.6S72192

10.3127808

3

58

9.6254060

9-9573934

9.6680126

'o.33'9874

58

9-64'3235

9-9537833

9.6875402

'0-3 1 24598

2

59

9.6256772

9-9573346

9.6683426

10.3316574 I

59

9.641582S

9.9537218

9.687861 1

10.3121389

I

60

9.6259483

t'ollnf.

9-9572757

Sine.

9.66S6725

io-33'3275 0

60

9.6418420

Coftne. 1

9.9536602

Sine.

9.6881818 10.3118182

0

Cotanf^enT.

Ting.

Cntanjreni. Tanp.

65 Degrees.

fi4 Deirei-s.

SINES.

d"

0
I

26 Degrees.

60

Sine-

Cofine.

Tang.

Cotangent.

9.6418420

9.9536602
9-9535985

9.6881818
9.6885023

IO.3118182

g.6421009

10.3114977

59

o

9.6423596

9-9535369

9. 6888227

•0.3 1 "773

58

3

9.6426182

9-953475'

9.6891430

10.3108570

57

4

9.6428765

9-9534' 34

9.6894631

10.3105369

56

J

9-643 '347

9-95335 '5

9.6897831

10.3102169

55

6

9.6433926

9.9532897

9.6501030

10.3098970

54

7

9.6436504

9.9532278

9.6904226

10.3095774

53

8

9.6439080

9.9531658

Q. 6907422

10.3092578

52

9

9.6441654

9-953'038

9.6910616

10.30893S4

51

lO

9.6444226

9.9530418

9.6913809

10.3086191

50

n

9.6446796

9.9529797

9.6917000

10.3083000

49

I 2

9.6449365

9.9529175

9.6920189

10.3079811

48

13

9.6451931

9-9528553

9.6923378

10.3076622

47

14

9.6454496

9.9527931

9.6926565

'0.3073435

46

'5

9.6457058

9.9527308

9.6929750

10.3070250

45

i6

96459619

9.95266S5

9-693=934

10.3C67C66

44

17

9.646217S

9.9526061

9.6936117

,0.3063883

43

18

9.6464735

9-9525437

9.6939298

10.3060702

42

•9

9.6467290

9.9524813

9.6942478

10.3057522

4'

20

9.6469844

9.9524188

9.6945656

10.3054344

40

%i

9-fM72395

9.9523562

9.6948833

10.3051167

39

22

9.6474945

9.9522936

9.6952009

'o-3<?4799'

38

23

9.6477492

9.9522310

9.6955183

10.3044817

37

24

9.6480038

9.9521683

9-6958355

10.3041645

36

25

9.C482582

9.9521055

9.6961527

10.303S473

35

26

9.6485124

9.9520428

9.6964697

10.3035303

34

27

9.6487665

9.9519799

9.6967865

10.3032135

33

28

9.6490203

9.9519171

9.6971032

10.3028968

32

29

9.6492740

9.9518541

9.6974198

10.3025802

3'

30

9.6495274

9.9517912

9.6977363

10.3022637

30

.^i

9.6497807

9.9517282

9.6980526

10.3019474

29

32

9.6500338

9.9516651

9.6983687

10.3016313

28

33

9.6502868

9.9516020

9.6986847

io-3oi3'53

27

34

9.6505395

9-95 '5389

9.699CC06

10.3009994

26

35

9.6507920

9-25'4757

9.6993164

10.3006836

25

36

9.6510444

9.9514124

9.6996320

10.3003680

24

37

9.6512966

9-95'3492

9.6999474

10.3CC0526

23

38

9.6515486

9.9512858

9.7002628

10.2997372

22

39

9.6518004

9.9512224

9.7005780

1C.2994220

21

40

9.6520521

9.9511590

9.7008930

10.2991C70

20

4'

9-65^3035

9.9510956

9.701 2CS0

10.2987920

'9

42

9.6525548

9.9510320

9.7015227

10. 2984773

18

43

9.652H059

9.95C9685

9-7018374

10. 2981626

17

44

9.6530568

9.9509049

9.7021519

10.2978481

16

45

9-6533075

9.9508412

9.7024663

10.2975337

15

46

9-6535581

9-950777?

9.7027805

10.2972195

'4

47

9.6538084

9.9507138

9.7030946

10.2969054

'3

48

9.6540586

9.9506500

9.7034086

10.2965914

I 2

49

9.6543086

9.9505861

9.7037225

10.2962775

II

50

9.6545584

9.9505223

9.7040362

10.2959638

10

5'

9.6548081

9.9504583

9-7045497

10.2956503

9

52

9.6550575

9-9503944

9.7046632

10.2953368

8

53

9.6553068

9-9503303

9.7049765

10.2950235

7

J4

9-6555559

9.9502663

9.7052897

10.2947103

6

55

9.6558048

9.9502022

9.7056027

10.2943973

5

5''>

96560536

9.9501380

9.7059156

10.2940844

4

57

9.6563021

9.9500738

9.7062284

10.2937716 3

58

9.6565505

9.95COC95

9.7065410

10.2934590 2

59

9.6567987

9.9499452

9.7068535

10.2931465 I

60

9.6570468

rofrne.

9.9498809 9.7071659

10.292834! 0

Sine. CotHrpeiit.

'I'anp.

f.n Degrees. I

f'.

9
10
1 1
12

'3

'4

'5
16

'7
18

'9
20
21
22

23
24
25
26

27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

37
38
39
40
41
42
43
^4
45
46

47
48

49
50
5'
52
53
54
55
56
57
58

59
60

27 Degrees.

Colin

9.6570468 9.9498809

9.6572946

9-6575423
9.6577898
9.6580371
9.6582842
9.6585312
9.6587780
9.6590246
9.6592710

9-6595 '73
9.6597633
9.6600093
9.6602550
9.6605005
9.6607459
9.660991 1
9.6612361
9.6614810
9.6617257
9.6619702
9.6622145
9.6624586
9.6627026
9.6629464
9.66319C0
9-6634335
9.C636768
9.6639159
5.6641628
9.6644056
9.6646482
9.6648506
9.6651329
9.6653749
9.6656168
9.6658586
9.6661CC1
9.6663415
9.6665828
9.6668238
9.6670647
9.6673054
9.6675459
9.6677863
9;668c265
9.6682665
9.6685064
9.6(87461
9.6685856
9.6692250
9.6654642
9.6697032
9.6655420
9.6701807
9.6704192
9.6706576
9.6708958
9.671 1338
9.6713716
9.6716093

9.9498165
9.9497521
9.9496876
9.9496230
9.9495585
9.9494938
9.9494292
9-9493645
9-9492997
9-9192349
9.9491700

9-9491051
9.0450402
9.9489752
9.5489101
9.5488450

9-9487799
9.5487147
5.9486495

c. 9485842

5.9485189
9-9484535

9.5483881

5.9483227
9.5482572

9.9481916
9.5481260
9.9480604

9-9475947
9.9479289
9.9478631

9-9477973
9-9477314
9.9476655

9:9475995

9-9475335
9.9474674

9-947'1oi3
9-9473352
9.9472689
9.5472027
9.0471364
9.54707CC
9.5470036
9-9469372
9.9468707
5.9468042
9-9467376
9.9466710
9.9466043
9-9465376
9.9464708
9.9464040

9-9463371
9.9462702
9.9462032
9.9461362
9.9460692
9.9460021
9-0459349

'J'aiiff.

9.7071659

9.7074781
9.7077902
9.7081022
9.7084141
9.7087258
9.7090374
9.7093488
9.7096601
9.7099713
9.7102824

9-7105933
9.7109041

9.7112148
9.7115254
9.7118358
9.71 21461
9.7124562
9.7127662
9.7130761

9-7'33859
9.7136956
9.7 14005 1

9-7'43'45
9.7146237
9.7149329
9.7152419
9.7155508
9.7158595
9.7161682
9.7164767
9-7167851
9-7 '70933
9.7174014

9-7177094
9.7180173
9.7183251
9.7186327
9.7189402
9.7192476

9-7 '95549
9.7198620
9.720165c

9-7204759

9.720782

9-7210893

9.7213958

9.7217022

9.7220085

9-7223 '47
9.7226207
9.7229266
9723 23 24
9-7235381
9.7238436
9.7241490
9.7244543

9-7247595
9.7250646

9-7253695
9.7256744

Cotanj;t'm.

2925219159
0.2922098 58
0.2918978 157

0-2915859 j 56
0.2912742 j ^^
0.2909626 54
0.290651 2 1 5^

0-2903399 52

0.29C0287 ' 51

0.2897176 ' 50
0.2894067 '49
0.2890959 '48
0.2887852 147
0.2884746 '46
0.2881642 ' 45
0-2878539 [44
0.2875438 1 43
0.2872338 42
0.2S69239
0.2866141
0.2S63044
0.2859949
0.2856855

0-2853763
0.2850671

0. 2847581
0.2844492
0.2841405

0.2838318
0-2835233
C.2832149

0.2829067
0.2825986
0.2822906
0.2819827
0.2816749

0.2813673

0.2810598
0.2807524
0.2804451
0.2801380
0.2798310

0.2795241
0.2792173

0.2789107
0.2786042
0.2782978

0.2779915

0.2776853

0-2773793
0.2770734

0.2767676
0.2764619
0.2761564

0.275S510

0-2755457
0.2752405

0-2749354
0.2746305
0.2743256

62 Degrees.

4'
40

39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
2 1
:o
ig
iS

'7
16

15
'4

'3
12
1 1
10

9

8

7
6

5
4
3
2
I
o

SINES.

I

2

3

4

5
6

7

8

9

10

II

12
f •»

14

15
16

•7

iS

19
20
21
22
23
24

2;
26

27
28
29
30
3t
32
33
34
3J
36
37
38

39

40

41

42

43
44
45
46

47
48

49
50
51

52

53

54
55
56
57
58

59
60

L'8 Degree!.

Sine. I Cofine.

9.6716095

9.6718468
9.6720841
9.6723213
9.6725585
9.6727952
9.6730319
9.6732684

9-6735047
9.6737409
9.6739769
9.6742 1 2S
9.6744485
9.6746840
9.6749194
9.6751546
9.6753896
9.6756245
9.6758592
9.6760937
9.6763281
9.6765623
9.6767963
9.6770302
9.6772640

9-6774975

9.6777309

9.6779642

9.6781972

9.6784301

9.6786629

9.6788955

9.6791279

9.6793602

9.6795923

9.6798243

9.6800560

9.6802877

9.6805191

9.6807504

9.6809816

9.6812126

9.6814434

9.6816741

9.6S 19046

9.6821349

9.6823651

9.6825952

9.6S28250

9.6830548

9.683 2 S43

9-6835137

9.6837430

9.6839720

9.6842010

9.6844297 i

9.6846583

9.684886S

9.6851151 ;

9-6853432
9.6855712

Cofiiie.

9-9459349

9.9458677
9.9458005

9-9457332
9.9456659
9.9455985

9-94553'°
9-9454636
9.9453960

9-9453285
9.9452609
9.9451932
9.9451253

9.9450577
9.9449899
9.9449220
9.9448541
9.9447862
9.9447182
9.9446501
9.9445 S21
9-9445139
9-9444457
9-9443775
9-9443092
9.9442409
9.9441725

9-944104'
9-9440356
9-9439671
9.9438985
9.9438299
9.9437612
9.9436925
9-9436238

9-9435549
9.9434861

9-9434'72
9.9433482

9-9432792
9.9432102
9.943 141 1

9.9430720
9.9430028

9-9429335
9.9428643
9.9427949
9.9427255
9.9426561
9.9425866

9-9425171
9.9424476

9-9423779
9.9423083
9.9422386
9.9421688
9.9420990
f). 942 02 9 1
9.9419592
9.941 8893
9.9418193

9.7256744

Sine.

9.7259791

9.7262837
9.7265881
9.7268925
9.7271967
9.7275008
9.7278048
9.72S1087
9.7284124
9.7287161
9.7290196
9.7293230
9.7296263
9.7299295

9'7302325
9-7305354
9.7308383
9.7311410

9-7314436
9-73174'JO
9.7320484
9.7323506
9.7326527
9-7329547
9-7332566

9-73355S4
9.7338601
9.7341616
9-7344631
9-7347644
9.7350656

9-7353667
9.7356677
9-7359685
9.7362693

7365699
7368705
7371709
7374712

7377714
9.73S0715

9-73^'^37'4
9-7386713
9.7389710

9-7392707
9-7395702
9.7398696
9.7401689
9.7404681
9.740-672
9.7410662
9.7413650
9.741663S
9.7419624
9.7422609
9-7425594
9-7428577
9- 743 '559
9-7434540
9-7437520

(]oi;insent.
10.2743256

10.2740209
10.2737163
10.2734119
10.2731075
10.2728033
10.2724992
10.2721952
10.2718913
10.2715876
10.2712839
10.2709804
10.2706770

10.2703737
10.2700705
10.2697675
10.2694646
10.2691617
IC.2688590
10.2685564
IO.26S2540
10.2679516
IC.2676494
10.2673473
10.2670453
10.2667434
10.2664416
10.2661399
10.2658384
10.2655369
10.2652356
10.2649344
10.2646333
10.2643323
tO.2640315
10.2637307
10.2634301
10.2631295
10.2628291
10.2625288
10.2622286
10.2619285
IO.26162S6
10.2613287
10.2610290
10.2607293
IO.260429S
10.2601304
10.2598311
10.2595319
IO.259232S

IO-25S9338
IO.25S6350
10.2583362
10.2580376

i°-257739i
10.2574406
1C.2571423
10.256S441
10.2565460
10.2562480

60

riti;ini^e:it.

Tanu

G\ Desrees.

59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52

5'
50

49

48

47
46
45
44
43
42
4'
40

39
38
37
36
3S
34
33
32
3'
3°
29
28

27
26

25

24

23
22

21
20

'9

18

17
16

15
'4
13
12
1 1
10

9

8

'^

29 Degrees.

Sine.

CoCne.

Tans-

Cotangent.

0

I

9.6855712

9.9418193

9-7437520

10.2562480

60

9.6857991

9-94' 7492

9.7440499

10.3559501

59

2

9.6860267

9.9416791

9-7443476

10.2556524

58

3

Q.6862542

9.9416090

9.7446453

10.2553547

57

4

9.6864816

9.9415388

9.7449428

10.2550572

56

5

9.6867088

9.9414685

9-7452403

10.2547597

55

6

9.6869359

9.9413982

97455376

10.2544624

4

7

9.687162S

9.9413279

9-7458349

1 0.2 541 65 I

53

8

9.6873895

9-94' 2575

9.7461320

10.25386^0

52

9

9.6876161

9.9411871

9.7464290

10.2535710

5'

10

9.687S425

9.9411166

9.7467259

10.2532741

50

11

9.6880688

9.9410461

9.7470227

10.2529773

49

12

9.6882949

9.9409755

9-7473 '94

10.2526806

48

'3

9.6885209

9.9409048

9.7476160

10.2523840

47

'4

9.6887467

9.9408342

9.7479125

10.2520875

46

'5

q. 6889723

9.9407634

9.7482089

io.2ji79ii

45

16

9.6891978

9.9406927

9-7485052

10.2514948

44

'7

9.6894232

9.9406219

9-7488013

10.2511987

43

18

9.6896484

9.9405510

9.7490974

10.2509026

42

19

9.6898734

9.9404S01

9-7493934

10.2506066

41

20

9.6900983

9.9404091

9.7496892

10.2503108

40

21

9.6903231

9-940,53 Si

9.7499850

10.2500150

39

22

9.6905476

9.V40267C

9.7502806

' 0-2497 '94

38

23

9.6907721

9.9401959

9.7505762

10.2494238

37

24

9.6909964

9.9401248

9-75-8716

10.24912S4

36

25

9.6912205

9.9400535

9.7511669

10.2488331

35

26

9.6914445

9-9399S23

9.7514622

10.2485378

34

27

9.6916683

9.9399110

9-7517573

10.2482427

33

28

9.6918919

9.9398396

9.7520523

10.2479477

32

29

9.6921155

9.9397682

9-7523472

10.2476528

31

30

9.6923388

9-9396968

9.7526420

10.2473580

30

31

9.6925620

9-9396253

9.7529368

10.2470632

29

32

9.6927851

9-9395537

9-7532314

10.2467686

28

33

9.6930080

9.9394821

9-7535259

10.2464741

27

34

9.6932308

9-9394i°5

9-7538203

10.2461797

26

35

9-6934534

9-9393388

9.7541 146

10.2458854

25

36

9.6936758

9.9392671

9.7544088

10.2455912

24

37

9.6938981

9-939'953

9.7547029

10.2452971

23

38

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9-7399748

9.92 1 940 1

9.8180347

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40

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9.921S570

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10.1816902

39

22

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38

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9.8188599

IO.181 1401

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9.7407421

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34

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9.8199592

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33

28

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9.9212737

9.8202338

10.1797662

32

29

9.7416986

g.921 1902

9.8205084

10.1794916

3'

3°

9.7418895

9.921 1066

9.8207829

IO.I792171

30

31

9.7420803

9.9210229

9.8210574

10.1789426

29

32

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9-9209393

9.8213317

10.1786683

28

33

9.7424616

9.9208555

9.8216060

10.1783940

27

34

9.7426520

9.9207717

9.8218803

10.1781197

26

35

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9.9206878

9.8221545

10.1778455,

25

36

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9.82242S6

10.1775714

24

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9.9205200

9.8227026

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23

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10.1770234

22

39

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9.9203519

9.8232505

10.1767495

21

40

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9.9202678

9.8235244

10.1764756

20

4'

9-7439817

9.9201836

9.8237981

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17

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6

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5

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3

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2

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lane

56 Degrees.

SINES.

2

5
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60
59

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9.9185742

9.8289874

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9.8292599

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55

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50

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9.9176336

9.8319811

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40

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9-9175478

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9.9174619

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47

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9.9173760

9-8327963

10. 1672037

46

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9.8330679

10.1669321

45

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9-75°54.H

9.9172040

9-S333394

10.1666606

44

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9-9171179

g.8336109

10.1663891

43

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9-8341536

10.1658464

41

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9.9163406

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34

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31

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9.8374049

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28

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9-91573,30

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26

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25

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9.8387571

10.1612429

24

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Cot.'Uipeui.

10-1387390

0

c

Cofine.

Sine.

Tanp.

S4 Degrees.

Vol. XXXIir.

SINES.

I

2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9

lO

II

12

13

14

15

16

17
18

'9

20
21

22

2J

24

25
26
27
28
29
JO
31
32

33
34
i5
36
37
38
39
40

41
42

43

44

45
46

47
48

49
50
5'
52
J3
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

'36 Degrees.

9.7692187

9-7693925
9.7695662
9.7697398

9-7699134
9.7700868
9.7702601

9-7704332
9.7706063

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9.7728468
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9-7737039
9-7738749
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9.7742168
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9-7745583

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9-7759199
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9.7764289
9.7765983
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9.7769369
9.7771060
9.7772750

9-7774439
9.7776128
9.7777815
9.7779501
9.7781186
9.7782870

9-7784553
9.7786235
9.7787916
9.7789596
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9-7792953
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9.9079576

9.9078658
9.9077740
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9-S707933
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9-8747470
9.8750102
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9-8755365
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Cotanj;cnl.

Cotaiigeiu.

10-1387390
10.1384733
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10.1242004

10.1239373

10.1236743

10.1234114

10.1231485

10.1228856

60

59

58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48

47
46

45
44
43
42
4'
40

39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28

27
26

25
24
23
22
21
20

•9

18

17
16

■5

14

'3
1 2

1 1

10

9
8

7
6

5
4
3

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53 Degrees,

0

I

»J7 Degrees.

Sine.

Coimc.

Tan^. ] Cutangent.

60

9.7794630

9.9023486

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59

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58

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9-7799655

9.9020628

9.8779027

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57

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56

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9.7803000

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54

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9.9016808

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9.9015852

9.8792158

10.1207842

52

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9.9014985

9-8794782

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10.1197346

48

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9.8805277

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9.9010102

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44

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9.9007219

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10.1184235

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9.9000472

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9.8999506

9.8836721

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35

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9.7839528 9.S997572]

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10.1158044

33

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32

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IO.II528I 1

31

30

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9.78461 17

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9.8852420

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29

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9.7847762 9.8992727

9.8855035

10.1144965

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10.1142350

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9.7851049 9.8990-S4

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9.8865492

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10.1131895

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9.8870718 10.1129282

22

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9-S873330

10.1126670

21

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9-7893420

9.8965321

9.8928098

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Tang.

52 Degrees.

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SINES.

38 DeKrees.

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15
16

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20
21
22

23

24

25
26

27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
3O
37
38

39

40

41
42

43

44
45
46

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48

49

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
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7895036
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9.9145596

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9.914817I

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9.8878221

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10.0849:53

34

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9.8030504

9.8877182

9.9153322

10.0846678

33

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9.9155896

10.0844104

32

29

9-8033572

9.887J102

9.9158471

10.0841529

3'

30

9.8035105

9.8874061

9.9161045

10.0838955

30

31

9.8036637

y.8873019

9.9163618

10.0836382

29

32

9.8038168

9.8871977

9.9166192

10.0833808

28

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9.9168765

10.0831235

27

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9.8041228

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9.8080675

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0

Cofine.

Sine.

C«t,iiif;eiit.

Tan;r.

1 J

ii

49 Degrees.

2

5' -

41 Degrees.

60

79

Sine.

Cofine.

Tang.

Cotangent.

0
I

9.8169429

9.8777799

9-9391631

10.0608369

9.8170882

9.8776700

9.9394182

10.0605818

2

9-8172334

9.8775601

9-9396733

1 0.0603 267

58

3

9.8173785

9.8774501

9.9399284

10.0600716

57

4 9-8175235!

9.8773401

9.9401835

10.0598165

56

5

9.8176685

9.8772300

9.9404385

10.0595615'

55

6

9.8178133

9.8771198

9.9406936

10.0593064

54

7

9.8179581

9.8770096

9.9409486

10.0590514

53

8

9.8181028

9.8768993

9.9413036

10.0587964

52

9

9.8182474

9.8767889

9.9414585

IO.OS85415

51

10

9.81839I9

9.8766785

9-9417135

10.0582865

50

11

9.8185364

9.8765680

9.9419684

10.0580316

49

12

9.8186807

9.8764574

9.9422233

10.0577767

48

'3

9.8188250

9.876346S

9.9424782

10.0575218

47

'4

9.8189692

9.8762361

9-9427331

10.0572669

46

•5

9.8191133

9.8761253

9.9429879

10.0570121

45

16

9.8192573

9.8760145

99432428

10.0567572

44

17

9.8194012

9.8759036

9-9434976

10.0565024

43

18

9.819545c

9.8757927

9-9437524

10.0562476

42

19

9.S196888

9.8756816

9.9440072

10.0559928

41

20

9.8198325

9.8755706

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40

21

9.8199761

9.8754594

9.9445166

10.0554834

39

22

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9-8753482

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10.0552286

38

23

9.8202630

9.8752369

9.9450261

10-0549739

37

24

9.8204063

9.8751256

9.9452807

10.0547193

36

^5

9-8205496

9.8750142

9-9455354

10.0544646

35

26

9.8206927

9.8749027

9.9457900

10.0542100

34

27

9.8208358

9.8747912

9.9460447

10-0539553

33

28

9.8209788

9.8746795

9.9462993

10.0537007

32

29

9.8211217

9.8745679

9-9465539

10.0534461

3'

30

9.8212646

9.8744561

9.9468084

10.0531916

30

31

9.8214073

9-8743443

9-9470630

10.0529370

29

32

9.8215500

9.8742325

9-9473175

10.0526825

28

33

9.8216926

9.8741205

9-947.1720

10.0524280

27

34

9.82,8351

9.8740085

9.9478265

10.0521735

26

35

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9.8738965

9.9480810

10.0519190

25

36

9.8221 198

9-8737844

9-9483355

10.0516645

24

37

9.8222621

9.8736722

9.9485899

10.0514101

23

38

9.8224042

9-8735599

9.9488443

10.0511557

22

39

9.8225463

9.8734476

9.9490987

10.0509013

21

40

9.8226883

9-8733352

9-9493531

10.0506469

20

41

9.8228302

9.8732227

9.9496075

10.0503925

19

42

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9.873IIO2

9.9498619

10.0501381

18

43

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9.8729976

9.9501 162

10.0498838

17

44

9.S232555

9.8728849

9-9503705

10.0496295

16

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9.8727722

9.9506248

10.0493752

15

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9.8235386

9.8726594

9.9508791

10.0491209

14

47

9.8236800

9.8725466

9-9511334

IO.C488666

13

48

9.8238213

9-8724337

9.9513876

10.0486124

12

49

9.8239626

9.8723207

9.9516419

10.0483581

II

50

9.S241037

9.8722076

9.9518961

10.0481039

10

5'

9.8242448

9-8720945

9.9521503

10.0478497

9

52

9.8243858

9-8719813

9.9524045

10.0475955

8

5i

9.8245267

9.8718681

9.9526587

10.0473413

7

54

9-8246676

9-8717548

9.9529128

10.0470872

6

55

9.8248083

9.8716414

9.9531670

10.0468330

5

56

9.8249490

9.8715279

9-953421 1

10.0465789

4

57

9.8250S96

9.8714144

9-9536752

10.0463248

3

58

9.8252301

9.8713008

9-9539293

10.0460707

2

59

9.8253705

9.8711872

9-9541 S34

10.0458166

I

60

9.8255109

9.8710735

9-9544374

10.0455626

0

_

Cofme.

Sine.

totanseni. ( Tang.

S

4 8 Degrees.

SINES.

5

o
I

4-2 Degrees.

Sine.

Cofine.

Tang.

Cutan^eiit.

9^8255109
9.8256512

9.8710735

9-9544374

10.0455626

60

9.8709597

9.9546915

10.0453085

59

2

9.8257913

9.8708458

9-9549455

10.0450545

58

3

9.8259314

9.8707319

9-955 '995

10.0448005

^7

4

9.8260715

9.S706179

9-9554535

10.0447465

56

5

9.82621 I 4

9.8705039

9-9557075

10.0442925

SS

6

9.8263512

9.8703898

9.9559615

10.0440385

54

7

9.8264910

9.8702756

9.9562154

10.0437846

53

S

9.8266307

9.87or6i3

9.9564694

10.0435306

52

9

9.8267703

9.8700470

9-9567233

10.0432767

51

10

9.8269098

9.8699326

9.9569772

10.0430238

50

1 1

9.8270493

9.869S182

9-9572311

10.0427689

49

12

9.8271887

9-8697037

9.9574850

10.0425150

48

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9.8273279

9.8695891

9-9577389

.0.042261 1

47

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9.8274671

9.8694744

9.9579927

10.0420073

46

■5

9.8276063

9.8693597

9.9582465

10.0417535

45

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9-8277453

9.8692449

9.9585004

10.0414996

44

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y.8278843

9.8691301

9.9587542

10.0412458

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9.86901 52

9.9590080

10.0409920

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9.8281619

9.8689002

9.9592618

10.0407382

41

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9.8283006

9.8687851

9-9595155

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40

2 1

9.8284393

9.8686700

9.9697693

10.0402307

39

2i

9.8285778

9.8685548

9.9600230

10.0399770

,>8

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9.8287163

9.8684^96

9.9602767

10.0397233

37

24

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9.868^242

9.9605305

10.0394695

36

25

9.8289930

9.8682088

9.9607842

10.0302158

35

26

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9.8680934

9.9610378

10.0389622

34

27

9.8292694

9-8679779

9.96 1 29 1 5

IO.03S7085

33

28

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9.8678623

9.9615452

10.0384548

32

29

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9.8677466

9.9617988

10.0382012

31

30

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9.8676309

9.9620525

10.0379475

30

31

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9.8675151

9.9623061

10.0376939

29

32

9-8299589

9.8673992

9.9625597

10.0374403

28

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10.037.867

27

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26

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25

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9.8669351

9.9635740

10.0364260

24

37 9-8306464

9.8668189

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10.0361725

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9.964081 1

10.03 ';9. 89

22

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9.8665863

9-9643346

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20

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18

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5'

9.8325609! 9.8651849

9-9673759

10.0326241

9

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9.8326970 9.8650677

9.9676^93

10.0323707

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9.8649504

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10.0321173

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9.864833.

9.968.360

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6

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10.031 1040

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9.8643629

9.9691493

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2

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9-8336478

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10.0305974

1

60

9-8337833

Coline.

9.8641275

9.9696559

10.0303441

0

c

Sine.

C'otun^cnt.

Tang.

47 Degrees.

g
5'

0
I

-13 Degrees.

Sine.

Cufine,

Tang.

Cotangent.

9-8337833
9.8339188

9.8641275

9^9696559
9.9699091

10.0303441

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10.0300909

59

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9.8340541

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9.9701624

10.0298376

58

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9.8341894

9-8637737

9.9704157

10.0295843

57

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9-8343246

9.8636557

9.9706689

10.0293311

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9-8344597

9.8635376

9.9709221

10.0290779

55

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9-8345948

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9.9711754

10.0288246

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9-86330.1

9.97.4286

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9.8631828

9.9716818

10.0283182

52

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9.8349994

9.8630644

9-97'935o

IC.O280O5O

5'

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9-8351341

9.8629460

9.1.721882

10.02781 18

5°

11

9.83526S8

9.8628274

9-9724413

10.0275587

49

12

9-8354033

9.8627088

9.9726945

10.0273055

48

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9-835537S

9.8625902

9-9729477

10.0270523

47

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9.8356722

9.8624714

9.973200S

10.0267992

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9.8623526

9-9734539

10.0265461

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9.8359408

9.8622338

9-9737071

10.0262929

44

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41

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9-9762379

10.0237621

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10.0235091

33

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9.9767440

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32

29

9.8376790

9.8606821

9-9769970

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3'

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9.8378122

9.8605622

9.9772500

10.0227500

30

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10.0224970

29

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27

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9-9795268

10.0204732

21

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9-9797797

10.0202203

20

4'

9.8392719

9-8592393

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10.0199674

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9.8394041

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10.0179441

11

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9.8404593

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9.9S23087

10.0176913

10

5'

9.8405908

9.8580292

9.9825616

10.0174384

9

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9-982S145

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5

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2

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9.8569341

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IO.OI51628

0

Collne.

Sine.

C'olangciil.

TanR.

46 Degrees.

S I N

S I N

0

44 Dre^rets.

9.8417713

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9-8569349

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Cc'iangem.

9.9848372

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9.9916616

10.0083384

33

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9-9919143

IO.C080857

32

29

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9.8533662

9.9921670

10.0078330

31

30

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9.9924197

10.0075803

30

31

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9-8531 179

9.9926724

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28

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27

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9.8471991

9.S51747I

9.9954520

10.0045480

18

43

9.8473267

9.8516220

9.9957047

10.0042953

'7

44

9.8474543

9.8514969

9-9959573

10.0040427

16

45

9.8475817

9-8513717

9.9962100

10.0037900

•5

46

9.8477091

9.8512465

9.9964627

10.0035373

14

47

9.8478365

9.851 12 I I

9.9967154

10.0032846

13

48

9.8479637

9.8509957

9.9969680

10.0030320

12

49

9.8480909

9.8508702

9.9972207

10.0027793

II

50

9.8482180

9.8507446

9-9974734

10.0025266

10

51

9.8483450

9.8506190

9.9977260

10.0022740

9

52

9.8484720

9-8504933

9.9979787

10.0020213 8|

53

9.8485989

9.8503675

9.9982314

10.0017686

7

54

9.8487257

9.8502417

9.9984840

10.0015160

6

55

9.8488524

9.8501157

9.9987367

10.0012633

5

56

9.8489791

9.8499897

9.9989893

10.0010107

4

57

9.8491057

9.8498637

9.9992420

10.0007580

3

58

9.8492322

9-8497375

9.9994947

10.0005053

2

59

9.8493586

9.8496113

9-9997473

10.0002527

I

60

9.8494850

9.8494850

10.0000000

10.0000000

0

CoCne.

Sine. 1

C<it;tii*ient.

Tang.

S

45 Degrees.

SlJfE 0/ Incidence, in Catoptrics and Dioptrics, is ufed for
the fine of the angle of incidence.

Sine of Rejiedion, in Catoptrics, is ufed for the fine of the
angle of refleftion.

Sine of RefraBion, in Dioptrics, is ufed for the fine of
the angle of refraftion.

Sine ajfenfu capituli, in La-w, a writ that lies where a
bifhop, dean, prebendary, or matter of an hofpital, aliens
the lands holden in right of his bifhopric, deanery, houfe,
&c. without the aflent of the chapter or fraternity ; in
which cafe his fuccefibr (hall have this writ.

SINE-CURES, are ecclefiaftical benefices, without
cure of fouls. Their original was as follows : The reftor
(with proper confent) had a power to intitle a vicar in his
church to ofBciate under liim ; and this was often done ;
and by this means, two perlons were inltituted to the fame
church and both to the cure of fouls, and both did aftuallv
ofBciate. So that however the reffors of fine-cures, by
having been long excufed from refidence, are in common
opinion difcharged from the cure of fouls, (which is the
reafon of the name,) and however the cure is faid in the
law-books to be in them Imbitualtter only ; yet in Ifriftnefs,
and with regard to their original inftitution, the cure is
in them a&ualitsr, as much as it is in the vicar. Gibf. 719.
Johnf. 85.

That is to fay, where they come in by inftitution ; but
if the reftoi-y is a donative, the cafe is otherwife : for
then coming in by donation, they have not the cure of
fouls committed to them. And thefe are moll properly
fine-cures, according to the genuine fignification of the
word. Johnf. 85.

No church where there is but one incumbent can pro-
perly be a fine-cure : and though the church being down, or
the parifh being become deliitute of parifhioners, the in-
cumbent may be thereby neceffarily acquitted from the
aftual performance of public duty, yet he is flill under
an obligation to do it, whenever a church (hall be built, and
there is a competent number of inhabitants ; and, in the
mean while, if the church be prefentative, as mod of fuch
churches are, the incumbent is inftituted into the cure of
fouls. Such benefices are rather depopulations than fine-
cures ; and it will be proper for the new incumbent to
read the thirty-nine articles, and the liturgy, in the
church-yard, &c. and to do whatever other incumbents
ufually do.

But a reftory, or portion of it, may properly be a fine-
cure, if there be a vicar under the reAor, endowed and
charged with the cure ; in which cafe it does not come
within the ftatute of pluralities, 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13.

Here, therefore, no difpenfation is nccefTary to hold the
fine-cure with a former living ; nor need the incumbent read
the articles, or divine fervice, as required by 13 Eliz. c. 12.
which extends only to a benefice with cure.

A fine-cure donative wants no inftitution and induflioD,
but one prefentative muil have both, efpecially if it confift
in glebe and tithes, and not in a portion of mouey ; but
the inftitution mull not run in curam animarvm, but in reSo-
r tarn. Jive portienem reBoria Je A. B. 5cc.

By the above-mentioned ftatute (21 Hen. VIII.) not only
prebends, and reftories with vicarages endowed, but dean-
eries and archdeaconries are declared to be benefices without
cure.

SINE DIE, in Law. When judgment is given againft
the plaintiff, he is faid to be in mifericordia pro falfo claviore
fuo ; and for the defendant, it is faid, eat indefine die ; i. e.
he is difmiffed the court.

The phrafe i* alfo ufed in parliament, for the adjourn-
ment

S I N

ment of any debate, without fixing the day when it fhall
come on again ; which is looked upon as a genteelcr dif-
miflion of the thing in qiieftion.

SINEER, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Baglana ; 3 miles W. of Junere.

SINEGAR Creek, a river of Maryland, which runs
into the Potomack, N. lat. 39° 8'. W. long. 77*" 33'.

SINEMAHONING, a north-wclt branch of the river
Sulquehanna.

SINE PA RI, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to the vena
azygos, which latter is an equivalent expreffion derived from
the Greek. It means the Jingle vein ; as there is only one ia
the body, and not a pair, as in general, confifting of a right
and left velfcl. Se? Vein.

SINEPUXENT Inlet, in Geography, a bay on the
«.E. coaft of Maryland. N. lat. 38° 20'.

SINERVAS, in Jnclent Geography, a town of the Lefler
Armenia, on the route from Satala to Melitene, between
Carfaris and Analibn. It. of Anton.

SINES, in Geography, a fca-port town of Portugal, in
Ellremadura, containing about 1400 inhabitants; 39 miles
S. of Setuval. N. lal. 37 46'. W. long. 8° 51'.

SINESCLA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Diarbekir; 80 miles E. of Rabba.

SINEU, a town of the ifland of Majorca ; 20 miles E.
of Parma.

SINEW properly denotes what we call a nerve ; though,
in common fpeech, it is rather ufed for a tendon.

The Hebrews do not eat the finew of the thighs of ani-
mals, in memory of the finew of Jacob's thigh, which the
angel touched. This abftinence is not commanded by the
law, and fome interpreters think that it is an aft of volun-
tary devotion.

Sinew, in the Manege. To unfinew a horfe, called in
French enerver, is to cut the two tendons on the fide of
the head, about five inches under the eyes ; which two join
in one at the tip, or the end of the nofc, in order to per-
form its motion. This tendon at the tip of the nofe is like-
wife cut. We unfinew, in order to dry the head, and make
it fmaller.

Sl'SEW-Shruni, is faid of a horfe that is over-rid, and fo
worn down with fatigue, that he becomes gaunt-bellied,
through a (lifTnefs and contraftion of the two fincws that
ire under his belly.

SiNEW-Sprung, is a violent attaint, or over-reach, in
which a horfe ftrikes the toe of his hinder feet againlt the
finew of the fore-legs.

SINF, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a word
ufed to exprefs the fame as agalloehum, or lignum aloes.

SIN-FONG, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Kiang-fi ; 27 miles S. of Kan-cheou.

SING, a town of Dalmati*, built by the Turks, in op-
pofition to Clilfa. It was (Irongly fortified ; and the Vene-
tians, after taking; this place in the year 1686, ftrengthened
its fortifications, in order to ^'ecure it to themfelvcs ; 16
miles N. of Spalatro. — Alfo, a town of Corea ; 153 miles
S.S.E. of King-ki-tao. N. lat. 35° 27'. E. long. 127° 49'.
— Alfo, a town of Corea ; 25 miles S.E. of Long-Kouang.
SINGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria, in the
Comagene. Ptolemy.

SIN-GAN, in Geography, a city of China, of the firft
rank, and capital of the province of Chen-fi ; next to Pe-
king, one of the largelt and molt beautiful cities in the
kingdom. Its walls are thick, very high, and four leagues
in circumference ; they are flanked witti a great number of
towers, and furrounded by a deep ditch. Some of its gates
are magnificent and remarkably lofty. In this city is llill

II

S I N

feen a palace where the ancient kings of Chen-fi refided, the
extent of whofe country, and the bravery of their people,
once rendered them formidable to their neighbours. The
houfes are, according to the Chinefe fafhion, low and ill-
conftrufted ; and the furniture, on account of the fcarcity
of good artills, inferior to that in the fouthern provinces ;
porcelain being very rare, and the varnifh coarfe. The in-
habitaots arc generally more robufi, and brave, and better
formed for enduring fatigue, and alfo of greater Itature,
than thofe of the other provinces. The principal Tartar
forces deftined for the defence of the northern part of the
empire are garrifoned in this city, under a general of their
own nation, who, with his foldiers, occupies a quarter of
the city, feparated from the relt by a wall. Bats of a An-
gular fpecies are found in the territories of Sin-gan ; they
are as large as domeitic fowls, and the Chinefe prefer their
flefii to that of the inoft delicate chickens. This country
alfo furnifhes the ladies with a white paint, which they ufe
for embellifhing their complexions. It appears, by an in-
fcription on a marble monument dug up here in 1625, that
the Chriftian religion flourifhed in China from the vear 636
to 782. This capital has 37 cities under its jurifdidion ;
fix of the fecond clafs and 3 1 of the third. The Mandarins,
who are numerous in this city, are mollly Tartars. N. lat:
35° 14'. E. long. 108° 29'. Grofier. — Alfo, a town of
China, of the third rank, in Pe-tche-li ; 22 miles E.N.E.
of Pao-ting.

SINGANA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. 574. Jufi. 257,
altered by Aublet from the name Singan Singa, given by
the blacks in Guiana to the fruit of this fhrub. See Ster-

BECKIA.

SINGANELLORE, in Geography, a town of Hia-
dooftan, in Coimbetore ;, 5 miles E. of Coimbetore.

SINGAPETTY, a town of Hindooftan; 17 miles
S.S.W. of Tinevelly.

SINGARA, SiNJER, in Ancient Geography, an important
town of Afia, in Mefopotamia, on the banks of the river
Mygdonius. Dion Cafiius fays that it was taken by Trajan ;
and that it afterwards became a Roman colony, under the
appellations of Aurelia and Septimia, which it bears on
medals.

SINGARPETTY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Barramaul ; 25 miles E.N.E. of Darcmpoury.

SINGA RPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore;
23 miles E.S.E. of Chinna Balabaram.

SINGAS, SlNsjA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia,
which, according to Ptolemy, flowed from Pieria, the moft
northerly canton of Syria, and difcharged itfelf into the
Euphrates S.E. of Samofata, between Arudis and Porfica.

SINGBGON, in Geography, a circar of Hindooftan, of
fmall extent, bounded N.E. and E. by Bengal, S. by Mo-
hurbunge, W. and N.W. by Bahar.

SINGEAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 10 miles
N. of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 52'. E. long. 85° 24'.

SINGECOLLAM, a town of Hindooftan; 10 miles
S. of Tinevelly.

SINGECONDA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 25 miles N. of Ongole.

SINGEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 24 miles
S.S.E. of Durbungah. N. lat. 25° 45'. E. long. 86° 21'.

SINGERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ; IJ
miles S.E. of Hyilrabad.

SINGERBU.L, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal ; 30
miles N. of Cormillah.

SINGERS, in the Jeivijh Antiquiliei. See ChantoR.

SiNCERS in Lulli's operas. See Lf LLi.

SINGESECKEN, in Geography, a town of Norway,

in

S 1 N

in tlie province of Drontheim ; 46 miles S.S.W. of Dron-

theim.

SINGFING, a town of America, in New York, on the
river Hudfon ; 27 miles N. of New York. N. lat. 41" 8'.
W. long. 73° J3'.

SINGHOLE, a town of Hindooftan, 111 Gurry Mun-
della; 36 miles N.N.W. of Gurrah.

SINGHORE, a town of Hindoollan, in Oude ; 16
miles S.E. of Manickpour.

SINGHYA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 10 miles
N. of Hajypour.

SINGILIEV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Simbirflc, on the Volga ; 24 miles S. of Simbirflc. N. lat.
54° i'. E. long. 48 '34'.

SINGING, the aft of making divers inflexions of the
voice, agreeable to the ear, and correfponding to the notes
of a fong, or piece of melody.

The Greek muficians, fays Dr. Smith in his Harmonics,
p. 3. note c, rightly defcribe the difference between the man-
ner of finging and that of talking. They confidered two
motions in the voice ; the one continued, and ufed in talk-
ing ; the other difcrete, and ufed in linging. In the con-
tinued motion, the voice never refts at any certain pitch, but
waves up and down by infenfible degrees ; and in the dif-
crete motion it does the contrary, frequently refling or
Haying at certain places, and leaping from one to another
by fenfible intervals. Euclid's Introduftio Harmonica, p. 2.
In the former cafe, the vibrations of the air are continually
accelerated and retarded by turns, and by very fmall degrees,
and in the latter by large ones.

The firll thing done, in learning to fing, is to raife a
fcale of notes, by tones and femitones, to an oftave ; and
defcend again by the fame notes ; and then to rife and fall
by greater intervals, as a 3d, 4th, and 5th, and to do all
this by notes of different pitch.

Then thefe notes are rcprefented by lines and fpaces, to
which the fyllables fa, fol, la, mi, are applied, and the pu-
pil is taught to name each line and fpace by them ; whence
this praftice is ufually cnWe A /o/-fa-iiig. The nature, reafon,
defefts, &c. of which, fee under the article Sol-fa-ing.

For the hiltory of finging, as a part of religious worfhip,
fee Choral Service.

Singing, Procejfional. It was about the year 386, dur-
ing the perfecution of the orthodox Chriftians by the em-
prefs Juftina, mother to the then young emperor Valen-
tinian II. that ecclefiaftical mufic was introduced in favour
of the Arians. " At this time," fays St. Auguftine, " it
was tirll ordered that hymns and pfalms (hould be fung
after the manner of eaftern nations, that the people might
not langui(h and pine away with a tedious forrow, and
from that time to the prefent it is retained at Milan, and
imitated by almoft all the other congregations of the
world."

Mufic is faid by fome of the fathers to have drawn the
Oentiles frequently into the church through mere curiofity ;
who liked its ceremonies fo well, tliat they were baptized be-
fore their departure. The generality of our parochial mufic
is not likely to produce fimilar effefts ; being f uch as would
fooner drive Chriftians with good ears out of the church,
» than draw Pagans into ii.

About this time, during the contention between the or-
thodox Chriftians and the Arians, we find by Socrates the
hiftorian, (1. vi. c. 8.) that the heretics ufed to fing hymns,
marching through the ttreets of Conftantinople in proceffion,
with which the vulgar were fo much captivated, that the
orthodox, under the direftion of St. Chryfoftom, thought
it neceffary to follow the example which had been fet them

9

SIN

by their greateft enemies. Procellional finging had been
long praftifed by the Pagans, but no mention is made of it
among Chriftians before this period.

Singing in the Church by the primitive Chri/lians. With
refpeft to the mufic that was firil ufed by the Chriftians, or
eftablifhed in the church by the firft emperors that were con-
verted, as no fpecimens remain, it is difficult to determine
of what kind it wa*;. That fome part of the facred mufic
of the apoftles and their immediate fucceffors, in Paleftine
and the adjacent countries, may have been fuch as was afed
by the Hebrews, particularly in chanting the pfalms, is
probable ; but it is no lefs probable that the mufic of the
hymns which were firit received in the church, wherever Pa-
ganifm had prevailed, refembled that which had been many
ages ufed in the temple-worlhip of the Greeks and Romans.
Of this, the verfification of thofe hymns affords an indif-
putable proof, as it by no means refembles that of the
pfalms, or of any other Hebrevir poetry. And examples
may be found in all the breviaries, miffals, and antiphonaries,
ancient and modern, of every Ipecies of verfification which
has been praftifed by the Greek and Roman poets, particu-
larly the lyric ; fuch as the Alcmanian, Alcaic, Sapphic, &c.
St. Hilary, bifhop of Poiftiers, and St. Ambrofe, are faid
to have been the firft that compofed hymns to be fung in the
welterii churches. Both thefe fathers flourifhed about the
middle of the fourth century ; but Prudentius, a Chriftian
poet, contemporary with Theodofius, who died in 395, was
author of moft. of the hymns in the Roman breviary.

Singing, Cetejlial. It feems as if the primitive Chrif-
tians had had no conceptions more fublime of the employ-
ment of the bleft in the celeftial abode, than that they were
eternally finging. The ancient hymn, " Te Deum lauda-
mus," ftill retained in the church, appears to have fumilhed
the poet Dante with a model of the 28th canto of his
" Paradifo," where, under three different hierarchies, con-
fifting each of three choirs or chorufes, the heavenly hoil of
cherubim and feraphim are finging perpetual hofannahs.
Milton has adigned them the fame employment :

■ Their golden harps they took :
Harps ever tun'd, that glittering by their fide
Like quivers hung, and with preamble fweet
Of charming fymphony they introduce
Their facred fong, and waken raptures high ;
No voice exempt, no voice but well could join
Melodious part, fuch concord is in heaven.

Parad. Loft, book iii.

Orazio Benivoli compofed, in the laft century, a mafs for
the ceffation of the plague at Rome, upon the fame idea,
for fix choirs, of four parts each, the fcore confifting of
twenty-four different parts : it was performed in St. Peter's
church, of which he w^s maeftro di capella, and the fingers,
amounting to more than two hundred, were arranged in dif-
ferent circles of the dome ; the fixth choir occupying the
fummit of the cupola.

Singing in England by Madrigalifis. Choral compofi-
tions, madrigals, and fongs in that ftyle, always of many
parts, being the only vocal mufic that was in favour with
mafters and their moft powerful patrons, precluded all re-
finement in the performance : as fugues, canons, and full
chorufes, of which they chiefly confifted, are founded upon
democratic principles, which admit of no fovereignty ; and
whatever good they contain, is equally diftributed to all
ranks in the mufical ftate ; the art of finging, therefore, in
thefe times, further than was neceffary to keep a performer
in tune and time, muft have been unknown : the pofl'eflor of
the moft exquifite voice had no more frequent opportunities

allowed

SIN

allowed of difplaying it, than the moft difagreeable ; folo
fongs, anthems, and cantatas, being produftions of later
times. The penalty for the crime of playing a fola at the
concert of ancient mufic was live guineas ; but at this time,
if inftead of that fum being forfeited, five hundred had been
offered to the individual who could perform fuch a feat,
fewer candidates would have entered the liils than if the like
premium had been offered for flying from Salifbury tteeple
over Old Sarum, without a balloon.

SiN'GiNG, Parochial. See Psalmody. See alfo Stern-
hold and Hopkins.

Singing in Italy., during the 1 6th century. Zacconi,
one of the bt-ft Italian writers on mufic of that period, in
his " Prattica diMufica," publilhed 1596, chiefly dwells, in
the fird book, on the fuperiority of the finging and fingers
of his own time, over all that preceded them ; and has a
long chapter upon the manner of gracing and embellifliing
a melody, where he tells us, " Che iUle fi tenghi ncl far di
gorgia ; dell' ufo de i modcrni pqfagi, come (\ Jiorifchino ie
cantilcne ;" and fpeaks of acconcialure, as the modern Italians
do of riffioramenti, or graces. The divifions, however, into
which he breaks paflages, in order to embcltijii them, if
adopted by an opcra-fuiger of the prefent times, would be
like a modern fine lady appearing at court in the furbelows
and flounces of queen Elizabeth, or a fine gentleman in the
peruke of fir Cloudefley Shovel.

SltiGliiG in Frame, during the 17th century. See Mer-
SENNUs, and St. Evremond.

Singing in England, previous to the reign of queen Anne.

Mufic at all times has been called in to the afliftance of
weak plays and unattraftive aftors in our national theatres ;
and incidental fongs, and finging between the afts, have been
found fo alluring, that when there was no plan formed for
exhibiting mufical dramas, fingers have been engaged at con-
fiderable falaries, exprefsly for that purpofe.

Before the lad century, the art of finging, indeed,
feems to have been little cultivated among us, by either fex,
beyond what concerned time and tune. The honourable
Roger North, in his manufcript " Memoirs of Mufic,"
fpeaks of the younger Banilteras an excellent finging-maller;
but the players, who fung Purcell's fongs on the ftage, feem
to have had nothing but voice and aftion to recommend
them : fuch as Boweii, Harris, Freeman, and Pate, among
the men ; and among the women, Mrs. Davies, Mifs Shore,
afterwards wife to Colley Cibber, Mrs. Crofs, Mifs Cham-
pion, and Mrs. Bracegirdle. It was, however, a powerful
recommendation to a fong, during the 17th century, to fay
that it had been performed at the playhoufe. How different
from modern times ! Church mufic, by the gay and fafti-
dious frequenters of the opera, before, as well as after it
had been heard, is pronounced to be old-faJlAoncd, and play-
houfe mufic vulgar. Till the reign of queen Anne, indeed,
the gentlemen of the chapel royal were occafionally allowed
to fing on the ftage ; but that princefs thinking the praftice
indecent, prohibited its continuance. There are few in-
Itanccs of vocal performers, cfpecially female, being brought
on our (lagc, but by accident. The fear of feduftion, pro-
fligacy, and the world's opinion, deters parents from edu-
cating their children with a view to a profeDion, which no-
thing but uncommon lucccfs and prudence can render ho-
nourable ill the eyes of the moft ferious part of the nation.
The generality of female fingers, therefore, having every
thing to learn after leifure for Ihidy is no longer in their
power, ufually remain ignorant of the principles of their art,
and fo totally dependent on a mafter, as to be obliged to
perpetuate that apprcnticediip, which ought to have been
ferved before they let up for themfelves.
Vol. XXXni.

S I N

In 1763, the pafticcio burletta of « Love in a Village,"
and in 1765 "The Summer's Tale," and "The Maid of
the Mill," betrayed us into a talte for Italian melody, which
has been the model of moft of our vocal compofers in and
out of the theatre ever flnce. The " Duenna," another
favourite Englifh pafticcio, in 1775, helped us on, and Dr.
Arnold, Mr. Dibdin, and Mr. Shield, have very judicioufly
complied with the reigning tafte, and imitated or adopted
the opera ftyle in all its vicifTitudes. Linley of Bath, and
Jackfon of Exeter, in their elegies at leaft, have ftedfaftly
adhered to a ftyle of their own, whicli feems to have been
formed upon the melodies of our bett old Englifh mailers,
and thofe of the laft age, that were moft worthy of being
preferved.

Till the Italian opera was eltablifhed in this country, little
was expefted of a finger befides voice and an ear. lndee<l,
long after that period, good tafte in finging was fo little dif-
fufed throughout the ifland, that the great and exquifite per-
formers who came hither from the continent feem to have made
but a fmall impreffion on their aftonifhcd hearers. Nicolini,
Senefino, Bernacchi, Fauftina, Cuzzoni, Farinelli, Caffarelli,
Careftini, Conti, Monticelli, Mingotti, Ehzi, Manzoli,
Guarducci, and Guadagni, had no effeft upon our national
tafte ; and though a few individuals among the people of
fafhion, by private inftruftions from, them, and by the beft
of all leflbns, hearing them frequently perform in public,
diminifhed the original fin of our native brogue and vulgar
expreffion ; yet as thefe pupils could be heard but by few,
their power was local, and no more likely to have any gene-
ral efFeft upon our national cantilena, than their learning
French and Italian upon our general language. It is not
difficult, however, to fix the era of a change in our vocal
mufic, which feems to have remained ftationary for near half
a century. It was begun by the compofitions and inftruc-
tions of Dr. Arne, who endeavoured to refine our melody
and finging, more from Italian than Englifh models ; and
was greatly accelerated by the pafticcio Englifh operas
above mentioned, as well as by the inftruftions of Tedef-
chini, Cocchi, Vento, and Giardini, who were employed
about this time to teach feveral of our playhoufe finger*.
Tenducci's performance in Artaxerxes had a rapid effeft
upon the public tafte, and Simulated to imitation all that
were pofteffed of good ears and flexible voices. In later
times, the fcholars of Sacchini, Piozzi, Parfons, and others,
with the pubhc concerts, where the beft compofitions and
moft exquifite performances of all kinds were conftantly
heard, completed the revolution ; and it may be with truth
and certainty affirmed, that our tafte and judgment in both,
even at the playhoufes, differ as much from thofe of twenty
or thirty years ago, aG the manners of a civilized people
from thofe of favages.

Singing of Birdi. See Song of Birds.

SINGINGING, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eafl
Indian fea, near the E. coaft of the ifland of Naftau. S.
lat. 3'' 50'. E. long, loo'^ 2'.

SINGITICUS Sinus, m Ancient Geography, a gulf of
Macedonia, in the .£gean fea.

SINGIVENDA, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan,
ill the Carnatic ; 28 miles N.N.W. of Ongole.

SINGLE, among Sportfmen, the tail of any of the deer
kind.

Single Bond or Obligation, Jimplex obligatio, in Lav), is a
deed, by which the obligor obliges himfelf, his heirs, exe-
cutors, and admiiiiftrators, to pay a certain fum of money
to another at a day appointed. See Oblig,\tion.

Single Cajl, in Hufhandry, a terra ufed by fanners for
G that

S I N

S I N

that foft of fowing, that difperfes the neceflary quantity of
corn at one bout.

Single Echo, Fine, Pqfition, Propofitton, Rafters, Tena'tUt,
and Voucher. See the fubftantives.

SiHGLE-Hor/e Carts, in Agriculture. See Cart,
SINGLES. See Petty Singles.

SINGO, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in
the province of Macedonia, near mount Athos.

SINGON, an ifland near the coaft of Sweden, at the
entrance into the gulf of Finland. N. lat. 60° 1 1'. E. long.
J 8° 20'.

SINGOONMAVV, a town of the Birman empire; 16
miles S. of Pcgongmew.

SINGOR, a fea-port town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Siam, on the coait of Malacca. N. lat. 6° 40'. E. long.
101° 14'.

SINGPINE, a town of Bengal; 25 miles S.E. of
Nattore.

SINGPOUR, a town of Bengal; 22 miles E.S.E. of
Ramgur. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 8 miles S.E. of
Koonda. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, m the circar of
Sohajepour ; 8 miles S. of Sohaiepour.

SINGRAMOW, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 24
miles S.S.E. of Sultanpour.

SINGRECOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Cicacole ; 23 miles W. of Vizianagram.

SINGREMON, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad;
33 miles N.N.E. of Gazypour.

SINGREPETTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 15 miles S.E. of Tritchinopoly.

SINGROWLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad,
S.W. of Bahar.

SING-SING, a town of America, in the ftate of New
York ; 3J miles N. of New York.

SINGUAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 14 miles
E.N.E. of Hajypour.

SINGUE, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 38 miles
S. of Bahar.

SINGULAR Nu.MBER, in Grammar, the firft manner
of declining nouns, and conjugating verbs ; ufed when we
only fpeak of a fingle perfon or thing. See Number.
Singular Hi/lory. See History.
Singular Propofition. See Proposition.
SINGULA RIS, or Single, in the Manege, a name
given by the Romans to a horfe, upon which a man rode,
in their races, without a faddle, ufmg only a cloth, like the
Greeks, fattened with a furcingle, or elfe fitting upon the
bare back.

SINGULATOR, among the Romans, a horfeman who
rode with one horfe only.

SINGULTUS, in Medicine, a fpafmodic affeftion of
the diaphragm, which, from the found which accompanies
it, is commonly called hichup ; under which head fee an
ample account of this affeftion.

SINGUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 23 miles S.S.W. of Tritchinopoly.

SINGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 35 miles
S.E. of Gayhah. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, ni Vilia-
pour ; 12 miles S. of Poonah.

SINGUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,
in Chalcidis, on the Singitic gulf. Ptol.

SING-Y, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Quang-tong ; 17 miles N. of Kao-tcheou.

SINHALA, in Ancient Geography, a name formei-ly
given to the ifland of Ceylon, formed from the Sanfcrit
Sinha, a lion, and given to it on account of its being in-

7

habited by Sinhalas, or the offspring of a lion. See Aiiati'c^
Refearches, vol. i. p. 48.

SIN-HIANG, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Ho-nan, on the river Ki ; 12 miles S.W. of
Oue-kiun.

SIN-HING, a fmall iiland near the coaft of China, in
the Eaftern fea ; 3 miles S. of Tfong-ming. N. lat. 31°
32'. E. long. 121" — Alfo, a towu of China, of the third
rank, in Quang-tong ; 27 miles S. of Tchao-king. — Alfo,
a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Yun-nan. N. lat.
24° 30'. E. long. io2° 23'.

SIN-HO, a town of China, of the third rank, in Pe-
tche-li ; 15 miles S.W. of Khi.

SIN-HOA, a fea-port town of Cochinchina. N. lat,
17^. E. long. 88^ 14'. — Alfo, a town of China, of the
tliird rank, in Hou-quang, on the river Lo ; 32 miles
N.N.W. of Pao-king,

SIN-HOEI, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Quang-tong ; 40 miles N.W. of Macao. — Alfo, a town of
China, of the third rank, in Quang-tong ; 45 miles S.S.E.
of Tchao-king.

SINIA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Oby,
52 miles N. of Berezov, N. lat. 65°. E. long. 66^ 14'.

SINJAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Diarbekir ; 140 miles S.E, of Diarbekir. N. lat. 36°
17'. E. long. 41'^ 35'. — Alfo, a range of mountains, in the
province of Diarbekir; 70 miles S.E. of Diarbekir. On
this range ftood the fortrefs of Sangara, which was fur-
rendered to the Perfians by the pufillanimous fucceftbr of
Julian, about eight or ten miles from Nifibis. This moun-
tain is at prefent peopled by feveral tribes of that feft called
Yezedi, who worftiip, or rather deprecate, the devil, from
a notion that he poileifes an unlimited power over mankind.
They are the defcendants of thofe Arabs who followed the
banners of Yezid, and fought againft Hafti^in, in the battle
of Kerbela ; and Sheikh Ade, the founder of the fe£l, is
interred near Moful. They are faid to adore the Supreme
Being as the creator and benefaftor of the human race,
drink wine and other ftrong liquors, and circumcife like the
Mahometans, They are the mortal enemies of the Turks,
and have never been completely fubdued. They lie in am-
bufti behind the riCng grounds, which /kirt the road between
Moful and Merdin ; and as travellers are obliged to pafs a
lonely wild, 20 furfungs in length, they are liable, if not
numeroufly attended, Lo be murdered by thefe mifcreants,
Sinjar affords abundance of pafturage, and alfo a fufEcient
quantity of grain for the confumption of its favage in-
habitants. In the year 341 a bloody battle was tought
near this place, between the emperor Conftantius and
Sapor II., in which the former fuftained a total de-
feat, and was driven by his viftorious rival acrofs the
Euphrates.

SINlA STANITZ, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutik, on the Lena, N. lat, 61° 15'. E. long.
125° 34'.

SINICA, a town of America, in South Carolina, be-
longing to the Cherokee Indians, on the Keowe ; ±1. miles
N.W. of Peterftjurg,

SINICAL Quadrant, See Quadrant,

SINIGAGLIA, in Geography, a fea-port town of
Italy, in the duchy of Uibino, the fee of a biftiop, fuffragan
of Urbino, on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Ni-
vola (anciently Senon), which feparates the duchy of Ur-
bino from the marquifate of Ancona. It was anciently
called " Sena Gallorum," denoting that it was built by the
Gallic Senones, and became a Roman colony in the year of
Rome 462. It has been feveral times deftroyed, efpecially

by

S I N

S 1 N

by the Goths. It contains four churches and fix convents,
with about 6000 inhabitants. It is an unhealthy place,
and water fit for drinking is fcarce ; 28 miles E.S.E. of
Urbino.

SINJIAR. See Sinjar.

SIN-ING, a town of Corea ; 25 miles E.S.E. of Long-
Kouang.

SI-NING, a town of Corea; 8 miles N.E. of Sing-
tcheou. — Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Chen-fi. N. lat. ^6° 40'. E. long. 101° 24'.— .-Mfo, a
town of China, of the third rank, in Pe-tche-li ; 25 miles
N.W. of Yu-tcheou. — Alfo, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Quang-tong ; 15 miles S.W. of Te-king.

SINION, a river of China, which runs into the Kialing,
15 miles S. of Oei-tcheou.

SINIS CoLONiA, in jincieni Geographyy a town of Afia,
in Lefier Armenia, near the Euphrates, according to Am-
mianus Marcellinus.

SINISCOLA, in Geography, a town of Sardinia, on the
eall coait. N. lat. 40° 30'. E. long. 10° i'.

SINISI, a town of Naples, in Baiilicata ; 1 1 miles S.W.
of Turfi.

SINISTER, fomething on, or towards the left hand.

Hence fome derive the word finifter, a fmendo, becaufe
the gods, by fuch auguries, permit us to proceed in our
defigns.

Sinister is alfo ufed among us for unlucky ; though, in
the facred rites of divination, the Romans ufed it in an op-
pofite fenfe. Thus, avis ftnijlra, or a bird on the left hand,
was efteemed a happy omen ; whence, in the law of the
Twelve Tables, Ave finijlra popul't maglfler ejlo.

Sinister, in Heraldry. The finilter fide of an efcut-
cheon is the fide anfwering to the right hand of the perfon
who looks at it.

Sinister Chief and Bafe. See Escutcheon.

Sinister Bend. See Bend.

Sinister AfpeS, among AJlrologers, is an appearance of
two planets, happening according to the fucceffion of the
figns ; as Saturn in Aries, and Mars in the fame degree of
Gemini.

SINISTRI, a feft of ancient heretics, thus called, be-
caufe they held the left hand in abhorrence, and made it a
point of religion not to receive any thing with it.

What in us is a piece of civility, in them was a fuperlli-
tion. Balfamon obferves, that they were likewife called
Sabbatians and Novatians.

SINKBAZAR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 15
miles S.S.W. of Rogonatpour.

SINKEL, a foa-port town of the ifland of Sumatra,
Hear the well coall, on a river which runs into the fea.
This town is a good mart for fait, iron, fteel, and feme-
times opium. N. lat. 2'' 8'. E. long. 97°.

SINKING »/ the Earth. See ABSORPTIONS of the
Earth.

Sinking Fund. Sec Fund.

SINKOO, in the Materia Medica, a name given by
fome authors to the lignum aloes, or agallochum, ufed in
medicine.

SINKOUANG, in Geography, a town on the well
coall of Sumatra. N. lat. j" 12'. E. long. 98° 13'.

SIN-LO, a town of China, of the third rank, in Pe-
tche-li, on the Chao river ; 42 miles S.W. of Paoting.

SINN, a river of Germany, which runs into the Maine,
with the Saal, near Gemunden, in the duchy of Wur/.burg.
— Alfo, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Diar-
bekir ; 40 miles S.E. of Diarbckir.

SINNEMAHONING Crkek, a river of America, in

Pennfylvania, which runs into the weft branch of tlie
Sufquehanna, N. lat. 41° 17'. W. long. 78°.

SINNERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Henneberg ; 8 miles N.W. of Meinungen.
SINNET, aboard a Ship. See Sennit.
SIN-NGHAN, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Ho-nan ; 17 miles W. of Ho-nan.

SIN-NHING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Hou-qiiang ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Oukang.

SIN-NING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Quang-tong; 52 miles S. of Tchao-king. — Alfo, a town
of China, of the third rank, in Se-tchuen ; 17 miles E.S.E.
of Ta. — Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond. rank, in
Quang-fi. N. lat. 22"-" 34'. E. long. 107° 17'.

SINNO, a river of Naples, which runs into the Adriatic,
N. lat. 40". E. long. 16^40'. Near the mouth of the
Sinno was Siris, probably the port of Heraclea ; but at
prefent there is nothing but an open road, where (hips may
lie to take in a cargo of corn, and other commodities, of
which one is liquorice, a root that grows wild in great
quantities along thefe fwamps, and the fale of which is faid
to have produced 700/. a year to the duke of Corigliano.
The banks of the Sinno are famous in Roman hiftory
for the viftory gained by Pyrrhus over the conful Levinus,
in the year of Rome 473. This is faid to have been tfte firfl
encounter of the Epirots with the Romans. The honour
of the day was purchafed by Pyrrhus at the expence of the
flower of his army.

SINO, a town of Africa, on the Grain Coaft ; 30 mile»
S.E. of Sanguin.

SINOB, or Sinope, a fea-port town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the fangiacat of Kiutaja, near the coall of the Black
fea, on the ilthmus of a peninfula, fix miles in circum-
ference, which terminates in a confiderable cape, which has
not above twelve feet of water. The antiquity of this town
is traced to the time of the Argonauts, or at leaft to the
time when the Cimmerians eftablifhed themfclvcs here ; for
being driven from their country by the Scythians, they
came into Afia, overagainft the mouth of the liter. Its
firft commencement, however, was feeble ; but when it re-
ceived a colony of Milefians, it rofe to fuch a degree of
power, that it founded other colonies on the coalls of the
Euxine fea, whilft it poflellcd all the advantages of liberty.
It was taken by Pharnaces, father of Mithridates, and
made the capital of Pontus ; and it became the birth-place
of Mithridates. In the year B.C. 70, it was taken by the
Romans under LucuUus, who reftored its liberty. After
experiencing a variety of calamities under the tyranny of
Pharnaces, Julius Cxlar, having vanquilhed this prince, re-
ellabliflied Sinope, and fent hither a Roman colony. It
eftablifhed a new era in commemoration of this happy event,
and infcribfd on its monuments the title of " Colonia Julia
Filix Sinope." This colony was fent to Sinope in the year
of Rome 709. The town fnbfifted in a flourilhing ftate
under the Roman emperors. Its commerce, which was con-
fiderable, and the convenience of its ports, contributed
alike to its opulence and its fplendour. Str.ibo fiys that it
was one of the moft confiderable towns of Afia. A parti-
cular wordiip was paid to Scrapis at Sinope, and it alfo
honoured Mercury as the god of commerce. Strabo and
Pliny fay, that Sinope, under the Roman emperors, com-,
prifed in Paphlagonia, formed a part of the government of
Bithynia. Paphlagonia, however, was detached from
Bithynia, and formed a particular province, about the rciga
of Conftantine ; but the town of Sinope was united with
fome other towns of Pontus, to form the province of
Hellefpont, in lionour of Helena, the mother of Conftan-
G 2 tine.

S I N

tine. When the emperor Heraclius divided the Eaft into
feveral departments, the town of Sinope was included in
that of Armenia. Chriftianity was received in this city to-
wards the end of the third century. This place has two
good harbours, and a dock-yard for building fhips. Turks
only refide within the walls ; one of the fauxbourgs is in-
habited by Greeks, with a metropolitan dependant on the
patriarch of Conftantinople. In the environs are fome
copper-mines. Diogenes, the cynic, was a native of Si-
nope, but he was buried at Corinth ; 380 miles E. of
Conftantinople. N. lat. 4I°6'. E. long. 35°.

SINON, a river of Perfia, in the province of Mazan-
deran, which runs into the Cafpian fea, 5 miles E. of Feh-
rabad.

SINONGI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ;
20 miles S.W. of Sanga.

SI NON OMNES, in Law, a writ on alfociation of
juftices, by which, if all in commiffion cannot meet at the
day .nfligned, it is permitted that two or more of them may
finifh the bufinefs.

SINOOTS, in Gfogrnphy, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Ximo ; 20 miles E. of Taifero.

SINOPE, in yincient Geography. See SiNOB.
SiNOPE, a river of Afia, in Paplilagonia, which runs near
the town of Sinope.

SINOPER, or Sinopis, in Natural Hiftory. See Sino-
MCA Terra.

SINOPICA Terra, the name of a red earth, of the
ochre-kind, called alfo rubrkafinoplca, and by fome authors
Jinopis.

It is a very clofe, compafk, and weighty earth, of a fine
glowing purple colour, but in fome fpecimens much deeper
than in others, and in fome degenerates into palenefs ; but,
even in its worft condition, the colour is very fine. It is of
a pure texture, but not very hard, and of an even but dutly
furface. It adheres firmly to the tongue, is perfeftly fine
and fmooth to the touch, does not crumble eafily between
the fingers, and itains the hands. It melts very flowly in
the mouth, and is pcrfeftly pure and fine, and of a very
auftere aftringent tafte, and ferments very violently with
aqua fortis. In the fire it acquires a great hardnefs, but
does not change colour.

It was dug in Cappadocia, and carried for fale to the
city Sinope, whence it had its name. It is now found in
plenty in the New Jerfeys, in America, and is called by the
people there blood-Jione; from its Itaining the hands to a
blood-colour, and may probably be had in many other
places ; and this deferves thoroughly inquiring into, fince
there feems not one among the earths more worthy of notice.
Its fine texture and body, with its high florid colour, mufl.
make it very valuable to painters, and its powerfully aftrin-
gency equally fo in medicine.

The ancients were well acquainted with it in fluxes and
hsemorrhages, and experience fhews it poflefles the fame
virtues at this time. The deepeft coloured is ever the moft
altringent. Hill's Hift. of FofT. p. 60.

SINOPLE, or Senople, in Heraldry, denotes vert, or
the green colour in armories ; thus called by the ancient
iKralds: though Pliny and Ifidore, by color Jinopicus, or
finople, mean a brownilh-red, fuch as that of our ruddle.

F. Meneftrier derives the word from the Greek prafina
bopla, green armories ; by corruptedly retrenching the firil
fyllable pra ; which is no new thing among Oriental words,
witnefs Salonica for Theflalonica.

Sinople is fuppofed to fignify love, youth, beauty, re-
joicing, and liberty: whence it is, that letters of grace,

t) I N

abolition, legitimation, &c. are always to be fealed with
green wax.

SINOPOLI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala-
bria Ultra ; 5 miles S.W. of Oppido.

SINOTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Illyria,
in Dalmatia, and one of the fifty polieded by the Dalma-
tians. Strabo fays, that it was reduced to afhcs by Au-
guftus.

SINOVIA. See Synovi.i.

SIN-PING, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Yun-nan ; 35 miles N. of Yuen-kiang.

SINSACATA, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Cordova ; 36 miles N. of Cordova.

SIN-SI, a town of Corea ; 30 miles N.N.E. of King-
ki-tao.

SINSJA, a river of Afia, which runs Into the Ei»-
phrates, 33 miles S.E. of Semifat.

SINSILIN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ghi-
lan ; 23 miles W.N.W. of Refhd.

SINSIN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
120 miles N. of Ifpahan. Ste Zinjan.

SINSO, a province of Africa, in the kingdom of An-
gola, north of Loanda.

SIN-TAI, a town of China, of the third rank, in Chan-
tong ; 37 miles S.E. of Tai-nghan.

SIN-TAI-TOUKA, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N.
lat. 41" 16'. E. long. 120^ 14'.

SIN-TAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in Se-
tchuen ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Han.

SIN-TCHANG, a town of Corea; 45 miles E. of
Haimen. — Alfo, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Kiang-fi ; 37 miles W.S.W. of Choui-tcheou. — Alfo, a
town of China, of the third rank, in Tche-kiang ; 42 miles
N.N.W. of Tai-tcheou. — Alfo, a city of CSna, of the
fecond rank, in Yunnan. N. lat. 29°. E. long. 103° 29'.
SIN-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Quane-fi. N. lat. 33° 26'. E. long. 109° 29'.

SIN-TCHIM HOTUN, a city of Corea. N. lat. 42"
57'. E. long. 130" iV.

SIN-TCHIN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Petche-li ; 32 miles N.E. of Pao-ting. — Alfo, a town of
China, of the third rank, in Chan-tong ; 30 miles N.W. of
Tcin-tcheou.

SIN-TCHING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Kiang-fi ; 22 miles S.S.E. of Kien-tchang. — Alfo, a town
of China, of the third rank, in Tche-kiang ; 30 miles
N.N.E. of Yen-tcheou. — Alfo, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Se-tchuen ; 17 miles E. of Xun. — Alfo, a
town of China, of the third rank, in Ho-nan ; 20 miles N.
of Hiu-tcheou.

SIN-TCHU-AM, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat.
41° 5'. E. long. 120° 54'.

SIN-TCHUEN, a town of Corea ; 48 miles S.W. of
Hoang-tcheou.

SIN-TCIN, a town of China, of the third rank, in Hou-
quang ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Koue-yang.

SINTHUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,
in the Amphaxitide, near the gulf Thermaeus, according to
Herodotus. — Alfo, one of the largeft rivers which dif-
eharged themfelves into the Erythrzan fea. Arrian. —
Alfo, one of the mouths of the Indus, according to Pto-
lemy.

SIN-TIEN, in Geography, a city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in Yun-nan. N. lat. 25° 36'. E. long. 102° 54'.
SIN-TIENTSE, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat.
41° 16'. E. long. 121° 19'.

SINTII, in Ancient Geography, the name of a people
I who

S I N

'vho inhabited the ifle of Lemnos, according to Homer.
This name, however, probably belongs to the inhabitants
uf the town of Sindus, or Sinthus, near the Thermaic
gulf.

SINTIQUIPAQUE, in Gfograpky, a town of Mexico,
in the province ef Guadalajara, on the Barania ; IIO miles
N.W. of Guadalajara.

SIN-TOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
ivian^-G, on the river Kan ; 13 miles S. of Lin-kiang. —
Vlfo, a town of China, of the third rank, in Se-tchuen ;
,1 miles S. of Han.

SINTRA. SeeCiNTRA.

SIN-TSAI, a town of China, of the third rank, in Ho-
nan, on the river Yu ; 32 miles E.S.E. of Yun-hing.

SINTZHEIM, a town of the duchy of Baden ; 13 miles
S.S.E. of Heidelberg.

SINU. See ZiNu.

SINUATUM Folium, in Botany, a Siiuiated Leaf, fo
called from finus, a bay or creek, in allufion to its winding
outline, or the broad, deep, rounded incifions of its margin.
See Leaf.

SINUESSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, on
the frontiers of Latium and Campania, near the marfli of
Miiturnes. It derived its name, according to Strabo, from
the finuolity of the coaft, which at this place formed a
fmall gulf. Some remains of it, as well as of its baths, the
water of which wa^ reputed to be excellent againft fterility,
ftill fubfill. Sinueffa was a Roman colony, according to
Livy.

SINUNIA, a town of Afia, in Parthia, according to
Ptolemy.

SINUOSITY, a feries of bends and turns in arches, or
other irregular figures ; fometimes jetting out, and fome-
times falling in : fuch as defcribed by the motion of a fer-
pent, &c.

It is the fmuofity of the fea-coalts that forms bays, ports,
capes, &c. Du Loir obferves, that the courfe of the river
Meander, creeping- in a thoufand agreeable finuofities, ferved
Doedalus as a model by which to form his labyrinth.

SINUOUS Ulcers. See Ulcer.

SINUS, in Anatomy, a term applied to various cavities
of the body. In the head we have the iinufes of the frontal,
fphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary Ixmes ; which are cavities
of thefe bones commuiiicatinn; with the nofe. (See Cra-
nium and Nose. ) The finufes of the dura mater are the
large veins of the brain. (See Brain, Nervous .9v/?fn;,
and Vein.) The finufes of the veiiie and cava: and pul-
monary veins are the principal parts of the two auricle."!.
(See Heart.) The finus of the vena portarum is its
trunk, jult before it divides into the right and left branches.
See Vein.

SiNU.s, in Surgery, a fmall orifice leading down to an
abfcefs.

Sinus Hipponenfis, in Ancient Geography, the gulf of
Bizerta, a gulf of Africa, formed by the promontory
" Candidum" to the north-weft, and the promontory
" Apolhnis" to the eaft.

Sinus Numidiais, the gulf of Stora, a gulf of Africa,
formed to the welt by the promontory " Tritum," and to
the eaft by the promontory " Tapfus."

SIN-YAN, in Geography, a river of China, which runs
into the Eaftern fea, 17 miles E.N.E.of Yen-te-hing.

SIN-YANG, a town of Corca ; 45 miles S. of Koang-
tcheou. — Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Ho-
nan. N. lat. 32° 12'. E. long. 113° 38'.

SIN-YE, a town of China, of the third rank, in Ho-
nan ; 27 miles S.S.W. of Nan-yang.

S I o

SIN-YU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Kiang-fi ; 25 miles W.S.W. of Lin-kiang.
SINZIG. See Zinzig.

SINZITA, in Ancient Geography, a town of LefTer
Armenia, in the prefecture of Muriana. Ptolemy.

SIO, in Geography, a river of Hungary, which runs

into the Sarand, near Simontornya Alfo, a river of

Spain, which runs ir.to the Segra, a little above Balaguer.

Alfo, a decayed town of Africa, on the coaft of Zanguebar ;
10 miles N.W. of Ampa9a.

SIOCON, a town on the weft coaft of the ifland of
Mindanao. N. lat. 7° 25'. E. long. 122' 12'.

SIOCOTTICLAY, a town of the ifland of Ceyloi ;
25 miles N.N.W. of Trincomaly.

SIODA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Albania, being
one of thofe which Ptolemy places between the Cyrrhus and
Albanus.

SIOE, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Denmark, near
the W. coaft of Langeland. N. lat. 54° 58'. E. long,
10^42'.

SION, or ZiON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Paleftine, or of the land of Canaan, for an account of which,
fee Jerusalem.

Sign was alfo one of the names of mount Hermon, or
rather of a chain of mountiiiis, called mountains of Hermon,
from mount Hermon, the principal of them. Of this
mountain the Pfalmift probably fpeaks in Pf. cxxviii. 3. —
Alfo, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Ifl'achar, accord-
ing to the book of Joftiua.

SiON, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Loire ; 9 miles W. of Chateaubriant,

Siox, or Sitten, a town of Switzerland, and capital of
the Vallais, fituated on a river of the fame name, which foon
after runs into the Rhone. This is the fee of a bifliop, the
moll ancient in Switzerland, and faid to have been originally
founded at Martinach. The bifliop, who ftyles himfelf
count and vogt-governor of the Vallais, is elected by the
chapter of the cathedral and the rcprefentatives of the tyth-
ings, and is a fuffragan of the archbifliop of Mouftiers, in
Savoy. It contains fix churches, with fome convents, a
college, and three palaces of the bilhop, ftanding one above
another ; 48 miles E. of Geneva. Sion is fituated at the
foot of three infulated rocks, that rife immediately from the
plain. The highcft, called T(3urbillon, iupports the ruins
of the old epifcopal palace, containing two or three unte-
nanted apartments, in one of which are the portraits of the
ieveral bifliops. On the fecond rock, denominated Valeria,
are obferved the remains of the old cathedral, and a few
houfes belonging to the canons. On Mayoria, the third
rock, ftands the epifcopal palace, an ancient edifice of
ftone, built in 1547. Two apartments in this palace deferve
attention. The firft is that in which the diet aflembles ; and
the other is the hall, in which the bifliop holds his court,
like the feudal lords of ancient times ; at the further ex-
tremity is a raifed feat, called a throne, furrounded by a
wooden baluftrade, and as an incitement to wildom and im-
partiality, the figures of Jufticc and Solomon's judgment are
coarfely painted upon tile w-ills. Sion is an ancient town, and
was formerly the capital of the Seduni, who inhabited this part
of the country in the time of Julius Ca;far. Among fevcral
obliterated infcriplions, one is legible, in honour of the em-
peror Augultus, during his eleventh confulfliip. In this in-
fcription the town is called " Civita:) Sedunorum," N. lat.
46° 11'. E. long. 7'-' 9'. Sec Vallais.
Sign College. See College.

SIONDELAR, in Geography, ^ town of Hindooftan, in
the Caniatic ; 25 miles N.W. of Ongole.

SIONDY,

S 1 o

SrONDY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 20
miles S. of Ongole.

SIONE, a river of America, which runs into lake Erie,
N. lat. 42° 22'. W. long. 82° 52'.

SIONI, a town of Georgia, in the province of Carduel ;
90 miles N.N.W. of Teflis.

SIOPE, a river of Brazil, which runs into the Atlantic,
S. lat. 3'^ 20'. W. long. 40'.

SIORING, a town of North Jutland ; 4 miles N.W. of
Tided.

SIOTO. See Scioto.

SIOTOSTA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
49 miles E.S.E. of Gotheborg.

SIOUEN, 3 town of China, of the third rank, in Quang-
tong ; 32 miles S. of Louy.

SIOULE, a river of France, which runs into the AUier,
two miles N. of St. Pour^ain, in the department of the
AUier.

SIOU-OUEN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Koei-tcheou ; 15 miles N.N.W. of Koei-yang.

SIOUX, a river of Louifiana, which runs into the Mif-
fouri, N. lat. 38=42'. W. long. 93° 17'.

Sioux, a denomination that diftinguifhes Indians of North
America, who inhabit the territories, about the rivers Mifli-
fippi and MifTouri. The dread of this powerful nation is
extended over all the other favage nations, from the conflu-
ence of the Miffifippi and Millburi, to the Raven river on
the former, and to the Snake Indians on the latter. Among
thefe nations, however, the Sioux have many allies ; but
the Chippeways are an exception, as they have maintained
with them a long conteft ; and, indeed, by means of their
fmall lakes, water-courfes, and impenetrable morafles and
fwamps, they bid defiance to the attacks of their neighbours.
Of the Sioux nation there are different bands, that are dif-
tinguifhed among themfelves. The firft of thefe compre-
hends the Minowa Kantong, or Gens de Lac, who extend
from the Prairie des Chiens to Le Prairie du Francois, 35
miles up the St. Peters. This band is again fubdivided into
four claffc?, under different chiefs. The firft fubdivifion
hunts on both fides of the Miflifippi and its confluent ftreams,
from the Prairie des Chiens to the river Du Boeuf. The fe-
eond fubdivifion refides near the head of the lake Pepin, and
hunts from the Riviere du Boeuf near to the river St. Croix.
The third fubdivifion refides between the Riviere au Canon and
the entrance of the St. Peters. Its principal hunting ground
is on the St. Croix. The fourth fubdivifii>n is fituated from
the entrance of St. Peters to the Prairie des Frangois ; they
have a village nine miles up the St. Peters, on the N. fide. The
band Minowa Kantong is reputed the braveft of all the
Sioux. The fecond band of Sioux includes the Wa(hpe-
tong, or Gens des Fieulles, who inhabit the country from
the Prairie des Frangois near to Roche Blanche, on the St.
Peters. They hunt on the St. Peters, and alfo in the Miffi-
fippi up Rum river, and fometimes follow the buffalo
over the plains. The third band comprifes the Suffitongs,
who extend from the Roche Blanche to Lac de Grofs
Roche, on the river St. Peters. They are fubdivided into
the Cawrees and Suffitongs proper, both of whom hunt E.
of the Miffifippi, and up that river, as far as the Riviere
de Corbeau. The fourth great band comprehends the Yanc-
tongs, who are difperfed from the Montaignes de la Prairie,
which extend from St. Peters to the Miilouri, to the river
De Moyen. Thefe are fubdivided into the Yanftongs of
the north and thofe of the fouth. Thefe are the molt un-
fettled and erratic of all the Sioux ; fo that they are fome-
times found on the borders of the Lower Red river, fome-
times on the MifTouri, and on thofe immenfe plains that lif be-

SIP

tween the two rivers. The fifth band includes the Titongj,
who are difperfed on both fides of the Mifiburi. The
fixth and fmalleft band of the Sioux includes the Wafhpe-
coute, who refide generally on the lands welt of the Miffi-
fippi, between that river and the Millburi. They gene-
rally hunt on the head of the river De Moyen. Thefe
are reprefented as the moll ftupid and inaftive of all the
Sioux.

The Minowa Kantongs are the only Sioux who ufe ca-
noes, and they are by far the moit civihzed ; being the only
Sioux who have ever built log huts, or cultivated any fpe.
cies of vegetables. This band is entirely armed with fire-
arms. The Wafhpetong are a roving band ; they leave the
river St. Peters in April, and do not return from the plains
until the middle of Augult. The Suffitongs of Roche I
Blanche bear the charafter of being the moft evil-difpofed '
Indians on the river St. Peters. They likewife follow the
buffalo in the fpring and fummer months. The Suffitongs
of the Lac de Grofs Roche bear the charafter of good
hunters and brave warriors. The Yanftongs and Titongs
are the moft independent Indians ; as they follow the buf- 1
falo where chance direfts ; clothing themfelves with the fkin,
and making their lodges, bridles, and faddles of the fame
materials, the flefh of the animal furnilhing them with
food.

The claims of limits of the Sioux nation are allowed by
all their neighbours to commence at the Prairie des Chiens,
and to afcend the MilSfippi, on both fides, to the Riviere de
Corbeau, up the river to its fource ; from thence to the
fource of St. Peters ; from thence to the Montaigne de la
Prairie ; from thence to the MifTouri, down that river to the
Mahas, bearing thence N.E. to the fource of the river De
Moyen ; and from thence to the place ef commencement.
They alfo claim a large territory S. of the Millburi. The
country E. of the Miffifippi, from Rum river to the Riviere
de Corbeau, is likewife in difpute between them and the
Chippeways, and has been the fcene of many fharp encoun-
ters for near 150 years paft.

The Sioux are reprefented as the moft warlike and inde-
pendent nation of Indians within the boundaries of the
United States, every paffion being fubfervient to that of
war ; and their leaders feel themfelves perfeftly fecure from
any combination that can be made againlt them. Their
guttural pronunciation, high cheek-bones, thin vifages, and
diftinft manners, together with their own traditions, fup-
ported by the teftimony of neighbouring nations, leave little
room for doubt, that they have emigrated from the N.W.
point of America, to which they had come from the narrow
flrait which in that quarter divides the two continents, and
that they are defcendants of a Tartarian tribe. Rke's Ac-
count of Expeditions to the Sources of the Miffifippi, &c.
Appendix to part i.

SIPA, a town of Napaul ; gS miles N.E. of Cat-
mandu.

SI PAL AY, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Negroes. N. lat. 9° 43'. E. long. 122° 28'.

SIPANEA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. 147. t. 56, a
name of Aublet's, whofe origin or meaning does not appear.
The plant is fuppofed by JufTieu to be a congener of Muf.
Junda ; but Schreber more juftly refers it to Virecta,
Linn. Suppl. 17. Sec that article hereafter.

SIPARUNA, Aubl. Guian. 864. t. 333. Jufl. 443, an
unexplained name for a fhrub of Guiana, whofe generic
charafters are not fufficiently made out to allow of its being
reduced by Juffieu to any of his natural orders ; nor has
Schreber admitted it into his Genera Plantarum. Aublet
refers it to the Monoecia Decandria of the Linnaean fyftem.

Gen,

S I P

S I P

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, in four deep
roundifli fegments. Cor. none. Slam. Filaments four,
fix, eight, or ten, inferted into a hairy receptacle ; anthers
of two cells. Pift. none.

Female, Cal. and Cor. as in the male. Stam. none. Pifl.
G<;rmen fuperior, roundifh ; Ityle oblong, ftriated ; ftigmas
five, capillary. Fruit unknown.

I. S. gaianen/is. — Found on the borders of rivulets, in
the quarter of Oyac, flowering in Augult. The^^'m is
eight or ten feet high, flender, with long, {lender, fmooth,
oppefite branches ; its wood white and brittle. Leaves ellip-
tic-oblong, fmooth, pointed, entire, about five inches in
length, oppoiite, on fhort ftalks. The ^ower^ are axillary,
green, very fmall, on fliort, fomewhat racemofe, ftalks.

SIPAVEND, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Mekran ; 212 miles N.N.W. of Kidge.

SIPELER, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Condapilly ; 24 miles S. of Mafulipatam.

SIPGICON-COUTEN, a town of Chinefe Tartary,
in the country of Hami. N. lat. 40^ 10'. E. long.
95° 42'.

SIPHAC, a name ufed by fome authors for the peri-
toneum.

SIPHANTO, in Geography, an idand of the Archipe-
lago, N. of Argentiera, and very clofe to it. In former
times this ifland was flourifhing under the name of " Siph-
nos," and it was even reckoned the richeit of the Archipe-
lago, on account of the gold and filver-mines which had
there been difcovered, and of which the tenth alone fur-
niflied the temple of Apollo at Delphos with the richett
trcafure that had been feen. Thefe mines refleft difhonour
on the memory of the Siphnians, whilll they enriched them ;
for their opulence produced fuch a corruption of morals and
duplicity of charafter, which became fo common and fo cha-
rafterillic of them, that they ferved, throughout all Greece,
as a term of comparifon, when it was required to paint dif-
credited morals or perfidy of conduft. At this day, the
treafures concealed within the bofom of the earth are un-
!known ; and the difcovery of them remains to become a
fource of riches to an ifland, which, though lefs impoverifli-
ed than fome others, exhibits in a degree the pifture of mi-
fery common to all tliefe countries. Befides the mines of
gold and filver which Siphanto afforded, it has fome that
are very abundant m lead, iron, and load-ftone. Its moun-
tains alfo contain quarries of very beautiful marble, and tlie
refidents fpeak of a Ipecies of very foft ftone, with wliich
they made vafes that were conveyed throughout all Greece,
but are not known in our days ; fo that the ifland of Si-
phanto would flill be the richefl of the Archipelago, if it
ccafed to be fubjeft to a government which crufhes it with
an iron hand. It is alfo one of the mofl agreeable and moll
chearful ; the air is pure and wholefome ; the plains are
adorned with a variety of drcfs, which it owes to eafy
labour ; and the excellent quality of their produftions is
another precious favour of nature. Salt, cotton, figs, oil,
wax, and a few other commodities of lefs importance, com-
pofe the crops and the trade of the ifland : but both might
be much augmented by indullry, if it were encouraged.
Fine cotton-clotiis, ilravv-liats, &c. are manufaftured here.
The inhabitants are mild and liofpitable ; the women are
beautiful ; but their drefs difi^uifes their charms. This
ifland has no harbour, except for fmall vcflcls. The mofl
confiderable place, which is called Serai, is built on flcep
rocks, which leave below tlie town only a fmall c:ivc, where
boats can anchor, becaufc if they were fnrpriicd here
by a northerly wind, they wnuld foon be d-ilhed to pieces
on the coall ; thofe of the country arc hallily drawn on

fhore as foon as they are unloaded. Siphanto contains five
villages, and about 5000 inhabitants. N. lat. 36° 59'. E.
long. 24° 56'.

SIPHILIS, from mexx, Jillhy, in Surgery, the venereal
difeafe. See Lues Venerea.

SIPHITA, a word ufed by Paracelfus, and his fol-
lowers, with the addition of parva and magna, for two dif.
orders. 'Y^\\e fiphita parva fignifies the chorea fanSi Vili,
or St. Vitus' s dance ; and the fiphita magna, walking in time
of fleep.

SIPHNIUS LAPis.in theA^a/ura/i/;/?ory of the ancients,
a fubflance found in great plenty in the ifland Siphnos,
(Siphanto,) in the ./Egean fea. It was dug up in large maffes
in the neighbourhood of the fea ; and when frefh, might be
cut or worked into any forts of veflels, by reafon of its foft-
nefs ; but when afterwards burnt and oiled over, became
black and foiid, and fit for any fervice : and the veffels made
of it bore the fire very well. The fame fubflance is ftill
found in many parts of Europe, and called lapis lehitum, and
applied to the fame ufe. It is no other than the fleatites,
or our foap-rock.

SIPHON, or Syphon, in Hydraulics, a crooked tube,
one leg or branch of which is longer than the other ; ufed
in the raifing of fluids, emptying of veffels, and in various
hydroilatical experiments.

The word in the original Greek, a-i^inv, fignifies fimply
tube, whence fome apply it to common tubes or pipes.
Wolfius particularly defcribes two veffels under the name of
fiphons : the one cylindrical in the middle, and conical at
the two extremes ; the other globular in the middle, with
two narrow tubes fitted to it axis-wife : both ferving to
take up a quantity of water, &c. and to retain it when up.

But the moll ufeful and celebrated fiphon is that which
follows: a crooked tube A B C (P/ate XV. Hydraulics,
jig. I.) is provided of fuch a length, and with fuch an angle,
or fo bent at the vertex, as that when the orifice A is placed
on an horizontal plane, the height of A B may not exceed
thirty-two or thirty-three feet. For common ufes, a foot
or half a foot high fufBces. If, now, the lef; arm, A B,
be immerged in water, or any other liquid, and the air be
lucked out of it by the aperture C, till the liquor follow ;
the liquor will continue to flow out of the vefiel, through
the tube B C, as long as the aperture A is under the furface
of the liquor.

Note, inflead of fucking out the air, the event will be
the fame, if the fiphon be at firil filled with the fluid, and
the aperture C flopped with the finger, till the aperture A
be immerged.

The truth of the phenomenon is known by abundance of
experiments ; nor is the reafon of part of it far to feek. In
fucking, the air in the tube is rarefied, and the equilibrium
deflroyed ; confequently the water mufl be raifed into the
lefler leg A B, by the preponderating preflure of the atmo-
fphere.

The fiphon being thus filled, the atmofphcre prefles
equally on each extremity, fo as to fullain an equal quantity
of water in each Kg ; but the air not being able to fuflaiii all
the water in the longer leg, and being more than able to
fuflain that in the flujrter leg ; with the exccfs of force,
therefore, it will raife new water into the thortcr leg ; and
this new water cannot make its way, but by protruding the
firfl before it : by this means is the water continually driven
out at the longer leg, as it is continually raifed by the
fhort er.

The caufe of the fiphon's running may be otherwife cx-
plaiiiid in the following manner : the air which pafles into
the vcll'el A BCD (jig. 3.), rcprtfentcd by the cohimu

K Lt

SIPHON.

K L, fuftains the column of water, L D, in the (hort leg
of the fiphon, prefling againlt that air with its perpendicular
height D F ; whiHt the column of air M S, prefling up-
wards againit the whole of the long or iduing leg D S,
which afts according to the height D C, muft yield and
fufFer the water to run out, as long as the leg D S is
longer, or rather perpendicularly higher, than D G. For
fince K and M are fuppofed to be at the top of the atmo-
fphere, the columns K L and M S are equal in height and
preflure, (for the height of L above S is of no account with
refpeft to the whole height of the atmofphere,) as long as
M S is afted upon by the defcending water D S, whofe
height is from D to S, {e.g. fifteen inches,) an height fu-
perior to that of the column D G, {e.g. feven inches,)
Supported by the column of air K L, the column M S mult
yield to the water iffuing out at S ; and iiowever the furface
of the water, E F, defcends, the column K L, by its pref-
fure, will always overcome the refinance of the column
M S, beca\ife it has a lefs height of water to fullain than
M S has. If the mouth of the illuing leg had been at T,
the water would hang in equU'ibrio, filhng both legs of the
fiphon, when the water is come down in the upper veflel to
I H T ; becaufe then the two columns of air, K L and M S,
will be afted againft by an equal heie;ht of water in the legs
of the fiphon ; but if you raife the ifiuing end of the fiphon
(now fuppofed at T) up to the level of u V above I H,
the water will run back, up from V to D, and fo out at H
in the upper veflel : becaufe then the column M S, having
only the height V D to fuftain, will be afted againft with
lefs force than the column K L, which is prefled againit by
the whole height, D H, fuperior to VD. Since, there-
fore, the prefl^ure of the air is the caufe of the water being
puftied up into the fiphon, and the difference of its preflure
(as one column is afted againft by the water in the fliort leg
more weakly than another column of air is afted upon by
the water in the long leg) is the caufe of its running con-
tinually from one veflel into another, when once fet a-going ;
it follows, that the bend, D, of the upper part of the
fiphon muft not be above thirty-two feet higher than the
water in the upper veflel, becaufe the air cannot fultain a
column of water, whofe height exceeds thirty-two feet.

Mercury will run in a fiphon in the fame manner as water ;
but in this cafe, the bend of the fiphon muft not be more
than 30,^1^ inches above the ftagnant mercury in the upper
veflel ; becaufe, as it is about fourteen times fpecifically
heavier than water, it will be lifted up by the preflure of air
but the fourteenth part of the height to which the water is
lifted. Defag. Exp. Phil. vol. ii. fed. 8.

But fome authors aflert, that the water continues to flow
through the fiphon, even when placed under a receiver,
and the air exhaufted from it.

Some will have it, that there is ftill air enough left in the
evacuated receiver, to raife the water to an inch or two.
But as both mercury and water are found to fall entirely out
of the Toricellian tube, in "vacuo ; the prefigure of the thin
remaining air there can never be the caufe of the afceut,
both of mercury and water, in the fliorter leg of the fiphon.
Hence, as the height of the fiphon is limited to thirty-two
feet ; for this only reafon, that air cannot raife water
higher ; fome have queftioned whether or not we are in the
right in rejefting Hero's method of carrying water, by
means of a fiphon, over the tops of mountain?, into an op-
pofite valley. For Hero only orders the apertures of the
fiphon to be flopped, and water to be poured through a
funnel into the angle or meeting of the legs, till the fiphon
be full ; when, fliutting the aperture in the angle, and open-
ing the other two, the water, he fays, will continue to

flow. Now, if there only need air for the firll rife of the
water into the lefs leg, not for the continuation of the mo-
tion, it were pofiible to raife the water much higher than the
height of the atmofphere would carry it.

Wolfius (Elem. Mathef. tom. ii. p. 348. ed. 1733.) ex-
prefsly fays, that this propofed artifice of Hero is very
juftly rejefted ; becaufe air is necefl'ary not only for the
elevation of the water in the fhorter leg, but for the con-
tinuance of its motion ; and he adds, that this method was
unfuccefsfuUy tried, where the height was greater than
thirty-two feet.

Defaguliers alfo obferves, that in a crane or fiphon, fuch
as that propofed by Hero, of about forty feet high, the
water, inftead of running from the upper veflel into the
lower, as it would do if the height of the fliort leg were
much under thirty-two feet, will in the two legs fall back
to the height of thirty-two feet, above the refpeiflive veflels,
where it will hang ; the air not being able to fuftain the
water above thefe heights, and confequently drive it up over
the bend.

In an experiment of this kind, the water in the legs of
the fiphon, unlefs it be purged of its air, will not reft at a
height of quite thirty feet above the water in the veflels,
becaufe air will extricate itfelf out of the water, and getting
above the water in the legs, prefs it downwards, fo that its
height will be lefs to balance the prefl"ure of the atmofphere.
However, this is certain, that a fiphon of a particular kind,
once fet a running, will perfift in its motion, though re-
moved into the moft perfeft vacuum our air-pumps will
make : or, if the lower orifice of a full fiphon be ftiut, and
the whole be thus placed in a receiver, with a contrivance
for opening the orifice when the air is exhaufted ; the water
will be all emptied out of the veflel, as if it had been in
the open air.

This faft has been fufBciently afcertained by many ap-
proved hydroftatical writers.

Defaguliers informs us, that he made the experiment,
both with water and mercury ; for having filled a fiphon,
recurved at the extremities of its legs, fucceflively with
thofe liquors, and fufpended it by a flip-wire in the receiver
of an air-pump, over two fmall jars containing mercury to
unequal heights, (and water, when water was ufed in the
fiphon,) he exhaufted the air out of the receiver, and then let-
ting down the fiphon, fo that its two ends went into the hquor
in the jars, the liquor ran from the higher into the lower veflel.
He alfo made an experiment in the open air, where the mer-
cury ran through a fiphon, whofe bend was more than thirty-
one inches above the lower orifice of the fliort leg of the
fiphon. But neither of thefe experiments afl^ords a jull ob-
jeftion againft the doftrine advanced in the preceding part
of this article, to's. that the air is the caufe of the difcharge
of hquors from one veflel into another by means of fiphons ;
for its running in vacuo was only owing to the attraftion of
cohefion, which afts for a fmall height ; becaufe the experi-
ment will not fucceed in vacuo, if the fiphon ufed for mer-
cury has it« bend fix inches higher than the orifice of the
fliort leg, and if the bend of the fiphon for water be two or
three feet high ; neither will the laft-mentioned experiment
with mercury in the open air anfwer, if the bend of the
fiphon be forty inches high : and in all the experiments, the
bores of the fiphons muft be very fir.all. Exp. Phil, ubi
fupra, p. 168.

The figure of the fiphon may be varied at pleafure (fee
Jigs. 3, 4, 5.), provided only the orifice C be below the
level of the (urface of the water to be drawn up ; but ftill
the farther it is diftant from it, the fafti-r will the fluid be
carriedoff^. And if, in the courfe of the flux, the orifice A

be

S I P

S I P

be drawn out of the fluid, all the liquor in the fiphon will go
out at the lower orifice C ; that in the leg C B dragguig,
as it were, that in the (horter leg A B after it.

If a tilled fiphon be fo difpofed, as that both orifices, A
and C, be in the fame horizontal line, the fluid will remain
pendant in each leg, how unequal foever the length of the
legs may be. Fluids, therefore, in liphons, feem, as it
were, to form one continued body ; fo that the heavier
part, defcending like a chain, pulls the lighter after it.

Laftly, it mull be obfcrved, that the water will flew out,
even through a Siphon that is interrupted, by having the
legs AD and FC joined {fg. 5.) together, by a much
bigger tube full of air.

The fipho Wirtembergicus is a very extraordinary ma-
chine of this kind, performing divers things which the com-
mon fiphon will not reach. E. gr. In this, though the legs
be in the fame level, yet the water rifes up the one, and
defcends through the other ; the water rifes, even though
the aperture of the lefs lefr be only half immerged in water ;
the fiphon has its effeft after continuing dry a long time ;
either of the apertures being open, the other remaining (hut
for a whole day, and then opened, the waters flow out as
ufual. Laitly, the water rifes and falls indifferently thromgh
either leg.

Mufchenbroeck, in accaiinting for the operation of thi<:
fiphon, obferves, no difcharge could be made by it, unlel?
the water applied to either leg caufe the one to be rtiortcr,
and the other longer by its own weight. Introd. ad Phil.
Nat. torn. ii. p. 853. ed. 4to. 1762.

The projeft of this fiphon was laid by Jordanus Pelletier,
and executed at the expence of prince Frederic Charles,
adminiltrator of Wirtemberg, by his mathematician Sha-
hackard, who made each branch twenty feet long, and fet
them eighteen feet apart ; the defcription of it was pub-
iilhed by Reifelius, the duke's phyfician.

This gave occafion to M. Papin to invent another, that
did the fame things, dcfcribed in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions ; and which Reifelius, in another paper in the
Tranfaftions, ingenuoufly owns to be the very fame with
that of Wirtemberg. Its (Irufture will appear from its
figure, which is reprefented Plate XV. Hydraulics, Jig. 6.

SIPHONANTHUS, in Botany, from c7.r.», a tube,
and a»So-, ajloiiier, becaufe of the long tube of the corolla.
Ammann, the author of the genus, in the Peterlburgh
Tranfaftions, for 1736, called it Siphonanthemum. — Linn.
Gen. 53. Schreb. 70. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 606. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 4. JufT. 132. Lamarck lUultr. t. 79. —
Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Bor-
ragineis ajjine, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, large, in
five deep permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, funiiel-
fhaped ; tubetiiread-ftiaped, very flender, many times longer
than the calyx ; limb in four deep fpreading fegments,
fmaller than the calyx. Stam. Filaments four, longer than
the limb of the corolla ; anthers oblong, triangular. Pijl.
Germen fupcrior, four.cleft, very fliort ; llyle thread-fliaped,
the length of the ilamens, recurved at the extremity ; iligma
fiiTiple. Peric. Berries four, roundifli, within the fpread-
ing calyx. Seeds folitary, roundifh.

Ell. Ch. Corolla of one petal, funnel-fliaped, very long,
inferior. Berries four, with folitary feeds.

I. S. indica. Indian Pipe-flower. Linn. Sp. PI. 159.
Willd. u. I. Poirct in Lam. Dift. v. 7. 200. (" Sipho-
ranlhemum falicis folio, flore flavefcente ; Amm. Afl.
Petrop. ann. 1736, 214. t. 15." Lyfimachii fpecics ;
Pif. ct Bont. Ind. Or. 159?) — Native of the Eall Indies ?
VVc have fecn no fpeciracn, but the figures and defcriptiois
Vol. XXXIII.

of this plant reprefent it as having an herbaceous, fimple,
leafy _^^7?i. Leaves alternate, or partly oppofite ; fometimcs
three in a whorl, feflilc, lanceolate, acute, wavy, entire.
Flo-wer-Jlalks axillary and terminal, much (horter than the
leaves, three-cleft. Fltivers thrice as long as their italka,
ycUowifh.

Willdenow has feparatcd Lamarck's fig. 2. as a dillinft
fpecies, by the name of S. angujlifolia ; but Lamarck him-
felf in his lUuilr. p. 318, gives that figure as perhaps onljf
a better reprefentation of the original fpecies. The differ-
ence indeed between the (tigmas of the two figures is too
great to be probable. We (hould think, vnth this author,
that the figure in Bontius might rather belong to fomc
Volkamcria or Clerodendrum, were it not fpoken of as a
pot-herb. After all, who can be certain, that the hiftory
of Siphonanthus is not altogether a blunder, and that the
original plant itfelf is not a l^olkameria, Clerodendrum, or
Ovieda ? 0. mitis, a fpecies very little known to botanifts
in general, bears a confiderable refemblance to it, though
the inflorefcence differs materially from what is defcribed in
Siphonanthus.

SIPHONIA, from (7i?i'v, a pipe, alluding to the ufei
made of the refinous exudation of this tree, io well known
under the appellation of elallic gum, or caoutchouc. — Sclireb.
Gen. 656. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 567. Mart. Mill. Did.
v. 4. Lamarck lUultr. t. 790. (Hevea; Aubl. Guian.
871.) — Clafs and order, Monoecia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord.
Tricoccit, Linn. Enphorbm, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-(haped,
rather globofe, cut half way down into five ereft, acute
teeth, reflexed at the margins. Cor. none. Stam. Fila-
ments united into a column, (horter tluin the calyx ; an-
thers five, nearly ovate, attached to the column below iti
fummit.

Female, Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-(hapcd,
fomewhat turbinate, with five acute, fpreading, recurved
deciduous teeth, the circular bafe only being permanent.
Cor. none. Pi/l. Germen fuperior, globofe, fomewhat
conical, fliorter than the calyx ; ftyle none ; ftigmas three,
thickifli, depreffed, two-lobed. Peric. Capfule large, three-
lobed, depreffed, hollowed out at the bafe, woody, very
hard, of three cells, inveiled with a fibrous bark ; each cell
with two elaftic valves. Seeds one, two, or three, nearly
ovate, with a brittle fpotted fliell.

Efl". Ch. Male, Calyx bell-(l>aped, five-cleft. Corolla
none. Filament columnar, with five anthers.

Female, Calyx bell-fliaped, five-cleft. Corolla none.
Stigmas three, feffile. Capfule of three lobes, with elaftic
valves.

I. S. elajlica. Ela(lic-gum Tree. Martin n. i. (S.
Cahuchu; Richard. Willd. n. i. Jatropha ? elaltica ;
Linn. Suppl. 422. Hevea guianenfis ; Aubl. Guian. 871.
t. 335. " Pao fcringa ; Mem. de I'Acad. des Sc. for
17^1. t. 20, bad.")— Native of Brafil, and the forelts of
Guiana, bearing fruit in April and May. A tree, wliofe
trunk rifes to the height of 50 or 60 feet, witli a thin Rrcy
bark, and a foft white wood ; the branches fpreading widely
in every direftion. Leaves towards the ends of the branches^
alternate, but crowded, and fpreading in a circular order
round the branch, on long (talks ternatc ; leaflets elliptical,
obtiife, entire, or minutely undulated, (mooth, retaulatcd
with veins ; paler beneath ; each about three incite'; long,
and one wide, on a partial (talk about half an inch in
length. Commanjooljiaiks rather longer than the leaflets,
round, finely downy. Thej?»TO/r/ wc have not feeii, but
they are faid to be fmall, downy, as well as thi:ir (Ulks ;
the male ones numerous, racemole ; the female folitary, at
H tht

S 1 R

S I 11

the end of each cli\fter. Fruit the fize of a chefnut in its
(hell, green, fmooth, of three large ovate lobes, the valves
burlting elailically, like thofe of a Jatropha. Aublet fays
the nuts are very good and wholefome. The trunk of the
tree, when vsrounded, difcharges a milky fluid, which being
collefted, either in a mafs, or by fmearing it over lumps of
clay, flicks, &c. dries into any (hape that is wanted, and be-
comes the elailic gum, or Indian rubber, fo ufeful to artilts
for effacing at pleafure the marks of. a black-lead pencil.
(See Caoutchouc.) We beg leave to correft a (light bota-
nical inaccuracy in that article ; for the Hevea and the
Jatropha elajlica are precilely the fame plants. There is in-
deed, in the Linuxaii herbarium, befides the original fpeci-
meti, marked with this lall name, another from Mutis,
which tl'.at learned botanill judged to be a diflinft fpecies,
though affording, as fome other trees do, a fimilar gum.
The leaflets in this fpecimen are larger, more acute at each
end, and dellitute of partial llalks. The calyx is nearly
half an inch long. The younger Linnseus, in his Supple-
meritum, 422, promifed to pubh(h fomething at a future
lime refptdling the various trees that yield an elailic gum,
of the fame utility as the Caoutchouc ; but he did not live
to execute his defign. His reference to the Mem. de 1' Aca-
demic for 1751, with a cenfure of the figure, appears to be
copied from Aublet.

SIPIAS, in Geography, a town of Mingrelia, fituated
on a river which runs into the Black fea ; 100 miles W.N. W.
of Tcflis.

SI-PING, a town of China, of the third rank, in the
province of Ho-nan ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Yun-hing.

SIPONIMA, in Botany. See Ciposi.ma, and Sy.m-

PLOCOS.

SIPSEY, in Geography, a river of the Hate of Georgia,
which runs into the Tombigh, N. lat. 32° 22'. W. long.
«7°5i'.

SIPTACE, in Natural H'ljlory, the name given by the
ancients to a beautiful bird, of which they were very fond,
and which was often kept in their houfes. Some have con-
jeftured this to be the goldfinch, from the fine yellow they
delcribe about it ; but Pliny plainly makes it the parrot :
he tells us, among other things, that it imitated the human
voice the belt of all birds.

SIPUCA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the diocefe
of La Plata ; 60 miles E. of Plata.

SIPUNCULUS, or Tube-worm, in Vermlology, a
renus of the Vermes Inteftina clafs and order, of which
the generic charafter is as follows : Body round, elongated ;
mouth cyhndrical at the end, and narrower than the body ;
tlie aperture at the fide of the body, and veruciform.
There are only two

Species.

* Nidus. The body of this fpecies is covered with a clofe
Ikni, and globular at the lower end. It is defcribed and
figured by Pennant, Barbut, and Martin. It inhabits Euro-
pean feas, under It ones ; and is about eight inches long.
The body is conic, and broader on the fore-part ; the mouth
is much (lenderer than the body, and armed with flefhy,
three-pointed papills; ; the aperture is near the upper
extremity.

Saccatus. Body covered with a loofe (liin, and rounded
at the lower end. It inhabits the American and Indian
feas. It is (haped like the nidus, except in being enclofed
as it were in a loofe bag, and in not having the lower end
globular.

SIR, or SlRR, in Geography, a river v/hich rifos in the

mountains of Tartary, about 160 miles W. of Ca(hgar,
and runs into the lake of Aral, in N. lat. 45^ :o'.

Sir Biby'i IJland, a fmall ifland in Hudfon's bay. N
lat. 61° 55'. W. long. 93° 40'.

Sir Charles Hardy's IJland, an ifland in the Southern
Pacific ocean, difcovered by captain Carteret in 1767. Its
extent is confiderable, and it appears to be flat, green, and
pleifant. S. lat. 4° 38'. E. long. 134° 6'.

Sir Charles Hardy's IJlands, a clufter of fmall iflands
in the South Pacific ocean, difcevered by captain Cook in
1770. S. lat. 11° 55'. W. long. 217*.

Sir Thomas Hay's Point, 3 cape on the N.W. coaft of
Portland, one of Queen Charlotte's iflands, in the South
Pacific ocean. S. lat. 10° 42'. E. long. 165° 14'.

Sir William James's IJland. See St. Sujanna.

Sir Henry Martin's IJland, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean, about 16 leagues in circumference; difcovered by
lieutenant Hergeft, commander of the Dxdalut ftore-fhip,
in the year 1792. The country feemed to be highly cul-
tivated, and was fully inhabited by a civil and friendly race
of people, readily inclined to fupply whatever refrefhments
their country afforded. Mr. Hergeft's company were in-
duced to entertain this opinion from the hofpitable recep-
tion they experienced, on landing, from the chiefs, and up-
wards of 1500 of the natives, who were allembled on the
(hores of the harbour. On their return to the (hip, they
found the fame harmony fubfilling there with the Indians,
who had carried off and fold a fupply of vegetables and
fome figs. It is called by the natives Nooaheva. S. lat.
8^51'. E. long. 220°.

Sir Charles Saunders's IJland, or Tapooamanoo, an ifland
in the Southern Pacific ocean, difcovered by captain Wallis
in the year 1767. The ifland is about fix miles in length,
and has a mountain of confiderable height in the centre,
which appeared to be fertile. The inhabitants did not
appear to be numerous. S. lat. 17° 28'. W. long.
1 50° 40'.

Sir Thomas Roc's Welcome, a large bay in the north part
of Hudfon's bay.

SIRA, a name by which fome of the chemical writers
have called orpiment.

SIRACAUSTUM, a name given by Mefue to a medi-
cine he recommends in acute dileafes.

SIRACUSA, in Geography. See Syracusa.

SIRADIA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, late capi-
tal of a palatinate of Poland, of the fame name, fituated
on the Warta ; 100 miles N.N.W. of Cracow. N. lat.
51° 31'. E. long. 18^45'.

SIRiEUM, a word ufed by fome to exprefs a fweet de-
coftion, whether given in that form, or firlt infpifiated into
a fort of rob by evaporation.

SIRAF, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Lariltan, on the N. coaft of the Perfian gulf, in-
habited bv Arabians from the oppofite (hores ; 30 miles
S.W. of Lar. N. lat. 26= 44'. E. long. 53= 50'.

SIRAGUAY, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland
of Mindanao. N. lat. 7° 15'. E. long. 11 2*^ 9'.

SIRAJEPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, m Allahabad ;
10 miles E. of Corah. N. lat. 26'' 9'. E. long. 80° 58'.
SIRAITINA, a town of RulTia, in the country of the
Cofl'acks ; 56 miles S. of Arkadinft:aia.

SI RAN, a town of France, in the department of the
Herault ; 15 miles S.W. of St. Pons.

SIRAN(SAPE, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Indian fea, S. lat. 13° 4'. — Alfo, a town of Africa, in
the country of Mozambique, at the mouth of the river of
the lame name, S. lat. 13'^ 4'.

SIRANI,

SIR

S I K

SIRAtJI, Giovanni Andrea, in Biography, a painter
of the fchool of Guido Rheni. He was born at Bologna
in l6io, and was a favourite difciple of his mafter, whofe
ftyle he imitated with great fuccefs. After the death of
Guido, he was employed to iinifh many of his works, left
incomplete in different churches, at Bologna ; particularly
the iarge pi£ture of St. Brunone, in the Certofiai. He
ufually painted upon a large Icale, and with a free pencil,
but in general his manner is too Urong and dark, like that of
Caravaggio. He died in 1670, at the age of 60.

SiRANi, Elizabetta, was the daughter of Giovanni
Andrea Sirani, and born at Bologna in 1638. She learned
the rudiments of the art from her father, but endeavoured
to imitate the belt ftyle of Guido. At fo early a period
as her fifteenth year, (lie liad acquired confiderable renown
for her performances. Her firll public work was painted
when (he was only fevcnteen. In general (he wrought upon
a large fcale, and in a molt finilhed manner ; with a rich
and natural tone of colour. Her compolitions are taiteful,
and the airs of her heads graceful, and noble in charafter.
Her portraits have greatly the air of nature, with an un-
affefted character of expreflion and adtion.

Unhappily, whilft in the enjoyment of the renown juftly
due to her ineftimable talents and amiable qualities, and
which had been acquired by unceafing affiduity, her
brilliant career was interrupted by poifon ; by whom ad-
miniitered is not exaftly known, though it is fuppofed by
her fervant. This melancholy event happened in 1664,
when fhs had only attained her twenty-fixth year; yet fuch
had been her indultry, that (he had produced, according to
Malvafia, from a regifter of her own keeping, 150 works :
the moll admired of which were painted for the churches
and palaces at Bologna. They are elfewhere fcarce.

SIRAN-LOSA, in Geography, a lake of Thibet, about
18 miles in circumference, which communicates with lake
Tenckiri by means of a river called alfo " Siran-lofa ;" 18
miles W. of lake Tenckiri.

SIRA-OULOSO, a town of Thibet ; 15 miles E. of
Hami.

SIRAT, Al, in the Mahometan Theology, the name of
a bridge, which is fituated in the midil ot hell, finer than
a hair and (harper than the edge of a fword ; over which
thofe who are admitted into paradifc, and who take the
right-hand way, and thofe who are deftined to hell-fire,
and take the left, are fuppofed to pafs. On account of its
form, it is conceived to be very difficult for any one to ftand
upon it ; and therefore moit of the Motazalites rejeft it
as a fable, though the orthodox believe it on the authority
of their prophet, by whom it is affirmed ; and who has like-
wife declared, that in order to add to the difficulty of this
paffagc, the bridge is befet on each fide with briars and
hooked thorns, which will, however, be no impediment to the
good, for they fliall pafs with wonderful eafe and fwiftnels,
like lightning or the wind, Mohammed and his Moderns
kading the way ; whereas the wicked, obftrufled by the
llippperinefs and extreme narrownefs of the path, the en-
tangling of the thorns, and the extindtion of the light,
which direfted the former to paradife, will foon mifs their
footing, and fall down headlong into hell, which is gaping
beneath them. Koran, c. 18.

SI RATI K, in Geography, one of the Foulah Hates in
Africa, next in order to the principal, which lies within
Sierra Leona, and of which Teambo is the capital. It
borders on the fouth of the Senegal river, and on the
Jaloffs.

SIRAVAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chu-
fiftan; 48 miles N.N.E. of Sufter.

SIRE, a title of honour in France, now given to the
king only, as a mark of fovereignty. In all placets and
petitions, epiftles, difcourfes, &c. to the king, he is ad-
dreffed under the title of Jlre.

Some derive the word from the Latin herus, majlir : of
which opinion feems Budxus, who, in fpeaking to king
Francis I., always called him here, q. d. majler, ox Jire ;
others derive it from the Greek xufioc, lord; of which
opinion is Pafquier, who adds, that the ancient Franks gave
the fame title to God, calling him beau fire Dieu : other*
fetch the word from the Syriac, and maiiit.iin it was firft
given to the merchants who traded in Syria : Menage will
have it come from fenior, elder; whence feigneur, the*
feignor, znd Jire.

Sire was likewife anciently ufed in the fame fenfe w-ith
feur and feigneur, and applied to barons, gentlemen, and
citizens.

Sire, in Geography, a province of Abyllinia, about
25 miles broad, and not much more in length, reckoned as
part of Tigre. It loft the rank of a province, and was
united to Tigre, on account of the milbehaviour of its go-
vernor Kafmeti Claudius, in an expedition againft the Shan-
galla, in the reign of Yafous the Great. It is feparated
from Samen by the river Tacazze, and reaches from Axum
to this river. — Alfo, a town fituated on the brink of a very
deep, narrow valley, through which a road lies that is aU
mort impalTable. In the midft of the valley runs a brook,
bordered with palm-trees. The town of Sir6 is larger than
that of Axum ; it is in form of a half-crown fronting the
plain, but its greateft breadth is at the weft end. All the
houfes are of clay, and thatched ; the roofs are in form of
cones, as indeed are all in Abyffinia. Sire is famous for a
manufafture of coarfe cotton cloths, which pafs for current
money through all the province of Tigre, and are valued at
a drachm, the tenth part of a wakea of gold, or near the
value of an imperial dollar each ; their breadth is i^ yard.
Befides thefe, beads, needles, cohol, and incenfe, at times
only, are confidered as money. Although Sire is fituated
in one of the fineft countries in the world, it is very fubjeft.
to putrid fevers of the worft kind, which fweep away a
number of people daily. N. lat. 14° 4' 35". E. long. 38*'
o' 15". Bruce's Travels, vol. iii.

SIREN, 3-EifDv, in Antiquity, Mermaid, a name given to
a kind of fabulous beings, reprefented by the moderns as
fea-monfters, with women's faces and filhcs' tails ; but by
the ancient poets, &c. as having the upper part human, and
the lower like birds ; and decked with a plumage of various
colours. There are antique rcprcfentations of them ftijl
fubfifting, under both thefe forms. They are faid to have
been the daughters of Ocean and Amphitrite, and to form
a beautiful part of Homer's machinery in the Odyifey.
Hyginus places their birth among the confoquences of the
rape of Proferpiiie. And Ovid makes them daughters of
the river Achclous, and one of the Mufes.

The three firens are called Parthenopc, I.ygea, and I.eu-
cofta. Homer only makes mention of two firens, aud loinc
others reckon five. Virgil places them on rocks, where
veflels are in danger of fplittiiig. Pliny makes them inhabit
the promontory of Minerva, near the ifland Caprex. OthcM
fix them in Sicily, near Cape Pelorus.

Claudian fays, they inhabited harmonious rocks ; that
they were charming monftcrs ; and that lailors were wrecked
on their rocks without regret, and even expired in raptures ;
Duke malum in pelago firen.

Paufanias tells us, that the firens, by the pcrfuafion of

.Tuno, challenged the Mufei to a trial of flnll in fingingr^

and thefe, having vanqui(hed them, plucked the golden

H 2 feathers

S I R

S I R

feathers from the wings of the fireiis, and formed them into
crowns, with which they adorned their own heads. This
defcription is, doubtlefs, founded on a literal explication of
the fable, that the firens were women who inhabited the
(hores of Sicily ; and who, by all the allurements of plea-
fure. Hopped paffengers, and made them forget their
courfe.

The name, according to Bochart, who derives it from
the Phoenician language, implies a fongjlrefs : and hence,
it is probable, that in ancient times there might have been
excrllent fingers, but of corrupt morals, on the coaft of
Sicily, who, by feducing voyagers, gave rife to this fable.
The Argonauts are faid to have been diverted from the in-
chantment of their fongs, by the fuperior llrains of Orpheus :
Ulyil'es, however, had great difficulty in fecuring hirafclf
from feduftion. Circe prepares him for the conflict, by the
piflure and precepts defcribed in the Odyff. lib. xii. ver. 51.

Some interpreters of the ancient fables will have the num-
ber and names of the three firens to have been taken from
the triple pleafure of the fenfes, wine, love, and mufic,
which are the three mod powerful means of feducing men ;
and hence, fo many exhortations to avoid the firen's fatal
fong.

Probably it was hence that the Greeks fetched their ety-
mology of firen, viz. from cr-i»«, a chain ; as if there was
no getting free of their enticement.

Others, who do not look for fo much myilery in the
fable, maintain that the firens were nothing but certain
ftraits in the fea, where the waves whirling furioufly around,
feized and fwallowed up veflels that approached them too
near.

Lallly, others hold the firens to have been certain fhores
and promontories, where the winds, by the various rever-
berations and echoes, caufe a kind of harmony that furprifes
and ftops paflengers. This, probably, might be the origin
of the firens' fong, and the occafion of giving the name of
firens to thefe rocks.

The learned Mr. Bryant fays, that the firens were Cu-
thite and Canaanitifh priells, who had founded temples in
Sicily, which were rendered ir.famous on account of the
women who officiated. They were much addiAed to cruel
rites, fo that the (liores upon which they refided are de-
fcribed as covered with the bones of men, deftroyed by their
artifice. Virgil, iEneid, lib. i. v. 864.

The ancients reprefent their fongs as fo fatally winning,
that nobody could withftand their fweetnefs : all were
foothed with it ; though their life was the purchafe of the
gratification. See Homer's Odyff. M. v. 39.

Mr. Bryant obferves, that the ftory of the firens relates
to thofe people, who with their mufic ufed to entice ftran-
gers into the purlieus of their temples, and then put them
to death. Nor was it mufic only with which perfons were
feduced to follow them ; tlie female part of their choirs were
maintained for a twofold purpofe, both on account of their
voices and their beauty. They were accordingly very liberal
of their favours, and by thefe means enticed fea-faring per-
fons, who paid dear for their entertainment. Analyfis of
Ancient Mythol. vol. ii. p. 17, &c.

' Sir.EN, in Ichthyology, a name given by Artedi to the
fea-monfter often defcribed by authors, but either not exit-
ing at all, or not fo like man as their defcription makes it.
Artedi fiippofes it to conilitute a peculiar genus of the
plagiuri or cetaceous fifhes. The characters he gives of it
are thefe : it has no pinnated tail ; the head, neck, and
breaft, down to the navel, reprefent thofe of the human
fpecies ; there are only two fins on the whole body, and
thofe ftand on the brcalf.

Bartholinc, in his Hillory of Curiofitics, defcribes fuch
a fifh as this under the name oi fyrene, and Barchewitz under
the name of homo mnrinus. See Mermaid, SzA-Calf, Sea-
Cow, and Se v-7I/an.

Siren, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of tlie clafs and order
Amphibia Reptilia, nf which the generic charafter is. Body
two-footed, tailed, naked ; the feet are placed in the manner
of arms, and furnifhed with claws. There is only a fingle
fpecies mentioned by Gmelin, but Dr. Siiaw notices three

Species.

Lacertika. Body eel-fliaped ; branchia ramified. This
fpecies Hands eminently diitingnifhed in the lill of animals,
by the ambiguity of its charafters, which are fuch as to
have induced the great Linnieus to inflitute it for a new
order of Amphibia, under tlie title of Meantes. The
genus with which the firen has the neareft affinity is the
lacerta, or lizard ; which fee. It refcmbles the larva, or
firft ftate of a lacerta ; and it is even itill doubtful whether
it may not really be fuch : yet it has never been obferved in
any other ftate, having two feet only, without any appear-
ance of a hind pair. The feet are alfo furnifhed with claws,
whereas the larvas of the lacerta are obferved to be without
claws ; the mouth has fcveral rows of fmall teeth ; the body
is eel-fhaped, but fligiitly flattened beneath, marked on the
fides by feveral wrinkles, and flightly comprefTed towards
the extremity of the tail, which is edged with a kind of foft
fiviii, or adipofe fin ; on each fide the neck are three ramified
branchial procefTes, refembling, but on a larger fcale, thofe
belonging to the larvas of water-newts, and at the bafe are
the openings into the gills ; the eyes are very fmall, and
blue. The general colour of the animal is a deep or blackifh-
brown, fcattered over, efpecially on the fides, with nu-
merous minute whitifli fpecks. It is frequently found of
the length of two feet, or even more. It is a native of
North America, and more particularly of South Carolina,
where it is not uncommon in muddy and fwampy places,
living generally under water, but fometimes appeariag on
dry land. It has a kind of fqueaking or finging voice ;
hence it was diftinguifhed by the name of fireji. This
curious animal was firfl difcovered and defcribed by Dr.
Garden, who refided many years in Carolina, and who gave
the Htmoft attention to the fcienc^ of natural hillory, which
he enriched by many highly intereiling obfervations, and by
the difcovery of many new faftp. The doftor communi-
cated fpecimens of the firen to Linnscus, with particulars
relative to its hiflory and manners. The great Swedifh na-
turalift, in his letter to Dr. Garden on this fubjeft, declares
that nothing had ever exercifed his thoughts fo much, nor
was there any thing he fo much defired to know, as the real
nature of fo extraordinary an animal. Mr. Hunter has
given an anatomical defcription of the firen in the 56th vol.
of the Philofophical Tranfadlions, to which the reader is
referred.

The firen, if thrown on the ground with any degree of
violence, will fometimes break in two or three pieces ; and
in this particular it refembles the Anguis fragihs, or (low-
worm. It may alfo be obferved, that though in fomc re-
fpefts it refembles the larva of the lizard, yet no hzard, of
which it may be fuppofed the larva, has ever yet been dif-
covered in thofe parts of Carohna where it is mofl frequent.
The fpecies to which it feems mofl allied is the Lacerta
tcgui ;n of LinnsEUS, which is a native of South America.

Anguine ; Four-footed firen, with eel-fhaped body, and

ramified branchiae. This has been denominated the Proteus

anguinus by fome naturalills, and by others the Aullrian

fiien. This animal is found in a very fingular fituation,

12 being

S 1 R

biMiig an inhabitant of the celebrated romantic lake Zirk-
nitz, in the duchy of Carniola, in AuUria. From this lake
the water regularly retires during the fummer, by numerous
fubterraneous outlets at the bottom ; leaving the ground
dry, and fit for pafture, as well as for various kinds of
hunting, and other amufements : but in the month of Oc-
tober it again returns with great force, fpringiiig out of the
pafTages before mentioned, from a vatt depth, till the lake
IS completely filled. It is fituated in a valley, furrounded
by rocky and woody mountains, in which are vaft caverns,
and it is principally fupplied by eight rivulets running into
it from the adjoining mountainous region. See Phil. Tranf.
vol. xvi.

This fpecies of firen is extremely rare, and is found in the
fpring, and towards the decline of fummer, in fome parti-
cular parts of the above-mentioned lake, and meafures from
ten to twelve or thirteen inches in length, and about three
quarters of an inch in diameter. It is entirely of a pale
rofe-colour, or even nearly white, except the three pair of
ramified branchial fins on each fide the neck, which are of a
bright red or carmine-colour. Its general ftiape is that of
an eel ; the body being cylindrical till towards the end of
the tail, where it becomes flat, and is attenuated, both above
and below, into a kind of fatty fin, fcarcely diftinguifhable
from the reft of the tail ; the fkin is very fmooth and even ;
the head is of a fomewhat deprelled form, with a lengthened,
obtufe, and widi(h fnout, and it has no external eyes ; the
mouth is moderately wide, and furnifhed with a row of very
minute teeth ; the legs are three quarters of an inch long,
and the feet of the fore-legs are furnifhed with three toes,
without claws ; the feet of the hind-legs have only two toes.
The motions of this animal, when taken out of the water,
are, in general, extremely flow and languid ; as is alfo the
cafe, when kept in a veiiel of water ; but in its native lake,
it is fometimes obferved to fwim brifkly, waving its body m
a ferpentine direftion, not unlike that of a leech. The
Anguine firen is figured and very accurately defcribed by
Laurenti, in his work entitled " Specimen Medicum, ex-
hibens Synopfin Reptilium." The real nature of the animal
is not completely afcertained ; fome imagining it to be the
larva of fome fpecies of lizard, while others contend that it
is a perfeA animal fut generis. It is evidently of a pre-
dacious nature, feeding on the fmaller kind of aquatic
animals ; fincc one of them, which was kept alive in a vedel
of water, was obferved to difcharge from its ftomach fevera!
fmall (hells of the genus Helix ; and in the ftomach of one,
which was didcfted, were found the head and bones of a
fmall fifh. Its voice is a ftrong hifs, much louder than
might be cxpefted from the fize of the animal.

Dr. Schreibers, who has moft diligently inveftigatcd the
nature and anatomy of this animal, fays, " there can be no
doubt that it bears a great affinity to the S. lacertina, having
both gills and lungs ; and therefore it leaves us in equal un-
certainty as to its being a perfeft animal in itfelf, or the
larva of another animal. It is, however, remarkable, that
notwithftanding the moll careful refearches during many
years, and the frequent filhing which takes place in the
lakes and caverns of the neighbouring country, at all feafons
of the year, no animal has hitherto been found of which it
can poffibly be fuppofed the larva."

PlsciFOitMis ; Ferruginous-brown firen, fpotted with
black, with finely ramified branchix, tetradadlylous fore
and pentadaftylous hind-feet. Tills animal, in the Na-
turalift's Mifcellany, is denomi[i:ite(l Gyrinus Mexicanus,
or Mexican tadpole. According to the defcription given
in that work, it is a native of Mexico, and, if only the larva
■of fome large American lizard, is fcarcely a Icfs Angular

S I R

and curious animal than the firen. In its general appear-
ance it bears fome rcfemblance to the larva of the Rana
paradoxa, but is furnilhed witli gills, opening externally in
the manner of a filh ; the openings are very large, and the
external flap u continued from the fides of the head acrofs
the throat beneath, fo as completely to infulate the head
from the breaft ; the gills themlelves coufilt of four femi-
circular bony or cartilaginous arches, which are denticulated
or ferrated on their internal or concave part, like thofe of
fifties ; on the opercula, or external flaps, are fituated three
very large and elegant branchial fi:is, or ramified parts, di-
vided and fubdivided into a vail number of flender or capil-
lary procefTes. In thefe particulars it rcfembles the S.
lacertina, except that in the latter animal the external open-
ing to the gills is very fmall ; tlie mouth is furnifhed in
front with a row of extremely minute teeth ; the tongue is
large, fmooth, and rounded at the tip ; the ridus, or gape,
when the mouth is clofed, appears confiderably wider than
it really is, owing to a lateral fulcus proceeding from each
corner to fome diflance ; the feet are entirely dettitute of
webs, and they are furnilhed with rather weak claws ; the
front feet have four toes, and thofe behind five. Indepen-
dently of the general colour of the animal, the whole fkin,
when minutely examined, appears to be fcattered over with
very minute white fpecks, refembling thofe on the furface
of the S. lacertina. The fides of the body are marked by
feveral ftrong rugs or furrows, and an imprelled lateral fine
or fulcus is continued from the gills to the tail.

Siren is alfo a name given by Mouffet,,and other authors,
to a fpecies of bee ; of which they diftinguilh two kinds, a
larger and a fmaller. Thefe differ greatly from the common
bee, in tliat they live folitary, and never unite into fwarms,
or build nefts, or make combs.

SIRET, in Geography, a town of the province of Buko-
viiia ; 85 miles N.W. of Jafii. — Alfo, a river of Moldavia,
which runs into the Danube; 4 miles S. of Galacz.

SI REX, or Tailed Wafp, in Entomology, a genus of in-
fefts of the order Hymenoptcra, of which the generic cha-
radler is, Mouth with a thick, horny, truncate, (hort, den-
ticulate mandible ; four feelers, the hi;id ones longer, and
thicker upwards ; antennae filiform, of more than twenty
equal articulations ; the lling is exferted, ferrate and ftift' ;
the abdomen is fcflile, terminating in a point ; wings lan-
ceolace, incumbent, the lower ones fhorter.

Tlie larvsE of this genus are fix-footed, foft, cylindrical ;
the head rounded ; they perforate wood, and frequently eat
their way into the bowels of other infedls, and their larvie,
living upon them till they have utterly contumcd their entrails ;
the pupa is folliculate : the perfed infed hves on tlie nedar
of flowers. There arc about twenty-fix

Species,

* GlGAS. The abdomen of this fpecies is yellow at the
bafe and tip ; the body is black-blue. This is the largell
fpecies in the whole genus : it furpallcs a liornet in fize, and
is principally obferved in the neighbourhood of pines and
other cone-bearing trees : it is ot a black colour, with the
eyes, the bafe, and lower half of the abdomen, of a bright
orange-yellow ; the thorax is villofe, and the wings ot a
tranlparent yellowilh-brown ; the fting, or terminal tube, is
very confpicuous. The larva, which meafures about an inch
and a quarter in length, is of a yellowilh-while colour, and
inhabits decayed firs and pines ; at lirll view it bears fome rc-
femblance to the larvcc of the beetle tribe, but is thinner in
proportion, and furniflied, at the tip of the abdomen, with
a fliort bLck Ipiiie or procefs. It changes to a chryfalis in
tlic month of July ; full enveloping itfelf in a flight filkcn

web

SIREX.

web of a whitifh colour. The chryfalis is of a lengthened
fhape, with the antenna, legs, and terminal tube or procefs,
very diftinclly charafterized. If the change to chryfalis
takes place, as it fometimes does, in fummer, the fly pro-
ceeds from it in the fpace of about three weeks ; but if at
the clofe of autumn, the animal continues a chryfalis the
whole winter, emerging in the following fpring. The male
infedl is confiderably fmaller than the female, and may be
farther diftinguifhed by the want of the caudal tube or pro-
cefs, fo confpicuous in the female infeft : the tip of the ab-
domen is alfo of a black colour. The eggs, which are de-
pofited by the female in the decayed parts of the trees al-
ready mentioned, are very fmall, and of a lengtUened oval
fhape, with pointed extremities.

PsYLLiirs. Abdomen yellow at the bafe and before the
tip ; the body is black. It inhabits different European
countries, and is half the fize of the laft. The antennae and
legs are yellow, and the thighs black ; the head is black,
with a yellow fpot on each fide, behind the eyes ; certain
fegments of the abdomen yellow.

CoLUMBA. This is an American fpecies, and is diftin-
guifhed by its black body, marked by teftaceous bands.
The fpecific charafter is as follows : thorax villous, ferru-
ginous ; abdomen black, the fides are fpotted with yellow ;
the antennae are fhort and black, ferruginous at the bafe ; the
abdomen beneath is black, with a yellow ftreak ; the projec-
tion is fhort, acute, ferrate, yellow tipped with black ; the
legs are yellow ; hind-thighs black.

Magus. Black, thorax villous ; tip of the antenna, la-
teral fpots on the abdomen, (lianks, and bafe of the tarfi,
are white. It is of the fize of the S. gigas, and is found in
many parts of Saxony. The abdomen beneath is white in
the middle ; the wings are dufl<y.

NiGRicoRNis. Thorax villous, blueifh-black ; abdomen
ferruginous, blue at the bafe. It is found in North Ame-
rica. The head is ftiining blue-black ; the antennx are
black ; the legs are piceous ; thighs yellow ; iting pitchy.
Flavicornis. Thorax villous, black, immaculate ; four
bands on the abdomen, antenns, and legs, yellow. It is
found at Labrador, in America. The head is black ; the
upper part of fome of the fegments is yellow ; the ap-
pendage ferrate, yellow ; the fting is black.

Fu.scicoRNls. Thorax villous, black ; abdomen with
eight yellow bands ; the antennae are black ; the legs are
yellow. This, which is of the fize of the gigas, inhabits
Saxony. The wings are fubteftaceous ; the lling is black,
with a yellow Iheath ; the horn of the abdomen is fubulate,
yellow tipt with black ; the thighs are black.

* Spectrum. The abdomen of this fpecies is black ; the
thorax is villous, with a yellow ftripe before the wings. It
is found in this country, and in many other parts of Eu-
rope. The antennae are black or yellow, and the legs are
yellow.

*JuvEMCUS. The abdomen is blueifh-black ; the thorax
villous, immaculate. This alfo is a native of England and
other European countries. The antenna are black or yel-
low ; the legs are yellow.

PhantOMA. Abdomen above yellow, with black belts ;
the head and legs are yellow. It inhabits Germany. The
mouth is black ; the thorax yellowifh before, beneath black ;
the abdomen beneath is black.

Cyanus. This is of a ftiining blue colour ; the legs are
yellow. It inhabits North America. The antenna: are
black ; the thorax fubvillous ; the wings are hyaline.

Albicornis- Black ; head with a white fpot on each
fide ; the antennae are white in the middle. It is a native of
North America. The antennae are black at the tip ; the

abdomen with a white dot on each fide on the laft fegmeit
but one ; the legs are black ; the ftianks and ends of the
tarfi are white.

NiGRiTA. This is of a black-blue, immaculate; the himl
leg! arc comprell'ed. It is a native of Saxony, and is of
the fame fize as the S. marifcus, hereafter to be noticed.

* Camelu;;. The abdomen is black, the fides fpotted
with white ; the thorax fmooth. This is found in England
and other European countries.

Emarci.n'atus. Black j thorax emarginatc before, and
pale at the fides ; the fore-legs are rufous. It inhabits Ger-
many. The antennas are black ; the head is black, with a
pale fpot on each fide : the fides of the thorax are flightly
ferrate. The four front legs are rufous ; the ftianks are tipt
with black ; the hind ones are black ; the thighs rufous.

Di'.OMEDARius. Abdomen black, rufous in the middle,
with a white dot on each fide. The ftianks are pale at the
bafe. It is chiefly found at Kiel, and refembles the S. camelus.
The head is black, with two white lines ; the thorax is
black, vi-ith a white dot before the wings ; fome of the feg-
ments of the abdomen are black, fome rufous, one black,
with a white fpot on each fide, and one is altogether
black.

Pacca. Abdomen black, two of the fegments are rufous,
the reft dotted with white. This alfo is found at Kiel, and
is the fize of the S. camelus. The antenna are black, a
little thicker towards the tip ; the thorax is villous aiidblack,
with two minute white fpots on the fore margin ; the horn
of the abdomen yellowifti, iting rufous ; legs comprefled,
black.

SiMiLie. Black ; firft fegment of the abdomen at the
bafe and fecond rufous, the reft with five yellow fpots. It
inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. The head is black ; the
orbits yellow ; antennx ferruginous ; the bafe and tip black ;
the thorax black, with a yellow dot on each fide ; the legs
are rufous, the thighs black ; the tail is pointed, without any
projeftion.

Vespertilio. Black ; abdomen ferruginous, the bafe
is black. This is a fmall infeA, and is found in divers parts
of Germany. The antennae are black, with a whitifti ring ;
the tail is black beneath, without the appendage ; the upper
wings are white, with a broad brown patch before the tip,
and white marginal dots ; the legs are black, tip of the
thighs and bafe of the ftianks white.

Mariscus. Of this ipecies the abdomen is teftaceous,
the two laft fegments are black ; the thorax villous. This is
found in divers parts of Europe. Antennae yellow ; head
with a yellow callous dot behind the eyes ; the abdomen be-
neath is black, fpotted with yellow ; it has no fting.

Troglodyta. Smooth, black ; abdomen with feven
yellow dots, and two bands. It inhabits Saxony. The legs
are yellow ; the thighs black.

NocTiLiA. This is of a black-blue colour ; the antennae
are black ; the thorax is villous ; the abdomen teftaceous in
the middle. It inhabits feveral parts of Germany, and is
about the fize of the S. marifcus. Thorax blue ; abdomen
blue at the bafe and tip ; wings yellowifti ; legs yellow ;
hind ones comprefled, black, the thighs yellow.

Compressa. Black ; abdomen comprefled, ferruginous ;
the firft and laft fegments are black. It inhabits Barbary,
and is very fmall. Legs white ; thighs black ; hind ones
black ; the ftianks are comprefled, black, with two yellow
dots, and three bands.

* Pygm.i;us. Abdomen comprefled, black, with two yel-
low dots and three bands. It is a native of this country, and
of other parts of Europe. This is one of the fmalleft of
the European fpecies, being, according to Linnaeus, about

the

S I R

S I R

tlie fize of a gnat, with a black abdomen, marked by three
yellow bands, the middle »( which is interrupted. It is
found in Sweden.

Macilentus. Black ; abdomen eomprefled, yellow at
the fides. It inhabits Barbary, and refemblcs the next. The
head is black, with two yellow dots between the eyes ; the
thorax black, with a yellow dot, and a larger one beneath ;
the abdomen is yellow at the fides, and projefting into two
Iiaiids on the back ; the wings are hyaline ; the rib black
beyond the middle ; the legs are black ; the fore-thighs are
yellowifh.

* Tabidus. Black ; fides of the abdomen dotted with
yellow ; fore-fhanks teltaceous. It inhabits England, and
a fpecimen is in fir Jofcph Banks's mufeum.

SIRGAI-SOUSAI-PO, in Geography, a town of Chi.
nefeTartary. N. lat. 42° 15'. E. long. 117° 50'.

SIRGIAN, Serjan, or Kerman, the ancient Car-
mana, a city of Perfia, which at a former period rivalled
the proudeft cities of the empire ; and its fituation, in the
direft road from the northern provinces of Perfia and Bu-
charia to Gombroon, then the great emporium of the In-
dia trade, contributed to the increafe of its opulence and
profperity. It has, however, fuffered much from deftruc-
tive wars, domeftic and foreign, and from the plunder of
an exafperated and licentious army. After having been
courageoiifly defended, in 1794, by Lutf Ali Khan, it was
betrayed into the hands of his rival Aga Mohamed Khan,
by Nujuf Kooly Khan, one of his treacherous adherents.
The city was abandoned for nearly three months to the rapa-
city of the foldiers, the walls and pubhc buildings were le-
velled with the ground, great numbers of the inhabitants
were put to death, and 30,000 of them were exiled into the
diftant provinces of the empire : nor will it probably ever
recover from the effefts of this dreadful calamity. The
prefent fortifications iuclofe but a fmall portion of the ancient
city, which is quite deferted, and in a molt ruinous condi-
tion. It is fituated on the weftern fide of an extenfive
plain, fo clofe to the mountains as to be completely com-
manded by two of them. The walls are high, and built of
mud, with 19 or 20 pofitions in each face, and a dry
ditch, 20 yards wide and 10 deep. It has four gates, and the
ark or citadel, where the governor refides, is on the 6. fide
of the fort. Its prefent population is not more than
20,000 fouls, of which fome few are Guebres ; there are
alfo Armenians, Jews, and Hindoos in the place. Its trade
is ftill very confiderablc ; and it is celebrated for its manu-
fafture of Ihawls, match-locks, and carpets, which are
chiefly exported to Khoradan and the northern provinces,
and returned in drugs, (kins from Bockhares, furs, filk, fteel,
and copper. Thefe articles, as well as piftachio nuts, car-
pets, rofe-buds for prefcrves, and bullion, are fent to India,
whence are imported, tin, lead, iron, chintz, wrought filk,
fpices, indigo, maltic, gold brocade, china and glafs-ware,
broad-cloth, hard-ware, &c. The bazar is well fupplied
with articles of every defcription, and in one part neatly
arched with a fine blue (lone, procured in the adjoining
mountains. There are nine faravanferas within the walls,
and many inforior ones both within and without. N. lat.
29° 30'. E.loiig. 56' 50'.

SIRGOULIN, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat.
41° 5 V- E. long 119"^ 14'.

SIRGUNE, a river of Pruflia, which runs into the
Frifch Haff, below Elbing.

SIRHIND, a circar of Hindooftan, between the foubah
of Delhi and Lahore, bounded on the N. by Thibet, (m the
E. by the Jumnah, which feparatcs it from Schaurunpour,

on the S. by the circar of Nardeck, and ou the W, by
Moultan and the province of Jallindar. — Alfo, a town of
Hindooftan, and capital of the above-mentioned circar, N.
of Delhi, fuppofcd by fome to be built on the fpot where
the battle was fought between Alexander and Porus. Juf-
tinian is faid to have had filk from hence : it is an ancient
city, but, hke moft of the Indian citic, has greatly declined:
between it and Delhi are extenfive plains, within which ace
fituated the towns of Panniput and Carnawl, famous for
great battles, both in ancient and modern times ; 140 miles
S.E. of Lahore. N. lat. 30° 41' 30". E. long. 76^ 6'.

SIRHUD, literally meaning a boundary, and meta-
phorically applied to a cold region, a diftriA of Perfia,
comprehending moft of the mountainous part of the province
of Fars, extending from the latitude of Kazaroon to that of
the town of Yczdekhaft, fituated on the bed of what ap-
pears to have been formerly a river, which feparatcs this
province from Irak. The plains which here interfeft the
mountains feldom exceed eight or ten miles in breadth, but
vary in length from 15 to 100. They are in general fertile,
and afford abundance of pafturage ; neither are they fo de-
ficient in water as fome have fuppofed. It is the want of
population and of encouragement to induftry that retards
their improvement.

SIRI, among the Romans, were fubterranean caves or
vaults, in which wheat could be kept found and frefh for
fifty years.

SiRi, VlTTOniO, in Biography, a writer in politics and
hiftory, was born at Parma about the year 1 607 : he was
educated for the Itudy of theology, and took the habit of
the Benediftine order, in the monaftery of St. ,)ohn, and
there began to publifti a work entitled " Mercurio Politico,"
by which he acquired fome temporary celebrity. Fifteen
volumes of this work appeared fucceifively, containing an
account of the public events from 1635 to 1655. After
this he added to it " Memorise Recondits," in eight vols.
which going back to 1601 come to 1640. The autlior not
only records fafts, but endeavours to inveftigate caufes in
the fecret negociations of cabinets, and to give the docu-
ments confirming his narrative. Of thefe pieces, a great
number is to be found in his publications, communicated
by popes' nuncios and the ambaffadors of diiTereiit crowned
heads, and efpecially by the miniilers of Louis XIV.
Through the influence of cardinal Mazarin, lie was invited
by that monarch to Paris, and prefented to a lecular abbey,
on which occafion he quitted his religious habit for tliat of
an ecclefiaftic. He affumed to himfelf the title of ciuiiifel-
lor, almoner, and hiitoriographer to his moft Chrilliaii ma-
jcfty, and he fpcnt all the latter years of his life .it Paris,
where he died in the year 1685, at the age of 78. He is
charafterized by biographers as a man without any fixed
principles, who had a venal pen, which was always ready to
juftify and defend any caufe, provided he was liberally paid
for his fervices ; yet the opportunities he poflefl'ed of gain-
ing information from authentic fources, and the number of
original documents publifhed by him, have given a marked
value to his works as materials for the hiftory of his time.
The circumftances of his being a foreigner, and writing in
Italian voluminous publications little read in France, are
faid by I^e Clerc to have iiiduced him to fpeak more freely
of Louis XIII., his brother and minilltrs, than tin' French
writers have done. The firll four volumes of his " Memnris
Reconditx" are extremely rare. A tranflalion into the
French language, of the moll important parts of all his
works, has been pubhftied in feveral volumes by M. Re-
quier. Sin is laid alio to have written under a feigned name
fume pieces refpefting the war of Montfefrat.

8 Sini,

SIR

S I R

SiRI, in Geography, a mountain of Thibet ; 36 milea N.E.
of Taringafong.

SiRi, or Dfir'h a town of Thibet ; 45 miles E. of Ta-
ringafong.

SIRIA, or SiRJA, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of
Aleppo ; 70 miles S.E. of Aleppo.

SIRIAGULLY, a town of Mocaumpour ; 20 miles
S.S.W. of Mocaumpour.

SIRI AN, a fea-port town of Pegu, on the river Appoo.
and whilft it remained in pofTenion of the Portuguefe, a place
of great trade. Before their time it had a king of its own :
it is now frequented by French, Englilh, and Dutch; 72
miles S. of Pegu. N. lat. 16" 54'. E. long. 96° 50'.

SIRIASIS, in Medume, from o-.§o,-, a cavity, a difeafe
«f children, fo named by the older writers, in confequence
of an accompanying depreffion of the fontanelle, but which
in faft appears to have been an inflammation of the brain
and its membranes ; and accordingly Dr. Cullen ranks it as
fynonimous with phrenitis. It is very indiltinftly defcribed,
and in fome refpedts refembles hydrocephalus. Aetius, in-
deed, exprefsly aflerts (hat it is an inflammation of the brain
and its membranes ; but the only fymptoms which he enu-
merates, are hoUownefs of the'finciput and of the eyes,
ardent fever, palenefs, dry (kin, and total lofs of appetite.
See Aetius, Tetrab. i. Serm. iv. cap. 13. Foreft. Obf.
Med. lib. xxviii. cap. 8z. Sennert. Praft. lib. i. part i.
cap. 20.

SIRIBOA, in Botany, Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 340.
t. 117. Piper Siriboa, Linn. Sp. PI. 51, is a kind of long
pepper, reckoned one of the kinds of Betle, and ufed for
chewing with the Areca, or Betle nut, on account of its
gratefully aromatic, and not too pungent, flavour. See
Piper.

SIRICA, in Geography, a town of Tripoli; 120 miles
S. of Mefurada.

SIRICIUS, Pope, in Biography, was a native of Rome,
and fucceeded to the pontifical throne in 384. There are
extant feveral letters of this pope, which are accounted his
firft decretals. In his firft epiftle, in anfwer to fome quef-
tions propofed by Himerius, bifhop of Tarragona, are many
curious particulars of the ecclefiaftical difcipline obferved
at that period. He was a warm oppofer of the Prifcil-
lianifts and Jovinians, and in one of his letters relative to
the latter, an example appears of the ancient manner in
which the apoftolic fee pafl'ed its judgments : Siricius ac-
quainted the church of Milan that he had condemned Jo-
vinian and his followers, with the confent and advice of the
prieits, deacons, and all the clergy. In another of his let-
ters, a cogent teltimony is given of the reverence paid by
the ancient popes to the decifion of councils : it is addrefled
to fome bifhops refpefting the herefy of one Bonofus, who
was accufed of aflerting that the Virgin Mary had children
after the birth of Chrift. The pontiff replies, that the fynod
of Capua having ordained that the prelates in the vicinity
of Bonofus (hould take cognizance of his caufe, it did not
belong to him to enter into the difpute. Siricius had the
fatisfaftion of feeing ended the long continued fchifm of
Antioch, the bifliop of which, Flavianus, had occupied the
fee for a number ot years, without being acknowledged by
the Egyptian bifhops. Through the mediation of John
Chryfoflom, a reconcihation was effefted, and Flavianus was
acknowledged by the pope, who died foon after in 398,
leaving behind him a very refpe(ftable charader.

SIRICON Plumbi, a name given by fome chemical
writers to calcined lead, or the grey powder made of lead
by a flight calcinatipn iq an open fire.

SIRINAGUR, Srivagor, or CaJJmere, in Geography.
See Cashmere.

SiRlNAGUR, or Srinagur, a town of Thibet, capital of a l
diftrift in Alucknundra, or Alacananda, a branch of the
Ganges, which has its fource in the fnowy mountains of
Thibet, the pofition of which, according to Capt. John
Guthrie, who vifited it in 1789, is 85 miles from Coadwar
Gaut, through the hills, and 60 colles from Hurdwar, up
the Ganges to the E.N.E., afcertained by a compafs and
perambulator. Mr. Daniel, who vifited it in the fame year,
gives the fame idea of its geographical pofition. It is fitu-
ated in an exceeding deep and very narrow valley, formed
by mount Sewalick, the northern boundary of Hindooftan
on one fide, and the vail ridge of fnowy mountains of Him-
maleh, or Imaus, on the other. Mr. Daniel was much Itruck
with the magnificence of the fcencry of this valley, in which
the thermometer rofe, in the fliade, to 100°, though in
crolling the mountain of Sewalick, it ilood at j8i°. We
(hall here fubjoin fome further particulars on this lubjeft,
with which we are furnifhed by a narrative of a furvey for
the purpofe of difcovering the fources of the Ganges, by
Capt. Raper, communicated to the fociety at Calcutta.
This furvey was ordered by the fupreme government of
Bengal in 1807, and at the recommendation of Lieut. Col.
Colebrooke, executed by Lieut. Webb, accompanied by
Capt. Raper and Capt. Hearfay. The party commenced
their tour at Hurdwar, an inconfiderable town of one ftreet,
in N. lat. 29° 57' 9". E. long. 78° 8' 30", April ill, 1808.
On the 13th of May they arrived at Srinagur, in N. lat.
30° 10' 52''. E. long. 78° 43'. The town is fituated on
the S. bank of the Alacananda, in the centre of a valley,
which is about four miles in length, running nearly in
the direftion of E.N.E. to W.S.W., and about two miles
in its greateft breadth. It extends along the banks ot
the river, and forms, in (hape, a fmall fegment of a cir-
cle, of which the ilream conftitutes the chord. The prin-
cipal ftreet runs through the city, about four furlongs
in length, and contains the grand bazar. The houfes
are in general two (lories high, condruAed of large ftones,
with a (helving dated roof of (hingles. The lower apart-
ments are allotted for (hops and merchandize, the upper for
the accommodation of the families. The rigid uniformity
of the buildings, both in ftrufture and materials, (hews what
little advancement has been made in architefture, at the fame
time that it detrafts from the beauty of the place. A nar-
row projefting verandah, or balcony, forms the only ap-
parent dilference in the houfes of the higher clafs of in-
habitants ; and fuch a fyftem of equality prevails, that one
might fuppofe it the effeft of defign, or of a cautious fear
to manifelt an increafe of wealth, by an oltentatious difplay
in their outward appearance. Even thofe of the two chiefs
by no means convey the idea of manfions appropriated to
the rcfidence of men to whom was committed the govern-
ment of a province. When this capital was vifited by Col.
Hardwicke, in the year 1796, it was under the government
of a raja, to whom it had hereditarily defcended through
many generations, and might then be fuppofed to be in its
moil flourilhing (late ; yet its appearance did not indicate
opulence or fplendour ; but fince that period, many natural
and fortuitous caufes have combined to reduce it to a lower
(late of poverty and infignificance. The encroachments an-
nually made by the Alacananda, on the houfes contiguous
to the river, the earthquake of 1803, which fljook every
building from its foundation, and the Gurc'hali invafion at
the clofe of the fame year, devolved fuch an accumulation
of evils on this devoted capital, that one might have in-
clined to conclude that it would not furvive its native

princes,

S 1 R

S 1 R

princes. Every hoiife and every ftreet, not oxceptinfr the
palace of the raja, exhibited marks of dilapidation. Many
of the inhabitants exprefled their forrow and regret on ac-
count of the events that had occurred, and fpoke of their
former fovereign with great tokens of feeling. Under its
Gurc'hali rulers the city is not likely to recover from this
forlorn condition ; for all clalfcs of people complain much
of the peculation of the chiefs, and of the injuftice, with
the want of method, that attends all their proceedings.
The inhabitants are compoied chiefly of the defcendants of
emigrants from the Dooab, Rohilcund, and Audh. The
Hindoos form the greatelf proportion : the number of Muf-
fulman families not exceeding fixty or feventy. Mod of
thefe are petty fhopkecpers, who, to gain a fcanty fub-
ftftence, are forced to enter into various fpeculatious ; and
a piece of filk or a fer of onions may be procured at the
fame fhup. The principal perfons are the agents of great
banking houfes at Najibabad and in the Dooab, who are em-
ployed m the fale and exchange of merchandize and coins.
They retlde here only eight mouths in the year ; quitting
the hills, and returning to their houfes, at the commence-
ment of the rainy fealon. The traffic in filver and fpecie
forms one of the m.oft profitable branches of commerce, and
is carried on to a confiderable amount. Bullion and coins
are imported, for the purpofe of being converted into te-
maflias, the currency of the hills ; and as a conllant coinage
of them is kept up at the mint, the fupplies are furnilhed
by the Serrafs, who receive a premium, agreeable to the
quality of the fdver, amouirting to one and a half, or two
per cent, on the Farrakabad or Barcli rupee. The temafha
is a fmall uneven filver coin, four of which pafs for the
nominal rupee of the hills ; and five for the Farrakabad or
Bareli. Spanidi dollars alfo find their way hither, and are
converted into the fame currency. The inferior coin is a
fmall piece, ten tacas of which are equal to one temafha.

The other articles of Ipeculation conliil in the produce
of the hills, and imports from Bootan. The former are
I'han^ (hemp) ; a coarfe cloth, or fort of canvas, manufac-
tured Irom it, called bhattgela ; lead, copper, drugs, gums,
wool, and a fpecies of flannel made from it called /xvnc'A/' ;
from Bootan are received chaurs or cow-tails, mu(k in pods,
faffron, borax, fait, drugs of different kinds, and a few
fliawl:, which come by that route from Caflinicrc. Among
the drugs is one called nirbifi, or zedoary. Hawks are alfo
brought down from the hills. In exchange for the above,
the following articles are fupplied from the low countries.
Coarfe cotton and woollen cloths, filk,.ipiccs, Lahore fait,
fugar and tobacco. On all thefe goods a greater or lefs
duty i • levied at Sirinagnr, amounting, on an average, to one
ana in the rupee, or about eight and a xXnrA per cent. ; and
additional duties are collefked at diflerent polls, in their
tranlit through the country.

The territories which formerly belonged to the raja of
Ririnagur, are now divided into 84 perganah-^, included in
three pat'his, or divifions, over each of which is appointed
a military governor, who ha: the fame jurifdidtion in his own
dillria.

In the year 1 80^ an army of 8coo or 10,000 men was fcnl
from Napal, to execute a projedt which had been long
formed at the court of Napal, i'/'«. that of inv.iding the ter-
ritories of the raja ot Sirinagur, and extending their pof-
feflions to Calhmtre. The troops of the raja amounted to
I 5,000 or 20,000 men, principally mercenaries, who endea-
voured to fliun an engagement : the death of their chief
fecured the conqucll of the whole country to the Curc'lialis.

On taking a view of Sirinagur from a height, it has the
;<ppearance of a double valley ; one filuatcd on a level with

Vol. XXXIIf.

the river, the other on its banks, elevated about forty or
fifty feet, and extending along the bafe of the mountain.
The lower one, in which the city Ifands, has apparently
been formed by the receding of the Alacananda from the
louth fliore ; and although the period be too remote to afcer-
tain the fact, the appearance of the ridge or bank, marking
the concavity, would incline one to fuppofe that fuch has
been the cale ; and that, in its prefent progrefTlve inclina-
tion, it is gradually returning to its former channel. From
the bottom of the upper valley, to the city, is a fpace ot
three or four furlongs, laid out in fmall fields and inclofures,
with a few mango trees, thinly fcattered among them.
Oppofite to the city, the Alacananda divides into two or
three dreams, which reunite about one mile below. On
one of the fmall iflands are the ruins of buildings, which
were formerly connefted with the city. The afpeft of the
furrounding mountains is very barren ; here and there a foli-
tary tree may be feen ; but the general features betray a
rocky and unfriendly foil, and the little vegetation that i.^
produced on them is foon parched up and dried. On the
oppofite fide of the river, feveral hamlets are feen, fituated
along the foot of the hills, with which a communication is
open, by a jhula to the W. and a ferry boat to the E. of
the city. One of the largeft of thefe villages is called Rani
Hat't, containing a temple facred to raja Ifwara, at whole
flirine fome rites are performed, in imitation of the myfteries
obfervcd in the temple of the Cyprian goddefs. It is in-
habited chiefly by dancing women ; and the ceremony of
initiation to this fociety confilts in anointing the head with
oil, taken from the lamp placed before the altar ; by which
aft they make a formal abjuration of their parents and kin-
dred, devoting their future lives to prolfitution. A ftiort
dillance beyond it is a Mat'h or fane of Rallea Devi, the
god of love ; whofe (hafts, if we may beheve the reports
and complaints of his numerous votaries, arc tainted with a
fatal and pernicious poifon : indeed, his wounds appear to
be fo generally diftufed, that four-fifths of the inhabitants
are fuppoled to labour under the cflefts of them, and the
calamity is heightened by their ignorance of proper remedies
to check their progrefs. Afiatic Relcarchcs, vol. xi.

SiKixAGUR, a town of Bengal; 20 miles N.N.E. of
Calcutta. N. ht. 23° 7'. E. long. 88=48'.

SIRIS, Sil!0, or Siiino, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, near the Acinis, in Lucania. See Sinno.

Siiu.s, a very ancient town of Italy, in Lucania, faid by
Strabo to have been founded by I'rojans, and eminent for
its college of priefl.8 (killed in cabaliltic lore. It was fitu-
ated at the mouth of a river of the lame name, now called
Sinno (which fee), and became a depcndance ol Heraclca,
to which the principal inhabitants of Siris were obliged to
remove. When the lonians took pofTeflion of this city,
they changed its name into that of Policrain. In procel's
of time-, the Tarentines drove the inhabitants from Siris,
and having lent 3 colony into this country, they built He-
raclea at a fmall diltance from Sirl^. Str.ibo dillinguiflieR
thefe two towns; but Pliny (1. iii- c. lo.) fays that they
were the fame under diflerent names. The adjacent country
wss called Siritis, or Sireiiti^. — .Alfo, a town of Pxonia, in
Thrace.

SIRISHEK, in Geo^^ruphy, a town of Perfia, in Kho-
rafl'an ; ;^o miles S.S.W. ot Herat.

SIRIUM, m Botany. See S wr.M.t'M.

SIRllK^, J ijii. , in /IJIronomy, the Dog-flar, a very
briglit liar of the firll magnitude, in the mouth of the con-
lleiiatioii Cams Major, or the Great Dog.

Tliis, indeed, is the brightell of all the flars in our firma-
mcnt, and, ihcrefoie, probably, fays Dr. Malkelync, the late

1 adroiiomcr

S I II

S I R

aftronomer royal, in a paper recommending the Jifcovery
of its parallax, Phil. Tranf. vol. li. p. 889, the nearelt to
us of them all. Some, however, fuppofe Arfturiis to be
the neareil.

The Arabs call it Afchere, Elfchecre, Seem ; the Greeks,
Slrius ; and the Latins, Canicula, or Canis candens. See
Canicula.

SiRirs, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, difcovered and fo called by lieutenant Ball, in 1790 ;
it is about iS miles m circumference. S. lat. 10° 52'. E.
long. 162° 3c'.

SIRMAN, Mad., in ^/o^r^T^,?'^, a celebrated performer
on the violin, who had her mufical education in a conferva-
torio at Venice. Her maiden name was Maddalena Lom-
bardini. She was a favourite eleve of Tartini, and it was
for her that he drew up his little traft on the ufe of the bow
on the violin, in the form of 3 letter, " Arte dell' Arco."

After quitting the confcrvatorio, fhe married a German
of the name of Sirman, and came to England in 1773 ;
when her performance of Tartini's compofitions on the
violin was juftly and univerlally admired. But in the operas
of " Sofonifba" by Vento, and the " Cid" by Sacchini,
fhe unadvifedly undertook the fecond woman's part on the
ftage, as a finger ; but having been firll woman fo long
upon the violin, (he degraded herfelf by afluming a cha-
rafter, in which, though not deficient in voice or tafte, fhe
had no claim to fnpenority.

SIRMARKS, in Ship-Buihling, the different flations
marked on the moulds where the refpeftive bevellings are to
be applied, as the lower firmark, fioor-firmark, &c.

SIRMIONE, in Geography, a peninfula of Italy, about
feven miles from the Lago di Garda, anciently celebrated
under the name of Benanus, and always efteemed one of the
grand ornaments of Italy. From Pefchiera (which fee),
Sirmione appears as an ifland ; fo low and fo narrow is the
bank that unites it to the main land. Its entrance is de-
fended, and indeed totally covered, by an old caftle, with
its battlements and high antique tower in the centre, in the
form of a Gothic fortification. The promontory fpreads
behind the town, and rifer. into a hill, entirely covered with
olives ; which hill may be faid to have two fummits, as
there is a gentle defcent between them. On the neareft is
a church and hermitage, now uninhabited and neglected.
On the farthell, in the midlt of an olive grove, iland the
walls of an old building, faid to be a Roman bath ; and near
it is a vault, called the grotto of Catullus. The extremity
of this promontory is covered with arched ways, towers,
and fubterranean pafTages, fuppofed by the inhabitants to
be Roman, but bearing, in faft, a ftrong refeniblance to
Gothic ruins. At all events, Catullus undoubtedly in-
habited this fpot, and preferred it, at a certain period, to
every other region. He has exprefTed his attachment to it
in feme beautiful lines.

" Peninfularum Sirmio, infularumque
■ Ocelle, quafcunque in liquentibus ftagnis
Marique vallo fert uterque Neptunus :
Quam te libenter, quamque Istus invifo."

Catull. 32.

He could not, fn faft, have chofen a more delightful re-
treat. In the centre of a magnificent lake, furrounded with
fcenery of the greateft variety and majefly, apparently fe-
cluded from the world, yet beholding from his garden the
villas of his Veronefe friends, he might have enjoyed alter-
nately the pleafures of retirement and fociety ; and daily,
without the facrifice of all his connexions, which Horace
feemed inclined to make, in a moment of defpondency, be-

held the grandeur and agitation of the ocean, without its
terrors and immenfity. Befides, the foil is fertile, and its
furface varied ; fnmetimes Ihelving in a gentle declivity, at
other times breaking in craggy magnificence, and thus fur-
nifhing every requifite for delightful walks and luxurious
baths ; while the views vary at every ftep, prefenting rich
coatts or barren mountains, fometimes confined to the culti-
vated fcenes of the neighbouring fhore, and at other times
bewildered and lofl in the windings of the lake, and the re-
cedes of the Alps. In fhort, more convenience and more
beavity are feldom united ; and fuch a peninfula is, as Ca-
tullus enthufiaftically obferves, fcarcely to be matched in all
the wide range of the world of waters.

SIRMIUM, or Sirmich, a town of Sclavonia, where
the emperor Probus was born and killed. It is now in
ruins, though the fee of a bifhop, founded, it is faid, in the
reign of Trajan. In the year 270, the emperor Claudius
died here of the plague ; 40 miles N. W. of Belgrade.

SIRMOND, James, m Biography, a theologian of con-
fiderable note, born at Riom in l^S')' ^^"''^ '^^ ^^^ ^^ ^
magiitrate in that city. He was educated at a college of
the Jefuits, which fociety he entered in 1576. Being fent
to Pari;, he taught in a college there, and at the fame time
purfued his fludies with fo much fuccefs, that he acquired
a perfcft knowledge of the learned languages, and formed
a Ityle in the latter, which, it is faid, has rarely been ex-
celled, either with refpect to its flrength or purity. He
obtained fo high a charafter for erudition, that he was fum-
moned to Rome, in 1590, by Aquaviva, general of the
order, to take upon him the office of his fecretary. This
cfRce he held 16 years with high honour, and, in the mean
time, he made ufe of all the advantages of the fituation for
the fludy of antiquities. He cultivated the acquaintance oF
all the great men of that period, among whom were Bellar-
mine, Baiberini, and Baronio. To the latter he rendered
important fervices in the compofition of his Annals, elpe-
cially by furnifhing him with memorials relating to the
Grecian hiltory, tranflated into the Latin language. He
returned to Paris in 1608, and refided four years in the
houle of the Jefuits, during which he edited feveral works
of antiquity. He alfo entered into the controverfy occa-
fioned by Richer's famous treatife concerning the ecclefiaf-
tical ar.d civil powers, in which he appeared as a partizan of
the court of Rome. In 161 2 he was employed in the la-
bour of making a coUeftion of the French councils ; but
this work did not caufe him to intermit his publication of
ancient writings ; and a year feldom pafFed without fending
one of them to the prefs, with learned commentaries. He
was chofen reftor of the Jefuits' college in Paris, in the
year 161 7, continuing to occupy himfelf as an editor and
writer of original works. Pope Urban VIII. invited Sir-
mond to Rome, but Lewis XIII. would not confent to
lofe fo eminent a fcholar from his capital ; and in 1637 he
chofe father Sirmond as his confefTor. In this fituation he
cunduftcd himfelf fo as to merit the eiteem of the king and
his court. He rarely aflied any favours for his relations ;
but he conferred an important benefit on his native place,
by obt.^ining the revocation of an edift, which had tranf-
ferred the board of finances of Auvergne from Riom to
Clermont. When he quitted the court, he continued his
literary occupations, which he purfued to a very advanced
age. Huet, who, when a verj' young man, was introduced
to Sirmond, then 90 years of age, found him inactive in
body, but alert and vigorous with regard to his underftand-
ing and mental powers. He has delcnbed him as poffefled
of uncommon courtefy and elegance of manners, like one
who had been long converfant with important public bufi-

Befs.

S I R

urfi. He died in 1651, at the age of 92. He was editor
chiefly of the authors of the middle ages, tlie MSS. of
which he difcovered among the hbraries at Rome, and other
places. Thofe of his own compolltion were, in a great
part, controverfial. One, entitled " Cenfura de fuburbi-
cariis Regionibus," which related to the fuburbicarian
churches under the jurii'diftion of tlie Roman pontift", im-
pui^ned the opinions of Godcfroy and Saumaife. He had a
difpute with Peter Aurelius refpefting the fecond canon of
the council of Orange, which was condufted on both fides
with much acrimony. He was attacked with great bitter-
nefs, on account of a difl'ertation wiiich he wrote, to prove
that St. Denis the Areopagite was a different perlon from
St. Denis of France ; but all fair judges of the iubjeft ad-
mitted the- validity of his arguments. He was lefs fuccefsful
in a controverfy refpeftiiig predeif ination, by which he be-
came involved in hoflihty with the .lanfenills. He never
brought out, at firlt, all he knew on the fubjetl, but made
a referve of fome arguments for replication. His works
were pubhlhed coUeftively at Paris, in five volumes folio,
1696.

SIRNAME. See Surname.

SIROCC, or Sirocco, a fouth-caft wind of Sicily, par-
ticularly at Palermo, attended with an uncommon degree of
heat, and fingularly relaxing and opprcflive in its effefts.
The blaft of it is reprefented as refembling burning lleam
from the mouth of an oven : the whole atmolphere, during
its continuance, feems to be in a flame. Its effeft is de-
fcribed by Brydone like that of one of the fubterranean
fweating iloves at Naples ; but it was much hotter. In a
few minutes, thofe who are expofed to it find every fibre
relaxed in a molt inconceivable manner, and the pores
opened to fuch a degree, that they expedl immediately to
be thrown into a moll profufe fweat. At this time the
thermometer, which ftood in a room only at 73, rofe im-
mediately in the open air to 110, and foon after to 112.
The air was thick and heavy, but the barometer was little
affefted, having fallen only about a line. The fun did not
appear during the whole day ; otherwife the heat, fays Mr.
Brydone, muft have been iniupportable ; and on that fide
that was expofed to the wind, it could not be borne with-
out diihculty for a few minutes. Upon expofing pomatum
to it, the heat of the wind melted it as if it had been laid
before the fire. This wind is more or lefs violent, and of
longer or fliorter duration at different times : however, it
feldom lafts more than 36 or 40 hours, fo that the walls of
the houfes are not warmed throughout, or clfe it is appre-
hended that it would be infupportable. Whilff it lalls, the
people of the country confine themfelves witliin ; their
windows and doors are fhut clofe, to prevent the external
air from entering ; and where window-fhutters are wanting,
they hang up wet blankets on the infide of the window.
The fervants are condantly employed in fprinkling water
through all the apartments, in order to preferve the air in as
temperate a ilate as poffible ; and for this purpofe, each
houfe in the city of Palermo is provided with a fountain.
By thefe means the people of fafliion fuffcr very little from
this wind, except the drift confinement to which it obliges
them. Notwithllanding the fcorching heat of the firocc,
it has never been known to produce any epidemical diforders,
or to do any injury to the health of the people. They feel,
indeed, very weak and relaxed after it ; but a few hours of
the Tramcnitane, or north wi[id, which generally fucceeds
it, foon braces them up again, and rtilores them to their
former (late. However, in NaplcF, and fome other parts
of Italy, where its violence is not to be compared with that
of Palermo, it is often attended with putrid difordcrs, and

S I s

feldom fails to produce almoft a general dcjeAion of fpirin.
But there the firocc lafts for many days, and even for weeks •
fo that, as its cffcdfi are different, it probably proceeds from
a different cauie. Some have fuppoied that this is the fame
wind with that which is fo dreadful in the fandy defarts of
Africa, where it (ometimes proves mortal in the fpace of
half an hour ; but that in its paffage over the fea, it is cooled
and deprived of its tremendous influence, before it reachei
Sicily. If this were true, we might expeft to find it mod
violent on that fide of the ifland that lies nearefl; to Africa,
wliich is not the cafe ; though it is poflible, that its heat
may be again incieafed by its paffage acrofs the ifland to
Palermo, near the mod: northern part : and befides, this
city is almod furrounded by very high mountains, the ra-
vines and vaUies betwixt which are entirely parched up and
burning hot at this fummer feafon of the year. Thefe like-
wife contain fprings of warm water, the iteams of which
may increafc the heat, and at the fame time foften the air,
fo as to difarm it of its noxious qualities. It is a praftice
too, at this feafon, to burn heath and bruffi-wood on the
mountains, which mud dill add to the heat of the air.

SIROD, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Jura ; 3 miles S.S.W. of Nozeroy.

SIRO-DEVA, a name of the Hindoo deity Siva;
which fee.

SIRONG, in Geography. See SuriONGE.

SIROTE, a town of Bootan j 60 miles S.E. of Taf-
fafudon. N. lat. 27° 18'. E. long. 90" 25'.

SI ROW Y, a circar of Hindoodan, in Agimere, lying on
each fide of the river Puddar, bounded N. by .loodpour,
E. by Mewat, S. by Oudipour, and W. by fandy deferts.
The chief towns are Sirowy and Jalour.

SIRPY, a town of Hindoodan, in the My fore ; 30 miles
S.E. of Chittledroog.

SIRR. See Sir.

SIRSA, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles S.E. of Ghidore.

SIRVENT, or Vasir, a town of Charafm ; 60 miles
S.E. of Urghenz.

SIRUN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan,
or Seiitan ; 40 miles E. of Zareng.

SIRUPA, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Hiaqui ; 80 miles N.E. of Riochico.

SIRZESZYN, a town of Lithuania, on the Dnieper;
50 miles N.E. of Mozyr.

SIS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government of
Sivas ; 24 miles S. of Tocat. — Alio, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, in Caramania ; 150 miles E.S.E. of Cogni.

SISAL. See Sk AL.

SISALO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, upon
the route from Emerita to Saragoda, in pading by Lufi-
tania, between Mirobriga and Corcuvium, according to the
Itinerary of Antonine.

SISAN, a town of Ada, in the confines of Cilicia.

SISAPO, Almaden, a town of Spain, in Boctica, towards
the ead. Suppofing it to be the lame with Almaden, it
yielded, in the time of the Romans, a mine of quickfilver,
in high edimation, the produce and revenues of which were
of great importance to the republic.

SISAPONE, tlie fame with the former, a town of Spain,
in the Tarragonenfis, towards the confines of Boctica, which
belonged to the Oreloni, according to Ptolemy.

SISAR, a river of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana,
between the towns of Cliobar and that of Jerkth, according
to Ptolemy.

SISAR A Palus, the lake of Sifara, a lake of Africa,
being the fouthern part of the lake Hipponibis, mentioned
by Ptolemy.

I 2 SISARACA,

S I s

S I s

SISARACA) a town of Spain, in the Tarragonenfis,
belonging to the Murbogi. Ptolemy.

SISARIS, Manfourah, a river in the caltern part of
Mauritania Cajfarienfis. Its mouth was five leagues N.E.
of that of the river Nafava.

SISARMES, m Ancient Armour. See GiSARMES.
SISARUM, in Botany, the Skirret, an eatable root, now
out of life with us, though cultivated in the days of Gcrardc
and Parkinfon. Its flavour is faid to be aromatic, witli a
fweetnefs not acceptable to every body, and of a flatulent,
or indigeftible, quality. See SluM.

SISAURANUM, in Ancient Geography, a famous town
of Periia, at the diitance of two journies frorri Dara and three
miles from Rabdian, accordinir to Procopius. This town
was taken and razed by the emperor Jultinian.

SISCAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Arragon ;
19 miles E.N.E. of Balbaltro.

SISCO, a town of the idand of Coriica; 6 miles N. of
Baftia.

SISECKE, a river of Germany, in the county of Mark,
which runs into the Lippc, a little below Lunen.

SISIBOU, or Sissinoi;, a town of Nova Scotia, on the
W. coaft: ; 25 miles S.S.E. of Annapolis.

SISINILLA, atown of the illand of Cuba ; 12 miles
E.N.E. of Trinidad.

SISKIN, in Ornithology. See Spixus.
SISNOVIA, in Geography, a town of Illria ; 3 miles
S.E. of Pedena.

SISOGUICHI, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Bifcay ; 140 miles W. of Parral.

SISOLSK, UsT, a town of Ruffia, at the confluence of
the rivers Vim and Vitchegda, in the province of Tilling ;
izo miles N.E. of Ulting. N. lat. 61'^ 55'. E. long.
49° 40'-

SISON, in Botany, a name adopted from Diofcorides,
whofe o-icrtv, as he tells us, <' is a little feed, produced in Sy-
ria, refembling parlley, oblong, black, and of a hot talte.
Many of thefe feeds grow together at the tops of the ilalks."
There can be little doubt that this defcription apphes to
one of the umbelliferous order, but to what precife fpecies
or genus, can fcarcely be guefl'ed ; nor did Dr. Sibthorp,
when he examined the famous manufcript of Diofcorides at
Vienna, find any thing to guide him refpedling this point. —
Limi. Gen. 139. Schreb. iSS. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1436.
Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Bnt. 315. Prodr. Fl.
Grxc. Sibth. v. i. 195. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 14J.
Purlh 194. Juff. 221. — Clafs and order, Peniamlria Di-
gynia. Nat. Ord. UmhcUatit, Linn. Umbclliferx, Juif.

Gen. Ch. General Umbel of fewer than fix unequal rays }
partial of fewer than ten unequal rays. General Iimolucrum
of about four unequal leaves ; /i^/r/w/ fimilar to it. Perianth
fcarcely difcernible. Cor. Uni-verfal uniform ; all the
flowers fertile ; partial equal, of five lanceolate, inflexed,
flattifli petals. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, the length
of the corolla ; a:;thers fimple. P//'/. Germen inferior,
nearly ovate ; ityles two, reflexed ; itigm.ns obtufe. Peric.
Fruit ovate, ftriated, feparating into two parts. Seeds two,
ovate, convex and firiated on one fide, flat on the other.

Efl'. Ch. Flowers uniform, all fertile. General and par-
tial involucrum each of few leaves. Fruit ovate, Itnated.
Petals lanceolate, inflexed.

I. 8. Amomum. Hedge Honewort, or Baftard Stone-
parlley. Linn. Sp. PI. 362. Willd. n. i. Fl. Brit. n. i.
Engl. Bot. t. 954. Jacq.Hort. Vind. V. :;. 13. t. 17. (Petro-
felinum macedonicum Fuchfii ; Ger. Em. 1016.) — Leaves
pinnate. Umbels ereft, of about four rays. — Native of
England, Germany, the fouth of France, and the neighbour-

2

hood of the Bithynian Olympus. With us it chiefly occurs Jn
moilt fhady places, where the foil is marly or chalky, flower-
ing in Augull. The root is fpindle-fhaped, annual or bi-
ennial. Stem two or three feet high, branched, widely fpn aJ-
ing, leafy, llriated, fmooth. Leaves dark green, fmooth,
fimply pinnate, with a terminal lobed leaflet ; the upper ones
more compound or divided ; all fliarply ferrated and cut.
Umbels numerous, terminal, folitary, ereft when in flower,
white, but fmall and inconfpicuous. Fruit roundi(h-ovate.
Seeds aromatic and pungent when ripe. In a green Itate,
their fcent, like that of the whole herb, when bruifed, is
peculiarly naufeous, fomewhat like Coriander, but even
worfe. Thefe feeds have been known in the European
Pharmacopsas by the name of Amomum, no one knowing
what was the true Amomum ; and have been celebrated as
diuretic, ufeful in the Itone and gravel, &c. ; but they are
now out of ufe, probably with no lofs to the patient.

2. 5.fegetum. Corn Honewort. Linn. Sp. PI. 362.
WiUd. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n. 2. EprI. Bot. t. 228. Jacq.
Hort. Vind. v. 2. 63. t. 134. (Selinum fii foliis ; Ger.
Em. tOlS. Sium terreilre, feu fegetale ; Morif. feft. 9.
t. 5. f. 6. ) — Leaves pinnate; leaflets roundifh, numerous.
Umbels drooping, ihapelefs. — Native of England and Swit-
zerland, but rare, chiefly in moiit low fields, on a calcareous
foil, flowering in Augult. Scarcely any body but a curious
botanill would obferve this little plant, which appears like a
ilarved fpecimen of many a more common kind. The nu-
merous crowded leajlets, imbricated, in a manner, before they
expand, and the Itragghng, drooping, little umbels, are pe-
culiar. The Jiotuers, and their anthers, are tinged with
purple.

3. S. canadenfe. Three-leaved Canadian Honewort. Linn.
Sp. PI. 363. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (Chxrophyllum
canadenfe; Purfli 195. Myrrhis canadenfis ; Riv. Pentap.
Irr. t. 54. M. canadenfis trilobata ; Morif. feft. 9. t. ii.
f. 4. ) — Leaves ternate. General involucrum wanting. Seeds
elliptic-oblong. — Common in the woods of North America,
from Canada to Virginia, flowering in Juh'. Purflj. Root
perennial, of manv tapering fibres. Stem two feet hiorh,
branched, round, fmooth, leafy. Leajlets fmooth, broad,
acute, doubly and iharply ferrated ; tiie lateral ones, of the
lower leaves, often deeply divided, and their intermediate
one fometimes three-lobed. Umbels flender, unequal, delli-
tute of a general involucrum, and v.'ith very fmall ])artial
ones, but otherwife having the genuine habit of this ^renus,
and no character of Chitrophyllum. Fruit elliptic-oblong,
Itrongly ribbed, fmooth, crowned with the fmall, conical,
converging llyles.

4. S. Ammi. Fennel-leaved Honewort. Linn. Sp. PI.
363. Willd. n. 4. Jacq. Hort. Vind. y. 2. 95. t. 200.
( .-Ymmi ; Camer. Epit. 522. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 120.
Riv. Pentap. Irr. 91. A. perpufiUum ; Lob. Tc. 725.
Ger. Em. 1037.) — Leaves triplv pinnate ; the radical ones
with linear fegments ; the upper fetaceous. — Native of Por-
tugal, Italy, and Egypt. A flender, annual, fmooth plant,
about a foot high, with an aromatic parfley-like fmtll. Seg-
ments of the leaves alternate, or ternate, acute. General
umbels of five or more ray?, with an unequal, fomevvhrt
leafy, involucrum ; partial of numerous fnort rays ; their
involitcral leaves linear, minutely fringed. Jacquin fays his
plant had neither general nor partial involucrum. Flowers
white. Germen in tlie original L'nnxan fpecimen, from
Cliff^ord's garden, ovate, minutely granulated, of whicli mark
we find no account. The ripe feeds are defcribed by Jacquiu
and Rivinus as ovate.

5. S. pujilltim. Dwarf Honewort. Michaux Boreal-
Amcr. V, 1. 168. Purfli n, i. (Daucus divaricatus ;

Walt.

S 1 s

Walt. Carol. 114, according to Furfh.) — " Leaves twice-
ternate, many-cleft. Partial umbels of three to live flowers.
Seeds roughidi " In dry fandy fields in Carolina, flowering
in April and May. Root annual. Purjb.

6. S. trifoliatum. Three-leaved Carolina Honevvort. Mi-
chaux, ibid. Purfli n. 2. — " Leaves all ternatc ; leaflets
toothed ; the lower ones oval, with two or three lobes ;
upper oval-lanceolate. Umbel terminal, Italked, folitary.
iJeeds roundifh." — Found by Mirhaux in North Carolina.

7. S. marginatum. White-edged Honevvort. Michaux,
ibid. Piirfli n. 3. — " Leaves pinnate ; the upper ones
qirinate ; leaflets all fefTile, lanceolate, entire, bordered with
■white. General and partial involucrum wanting." — In wet
meadows, from Virginia to Carolina, flowering in July and
Augult. Perennial. Purjh.

?,. S.falfum. Salt Honewort. Linn. Sp. 181. Willd.
11.7. (" Peucedanum redivivum ; Pallas Aft. Petrop. 1779.
V. 2. 252. t. 8. f. 1 — 3") — Leaves radical, doubly pin-
nate ; leaflets digitate, lomewhat whorled. Stem leaflcfs,
panicled, with numerous umbels. — In dry, muddy, fait
plains about the Wolga ; gathered by Pallas, whofe fpeci-
nien is before us. The root is perennial. Leaves all radi-
cal, appearing in the fpring, Italked, fpreading, three inches
long, doubly compound, the leaflets crowded as if whoiled,
in many fmooth, oblong, brilllc-pointed fegraents, all toge-
ther refembling fome feathery fort of Conferva. Stem ap-
pearing after the leaves are gone, twelve or eighteen inches
high, (lender, round, fmooth, bearing in Augufl a panicle,
alternately compounded, of (lender fpreading umbels, each of
from three to five rays. At the b:ife of each branch is a
fharp membranous-bordered leaf, or hraHea. Partial umbels
of five or fix capillary rays. General involucrum of two or
three fmall membranous leaves ; partial like it, but fmallcr.
/'/owfrj white. GcrmenosisXi. /Vu/V more oblong, fmooth,
obfcurely ribbed. Some of the_/?OTOf/-.f in each partial umbel
do indeed appear to be abortive, whence perhaps Pallas re-
ferred this curious fpecies to Ptucedanum ; but we find no
traces of a wing to the feeds, to confirm that meafure.

9. S. crinitum. Capillary-leaved Honewort. Willd. n. 8.
" Pallas Adt. Petrop. 1779. v. 2. 250. t. 7." — " Radical
leaves triply pinnate : thole of the item bipinnate ; leaflefs
brilUe-fhaped. General involucrum of many doubly pinnate
leaves." — Native ot Siberia. Pallas. AVe have not feen
the plate cited, but the involucrum is defcribed as doubly
compound and fetaccous.

Two Britilh Liiinxan fpecies, tb.c inunJatum and verticil-
lalum, are removed, in the Flora Britannica, Irom the prefent
genus ; the former to Hvdiioiotvlk, and the latter to
SiuM ; fee thofe articles. We are as confident of the pro-
priety of thii alteration, as it is poflible to be on any qiief-
tion regarding the genera of umbclhterous plants. Sifin
itfelf is confidered, by fome botanills, as a doubtful geiuis,
and is reduced to Sium by Lamarck in his Diftionary,
V. 1 . 404.

SisoM Syriacum, a name given by fome authors to the
ammi, or billiDp's weed, a plant whofe feeds were once
much iifed in medicine.

SIS.SA, in Geography, a town of th;- duchy of Parma ;
II miles N.N.W. iif Parma.

SISSACH, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Bale ; 13 miles S.E. of Bale.

SISSAN, a town of Illria ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Pola.

SISSITIEPTKRIS, in Botany, a name ufed by Pliny,
and fome others of the old authors, for the pimpinella, or
burnet,

SISSONNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ailne, and chief place of a canton, in the

S I s

diftridVof Laon ; 10 miles E of Laon. The place contains
1 105, and the canton 10,327 inhabitants, on a territory of
3375 kiliometres, in 20 communes.

SISSOPOLI. See Sizeboli.

SISSUER, a town of Hindoollan, in Oude ; 24 miles
E.S.E. of Manickpour.

SI STAN, or SiiGEsTAN'. See Seistak.

SISTER, a female born of the fame parents.

SisTEii-.fi/ofi.f, in Block-Mating, are blocks made of alll,
(imilar to two fiiigle blocks, and turned out of a folid piece,
about two mches long, one above the other : between the
blocks is a fcore for a middle-feizing ; a round head is
turned at each end, and hollowed underneath, to contain the
end-feizings : along the fides through which the pins are
driven, is a groove, large enough to receive part of the top-
malt fliroud, in which it is (eized. In thefe blocks reeve
the lifts, and reef-tackle pendants of the topfail-yards.

SISTERON, m Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a dillridt, in the department of the Lower
Alps, fituated on the Durance, with a fmall callle on a
rock ; and before the revolution the fee of a bilhop, fuf-
fragan of Aix ; 15 miles N.W. of Digne. The place
contains 3891, and the canton 7070 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 230 kiliometres, in 9 communes. N. lat. 44^ i j'.
E. long. 6' l'.

SISTERS, two fmall iflands in the Red fea. N. lat. 19°
30'. E. long. 39'^ 15'. — Alfo, two very fmall iflands near
the coall of Sumatra, covered with wood, lying in S. lat.
S° oi'. E. long. 106' 12'; nearly N. and S. from each
other, and furrounded by a reef of coral rocks ; the whole
circumference of which is about four or iwe miles.

SISTERSDORF. See Zisteiisdorf.

SISTOTREMA, in Botany, a genus of Fungi, of which
feveral fpecies are delcribed, and fome figured, in Albertini
and Schweiniz's very learned work, entitled Confpeilus Fun-
gorum in Lufatitt fuperioris agro Nijhienfi crefcentium, p. 260 —
264. We, however, find there no generic character. The
plants feem mod akin to Hvdxum ; fee that article. The
name appears to be compounded of a-uri; and T^i/xa, alluding
to the regular rows of pores ; but if fo, it ought to be
Syjlotrema.

SISTOVA, or Szisto, in Geography, a town of Euro-
pean Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube ;
25 miles E. of Nicopoli. N. lat. 43 ' 45'. E. long. 24" 44'.

S I STRO I D yingle. See t\\<.'AA:.

SISTRUM, a (acred mufical inllrument with the ancient
Egyptians ; and one that is itill ufed by the Abyflinians in
religious ceremonies.

Spoil defcribcs it of an oval form, made in m.inner of a
racket, with three (licks traverfing it breadthwife, wliich,
playing freely by the agitation or beating of the inftrument,
yielded a kind of louiid, whicli, to the ancients, feemed
melodious. The upper part was adorned with three figures ;
that of a cat with a human face in the middle, the bead of
Ifis on the right fide, and the head of Nephthys on the left.
The reprefentation which we have given in the Plate of Mufic
was drawn from an ancient filtrum preferved in the library of
St. Genevieve at Paris. It Inu been difputed by the abbe
Winckelman, whether the (illrum was of very high antiijiiity
in Egypt, becaule it did not appear in the hands of (ucii
Egyptian ilatues as he had leen at Rome ; but as there is
one in the hand of a very aiicunt flatue of Ili'i, which
dodtor Pocoeke brought into England from Egypt, it puts
that point of mufical hillory out of all dilpiite. The
fillrum appears in the Ifiac Table ; and Apuleius makrx
an old Greek invoke an Egyptian priell " by the liars in
the firmament ; by the infernal divinities ; by the elements

which

S 1 s

S I s

which compole the univeife ; by the filence of the night ;
by the fandiuary in the temple of Coptos ; by the increafe
of the Nile ; by the myfteries of Memphis ; and by the
fillrum of Pharos." By Pharos, an Egyptian ifland, was
here figuratively meant, all Egypt.

Mr. Malcolm takes the filtrum to have been no better
than a kind of rattle. .Ter. Bofius has an exprefs treatife on
the filtrum, intitlcd, " Ifiacus de Siilro."

Oifelius obferves, that the fiilrum is found reprefented on
feveral medals ; and alfo on talifmans. Ofiris, on fome
medals, is painted with the head of a dog, and with a fiftrum
in his hand.

SISUPALA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a
malignant perfonage, into whofe body an infolent celeflial
was doomed to be re-born on earth, as an expiation of his
offence. He was flain by Krifhna.

&\S>Y -fur-Ourcq, in Geography. See l^lZY-fur-Ourcq.

SISYMBRIUM, in Botany, Z^<7v^^.;^'yj of the Greeks,
at leait the 5;. Hsfov of Diofcorides is probably included under
our prefent genus. His firil fpecies, celebrated for its
fragrance, has been fuppofed Wild Thyme, and by fome
nrur Mentha hirfuta, which laft has alfo occafionally a very
fweet fmell. De Theis feems not to have been aware of
this ; nor might the plant in queftion find a place in gar-
lands dedicated to Venus, fo much on account of its odour,
as of its warm and cordial properties. — Linn. Gen. 338
Schreb. 441. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 489. Mart. Mill. Diet.
V.4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 700. Prodr. Fl. Gric. Sibth. V. 2. iS.
Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 4. III. Purfh 440. Jull. 239. La-
marck Diet. V. 7. 201. Illuftr. t. 565. — Clafs and order,
Tetr adynamia Siliquofa. Nat. Ord. Siliquofa, Linn. Cru-
eiferte, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four lanceolate-
linear, fpreading, coloured, deciduous leaves. Cor. cruci-
form, of four oblong fpreading petals, often lefs than the
calyx with very fmall claws. Stam. Filaments fix, longer
than the calyx, of which the two oppofite ones are rather
thelhorteft; anthers fimple. Pijl. Germen oblong-thread-
(haped ; ftyle fcarcely any ; ftigma obtufe. Peric. Pod
long, incurved, gibbous, round, with two cells and two
ftraight valves, which are rather fhorter than the partition.
Seeds numerous, fmall.

Ed. Ch. Pod burfting, with nearly ftraight valves.
Calyx and corolla fpreading.

A copious genus, tolerably natural as to habit, but not
very diftmftly defined ; of which the 14th edition of Linn.
Sylt. Veg. contains twenty-nine fpecies, and Willdenow's
Sp. PI. fifty-three. Nine of them are found wild in Britain.
We (hall defcribe all the latter, and give a general view of the
five feftions, into which the whole genus is divided by Lin-
naeus. Mr. Brown, in his very ingenious attempt at re-
forming the genera of the clafs Tetradynamia, in Ait. Hort.
Kew. has feparated fome fpecies, principally of the firll
feftion, into a genus called Najlurtium, and he has referred
two of the Britifh ones to Sinapis, (fee that article,) and
one to Br.'Vssica. Refpefting thefe very fpecies, there
has heretofore been a difference of opinion among botanilts,
as will appear when we come to fpeak of them in order.
The whole genus is herbaceous, either annual or perennial,
with alternate leaves, various, and fometimes inconilant,
in fhape and divifion mollly fmooth. The fo^vers are
almoll invariably yellow ; though always white in the firft
fpecies.

Seft. I . Pods declining, part. Eleven fpecie* in Will-
denow.

S. Najlurtium. Common Water-crefs. Linn. Sp. PI.
916. Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. %-^^.

7

Curt. Lend. fafc. 6. t. 44. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 4S.
Fl. Dan. t. 690. (Nallurtium officinale; Br. in Ai'.
Hort. Kew. v. 4. no. N. aquaticum, five Crates f
Sium ; Ger. Em. 257.) — Pods declining. Leaves pin-
nate ; leaflets roundifh-heart-lhaped. — In clear rivulets aid
fprings throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece, :i;
well as in North America ; and, according to Mr. Purfli,
on the high mountains of the ifland of Dominica. It
is perennial, flowering in June and July. No Britifh plant
is in fuch popular requell as a falad ; the young leaves
having a pleafantly warm pungent flavour, and being fup-
pofed, like fcurvy-grafs, to purify the blood. They/Vij
are branched, angular and leafy, floating by the help of their
foliage, fending down long, white, fibrous roots, and termi.
nating in afcending corymbofe tufts, of numerous, while,
purplifli-tinted^owirrj. fucceeded by long clultcrs of (hort,
gibbous, recurved, ftalked pods. The leaves are fmooth,
of a dark fhining green, confilting of five or feven leaflets,
the terminal one largeft. There can be little doubt of this
being o-i5-u/.(/3fiov sls^oy of Diofcorides. The modern Greeks
call it vEfoi-.y'foapov ; a word fynonimous with Water-crefs.

S. fylvejlre. Creeping Water Rocket. Linn. Sp. Pi.
916. Willd. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 2324.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 41. (Nafturtium fylveilre ; Br.
in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. no. Eruca aquatica ; Ger.
Em. 248. Brachiolobos fylvedris ; Allien. Pedem. v. i.
278. t. 56. f. 2. ) — Pods declining. Leaves pinnate ;
leaflets lanC'tolate, deeply ferrated or cut. — Native of gra-
velly walle ground, in marfliy places, or near rivers,
flowering from June to September, in feveral parts of
England, as well as in Germany, Switzerland, and France.
Dr. Sibthorp obferved it on mount Hsemus. The root
creeps fo extenfively, that the pods are moltly abortive.
Stems ereft, leafy, angular, zig-zag, roaghiih, fomewhat
panicled. Leaves fmooth ; the leaflets of the lower ones
decurrent, varioufly toothed ; of the upper narrower, more
flightly cut or ferrated. i^/owfrj of a golden yellow ; their
cluiters after flowering elongated and zig-zag.

Willdei-iow fuppofes S. lippi:e.enfe, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 505,
to be a variety of this, with more entire leaflets ; but it is
drawn with a fibrous, not creeping, root.

S. terrejlre. Annual Water Rocket. Curt. Lond.
fafc. 5. t. 49. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 1747.
(S. palufl;re; Willd. n. 3. PoUich v. 2. 230. Purfh n. 2.
S. amphibium a. ; Hudf. 296. Nafturtium terreftre ; Br.
in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. no. Raphanus aquaticus, foliis
in profundas lacinias divifis ; Bauh. Prodr. 38 ) — Pods de-
clining, turgid. Leaves pinnalifid, unequally toothed.
Root limply fibrous. Petals fcarcely fo long as the calyx.
— Found in watery places, about the fides of ditches, in the
north of Europe, as well as America. Very plentiful

about London, flowering from June to September The

root is annual, fometimes branching at the top, but not
creeping. Stem a foot high, nearly upright, branched,
leafy, furrowed, fmooth. Leaves lyrate, unequally toothed.
Flowers numerous, yellow, fmall and inconfpicuous, fuc-
ceeded by fliort, turgid, ereft pods, whofe partial flalks are
widely extended.

S. amphibium. Great Water Rocket, or Radifh. Linn.
Sp. PL 917. Willd. n. 4. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot.
t. 1840. Purflin. 3. Fl. Dan. t. 984. ( S. amphibium^ ;
Hudf. 296, and y, 297. Nafturtium amphibium ; Br. in
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. no. Raphanus aquaticus alter;
Bauh. Prodr. 38. R. aquaticus; Ger. Em. 240.) — Pods
declining, on longifli partial italks. Leaves oblong, pin-
natifid or ferrated. Petals longer than the calyx. — Not
rare in the rivers and ditches of America, and the north of

Europe ;

SISYMBRIUM.

Knrope ; frequent in England, flowering copioufly in July
.iiid Auguft. In running dreams it grows to a great iize,
with long floating _/?<'mx, throwing out abundance of white
librous radicles, and bearing, under water, deeply peAinated
leaves. On the neighbouring banks it is found fmaller,
with broader, and merely ferrated, foliage. The primary
roots are perennial, long, perpendicular, not creeping. The
leaves which grow out of the water are more or lefs oblong,
jagged, clafping the item with their dilated bafc ; the radical
ones ftalked. Flovi^rs yellow, not very bright. Pods (hort
and fmall, often abortive. This feems to be the plant
which Chateaubriand obferved in Suffolk, and of which he
has given fo extravagant an account in his travels ; as if the
works of the Creator were not, of themfelves, fufficicntly
admirable, without bambait or exaggeration.

S. tanacelifolitim. Tanfy-leaved Wild-rocket. Linn.
Sp.PI.916. Wilid.n.6. Ait. n. 12. (Eruca, n. 460 ;
Hall. Hilt. V. I. 200. E. tanaceti folio; Morif. fedt. 3.
t. 6. f. 19. E. fruticofo, con foglie di tanaceto, indiana ;
Zanon. Ift. 86. t. 33.) — Leaves pinnate; leaflets lanceo-
late, cut or deeply ferrated ; hoary beneath ; the ultimate
ones confluent. Pods eredt, lomewliat club-(haped. — Native
of thickets and groves, on the loftiell alps of Savoy and
Switzerland, but efteemed one of tiie rarell plants of thofe
countries. We gathered it in feed on mount Cenis, Augult
13, 1787. Miller is faid to have cultivated this 5'//3'm^r;H»!
in 1731, and we believe it is flill to be met with m curious
collections. The root is perennial. Stem two or thrvje feet
high, clothed with very handfome fpreading leaves, finely
downy and hoary beneath, and often befprinkled with mi-
nute Harry hairs on their upper furface. Flowers of a
golden yellow, numerous, in terminal corymbs, growing out
into long, lax clutters of fmooth, ereift, obtufe pods, half
an inch or more in length, tapering at their bafe ; their par-
tialjlalls about the fame length, alcending obliquely.

S. tcnuifoliiim. Wall Wild-rocket. Linn. Sp. PI. 917.
Willd. n. 9 Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot t. 525. (Braffica
muralis ; Hudf. 290. Curt. Loud. fafc. 3. t. 38. Sinapis
tenuifolia ; Br. in Ait. H. Kew. v. 4. 128. Sinapi eriicx
folio ; Bauh. Pin. 99. Tourn. Inil. 227. S. tertium ;
Matth. Valgr. v. i. 516. Eruca fylveltris ; Gei. Em. 246.)
- — Pods ereft, fomewhat beaked. Leaves fmooth, pinnatilid
orbipinnatihd, nearly entire ; the uppermolt undivided. — Na-
tive of old walls and rubbifli, in England, Germany, Switzer-
land, and France, as well as about Conftantinopk-, flower-
ing from July to October. The root is perennial. Plant
bufliy, fmooth, fomewhat glaucous, ifafw acute, varioufly
fimiatcd and pinnatifid ; their fegments lanceolate. Floiuers
large, lemon-coloured, fl.rongly fcented. Pods diltant,
tipped with the flightly elongated Jlyle.

S.fagitlatum. Arrow-leaved Wild-rocket. Willd. n. 10.
(S. moUe ; Jacq. Coll. v. i. 68. Ic. Rar. t. 122. Naf-
turtium fagittatum ; Br. in Ait. H. Kew. v. 4. III.) —
Downy. Leaves oblong, with fliallow teeth ; the radical
ones haltate ; the rell clafping the item with their arrow-
(haped bafe. — Native of Siberia. Sent to Kew, by Pallas,
in 1780. Tiie root is fpindle-fliaped, perennial. Whole
plant clothed with luft, dt-prelled, fomewhat ftellated down.
Leaves bluntifli, bearing fome refemblance to thofe of Slap-
herd's Purfe. Floiuers yellow, fucceeded by long cluflers of
drooping downy pods.
. Seft. 2. Pods often axillary, nearly feffile. Five fpecies.

S. polyceralium. Dandelion-leaved Wild-rocket. Linn.
Sp. PI. 918. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. II. Prodr. Fl.
Graec. n. 1535. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1.34.1.79. (Irio
alter; Matth. Valgr. v. 1.524. Erylimum alterum itali-
cum ; Ger. Emac. 254.) — Pods axillary, aggregate, awl-

fliaped, nearly feffile. Leaves wavy or toothed Native of

Switzerland, Fiance, Italy, and Greece. Dr. Sibthorp
found it, very common, throughout the laft-mentioned
country and the illands of the Archipelago, in wafte ground,
court-yards, and about villages, as Diofcondes reports of
his (^vTtfj.m, which therefore the Oxford profeflbr judged this
plant to be ; perhaps rightly ; but the defcription of the
Greek author, particularly the yellow flowers, and the termi-
nal pods, anfwer better to our Eryfimum ojicinale (Sijym-
brium nfficinale, Br. in Ait, H. Kew. n. I.), which is aWo a
Greek plant. The prcfent Sifymbrium, a mean and ill.
looking weed, is perfectly naturalized about Bury, in Suf-
folk, and might be taken for a native Britifh plant, had we
not the authority of fir T. G. CuUum, for its having
efcaped, many years fince, from the botanic garden of the
Rev. Mr. Laurence of that town. The roc/ is annual. Stems
branched, decumbent, leafy, fmooth, gradually elongated
after flowering. Leaves ahowt an inch long, on fliort ftalks,
fimple, fomewhat haflate, flightly toothed or wavy, fmooth.
Floivirs fmall, white, axillary, on fhort flalks, two or
three together. Pods rather curved, an inch long, uneven,
fmooth, with a zig-zag furrow along each flde.

S. torulofum. Rough-pddded Wild-rocket. Desfont,
Atlant. V. 2. 84. t. 159. Willd. n. 16. Sm. Fl. Gra:c.
Sibth. t. 632, unpublifhed. — Pods racemofe, feflile, awl-
Ihaped, hairy. Stem diflufe. Leaves lanceolate, toothed.
— Native of uncultivated fields, in Tunis, and the ifle of
Cyprus. An annual, branched, nearly proftrate herb, very
like the laft in general appearance, but the leaves are longer,
truly lanceolate, and regularly toothed. Floiuers terminal,
denfely corymbofe, white, their ftalk lengthening out into
a long clii/ler, or rather Jpiie, oi crowded, feffile, fpreading,
rugged, hairy peiis, each about an inch in length.

Seft. 3. Stem for the moft part naked. Eight fpecies.

S. murale. Sand Wild-rocket. Linn. Sp. PI. 918.
Willd. n. 17. Dickf. Dr. PI. 12. Engl. Bot. t. 1090.
Fl. Brit. 1401. (Eruca viminea, iberidis folio, luteo flore ;
Barrel. Ic. t. 131. Sinapis muralis ; Br. in Ait. H. Kew.
V. 4. 128.) — Pods ereft. Stem fpreading, fhort, roughifh.
Leaves lanceolate, deeply ferrated. — Native of France,
Italy, and the ifle of Thanet, in wafte fandy ground,
flowering in autumn. /?5o/ truly annual. 5/fOT.f branching,
diflufe, often very fliort, leafy, round, more or lefs rough
with deflexed hairs. Leaves of a grafs green, tapering at
the bafe into long footftalks ; their margin deeply and irre-
gularly ferrated. Floiuers fmaller than thole of S. tenmfo-
lium, their corymbs becoming long loofe clujlers of ereft, cy-
lindrical, fmooth pods, on fpreading, hairy ftalks. S. Eru-
caflrum, Gouan llluflr. t. 20, is precifely this plant, not a
variety.

S. monenfe. Dwarf Sea Wild-rocket. Lmn. Sp. PI.
ed. I. 658. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 962. Willd.
n. 18. Lightf. Scot. 353. t. 15. f. I. (Braflica monenfis ;
Hudf. 291. Br. in Ait. H. Kew. v. 4. 124. Eruca mo-
nenfis laciniata, flore luteo majore ; Dill. Elth. 135. t. I 11.
f. 135.) — Pods nearly ered, quadrangular, with a long
beak. Leaves pinnatifid, flightly hairy. Stems fimple, al-
mofl naked, fmooth. — Native of the fandy fliores of Bute,
Arraii, and the weft of Scotland, as well as of Cumber-
land, and the iflos it Walney, Anglefea, and Man. Root
thick, woody, and perennial. Stems feveral, a fpan high,
leafy at the bottom only. Leaves almofl all radical, nu-
merous, flalked, rather fleflly and glaucous ; their fegment*
deep, tolerably uniform, either entire, or with broad inci-
lions. Floiuers large, numerous, lemoii-colonrcd, corym-
bofe, fucceeded by a long cluflcr of Imooth, obfcurely
quadrangular, upright, flalked, long-beaked pods. Calyx

Icfs

SISYMBRIUM.

Icfs fpreading tha* in moft of the fpecies, its leaves hairy at
the tips. Petals veined. — We have been led to doubt whe-
thei- Gerard's plant from Provence, defcribed in the fecond
edition of Sp. PI. and preferved in the Linnsean herbarium,
be the fame with our's ; becaufe -itsjlowers are fmaller, and
tlie veins of \.he\T petals fcarcely difccrniblc, though in cur's
very llrong. It may neverthelel's be a mere variety. We
find in its yowng poih plain indications of the remarkable lan-
ceolate beak, half the length of the pod itfelf, fo ilriking
in our S. monenfe, and figured, as well as defcribed, in
Englifh Botany. WiUdenow was mifled by Villars to con-
fider Gerard's as the fame with the following.

S. repandum. Wavy-leaved Wild-rocket. Willd. n. 19.
(S. monenfe ; Villars Uauph. v. 3. 350. t. 39, the fynonyms
mo!lly, if not entirely, wrong.) — Pods nearly ereit, com-
prefFed, uneven, with a fhort quadrangular beak. Leaves with
wavy teeth, fmooth. Stems fimple, fmooth, quite naked. —
Native of the mountains of Dauphiny ; our Ipecinien is from
Villars himfelf, and prove?, uotwithilanding his aflertion, very
diltinft from the plant of Gerard, mentioned under our pre-
ceding fpecies, as well as from Britiih fpecimensof that fpecies.
We have no means of knowing exactly how far the author
is correft in Tournefort's fynonym ; but the phrafe radice
cnifd anfwers admirably to Gerard's fpecimen, and not to
that of Villars. The root of the latter is long and tapering,
divided, but not very thick, at the crown, where it bears fe-
veral fimple tufts of ilalked, oblong, or obovate, bluntifh
leaves, about an inch only in length, always quite Imooth ;
their margins either wavy, or more or lefs deeply toothed.
Stems folitary, four or five inches high, quite leaflefs, fimple,
round and fmooth, each bearing from four to nine large co-
rymho^e Jlo'wers, of a fine yellow. Calyx fmooth, fiightly
fpreading, a little coloured. Pods fiightly fpreading, ra-
ther longer than the lall as to their valvular part, meafuring
from one and a half to two inches ; but the beak is hardly
two lines, inflead of three-quarters of an inch, long, by
which the plants are clearly diltinguilhed. Willdenow
rightly defcribes the valves of the prefent, which are un-
equally bunched out by the Jl-eds, as marked with an elevated
line, that makes them feem quadrangular ; but they are
mucii lefs really fo than in S. monenfe, whofe pods few bo-
taniils appear to have feen.

S. vtmlneum. Rufliy-ilalked Wild- rocket. Linn. Sp.
PI. 919. Willd. n. 21. (Eruca pamila, burfce pallons
folio ; Bocc. Sic. 19. t. 10. f. 2. E. minimo florc, monf-
pelienfis ; Eauh. Hill. v. 2. S62 ; the leaves, as the author
obferves, too fliarp.) — Pods ereft, comprefled, with a fliort
quadrangular beak. Stems widely fpreading, leafy at the
bafe. Leaves fmooth, obovate ; toothed or pinnatifid.
Petals ertdl, fcarcely exceeding the calyx. — Native of Si-
cily and the fouth of France. A hardy annual, which we
have had for near twenty years, fpringing up fpontaneoudy,
in a garden, fo that it merits a place in Mr. Aiton's v.-ork,
though of no attraftive afpeft, to procure it general notice.
The root is fmall and fibrous. Stems feveral, branching at
the very bafe only, from three to eight inches long, widely
fpreading or decumbent, limply racemofe, round, flender,
fmooth. Leaves numerous, about the bottom of each
ttctn, Italiced, from one to tv/o or three inches long, very
obtufe ; either fimply obovate, entire, and partly wavy, or
piimatifid in a lyrate manner, fometimes rather deeply.
Flonuers extremely fmall, with a tawny and purplith tinge,
fucceeded by a long duller of diltant pods, hardly an inch
long, fmooth, (lightly unequal in their furface, each valve
marked with a flender elevated line. This fpecies, though
very diftinft, is fo much akin to the lalt, that their charac
tcrs are difficult to define^ The calyx and corolla of the

prefent hardly anfwer indeed to the idea of a Sifymbr'tum,h\it
rather to that of jirabis.

Seft. 4. Leaves pinnate, or deeply pinnatifid. Twenty
fpecies.

S. Sophia. Flix-weed. Linn. Sp. PI. 920. Willd.
n. 29. Fl. Brit, n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 963. Mart. Ruft.
t. 57. FL Dan. t. 528. Purih n. 4. (Sophia chirur-
gorum ; Ger. Em. 1068. Lob. Ic. 738.) — Leaves doubly
pinnate, with decurrent fegments, a little hairy. Petals
fmaller than the calyx — Native of watle ground, rubbini,
and banks throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece,
flowering in fummer. Mr. Purfii fpeaks of it as occurring
by road-fides in Virginia, but rarely. We prefume the feedj
may have been imported from England. The root is annual.
Stem about two feet high, creft, copioufly clothed with J
finely divided fpreading leaves, whofe ultimate divifions are '
rather pinnatifid than pinnate. Floiuers pale yellow, very
fmall and inccnfpicuous, denfely corymbofe, fucceeded by
long cliiflers of flender, upright, torulofe pods, on flender,
fpreading, partial llalks, their valves feparating and fpread-
ing from the bafe, fomewhat like a Cardamine. The herb
has been thought ufeful in fluxes.

S. millefolium. Mill-foil-leaved Wild-rocket. Willd.
n. 28. Ait. n. 14. (Sinapis millefolia ; Jacq. Coll. v. I.
41. Ic. Rar. t. 127.) — Leaves triply pinnate, downy and
hoary. Petals larger than the calyx. — Native of the Ca-
nary idands, from whence Mr. Maiion brought it in 1779*
This IS a perennial, flirubby, greenhoufe plant, flovi'ering
from May to September. Though like the lall in general
aipeft, the leaves are more compound and hoary, with
ufually more rounded fegments or leaflets; and the^oo'cr/
are much more confpicuous, on account of their fpreading
■YeWow petals, double the lengtli of the calyx.

S. Irio. London Wild-rocket. Linn. Sp. PI. 921.
Willd. n. 36. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 1631. Curt.
Lond. falc. 5. t. 48. Jacq. Aullr. t. 322. (Eryfimum
latifolium majus glabrum ; Bauh. Pin. loi. Monf. feft. 3.
t. 3. f. 3, at the bottom. Lio Isevis apulus, erucs folio;
Column. Ecphr. 264. t. 265.) — Leaves runcinate, toothed,
naked. Stem fmooth. Pods ered, very long, thread-
fliaped. — Native of cultivated ground throughout Europe.
Very common about London, where it was fuppofed by the
fapient advocates of fpontaneous generation, to have been
generated in confequence of the great fire, in 1666. If,
therefore, we confide in the bold aflertion on the Monument,
or the infcription on the fat boy at Pye-corner, this plant
ought to be a cure for popery, or " the fin of gluttony," or
for both. However this n-iay be, the root is annual, the
whole herb, except the upper Jlou'crflalis and calyx occa-
fionally, is invariably fmooth, with an acrid flavour, like
muilard. Ste?n ereft, about two feet high, round, leafy,
flightly zigzag, molUy branched. Leaves none of them
truly pinnate, but deeply pinnatifid, with fpreading or re-
flexed oblong lobes, moft: toothed at their upper or fore
edge. Flowers corymbofe, numerous, fmall, yellow ; their
petals fpreading, longer than the calyx. Pods an inch and a
half long, very flender, on partial ftalks, about a quarter
of an inch in length, all together compofing a long lax
clufler. Stigma feflile.

S. Loefclii. Loefel's Wild-rocket. Lirin. Sp. PI. 921.
Willd. n. 38. Jacq. Auftr. t. 324. (Turritis Loefelii ;
Br. in Alt. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 109. Eryfimum hirlutum,
filiquis enicx ; Loef. Prufl. 69. t. 14. Rapiilrum mon-
tanum, irionis folio, macroleptoceraton ; Column. Ecphr.
266. t. 268.) — Leaves runcinate, toothed, hairy. Stem
rough with defiexed brilUes. Pods ereCl, thread- fliaped,
on long fpreading llalks. — Native of Pruffia, Auftria,

France,

SISYMBRIUM.

France, Italy, and Greece. More branched than tlie laft,
from which it differs in having the Jlcm clothed with de-
flexed hairs, found more fparingly on the foiver-Jtalks,
wliich latter agree in length and fleiidernefs with thofe of S.
Ir'io. Nor do the leaves differ much in fhape from that
plant, though dillinguifhed by their hairinefs. The length
and flendernefs oi t\\e pods, in the Linnxan fpccimen, liiie-
wile accord with Irio ; but in one from Jacquin they are
Ihorter, as expreficd in his plate. The Jiigtna is feffile.
There are, in the Linnxan and Bankfian colleftionn, fpeci-
mens from Jacquin, of what he, at one time, feems to have
confounded with his S. Co/umria, Fl. Auilr. t. 323, as men-
tioned in Prodr. Fl. Grace, v. 2. 21. Thefe fpecimens ap-
pear a fmoothifh variety of S. Loefe/ii, and bring this fpecies
Tery near to Irio. We now no longer feel any fcruple
refpefting Columna's t. 268, cited indeed by Linnceus and
Willdcnow for S. Loefelii, though heedlefsly by the latter
for S. Colunime alfo, after Jacqum, and though the hairs on
the fame do not point downward.

S. otleHtale. Oriental Wild-rocket. Linn. Sp. PI. 921.
Willd. n. 40. Ait. n. 40. Prodr. Fl. Graec. n. 1540.
(S. Columnas ; Jacq. A\iftr. t. 323. Ait. n. 3.) — I^eaves
runcinate, downy. Stem without briftles. Pods ereft,
thread-fliaped, on fliort, thick, fpreading italks. — Native
of the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp had a wild fpecimen from
Zante. According to Jacquin, this fpecies alio grows in
Aultna. Tlie roo/ is annual. Habit of the ^foni not unhke
the two lall, but the whole herbage is more or lefs denfely
clothed with fine clofe pubefcence, and the partial Jlalhs,
fupporting x\\e pods, are much fhorter and thicker than in
either. The leaves of all three are pinnatifid, not pinnate :
the upper ones are more lanceolate and entire in S. orienlale,
than in the others.

S. ohtufangulum. Blunt-lobed Wild-rocket. Willd.
n. 39. Schleich. Cat. 48. (Eruca, n, 459 ; Hall. Hift.
V. I. 199, excluding all the fynonyms, except the following.
E. inodora ; Bauh. Hill. v. 2. 862.) — Leaves pinnate or
pinnatifid, lyrate, with obtufe, deeply-toothed lobes. Stem
rougfi with dcflexed hairs. Pods ereft, on long fpreading
ttalks. — Native of various parts of Switzerland. We have
fpecimens gathered by the late Mr. Davall near Aigle ;
where Haller indicates his variety y, having larger and yel-
low flowers. We dare not anfwer for all liis varieties, any
more than for his very incorreft mafs of fynonyms, but our's
is furely the plant of Schleicher and Willdenow. The root
is annual. Stem two feet high, leafy, fomewhat angular,
clothed with more minute dcflexed hairs than S. Loefelii.
I^eaves well compared by Haller to thofe of Common Rag-
wort, Senecio Jacuhita, as to their general afpeft. They are
often pinnate, not merely pinnatifid ; their leaflets, or lobes,
nearly uniform, remarkably blunt, moil toothed backward.
Fhiucrs numerous, large, denfely corymbofc, on long
llalks. Calyx hairy, fpreading, as well as the petals.

S. catholicum. Notch-leaved Wild-rocket. Linn, Mant.
93. Willd. n. 43. — Leaves pinnate; leaflets elliptic-ob-
long, cut or fcrrated, imooth. Stem branched, fpreading.

Pods ereft, on long fpreading ftalks Native of Spain and

Portugal, to which tiie fpccific name alludes ; but this is
particularly unfortunate, for we have the fame plant from
Barbary. The root is woody, and apparently perennial.
Stem bufliy, not a foot high, leafy. Leaves ilalked, fmooth,
flefliy, of about fix or fevcn, oppofitc or alternate, leaflets,
fharply fcrrated, and fometimcs elegantly cut or pinnatifid,
tapering at their bafe, each an inch long, more or lels.
Flwwers yellow, half the fi/.e of S. tcmiifolium, and fituatcd
like them on corymbofe, finally racemole, long, terminal
Aalks. LiniiKus, in his herbarium, liao confounded a Stock-

VoL. XXXHL

holm fpecimen of this lail -mentioned, in which the fegmentf
of the leaves happen to be jagged, with his real catholicum.

Seft. 5. Leaves oblong, fcarcely divided. Nine fpecies.

S. barbareie. Plantain-leaved Wild-rocket. Linn. Sp.
PI. 921. Wilid. n. 41. (S. orientale, barbarea; facie,
plantaginis folio; Tourn. Cor. 16.) — Leaves fimple ; the
upper ones ovate, toothed, elongated and clafping tlie flem
at their bafe ; radical ones fomewliat heart-ftiaped, entire. —
Native of the Levant. Linnceus had an incomplete fpeci-
men of this very rare plant from piofeflor Bunnann. Its
general appearance is very like Ervfimum Barbarea. The
whole herb is fmooth, and faid to be infipid. Stem flout,
branched, angular and furrowed, leafy- Upper leaves
gradually fmaller, and more toothed. Floiuers Imall, yel-
low, terminal, corymbofe, rather numerous. We have
ventured to remove this fpecies from the laft ieftion, as the
leaves cannot even be termed pinnatifid.

S. Jlriclijfimitm. Spear-leaved Wild-rocket. Linn. Sp.
PI. 922. Willd. n. 46. Ait. n. ij. Prodr. Fl. Gric.
n. 1542. Jacq. Auitr. t. 194. (Arabis a quibufdam difta
planta ; Camer. Epit. 342.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate,
toothed, downy, flalked. Corymbs panicled. Pods afcend-
ing. — Native of open, dry, mountainous fuuations, in Ger-
many, Switzerland, and Italy. A hardy perennial, long
known in our botanic gardens, flowering from June to
Augufl. The Jlems are a yard high, ereft, round, or
flightly angular, wand-like, clothed copioufiy with taper-
pointed leaves, two or three inches long, dark-green, chiefly
downy beneath, occafionally entire. Floivers very abundant
and fliowy, of a golden yellow, in roundifli, fimple or com-
pound, corymbofe heads, on long flalks, collefted at the
upper part of the flem, into a denfe oblong panicle. Pods
racemole, two inches or more in length, flender, fmooth,
thread-fliaped, two-edged, with a thick, nearly feflile,
Jligma.

S. hifpanicum. Spanifh Wild-rocket. .Tacq. Coll. v. i.
69. Ic. Rar. t. 124. Willd. n. 48. — Leaves lanceolate,
feffile, fmooth, with tooth-hke ferratures. Stem branched,
fpreading. Corymbs raccmofe. Pods clofe-preffed. — Na-
tive of Spain. Biennial; flowering in May and June, after
being protefted in the fl:ove at Vienna through the winter.
The whole herb is perfeftly fmooth, a foot and a lialf high.
Leaves one or two inches long, bright green, rarely quite
entire. Flowers deep yellow, fmaller than the lalt, fuc-
ceeded by long clofe cltijlers of crowded or imbricated pods,
an inch in length.

S. integrifoUum. Linear Siberian Wild-rocket. Linn.
Sp. PL 922. Willd. n. 51. (S. n. 38 ; Gmel. Sib, v. ;;.
270. t. 63.) — Leaves linear, entire. Flowcr-llalks hairy,
glandular, and vifcid. Pods fpreading.— In mountainous
fandy parts of Siberia. Gnulin. The root is flender, woody,
fuppofed by Willdenow to be annual ; but of this there \i
no certain account. Stem fometimes ereft, fometimes pro-
cumbent, always hairy and glutinous round, leafy, more
or lefs branched. Leaves an inch and a half long, narrow,
flefliy, obtufe, channelled, flalked, defcribed by Gmclin as
fmooth, which they may perhaps ufually be, but in liis
fpecimens before us they are clotlied with longifli fcattered
hairs. Flowers m\xc\\ larger tlian he delineates them, co-
rymbofe, purple or yellow. Calyx hairy. Pods m inch
long, linear, rather afcending, belprinkled, like their llalks,
with prominent glands. Stigma very nearly felTile.

S. iniUcum. Indian Wild-rocket. Linn. Sp. PI. 917.
Mant. 93. Willd. n. 52. Burin. Ind. 140. — Leaves avato-
laiiceolate, flalked, fcrrated, imooth; tiie lower ones fotne-
wliat lyrate. Stem zigzag, branciied, fpreading. Pods
fureadinc, curved upwards. — Native of tlic Eafi Indies.

S I s

S I s

The Malay name on the Linnaean fpecimen is Sa/avt Silitna,
given by Burmann Sefuri-china. He defcribes the leaves as
lyrate, of which \Ve trace fome indications on the fpecimen,
and doubt not the lower ones are fo. Linnreus has defcribed
this fame fpecimen twice, not adverting to his Sp. PL, when
he wrote the Maiitl/fa; but both are fufficiently corrcft. The
plant is annual, unknown in our gardens. Its affinity to 5.
hifpamcum, induces us, with Willdenow, to place it in this
feftion, rather than in the firft, to which Linnaus firft re-
ferred it ; but not having feen the lower leaves, we cannot
be pofitive. Tliejlem is (lender, fmooth, and leafy. Flowers
fmall, white, fucceeded by long clulters of pods, each pod
hardly an inch in length, nearly cylindrical, obfcurely qua-
drangular, curved upwards, fupported by a horizontal ftalk,
a quarter of an inch long. Stigma elevated on a fhort ftyle.
The pods have not the fhort turgid afpeft proper to the firft
feftion of the genus, but accord precifely with the plants
ranged in feveral of the latter feftions, whofe pods have
more or lefs of a quadrangular fhape, though two of the
angles ai-e often merely indicated by an elevated line along
each valve.

Whoever fhall take the trouble of tracing our remarks
through this genus, and examining the other fpecics, which,
for brevity's fake, we have palled over, will fee how niuch
is ftill wanting towards a correft generic diflribution of the
whole order. Mr. Brown's, in Hort. Keiu., is, notwith-
Itanding, an able and ufeful attempt at a reform, of which
we may fay more hereafter under the article Tetradynamia.
See alio Siliquos^. and Siliculos^.

Sifymbrium, among the Romans, was one of the ingre-
dients, of which the nuptial garlands were compofed.

Sisymbrium, in Gardening, contains a plant of the hardy
herbaceous kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is the com-
mon water-crefs (S. nallurtium).

Method of Culture. — This may be effefted by parting the
roots, or by feed. In the firft method, while the plants are
young, a quantity of flips (hould be made with root-fibres to
them, and be planted out immediately in a (hallow, trick-
ling, watery fituation, when they will readily ilrike roots,
feed, and increafe themfelves.

The feed (Iwuld be colletled during the fummer feafon,
and fown in the fame places ; or, which is better, the plants,
with the ripened feeds upon them, be thrown into them,
where they will ftrike root, and (hed their feeds for future
increafe.

Thefe plants are in much efteem as winter and fpring
fallad herbs.

Sisymbrium Najlurtium, Water-Creffes, in the Materia
Medica. The leaves of the water-crefles have a moderately
pungent tafte, and emit a quick penetrating fmell, like that
of muftard-feed, but much weaker. Their pungent matter
is taken up both by watery and fpirituous menftrua, and ac-
companies the aqueous juice, which iffues copioufly upon
espreffion : it is very volatile, fo as to arife, in great part,
m diftillation, with reftified fpirit, as well as with water,
and almoft totally to exhale in drying the leaves, or infpif-
fating by the gentleft heat to the confidence of an extrad,
either the exprelTed juice, or the watery or fpirituous tinc-
tures. Both the infpilTated juice, and the watery extraft,
difcover to the tafte a faline impregnation, and in keeping
throw up cryftalline efRorefcences to the furface. On dif-
tilling confiderable quantities of the herb with water, a fmall
proportion of a fubtile, volatile, very pungent oil is ob-
tained.

Water-crefTes obtain a place in the materia medica for
their antitcorbutic quahties, which have been lon^ very
generally acknowledged by phyficians. They are alfo fup-

pofed to purify the blood and humours, and to open vifcerai
obftruftions ; they are nearly allied to fcurvy-grafs, but are
more mild and pleafant, and for this reafon are frequently
eaten as fallad. In the pharmacopeias the juice of this
plant is directed with that of fcurvy-grafs and Seville
oranges ; and Dr. CuUen has remarked, that the addition
of acids renders the juices of the planta: fihquofae mod cer-
tainly effectual, by determining them more powerfully to
an acefcent fermentation. Lewis Mat. Med. Woodville
Med. Bot.

Sisymbrium is alfo a name ufed to exprefs the wild
water-mint. See Mint.

SISYRA, among the Ancients, a woolly (kin ufed for a
covering to beds.

SISYRINCHIUM, in Botany, from tr./,-, a hog, and
fuy;^;');-, a fneut, the name of a bulb, mentioned by Pliny
amongft other bulbs, under various Greek denomiRations.
He relates, after Theophrallus, book vii. chap. 13. that
it is remarkable for increafing, during winter, in the lower
part, which in fpring becomes contrafted, and the upper
part is then eatable. Nobody has afcertained the real
c-arj'jiyxi'^'' of Theophrailus or Pliny. Botanifts have ap-
phed this appellation according to tlieir fancy, without even
pretending to afcertain whether it alludes to the fondnefs of
fwine for the root, or to any refemblancc io its figure to
their fnout. The Sifyrinchium of Columna, Ecphr. 328.
/. 327, is Ixia Bulbocodium, in whofe minute bulb that
fanciful author traces fuch a refemblance. That of Bauhin
and Tournefort is Iris Sifyrinchium of Linnasus, a common
Greek plant, whofe bulb increafes at its fummit, and is
eatable. The name is now retained for a modern genus, of
the fame natural order indeed, but otherwife having nothing
in common with the plant of the ancients. — Linn. Gen. 465.
Schreb. 450. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 577. Mart. Mill.
Did. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 135. Gawler (Ker)
in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. i. 246. Pur(h 31.
Cavan. Dili'. 344. Ju(r. 57. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 569.
(Bermudiana ; Tourn. t. 208. Gaertn. t. 11.) — Clafs
and order, Monadelphia Triandria. ( Gynandria Triandria,
Linn.) Nat. Ord. Enfata, Linn, hides, Ju(f.

Gen. Ch. Common Wm/A two-edged, of two comprefl'ed,
pointed valves ; partial ones feveral, lanceolate, concave,
obtufe, inferior, fingle-flowered. Perianth none. Cor.
fuperior, of fix nearly equal, flattifh, obovate, minutely
pointed petals, fpreading in their upper half ; the three al-
ternate exterior ones a little the broadeft. Stam. Filaments
three, united half way up, or more, into an obfcurely tri-
angular tube, (horter than the corolla, their extremities
fpreading ; anthers incumbent, roundifh. Pi/l. Germen
inferior to the corolla, obovate ; ftyle triangular, the length
of the tube ; ftigmas three, ered, fearcely tumid, undivided,
notched. Peric. Capfule obovate, rounded, with three
(light angles, of three cells, and three valves ; the parti-
tions from the centre of each valve. Seeds numerous,
roundifh, inferted in two rows, into each of the partitions.

Eft. Ch. Common (heath of two or more leaves. Calyx
none. Petals fix, nearly equal, flat. Style one. Cap-
fule of three cells, inferior.

I. S. latifoUum. Broad-leaved Sifyrinchium. Swartz
Prodr. 17. Ait. n. i. (S. palmifohum ; Cavan. DifT.
348. t. 191. f. I. Morxa plicata; Willd. Sp. PI. v. i.
243. M. palnr.ifolia ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 227. Coll. v. 3.
192. Marica plicata; Curt. Mag. t. 6$^. Bermudiana
palmas folio, radice bulbofa ; Plum. Ic. 35. t. 46. f. 2.) —
Stalk round. Sheath many-flowered. Leaves lanceolate,
plaited. Native of the Well Indies. Cultivated by Miller
in 1737. It requires the heat of a ftove, flowering from

June

SISTRINCHIQM.

June to Auguft. The roof is an ovate bulb, with numerous,
very thick and flefhy, fibres. Leaves radical, ftalked, ercft,
from one to two feet long, taper-pointed, fmooth, dark-
green, with many longitudinal parallel ribs and plaits. Sla/i
folitary, taller than the leaves, very fmooth and round,
bent obliquely, and horizontally at the top, where it bears
feveral white, inodorous, fliort-lived j^oTOtrj-, hardly an inch
broad, accompanied by one fmall ereft leaf. Anthers yellow.
Linnxus unaccountably confounded this with his true Spal-
mifoHum, hereafter defcribed.

2. S. elegans. Yellow Green-fpotted Sifyrinchium.
Willd. n. I. (Morxa elegans; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
V. I. 6. t. 12.) — Stalk round, fimple, fheathed, fingle-
flowered, ihorter than the fohtary, linear, decumbent, radi-
cal leaf. Petals oblong, acute. — Native of the Cape of
Good Hope ; flowering in a grcenhoufe in May. Bulbs
the fize ot ha7,i:l-nuts, each bearing a long, narrow, de-
cumbent, ribbed, green leaf, and an ereA Jlalk, about a
fpan high, clothed with many large, alternate, (heathing,
rather tumid, braSeas. The iolitary terminal^oTOfr is full
two inches broad, of a bright yellow ; the diDc of each of
the three outer petals marked with a broad green fpot,
highly ornamental. Thi^ and the foUowuig have not the
true comprefied bivalve yZc/7/A of the genus.

3. &. criUiiium. Tawny Sifyrinchium Cavan. Did. 346.
Willd. 11. 2. Redout. Liliac. t. 250. (Moraea collina ;
Thunb. Morsea n. 13. Prodr. II. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 226.)
— Stalk round, fheathed, fomewhat branched, (horter than
its Imear, pouited, afcending leaf. Petals oblong, acute.
Plentiful on hills at the Cape of Good Hope. Taller than
the lall, with a hrd^nched Jlalk, bearing about three Jloivers,
either of a tawny blufhcolour, or pale buff, unlpotted.
The Uaf, which grows from the lower part of the Italk,
ftands erect, its point drooping over the uppermolt flower.

^. S>. grandyiorum. Lariie-flowered Sifyrinchium. Cavan.
Did'. 346. t. 192. f. 2. Willd. n. 3. — Stalk round, fimple,
leafy. Sheath with about three flowers. Petals obtule,
pointlefs. Leaves lanceolate, plaited. Native of Peru.
Bulb ovate, an inch long, with capillary fibres. Stem a
foot high, jointed, bearing three or four ft:alked leaves,
from three to ten uiciies in length. Flowers an inch and a
half broad, with obovate petals, yellow in the dried fpeci-
men. Column of the Jlamens meafuring near an inch.
Cavanilles.

5. S. Bermudiana. Iris-leaved Sifyrinchium. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1353, /5. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. Cavan. Did". 346.
t. 192. f. I. Mill, lllnftr. t. 73. Redout. Liliac. t. "149.
(S. iridioides ; Curt. Mag. t. 94. Bermudiana iridis foho,
radice fibrofa ; Dill. Elth. 48. t. 41. f. 48.) — Stalk two-
edged, branched, leafy. Sheath fhorter than its four
flowers. Petals pointed. Leave.? fword fliapcd. — Native
of the Bermuda idands. Common in our itoves or green-
houfes fince the time of Dillcnius, flowering in fummer.
The root is fibrous, perennial. Plant eredt, about a foot
high, Imooth, with a narrow compreded Jlem and leaves.
Flowers numerous, an incli wide, dark blue, pale green in
the centre, on dender partial (talks.

6. S. anctps. Narrow-leaved Sifyrinchium. Cavan.
Did. 345. *. 190. f. 2. Willd. n. 5 Alt. n. 3. Purdi
I). 2. (S. Bermudiana ; Linii. Sp. PI. 1353, a. S. pra-
mineum ; Curt. Ma . t. 464. Redout. Liliac. t. 282.
Bermudiana graminea, flore iiilnore cxruleo; Dill. Elth. 49.
t. 41. f. 49.) — Stalk two edged, winged, unbranclied,
nearly leaflcls. Sheath unequal, longer than its four
flowers. Petals pointed. Leaves fword- diaped. — Native
of North America. On dry hills and grafs-plats; from
Canada to Carolina, flowering in July and Augull. Purjh.

Hardy in our gardens, but feldom preferved, l\\c flowers
being fo much fmaller and lefs confpicuous than the former.
The whole plant is about half the fize of that fpecies, of
a grafl'y afpefl ; the root crowned with numerous fibres,
from the decayed foliage of former feafons.

7. S. miicronatum. Pointed-fheathed Sifyrinchium. Mi-
chaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 33. Purdi n. i. — Stalk un-
branclied, fomewhat fetaceous as well as the leaves. Sheath
coloured ; one valve ending in a long point. In wet mea-
dows of diort grafs, in Pennfylvania and Virginia, flower-
ing in June and July. Perennial. Flowers of a beautiful
blue, fmaller than the lail. PurJh. The lower part of
the leaves and thejheaths are purple. Michaux.

8. S. jrjcranlhum. Small-flowered Sifyrinchium. Cavan.
Difl". 345. t. 191. f. 2. Willd. n. 6. — Stalk two-edged,
branched, leafy. Sheath about equal to its two or three
flowers. Petals linear, pointed. Leaves channelled. —
Gathered by Jofeph de Juflieu in Peru. — Root fibrous.
Whole plant but three inches high. I^eaves feveral, linear,
pointed, concave or channelled, flieathing, fhorter than the
Item. Sheath fomewhat unequal. Flowers very fmall, on
capillary Italks.

9. S. califormciim. Yellow Unbranched Sifyrinchium.
Ait. n. 4. (Marica californica ; Ker in Curt. Mag.
t. 983.) — Stalk two-edged, winged, unbranched. Petals
obovate, pointlefs. Leaves linear-fword diapcd. — Dif-
covered on the coail of California, by Mr. Archibald Men-
zies, who brought feeds to England, in 1796. It proves
a hardy greenhoufe perennial plant, flowering in fummer
and autumn, and readily propagated, either by feed or
parting the roots, which, like thofe of perhaps all the in-
dubitable fpecies of this genus, unfortunately for the origin
of its name, are fibrous. The Jlali is about two feet high,
being taller than the leaves, though nearly the fame breadth,
and bears but one tuft of numerous^owfr.f, from a clofe

Jhealh, one of whofe valves rifes fomewhat above them.
The corolla, J/amens, and Jlyle, are of an uniform bright
yellow. Mr. Ker remarks, that the Jilaments are combined
in their lower part only.

10. S. convolutum. Yellow Branched Sifyrinchium.
Redout. Liliac. t. 47.^Stalk two-edged, branched, leafy.
Petals ovate, fcarcely pointed. Leaves linear-fword-lhaped.
— Said to be a native of the Cape of Good Hope, but for
this M. Rcdoute had no certain authority. It was fent
from Italy to the Paris gardens, and we diould not be
greatly furprifed, if future enquiries (hould prove it of
American origin. There feems very little difterence be-
tween this fpecies and the laft, except its more humble
growth, and the Jlem being divided or branched, and leafy.
Redoute has erroneoudy defined the latter as round, which
is correfted in his fifth volume, at /. 275. The name
alludes to the rolling in of the petals as they fade, which i»
alio the cafe in californicum, and many, if not all, of the
other fpecies.

11. S. tenii'ifoHum. Yellow Slcnder-leaved Sifyrinchium.
Redout. Liliac. t. 275. — Stalk comprefled, branched,
fpreading. Peta.s ovate, acute. Leaves linear-awlfllaped.
Germen hifpid. — Communicated to the Paris garden by
M. Zea, a celebrated Spanidi botanill ; fo that we pre-
fume the plant to be a native of Mexico or Peru, though
nothing has been made known as to its origin. Tliis
fpecies agrees with the lad in its yeWaw Jlowers, which
however appear to be rather more numerous, limietimes fix,
in enchjljeath. The Jtrm and haves are much more flender,
and hardly fo tall ; the former twice-branched, in a fpre.id.
ing manner, the branches curved upwards, with an i reft
leaf or two at each fubdivifion. The germen is remarkable

K2 iox

S I s

for being rough with little glandular hairs, which fall off
as the capfuh ripens. Thefe have not been noticed in any
other fpecies.

12. S. ixioides. White New Zealand Sifyrinchium.
Forit. Prodr. 6i. (Ferraria ixioides; WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 3.
582. Morea ixioides ; Thunb. Morxa n. 7.) — Stalk tri-
angular, branched. Leaves linear, with cartilaginous edges.
Outer petals half the fize of the inner — Gathered in New
Zealand, by Forlter, whofe fpeciniens are before us. The
root is woody, furnifhed with very long, tough, zigzag
fibres. Stalks a fpan high, nearly leaflefs, branched in the
upper part. Leaves fliortcr than the ftalks, ereft, flat,
linear, a quarter of an inch wide, itrongly ftriated, with a pale
cartilaginous edge, but not fword-ihaped, as they have no
prominence or rib in the middle ; their bafes are fheathing,
or equitant. Partial jio-wer-Jlalks rigid, widely fpreading,
two, three, or four together, with very imall lanceolate
(heaths at their origin. Flowers about half an inch broad,
white, their tiiree outer petals fomewhat coloured, if we
mayjudge from the dried ipecimen. Germen fmooth. The
fpecimens Thunberg faw were taller than our's. The in-
equality of the petals probably led Willdenow to make this
plant a Ferraria ; but it wants the genuine charafter of
that genus, the jagged and curled corolla, and has alto-
gether the habit of a true Sifyrinchium.

13. S. palmifolium. Palm-leaved Sifyrinchium. Linn.
Mant. 122, excluding the fynonym. Willd. n. 7. Ait.
n. 5 ? (Morxa palmifolia ; Thunb. Morasa n. 6.) — Stalk
two-edged, winged, denfely corymbofe at the fummit.
Leaves fword-fhaped, llrongly ribbed. — Gathered in Brafil,
by father Panegai, who fent it, with many other new plants,
to profeflbr Arduino of Padua, by whom they were tranf-
mitted to Linnjeus. The prefent has all the appearance of
a true Sifyrinchium, with a fibrous perennial root. The

Jlem is two feet high, ereft, unbranched, naked, with two
cppolite leafy wings. Leaves equitant, ereft, fliorter than
the ftem, three-quarters of an inch wide, having about five
principal ribs in the middle part, and a few finer ones to-
wards the edges. Floiuers very numerous, in a denfe, co-
rymbofe, compound, terminal panicle, two or three inches
high, accompanied by one ereft ribbed leaf, about the fame
height. Bradeas and Jheaths near an inch long, ovate,
pointed, ftriated, concave, membranous at the edges.
Flo-wers apparently pale, with numerous dark or purplifli
veins ; tlieir partial JlaUs longer than the (heaths. Germen
roundifh, fmooth. We are unable to account for the

flowers having been termed fpiled, unlefs Thunberg has
confounded any thing elfe with this rare fpecies. Linnasus
fays the flyle is three-cleft m.ore than half way down.

14. S. flriatum. Yellow Striated Sifyrinchium. Sm.
Ic. Pift. t. 9. Willd. n. 8. Ait, n. 6. Redout. Liliac.
t. 66. (S. fpicatum ; Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 2. t. 104. Moraea
fertata ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. i . 6. t. 11. Marica
ftriata ; Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 701.1 — Stem much branched,
leafy, eomprefled, winged, many-flowered. Flowers fafci-
culatcd, with a fimple flieath to each. — Native of Mexico ;
a hardy perennial in our gardens, propagating itfelf fpon-
taneoufly by feed. The root is fibrous, tufted. Stems
feveral, two or three feet high, accompanied by copious,
equitant, fword-fliaped, ftriated, glaucous kaves, edged
with purple, and tinged with faffron-colour at their bafe.
Flowers very numerous, inodorous, forming tufts along
the branches, as if whorled, each tuft accompanied by a
large concave fimple IraSea, and each of the numerous
partial ftalks attended by a fimple membranous Jhealh.
Corolla above an inch wide, expanding in funfliine only,
when the flowers make a handfome appearance, lailing in

S I T

fucceflion through moft part of the fummer. Petals obtufe
with a point, flightly cohering at the bafe, into the form
of a bell, yellow and more or lefs fpotted within ; their
upper part widely fpreading, pale yellow above, ftriated
with purple veins beneath. Germen roundilh, fmooth.
Capfuh the fize of a black currant, gibbous. It will be
perceived that the (heaths of this fpecies do not exaftly
anfwer to the generic charafter, yet nothing can be a more
genuine Sifyrinchium. Much has been done to difcriminate
the genera of this order, and great improvements have been
made, but much is ftill wanting.

SiSYRlxcHiUM, in Gardening, contains plants of the flowery
perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are, the Iris-
leaved ilfyrincliium (S. bermudiana) ; and the narrow-
leaved fifyrinchium (S. anceps).

It is obferved, that the leaves, ftalks, and flowers of the
firft fort are three times as large as in the fecond, and the
ftieath inclofes fix or feven flowers ; whereas the fecond has
rarely more than two, and thefe expand only for a ftiort
time in the morning, while, in the former, they continue open
the whole day.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds and partint; the roots : in the former method, the feeds
of the firil fort fliould be fown in the autumn, as foon as
they become ripe, on a border which has an eaftetn afpeft,
in drills at three or four inches diif ance, covering them about
half an inch with fine mould ; they fliould afterwards be
kept clean from weeds with care. They fueceed beft in a
loamy foil in a fliady fituation, and where the ground has
not been manured. But in the latter fort the feeds ftiould
be fown in pots, in order that they be protefted in the grecn-
houfe, or by fome other means.

The firft kind affords ornament in the large open borders
and clumps of pleafure-grounds, and the latter among other
green-houfe plants of the fame growth.

SISZEK, in Geography, a town of Croatia, at the
conflux of the rivers Save and Kulpa, fortified with a w-all
and moat ; captured by the Turks in 1593, and burned by
them in 1594, but rebuilt by the Hunganans; 48 miles S.
ofVarafdin. N. lat. 45^ 38'. E. long. 16^44'.

SIT, an ifland in the Adriatic. N. lat. 4^^ 14'. E. long.
15" 24'.

SITA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a celebrated incarnation
of the goddefs Lakflimi, celeftial confoit of Viflinu, in his
avatara, or defcent in the form of Rama. In the language
of Hindoo fable, flie was his fakti, or energy ; and number-
lefs poems have been written in honour of her beauty, merits,
and deeds. She is one of the moft popular goddefles of the
Hindoo Pantheon, and is indeed one of the moft virtuous
and interefting charafters in their puranic or heroic legends.
Her hiftory and that of her lord forms the fubjeft of the
Ramayana, which epic poem, like the Iliad, is grounded on
a rape. (See Ramayana J As noticed in that article, and
Ravexa, the carrying off, by the treachery of the tyrant
of that name, the virtuous fpoufe of Rama, roufed that hero
to the mighty deeds neceflary for her refcue from the hands
of her powerful perfecutor, and celebrated in the fine poem
of Valmiki ; and, as noticed above, in numberlefs others of
fecondary and minor fame.

The outhne of Sita's hiftory is this. The childlefs raja
Janaka, (fee Jaxaka,) having duly propitiated the gods,
was led to the benevolent adoption of a female child about
five years old, found inclofed in a box by a Brahman in a
field. She was called Sita, iromfit or_/f/, meaning a furrow or
field ; and Janeki, after her adoptive father. Sita, however,
means alfo_/a/V, and may be thence derived, and is in this fenfe,
of denoting beauty, given alfo to Parvati and Sarafwati, con-

fortg

SIT

SIT

forls of the other two divine perfons of the Hindoo triad.
ylic proved to be an incarnation of Lakfhmi, as before no-
ticed ; anil on attaining maturity was won by Rama, in a
coiitelt of archery with many fovereigns, ambitious of ob-
taining a prize of fuch incomparable beauty. This ftory,
;\s it is related in the Ramayana, reminds us of the unyield-
iii"- bow of Ulyfles ; as none but Rama had power to ac-
complifli the required and ordained feat ; which was piercing
1 l.e eye of a iifh whirling on a pin fixed on a high pole ; and
not looking at the mark, but at its refleftion in a vellel of
oil placed on the ground. The ten-headed twenty-handed
tyrant Ravena had previoufly failed. See Ravena.

Burning with the rage of difappointed defire, the tyrant
I carried her off ; and having been in his power, her purity
might be poffibly fufpefted ; (he therefore plunged into the
flames, where, defended by Pavaka, the regent of tire, her
incombuftibility attelled her innocency. She was of courfe
triumphantly reftored to her overjoyed hufband. In the
Ramayana (he is defcribed as " endued with youth, beauty,
i!;oodnefs, fweetnefs, and prudence ; an infeparable attendant
ijii her lord, as the light on the moon ; the beloved fpoufe
of Rama, dear as his own foul ; formed by divine illufion,
amiable, and adorned with every charm ;" and always held
forth as an example of conjugal faith and afteftion.

While confined on the ifland of Lanka, or Ceylon, (fee
thofe articles,) and perfecuted by the addreifes of its tyran-
nical fovereign, the anguifh and lamentation of Sita are
copious fubjefts of hyperbole for Hindoo poets. Travellers
are ilill fliewn a lake or pool, called Sita-koonda, faid to have
originated in the floods of tears flied by the captive beauty.
This extravaganza was not lolt on our early miilionaries and
travellers. Ceylon being with them the garden of Eden,
they find Adam's peak, Adam's bridge, &c. called Rama's
by the natives. Eve perfonates Sita, in refpeft to this pool.
Sir John Mandeville notices it in his quaint way. Defcribing
Ceylon, he has fair fcope for his poetical exuberance. " In
that ifle is a gret mountayne, and in mydd place of the
mount is a gret lake in a full fayre pleyne, and there is gret
plentie of watre. And thei of the contrie feyn that Adam
and Eve wcpten upon that mount loo zeer, when thei
weren dryven out of Paradys. And that watre thei feyn
is of here teres ; for foe much watre they wepten that
made the forcfede lake." Sir John died in 1372. See
Mandeville.

A beautiful tree, called Afoka by Sanfcrit botamlls, bears
a mythological reference to the above fable of Sita. She
was confined in a grove of thofe trees, whofe name is derived
from grief, or lamentation. It is liencc, perhaps, alio fa-
cred to the god of tears, or the avenging Siva. (See SiVA.)
Afoka, indeed, rather from its privative initial, denotes the
abfence of grief, equivalent to grief-difpcUer ; thus named
pofTibly from its beauty, fo greatly admired by a poetical
and taileful people.

A numerous fett of Hindoos adore Sita as Lakfhmi her-
felf. It is a branch of the fctt of Ramanuj. ( See that ar-
ticle, aad Sects of Hindoos, for an account of their pecu-
liarities.) Under the article Sakti will be found farther
thfreon. She is faid to have borne Rama two fons, Kullii
and Lava, who were great orators and niinllrels ; but they
are feldom heard of, except in legends immediately relating
to tiieir family.

In our article RaiMA we have noticed a Peruvian felHval,
called Ramafitoa, which, as well as in name (Rama-Sita),
remind us of ufages Hill common among Hindoos. Thole
dilpofed to lay llrefs on etymological coincidences, may,
perhaps, lierc alfo find the fource of the much difputed fcnfc
of the word Varajui. (See Potter's Archicol. GrcKC. b. ii.

c. iii.) This was the name of an order of men among the
Greeks, whofe office feems originally to have been the ga-
thering from the hulbandmen the corn allotted for public
facrifices. Para and Sita are names, in fadt, of all the three
principal Hindoo goddefles, Lakfhmi, Parvati, and Saraf-
wati (fee thofe articles, and Par A,) and maybe faid to
mean^/y? ^n^faireft, as well as firll held or fruits. To all
thefe, corn and other firtl-fruits of the field are appropriate
offerings ; the gathering and care of which might give the
pnells the name of Parafiti. The common appropriation of
thefe tithes to their own ufes would naturally in time degrade
them and their name in the eftimation of their flock, who,
detefting the impollures of prieftcraft, brought them to their
proper level in the fenfe of the thence derived word Parafite.
See that article.

SITACA, or Sitace, in yinclenl Geography, a large and
well-peopled town of Afia, in the Perfide, near Babylon, and
15 iladia from the Tigris, according to Xenophon. This
town was fituated nearly at an equal diftance from the Tigris
and the Euphrates, N.W. of Seleucia.

SITACAS, a river of Afia, in the Perfide, which runs
into the Perfian gulf, about 800 iladia beyond the mount
Areon, according to Nearchus.

SITALA, in Geography, a river of Mexico, which runs
into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 17^ 38'. W. long. 101° 40'.

SITANG, a river of Hindoollan, one of the branches of
the river called Pegu, which runs into the bay of Bengal.

SITANTA, the name of a fabulous mountain, in which is
defcribed the terreiirial abode of the god Indra, the Hindoo
regent of the firmament. (See Ikdka.) In the Hindoo Pan-
theon, the wonderful mountain Meru is defcribed from the Pu-
ranas. (See Meru.) On one of its three peaks is Kailafa, the
Olympus of Siva ; and on another is the Swerga, or paradife
of Indra. But his terreltrial abode is on Sitanta, a part
probably of Meru ; and it may be amufing to fee in what
the delights of Hindoo gods are fuppofed, by their facred
writers, to confifl. Sitanta is " fl^irted by a mofl delightful
country, well watered, and enlivened by the harmonious noife
of the black bee and frogs. There, among immenfe caves,
is the Kridavana, or place of daUiance of Mahendra ; , where
knowledge and the completion of our wifiies are fully acknow-
ledged. There is the great forell of the Pariyateka-tree of
the king of the gods, known through the three worlds ; and
the whole world fings his praife from the V'eda. Such is
the place of d.iUiance of him with a thoufand eyes, or Indra.
In this charming grove of Sakra, or Indra, the gods, the
danavas, the fnakes, yakfhas, rakfhas, guhyas or kuvcras,
gandharvas, live happy ; as well as numerous tribe« of Up-
!ara, fond of fport." P. 270. The Gandharvas are ce-
leftial female chorifters.

The abode of Vifhnu is ufually called Faikontha ; whith
fee, and SwEKGA.

SITAWACA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Ceylon ; 44 miles S.S.W. of Candy.

SITCA, a Ruflian fettlement on the N.W. coaft of
America, fomcwhat S. of Cadiack, or Kadiak, in the in-
terior of that deep bay to whicli Vancouver gave the name
of Norfolk's found. The lavages in this quarter are of a
more lively and ferocious charadter than thofe of Cadiack.
Inllcad of dozing on the ridges of their houfes, they fing and
dance perpetually ; and are both brave and expert in the ufe
of fire-arms, with which they are fupplied by the American
traders, who occalionally refort to that coall. They killed
five or fix of M. Lifianilcy's men, in a gallant defence of a
kind of rude fort, from which that commander chofe to ex-
pel them, that the agents of the Ruifian Company might
occupy the fpot as a fadory. After cannonading it all day,
4 «

S I T

SIT

it was found next morning that the natives had defatted it in
the night ; and when M. Lifianfliy went to talce poileflion,
he was not a little (liocked " to lind, as in a fecond maffacre
of innocents, numbers of young children lying together mur-
dered ! left their cries, if they had been carried along with
them, might have led to a difcovery of the flight of their
cruel parents ; — a number of dogs had been butchered for the
fame reafon." They burn their dead, and maffacre their
prifoners. They are extremely mufcular and hardy ; and
apparently quite infenfible to pain. One lad, who frequently
vifited the navigators, and ftole whatever he could lay his
hands on, was at laft threatened with the fcourge, but ab-
folutely laughed at the menace, — and continued his derifion
and gaiety when under the molt, rigorous difcipline that a
Ruffian flagellator could apply. They are great beaux
withal ; — paint their faces of various colours, and work up
their hair with a red pafte, and then powder it in a magnifi-
cent manner with the fine white down of the fea-uucks.
Their country is obvioufly volcanic. M. Lifianfl'Cy climbed
up the higheft mountain on the coaft, which Vancouver dif-
tinguifhed by the name of Mount Edgecumbe, and found the
fummit formed into a huge crater, nearly two miles in circuit,
and about three hundred feet deep. It was partly filled with
fnow ; and there is no tradition of the volcano having been
feen in a ttate of aftivity. The height he ellimated at no
lefs than 8000 feet.

We (hall here fubjoin, from the work now before us,
fome account of the other fettlement called Cadlact. This
is a large barren ifland, at theealtern extremity of the Aleu-
tian chain ; inhabited by about 4000 of the moft filthy and
ftupid favages of which we have any where an account.
They are almoft all covered over with itch and ulcers ; arid
are extremely indolent and torpid. " Their favourite recrea-
tion," fays M. Lifianflcy, " after deeping, is to fit on the
roofs of their houfes, or on the beach, for hours together,
looking at the fea, andobferving a profound filence, for they
never converfe ; and I am perfuaded," adds the worthy
Mufcovite, " that the fimplicity of their charafter exceeds that
of any other people." Their great paffion is for fnuif and
amber ; and their chief occupation catching whales, — on the
blubber of which they fatten luxurioufly, in a favourable
feafon. They have a ftrange fuperftition, which leads them
to believe that the poffeffion of the dead bodies of any old or
famous fifhers contributes eflentially to their good luck ;
and accordingly Ihew confiderable fagacity in hunting them
up in the caverns and other fecret places where they have been
flowed by their relations. Some, fays M. Lifianflcy, have
aftually accumulated a treafury of not fewer than twenty
fuch corpfes.

M. Lifianfliy obferves, that the volcanic energy feems to be
more entire in this than in any other region of the world. In
the neighbourhood of Oonalaflika, which is fituated about the
centre of the Aleutian chain, a new ifland, nearly twenty
miles in circumference, has been formed within thefe twenty
years. The following is the account of it, which M. Lifi-
anfl<y collefted from cye-witnefles at Cadiack.

" In the evening of the 26th, while I was alone, writing
the memorandums of my journal, a Ruflian introduced him-
felf, who had refided on the ifland of Oonalaflika, when a new
ifland ftarted up in its vicinity. I liad heard of this pheno-
menon, and wa=; therefore defirous to learn what he knew
refpeftuiii; it. He faid, that about the middle of April 1797,
a fmall ifland was feen where no ifland had been feen before.
That the firit intimation of its appearance had been brought
by fomo Aleutians to Captain's Harbour, who, returning
from filhing, oblcrved a great fmoke ifluing out of the fea ;
thiit this was the fraoke of the volcano, which was then gra-

8

dually rifing above the furface of the fea, and which in May,
1798, hurft forth with a blaze, that was dillinftly feen from
a fctricment called Macoofliino, on the ifland of Oonalaflika,
at the diftance of no lefs than forty miles in the north-weft.
This new ifland is tolerably high, and about twenty mile;
in circumference. It has been remarked, that it has not 1:1-
creafed in fize fince the year 1799; and that no alteration
has taken place in its appearance, except that fome of the
higheft points have been thrown down by violent erup-
tions." See Lifianflty's Voyage round the World, in tli
Years 1803, 4, 5, and 6, performed by Order of His Im-
perial Majefty Alexander I. Emperor of Ruflia, &c. 4to.
London, 1 8 14.

SITCHEVSK, a town of Riiffia, in the government cf
Smolenflc ; 96 miles E.N.E. of Smolenflc. N. lat. 55° 34'.
E. long. 34° 44'.

SI-TCHUA, a town of the kingdom of Corea ; 33 miles
N. of Han-tcheou.

SI-TCHUEN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Ho-nan ; 55 miles W. of Nan-yang.

SI TE fecerit fecunim, in Law, a fpecies of original
writ, called peremptory, which diretts the flieriff" to caufe
the defendant to appear in court, without any option givea
him, provided the plaintitt gives the flieriff fecurity efiec-
tBally to profecute his claim. This writ is in ufe, where
nothing is fpecifically demanded, but only fatisfattion in ge-
neral ; to obtain winch, and minifter complete redrefs, the
intervention of fome judicature is neceifary. Such are writs
of trefpafs, or on the cafe, in which no debt, or othc-r fpecific
thing, is fued for in certain, but only damages to be aiiefied
by a jury. See Precipe.

SITE, or SciTE, Situs, denotes the fituation of a houfe,
mefluage, &c. And fometimes the ground-plot, or fpot of
earth on which it Hands.

Sites of Homeftalls, Yards, &c. the fituations proper
for them in different cafes. Thefe are very various, accord-
ing to the nature and kind of the farms for which they are
deiigned, as whether they are thole of the flleep, the grazing,
the dairying, the hay and grafs, or thofe of the mixed, arable,
and giafs foit. In each kind there is a great number of
different iuitable requifites to be provided, which muft, in a
great meafure, depend upon the lite itfelf. See Y A.v.iA-Yard,
and Y.ARD.

Site, Situs, m Logic, one of the predicaments, declaring
a fubjecf to be fo and fo placed.

SITENSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the
government of Novgorod, near the Ilmen ; 20 miles W.S. W.
of Kreftzei.

SITHA, a town of Kindooftan, in Guzerat ; 75 miles
N.N.E. of Junagur.

SITHCUNDMAN, in our Old Writers, one whofe
province it was to lead the men of a town or parifli. Leg.
luE. cap. 56.

Dugdale fays, that in Warwickfliire the hundreds were
formerly called fylhefoca, and that fithefocundman, andjith-
cundman, was the chiet officer within fuch a divifion, /'. e,
the hiijh-conftable of the hundred.

SITHE. See Scythe.

SITHESOCA, in our O/d Writers, is uffdto denote the
diftrift now called a hundred. The word is Saxon, fignify-
ing z. franchife, or liberty.

SITHON, in AnSient Geography, a mountain of Thrace.
— Alfo, Ml iflaiid ui the iEgean fea.

SITHONIA, a part of Thrace, on the Toronsean gulf,
in whicii vc^re the towns of Toroue, Gulepfus, Sarmyles,
Mecybtrne, and Olyrtibe.

SITHONII,

S I T

S I T

SITHONII, a people of Thrace, near the Euxine fea,
among whom Orpheus was born.

SITIAj a town of Spain, which had a voice in the
affembly of Cordova.

SITICINES, amonij the Romans, perfons who founded
a kind of trumpet, having a very mournful tone, at the
burying of the dead.

SITJES, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
of Catalonia ; 12 miles S.W. of Barcelona.

SITIFIS, in ylticient Geography, a town of Mauritania
Casfarienlis, which became the capital of one of the Mauri-
tanias, to which it gave name. Sec Sitipha.

SITIGNAK, in Gfo^r<7//7,oneof the Fox idands, in the
North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 53° 30'. E. long. 117° 14'.

SITINAGUR, a town of Hindooitan, in Tellingana ;
6 miles N. of Indelavoy.

SITIPHA, or SiTiFl Colonia, Settaf, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town of Africa, and the metropolis of Mauritania
Sitifenfis. It was fituatcd in the interior of the country
towards the S.E. of Saldje.

SITIOGOGUS, a river of Afia, in the Perlide, which
ran into the Perfian gulf.

SITODIUM, in Botany, Gsertn. v. i. 344. t. 71, 72, a
name originally applied to the genus aftbrding the celebrated
bread-fruit, by fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander, and de-
rived from iz-ilo;, bread, food, or proviji on. This name has given
way to Artocarpus ; fee that article, and Radermaciiia.

SITOMAGUM, or Sitomagus, in indent Geography,
a town of the ifle of Albion, in the country of the Iceni,
between Cambretonium and Venta Icenorun, according to
Antonine's Itinerary.

SITON, a town of Greece, in ThefTaly.

SITONiE, IiTivzi, among the Athenians, ofiicers ap-
pointed to lay in corn for the ufe of the city, for which
purpofe the ta.jjiiot.c in: ^mKnaiuc, or the public treafurer,
was to furni(h them with as much money as they had
occafion for. Potter, Archa;ol. Graec. lib. i. cap. 15.
torn. i. p. 83.

SITONE, m Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia, in
the vicinity of mount Atlios.

SITONES, the name of one of the three principal clafles
of people who inhabited Scandinavia, beyond mount Savos,
and bounded by the fea to the weit and the fouth.

SITOPHYLAX, IiTOv'uA^s) formed from o-ilo, ro/-n, and
?H'^a.J, keeper, in Antiquity, an Athenian magillrate, who had
the fupermtcndance of the corn ; and was to take care that
nobody bought more than was necefiary for the provifion
of his family.

By the Attic laws, particular perfons were prohibited buy-
ing more than fifty meafures of wheat a man ; of thofe mea-
fures, we mean, called tpofuai, and the fitophylax was to look
to the obfervation of this law. It was a capital crime to
prevaricate in it.

There were fifteen of thefe fitophylaces ; ten for the city,
and five for the Pirseus.

SITORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
province of Tinevelly ; 10 miles N. of Falamcottn.

SITPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of MouU
tan, on the Indus ; 30 miles N.W. of Moultan.

SITRIGy\LLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
34 miles N.N.E of Cliitteldroog.

SITTA, the Nuthatch, in Ornithology, a genus of birds
of the order Picoe, of which the generic charafter is, Bill
iubulate, roundifh, ftraight, entire ; tl'.e upper mandible is
a little longer, comprciitd, and angular at the tip ; tongue
jagged, ftiort, horny at the tip ; the noftriU are I'mnll, co-

vered with briftles ; the feet are formed for vralking ; the
hind-toe is long. Gmelin reckons twelve

Species.

* EuROP^A ; European Nuthatch. Cinereous, beneath
reddifli ; the tail-feathers black ; the four lateral ones be-
neath are tipt with white. It weighs nearly an ounce; it»
length is five inches ; the bdl is Itrong and ilraight, and
about three-quarters of an inch lonij ; the upper mandible is
black, the lower white ; the irides hazel ; the crown of the
head, back, and coverts of the wings, are of a fine blucifh-
grey ; a black ilroke pafles over the eye from the mouth ;
the checks and chin are white ; the breaft and belly are of a
dull orange-colour ; the quill-feathers are duilcy ; the wings
underneath are marked with two fpots, one white, at the
root of the exterior quills, the other black, at the joint of
the baftard-wing ; the tail confifts of twelve feathers, the
two middle are grey, the two exterior feathers tipped with
grey, then fucceeds a tranfverfe fpot, beneath that the reft
is black ; the legs are of a pale yellow ; the back toe very
flrong, and the claws large. Such is Mr. Pennant's de-
fcription of the European nuthatch, who adds, that " this
bird runs up and down the bodies of trees like the wood-
pecker tribe, and feeds not only on infefts but on nuts, of
which it lays up a confiderable quantity, as winter provi-
fion, in the hollows of trees. It breeds likewife in the hoi-
lows of trees ; and if the entrance be too Urge, it ftops up
part of it with clay, leaving only room enough for admilTion.
In autumn it begins a chattering noife, being filent the
greater part of the year. This bird makes its neft of dead
leaves, molUy of the oak, which it heaps together without
much order. It lays fix or feven eggs, which are white,
fpotted with rult colour, fo exadly like thofe of the great
titmoufe, that it is almoft impoffible to diftinguilh them.
No perfecution will force this little bird from its habitation,
when fitting : it defends its neft to thelaft extremity, ftrikes
the invader with its bill and wings, and makes a hifling
noife ; and after every effort of defence, will fuller itfelf to
be taken in hand, rather than quit its poft."

" The nuthatch," fays colonel Montague, in his Orni-
thological Didtionary, " is more expert in climbing than
the woodpecker ; for it runs in all directions up and down a
tree, whereas the other is never obferved to defccnd : the
ftiff tail of thofe birds fupport them in the aft of climbing
and hacking. The flexible tail of the nuthatch gives it no
fuch advantage, nor does it feem to want it ; for its mod
favourite pofition, when breaking a nut, is witli the head
downwards. In autumn it is no uncommon thing to find,
in the crevices of the bark of an old tree, a great many
broken nut-(hells the work of this bird, who repeatedly
returns to the fame fpot for this purpole. When it has
fixed the nut firmly in a chink, it turns on all fide?, in
order to ftrike it with the moil advantage. This, with the
common hazel-nut, is a work of fomc labour ; but it breaks
the filberd with cafe. In defeft of fuch food, infetts and
their larvas are fought after among the mofs on trees, and
old thatched buildings. It is commonly met with about
orchards, and is fometimes feon, i)i the cider feafon, picking
the feeds from the refufe of the prcffed apples. The note is
various : in the fpring it has a remarkably loud flirill whilUe,
which ceafes after incubation ; in autumn is a double re-
iterated cry." There is a variety, called the little nut-
hatch, which is mucli fmaller tlian the common nutliatch,
and of a more noity difpofition. It rcfidca in Cmilar fitua-
tions, and is equally folitary ; alfociating only with its mate,
and attacking any other it may happen to fee.

Canadensis ;

S I T

S I T

Canadensis ; Canada Nuthatch. Cinereous, beneath
pale rufous ; eye-lids white. This is of the fize of the
European fpecies ; the bill is blackifh ; crown of the head,
hind part of the neck, and (houlders, black ; the back and
rump are of a light grey ; over each eye is a white line ; the
cheeks are white ; larger quill-feathers duflcy, with grey
edges ; bread and belly pure white ; the two middle tail-
feathers are grey, the rell black, with a white fpot at the
tip ; the vent is ferruginous, and the legs are brown. It
is, as its fpecific name imports, a native of Canada, and ex-
tends its journies as far fouth as New York. Mr. Pennant
makes it a mere variety of the European nuthatch ; but by
LinnjEUS and Latham it is regarded as a diftinft fpecies.

Carolinessis ; Black-headed Nuthatch. Cinereous,
beneath whitifh ; lower part of the belly reddidi ; head and
neck above black ; lateral tail-feathers white, varied with
black. It is a native of the temperate parts of America,
and of the ifland of Jamaica.

Jamaicensis ; Jamaica Nuthatch. Cinereous, beneath
white ; crown black ; lateral tail-feathers blackifti, tipped
with tranfverfe white lines. This has been defcribed by fir
Hans Sloane in his Natural Hiltory of Jamaica. It is of the
fize of the common nuthatch, the length being five inches
and a half; the bill nearly an inch long, and black ; the
head is laige, with a black crown. It is, as its fpecific name
imports, a native of the ifland of Jamaica. It is alfo found
in many parts of South America, feeding on infefts, and
having the character of a llupid bird, eafily fuffering itfelf
to be taken. From the fize of its head, it is known in
Jamaica by the name of loggerhead. There is a variety
much lefs.

Pusila ; Small Nuthatch. Cinereous, beneath dirty
white ; the head is brown, with a dirty white fpot behind ;
the lateral tail-feathers are black. It inhabits North Ame-
rica, and is faid to be found in Carolina throughout the
■whole year.

Major ; Great Nuthatch. Grey, beneath whitifli ; the
chin is white ; the quill and tail-feathers brown, edged with
orange. This is defcribed by fir Hans Sloane in the Hif-
tory of Jamaica ; it is feven inches and a half long ; the bill
is thickeit in the middle, and curved at the end ; the head
and back are grey ; the under parts are whitifh ; the wings
and tail are brown, with orange edges. It is a native of
Jamaica, and feeds on worms, infefts, &c.

Nj-via ; Spotted Nuthatch. Above it is of a lead-
colour, beneath glaucous ; the chin is white ; the wing-
coverts are fpotted with white. This bird is defcribed by
Edwards under the title of wall-creeper of Surinam, who
fays, the bill is long in proportion, ftraight, fomewhat com-
preffed fideways, a httle hooked at the point, and of a duiky
brownifh colour ; the head, the hinder fide of the neck,
back, rump, tail, and wings, are of a dark blueifh-lead
colour ; all the covert-feathers on the upper fide of the
wings are tipped with white ; the infides of the quills and
under fide of the tail-feathers are afh-coloured, lighter than
they are above ; the throat is white ; the breait, belly,
thighs, and coverts beneath the tail, are of a bluei(h-a(h
colour, lighter than the upper fide of the bird ; from the
throat, as far as the legs, the breaft is marked with white
lines, drawn down the middle of each feather, which end in
points ; the legs and feet are of a dufky brown colour.
The length of this bird is about fix inches. It is, as its
trivial name imports, a native of Surinam.

SuRiNA.MENSis ; Surinam Nuthatch. Reddifh-chefnut,
beneath it is of a dirty white ; middle of the back white ;
wings and tail black ; wing and tail-coverts tipped, and

fecondary quill-feathers edged, with white. This is a very
fmall fpecies, not much more than three inches in length ;
the bill is of a duflcy browrn, and a little curved ; the hind-
head and neck are marked with obloni^ black fpots. It is,
as its fpecific name imports, a native of Surinam.

Caffra ; Cape Nuthatch. Body beneath is yellow,
above yellow, varied with black ; the legs are black. It
inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. This was defcribed by
Sparmann, and is by him faid to be nine inches in length,
with a (Iraight blueith-black bill ; the front, hind part of
the neck, and back, mixed with brown and yellow ; cheeks,
neck, breait, and undtr parts, are of a dulliy yellow, as
are alfo the edges and tips of the wing-feathers ; the tail is
duflfy black, beneath ohve ; the two middle feathers longer
than the reit ; the legs are black.

Sinensis ; Chinefe Nwthatch. The fpecific charafter of
this, according to Gmelin, is, that the lower eye-lid is
purple. But Dr. Shaw denominates it the ferruginous nut-
hatch, with black head and neck, white breall and abdo-
men, a red fpot behind the eye, and another white one.
This bird is defcribed by Latham as fomething larger than
the goldfinch ; the bill and head are black ; the back is of a
deep blueilh-ferruginous ; the throat, breait, and belly, are
white, but the throat is encompafled by a black band,
defcending from the fides of the head, which is black and
crelled ; near the eye is a fmall fcarlet fpot, fucceeded by
a large white one ; the rump is yellow ; the tail blackilh,
with a white tip ; the bill and legs are black. It is, as its
name denotes, a native of China, where it is faid to be much
efteemed on account of the elegance of its colours, and is a
frequent ornament on Chinefe papers. " It appears," fays
Dr. Shaw, " to be much allied to the Lanius jocofus, or
red-vented Ihrike, and may perhaps prove, on future invef-
tigation, to be no other than the fame bird."

LoNGiROSTRA ; Long-billed Nuthatch. Blueilh, be-
neath pale rufous ; primary quill-feathers tipped with
brown ; the lores are black. This fpecies is defcribed by
Dr. Latham, and is faid to meafure nine inches ; the bill is
above an inch long, and black, but the bafe is pale or
whitifh ; the crown of the head and whole upper parts of
the bird are of a pale blueifh-grey, but the cheeks and fore-
head are white, and a black Itreak pafies through each eye,
along the fides of the neck ; the wings are tipped with
brown, and the under parts of the bird are pale tawny ; the
legs are of a pale brown. It inhabits Batavia.

Chloris; Green Nuthatch. Above green, beneath
white ; the tail is black, tipped with yellowifh ; the bill is
longer than the head, and blackiih towards the tip : quill-
feathers brown, outer edge greenifii, yellowifh in the middle,
forming a yellowifh band on the wings ; the rump is yel-
lowifh, and the tail fhort. It is a native of the Cape of
Good Hope, and is of the fize of the Surinam nut-
hatch.

SITTACENE, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Afia, in AfTyria, near Sufiana. Ptolemy.

SITTACENI, the name of thofe people of Afiatic Sar-
matia, who inhabited the vicinity of the Palus Mscotis.

SITTART, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer; 12 miles S. of Ruremond.

SITTEBERIS, in /Indent Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

SITTENBACH, Alt, in Geography, a town of Ba-
varia, in the territory of Nuremberg ; 3 miles W. of Herf-
bruck.

SiTTENB.\CH, Kirch, a town of Bavaria, in the territory
of Nuremberg ; 5 miles N. of Herfbruck.

SITTENSEN,

S I T

S I V

SITTENSEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Verden ; 18 miles N.E. of Rottenburjr.

SITTER, a river of Switzerland, which rifes in the
canton of Appenzell, and joins the Thur, 9 miles W. of
St. Gal.

SITTICHENBACH, a town of Saxony ; 6 miles
N.W. of Querfurt.

SITTICOTE, a town of Hindooltan, in Dowlatabad ;
p miles S. of Renapiir.

SITTINGBOURNE, a poll and fair-town in a parifh
of the fame name, hundred of Milton, and county of Kent,
England, is fituated on the high road from London to Can-
terbury, at the d\ltance of 40 miles S.E. from the metro-
polis, and 13 miles N.E. by E. from Maidftone. This
place IS of confiderable antiquity, and derives its name, by
corruption, from the Saxon word " Saedingburna," which
fignilies the village by the bourne or (tream. Henry V.
was entertained here, on his triumphant return from France,
by John Northwood, efq. of Northwood, in a llyle of
magnificence belittmg the royal dignity. Queen Elizabeth
incorporated this town by charter, and conferred upon it
the privileges of a weekly market and fairs, firil in the i6th
year of her reign, and again in her 41ft year. By the latter
deed, the corporation was conftituted by the ftyle of the
mayor and jurats, and was inverted with the right of fending
two members to parliament. Thefe privileges, however,
never feem to have been exercifed ; and even the market was
dropped in a few years ; but the fairs are ftill kept on Whit-
monday and the two following days, and on the loth of
October and the four following days.

Sittingbourne chiefly forms one wide (Ireet on the high
road, which here defcends towards the eait. The principal
lupport of its inhabitants arifes from the cuftom of tra-
vellers who pafs through it. The inns are numerous, and
fome of them equal in magnificence to any provincial inn in
the kingdom. The church is a fpacious Itrufture, divided
into a nave and two aides, a chancel, two chapels, and a
tower, which rifes at the well end. The whole has been re-
built, with the exception of the tower, fince the year 1762,
when it was deltroyed by fire. By that cataltrophe, mod
of the monuments peri (lied ; and fuch of them as were pre-
fervcd, were fo capricioufly removed, that few of them
cover the remains of the perfons they were intended to com-
memorate. The moft curious monument remaining is one
in the north, or Bayford chapel, which confilts of a table-
flab of Betherfden marble, placed under an obtufely pointed
arch, ornamented with quatrefoil compartments, difplaying
heads, fliields, fleur-de-lis, &c. and having, in the receis
behind it, the emaciated figure of a female in a winding-
Iheet.

Sittingbourne parifli is of fmall extent, and contains, ac-
cording to the parliamentary returns of 181 1, 239 houfes,
and 1362 inliabitants. Lewis Theobald, wlio pubhflied
two editions of Shakfpeare's plays, with notes, in 1733 and
1740, was a native of this parifti.

At Bayford, to the north of Sittingbourne, are fome
remains of an ancient intrcnchment, laid to have been formed
by king Alfred, when he came hither to repel the incurfions
of the Danes, in the year 893. This place was afterwards
the fcite of a callle, which, in the time of Edward 1., was
the baronial feat of Robert de Nottingham, as appears from
various deeds dill extant, bearing date " Apud cartcllum
fuum de Bayford apud Goodnellon." Hafted's Hillory of
Kent, vol. vi. 8vo. edit. 1 79S. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. vii. by E. W. Brayley, 1806.

SITTUKERA, a town ot Hindooilan, in the foubah
of Moultan ; 15 miles fram Shawanaz.

Vol. XXXIIL

SITUA, in Ancient Geography, a ton's of Aiia^ in

Paphlagonia.

SITUS, in Geometry and /llgebra, denotes the fitiution
of lines, furfaces, &c.

Wolfius gives us fome things in geometry, which are not
deduced from the common analyfis ; particularly, matters
depending on the fitus of lines and figures. M. Leibnitz
has even invented a particular kind of analyfis thereon, called
calculus Jitus.

SITZENBERG, in Geography, a town of Auftria ;
10 miles W.S. W. of Tuhn.

SITZKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Olnnetz ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Ladeinoepole.

SIVA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cappadocia, in
the prefecture of Cilicia. Ptolemy.

Siva, in Hindoo Mythology, is a perfonification of one of
the three great powers of the deity. Siva is ufually deemed
the third perfon in the Hindoo triad, and to reprefent the
dejlrudive energy. A detailed account of this important
perfonagc would extend itfelf to a hiftory of the whole
Hindoo Pantheon ; for he appears in fuch a variety of
forms, and on fo many occafions, that fcarcely a ftcp can
be taken in any department whatever of eaitern fcience, art,
or fubjeft of literature, without encountering Siva in fome
of his varied characters. Under the articles Saiva and
Vaishnava we have itated, that the whole race of Hindoos
are divided into thofe two claflTes, denoting the worlhip of
Siva, or of Viflinu ; Brahma, the firrt or creative power,
having no worfhippers, or temples. Of this curious fatt,
fee under Saraswati, the name of his confort. Thefe
two comprehenfive claffes are alfo called Saiva-bakht, and
Vifhnu-bakht. See Sects of Hindoos.

As the deJlruSfve energy of the deity, Siva is moft ufually
feen ; but deftruftion being ufed in the (enfe of renovation,
the character of Siva is that of the renovator, or rccreator ;
ad'ociating hfm in character with Brahma, the producing or
creative power. See Vedanta.

We will try to exhibit, at one view, the variety of rela-
tions in which this and the other two members of the Hindoo
triad appear ; whether they be introduced mythologically,
metaphyfically, or philofophically. All three are fymbols
of the fun, as he is typical of that great light, as the theo-
logians exprefs it, " whence all proceeded, and to which all
mull return." See O'.m.

Brahma Power 'Creation IMatterjThe paft lEarth.
Viduiu |Wifdom!Prerervation'Space The prefent| Water.
Siva ]Jiilliee |Deftrudion |Time JThe future I Fire.

But thefe characters, or attributes, are not exclufively
applicable to the three poweri, as indicated above. They
coalelce and participate, more or lefs, in fcveral. An at-
tempt has been made to fhew in what degree, more parti-
cularly, they reprefent their material forms of earth, water,
and fire : thus,

Brahma and Siva are Fire

Viflinu and Brahma are Earth, in which Siva

n which Vilhnul f"^" "°' P"-
-L p:.._ ' ticipatc, or

Siva and Viflinu arc Water, in which Brahma } . P , ,

I but remotely.

As well as aflSiiities, thefe powers have oppofing pro-
perties ; contclls of perlons, in mythological language, and
in that of the myftics, attractions, and love.

The conttll': of tliele powers, or perlons, thcu" quarrels
and reconciliations, yield fine occafions for poetical cxu-
berance. The prcfervativc and regenerative powers, being
in conllant adion, au feigned to have dcfccnded on earth
innumerable times, in divers places, for the inftruCtion and
benefit, including the falutary pumlhnient, of mankind.

L The

SIVA.

The wives and children of thel'c powers have alfo, like their
lords and parents, delcended and allumed a variety of forms
on earth, for fimilar purpofes. The hiitory of thefe endlefs
incarnations affords ample fcope for the imagination ; and
they are worked up by the poets, with wonderful fertility of
g-enius and pomp of language, into a variety of fublime de-
fcriptions, interfperfed with theological and moral texts,
that at length were received as inipired productions, and
have become the ilandard of divine truth. See Purana,
the title of a feries of mythological poems, or rather of
poems on every fubjed, under the fimilitude of mythological
adventure.

The wives or conforts of thefe mythological perfonages
ere mentioned above. All the Hindoo deities are mated in
fable, and their i'poufes are their powers or aftive energies,
and arc called their Saiti. Sec that article.

The Hindoo deities have alfo vehicles aiTigned for the
conveyance of themfelves and wives. Thefe are called
vahan. The vahan of Siva is a bull, called Nandi. They
have likewife peculiar fymbols or attributes : thofe that
more particularly defignatc Siva, his fakti, or iny thing
connefted with them, are the Linga, or phallus, and the
Trifula, or trident. The phallic emblem denotes his pre-
fiding over generation ; reminding us of the Jupiter Genitor
of weltcrn mythologiitr,, with whom fir William Jones iden-
tifies the Siva of the Ea(t.

There is yet another attribute of Mahadeva, (a name of
Siva,) by which he is too vifibly diltinguifhed in the draw-
ings and temples of Bengal. To chjlroy, according to the
Vedantis of India, the Sufis of Perfia, and many philo-
fophers of our European fchools, is only to generate and re-
produce in another form. Hence the god of dejlrud'ion
prefides over generation ; as a fymbol of which he rides on
a nvhite bull. Can we doubt that the loves and foalts of
Jupiter Genitor, (not forgetting the white bull of Europa,)
find his extraordinary title of Lapis, for which no fatis-
faftory reafon is commonly given, have a conneftion with
the Indian philofophy and mythology ?

The Jupiter Marinus, or Neptune of the Romans, re-
fembles Mahadeva in his generative charafter ; efpecially as
the Hindoo god is the hvifband of Parv.iti, whofe relation
to the luaters is evidently marked, by her image being
rellored to them at the conclafion of the great feftival called
Durgotfava. She is known to have attributes exaAly
limilar to thofe of Venus Marina, whofe birth from the fea-
foam, and fplendij rife from the conch in which fhe had
been cradled, have offered fo many charming fubjeCts for
ancient and modern poetry. Dill, on the Gods of Greece,
Italy, and Lidia. Afiat. Ref. vol. i.

Another writer, Mr. Paterfon, in the eighth volume of
the fame work, offers a paffage defcriptive of the cha-
raifter and attributes of Siva. " To Siva," he fays, " are
given three eyes, probably to denote his view of the three
divifions of time ; the palt, the prefent, and the fnture. A
crefcent on his forehead, pourtrays the meafure of time by
the phafes of the moon ; a ferpent forms a necklace to
denote the meafure of time by years ; a fecond necklace,
formed of human flcuUs, marks the lapfe and revolutions of
ages, and the extinftion and fucccflion of the generations
of mankiud. He holds a trident, to (hew that the great
attributes are in him afl'embled and united ; in another is
a kind of rattle, ftiaped like an hour-glafs, and I am in-
clined to think that it was at firfl intended as fuch, fince
it agrees with the charafter of the deity ; and a fand
fheri is mentioned in the Saftra as a mode of meafuring
time. In the hieroglyphic of Maha Pralaya, or grand con-
.fammation of all things, when time itfelf (hall be no mere,

1

he is reprefcnted as trodden under foot by Mahakal.^, or
eternity." Ifi this character he is called Kalanteka.

An anonymous writer (Edinburgh Review, W XXXIV.
p. 316.) has offered fome points of comparifon between the
Ofiris of Egypt, the Bacchus of Greece, and the Siva of
India, that will ferve to ilhiftrate our obfervations on the
latter. " Ofiris was adored in Egypt, and Bacchus in
Greece, under the emblem of the phallus. It is under the
fame emblem that he is ftill venerated in Hindooftan, and
Phallais one of his names in the dictionary of Amara Singha.
The bull was facred to him in Egypt. Plutarch allures us
that feveral nations of Greece depift Bacchus with a bull's
head ; and that when he is invoked by the women of Elis,
they pray him to haften to their relief on the feet of a bull.
In India he is often feen mounted on a bull ; hence one of
his Sanfcrit names, Vrifhadwaja, fignifying, whofe enfign
is a bull. Plutarch in.forms us, that ' Nilum patrem ac
fervatorem fus regioni", ac definxuin Ofiridis nominant.'
The Ganges, in like manner, is fabled by the Hindoos to
flow from the treffes of Siva ; hence another of his names,
Gangadliara, the fupporter of the Ganges. We conceive,
by the way, that Scaliger and Selden are niiflaken i:i fup-
pofing that Siris, the Egyptian name of the Nile, is fyno-
nimous with Ofiris. Sins feems to lu the Sanfcrit word
Saras, a river in general, or the river, from its imputed fu-
periority. Ifisisthe confort of Ofiris ; Ifa that of Ifwara,
or Siva. (See Isa.) The attributes of the goddefles
might be (hewn to correfpond as precifely as thofe of their
lords. The attendants of Ifwara refemble in their frantic
demeanour the furious Bacchants of the god of Naxos. It
is remarkable, that many of the appellations by which the
Greeks dillinguifii Bacchus-, are alfo ufed by the Hindoos ;
but inftead of applying them to Baghefa himfelf, tlie h.tter
give them to his ion, whilft both nations have their legends
to account for them. Thus, the Greeks named Baschus,
Dimeter, having two mothers; the Hindoo-: call Skanda,
the fon of Baghefa, Divimatri, with the fame fignification.
(See Skakda.) Pyrignes, born from fire, and its equi-
valent in Sanfcrit, Agnija, arc refpeftively Greek and
Indian appellatives of Bacchus and Skanda. The title of
Thriambus, we are told by Diodorus, was affumed by the
Greek deity, in his triumph after the conquell of India.
Tryambo, in like manner, is one of the moit common ap-
pellations of the Indian Bacchus, but we are not aware of
its fignification." See Triambo.

We will fnbjoin what is given jn the fame article, as de-
fcriptive of Siva, under his name of Ifwara, taken from a
copious treatife in the Imperial library at Pari*, entitled
Hyafiras, but the MS. did not fpecify from what Purar.a it
was extracted. The Matfya Purana exhibits a full code of
fimilar inllruftions for the guidance of artifts in pourtraying
the various deities of the Hindoo Pantheon. (See Puuana.)
We premife that the name Ifwara means poiverful ; a cha-
racter denoted by many hands, in the way that many heads
denote fapience.

Jfiuara. — Let the arms, (houlders, and thighs of Ifwara
be brawny and mufcular ; his colour that of the beams of
the crefcent which decorates his brow ; his long hair mud
be knotted in many convolutions ; his (houlders covered by
a tiger's ficin ; his ten arms ornamented with bracelets of
fnakes ; pendents hang from his ears : a fword, a club, a
trident, and other weapons, are perceived in his liands.
When he appears in the cliarader of the vanqui(her of Tri-
pura, during the conflagration of the city, he has fixteen
arms. (See Tripuka.) In the character of Yogefwara,
his afpeft muil be terrific. See Yogeswara.

Images and pictures of Siv.i, which, in his various charac-
ters.

SIVA.

ters, are very common, reprcfent him under a great many
fbrnns, which our limits will not allow us to enumerate.

In fome piftures he is (een four, fix, eight, or ten, and
as far as fixteen-handed ; and in one charaAer with five
faces, thc:ce called Panchamuk't, which fee ; in fitting,
Itanding, and dancing attitudes. His attributes are nearly
fimilar to thofe of his fakti Parvati. Reprefentations of
him, or of his family or fe6t, are diilinguifhed by the Linga,
or cone, the Trifula, or trident, the Pafha, or cord of pu-
niihment, (fee Pasha) ; the third eye, and collar of
flcuUs, peculiar to him, his confort, or family ; the moon
and Ganga in his hair ; a hand drum, fliaped like an hour-
glafs, and called, both in Sanfcrit and Greek, clindima,
and hence probably the name of Dindimia, and other fimi-
lar names given to the Gifcian queai of heaven ; and Dindy-
mos, a fabulous mountain confecrated by the Argonauts to
the mother of the gods ; titles as well of the confort of the
Indian Siva as of the Grecian Jupiter. An antelope, named
Safin, is fometimes feen in Siva's hand, fuppofed to have
feme lunar allufion. (See Sasin.) Thefe are his mod
common attributes. Sometimes he is joined to his fakti,
denoting then a myftical reunion of the powers of nature.
The fable of Bramah lofing one of his heads has not hi-
therto been explained. It may probably mean that Bramah,
or matter, undergoes curtailment by the deftruAive energy
of fire, or Siva. Bramah had once five he.-'ds ; he has now
only four. Perhaps the older cofmogonies may have
affigned five elements to the componency of matter, which a
fublequcnt theory, promulgated by a Saiva, reduced to
four. From fuch fpeculations originate the fables of my-
tholoj^y. Saying that Siva is Brahma, may mean, that as
renovator of forms, he is the recreator ; matter being by fome
theories eternal ; and creation, as we term it, being merely a
periodical reorganization. (See Kalpa.) He is the pa-
rent and the offspring of Vifhnu. This is faid according
with the theory or fcft, or the philofophy or religion, of the
relator. (See Sects of Ntridoos.) Philofophically, it may
mean that fire, or heat, is the fvurce of water by its evapo-
rating power, and the e/fee! of humidity, through the pro-
ccfs of fermentation ; either terreilrial, or by aerial combi-
nation. Vilhnu, it will be recoUefted, is a pcrfonification
of humidity, and we may thus difcern why Siva and Viflmu
may be mythologically parent and offspring. In the article
Skadiia an invocation to fire is given, from the funeral cere-
monies of the Hindoos, denoting its renovating property.
" Fire ! thou was lighted by him ; may he therefore be re-
produced by thee."

As the patron of aftronomy, Siva is the Uranus of the
Eaft. He is faid to guide the motions of the planet Jupiter,
named by the Hindoos ViiiiiA.si'ATi ; fee that article. He
has been already noticed as the fun, though that luminary,
or its regent Surya, is more llrikingly aflignable to a rela-
tiondiip with Vilhnu.

As dcllru£\ive fire, that powerful changer of forms,
Siva is, in a philoiophical view, more immediately confidered.
Of him ill this character, the tone or liiiga, it is faid, is his
lymbol ; being the form naturally allumed by flame ; and
the inverted cone, as the figure of water naturally defcend-
ing, is lymbolical of Vilhnu. A triangle, with its apex
upward or downward, is therttorc, being conical, the fym-
1)1)1 of tlitfe important (loitic:;,in lluir primary cliar.K'ters of
fire and water. Sonxl lines tliefe are feen combined, and
are then myllically contemplated as the re-union of nature's
elements.

The feftaries of thefe power'', the confirvativc and the
changing, refpecftively uphold the fiipitinacy of ihat'wor-
Ihipped fcverally by each, Siva being more immediately

fire, and Vi(hnu water, the philofophical contcfts for fupre-
macy, which have, it is related, been carried to the fad len.Tth
of theological war, on the parts of the adherents of tliefc
different doftrines, may remind one of thofe controverfics,
happily extending no farther, carried on in Europe by the
parties at length denominated Vulcanilts and Neptunifl;-.
The difference is, that in Europe the caufes of the world's
deftrudion by the deluge, and in India, the mode of its re-
formation at the period called kalpa, after a pralaya, or dif-
organization, is the point in difpute between their refpeftive
Saivas and Vaifhnavas ; or, in other words, the Vulcanifts
and Neptuniils. Another inftance, confonant to an Euro-
pean diftindtion, may be here noticed. It is faid that indivi.
duals of the feft of Saiva are of a more refervcd or ferious
call than thofe of the Vaifhnava feft. Gloomy individuals
are more difpofed to the reverent contemplation of the de-
ftruftive and avenging attributes of the god of juftice ; or in
other words, is it that thofe who adopt fuch adoration are
thence gloomy and dark ? Thofe, on the other hand, who
contemplate and adore the deity in his attributes of pre-
fervation and mercy, arc of a more cheerful turn. Thus
the Saivas are the Calvinilts, the Vaifhnavas or Baudhas the
Lutherans of India.

Siva, as the confort of Kali, is named Kal or Kala, fup-
pofed to be time ; for in/, in Sanfcrit and other languages of
India, means both yellerday and to-morrow : it means alfo
Unci; and in this charaiter Siva, as well as his fakti, is
painted of that colour, though under other forms, and
ufually, white is the colour of Siva. The contemplation
of the diftinflions of day and night ; of the light and dark
divifions of the month, a notation of time efpecially and
fuperltitioufly attended to in Hindoo ceremonials ; of the
fix months' day and fix months' night of the gods (occa-
fioned by the obliquity of the fun's path) ; and, lalUy, the
contrail of the vifible creation with eternal night ; are fup-
pofed by a writer in the Afiatic Refearches (Mr. Paterlon,)
to have fuggelled the idea of painting Kal white and Kali
black. When, however, he appears as Kal, he is fometimee,
as above noticed, alfo black.

To Siva, in his various forms, feveral plants are efteemed
facred, and are of courfe nourifhed by his feftaries ; chiefly,
it may be prefumed, by women, by the aged, or by Brah-
mans. A (hrub named Afoka, is one fuppofed to be pleaf-
ing to Siva. It is defcribcd in the fourth volume of the
Afiatic Refearches, art. 17, by fir W.Jones, who fays, that
the vegetable world fcarcely exhibits a richer fight than an
afoka tree in full bloom : it is about as high as an ordinary
cherry-tree. He exprelies a hope that its Sanfcrit name may
be retained by botanifls, as it perpetually occur? in the old
Indian poems, and in treatifes on religious rites. It is
planted near Siva's temples and hi"; worfliippcrs look for
efficacy from bathing on a particular day in fome holy
llivam, and drinking water with buds of the afoka floating
ill it. The name means ^n>/", or lamentation, and is derived
by mythologills from the grief of Sita, when confined in a
gro.e of it on Ceylon, by the tyrant Raveiia. Sami is the
name of another (hrub facred to Siva, connetled with which
a great deal of iiitUufi:illic e\travagancc might be pointed
out. it may be remarked, that 111 their felcdlion of holy
vegetables, the Brahmaiis have fliewed confidcrable talle by
fanftifying tliole of tlie moll lovely forts.

One of the Sanferil a])pell.itions of Siva is the god with
a thoufand names. Tlieie are given at lengtli in the Padma
Puraiia ; and the fixty-ninth chapter of tlie Sivj Purana is
allotted to their emimcr.ition. We propofcd making 1 fc
leftion of fome of them in this article; but it hss already
been enlarged to its utmofl allowable cvlcnt.

li 2 Foi

S I V

For a further account of Siva and Ins t'aniily, we refer to
leveral articles that have occurred in this work, and particu-
larly to Kama, Lotos, Matiii, Patra, Philosophy of
the Hindoos, Sects of Hindoos, Sagmka, Sankya, and
Vedanta.

To this article reference is made from Parvati, of which
indeed this may be confidered as a continuation, and feveral
errors of the prefs occurring in the latter, we take this op-
portunity of pointing themout correftively. — Incol. 3, line 6,
for cap, read cup ; col. 4, 1. 35, for beauty's, read brevity's ;
col. 5, 1. 2, iox Karlikya, read Kartilya ; col. 5, 1. 9 from
the bottom, for central is, read central eye is.

SIVAN, m Chronology, the third month of the JewiJh
ecclefialtical year, ani'wering to part of our May and
June.

SIVAS, in Geography, a very large and populous town of
Afiatic Turkey, and capital of a government, to which it
gives name, the refidence of a pacha ; anciently called
" Stballe." It is very well watered by the river Caffal-
mack, and feveral fountains and many clear ilreams, which
run through it. It is feated on the W. fide of a very fertile
valley, which is almoll furrounded by lofty mountains, hav-
ing no opening except where the river runs in and out, through
a very narrow channel between two Iteep hills. Here are
two ttone bridges at the dillance of about a mile from each
ether. Corn m great abundance grows in this valley, but
here is not much fruit, excepting plums, apples, and pears ;
but of garden vegetables there is plenty. In the middle of
the town are feme very extenfive gardens ; and on an arti-
ficial hill is an old caiUe, now tumbling into ruins. The
houfes in general have a very ordinary appearance, though
the neighbourhood furnifhes plenty of good materials for
building ; a great quantity of unfquared timber being em-
ployed to fupport an immenfe weight of ftone and clay, with
which the houfes are covered. The inhabitants appear to
enjoy much liberty ; nor are the women confined, as in fome
large cities to the eallward. According to Mr. Jackfon's
account in his " Journey from India," Sivas is nearly as
large as Liverpool, contains as many houfes, and is fully as
populous. Although moil of the private houfes are indif-
ferent itruClures, many of the public buildings are elegant,
and fomc of the monuments very lofty. In the year 1394
this city was taken by Bajazet, and foon after by Tamer-
lane, who deitroyed the town and made a terrible (laughter
of the inhabitants. N. lat. 38 15'. E. long. 37=.

SIVATA, in u4ncient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Galatia. Ptolemy.

SIVEH, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Mekran, on the Nehenk ; no miles N.N.E. of Kidtre.

SIUEN-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the tiril rank,
in Fo-kien. N. lat. 24*^ 55'. E. long. 118^ 29'.

SIVERIE. See Sf.veria.

SI VERS, Henry Jacob, in Biography, was born at
Lubec in 1709. At the age of 17 he took his degree, as
mafter of arts, at Rollock, and having become foon after
a teacher in that feat of learning, he pubhlhed, in 1730, a
thefis, " De Fide Salvifica," by which he became advan-
tageoufly known to the literary world. It was, in fa<S, an
anfwer to a book written by Dr. Eric Pontoppidan, en-
titled *' The Bright Mirror of Faith, in which are difplayed
the Marks of the Children of God." Soon after he Hood
candidate for the miniftry at Lubec ; and, on being licenled,
he acquired fo much popularity, that the churches were
crowded wherever he preached. In 1734 he majje a tour
to Denmark and Sweden, to coUeft objects for a mufeum
«f natural hiftory which he begun to form, and fettling in
the latter, he was invited to be one of the pallors of the

S I u

German congregation at Norkoeping ; after this he was or-
dained by bilhop Berzelius, and in 1746 was made one of
the court chaplains. In 1747 he obtained the office of paftor
of Tryneryra from count Horn, and in the following year
he died, in the 50th year of his age. He was a man of
confiderable learning, and pofTefied a very fine library. He
had likewife accumulated a numerous coUedtion of antiqui-
ties, natural produftions, and various curiofities of art ; but
in 1737 he had been obhged to fell to count Charle-; Gyllen-
borg the half of his minerals, and a fine cabinet of Roman ■
coins, which the count afterwards bequeathed to the aca-
demy of Lund. He carried on an extenfive correfpondence
with the celebrated Linnxus, and in 1731 was elefted 2
member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He left
behind him a large number of MSB., and he is faid to have
publifhed more than a hundred different pieces, the titles of
many of which are given in the Gen. Biog.

SIVIDURG, in Geography, a town of Hindooiian, in
Myfore ; 10 miles E. of Anantpour.

SIUM, in Botany, an <ild Latin name, :7i'-y/ of Diofcorides,
of whofe etymology nothing plaiifible has occurred to us,
except the opinion of De Theis, who deduces the word
from the Celtic fiiu, water : — the plant thus called by
Diofcorides, and every other writer, being an aquatic, of a
imall llature, fucculent, and aromatic, with parfley-like
leaves, as defcribed in his work. Such is the Sium of
modern botanifts, as to moll of its fpecies ; but their medi-
cal qualities do not well anfwer to the report of this old
writer, the root efpecially being eftecmed highly dangerous,
like the generality of umbelliferous plants, that grow in
water ; nor fliould we trull to the herbage, either " recent
or boiled, to break down and expel calculi, to promote urine
or child-birth, or to cure the dyfentery." — Linn. Gen. 138.
Schreb. 18S. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1431. Mart. Mill. Did.
V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 312. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. v. i. 194.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 14.).. Purlh 194. Juff. 222. La-
marck lUullr. t. 197. G-.ertn. t. 23. — Clals and order,
Fentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. Um-
belHfer,e, Julf.

Gen. Ch. General Umbel various in different fpecies ;
partial fpreading, flat. General Involucrum reflexed, of nu-
merous lanceolate leaves, fliorter than the umbel ; partial of
many fmall linear leaves. Perianth fcarcely difcermble. Cor.
Univsrfal up.iform ; flowers all fertile ; partial of five equal
petals, rendered heart-fhaped by their inflexed points. Stam.
Filaments five, fimple ; anthers fimple. Pijl. Germen mi-
nute, inferior ; ftyles two, reflexed ; Itigmas obtufe. Pcric.
Fruit loundifh-ovate, comprefied, fmall, Itriated, feparable
into two parts. Seeds two, nearly ovate, convex and llriated
on the outer fide, flat on the other.

Eff. Ch. Fruit nearly ovate, comprelled, ftriated. Gene-
ral and partial involucrum of many leaves. Petals heart-
ihaped, uniferm.

1. &.flifolium. Thread-leaved Watcr-parfnep. Thunb.
Prodr. 50. Willd. n. I. (" Conium tenuifolium ; Vahl
Symb. V. 3. 49.") — " Radical and llem-lcaves fimple, thiead-
(haped. Involucrum elongated." — Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. We know nothing further about this fpecies.

2. S. latifolium. Broad-leaved Water-parfnep. Linn. Sp.
PI. 361. AVilld. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 204.
Fl. Dan. t. 246. Jacq. Auflr. t. 66. (Sium; Rivin.
Pentap. Irr. t. 78. S. majus latifolium ; Ger. Em. 256.)
— Leaves pinnate ; leaflets oblong-lanceolate, equally fer-
rated. — Native of rivulets, ditches, and watery ground, in
the north of Europe ; rather common in England, flower-
ing in July and Auguft. Root perennial, of ma.iy long,
tliick, whorled fibres, from the lower joints of the item, by

which

SIUM.

wliich the plant in fome degree creeps along the muddy
bottoms of pools and ditches, St:>n erefl, angular, hollow,
leafy, fmooth, fcarcely branched. Leaves alternate, of about
three pair of oblong, feflile, fmooth leaflets, befides a ter-
minal, ftalked, rather longer one ; all acute, neatly ferrated,
varying in breadth ; thofe under water are liable to be finely
llivided. Umbels large, flattiftl, white, ereft, folitary, ter-
minal and lateral. Involucral leaves widely fpreading, lan-
'olate, white-edged, fometimes lobed, often ferrated. Calyx
r five fmall teeth. Petals fometimes (lightly unequal in
iize, as is nearly univerfal in this tribe. The whole herb is
acrid, and the roots efpecially are reckoned poifonous. This
(pecies dees not appear to be a native of Greece, nor to
have been known to Diofcorides.

2- 5. angujlifalium. Narrow-leaved Water-parfnep. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1672. Willd. n. 3. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot.
t. 139. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. n. 674, Jacq. Auftr. t. 67.
(S. nodiflorum ; Fl. Dan. t. 247. S. ereftura ; Hudf.
ed. I. 103. S, minus; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 79. S. majus
angullifolium ; Ger. Em. 256.) — Leaves pinnate; leaflets
irregularly lobed and ferrated. Umbels ifalked, oppofite
to the leaves. Stem eredl. — Native of rivulets and ditches
in Germany, England, France, and the fouth of Europe.
JDr. Sibthorp found it in Greece ; and it is more common
with ws than the precednig, flowering about July or Auguit.
I^iie perennial root creeps to a conliderable extent. The
b is of a fmaller more delicate habit than the lad, and
known by the more unequal incifions of its leaves, at lead
the upper ones. The leaflets of the radical foliage are fome-
what heart-fhaped, their edges regularly ferrated, and the
lower pair diltant from the next. Umbels folitary, each on
a lateral llalk, (horter than the oppofite leaf. Leaves of
the general involucrum drooping, often cut or pinnatitid,
often entire. Calyx of five hardly vifible teeth.

4. S. nodiflorum. Procumbent Water-parfnep. Linn.
Sp. PI. 361. Willd. n. 4. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 639.
Prodr. Fl. Grxc. n. 675. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 182. (S.
aquaticum repens et procumbens, ad alas floridum ; Morif.
feft. 9. t. 5. f. 3.) — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets ovate, equally
ferrated. Umbels feflile, oppofite to the leaves. Stem
procumbent. —Frequent in ditches and rivulets, throughout
Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in funimer.
Dr. Sibthorp obferving tliis fpecics abundantly in all the
water6 of the lall-mentioned country, concludes it, with
great probability, to be the real cr.rr/ of Diolcorides, as an-
fwerin^ well to his delcription, and being called vr^ocriXitov,
or water-parfley, by the modern Greeks. The root is pe-
rennial and creepmg. Stems procumbent or floating,
branched, bearing a nearly feffile greenirti-white umbel, op-
pofite to each leaf. The leaflets are fomewha. heart-fhaped
at tile bale, acute, neatly and equally ferrated, from five to
nine in eadi leaf; the terminal one occafumaliy confluent
with the next. General involucrum of one leaf, and often
wanting ; partial of feveral ovate one". Calyx fcarcely per-
ceptible. The qualities of this fpecie.^ are probably milder
than the two for.T.er, infomuch that three large ipoonfuls,
mixed with milk, have been given twice a day, to cure cu-
taneous diforders ; and this anfwers to the account given by
Diofcorides, better than any thing we know of the relt of
the genus.

5. S. repens. Creeping Water-parfnep. Linn. Suppl.
181. Willd. n. 5. Fl.'Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 1431.
Jacq. Auttr. t. 260. — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets roumlifh,
with deep tooth-like fegments. Umbels Italked, oppolite
to the leaves. Stem creeping. — Native of moid palturcs,
and watery turfy boj^s, in Bohemis, AuUria, Scotland, and
England, flowering from June to Augull. This is a much

I

fmaller plant than the lall, growing on wet ground, but not
floating in water. TlKjlems are quite proltrate, throwing
out many radicles. Leaflets fewer, with broad notches, not
fine ferratures. Umbels more ftalked, and whiter. General
involucrum, as well as the partial, of feveral ribbed leaves.
Calyx obfolete.

6. S. Si/arum. Skirret. Linn. Sp. PI. 361. Willd.
n. 6. Ait. n. 5. (Sifarum ; Ger. Em. 1026. Sifer
primum ; Matth. Valgr. v. i. 402. Sju sjin, vulgo Nisji,
&c. ; Kiempf. Am. Exot. 818. t. 819. See Dryandr.
in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 228.) — Lower leaves pinnate;
upper ternate ; all fharply ferrated. Umbels terminal. —
Native of China. Cultivated, time out of mind, in Europe,
for the fake of its perennial, flefiiy, oblong, efculent roots,
formerly reputed to poflefs an exciting quality. This
notion perhaps originated with the Chinefe ; and that
knavilh nation feems, as Mr. Dryander firft remarked, to
have impofed upon the Japanefe with thefe roots, for the
true Ginfeng of Tartary, or Panax quinquefolia of Linnaeus,
which latter feems to be 5. Ninfi of Thunberg. One may
be as efficacious as the other, nor would a praAitioner, of
any defcription, now perhaps confide in either. The herb
of the Skirret is twelve or eighteen inches high, ereft,
branched, leafy. Lower leaves of five or feven leaflets ;
upper of three ; all copioufly, neatly, and fliarply ferrated ;
the lowcrmolt ferratures often much the largelt, or deepeft,
and fomewhat fpreading . Umbels at the tops of the
branches, white, rather fmall, with few or no leaves in the
general involucrum, but feveral linear or fetaceous ones in
the partial. — Sium Niiifl, Linn. Sp. PI. 361, having been
entirely adopted from Kxmpfer's figure of the prefent,
that fpecies falls to the ground ; nor is it entitled to rank
even as a variety, though marked as fuch by Willdenow.

7. S. rigidius. Virginian Water-parfnep. Linn. Sp.
PI. 362. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 6. Purlh n. i. (Oenanthc
maxima virginiana, pxonix focmins foliis ; Morif. feft. 9.
t. 7. f. I.) — Leaves pinnate; leaflets lanceolate, very
nearly entire. — " In wet meadows, from Pennfylvania to
Virginia, flowering in July and Auguft. Flotuers fmall.
This and the following, S. lineare, are confidered as very
poilonou-: plants, clpecially to horned cattle, and every
tarmer who knows their bad qualities is biifily employed
to dellroy them." Purjli. "YXm roots, and general habit, of
this ipecies bear confidcrable refemblance to the lafl ; but
the leaflets are more numerous, narrower, tapering at each
end, and either quite entire, or with two or three broad
notches only, here and there, in the lower leaves. The
umbels are thrice the fize of 5. Sifarum, but, like them, are
accompanied by only a (light general involucrum, nor are
the partial ones much more confidcrable.

8. S. lineare. Linear Water-parfnep. Michaux Borcal-
Amer. v. 1. 167. Purlh n. 2. (S. luave ; Walter
Carol. 115.) — " Leaves pinnate, leaflets elongated, linear,
or (lightly lanceolate, rather diltantly ferrated. General
involucrum of few leaves ; partial o( many linear ones.
Umbel with fliort rays." — In wet meadows, and by the
fides of ditches, from Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering in
July ; perennial. Purjh.

9. S. longifulium. Long-leaved Water-parfnep. Pur(h
n. 3. — " Leaves pinnate ; leaflets of the lower ones very
long, linear, falcate, Iparingly toothed. Stem (lightly
leafy ; naked above. Umbels ulually in pairs, with fcarcely
any involucrum." — In the ditches and b(>.;s of New Jerfcy,
flowering in Augull. — Very (lender, perennial. PurJh.

10. S. japnnicum. Japaneie Water-parfnep. Tliuiib.
Jap. 1 18. Willd. n. 8. — Leaves pinnate; leaflets of the
lower outs oblong or ovate, varioully cut ; of the upper

lanceolate.

lanceolate, entire. Umbels terminal. — Native of Japan,
flowering in June. The inhabitants call it Salko, or Mils
Suba Sen. The Jltm is ereft, zig-zag, branched at the
upper part. Leaves fmooth, the lower ones very large, with
fpreading varioufly (haped leafids, which are either ovate or
oblong, undivided or cut ; the upper leaves minute.
Umbels tenninating the branches. Thunb.

II. S. F<ikaria. Decurrent Water-p^rfnep. Linn. Sp.
PI. 362. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 7. Prodr. Fl. Grxc.
n. 676. Jacq. Aullr. t. 257. {S. n. 782 ; Hall. Hid.
V. I. 347. Falcaria; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 48. Eryn-
gium montanum ; Ger. Em. 1 164. Ammi perenne repens,
&c. ; Morif. feft. 9. t. 8. f. 1.)— Leaflets linear, decur-
rent, confluent, finely ferrated. — Native of Germany, Flan-
ders, Switzerland, France, Greece, and Afia Minor; a

SIUM.

16. S. grttcum. Greek Water-parfnep. Linn. Sp. PI.
362. Willd. n. 13. (Ligulticum grxcum, apii folio ;
Tourn. Cor. 23.) — " Leaves doubly pinnate; leaflets lan-
ceolate, ferrated ; the uppermoft confluent." — Native of
Greece, according to Tournefort ; but we have met with
nothing referrible to this fpecies among Dr. Sibthorp's
fpecimens, drawings, or catalogues, nor have we feen any
fpecimen of the authentic plant. Willdenow, from whom
we have taken the fpecific charadler, fays the powers are
yellow.

17. S. decumbens. Decumbent Water-parfnep. Thunb.
Japon. 118. Willd. n. 14. — " Leaves doubly pinnate;
leaflets three-cleft. Stem decumbent." — Gathered by
Thunberg in Japan, where it is known by the name of
J'lngafaiu, and flowers in March. The^^ni is fmall, de-

hardy perennial, kept chiefly in botanic gardens, flowering cumbent. Leaves radical, on long ftalks, fmooth. Umbel

in Jiily and Auguft. The root is long and cylindrical,
white, friable when dried, faid to refemble Eryngo in its
fweetifli, aromatic, rather acrid, flavour. Herb rigid,
fmooth, two or three feet high. Stem round, leafy, much
branched, terminating in numerous (lender umbels of many
rays, with fmall white j^oTO^-rj-. The general and partial
inrolucral leaves are numerous, long, and very narrow.
The radical leaves have long fl:alks ; the rell (horter more
fheathing ones ; all are rigid, fmooth, ternate in the firit
inftance ; the middle leaflet ternate ; the literal ones binate ;
the external edge of each lateral leaflet ilrongly decurrent.

12. S. verticillatum. Whorled Water-parfnep. Fl. Brit.
n.5. Roth. Germ. V. 2. p. 1.336. (Sifon verticillatum ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 363. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 1. 1437. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 2. 146. Lightf. Scot. 1096. t. 35. Engl.
Bot. t. 395. Oenanthe millefoUi paluilris foliis ; Morif.
feft. 9. t. 7. f. 10. Daucus pratenfis ; Dalech. Hilt. 718.)
— Leaflets in numerous, capillary, whorl-like fegments. —
Native of wet falt-niarflies. Plentiful iu the weftern parts
of Scotland and Wales; found at Killarney, and in the
county of Kerry, Ireland, in 1 809, by Mr. J. T. Mackay.
It is alfo reported to grow in France, the Pyrenees, and
fome parts of Germany. Dr. Roth had, unknown to us,
forellalled us in transferring this curious fpecies to Stum,
before the publication of Flor. Brit, though he had never
feen a fpecnnen. Of the propriety of this alteration we
have no doubt, the umbels being of numerous rays, with
many leaves in their general as well as partial involucrum,
and the petals heart-fhaped. The plant is perennial,
flowering in July and Auguft. Root of feveral flefliy
tapering knobs. Stem eighteen inches high, ereft, fmooth,
fcarcely branched, and flightly leafy. Leaves numerous,
chiefly radical, pinnate, of many pairs of deeply-cut, radiat-
ing, plumofe leajlets, fpreading, fo as to feem whorled.
Petals white, uniform, and nearly equal. Involucral leaves
deflexed, ovate ; five or fix to the general umbel, more to
each partial one. Calyx hardly vilible. Fruit roundifli-
ovate, comprefled.

13. S. grand'tflorum. Large-flowered Cape Water-parf-
nep. Thunb. Prodr. 50. Willd. n. 10. — " Leaves
doubly pinnate ; leaflets roundifli, with tooth-hke feg-
ments."— Found by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good
Hope.

14. S. pankulaium. Panicled Cape Water-parfnep. —
Thunb. Prodr. 51. Willd. n. II. — " Leaves doubly
pinnate; leaflets linear, pinnatifid." — From the fame
country.

15. S. palulum. DitFufe Cape Water-parfnep. Thunb.
Prodr. 51. Willd. n. 12. — " Leaves doubly pinnate;
leaflets three-cleft. Branches diff"ufe." — From the fame
country.

terminal, fcarcely compound. Seeds ovate, obtufe, (Iriated,
fmooth, crowned with the permanent ftvles. Thunberg. —
By the defcription, we fufpeft this may be more properly
a fpecies of Hydrocotyle, but without feeing a fpecimen, we
dare not determine.

18. S. Jtculum. Sicilian Water-parfnep. Linn. Sp. PI.
362. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 8. Jacq. Hort. Viiid. v. 2.
62. t. 133. (Dauco Ccihano, con foglie di paftinaca ;
Zanon. Ht. 78. t. 30.) — Leaves ftrongly ferrated, doubly
pinnate ; the lower and uppermoll ternate. Umbels ter-
minal, ilalked ; partial ones very unequal. — Native of "Sicily.
A hardy perennial, flowering in July and Auguft. The

Jlem is varioufly branched, ereCl, leafy, about two feet high,
round, folid, fmooth. Leaves fmooth and fliining ; their
leajlets more or lefs ovate, acute, copioufly, deeply, and
acutely ferrated, feflile. General and partial involucrum of
many linear deflexed leaves. Flonvers yellow ; in fome of
the partial umbels very few, perhaps folitary. Germen
oblong. The genus of this fpecies is rather doubtful, if
we attend to its habit ; and yet we know not how, by the
charafters, to refer it elfewhere.

19. S. afperum. Rough Cape Water-parfnep. Thunb.
Prodr. 51. Willd. n. 16. — " Leaves triply pinnate. Ge-
neral and partial flower-ftalks rough." — Found by Thun-
berg at the Cape, as well as the two following. We ha\-e
no information concerning any of them, befides what his
Prodromus affords.

20. S. hifpidum. Hifpid Cape Water-parfnep. Thunb.
Prodr. 51. Willd. n. 17. — " Leaves triply pinnate. Foot-
ilalks and flower-ftalks rough."

21. S. villo/um. Villous Cape Water-parfnep. Thunb.
Prodr. 51. Willd. n. iS. — " Leaves triply pinnatifid;
fegments ovate, deeply ferrated, villous."

SiuM, in Gardening, contains a plant of the hardy, her-
baceous, efculent kind, of which the ipecies cultivated is
the (kirret (S. filarum).

Tliis plant was formerly much cultivated for the roots,
which were eaten boiled and itewed with butter, pepper,
and fait ; or rolled in flour and fried ; or elfe cold, with oil
and vinegar, being firft prepared by boiling.

Method of Culture. — It may be raifed either by feeds or
flips from the roots, but the firll is the beft method, as in
the latter mode the roots are apt to become fticky : the
feeds fliould be fown about the beginning of April, either
in broadcatl over the furface, or in drills, the ground
being previoufly well dug to a good depths light and
rather moift land being chofen for the purpofe. The
plants moitly appear in five or fix weeks, and when they
can be fufiiciently diftinguiftied by their leaves, the ground
(hould be well hoed over, in the fame manner as for carrots,
the plants being properly thinned out to the diftance of five

S I u

or fix inches. The hoeing fliould be repeated as often as
necedbry, in dry weather. And in the autumn, when the
leaves begin to decay, the roots will be iit for ufe, and will
continue io till tlie fpring.

But in the oftset metliod, the old plants fhould be dug
up in the fpring before they begin to llioot, the fide (lioots
being then flipped off with an eye or bud to each, planting
them in rows a foot apart, and four or five inches dillant in
the rows : they fhould afterwards be cultivated as the
others.

Thefe roots are prepared, as lias been feen, by boilinnr,
and eaten in the fame manner as above, or as carrots and
parfnepj. They are wholefome, but not held in luch re-
quelt as formerly was the cafe.

SlUM Nodiflorum, Procumbent Water-parfnep, in the
Materia Medica. This plant has been omitted by tlie
London College, in the lall edition of its Pharmacopeia,
and not, it is thought, without realon, as its pretenfions
even to the charafter of an antifcorbutic require con-
firmation.

SlUMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 25 miles E.S.E. of Doefa.

SIUN, a river of China, which runs into the Han river,
near Siun-yam, in Chen-fi.

SIUNDO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nyland ;
25 miles W. of Helfingfors.

SIUNISONG, a town of Corea, near the fta ; 38 miles
W.N.W. of Hoang-tcheou.

SIUN-YAM, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Chcn-fi ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Hing-ngan.

SIUPH, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, in the
Saitic nome ; the native place of king Amafis, according
to Herodotus.

SIUR, a port of Africa Propria, in the gulf of Numiuia,
between the Lelier Collops, and near the promontory of
Hippus, according to Ptolemy.

SIVRAY, in Geography. See Civray.

'&\N^Y.X-J'ur-Meufe, a town of France, in the department
of the Meufe ; 3 miles W. of Veidun.

SIUT, SiouT, or, as it is often called, AJji'ut, a town
or city of Upper Egypt, and now the moll confiderable.
This charafter formerly belonged to Gii'gc, which is llill a
place of note, but the charafler of pre-eminence belongs to
Afliut. It is i'ltuated withiii land a few miles W. of the
Nile, on an artillcial eminence. The fcite of this ancient
city feems to have been either Antopolis, as Pococke
thinks, or more prcbably, as Strabo intimates, Lycopolis.
It is a large, populous, and well-built town ; and the manner
in which the water is conducted round it is worthy of
notice. A canal, dug probably from an early period,
parallel to the Nile, in this ])art of the country waflies the
foot of the mountains which are near to Alliut, and
having furroiindcd that city, and the adjateiit villages, de-
fcends again into the river. The water, however, is not
admitted into it except at a certain period of its increafe,
and then it overflows all the furrounding lands, and Ailiut
only communicates with the Nile by a road artilicially
raifud above the common level, which leads down to the
port where the boats refort, and are laden ar.d dilcharged ;
aud alfo by two bridges, the one leading to this road, and
the other towards the mountains. This city has increafed
in populatiun within a few years liy the good government
of Soliman Bey, why has alio adorned it by planting many
trees. Airiut was forrnvrly known to the Arabic writerj
by the name of " Haut-c-Sultan," the kiii;;'s iifh, or fifli-
pond. The rcafon of the appellation is not afcertaincd, pro-
bably it took its rile from its having been ajijioiiit'-'d to

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fupply tlie king's table with iiOi. In the mountain above
Alliut are feveral remarkable caverns, very fpacious, and
adnriied with hieroglyphics and emblematical figures. Some
appear to have been Icpulchral, as they contain fragments
of tiiejars, in which were depofitcd not only tlic ibf", but
cats, dogs, ;-nd other animals, wliether confidered as facred,
or llain to attend their mailer or miilrefs in the other world.
In one of thefe caverns, belides the entrance, there are
three chambers hewn in the rock, which is frec-ilone, one
fixty feet by thirty ; another, fixty by twenty-fix ; a third,
twenty-fix by twenty-five. Further up tlie mountains there
are caverns more fpacious even than thefe. Other cavities
have been made by removing the Hone for the purpofts of
building ; but they have been afterwards appropriated to
various purpofes ; fome for fi-pnlture, as we may conclude
from the jars, curioully Hopped with bitumen, and others
either for religious retirement in a Chrilliau age, or for
fummer retreats, as they are expofed to the north, and very
cool.

Large quantities of fine flax arc cnltivated in the vicinity
of Siout : this commodity and wheat are tranfported from
Upper to Lower Egypt. Salt and other articles are
brought in return. From Mecca, by way of Colleir, are
imported Indian goods ; and the European articles of broad-
cloth, tin, &c. are here rarely feen. The Soudan caravans
form a chief fupport of Affiut, which ferves to them as a
midway ilation. They aliembled in their way to Sennaar,
here, and at Manfalout, under the proteftion of a bey : they
then palled nearly fouth-welf into the faiidy defart of Libya,
to El-wah, the Oafis Magna of antiquity, and fo into the
great defart of Selima. Afliut is regarded as the capital of
Middle Egypt, and its population exceeds that of all the
towns to the fouth of Cairo. Mr. Browne inclines to cili-
mate the inhabitants at no lefs than 25,000. The " fen-
jiak," or bey of Said, divides the year of his ofBce between
Affu'it and Girge : the internal government coiifills of the
cadi, affilled by other civil officers ; and five cafhets, molUy
appointed by Soliman Bey, conllantly refide there. It is
the feat of a Coptic biihop, but the Copts are not very nu-
merous ; the people being chiefly Mahometans. Provifions
are confidcrably che.ipcr at Affiut than at Cairo. Man-
falout is at no great dillancc from Affiut : this is a city of
confiderable extent and population. Between thefe two
cities Hands Ben-Ali, a populous town. Thefe three
places conllitute, with Girgc, the chief marts of the trade
of Upper Ej<ypt ; 162 miles S. of Cairo. N. lat. 27- 25'.
E. long. 31° 38'. Saviiry. Browne. Sonnini.

SIVVENS, in Medicine. See SllUiEN.s.

SIWA, SiWAli, Siouah, or Seeiviih, in Geography, a
town of Africa, in the country of Tripoli, on the frontiers
of Egypt, fuppofed by fome to be the ancient Mareotis,
and by others to be the Siropum of Ptolemy. According
to Mr. Browne, tli's place anfwers to the (lefcription given
of the Oafis (fee Oa.sis), as being a fmall fertile fpot, fur-
rounded on all fides by defart land. \ path, cncompallcJ
with date-trees, leads to the town, which gives name lo the
dillrid. About two miles from this place, after palfiiig
along fome fliady paths between the gardens, Mr. Brov/ne
arrived at what were called the ruins, or " birbc ;" and waa
furprifed to find himfelf near a building of undoubted anti-
(jiiity, and which he lias particularly defcribed. It is litu-
ated in N. lat. 21/ 12'. E. long. 26' 35'. This edifice con-
lilled of a fingle apartment, built of maffy Hones, of the
lame kind with tliufe which compofe the pyramids, and co-
vered originnlly with fix large and folid blocks, that reaeh
from one wall lo the other ; 32 feet long in the clear, about
18 high, and 15 wide. A gate, at one extremity, forms

the

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the principal entrance, and two doors alfo near that ex-
tremity open oppofite to each other. The other end la
quite ruinous, but there is reafon to believe t-hat the whole
building has never been much larger than it now i<t. On
the exterior of the walls there is no fculpture, nor is there
any appearance of another edifice having been attached to it.
In the interior are three rows of emblematical figures, ap-
parently defigned to reprefent a procedion ; and the fpace
. between them is filled with hieroglyphic charafters : the
foffit is alfo adorned in the fame manner ; five of the fix
flones remain entire, but the other has fallen within, and
thus the connection is broken. The fculpture is fufficicntly
diftinguifhable ; :;nd even the colours in fome places remain.
The foil around feems to indicate that otlier buildings have
formerly exilled near this place. In a rock not far dillant
there are apartments, which have the appearance of places
of fepulture. Although they are without ornament or in-
fcription, they feem to have been hewn with fome labour.
They appear to have been all opened, but no circumftances
point out with certainty the ufes to which they have been
applied. Neverthelefs here are many parts of human Ikulls,
and other bones, with fragments of fldn, and even of hair,
attached to them. All of them appear to have undergone
the aftion of fire ; but whether they are the remain? of
bodies repofitcd there by a people accullomed to burn the
dead, or whether they have been burned in this their de-
tached Itate by the prefent inhabitants, it is now difficult
to determine. Yet the fize of the catacombs would induce
one to conclude, that they were defigned for bodies in an
unmutilated ftate ; the proportions being twelve feet in
length, fix in width, and about fix in height. The nuiiber
of thefe caverns may amount to thirty or more.

The Oafis, which contains the town of Siwa, is Hated by
Mr. Browne to be about fix miles long, and f uir and a half
or five wide. Mr. Horneman, who vifited this country
iince Mr. Browne, fays, that the principal and fertile terri-
tory of Siwah is 50 miles in circumference ; but unlcfs there
be a miftake in numbers, 50 being inferted inllead of 15,
which is not improbable, he differs from all others ; unlefs
indeed we fuppofe, that he included the whole dillnft within
the furrounding mountains, without confidering that be-
tween thefe and the Oafis are extenfive plains of barren fand.
A large proportion of the fpace in which Siwa is fituated
is filled with date-trees, and there are alfo pomegranates,
figs and olives, apricots and plantains ; and the gardens ai-e
remarkably flourilhing. They cultivate a confiderable
quantity of rice, of a reddifh hue, and different from that
of the Delta. The remainder of the cultivable land fur-
nilhes wheat enough for the confumption of the inhabitants.
Here is abundance of water, both ialt and frefh ; but the
fprings which furnifh the hitter are m.oftly tepid ; and fuch
is the nature of the water, air, and other circumftances, that
ttrangers are often affefled with agues and malignant fevers.
It is obferved by the natives concerning one of the Iprings,
which rifes near the building above defcribed, that it is
fomctimes cold and fometimes warm.

The complexion of the people in this diftrift is generally
darker than that of the Egyptians ; and their dialeft is alfo
different. They are not in the habitual ufe either of coffee
or tobacco. The drefs of the lower alafs is very fimple, as
they are almoil naked ; and the coftume of the inhabitants,
as far as it could be diicerncd, approached nearer to that of
the Arabs of the defart than thofe of the Egyptians or
Moors. Their clothing confifts of a (hirt of white cotton,
with large fleeves, and reaching to the feet, a red Ti:nis
cap, without a turban, and (hoes of the famt colour. iSome
earthen ware made by themfelves, and a few mats, form the

S I X

chief part of their houfehold furniture ; none but thofe of
the richer clafs being furnifhed with copper utenfils. They
occafionally purchafe a few (laves from the Murzouk ca-
ravan. Their remaining wants are fupplied from Cairo or
Alexandria, whither they tranfport their dates, both in a
dry (tate, and beaten into a mafs, which when good re-
femble in fome degree a iweet-meat. They eat no large
quantity of animal food, and bread of the kind known to us
is uncommon. Flat cakes, without leaven, kneaded and
then half baked, form part of their nourilhment. The re-
mainder confilts of thin (heets of palle, fried in the oil of the
palm-tree, rice, milk, dates, &c. They drink, in large
quantities, the liquor extradled from the date-tree, which
has often the p.^wer of inebriating. Their domellic animals
are the hairy (heep and goat of Egypt, the afs, and a very
fmall number of oxen and camels. The women are veiled,
as in Egypt. After the rains, the ground in the neigh-
bourhood of Siwa is covered with fait for many weeks.
Browne's Travels. j

Siwa, in Mythology, a goddefs of the Germans, repre-
fented in her ftatue naked, with her hair falling down behind
as far as her knees, and holding in one hand a bunch of
grapes, and in the other an apple. She is taken for Venus,
or for the goddefs of health. Others take her for a rural
divinity, the Pomona of Lufatia.

SIWALON, in Geography, a rock in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the north coalt ot Java. S. lat. 6'^ 36'. E. long.
1 10° 49'.

SIXAIN, Sixth, Sexagena, in War, an ancient order
of battle, in which (i^ battalions being ranged in one line,
the fecond and fifth were made to advance, to form the van-
guard ; the fird and fixth to retire, to form the rear-guard ;
the third and fourth remaining on the fpot, to form the
corps, or body of the battle.

The word is French, fignifying the fame thing.

SIX-CLERKS, officers in chancery of great account,
next in degree bt-low the twelve mafters ; whofe bufinefs is
to enrol commiffions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c.
which pafs the great feal, and to tranfaft and file all pro-
ceedings by bill, anfwer, &c.

They were anciently clerici, and forfeited their places, if
they married ; but when the conttitution of the court began
to alter, a law was made to permit them to marry. (Stat.
14 & 15 Hen. VIII. cap. 8.) They are alfo folicitors for
parties in fuits depending in the court of chancery.

Under them are fix deputies and fixty clerks, who, with
the under clerks, do the bufinefs of the office.

SIX-FOUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Var ; 9 miles S.W. of Toulon.

SIXHINDEMEN. See Syxhindemen.

SIX-ISLANDS, in Geography, fmall ifiands in the Ealt
Indian fea. S. lat. 6° 37'. E. long. 71° 26'.

SIX-MEN Fort, a fort of the ifland of Barbadocs ;
I mile N. of Speiglit's Town.

Six-MEx'j- Bay, a bay on the north-weft coaft of the
jfland of Barbadoes.

SIX-MILE Bridge, a poft.town of the county of
Limerick, Ireland ; 6 miles S. of that city, on the road to
Cork, and 102 miles S.W. from Dubhn. There is another
town of the fame name well of Limerick, on the road to
Ennis, and in the county of Clare, which is loaf miles
W.S.W. from Dublin, The latter town is on the river
Gearna or Owgarne, f;'. e. Owin Gearn, river Gearna,)
which falls into the Shannon, where Bunratty caftle ftood ;
and had fome ecclefiaftical buildings in former days.

Six-mile Creek, a fmall ftream in the ftate of New
York, that enters the head of Canoge lake at Ithecal. A

part

S I X

S I X

part of ths creek is in the north-eaft part of Tioga county,
where it furnirties excellent mill-feats. Its courfe is feven-
teen miles.

Six-mile Crofs, a fair-town of the county of Tyrone,
Ireland, where there is a church. It is 7 miles S.E. from
Omagh.

Six-mile Water, a river of the county of Antrim,
Ireland, which rifes in Agnew's hill, near Larne, and run-
ning fouth-weft, falls into Lough Necgh, below the town
of Antrim. The valley of this river, containing feveral
villages, is a fine fpecimen of the beauty and cultivation of
the county, to which the frequent white-thorn hedges con-
tribute not a little ; fhewing, as the plains about Antrim
are approached, the increafing richnefs of the foil, by their
fuperior fi/.e and vigour. Dubourdieu's Antrim.

SIX-NATIONS, a confederacy of American Indians,
fo called by the Britifh and Americans, and by the French
Iroquois. They are Mohawks, Oneidas, Onordagas, Se-
necas, Cayuga?, and Tufcaroras. In the American war
they took part with Great Britain, and in 1770 they were
totally defeated by the troops of Congrefs. Many of them
have removed to Canada ; ^nd in 1796 they amounted to
40J8 pcrfoiis. In this year a fociety of Friends or Quakers
raifed a fund, towards promoting the civilization and com-
forts of thefe poor people.

SIXT, a town of France, in the department of the Ille
and Vilaine ; 6 miles N. of Redon.

SIXTH, Sesta, Ital., Sixte, Fr., in Mtifc, the fecond
of the two imperfeft concords, called by the Greeks Hexa-
chordon, becaufe its interval is formed of fix founds, or
five diatonic degrees. The fixth in only a natural con-
fonance by combination ; for in the order of concords there
is no fimple and direft fixth.

To confider fixths by their intervals, there are four dif-
ferent forts ; two confonant, and two dillonant. The con-
fonant are, firil, the minor lixth, compofcd of three tones,
and two major femitones ; as EC: its ratio is 5 to 8.
Secondly, the major fixth, compofed of four tones, and a
femitone major; a? G E ; its ratio is 3 to j.

The difi'onant fixths are the extreme flat, and the extreme
(harp fixths; as B b 2nd G*, called by the French the
fuperfluous fixth ; and C* and A [j- Neither of thefe in-
tervals can be ufed in melody, and only the firll in har-
mony.

Dr. Pepufch has given eight examples of the allowable
life of the fixth in two parts ; and Rouileau has given a lill
of feven chords, in which fixths are employed. Thefe arc,
firft, the fimple chord of the fixth to the third of a key,
when that third is th" fuppofed bafe, iiiltead of its funda-
mental. This kind of chord, which ii the common chord to
the third below the bafe, may be given likewife to the ie-
cond and the (liarp fevcnth of a key. The fecond uie of
the fixth is with the fourth, which is ilill a perfeft concord
to the fifth below the bafe. The third ufe of the fixth is

in the chord of the ■, which is the chord of the feventh to

the fifth below the bafe, with a (harp third. Tiie fourth ufe
»f the fixth is in the chord or harmony of the '^, wliich is the
chord of the feventh to the minor third below the bafe.
This haimony is ufually given to the fourth of a key.

The fifth life of the fixth is in what Ramcau calls h double
emploi, or double ufe of the " ; when either of thefe intervals
may be regarded ac the difcord. If the fifth is made a dif-
cord by the fixth, it mud be refolvcd by defcending on a
concord ; but if, as before a clofe, the fixth is regarded at

Vol. XXXIII.

the difcord, it mufl be refolved by afcending to another fixth,
while the fifth remains for a fourth to the next bafe. See
DouRLE Emploi, and Resolution.

The fixth ufe of the fixth is that of the major fixth and
falfe fifth, which is the chord of the extreme flat feventh to
the fecond of a minor key, in which the falfe fifth is taken,
inltead of the fourth.

Ladly, the feventh ufe of the fixth is in the chord of the
extreme (harp fixth, ufed only to the fixth of a minor key ;
as D* to F ^, when the bafe defccnds to E, the fifth ot
the key, with a Iharp third. This is an original chord,
which cannot be inverted. All thefe chords will be given
in notation on the mufic plates, in the rules for accom-
paniment, or thorough-bafe. The major fixth is nine
femitones or half notes above the bafe ; the minor fixth,
eight.

The fixtlis major and minor, being inverfions of the thirds
in compofition and accompaniment, may, in two parts, move
in fucceflion upwards and downwards at pleafure. It has,
in a regular defcent, a folemn and melancholy effeft, more
pleafing than in a regular afcent. In compofition and ac-
companiment, this concord is accompanied by the ", or by
its octave and a third, or by two thirds. In thorough-bafe,
doubling the fixth or third, when the movement is not very
rapid, enriches the chord and the harmony more than the
eighth.

Sixth, in the Military Art. See Sixain-
Sixth Pair of Nerves. See Nerve.

Sixth Rates. See Rate.

SIXTUS I., pope, in Biography, was by birth a Roman,
and fucceeded Alexander I. about the year 1 19. Very lit-
tle is known concerning him ; and though there are two de-
cretals afcribed to him, they are generally regarded as for-
geries. He died in the year 128, and has been ranked
among the martyrs by the church of Rome, though it is
not at all afcertained that he aftually ended his hfe by
martyrdom.

SiXTUs II., pope, was a deacon of the Roman church
at the time he was elected to the pontificate, in the year
257, or, according to fome authors, in 260. At the requeft
of Dionyfiiis, bilhop of Alexandria, he put an end to a
difpiite commenced between his prcdccenVir, Stephen, and
St. Cyprian, concerning baptifm adminiltcred by heretics.
A perlecution was at this time raging againil the Chriftiani '
in confequence of a refcript of the emperor Valerian, di-
refting that fearch fhould be made for all blfhops, priells,
and deacons, in order to be put to death. Sixtus was one of
the firll viftims, being beheaded after he had occupied the
papal chair almoll a year.

SixTus III., pope, a Roman, was long regarded as ope
of the principal ornaments of the church ot Rome. In
418 he was a favourer and proteftor of the Pelagians ; but
when their opinions were condemned by Zolimus, he was one
of the firft who pronounced an anathema .igainil them, and
made a public declaration of his orthodoxy. He was railed
to the pontifical throne in 432, on the dctth of Celellinc.
It was about this period that the Eallern churches wcro-
dividcd concerning the condemnation of Nellorius ; Cyril,
with the Egyptian bifliops, maintaining the jullice of that
aft ; while Johnof Antioch, and other Oriental bilhops, re-
fuled to concur in it. By the exertions of Sixtus the par-
ties were reconciled. The Illyrian bilhops made an attempt
in the pontificate of Sixtus to free themfelves from the papal
jurifdiftion, but they were induced by his h'tters to renounce
their purpofe. The munificence of this pontiff was dif-
pkycd in various repairs and rich decorations of churches i»
M Rome,

SIXTUS.

Rome. He died in 440, after a reign of eight years, and
hie name has been enrolled among thofe of the faints of the
holy Roman fee.

SixTus IV., pope, who affumed the name of Sixtus, in-
ftcad of Francis della Rovere, was defcended from a family
of the fame name in Savona, in the ftatc of Genoa. He was
born in 1414, and at an early age entered into the Francif-
can order. He ftudied in the univerfities of Pavia and Bo-
logna, and having taken the degrees of doAor of philofo-
phy and theology, he gave pubUc leftures in feveral of the
principal cities of Italy, and acquired great reputation for
learning. Having pafled through fome honourable offices
in his order, he was at length raifed to the head of it as ge-
neral ; and becoming known to cardinal Beflarion, through
his recommendation, and that of cardinal Gonzaga, he wa»
promoted by pope Paul II., in 1467, to the purple, by the
title of St. Peter ad Vincula. On tlv: death of the pope, in
147 1 , he was raifed to the pontifical chair ; but on his co-
ronation a tumult was excited that had nearly proved fatal
to him. Efcaping from the hands of the mob, he attempted
to form a league among the Chriilian princes againft the
Turks, who had made themfelves mafters of Bofnia, Iftria,
and great part of Dalmatia, and threatened Italy. With
this view he fent fome of liis moft diltinguiihed cardinals as
his legates to different courts, with intlrudlionsto endeavour
to compofe the difputcs exitting between the feveral fove-
reigns ; but, as ulual in fuch cafes, with fmall effeft. He
procured to be fitted out an allied fleet of gallies, which re-
covered Smyrna from the Turks, but he did little befides.
He was more fuccefsful at home, in an attempt to expel a
number of petty tyrants who had feized upon the cities be-
longing to the church, and governed them as independent fo-
vereigns. With the aid of Ferdinand, king of Naples, he
efFeftually cleared the ecclefiaitical ilates of thefe ufurpers,
and thereby almoll doubled his revenue. The year 1475
■was that of the Jubilee, which was celebrated with great
magnificence by Sixtus, and was dignified by an unufual
aflemblage of crowned heads, though the refort of pilgrims
in general was lefs than on former occafions.

This pontiff carried the vice of nepotifm to as great a de-
gree as any of his predeceffors, and it was one of his firfl ob-
jefts to make a fplcndid provifion for his natural children,
under the name of nephews, out of the dignities and offices
of the church. It is faid, that one leading motive for his
expelling the independent potFeirors of towns in the eccle-
fiaftical ilate was, that he might liave territories to form
principalities for his nephew ; and in purfuanceof this plan,
he fent Giulano de Rovere, afterwards Julius II., to take
the city of Caflello from Niccolo Vilelli. Niccolo, liaving
obtained the afliftance of the duke of Milan and the Floren-
tines, made a vigorous refiilance, but was at length obliged
to capitulate. This produced an alarm in the neighbouring
ftates, and occafioned a defenfive league between the duke of
Milan, the Venetians, and the Florentines. The latter people
were under the influence of Lorenzo de Medici, whofe po-
litical conduft could not but be highly difpleaCng to the
pope ; and he difplayed his refentment by depriving Lorenzo
of tlie office of treasurer of the holy fee, which he had con-
ferred upon him in the days of their friendfliip. This, how-
ever, was not fufficient, and he determined upon an attempt
entirely to fubvert the power of the Medici in Florence. In
conjunftion with his nephew, Girolamo Riario, he formed a
rooft deteftable confpiracy. By means of the powerful fa-
mily of the Pazzi, rivals to the Medici in Florence, a revo-
lution was to be effected in the government of that city,
commencing with the affaffination of Lorenzo and Giuliiin»

de Medici, when ailifting at mafs in one of the churchej,
and the elevation of the hoil was to be the fignal. Fortu-
nately their plans mifcarried, but the pope thundered out an
excommunication againft Lorenzo and the magiftrates of
Florence, and laid the city and its territories under an inter>
dift. Having in vain endeavoured by menace to induce the
Florentines to deliver up Lorenzo, he formed a league with
the king of Naples, whofe troops, in conjunction with thofe
of the church, invaded the territory of Florence, andfpread
devaitation through it. They were, however, encountered
by an oppofite league, and tlie pope was at length, by the
interpofition of the king of France, and the alarm excited
throughout Italy in confequence of the capture of Otranto'
by the Turks, obliged to confent to a peace. Italy did not
long remain in peace. In 148^, Sixtus joined with the Ve-
netians in an attempt to difpoffefs the duke of Ferrara of
his territories, for which his motive was a hope of vetting the
government of that city in one of his own family. The
confequence was an invafion of the ecclefiaitical itate by the
duke of Calabria, fon of the king of Naples, which how-
ever terminated in the duke's total defeat. The fuccefs of
the Venetians rendering them formidable to their neighbours,
a league was formed againft them, which the pope was per-
fuaded to join, and he iftucd a folemn excommunication
againft iiis allies. The confederates, however, receiving
propofals from the Venetians, concluded a peace without
confulting Sixtus. This afl'efted his holinefs f'o much, that
it occafioned a fevere fit of the gout, which put an end to
his life in 1484, jult after he had completed his 70th year,
and in the 13th of his pontificate. " Sixtus IV." fays his
biographer, " ranks among the moft unprincipled of the Ro-
man pontiffs with refpeA to political conduft, which feems
to have been governed by no other motive than the paffion
for aggrandizing his family, and indulging a rapacious dif-
pofition. His concurrence in the deteftable confpiracy of
the Pazzi, and the eagernefs with which he fermented the
wars which difquieted Italy almoft through the whole of his
reign, fhew him to have been fleeted againft all fentiments of
pubhc juftice and humanity. He has been taxed with ava-
rice, but the imputation has been refuted by recounting the
fplendid edifices, and the numerous charitable and ufeful
eftablifhments of which he was the founder. He was, in
truth, liberal and magnificent in liis expenditure ; and having,
hke many other arbitrary princes of that character, ex-
hauited his refources, he fcrupled no means of replenifhing
them. In no pontificate were the offices and employments
about the papal court more fliamelefsly fet to fale, or the ex-
atlions in paffing bulls and other official inftruments from
that court more fcandaloufly augmented. The moft favour-
able light in v.-hich he can he viewed, is as a munificent en-
courager of literature. He may almofl be regarded as the
founder of the Vatican library, for he not only enriched it
with books, collected from various parts of tlie world, but
caufed them to be properly difpofed for the convenience of
the public, to which he opened the library, placed them
under the care of men deeply learned in different languages,
with competent falaries, and afligned funds for the purchafe
of new books. It is, on the other hand, to be mentioned,
that he was the firfl who inftituted inquifitors of the prefs,
without whofe licence no work was fuffered to be printed."
Sixtus was author of fome theological pieces : feveral of his
letters are extant, and he publifhed fome decrees, one of
which had for its objcft to put an end to the difputes then
fubfifting relative to the conception of the Virgin Mary.

SiXTi/s v., pope, was born in 1521, in the Marche of
Ancona, at La Grotte, a village in the territory of Mon-

talto.

SIXTUS.

talto. Hi* fathfr, whofe name was Peretti, was a vine-
drerter, who not being able to maintain his fon, placed him,
when he was only nine years old, in the fervice of a fanner,
by whom he was, at firft, chiefly employed in attending to
his fwine. While he was occupied in this low office, a
Francifcan friar pafTmg that way, took the lad for his guide
on a journey to Afcoli. Pleafed with the boy's vivacity, he
caufcd him to accompany him to his convent, and intro-
duced him to his father guardian, who admitted him into
the convent m the quality of a lay brother. He foon mani-
fefted a great inclination for learning, and was taught the
elements of the Latin language. He was foon admitted
into the order, went through the ufual courfes of philofo-
pby and theology, was ordained priell in 1545, and Ihortly
afterwards, being made a doftor in theology, he was ap-
pointed to a profeflbrfhip at Sienna, under the name of Mon-
talto. He acquired a high reputation as a preacher in feve-
ral Italian cities, and was in a very Ihort time nominated
commi(ran,--gcneral at Bologna, and inquifitor at Venice.
In the cxerciie of the latter office he quarrelled with the k-
iiate, always jealous of ecclefiaftical authority, and thought
proper to make his efcape from Venice by night. Going to
Rome, he became one of the council of the congregation,
and afterwards procurator-general of his order. He ac-
companied cardinal Buoncompagno to Spain, in quahty of
theologian to the fenate, and counfellor of the holy-office.
Thus elevated, he fuddenly changed his demeanour, which
had been harih and petulant, and put on an appearance of
extraordinary gentlencfs and humility. Cardinal Alexan-
drini, formerly his pupil, being raifed to the papal dignity
by the name of Pius V., fent hira the brief of general of
his order, and foon after honoured him with the purple,
' when he took the name of cardinal Montalto. The fuc-
cefTor of Pius was Gregory XIII., formerly cardinal
Buoncompagno.

Montalto, without influence or connetlions to pufh him
forward at the next vacancy, determined to appear entirely
void of ■iviflies and cxpe£lation of farther elevation, in order
that he might not become an objeft of jealoufy to any party.
He accordingly withdrew from all public affairs, fliut liim-
felf up like one entirely devoted to lludy and religious re-
tirement, and ever complained of the infirmities of age
hanging heavily upon him. Gregory died in ij8j, and the
cardinals fplit into faftions. Montalto appeared, but in
the charafter of one bending under the weight of years, and
as if ready to expire. In the courfe of the contells, which
were long and feverc, he was inlormed that the choice would
probably fall on him ; to which he replied by averring his
own unfitnefs for the office ; that his life would fcarcely
outlive the conclave ; and that if he were eleftcd, he fhould
only be pope in name, while all the authorities mull devolve
upon others. This fort of argument, which he threw out
as a bait to his ambitious brethren, was readily feized upon
by them all, as well with the hope of a (hort pontificate, as
with the expeftation that they ftiould all Itrengthen them-
felvcs againft a new eleftion. Montalto was chofen on the
24tli of April, 158J. Scarcely, however, had the tiara
been placed on his head, wiicn be threw away his crutches,
which had enabled him to affumc his former charafter,
walked pcrfciSly cre£l, and chanted Te Deum with a voice
fo Itroiig, tliat the roof of the chapel in which the cere-
mony was performed re-eciiocd the found. He alfo gave
his benediftion to the people witli fuch an air of vigour,
that they could fcarcely believe him to be the decrepid
cardinal Montalto. It was now that he affnmed tlie name
of Sixtus v., and he foon ihewed then) that his mind

was as vigorous as his body. The territory of the clmrch
was at this time overrun with banditti, who plundered and
even murdered the people with impunity ; and in the me-
tropolitan city itfelf, a relaxed police had eiicouraged all
kinds of diforders. The fird objeft of Sixtus was to ex-
terminate thefe evils, and no fovereign ever employed the
correftive powers with which he was invelted with more
vigour and cfl'ed. It had been ufual, for the fake of ac-
quiring popularity, on the eleftion of a new pope, to fet the
imprifoned criminals at liberty ; but the firlt aft of Sixtus
was to order four perfons to be hanged, on whom were
found, a few days before, prohibited weapons. This fyftem
of rigour he purfued with the moft inexorable fcverity, never,
in a fingle inflance, pardoning a criminal. There is no
doubt that fignal feverity was neccflary to ftop the pub-
lic diforders, and in that view of the fubjeft, Sixtus was
certainly a benefaftor to the itate ; but unfortunately for
his charafter as a jull magiltrate, in whom compaffion
(hould be found tempering the rigour of the law, inllanccs
are recorded on the page of hiftory which go to prove tliat
he took a real pleafure in aft.s of punifhment, and that his
foul was infenfible to all the emotions of tendernefs and pity ;
which, fays a good writer and diligent obferver of human
nature, " is not an unufual effeft of a monadic education."
A Spanifli gentleman having been ftruck by a Swifs
guard with his halberd in a church, retahated by a blow
which proved fatal to the foldier. Sixtus, having examined
into the affair, gave an order to the governor of Rome to
have the offender executed before he fliould fit down to
table. The Spanifli ambaffador, with four cardinals, waited
upon his holiiiefs, not to plead for the criminal's life, but
to entreat upon their knees, that, as he was a gentleman by
birth, the punifhment might be commuted to that of de-
capitation : this fmall favour he abfolutely refufed, and
faid in a tone of anger, bordering on frantic rage, " he
fhall be hanged ; but to alleviate the difgrace incurred b)
his family, I will do him the honour to affill at his execu-
tion." He accordingly ordered the gallows to be erefted
before his own houfe, and was witncfs to the deed of horror.
When the fentence was executed, he turned with the iitmoil
coolnefs to his domeftics, and faid, " Bring me my dinner j
this aft of juflice has given me an additional appetite."
He caufed the heads of all thofe who had fuffercd the
penalty of death for crimes committed againft the Hate,
to be placed on the city gates, and on each fide of the
bridge of St. Angelo, and fometimes went on .purpofe to
view them ; and a requefl being made by the confervators
of the iiealth of the city for their removal, when they, by
their numbers and decay, became ofTenCve, he replied,
" You are too delicate; the heads of thofe that rob the
public are flill more offenfivc."

Another anecdote is told of him, to (hew that he was
not more rigorous to his own fubjefts, than ilrenuous in
maintaining the rights and authority of the holy fee, with
refpeft to foreign powers. When the ambaffador of the
king of Spain prefented him with a beautiful genet and a
purfe of ducats, as a homage due for the kingdom of
Naples, and complimented him in his mafler'g name, Sixtus,
in a tone of raillery, faid, tliat the compliment was very
fine, but that it would require a deal of eloquence to per-
fuade him to take a horfe in exchange for the revenues of a
kingdom. At the time of his accoflion, France was in con-
fufion on account of the raaLhinations of the Catholic
league to exclude from the crown Henry, king of Navarre,
its prcfumptivc heir. Though Sixtus did not approve ihe
attempts of the Guifes, at the bead of the league, to ob>
M 2 "ai'.i

SIX

S I t

t»vi a fuperfority over the king, Henry HI. ; yet he
thought it becair.e him, as head of the Catholic religion,
to promote the exclufion of a Proteftant heir, and he ac-
cordingly launched an excommunication arainit the kin<T of
Navarre, depriving him of the rijjjht of fucceffion. That
prince procured an appeal from this fentence to be fixed
on the very gates of the Vatican, which aft, Sixtus had the
magnanimity to be pleafed with, on account of the heroifm
which it difplayed. When Henry HI. had caiifed the
duke of Guife to be aflaflinated, and the cardmal of Guife
to be put to death, and the cardinal of Bourbon and the
archbilhop of Lyon"; to be imprifoned, the pope, highly
incenfed at the violation of the ecclefiaftical immunities in
the perfons of tiie three lall mentioned perfons, iffued a
monitory, requiring the king to fet at liberty the cardinal
and archbilhop within ten days, on pain of excommunication ;
and he afterwards approved, in an open manner, the aiiathna-
tion of Henry by the Dominican Clement. He refufed,
however, to renew the excommunication of Henry IV., fay-
ing, that he would pray for his converfion, and tliat no
prince was more deferving a crown. He had alfo a high
veneration for the character of queen Elizabeth of Eng-
land, on account of the prudence and vigour of her govern-
ment, though he was under the neceffity of treating her as
an enemy on account of her enmity to the Catholic religion.
It is faid, and the faft is furely quite in character, that he
envied her the good fortune in having had the pleafure of
taking off a crowned head, by the execution of Mary,
queen of Scots. After the defeat of the Spanifh armada,
he entertained the defign of wrefting the kingdom of
Naples from Philip, but was prevented by death from
making the daring attempt.

It was the ruling paffion of this pontiff, who, as we
have feen, was only a peafant's fon, to perpetuate his
memory, by which he was led to many vam and oflcnta-
tious, and to fome great and ufeful enterprifes. He had
already, while cardinal, engaged the celebrated architefi;
Fontana, in erecting a fplendid chapel in the cliurch of
St. Maria Maggiore, which he had been obliged to dif-
continue, from the withdrawing of his allowance by
Gregory XIII ; and now having the means, as well as the
good will, he employed the fame artilt m the arduous talk
of fetting upright the fallen obelidc of Egyptian granite,
which had once decorated the Circus of Nero. This was
effefted by great fl<ill and labour, and the obeliflv was
dedicated by Sixtus to the Holy Crofs. He afterwards
caufed three other obelillcs to be dug out of the ruins
among which they lay, and placed before different churches.
If mere vanity and oftentation led him to ereA ufelefs
buildings at hi.s native place ; it was univerfally allowed,
that ufe and ornament were united in moft of the works
which he executed at Rome. For the fupply of water to
that metropolis, he direfked the colleftion of a number of
fprings to one refervoir, at the dillance of thirteen miles,
whence it was conveyed by an aqueduft to the Quirinal
mount. He undertook to rebuild the Vatican hbrary upon
an enlarged and more magnificent plan, by his favourite
architeft Fontana, and erefted very near it a very fine
printing-office, deflined to give fplendid as well as correft
editions of the fathers, and other works relative to reli-
gion. There was not a part of Rome to which he had
not given decorations, and perhaps no pope left fo many
monuments of grandeur after a long reign as Sixtus V.,
after occupying the papal fee little more than five years.
On thefe objefts he muft have expended immenfe fums,
yet at his death he left five millions of crowns in the caflle

of St. Angelo, with an injunftion to his fucceflbr, that
they fhould be expended only for the fervice of the church,
againll Turks and heretics, or to relieve the people in time*
of famine and peltilence. For the fupply of the great ex-
penditure of his reign, and the accumulation of the fum$
left behind him, he mull have had reccurfe to a fyilem ot
heavy taxation, although he managed his finances witli
great economy. He was not free from the papal vice of
nepotifm. Though never afhamed of the meannefs of his
origin, which could not be concealed, he was determined to
leave his family great. He fent for a filler, the widow of
a poor countryman, and mftantly gave her the rank of a
princefs, with a fuitable maintenance ; and he raiied one of
her grandfons to the cardinalate, with a very large re-
venue. He was equally liberal to his other relations. He
fixed the number of cardinals to ieventy, a number xvhich
ha?; been adhered to by his fucceffors ; and he decreed, that
four at leall; of the number (hould be doftors of divinity,
chofen from the religious orders. He is faid to have been
a decided enemy to the .lefuits, and was indignant that they
fhould afiuiTie a name that implied, that their founder was
the meek and benevolent .Icfus ; hence he propofed that thcv
fhould change the name of their order to that of Igaatians.
This celebr.ited pontiff died in Augult 1 590, having reigned
five years and four months. The news of his death was
received with every demonltration of joy at Rome, where
his government had been oppreffive and tyrannical ; but the
vigour of his adminiftration, and the mighty works which he
effeCled, have thrown a fplendour about his name, and gave
him rank among the diitinguifhed charafters of the age.
In the year 1590, a new Latin verfion of the Bible
was made and printed by his order, of which a corrected
edition was given in 1592, by Clement VIII.

SIZADA, in Geography., a town of Hindooitan, in
Allahabad ; 20 miles S.E. of Corah.

SIZANDRO, a river of Portugal, which runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 39° 2'. W. long. 9° 19'.

SIZE, the name of an inltrument ufed to find the big-
nefs of tine round pearls.

It confills of thill pieces, or leaves, about two inches
long, and half an inch broad ; faftened together at one end
by a rivet. In each of thefe are feveral round holes drilled,
of different diameters. Thofe in the firft leaf ferve for
meafuring pearls from half a grain to feven grains. Thofe
of the fecond, for pearls from eight grains, or two carats,
to five carats, &c. : and thofe of the third, for pearls from
fix and a half to eight and a half.

Size is alfo ufed for a kind of weak glue. (See Glue.)
The fhreds and parings of leather, parchment, or vellum,
by being boiled in water and drained, make fize. Com-
mon fize is made of leather boiled in water till it becomes
of a vifcid confillence. If it is wanted in painting for
nicer purpofes, it fliould be prepared by taking any quan-
tity of the fhreds or cuttings of glovers' leather, and put-
ting to each pound a gallon of water ; let thefe be boiled
for fix or eight hours, iupplying water, fo that it may not
diminifh to lefs than t'.vo quarts. Then ftrain the hot Huid
through a flannel, and afterwards evaporate it till it is of
the confiftence of a jelly when cold. The fize ufed in
burnifh gilding, and made of cuttings of parchment, is pre-
pared much after the fame manner. This fubltance is ufe-
ful in many trades. Mr. B^yle mentions, among otlier ufes,
that fine red ftands, ai:d hangingflielves, are coloured with
ground vcrmihon tempered with fixe, and wlien dry, are
laid over with common varnifh.

Size, Gold. See Gox.'ofize.

Size,

« K A

.SKA

Size, Ifinglajs. See IcHTHVOCOLLA.

Size, Painting. Ste Distemper.

Size /or Silvdring. See Silvkring.

Size of Cottcige Grounds, in AgricuUuri. See Cottage.

Size of Farms, the particular dimenfions or extents of
them. Tlie advantages of the difFcrent iizes of farms, fo
far as they relate to the occupiers and the community at
large, have not yet been by any means afcertained. See
Farm.

Size of Fields er Inclofures. See Fence, Field, and
Inclosing of Land.

SIZEBOLI, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Romania, on a point of land which projefts
into the Black, fea, with a good road, in wliich men of war
may moor. It is the fee of a Greek archbifliop ; 14 miles
E. of Burgos. N. lat. 42'-' 30'. E. lonj^. 27'-' 44'.

SIZEL, in Coining, is ufed where pieces of money are
cut out from flat bars of filver, after having been drawn
through a mill into the refpociive fizes or dimenfions ot the
money to be made ; the refidue is called fizel, and melted
down again.

SIZING, in Mineralogy, a term ufed by the Cornifli
miners for a peculiar method of feparating the purer from
the impurer parts of an ore, by means of fievcs. When the
ore has been powdered, they put it into a wire-fieve with
fine holes, and in this they fift it, till the fine part goes
through : thie is properly what is called fr/.iiig. They
fend the larger or coarfer part to be pmvdered again, and
putting the red into a fieve with a clofe bottom, they let
in a itrcam of water from the cock, and by means of con-
tinued fliaking it about, they caufe tiie ligliter and fouler
parts to be waflied over the rims of the fieve, and the re-
maining powder is the black tin.

SIZRAN, in Geography, a town of Riiflia, in the
government of Simbirik, on the Volga; 27 miles S. of
Simbirik. N. lat. 53^ 10'. E. long. 48° 14'.

SIZUN, a town of France, in the department of Finif-
terre ; ^ mile^ S.E. of Landerneau.

SIZZELA, a town of Illria; 9 miles S.S.W. of Cape

d'lftrui.

.SIZZING, in Rural Economy, a term provincially ap-
plied to yealt or barm.

SKABOUGAN, in Geography, a river of America,
which runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 44° 5'. W. long.
86° 46'.

SKAGAFIORD, a bay on the N. coall of Iceland.
N. lat. 65° 50'. E. long. 15° 21'. This Fiord receives the
waters of two rivers, one of which is large, and is called
Kolbcinbdilfaa. On the weltern fide of the Skagafiord is
fituated a place of trade, called Hoffos, with a bad harbour,
fo that only one merchant has fettled there. At the head ot
the Skagaliord, not far from Hoffos, is Hoolum, which,
until the dole of the lalt centurv, was the feat of one of
the bifhops of Iceland. A public fchool was alfo cllabhfhed
there; but now (1810) the place confills only of a few
cottages ; and in its prefent flate contains nothing particu-
larly worthy of notice.

SivAfiAiiORD Syfel, a diftrift of Iceland, containing 412
farms, 492 f:imilies, and a popidation of 3141 ptrfons.

SKAGASTRAND. a coufiderablc place of trade on
the northern coaft of Iceland; fituated on the weltern fide
of the large promontory which bounds the Skai;afiord.
The harbour is bad ; and towards the end of September is
particularly unfafe, on account of its being expofed to the
north wind and floating ice. This place formerly furnifhed
a cargo for one vdlcl every year ; but fincc the commence-
8

iiient of the war, the arrival even of one fiiip has not been
regular.

SKAGEN, a promontory of Iceland, projefting from
the N. coaft, about 2c miles in length from N. to S. and
from 5 to 15 in breadth ; the N. point being in N. lat. 66*.
E. long. 45^51'.

Skagex. See Scagen.

SKAGER, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 85
miles E.N.E. of Uddevalla. — Alfo, a lake of Sweden, in
W.irmeland ; 5 miles E. from the Weiincr lake.

SKALDA and Skalds. See Edda and Scalds.

SKALE, in Geography, a fmall illand on the W. coall
of Scotland, in Loeh Fine. N. lat. ^^ 54'. W. long.

SKALEN, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of Culm ;
13 miles N. of Strafburg.

'SKALEVAD, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Angcrmanland ; 50 miles N.N.E. of Hcrnofand.

SKALGRUND, a Imall illand on the E. fide of tiic
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 55° 54'. W. long. 5" 23'.

SKALHOLT, a town of Iceland, the fee of a bifliop,
fuffragan of Drontheim. N. lat. 64°. W. long. 16^. The
fituation of Skalholt, about 24 miles from Thingxmlla (which
fee), is beautiful. Towards the fouth there is a view of a
noble river, formed by the juniflion of that difcharged from
Apa Vatn and the Huitea, bounded by a finely-fhaped hill
in the diltance ; another equally pidfurefque hill nfing on
the eallern bank of the latter, and facing Skalholt. Flat
meadow land, gently fwelling ground, and diftant moun-
tains towards tlie ealt, among which are Eyafialla Jokul,
and Hekla, form altogether a magnificent amphitheatre, and
compofe a landfcape which, even without wood, is highly
gratifying to the eye. The firll bifliop of Skalholt was
Ifleif, who died in loRo ; he was the earlieft of the Icelandic
hiftonans, and a man of great general learning ; but his works
are now unfortunately loll. Paul, another bilhop of Skalholt,
as well as Sturlefon, were diltinguifhed by their attainments
in mathematics and mechanical Icience. During a period of
feven centuries, Iceland was divided into two bifhoprics,
that of Skalholt comprehending the fouthern, ar.d that of
Hoolum the northern dillrifls of the ifland. The fees becom-
ing vacant at the lame time, they were uniled, in 1797, by the
order of the Danifli government ; and the title of bifhop of
Iceland was conferred upon the learned and refpcftable
Gein Vidahn, the prefent polleflbr of this dignity. The
duties of his oflicc are important ar.d exlenfive. The place
of his flatcd relidence is Reikiavik. His revenue, fince
the union of the fees, is about 1800 dollars />/■/• annum, de-
rived chiefly from the public treafury of the illand. The
appointment of the bifhop is veiled in the crown. The
church of Skalholt is a neat fmall buildir.g of wood,
erefted on the Icite of the former one, which was taken
down about the year 1804. The church, the biftiop's
houfe, and a few cottages, conflitute the fuppofed capital
of Iceland. The eafiell route from the fouthern to the
northern parts of Iceland is by tiie way of Skalholt. To
Skagallrand, the nearelt road is by Tliingvalla and Kalman-
flunga, which lall place is fituated to the N.E. of Reik-
holt. See Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland in iSio. See
Iceland.

SKALL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw;
4 miles N.N.W. of Turnau.

SKALLERUI), a town of Sweden, in the province of
Weft Gothland ; 30 miles N.N.E. of Uddevalla.

SKALOE, a imall ifland of Denmark, near the N. coall
of Laaland. N. lat. 55°. E. long. 1 1'- 23'.

^^ ^ SKA-

SKA

SKA

SKANANDO Creek, a fmall water of Oneida creek,
which rifes in Augufta, Oneida county, runs northerly-
through the faid town and Vernon, and enters Oneida creek
near the S.W. corner of Vernon. It furnifhes good mill-
feats in Augufta and Vernon. Its courfe is about four
miles.

SKANDA, in Hindoo Mythohxy, is a name of Kartikya,
commander of the celeiHal armie';. He is a reputed fon of
Siva, and his hiilory and exploits fill many volumes of
Eaflern poetry, tiaiiflated into a variety of lan^ages from
the Sanfcrit. He is alio called Divimatri, having the fami
meaning in Sanfcrit, as Dimeter or Bimater among weftern
mythologifts. Shanmuka, or fix-faced, Seftitimatriya, mean-
ing with fix mothers, are others of his names ; the origin
of which will be found under thofe articles, and Kartikya.
(See alfo Siva.) Sir W. Jones informs us that the Perfian
poets, in borrowing their romantic hiitories from thofe of
India, have ridiculoufly confounded the Skanda of the latter
with Skander or Iflvander ; their name of Alexander the
Macedonian, as well as of a hero in their earlier romances.

SKANDERBORG, in Geography, a town of Denmark,
in North Jutland, where the kings of Denmark have a royal
palace : the chief trade of the inhabitants confifts in the
produce of the country, and agriculture; lo miles S.S.W.
of Aarhuus. N. lat. 56° 55'. E. long. 9° 54'.

SKANEATETES, a lake of New York; 25 miles
S.S.E. of lake Ontario.

SKANGERO, a fmall Grecian ifland below that of
Pelagnifi, and near the ifle of Dromi, in which are two
rocks, called the " Brothers."

SKANKHEADHAW Lake, a lake of North Ame-
rica. N. lat. 49°4j'. W. long. 90" 45'.

SKANO, a town of Sweden, in Schonen ; 20 miles
S.S.W. of Lund. N. lat. 55° 24'. E. long. 12° 34'.

SKANTZE, a town of Sweden, ni Weftmanland ; 9
miles N. of Strocrafholm.

SKAPTAA-JOKUL, lofty mountains Ctuated in the
interior of Iceland, and known to the natives themfelves
only by the remote view of their fummits, clad in perpetual
fnows. Thefe were the fcene of a moll dreadful volcanic
eruption in the year 1783. This is reprefented as the
moll tremendous, perhaps, in its nature and extent, by
which Icelanil, or any other part of the globe, has been
afflidled. The fudden extinction of a fubmarine volcano
near Cape Reikianes, which, during fome months, had cou-
tinued to burn with extreme violence, was fucceeded by fre-
quent and dr.'adful earthquakes, and by the burlling out of
the volcanic fire, in a traft of country nearly 200 miles
diftant. From this defolatc and unfrequented region vail
torrents of lava iliued forth, overwhelming all before them,
and filhng up the beds of great rivers in their progrefs to-
wards the lea. For more than a year, a denfe cloud of
fmoke and volcanic afhes covered the whole of Iceland, ob-
fcuring almoil entirely the light of the fun, and extending
itseffecls even to the northern parts of continental Europe;
the cattle, fheep, and horfes of the country were deilroyed ;
a famine, with us attendant difeafes, broke out among the
inhabitants ; and the fmall-pos invaded the ifland at the fnme
time with its former virulence and fatal efFefts. From thefe
combined caufes, more than 11,000 people pcrifhed during
the period of a few years ; an extent of calamity which can
only be underllood, by confidering that this number forms
nearly a fourth part of the whole prefent population of the
country. The deftrudion of the ftfhery upon the fouthern
coafts of the ifland, by the volcanic eruptions juil defcribed,
was another more permanent fource of dillrefs, which, even

at the prefent time (1810) is not entirely removed.
Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland.

SKAPTAFELL, East, a dillrift of Iceland, on the
northern coaft, containmg 53 farms, 126 families, and a
population of 911 perfons.

Skaptafell, Wejl, a diftri£l of Iceland, on the fame
coaft, containing 133 farms, 248 families, and 1539 inha-
bitants.

SKARA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland, the
moft ancient town of the country, and formerly the capital
of the kingdom of Gothland, and the refidence of many of
its kings. It had alfo feveral churches and convents, the
ruins of which are dill vifible. The town was totally de-
ftroyed by fire in 1719 ; and the number of its inhabitants
does not at prefent exceed 400. Its gymnafium or feminary
was eftablifhed in 1640, and its cathedral is one of the
largeft edifices of the kind in the whole kingdom. In
161 1 the royal palace, built near the t«wn in 154), to-
gether with the whole town, was reduced to allies by the
Danes. At a diftance from it Hands Bruntbo, an epif-
copal fee ; 50 miles E. of Uddevalla. N. lat. 58° 24'. E.

SKARDSA, BlORNOa,in Biography, a learned Icelander,
was born at Ingelveflad in 1574. Ha\'ing loll his father at
eight years ot age, he was placed bv a relation under the
care of Segurd Jonfen, who being \\tA\ verfed m the ancient
hiftory of the country, infpired Biorno with a itrong tafte
for that kind of ftudy. On the death of his mafter, in 1602,
Biorno married, and having already been eleCled a magif-
trate, he applied himfelf with great diligence to hiftory and
jurifprudence. In old age he was borne down with heavy and
very fevere aiflidlions, became blind, and died a martyr to the
(lone in 1655. He collefteda variety of documents and cu-
rious fafts relating to the hiilory of Iceland, and was, on ac-
count of his great knowledge in this department of learning,
held in high eitimation by his countrymen. His chief publica-
tion was " The Annals of Biorn a Skardfa, five Annates, &c.
cum Jnterpretatione Latina, variantibus Ledlionibus, Notis
et Indice." He left behind him a great number of manu-
fcripts, both juridical and hiftorical, a catalogue of which
may be feen ia the Ecclefiallical Hiftory of Iceland by Jo-
hannseus ; in Einarus' Literary Hiilory ; and in the preface
to the fecond volume of his Annals. Among his MSS. is
one refpefting Iceland, of which Torfaeus made great ufc
in his " Gronlandia Antiqua." Gen. Biog.

SKARDUPONEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffian
Lithuania ; i mile N.W. of Stalluponen.

SKARO, a town of Norway; 32 miles N. of Sta-
vanger.

SKARROE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, near the S.
coaft of Fyen ; 6 miles S. of Svenborg. N- lat. 55° 1'.
E. long. 10° 29'.

SKARSTA, a town of Sweden, in Weft GotKland ;
40 miles E. of Uddevalla.

SKATE, m Ichthytlogy, the Englifh name of a fpecies
of ray-fi(h, called by the generality of authors raia undulata,
and raij iitvis, and by fome rtibus.

It is diilinguiflied by Artedi by the name of the Tariegated
ray-fifh, with the middle of the back fmooth, and with only
one row of fpines in the tail.

This fpecies, which is the Raia Balis of Linnaus, (fee
R.VIA,) is the thiniieft, in proportion to its bulk, of any of
the genus, and alfo the largeft, fome weighing near two
hundred pounds. The nofe, though not long, is fliarp-
pointed ; above the eyes is a fet of (hort fpines ; the whole
upper part of a pale-brown, and in fome fpecies ftreaked

with

S K E

S K E

with black ; the lower part wliite, marked with many fmall
black fpots ; the jaws covered with fmall granulated but
Iharp-pointed teeth ; the tail is of a moderate length ; near
the end are two fins ; along the top of it is one row of
fpincR, and on the edges are irregularly difperfed a few
others. In the males of this fpecies the fins are full of
fpines. Skates generate in March and April, at which time
thev fwim near the furface of the water, feveral males pur-
fuing one female. The females begin to call their purfes,
as the fi(hermen call the bags in which the young are in-
cluded, in May, and continue to do it till September. In
Oftober they are very poor and thin, but begin to improve
in November, and grow gradually better till May, when
they are in the higheft perfeftion. The males go fooner
out of feafon than the females. Pennant.
SKAW, in Geography. See Skagen.
SKAWIN, a town of Poland; lo miles S. of Cracow.
SKEATTA, or Penny, in the Hijory of Coinage, one
of the Heptarchic coins ; the other being thejlyca, which
fee. Dr. Combe, by caufing two plates of the ikeattas, or
early pennies, to be engraved, brought them into notice.
At firlt they had only rude figures of ferpents, &c. but
latterly they have legends. Thefe fl^eattas were ftruck in
Kent, and the other Heptarchic itates, from the fixth to the
eighth century, or from about the year 500 till 700. In
598 Kent was converted to Chriftianity, and was followed
in half a century by the other kingdoms. Molt of the
fkeattai, as appears from their fymbols, were llrnck in the
Pagan times. See Modern MeD-ILs and Coins.

SKEDE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, inSmaland;
4s miles S.E. of Jonkioping.

SKEEL, in jfgrlcullure, provincially a large milking
pail, having two handles, formed by two oppoilte ftaves,
which rife above the reft. It alfo fignifies a broad flat
creaming or milk-diih, whether of lead or Itonc.
' SKEEN, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro.
vince of Chriliiania ; 38 miles S.W. of Chriftiania.

SKEETS, in the Sea Language, narrow oblong ladles,
or fcoops, for wetting the lails, decks, or fides of a fhip.

SKEG, in Ship-Btiilding, the after-part of the keel, or
that part whereon the itcrn-poit is fixed.

SKEG-Shores, one or two pieces of foui-inch plank, put
tip endways under the fl<eg of the fhip, lo fteaJy the after-
part a little, when in the aft of launching. They are con-
fined to the bottom of the flip by a hinge. The upper part
is rounded, and they flionld be fo carefully fixed as to fall
readily when the (hip Harts. Skeg-fhores are better avoided,
as they have been the means of preventing ihips from
launching.

Skegs, in Agrieulliire, a fort of oat, fometinies culti-
vated as a crop in Nottinghamfliire : the avenaJUpifarmis of
Linnxus. It is panicled, the calyces two-flowered, awns
twice as long as the feed, culm branchy, and flipeform.
They arc a crop moftly cultivated, according to tlie agricul-
tural report of the above diilrift, on the worlt land, fome-
times on a lea, fometimes after turnips, often taken as
a lalt crop. On bad land they may produce about four
quarters /ifr acre, which are generally about two-thirds of
the price of oats. But they anfwcr to fow on good land,
producing fourteen and fifteen quarters /)fr acre. The ker-
nel is reckoned remarkably fweet and good food for horfes.
They are fometimes threflicd, fometimes cut and nfed in
the ftraw. And they are chiefly grown about C^irberton,
and will grow where nothing elfe will. In rcgiird to the
quantity of feed per acre, eight llrikes are faid to be fown,
and yield a crop double that of other oatf, in quantity ;

but not more than equal in weight. They will grow in the
poorell land, and are reckoned very fweet food. They are
feldom brought to market ; but efteemed by farmers for
their own ufe, and are often given in the draw by them.

It is Hated by Mr. Neville in the fame Report, in a letter
to fir R. Sutton, that flcegs are remarkably good for horfes,
in the ftraw, or threflied, and m the rtravv remarkably fo
for cows. Straw beafts are alfo very fond of the itraw.
He can get taking >ip weak land from the fwarth, from
four to fix quarters an acre. On the fame land he flioidd
not have been able to get, perhaps, above three facks of
black, red Fricfland, or what is called (hort fmall, or any
other kind of corn. If land is in the ftate in which all our
bad land will be, more or lefs, after the feeds are quite run
out, and as is frequently the cafe, when you cannot con-
veniently put it again into tillage fo foon as you could wifh,
from either the too great quantity you may have to improve,
or other circumltances ; if in this Hate it were to be taken
up with turnips, the molt eligible way, it would be often
impofTible to provide manure upon the J\irm for any quantity
of land fufficient for the purpoie ; which makes flcegs a very
deCrable crop, and which, for that reafon alone, he finds
a great acquifition, and feels a pleafure in having been the
firlt to introduce them into this country.

How far this crop may be capable of being grown in
other diftrifts as the food of live-Hock, in the green Hate,
mult depend upon the trial.

SKEILAY IsLK, in Geography, a fmall ifland of the
Hebrides, is fituated near the wellern entrance of the fouud
of Harris. It is comprehended in the parifh of Harris and
/hire of Invernefs.

SKELBOO, a town of Norway, on the Glanmen ; 12
miles N.E. of Frederickftadt.

SKELDNESS, a cape of Scotland, on the S.W.
coaH of the ifland of Shetland. N. lat. 60'^ 12'. W. long.

SKELEFTEA, a town of Sweden, in WcH Bothnia,
on a river of the fame name ; 40 miles S. of Pitea.

Skelefte.v, a river of Swedifh Lapland, which rifes on
the borders of Norway, and runs into the 'jfAi of Bothnia,
S.E. of Pitea.

SKELETON, in Anatomy, from c^xtW.i', to dry, is tlie
ademblage and combination of all the bones in the body, ex-
cepting the OS hyoides ; it conilitutes the bafis or ground-
work of the animal frame, being the point of lupport and
union for all the other organs. Its component parts form a
ferics of levers, of which the mufcles are the moving
powers : thus the Ikeleton comprehends one divifion of the
moving organs. Its conflituent pieces in fome cafes form
cavities, as thole of the head, chelt, and pelvi.-;, which con-
tain the important internal organs, and prolcft them from
external force.

The coiuieftions of the different pieces of the fl<eIeton are
called joints, and differ very confiderably from each other ;
fome of them admitting no motion, lonie an inconliderable
motion; and others allowing them to move freely, either in
certain directions, or in every way. The word Jhelettn,
denoting the bony fabric in its united Hate, of coiirfe in-
cludes the joints or media of luiion ; and in this rclpetl we
diltinguiftj two kinds ot (keletons. A natural Ikeleton is
that in which the bones are all joined by their natural con-
nections ; that is, thi- articular ends are covered by their
cartil.iginous Hrata, lied tugcther by ligaments, and enve-
loped by fynovi.ll membranes : in this fenic the flu-leton in-
cludes, befides the bony lyftem, the acccflbry flrufturcs of
cartilage, ligament, and fynovial membranes. When all

the

SKELETON.

the foft parts have been allowed to putrefy and rot, and the
feparated bones, after being cleaned and dried, have been
joined again by wires, &c. fo as to be reunited artificially in
their former order, an artificial flceleton is formed. In the
fpine and the ribs, the places of the cartilages, which are loft
in cleaning the bones, are fupplied by portions of leather,
cork, or other materials.

The latter, exhibiting merely the affemblage of the dried
bones, is applicable to the ftudy of olteology only in the
mechanical points of figure, fize, &c. ; and although ex-
tremely ufeful to the anatomift and furgeon, by reprefent-
ing the parts in their natural conneftion and relations, is lefs
convenient than the feparate bones for the itudy of many
points, particularly the articular ends of the bones.

For the formation of artificial flceletons, the bones are de-
prived of their foft parts, either by boilmg, or by maceration
in wrater. The boihng muft be continued until the tendons,
ligaments, periofteum, &c. are fo loofened as to admit of
being eafily detached. The bony texture acquires in this
method a dirty and greafy appearance, which cannot be en-
tirely got rid of by any after-procefs. For the purpofe of
maceration, the bones, with the fleth, &c. roughly cut off,
muft be left in the fame water for fome months ; the fott
parts will then fall oft', and leave the bones of a much better
colour, and freer from greafe than when they have been
boiled. Expofure to the air, and frequently wetting them,
will make them beautifully white after they have been well
macerated. Their colour may be often much improved by
expofure to chlorine (oxymuriatic gas). The bones which
poffefs large medullary cavities (hould be bored at the arti-
cular ends, to get out the fatty fubftance.

Emaciated and particularly anafarcous fubjefts are the
beft for making fl.:eletons ; becaufe there is no fat in the
bones, and they confequently continue dry and clean, when
they have been originally well prepared. Ferfons dying in
good health, or from fudden attacks, have fo much adi-
pous matter in the interior of their bones, that they continue
greafy, particularly at the articular ends, whatever pains
may be taken to clean them.

In natural fl«letons, the cartilages, ligaments, and fyno-
vial membranes being all left, the joints poifefs their natural
mobility. But in order to keep them in this ftate, they
muft be preferved in fpirits, or fome other fluid capable of
preventing the putrefaftion of the foft parts. This is par-
ticularly neceffary with the ilveletons of young fubjeds,
which are in great part cartilagmous. When a natural flie-
leton is dried, the foft parts (hrmk and are ihrivelled up :
the cartilages become contracted, and thus the natural
figure is greatly impaired. The contraAiun of the carti-
lages diminifties the height by an inch or more.

So long as the bones are compofed of feparate pieces,
and have more or lefs cartilage in their ftrufture, the
offeous fyftem can only be lludied in natural flceletons ;
but when the oftification is complete, artificial ll<eletons are
preferable.

The bones, being the levers by which the motions of the
body are performed, have the mufcles or moving powers
fixed to them. But as they are fubfervient, in the con-
ftruftion of our frame, to other purpofes befides thofe of
motion, there are fome bones, though very few, to which
no mufcles are attached : fuch are the incus in the ear, the
ethmoid and inferior turbinated bones, and fome bones of
the carpus.

Although the form of the bones is varioufly modified,
according to the figure of the parts in which they are placed,
or to their deftinations, they may be claffed under the three

I

divifions of bread or flat bones, cylindrical bones, and fhort
bones. The broad bones reprefent flat (hells, and confilt
of an inner ftratum of reticular or fpongy bony fub-
ftance, which is covered on its furfaces with thicker or
thinner plates of compatt bony matter. The cylindrical,
or long bones, form long ftiafts, expanded at their extre-
mities into thicker heads, and containing a medullary cavity
internally. The fhort bones are fuch as are nearly equal in
their length, breadth, and thicknefs ; varioufly fliaped, ac-
cording to their fituations and offices ; and confiil of the
loofe fpongy texture, covered by a thin rind of compaft
bone.

The long bones belong in general to the locomotive ap-
paratus, where they form levers, moved by the mufcles m
various direftions : they arc all placed in the limbs, where
they form a central column, moveable in various direftions.
They diminifli in length, and increafe in number, fucceiCvely
from above downwards i from the humerus and femur to the
phalanges of the fingers and toes. Hence the upper part of
the bmbs is charafterifed by extent of motion, the lower by
multiplicity and variety of movements.

The broad bones have not much to do with locomotion,
except as they afford extenfive furfaces for the attachment qS\
mufcles. They compofe cavities, fuch as thofe of the cra-
nium and pelvis, for which their form is well adapted. Se-
veral are united to form one cavity, and this circumftance
add? to the folidity of the ftrufture, as the effeft of exter-
nal force is loft in the joints. They are generally concave
and convex on their two furfaces.

The fliort bones are found in parts which unite mobility ^
and folidity, as the vertebral column, the carpus, and tarfus.
They are always of inconfiderable fize, and therefore are
found in large number in the parts which they compofe.
Thefe parts are ftrong, becaufe external force is loft in the
articulations : they are moveable, becaufe the combinations
of feveral fmall motions produce a confiderable effeft.

Of the firft produftion of the bones, and their gradual
developement while the foetus remains in utero, and of the
nouriftiment and growth of bone in general, an account is
given in the articles Embryo and Bone: in the latter of
which, and in Extremities, there is a defcription of their
external configurations, and of the difpofition of the bony
fubftance. The organization and properties of the fyftem
are confidered under the article Bone. Under Medul-.
L.\RY Syjlem and Cartilage the accounts of thefe fubjefts
will be found ; and the periofteum is defcribed under
Membrane.

The flieleton is divided into the head, trunk, and extre-
mities or limbs. As almoft all the bones are formed ori-
ginally of more than one piece, which feparate portions of
ofleous matter gradually come together, and are ultimately
confolidated, the number of diftinft pieces of bone belong,
ing to the flteleton is different at different ages. The fol-
lowing is the number of bones, when the oflification is com-
plete ; that is, about the twentieth year.

I. In the Head, confifting of the cranium, and the Face,
the former is made up of

1 or 2 offa frontis,

2 offa parietalia,

1 OS fphenobafilare, or fpheno-occipitale,

2 olfa temporum,
2 mallei,

2 incudes,
2 ftapedes,
I OS ethmoideum.

The

SKELETON.

The latter of

2 offa maxillaria fuperiora,

2 olTa palatina,

2 offa malarum, or zygomatica,

2 offa nafi,

2 ofla lacrymalia,

2 offa turbinata inferiors,

I vomer,

1 maxilla inferior,
32 teeth.

The whole amount of bones of the head is 59 or 60. The
five pieces of the os hyoides added to thefe, make 64 or 65.

II. The Trunk, comprehending the fpine, cheil, and
pelvis, confifts ©f

7 cervical 1
1 2 dorfal > vertebrcE,
^ lumbar J

2 or 3 bones of the ftemum,
24 ribs,

1 facrura,

4 o(ia coccygis,

2 ofla innominata.

57 csS

III. The Extremities.
The upper contain

2 clavicles,
2 fcapulx-.
2 humeri.

In the fhouldert, i

In the arms.

In the fore-arras, <

In the wrifts,

In the metacarpi,
In the fingers.

2 radii,

2 ulnae.

2 ofla navicularia or fcaphoidea,

2 ofla lunaria,

2 ofla cuneiformia,

2 ofla pififormia, or orbicularia,

2 ofla trapezia, or multangula majors,

2 ofla trapezoidea, or multangula mi-
nora,

2 ofla capitata,

2 ofla unciformia, or hamata.

10 ofl^a metacarpi.

10 firft or metacarpal phalanges,

8 middle or fccond phalanges,

10 third or unguinal phalanges,

8 fefamoid boies.

7»

The lower extremities contain.

In

the

thighs,

r

2
2

femora,
tibise.

In

the

i<^g». 1

2
2

patellz,
fibulae.

2
2

aftragali,

calcanei, or ofla calcit,

2

ofla navicularia,

1b

the

tarfi,

2

2
2

ofla cuneiformia

magna.

parva,
media.

•

2

oSi cuboidea.

22

Vot

. xxxin.

Brought over
In the metatarfi.

In the toes,

ofl'a metatarfi.

firll or metatarfal phalanges,
middle or fecond phalanges,
third or unguinal phalanges,
fefamoid bones.

66

The whole number of bones will be 259 or 261. There
is frequently a fmall bone of the fefamoid kind in the tendon
of the external head of the galtrocnemius : and a'roundifli
bit in the hyo-thyrcid ligament. If both thefe lliould exitt,
we mufl; add four to the preceding number.

A complete dry natural (keleton of a male fubjeft of the
middle fize, weighs from 150 to 200 ounces ; that of a fe-
male, from 100 to 1 60 ounces.

Of the bones juft; enumerated, the frontal, fpheno-occi-
pital, vomer, lower jaw, vertcbrie, facrum, coccyx, ilernum,
and OS linguale medium, are Angle (imparia), and, being
placed on the middle line of the body, fymmctrical ; all the
others are double, or in pairs (paria) ; each pair being
compofed of a right and left correfponding bone. Hence
the ftrufture of the whole fl-celeton is fymmetrical ; that is,
if we imagine a perpendicular line to be drawn through the
whole body, from before backwards, it will divide the
Ikeleton into two correfponding halves, a right and left ;
the fingle bones having their right and left fides exaftly alike.

This obfervation, however, of the fymmetry of the
/keleton, is not to be underftood rigoroufly ; fince the right
and left of the double bones, or the right and left fides of the
fingle ones, are not accurately alike. The right or left
bone, or the right or left fide of a bone, may be longer or
fliorter, broader or narrower, &c. &c. than the other.
The vomer is generally bent to one fide ; the internal fur-
face of the fl<ull feldom fymmetrical." The laft; rib is often
an inch longer on one fide than on the other. The iternum
is feldom fymmetrical ; and the cartilages of the ribs are not
fixed to it exaftly oppofite to each other. The articulationg
of the ribs with the fpine often differ confiderably on the
two fides. But the fymmetry of the external form is not
dilturbed by thefe diff^erences. If the right fide of a ver-
tebra is more elevated than the left, the correfponding part
of the neighbouring bone, or of the intervertebral cartilage,
is accommodated to the deviation ; fo that the perpendicular
line of the fpinat column is not impaired, &c. &c.

The fingle bones may be regarded as the media of union
of the two lateral halves, which conltitute the flccletoH ;
they join together thefe two halves into one folid whole.
In this refpeft there is a marked difference between the
bones and the other organic inllruments of locomotion, the
mufcles. The diaphragm is the only mufcle placed on the
median line, and its llrufture is not fymmetrical : it belongs
in great meafure to the internal or organic life, and corre-
fponds, in its want of fymmetry, to the arrangements of the
internal organs. The ikeleton, being the baiis or point of
fupport of the mufcles, as well as of all the other organs,
conllitutes an entire and firm fabric ; an attribute which it
derives from the fingle bones, which may be regarded as the
key-ftoncs of the building. The mufcles, not contributing
to the folidity of the animal llrufture, are not united into
fuch a fingle and firm aflemblage.

The mode in which the different pieces of the fl<clcton are
joined to each other, is confidcred under tiie article Joi.NT ;
to which, and to that of Membranf, Synovia/, we refer for
the details regarding the anatomic.il llrufture of thefe con-
Rcflions.

N TLf

SKELETON.

The ofteology of tlie head, including the teeth, is con-
fidered under Cranium ; that of the vertebral column under
Spike ; of the cheft under Lung ; of the pelvis under
Head ; and of the limbs under Extremities. The os hy-
cides, or linguale, is defcribed in the article Deglutition.
The joints are confidered together with the bones which
they unite ; except that the articulation of the lower jaw is
defcribed under Deglutition ; and thofe of the occiput,
firft and fecond vertebra, under Head.

The obfervation, which we have made of the bones in
general, that they influence and determine the form of the
foft parts, holds good more particularly of the whole fl<eleton.
Its form, in all men, and in all itagcs of their life, corre-
Iponds fo entirely to the configuration of their body, that
an experienced eye would eafily determine, from a tolerably
preferved ilcekton, not only the age and fex, but the growth
and moll ftrikmg charafters of bodily formation of the in-
dividual to whom it had belonged. Hence it is not enough
for an artift to know the mufcles : he muit begin with
ftudying the fkeleton. However numerous the differences
of individual configuration in the human race, ftill retaining
its general character and refemblance, accurate examination
will (hew us not fewer diverfities in the ftrufture, form, fize,
greater or lefs elegance, and even greater or lefs finenefs
and firmnefs in the grain of the bone, in human (keletons,
which Hill preferve the general charafter. Befides thefe
endlefs individual traits, diitinguilhing each fkeleton from
others, we find very ftriking differences according to age
and fex.

With refpeft to the former of thefe circumftances, (kele-
tons have been divided into perfeA and imperfeA ; the latter
not very well chofen term being applied to feetufes, children,
and fubjefts in whom the epiphyfes are not yet confolidated
with the bodies of the bones, or converted into true apo-
phyfes ; although, in relation to the refl of the ftrufture,
the bones are then as perfect as in the adult. The younger
the fubjeft, the more cartilage does the (keleton contain.
Reckonmg from the twentieth year backwards, the younger
the fubjeft the larger is the head, compared to the trunk
and limbs ; ( the head is about one-half of the body, in the
fecond month of utero-gellation ; one-fourth in the ninth
month ; one-fifth at the age of three years ; and one-eighth
when the growth is complete : ) the fmaller are the bones of
the face, and the larger the organ of hearing, in comparifon
to the cranium ; the larger are the fontanelles ; the flatter
is the lower part of the face ; the larger the cheft in rela-
tion to the pelvis ; the fhorter the limbs ; the larger the
clavicles ; the fmoother and flatter the broad bones, and the
rounder the cylindrical bones. See Albert Durer on the
proportions of the body, particularly at the end of the firft
book ; and Sue fur les Proportions du Squelette de
I'Homme examine depuis I'age le plus tendre, jufqu'a celui
de 25, 60 ans, &c. in les Memoires prefentes, &c. p. 572.

The male and female (keleton differ, not only in the whole
combination, or the general imprefiion, from a comparative
furvey, but alfo in the form and properties of the individual
parts. Thefe differences, however, are not clearly per-
ceptible until fome years have elapfed after birth. The
plates of the female (keleton in Chefelden and Sue are not
to be compared to the accurate delineations of the male
flceleton by Albinus. Soemmering has, however, fupplied
the deficiency in his beautiful " Tabula fceleti feminei junfta
defcriptione," folio. He enumerates the following as the
characters of the female. " The female flteleton is fmaller
and flenderer in all parts than the male. The ratio of the
head, including the teeth, to the relt of the bony llrufture,
is greater than in the male : the numbers are as i to 6 in

2

the former, i to 8 or 10 iH the latter. The circumference
of the female fkuU is larger on the firfl; view, in fkeletons
of the fame height. The flvuU is larger in proportio*i to the
face : its foramina, the palatine arch, and the whole cavity
of the mouth, are fmaller. The whole thorax is fhorter ;
larger above, as far as the fourth rib, narrower below ;
more moveable, lefs conical ; more convex in front ; more
diltant from the pelvis, the interval between the laft rib and
the OS innominatum being greater ; lefs prominent ante-
riorly, fo that when the trunk is fupinc, the fymphyfis
pubis is the higheft point in the female, the thorax in the
male fubjeft. Generally, the cartilages of the true ribs are
longer in proportion to the bone. The vertebral canal is
more capacious, and the lateral openings for the nerves are
alfo larger. The fpinous procefles are lefs prominent ; the
fternum is fhorter, ending at the plane of the fourth rib,
while it reaches to the plane of the fifth in the male.

" The loins are longer, and the angle between the laft lum-
bar vertebra and the (acrum, conflituting the promontory,
is more acute.

" All the diarrieters of the pelvis are greater ; the criils
and tuberofities of the ofFa iimcminata further apart ; the
fpace between the ofTa pubis wider, and the ligaments of
the fymphyfis confequently broader, although fliorter.

" The facrum is turned more backwards, fo that its apex
and the coccyx do not projeft fo much into the pelvis.
The acetabula are farther apart, and hence the unlleady
gait of the fex : they are, however, nearer to the front of
the pelvis, fo that, when in the progrefs of pregnancy the
centre of gravity is thrown more forwards, its equilibrium
is better preferved.

" The lower Lmbs form a more acute angle with the
pelvis ; the feet are fmaller.

" The fhoulders are more flanting, and the articulations
nearer together ; the upper limbs are fliorter, and the fingers
more pointed.

" Female bones are diftinguifhed from the male by having
fewer afperities, fmaller fpines and protuberances, fliallower
imprefFions, fmaller articulations, and being on the whole
fmoother and more finely turned. The (haft or body of a
cylindrical bone is more (lender, in comparifon to the arti-
cular ends ; and hence the faft which was fpecified above,
of the greater weight of the head in proportion to the reft
of the fkeleton.

" The bones are not fo hard in the female : they have, on
the whole, a fomething peculiar, a feminine charafter, which
is not eafily defcribed. Their extremities remain longer
cartilaginous.

" The frontal finufes are fmaller ; the interval between
them, or the glabella, lefs elevated ; and the fuperciliary
arches lefs prominent. All the bones of the face are more
flender. The figure of the alveolar circle is more elliptical
in both jaws ; in man more circular. The teeth ai-e fmaller.
The OS hyoides more flender.

" In the vertebra, the bodies are longer, and more hol-
lowed at the fides ; the tranfverfe proceHes are directed
more backwards, fo that the channels on each fide of the
fpinous proceiies are deeper. The fpinous proceffes are
(harper pointed, fhorter, and more flanting.

" The ribs are more flender, and flatter ; their margins
are confequently fharper.

" That the cartilages of the upper ribs are more fre-
quently ofTified ; that thofe of the middle ribs are broader ;
and thofe of the lower longer, which has been aflerted by
fome anatomifts, does not feem clearly made out.

" The firft bone of the fternum is longer in comparifon to
the fecond. The latter is more than double the length of

the

SKELETON.

th« former in the male fl<eleton ; but in the female it is often
not fo much as double. It is alfo thicker, i:-i comparifon
with the fecond bone, in the female. Thefe differences are
obfervable in the embryo.

" The lumbar vertebrae are longer and more (lender ; the
facrum broader and more excavated.

" The oda coccygis are fmaller, more moveable, and
direfted more forwards. Some have obferved, that five of
thefe bones are met with more frequently in the female than
in the male.

" The ofTa innominata are broader, flatter, and more
expanded horizontally. The angle formed between the
defcending ramus of the pubes and tlie fymphyfis is more
open. The angle between the ofla pubis is acute in the
male, but of 80"^ to 90" in the female, where it approaches
much more to the figure of an arch.

" The ifchiatic tuberofities are larger and fmoother.
The fpace between the tuberofity and the acetabulum is
fmaller; the ifchiatic notch more confiderable ; the foramen
ovale larger ; the notch for the tendon of the obturator ex-
ternus lefs confiderable.

" The clavicles are lefs ftrongly curved, fo that the fca-
pulx are thrown backwards ; the male clavicles are more
arched, and the (houlders therefore brought more forwards.
In the m.ale (licleton, the clavicles are inclined a little down-
wards, fo as to form an obtufe angle with the llernum ;
while they form nearly a right angle in the female.

" The female fcapulx are fmaller, flesderer, flatter, and
have acuter angles.

" In the female, the thigh-bones are bent more forwards ;
the neck forms a greater angle with the body ; the internal
condyle is larger, more prominent, and longer, in compa-
rifon with the external."

There are differences in fome parts of the flceleton in the
various races of mankind ; that is, certain charafters by
which they can be diftinguifhed from each other. The head
is the part in which the llrongeft diftiuflive marks are ob-
fervable. We have defcribed thefe very fully, and entered
at length into a confideration of the way in which they are
produced, in the articles Cranium and Man.

The national differences in llature, in the fize, length, and
proportion of the limbs, &c. mull be accompanied with
correfponding variations in the bony fabric. But there are
no peculiarities of form in the individual bones, no varieties
in the configuration of proccdes, or articular heads and ca-
vities, nor in their mutual adaptation. On this fubjeft alfo
we refer to the article Man.

The individual diverfities of fize and form mud be attend-
ed with differences in the flceleton. The bones are fome-
times longer, fometimes thicker. The head may be compa-
ratively large or fmall ; the fhoulders broad or contrafted ;
the thorax flat or prominent ; the vertebral column more or
lefs curved ; the loins thick or (lender ; the thighs or legs,
the fingers and toes, longer or (horter, &c.

Food feems to have no influence on the (keleton.

External caufes have certainly, in fome inftances, in-
fluenced particular parts in individuals ; as the application
of artificial prcflure to the head of the newly born. (See
Cranium.) The efl'edt of analogous prcflure in contraft-
ing the feet of the Chinefe women, producing anchylofis of
the articulations, and thus rendering thefe indruments of lo-
comotion nearly ulelels, is well known. Similar eflcfts are
produced daily on the feet, in compliance with the prevalent
notions of beauty in Europe, under our own eyes.

But a more deflruftive procefs is that of tlic tight-laced
ftays of European females, who choofe to fancy that beauty
confilU in having the chell large above and narrow below,

although nature has reverfed thefe proportions. The rtbi
are contracted ; the inferior aperture of the chcft narrowed ;
the liver, ilomach, and other abdominal vifcera, fubjeAed to
a fevere and moll injurious preffure by this barbarous prac-
tice of civiHzed people. We have leen the figure of the
thorax quite altered by this pradlice ; the lower ribs being
puflied in on the liver, and having left deep indentations in
that organ. See Sommerring's German treatife on this fub-
jeft : " Von der Schadlichkeit der Schnurbriiften."

Theeffeft of artificial caufes in modifying the form, has,
however, been much exaggerated ; the round fhape of the
fliuU in the Turks being afcribed to their turbans, &c. A
change is only to be eflefted by confiderable and continued
preffure on the bones in their growing Hate. Thefe altera-
tions are merely individual ; they do not affeft the race ; as
the offspring are born with the ordinary formation and cha-
rafters of the fpecies. See Man.

Defcrlptton of the Plates in 'which the Anatomy of the Skeleton it
reprefcnted.

Ofleology. Plate XVIII.— Front view of

Anatomy.
the fkeleton.

I.
2.

3-
4-
5-
6.

7-
8.

9-

10.
1 1.
12.

i3-

14.

•5-

16.

17-
18.
19.

20.

22.
24.

26.

27-
28.
29.
30-

3'-
32-
33-

34-
35-
36.
37-
3«-
39-

The Head.
Os frontis.

Right OS parietale or bregmatis.
Squamous portion of the right 03 temporis.
Maftoid procefs.
Meatus auditorius externus.
Condyloid procefs of the inferior maxilla.
Coronoid procefs 1

Angle V of the inferior maxilla.

Symphyfis j

Right fuperior maxilla.
Right OS malx or jugale.
Left ditto.

The Trunk.

Seventh cervical vertebra.

Firll rib.

Eighth or firil falfe rib.

Fird lumbar vertebra.

Sacrum.

Ileum.

Pubes.

Ifchium.

Ul'l'ER EXTKEMITIES.

Clavicle.
Scapula.
Acromion.
Coracoid procefs.
Humerus.
Greater tuberofity.
Smaller ditto.
Eminence for the radius.
Trochlea.
Internal condyle.
Radius.

Tubercle of tlie radius.
Ulna.

Coronoid procefs of the ulna.
Os navicularc, or lcaphoidet<.
Os lunarc.

Os cuiieiformc, or triquetrum.
Os pififormc.

Os trapezium, or multangulum majtis.
N 2

40. Oi

SKELETON.

40.
41.
42.

43-
44.

45-
46.

47-
48.
49.
50.

5>-
52-
53-
54-
55-
56.

57-
58.

59-
60.
61.
62.

63-
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
♦

69.

70.
71-
72-
73-
74-
75-
76.

77-
78.

79-
80.
81.

«2.

83-
84.
85.

86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.

93-
94.

95-
96.

97-

98.

99.

100.

lOI.
lOZ.

Os trapezoides, or multangulum minus.

Os capitatum.

Os unciforrae, or hamatum.

Metacarpal bone of the thumb.

— — ^^— — ^^^-^ fore-finger.

middle-finger.

ring-finger.

little-finger.

Anatomy.
fkeleton.

OJleology. Plate XVI — Back view of tht

Head.

■ the thumb.

Firft phalanx 1 r

Second phalanx j

Sefamoid bones.

Firft phalanx 1

Second phalanx ■ of the fore-finger.

Third phalanx J

Firll phalanx

Second phalanx ■ of the middle-finger.

Third phalanx J

Firft phalanx

Second phalanx • of the ring-finger.

Third phalanx

Firft phalanx ' i

Second phalanx \ ■ of the little-finger.

Third phalanx

Lower Extremities.

Thigh-bone.

Trochanter major.

Tx'ochanter minor.

Internal condyle.

External condyle.

Patella.

Semilunar cartilage.

Tibia.

Internal condyle.

External condyle.

Tuberofity.

Internal malleolus.

Fibula.

Its head.

External malleolus.

Aftragalus.

Os calcit.

Os naviculare.

Os cuneiforme primum.

' fecundum.

- tertium.

Os cuboideum.

Metatarfal bone of the great tee.

fecond toe.

—^——^^— third toe.

' fourth toe.

fifth toe.

Co„„ A k 1 J of the great toe.
becond phalanx J °

Firft phalanx T

Second phalanx > of the fecond toe.

Third phalanx J

Firft phalanx ">

Second phalanx I of the third toe.

Third phalanx J

Firft phalanx "1

Second phalanx V of the fourth toe.

Third phalanx J

Firft phalanx 1

Second phalanx > of the fifth toe.

Third phalanx J

I.

2.
3-
4-
5-

Os parietale, or bregmatis.

Foramen parietale.

Malar procefs of the os frontis.

Os malae.

Zygoma.

6. Squamous portion of the temporal bone.

7. Maftoid foramen.

8. Maftoid procefs.

9. Styloid procefs.

10. Os occipitis.

11. Lower jaw.

Trunk.

12.

13-

14.

15-

16.

17-
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23-

24.

25-

26.

27.
28.
29.
SC-
32-
33-
34-
35-
36-
37-
38.
39-
40.
41.
42.

43-
44.

45-
46.

47-
48.
49.
50.

5>-
52.

53-
54-
55-
56.

57-
58.

59-
60.

Seventh cervical vertebra.

Twelfth dorfal vertebra.

Fifth lumbar vertebra.

Sacrum.

Os coccjgis.

Ileum.

Pubes.

Ifchium.

Foramen ovale.

Firft rib.

Eighth or firft falfe riW.

Twelfth rib.

Upper Extremities.
Clavicle.
Scapula.

Spine of the fcapula.
Acromion.
Humerus.
Greater tuberofity.
External condyle.
Internal condyle.
Radius.
Its head.
Ulna.
Olecranon.
Os naviculare.
Os lunare.

Os cuneiforme or triquetruni.
Os pififorme.
Os multangulum majus.
Os multangulum minus.
Os capitatum.
Os hamatum or unciforme.
Metacarpal bone of the thumb.

fore-finger.

middle-finger.

ring-finger.

— ^— ^— ^^— — little-finger.
Sefamoid bone.

Firft phalanx j ^f the thumb.

becond phalanx

Firft phalanx T

Second phalanx ■ of the fore-finger.

Third phalanx

Firft phalanx 1

Second phalanx - of the middle-finger.

Third phalanx

Firft phalanx l

Second phalanx ■ of tKe ring-finger.

Third phalanx

I

61. Firft

S K E

S K E

6i. Firll phalanx 1

62. Second phalanx J-of the little-finger.

63. Third phalanx J

Lower Extremities.

64. Thigh-bone.

65. Its neck.

66. Trochanter major.

67. Trochanter minor.
6S. External condyle.

69. Internal condyle,

• Semilunar cartilage.

70. Tibia.

71. Its external condyle.

72. Its internal condyle.

73. Internal malleolus.

74. Fibula.

75. Its head.

76. External malleoluJ.

77. Aftragalus.

78. Os caleis.

79. Os cuboideum.

80. Os naviculare.

81. Os cuneiforme primum.

82. fecundum.

83. tertium.

84. Metatarfal bone of the great toe.

85. ■ fecond toe.

86. third toe.

87. — fourth toe.

88. fifth toe.

89.
90.

Sefamoid bones.

91. Firft phalanx of the great toe.

92. fecond toe.

93. third toe.

94. Second phalanx of the third toe.

95. Firft phalanx of the fourth toe.

96. Second phalanx of the fourth toe.

97. Third phalanx of the fourth toe.

98. Firll phalanx of the fifth toe.

99. Second phalanx of the fifth toe.
100. Third phalanx of the fifth toe.

For the anatomy of the (Iveleton, fee Chefclden's Ofteo-
graphia, or the Anatomy of the Bones, fol. ; Traite d'Of-
teologie, traduit de I'Anglois de Mr. Monro, &c. par Mr.
Sue, 2 vols. fol. ; C. J. Trew, Tabulx Ofteologise, 1767,
fol.; Albinus de Oflibus Corporis Humani, 1726, 8vo. ;
Albinus de Sceleto Humano, 1762, 4to. ; Albinus Tabulx
Sceleti & Mufculoruni, 1747, fol.; Albinus Tabula; Of-
liiim, 1763, fol.; Albinus Icones Ofilum Fcetus, 1737,
4to. ; Albinus AnnotationcB Academicx, 4to. ; Soemmer-
liitr Tabula Sceleti Fcminei, junfta Defcriptione, fol. ;
■mmerring de Corporis Fabrica, t. i. ; .1. G. Walter von
trocknen Knochcn, 1763, 8vo. ; .). F. Blumenbach,
Gcfchichte und Bcfchrtibung der Knochcn, 1786, 8vo. ;
Bertin Olleologie, 4 torn. 8vo. ; Boehmer Inftitutiones
Ofteologicae, 8vo.

We have, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, an account
of a human (kclcton, all the bones of which were fo united,
as to make but one articulation from the back to the o»
facrum, and downwards a little way. On fawing fome of
them, where they were unnaturally joined, they were found
not to cohere throughout their whole fubllance, but only
about a fixth of an iiieh deep all round. The figure of the
trunk was crooked, the fpine making the convex, and the
infide of the Tertebrse the concave part of the fegment.

The whole had been found in a charnel-houfe, and was of
the fize of a full-grown perfon.

Skeleton, Vegetable. The preparations of leaves, fruits,
roots, &c. called vegetable Ikeletons, are made in this man-
ner. Choofe for this purpofe the leaves of trees or plants,
which are fomewhat fubftantial and tough, and have woody
fibres, fuch as the leaves of orange, jafmine, bay, laurel,
cherry, apricot, peach, plum, apple, pear, poplar, oak,
and the like ; but avoid fuch leaves as have none of the
woody fibres, which are to be feparated and preferved by
this method ; fuch are the leaves of the vine, lime-tree, and
the like. The leaves are to be gathered in the months of
June or July, and fuch to be chofeii as are found and un-
touched by caterpillars, or other infefts. Thefe are to be
put into an earthen or glafs vefliel, and a large quantity of
rain-water to be poured over them ; and after this they are
to be left to the open air, and to the heat of the fun, with-
out covering the vefliel. When the water evaporates, fo as
to leave the leaves dry, more mull be added in its place : the
leaves will by this means putrefy, but they require a dif-
ferent time for this ; fome will be finilhcd in a month, and
others will require two months or longer, according to the
hardnefs of the parenchyma of them. When they have been
in a itateuf putrefaflion fome time, the two membranes will
begin to feparate, and the green part of the leaf to become
fluid : then the operation of clearing is to be performed.
The leaf is then to be put upon a flat white earthen plate,
and covered with clear water; and being gently fqueezed
with the finger, the membranes will begin to open, and the
green fubllance will come out at the edges ; the membranes
mull be carefully taken off with a finger, and great caution
muft be ufed in feparating them near the middle rib. When
once there is an opening towards this feparation, the whole
membrane always follows eafily : when both membranes
are taken off, the fkeleton is finiihed, and it is to be wafhed
clean with water, and then preferved between the leaves of
a book.

The fruits are divefted of their pulp, and made into (kele-
tons in a different manner. Take, for inilance, a fine large
pear that is foft, and not ftrong ; let it be nicely pared
without fqueezing it, and without hurting cither the crown
or the ftalk ; then put it into a pot of rain-water, cover it,
fet it over the fire, and let it boil gently till it is perfeAly
foft, then take it out, and lay it in a di(h, filled with cold
water ; then hold it by the lialk with one hand, and with
the other hand rub off as much of the pulp as you can with
the finjrer and thumb, beginning at the Italk, and rubbing
it regularly towards the crown. The fibres are moll tender
toward the extremities, and therefore to be treated with
great care there. When the pulp is thus cleared pretty
well o£F, the point of a fine penknife may be of ufe to pick
away the pulp ilicking to the core. In order to fee how
the operation advances, the foul water muft be thrown away
from lime to time, and clean poured on in its place. When ■
the pulp is in this manner perfectly feparated, the clean
flceleton is to be preferved in fpirit of wine.

Skeletons of roots which have woody fibres, fucli as tur-
nips, and the like, muft be made by boiling the root, with-
out pcelin'.r it, till it be foft, that the pulp may be Iqueezed
away by the fingers in the fame manner, in a dirti of water.
Many kinds of roots arc thus made into elegint (keletons,
and the fame method fucceeds with the barks of leveral
kinds of trees ; which, when thus treated, afford extremely
elegant views of their conftituent fibres. Dulol. Tranl.
N^4i6.

SKELIGS, TheThree, in Geovraphy, iilands in the At-

lantic ocean, about 7 miles W. of Bolus Head, county of

4 Kerry,

S K E

S K I

Kerry, Ireland, one only of which, the Great Skelig, is
inhabitable. On thi:; there was formerly an abbey ; but it
was removed to Ballinalkeligs, as a more convenient fuua-
tion. See Ballinaskeligs.

SKELL, a river nf England, whicli runs into the Ure,
near Rippon, in Yorkfliire.

SKELLENBERG, a mountain of Bavaria, near
Donauwert, wliere the French and Bavarians were defeated
by the duke of Marlborough and prince Lewis of Baden.

SKELLFLETE, a river of England, which runs into
the Humber, 12 miles W. of Hull.

SKELLINGE, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Halland ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Konfback.
SKEMLIK. See Kemlik.

SKENEATELES, a handfome poll-village of Ame-
rica, in the Hate of New York, in Marcellus, Onondaga
county, at the outfet of the lake of the fame name; 163
miles N. of W. from Albany. It has 60 houfes, a hand-
fome Frelbyterian church, fcveral mills, &c. on Skeneateles
creek ; and it has a brilk trade.

Skeneateles Lake, a lake about fifteen miles long, and
from half a mile to a mile and a half wide, principally in
Onondaga county ; fix miles at its north end being in the
townfhip of Marcellus. Its trout and falmon troi'.t are very
large. The outlet is at the north end near the village of
the fame name, and the creek runs north, through Marcellus
and Camillus, about ten miles to Seneca river, affording
many fine feats for mills. Skeneateles, in the dialedl of the
Onond.iga Indians, fignifies long ; and hence the name of
the lake.

SKENECTADY. See Schenectady.
SKENEK. See ScHENCK.

SKENESBOROUGH, a town of America, in Warti-
ington county, in the Hate of New York, fituated on
AVood creek, on the fouth iide of lake George ; burned by
the Americans in 1777, with their baggage and military
ftores, when they were retreating before the Britiih army
under general Burgoyne. See Whitehall.

SKEOTISVAY Isle, one of the Hebrides, in the
parifh of Harris, and (hire of Invernefs. It is about a mile
long, and till of late years was uninhabited.

SKEP, in Agrkuhure-, a coarfe round farm baflcet. It
is alfo provincially ufed to fignify a bee- hive.

SKEPLE, or Skuttle, a fort of flat broad baflcet
for winnowing corn.

SKER Point, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of
South Wales, in the Briltol Channel. N. lat. 51° 27'. W.
long. 3° 42'.^

SKERAT, a rock in the Caledonian fea, near the well
coait of Skye. N. lat. 57- 24'. W. long. 6= 40'.

SKERENIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim ; 5 miles N. of Hohemaut.

SKERGULE, a rocky ifland near the fouth-weft coaft.
of Mull. N. lat. j6^ 18'. W. long. 6" 21'.

SKERIVORE Isles, a clufter of fmall ifiand?, belong-
ing to the Hebrides, Scotland ; fituated about 40 miles
weitward from the point of Mull.

SKERN, a river of England, in the county of Durham,
which runs into the Tees.

SKERPING, a town of Sweden, in Upland ; 38 miles
N. of Upfal.

SKERRIES, a confiderable fifhing-town on the ealt
coaft of Ireland, in the county of Dublin, near which are
feveral feats and villas. Oppofite to it are fome rocks,
called Skerries, from which much kelp is procured. There
are other iflands of the fame name off the coaft of the county
of Antrim, near Portrufh.

9

%

Skerries, The, or The Skerry IJles, a clufter of fmall
iflands, fituated to the eaftvvard of the Mainland of the
Shetland ifles, to which they belong. The principal of
them, and the only ones -inhabited, are Bruray, Grunav»
and Houfay, which united contain about a hundred in-
habitants, who are chiefly employed in fifliing. Thcfe
iflands afford good anchorage for fmall veffels ; but the want
of a light-honfe renders the navigation in their vicinity very
dangerous, and has been the occafion of many melancholy
fliipwrecks. Carlifle's Topographical Diftionary of Scot-
land, 4to. 1 81 3. Sinclair's Statiftical Account of Scot-
land, vol. vi. 8vo. 1794.

Skerries, JJle nf, a fmall ifland, included in the parifh '
of Llan Fair yn Ghoir.wy, cwmwd of Tal-y-bolion, can-
traef of Cemmaes, (now called the hundred of Tal-y.
bolion,) and county of Anglefea, North Wales, is fituated
at the diflance of a mile and a half from the Mainland, and ,
affords pailurage for a few fheep. The foflile ftone called
ajbejios, is found here in great abundance ; and at one ex-
tremity of the ifland is an e.'tcellent light-honfe, which is
highly ferviceahle to veflcls navigating between Ireland and
the ports of Chelter and Liverpool. The Wellh call tliis
ifland Ynys y Mael Rhoniaid, i. e. the Ifle of Seals. Car-
lifle's Topographical Diftionary of Wales, 4to. 181 1.

SKERSTA, a town of Sweden, in Smaland ; 10 miles
N.N.E. of .Tonkioping.

SKESMO, a town of Norway, in the province of Chrif.
tiania ; 14 miles E.N.E. of Chriftiania.

SKETHYE, a river of North Wales, in the county ol
Merioneth, which runs into the Irifli fca, 3 miles N.N.W,
of Barmouth.

SKEUDITZ. See Schkeuditz.
SKEVERI, a town of Hindooltan, in Vifiapour ; 10
miles S.W. of Raibaug.

SKEW, or Skile, Facets, among Jetuellers. See
Facets.

SKE WRING Chbese, in /Igrkuhure, the praftice of
thrulling Itrong iron-wire flvewers into cheefes, in order to
draw off and difcharge the whey from them. The ikewers
for this ufe are molUy about eighteen or twenty inches in
length. See Dairying.

SKEYL, provincially to lean on one fide, or throw up,
as in unloading a cart.

Skeyl-Bco/I, in Rural Economy, provincially the parti-
tion of cattle-ltalls.

SKEYLD, provincially parti-coloured, as geefe, ducks,
&c. ; or flielled.

SKIALFANDEFIORD, in G^9fra^/jy, a river of Ice-
land, which receives the waters of a large and rapid river
called the Skialfandefliot, and alfo a river called Laxaa,
which flows from the lake Myoatn. llufavik, a com-
mercial ilation, lies on this river, N.E. of Eyafiord. Here
is no good fifliing ; but many feals are caught during winter.
Eider-ducks are very abundant on the coaft.

SKIATIC Stay, in R'gging, a contrivance for hoifting
and lowering burdens out ct or in fhips, which clinches or
makes fall with two half-hitvhes, and the ends ftoj^t, round
the heads of the main and fore-mafts, with a tackle depend-
ing from it over the hatchwr.y. A
SKIATO, in Geography, one of the Grecian iflands, \
neareft to the coaft of Greece, feparated from the ifland of
Scopoli only by a channel of about two leagues, ad from
the main land by one not much wider. Anchorages, rather
numerous and fafe, are to be found along the eaft ciiall, and
between the fmall iflets which are on the fame fide. To
this circumftance the advantages of this little ifland are
nearly reduced.

SKIBBEREEN,

S K I

SKIBBEREEN, a poll-town of the county of Cork,
Ireland, formerly called Stapletown. It is fituated on the
fiiuth fide of the river Hen, which flows into Baltimore har-
bour. This river is navigable nearly from Skibbereen for
lighters ; yet the trade is chiefly carried on by land-carriage,
becaufe the general prevalence of welterly winds renders tlie
communication by fea always uncertain, and often tedious.
Skibbereen, fays Mr. Townfend, without patronage or en-
couragement, has, from the mere cirCTimitance of its fitua-
tion, become populous, thriving, and wealthy. At its
markets and fairs, befides the other ufual articles of mer-
chandize, very large quantities of coarfe linens and yarn are
cxpofed to fale. The town is, notwithltanding, ill built,
with a number of wretched cabins, and very dirty. It is
i 60 miles S.W. from Dublin, and 38 W. by S. from Cork.
Townfend's Statiftical Survey.

8KICIE, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia;
40 miles W. of Jally. .,

SKID, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the chain
by which the wheel of a waggon is fattened, fo as to pre-
vent its turning round, upon defcending a fteep hill. See

DiiAG.

HKlD-Bcamt, in Ship-Building, are the beams in the waift,
■.'. hich connett the forecaftle with the quarter-deck.

vSkids, Boat, fquare pieces of timber bolted one on each
fide, and projeCling over the Hern, with fheaves in tlieir
oiiter ends to hoill the boat up. Boat-fkids over the quar-
t IS arc fixed at the heel, and fufpended by a lift at the
li' ad ; the latter of iron lately in the navy.

Skids, Whak, are long fquare pieces of timber, projcfling
from the fides of Greenland (liips, for the convenience of
hoilling and canting the whale out of the water.

SKIDDAW, in Gi:ogrj/)Zi_y, a mountain of Cumberland,
England, is remarkable as being clafled among the greateft
rniincnces of the ifland. It is alfo diltinguifhed for its ro-
mantic and grand fccnery, as well as for the lakes in its dif-
ferent hollows, and near its bafe. Maurice, in his poem of
'• Netherby," thus charafterifes this angull mountain:

" There, tow'ring Skiddaw, wrapt in awful fhade.
Monarch of mountains, rears his mighty head ;
Dark'ning with frowns fair Kefwick's beauteous vale,
He views beneath the gathering tcmpelts fail.
Secure, nor heeds the rollnig thunder's rage,
Though Schruffel, trembling, marks the dire prefage."

According to the trigonometrical furvey, by colonel
Mudge and his alTitlants, it is dated that the highelt point
of Skiddaw is 3022 feet above the level of the fea. Sea-
fell, in the fame county, is 3166 feet in height. Like the
generality of mountains in this part of the kingdom, Skid-
daw coiififts of numerous inequalities ; deep hollows, and
bold crags ; irregular fifiures, and gentle Hopes. Its fur-
face alfo prefcnts a variety of fubllances, colours, and forms.
In fome places are vail mafles of bare rock ; in other parts,
a foft (hort grafs prtfents itfelf ; and in others are heath,
furze, and brambles. Wildnefs and grandeur are the ge-
neral features. Mrs. Radclifie gives a very interclling de-
fcription of different parts of this mountain, in her "Journey
through Holland," &c. 2 vols. 8vo. I7(;5. Other ac-
counts arc given in the following works : Hutchinfon's
Excurfion to the Lakes, \',\o. 1776; Well's Guide to the
Lakes, 8vo. 1802 ; Gilpin's Obfervations relative chiefly
to pifturcfqne Beauty on liie Mountains and Lakes of Cum-
berland and Weftmoreland, 2 vols. 8vo. 1786.

SKIERENDAL, a town of Norway, in the province
of Aggerhuus ; 20 railcs N. W. of Chrilliania.

S K I

SKIERN, a river of Denmark, which runs into the fea,
12 miles S. of Ringkiobing.

SKIFF, a boat much ufed in the river Thames, It
difi"ers from a wherry by being lliorter and broader in pro-
portion, and having a tranfom abaft.

SKIFFI, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago. N. lat. 38' 44'. E. long. 24'^ 13'.

SKILI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 48
miles E.N.E. of Conllantinople.

SKILLING, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying an
ifle, or bay of a barn ; alfo a flight addition to a cot
tage.^

SKILLINGE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Blckingen ; 4 miles W. of Carlfcrona.

SKILLINGS, a river of America, in the diflrift of
Maine, which runs into the fea, 4 miles W. of New
Briltol.

SKILSKIOER, a fea-pcrt of Denmark, in the ifland
of Zealand, in a bay which communicates with the Great
Belt; 48 miles S.W. of Copenhagen. N. lat. 55- 16'.
E. long. I 1° 27'.

SKILUGRUND, a fmall ifland on the eait fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 55'. E. long. 20" 50'.

SKIM-CouLTER, in Agriculture, a fort of coulter in-
vented by Mr. Ducket, for paring off the furface of coarfe
grafs or other lands, and placing it in the bottom of the
furrow, fo as to be fully covered and fecurcd. It has beeo
ufed in different dillrifts with the greatell advantage and
fuccefs. It is Hated in the Agricultural Report of Hert-
fordfliire, that Mr. Biggs, near St. Albans, finds it of ex-
cellent effect in clover lays, and alfo wherever any rubbilh
is on the land that wants burying, as well as in breaking up
old faintfoin lays. And it may be beneficially employed on
many other occaiions.

SKiM-Coulter Plough, that fort of plough whicii has a
fkim-coulter of fome kind or other attached to it. See
Plough.

Skim-AIiH, in Rural Economy, that fort of milk which
is left, after the cream has been taken away or fliimmed off
from the furface of it. This procefs is moftly performed by
means of a flight thin fliimming-diffi, after the milk has been
fet by for fome time in Ihailow veffels, cither in its natural
ftate, or when having undergone, in fome cafes, the opera-
tion of fcalding. Where the latter praftice is followed,
though it might at firll be reafonably fuppofed that all the
oily unftuous matter of the milk would be brought to the
furface, yet it is found by experience that that is not the
cafe; but that, on the contrary, the fcalded flcimined-milk
is much richer, and better even for the purpofe of fuckling
calves, as well as capable of making far better checfe than
the raw flcimmed-milk. In Devonlhire, the fcalded Ikim
or flvimmed-milk is ellimated at the value of a penny farthing
the quart, cither for the ufe of chcefe-making, or that of
feeding hogs.

The ikini-milk in the county of Efl'ex, as well as in many
others, efpecially thofe more towards the north, is con-
verted to the purpole of keeping and fattening porkers, and
that of being dilpofed of, at tiie rate of about three-pence
or four-pence the gallon, to the lower claffes of the people;
or that of taking in pigs to keep, at the price of about
from three (hillings ar.d fixpencc to four fliillings and fix-
pence tlie week. A hog has been known to be fattened, in
the above named diltrirt, in this way, to the weight of
lixty-fix (tone, without the offal, at eight pounds to the
ilonr, (kim-m.ilk only beiiiij given for the purpofe.

In other diilricls, the farmers rear and bring up their
calves, and keep their own hogs, on this fort of milk, as

well

SKI

SKI

Tvell as prepare cheefe from it, finding thefe the moft pro-
fitable applications of it.

The refult of a number of trials has (hewn, that in form-
ing fl<im-milk, about ten ounces of butter is taken from
twelve pints of milk, under the fcalding praftice. See
Dairying.

SKiM-Mili Cheefe, that fort of cheefe which is made from
fkim or flcimmed-railk. It is moftly a poor inferior fort of
cheefe, though much of it is made in different diftrifts of
the kingdom. It is, however, frequently a priftice to take
away the cream from only a certain portion of the milk that
is intended for cheefe, as that of the night meal, &c. In
Devon(hire, when cheefe is to be made, much care is taken
that the milk be not heated fo far as to produce bubbles
under the cream, which is firil to be taken off from it, or
when it is to be ufed with it.

SKIMMER, in Ornithology. See Rvnchops.
SKIMMIA, in Botany, a name adopted by Ksmpfer
from its Japanefe vernacular appellation, Mijanea Siimmi. —
Kacmpf. Amcen. fafc. 5. 779. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 57.
Fl. Japon. 4. Schreb. 81. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 671.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Jud'. 425. — Clafs and order, Te-
trandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Plants incerta fedis ; Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very fmall,
permanent, cloven nearly to the bafe into four, ovate, acute
legments. Cor. Petals four, ovate, concave, minute.

Stam. Filaments four, very Ihort ; antherg Pift.

Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle folitary ; lligma

Perk. Berry ovate, umbilicated, (lightly furrowed, fmooth,
full of mealy pulp, and fplitting imperfeftly into four parts.
Seedt four, nearly triangular or convex externally, oblong,
white.

Obf. The Perianth is occafionally cloven into five feg-
ments.

Eff. Ch. Petals four, concave. Calyx four-cleft. Berry
with four feeds.

I. S.Jtiponica- Japanefe Skimmia. Thunb. Japon. 63.
Kaempf. Ic. Seleft. t. 5. — Native of .Tapan, near Nagafaki,
ripening its fruit in December. St(m flirubby, eretk, fmooth.
Branches alternate, nearly fquare. Leaves at the fummits
of the branches, alternate, ilalked, numerous, oblong, un-
dulated, entire, (lightly notched towards the tip, ereft,
about a finger's length, with a reflexed margin ; green and
rugofe above ; pale and dotted beneath. Footjtalks convex
beneath, flat above, thickilh, fhort. Flowers white, on
round, thickened ilalks, in terminal panicles.

The foliage is evergreen, and has an aromatic flavour.
SKIMMING-DlSH, in Rural Economy, that fort of
light thin-edged di(h, which is employed in fltimming the
cream off the furface of milk, in the praftice of the dairy.
Difhes of this kind are made either of hard wood or tin,
being formed in a nice, thin, light manner, with fine fharp
edges. See Dairying.

SKiMMiNG-5'/>a(/^, in .Agriculture, that fort of fharp-
mouthed fpade which is employed in fkimming or paring off
the graffy furface, or fward of land, which is intended to
be burnt. See Paring and Burning.

SKIN, in Anatomy, a large thick membrane, fpread
over the whole body, ferving as the external organ of feeling,
and as a covering and ornament of the parts underneath.
See Integu.ments.

Saiti, Difeafes of the. See Cutaneous Dlfeafes ; where
an outline of the clalTification of thefe maladies, devifed by
the late ingenious Dr. Willan, by whom the pathology of
thefe negleftcd and undiftinguifhed diforders has been greatly
elucidated, will be found. For more particular information,
confult the articles Leprosy, Lichen, Psoriasis, Por-

Rioo, Herpes, &c. and Dr. Bateman's Praft. Synopfig of
Cutaneous Difeafes, according to the arrangement of Dr.
Willan.

Skin, in Rural Economy, the hide of an animal. The
refufe and wafte of it which are caufed by the different manu-
faftures, and which arife in the various purpofes to which it
is applied, are capable of forming very ufeful manures, when
they are in any fuitable quantity ; fuch as the chips of the
fhoemaker, the dreffings and trimmings of the currier, the
clippings of the farrier, and the wafte offal matters of the
tan-yard as well as the glue manufaftory.

It has been fuggefted by the writer of the work on "Agri-
cultural Chemiftry," that the gelatine which is contained
in every kind of fkin is in a ftate fitted for its gradual fo-
iution or decompofition ; and that when buried in the foil,
it lafts or continues for a confiderable time, and conttantlv
yields a fupply of nutritious matter to the plants, which are
placed within the neighbouring range of its aClion. All
wafte matters of this nature fhould therefore be carefully
preferved for the purpofe of being applied as manures.

Skin, in Commerce, is particularly ufed for this membrane
ftripped off the animal, to be prepared by the tanner, flcin-
ner, currier, parchment-maker, &c. and converted into
leather, &c.

The ufe of flcins is very ancient ; the firft garments in the
world having been made of them. The Danes and other
northern nations have a long time dreffed themfelves in /kins.
Moroccoes are made of the fliins of a kind of goats. (See
Morocco. ) Parchment is ufually made of fheep-flcins ;
fonietimes of goat-fliins. (See Parchment.) Velomisa
kind of parchment made of the fkin of an abortive calf, or at
leaft of a fucking calf. (See Velom.) The true fhammy
is made of the fkin of an animal of the fame name ; though
frequently it is counterfeited with common goats' and (heep-
Ikins. See Shammy.

The Indians in Carolina and Virginia drefs buck and doe-
flcin in this manner : the felt being taken off, they ftrain
them, with lines or otherwife, much like the clothiers' racks,
in order only to dry them. When the hunting time is over,
the women drefs the fliins, by putting them in a pond or hole
of water, to foak them well ; then with an old knife, fixed
in a cleft ftick, they force off the hair whilft they remain
wet. This done, they put them into a kettle, or earthen-
pot, and a proportion of deer's brains, dried and preferved
for this purpofe, is put along with them ; this vellel is fet
on the fire till they are more than blood-warm, which will
make them lather and fcour clean ; after this, with fmall
fticks, they wreft and twift each flvin, as long as they find
any wet to drop from them, letting them remain fo wrefted for
fome hours, and then they untwiil and ftretch each of them
in a fort of rack, fo that every part is extended, and as the
flcin dries, they take a duU hatchet, or fome fuch inftrument,
and rub them well over to force all the water and greafe out
of them, till they become perfectly dry, and then their work
is done.

In this manner one woman (for the men never employ
themfelves in this work) will drefs eight or ten fkins in a
day, that is, begin and finifh them. Phil. Tranf. No. 194.
See Buff.

For the manner of preparing fhagreen, fee Shagreen.
Skins, lacquering and gilding. See Lacquer.
SKINK. See SciNcus.

SKINKER, a cup-bearer, or butler. See Arch Butler.

SKINNER, Stephen, in Biography, an antiquary, was

born about the year 1622, in or near London. He received

his academical education at Chrift-church college, Oxford, in

the year 1638, but the civil war caufed him to leave the uni-

verfity

SKI

verfity without taking a degree. He thence travelled on
the continent, and Ihidied at various univerfities. On his
return to his native country, he went to Oxford, and took
his degree in arts, and then fettled as a phyfician at Lincoln,
where he died in 1667. He was a man of very extenfive
erudition, but is chiefly known by his works in etymology,
which, after his death, came into the hands of Mr. Thomas
Henfliaw, who digefted, coirefted, and enlarged them, and
pnbhflicd them in 1671, with the title of " Etymologicon
Lingus Anglicans ;" a work that has always been con-
fidered as of high authority among the learned, and is ilill
regarded as a moll ufeful book of reference.

SKINNERA, in Botany, Forll. Gen. t. 29, was fo
named in honour of Mr. Skinner, an Oxford gentleman,
whom Forfter terms " a moft acute and clear-fighted bo-
tanift," but we have met with no record of him elfewhere ;
and the genus thus denominated is in no refpeft different
from Fuchsia ; fee that article. By the fpecific name, (.v-
corticata, the author feems to have had a punning allufionin
his mind.

SKINNERS, Company of. See Company.

SKINNING, in Ship-BulIding, a term often ufed for
planking the bottom.

SKINOSA, in Geography, a defart ifland, or rather rock,
in the Grecian Archipelago, about 12 miles in circumference;
5 miles S. from the ifland of Naxia. N. lat. ^Q^SS'- ^- ^^"g-
25° 32'.

SKINSKATTEBERG, a town of Sweden, in Well-
manland-; 25 miles N.N.W. of Stroemlholm.

SKINTEI, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia ;
10 miles S. of Jafli.

SKINUS, c-y.mc, a name given by the ancient naturalifts
to the lentifl<-tree, and alfo to a peculiar fpecies of the fquill,
or fcilla, which was not naufeous and emetic as the common
fquill, but efculent and pleafant to the tafte.

SKIOLDS, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro-
vince of Bergen ; 32 miles N. of Stavanger.

SKION, a town of Sweden, in Medelpadia, near the coall
of the gulf of Bothnia. The church was formerly a callle,
ind the Iteeple is full of loop-holes for arras ; 30 miles S. of
Hernofand.

SKIPNESS Point, a cape of Scotland, on the E. coaft
of Kintyro, with a village called Skipnefs ; 22 miles N. of
Cambletown, N. lat. 55" 49'. W. long. 5° 24'.

SKIPPACH Creek, a creek of America, in the Dela-
ware, where general Wafhington was encamped before the
battle of German Town, in the county of Montgomery.

SKIPPACK, a townfhip of Pennfylvania ; 20 miles N.
of Philadelphia. Shippack and Perkiomen contain 902 in-
habitants.

SKIPPER. Sec Shipper.

Skipper, an Enghfh name for the common gar-fifli. See
Acus.

SKIPPON, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of Lancafter, whicti runt into the Wyre.

SKIPSILAR, a town of European Turkey, in Ro-
mania ; 72 miles E. of Emboli.

SKIPTON, or Siipton in Craven, a market-town in
the eafl divifion of the wapentake of Staincliflc and Ewcrofs,
Welt Riding of the county of York, England, is fituated at
the diltance ot 48 miles W. by S. from the city of York,
and 216 miles N.N.W. from London. This town, wiiich
previoiifly was a poor place, has, fiijce the inclolure of
Knarefl)orough fortit, become the thief mart for the ditlridl
of Craven. The market-day is Saturday, weekly ; when
there ie always a large fupply of different forts of grain,
which ie thence difperfed throughout Craven, and the ma-

VoL. XXXIil.

SKI

nufaAuring country in the north-eaft part of Lancafhire.
Brown, in his Agricultural Survey of the Weil Riding of
the County, affirms that upwards of two hundred carta regu-
larly attend this market. The fairs here are numerous, viz.
on the firfl Saturday after old Twelfth-day, the 13th of
March, the Saturday before Palm-Sunday, the Tucfday in
Eaiter-week, and every other Tuefday till Wliitfunlide,
chiefly for lean cattle ; Saturday before Whitfun-eve, and
Saturday before Trinity Sunday, old St. James, old Mar-
tinmas, beiides fortnight fairs every other Tuefday
throughout the year for fat cattle, fheep, &c.

Skipton ftands clofe to the Leeds and Liverpool canal, a
circumftance which greatly facilitates its trade. It confifts
chiefly of one very wide and long ftreet, where the markets
are held, with feveral Itraggling lanes on each fide of it.
The church, which is fituated at one extremity of the main
ftreet, is a fpacious itrufture, with a tower at the weft end,
which appears, from an inlcription thereon, to have been
rebuilt, in 1655, by the celebrated Ann Chfford, countefs
of Dorfet, Pembroke, and Montgomery. Here are infcrip-
tioiis, on plain ftones, in memory of the three firit earls of
Cumberland.

Skipton caitle ftands at a fhort diftance to the caftward
of the church, and on the left fide of the road leading to
Knarefborough. This ancient ftruiflure i-; faid to have been
originally erefted loon after the Conqueft by Robert de Ro-
meli, then lord of the honour of Skipton, whofe daughter and
heirefs carried it by marriage to William Fitz-Duncan, earl
of Murray. From his family it pafTed in the fame manner
to William Ie Gros, earl of Albemarle, and afterwards fuc-
ceffively to William de Mandeville, earl of Effex, to Baldwin
de Betun, and to William de Fortibus. In the reign of Ri-
chard I. Avelin, daughter to the fecoiid William de Fortibus,
a minor, fucceeded, and became ward to king Henry III.,
who, in 1269, gave her in marriage to his fon Edmund, earl
of Lancafter. On the forfeiture of her fon, earl Thomas, for
rebellion againft king Edward II. the caftle was granted, in
1 309, to Robert dc Clift'ord, a Herefordfhire baron, whofe
defcendants, earls of Cumberland, continued to enjoy it till
the early part of the feventeenth century', when it devolved
to Richard Sacvillc, earl of Dorfet, by his marriage with Ann
Clittord, the diftinguilhed lady above-mentioned. By her
daughter and heireis, Margaret, it was conveyed to John
Tufton, fecond earl of Thanet, in whofe family it yet
remains.

Skipton caftle, though apparently little calculated for
defence againft the engines of modern warfare, appears to
have been of confidcrablc importance during the civil war*
between king Charles and his parliament. It was firft gar-
rifoncd in the royal caufe, and is faid to have hold the fur-
rounding country for fome time in great awe. At length,
however, it was vigoroudy bcfieged by a detachment of the
parliamentary army, to whom it furrendered upon honourable
terms on the 20th of December, 164^. In the following
year, its works and defences were deitroyed by order of
parliament. L;idy Clifford, after the death of her fecond
luifband, the earl of Pembroke, repaired this caftle, in
which the was born, and made it occafionally the place of
her refidence. Though not much elevated above the fur-
rounding conntry, it ncverth.clefs commands a plcafing view
uvcr the town and vale of Skipton, which is one of the iineft
and moll fertile in England, extending about twelve miles
in lengtli, und from one and a half to two miles in breadth.
It contains little tillage, but difplays the moft luxuriant
meadows and pallures that can any where be fecn.

Skipton, according to the parliamentary returns for 181 1,

contain! 609 houlcs, and 2868 inhabitants. The parilh i«

0 of

S K O

of great extent, and is partly comprehended in Claro wa-
pentake. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. by John
Bigland, 1 812. Pennant's Tour in Scotland, 4to. 1790.
Whitaker's Hiftory, &c. of Craven, 410. 1805.

Skipton, a town of America, in Maryland, on the Poto-
mack ; 1 1 miles S.E. of Fort Cumberland.

SKIRINGLASS, a fmall ifland near the W. coall of
Scotland. N. lat. 58° 2'. W. long. 5° 10'.

SKIRINTARSAN, a fmall ifland near the E. coaft of
Skye. N. lat. 57° 19'. W. long. 5^ 33'.

SKIRKY, a duller of fmall iflands in Kenmare river, on
the S.E. coaft of Kerry ; 5 miles E. of Lamb's Head.

SKIRMISH, in War, a diforderly kind of combat, or en-
counter, in prelence of two armies, between fmall parties, or
perfons, who advance from the body for that purpoie, and
introduce to a general, regular fight.

The word feems formed from the French, efcarmouche,
which fignifies the fame, and which Nicod derives from the
Greek x^'ef"') which fignifies, at the fame time, both light,
combat, and Joy. Menage derives it from the German,yi-/);V-
men ovjhermen, to fence or defend : Du Cange, from fcarra-
muccia, a light engagement, oi fcara and mucc'ia, a body of
foldiers hid in ambufh ; in regard many (kirmiflies are per-
formed by perfons in ambufcade.

Skirmish Bay, in Geography, a bay on the E. coait of
Chatham ifland, fo called from an unhappy difpute between
captain Vancouver's crew and the natives. S. lat.43°49'.
E. long. 183=25'.

SKIRO. See SciRO.

SKIRRET, in Botany. See SlUM.

SKIRRID Vawr, or Great Siirrid, in Geography, a
mountain of Wales, in the county of Monmouth ; 2 miles N.
of Abergavenny.

SKIRRIES, a rock in the North fea, near the E. coaft
of Scotland ; 2 miles S. of Peterhead.

SKIRTING, in .Agriculture, a mode of performing the
bufinefs of fod-burning. See Son-Burning.

SKIT, in Geography, a town of Walachia, on the Ribnik ;
80 miles N. of Buchareft.

SKITTIKISS, a bay on the E. fide of Walhington's
iflands, near the W. coait of North America.

SKITTISH, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to be fl<it-
tifli, in French ecouteux, or retenu, that leaps inllead of going
forward ; that does not fet out, or part from the hand freely,
nor employ himfelf as he ought to do.

SKIVE, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in North Jut-
land ; 15 miles N.W. of Viborg. N. lat. 56"^ 34'. E. long.
9° l'.

SKLENO, or Glafs Huts, a town of Hungary, cele-
brated for its warm baths ; 5 miles N. of Cremnitz.

SKOBELEKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutflc ; 48 miles S.S.W. of Kirenfl<.

SKODNY, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Op-
peln, in which is a royal foundery for the calling of bombs ;
10 miles S. of Oppcln.

SKOFDE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 62
miles E. of Uddevalla.

SKOG, a town of Sweden, in the province of Helfing-
land ; 34 miles W.N.W. of Hudwickfwall. — Alfo, a town
of Sweden, in Angermanland, on a lake ; 20 miles N. of
Hernofand.

SKOKHAM, Ifle of, a fmall illand fituated in St.
George'sChannel, at the diftance of five miles from St. Anne's
Head, in Pembrokefhire, South Wales. It contains 200
acres, 2 roods and 2 poles of ground, and is the property
«f John Lloyd of Mabus, efq. Its produds arc barley,

S K U

oats, rye-grafs, and rabbits. Fenton's Tour in Pembroke-
fhire, 410. 18 10.

SKOKI, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 18 miles N.
of Pofen.

SKOLEN, or ScHOHLEN, a town of Saxony, in Thu-
ringia ; 8 miles S. of Naumburg.

SKOLOMISI, a town of Poland; 25 miles N.E. of
Cracow.

SKOLOSCHI A, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Irkutfli ; 44 miles N.E. of Kirenft.

SKOMAR, Ifle of, a fmall ifland fituated on the fouth
fide of St. Bride's bay, off the coaft of Pembroke/hire, North
Wales. It is divided from the Mainland by a narrow ttrait,
called Jack's Sound. This ifle contains 700 acres of land, a
large portion of which is under cultivation, and is moil pro-
lific in rabbits, 2000 couple being killed annually for fale.
It is the property of Charles Phillips, efq. of St. Bride's
Hill. Fenton's Tour in Pembrokelhire, 410. 18 10. Car-
lifle's Topographical Diftionary of Wales, 4to. 181 1.

SKOMPE, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 16 miles
N.E. of Wladiflaw.

SKON, a town of Sweden, in the province of Medel-
padia ; 3 miles N. of Hernofand.

SKONE. See Schonen.

SKONGEN, a town of Norway, on the coaft of Dron-
theim bay ; 26 miles N.N.E. of Drontheim.

SKOPIA, or UsKUP, a town of European Turkey, in
Macedonia, on the river Varda, the fee of an archbifhop ;
54 miles N. of Akrida. N. lat. 42° 40'. E. long. 21° 2'.

SKOPIN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Ria-
zan ; 44 miles S. of Riazan. N. lat. 54°. E. long. 39° 14'.

SKORBY, a town of Sweden, in Schonen ; 22 miles
S.E. of Lund.

SKOTGRUND, a fmall ifland on the eaft fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 62° 17'. E. long. 21° 3'. — Alfo,
a fmall ifland on the weft fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat.
60° 39'. E. long. 17° 28'.

SKOTSCHAU, ScHOLscH, or Skozow, a town of
Silefia, in the principality of Tefchen ; 7 miles E.N.E. of
Tefchen. N. lat. 49° 47'. E. long. 18° 45'.

SKOVES, in .Agriculture, provincially reaps, flioves,
grips, or bundles of unbound up grain ; alfo unbound
flieaves of corn.

SKOUT, in Ornithology. See LoMWiA.

SKRABBA, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to a
fifh, called by Jonfton and Schoneveldt ihe fcorpius marinus,
but wholly different from the fcorpxna of other authors.
See FATHER-i<7/X."n

SKREED, in .Agriculture, provincially a border or nar-
row nip of land.

SKREEN. See Screen.

SKREY, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Rakonitz ; 8 miles S. of Rakonitz.

SKRUBBAN, a fmall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 8'. E. long. 18^ 34'.

SKRYNE, a fmall town of the county of Meath, Ire-
land, which received its name from being fuppofed to con-
tain the (hrine (fcrinium) of St. Columba. There were a
caftle and two abbeys here, of which fome ruins remain.
Skryne is igi miles N. by W. from Dubhn.

SKRZIWANE, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Rakonitz ; 4 miles S. of Rakonitz.

SKUA, in Ornithology. See Catahacta.

This bird inhabits Norway, the Ferro ifles, Shetland, and

the noted rock Foula, a little weft of them. It is alfo a

native of the South fea. It is the nioft formidable gull ;

its prey being not only fifli, but the lell'cr forts of water-

9 fowl»

I

SKY

fowl, as teal, &e. and it is alfo faid to prey on ducks, poul-
try, and even young lambs ; it has all the fiercenefs of the
eagle in defending its young ; when the inhabitants of the
Ferro iflands vifit the nell, it attacks them with great
force, fo that they hold a knife ereft over their heads, on
which the flcua will transfix itfelf in its fall on the invaders.
In Foula it is a privileged bird, becaufe it defends the
flocks from the eagle, which it beats and pierces with great
fury ; and the natives impofe a fine on any perfon who de-
ftroys one of thefe bird*!. Pennant.

SKUFE, in Agriculture, provincially a precipice or de-
clivity.

SKULA, in Geography, a mountain of Sweden, in An-
germanland j lo miles N. of Hernofand.

SKULL, in Anatomy. See Cranium.

Skull, Injuries of the, l^c. See Injuries of the Head.

SKULL-Cap, in Botany. See Scutellaria.

SKVLL-Cap, Blue, in Agriculture, the common name of
a weed which is often found troublefome on wet boggy
grounds, or near the fides of ponds. It is perennial in its
growth, and of courfe more difficult in its removal from
land. There is alfo a lefler fort, which has the fame nature
and habits of growth. They fhould both be eradicated from
out of the land as much as pofTible.

SKUNK, in Zoology. See American PoLE-Cal.

SKUOE, in Geography. See ScuOE.

SKUPOPING, a lake of North Carolina. N. lat. 35°4c'.
W. long. 7 e'^ 42'.

SKUPPERNONG, a river of North Carolina, which
communicates by means of a canal with the lake in Difmal
Swamp.

SKURUP, a town of Sweden, in Schonen ; 16 miles
S.E. of Lund.

SKUSCH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim ; 8 miles S.E. sf Chrudim.

SKUTERAD, a town of Norway, in Aggerhuus ; 22
miles W. of Chriftiania.

SKUTTOCK Hills, five eminences in Hancock
county, on the coaft of Maine, that ferve as landmarks for
failing into Gouldfborough harbour.

SKWERNIOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 6 miles S. of Kanrzim.

SKWORETZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Kaurzim.

SKY, the blue cxpanfe of air or atmofphere.

The azure colour of the (ky fir Ifaac Newton attributes
to vapours beginning to condenfe therein, which have got
confidence enough to refleft the moll rcflcxiblc rays, viz.
the violent ones ; but not enough to refleft any of the Icfs
reflexible ones.

M. dc la Hire attributes it to our viewing a black object,
I'iz. tlie dark fpace beyond the regions of the atmofphere,
through a white or lucid one, viz. the air illumined by the
fun ; a mixture of black and white always appearing blue.
But this account is not originally his ; it is as old as Leo-
nardo da Vinci. See Blukness and Colour of the Clouds.

SKY-Colour. To give this colour to glafs, fet in the fur-
nace a pot of pure metal of frit from rochetta, or barilla,
but the rochetta frit docs bed ; as foon as the metal is well
purified, take for a pot of twenty pounds of metal fix ounces
of brafs calcined by itfelf; put it by degrees, at two or tliree
times, into the metal, ftirring and mixing it well every time,
and diligently fcumming the metal with a ladle ; at the end
of two hours the whole will be well mixed, and a proof may
be taken ; if the colour be found right, let the whole Hand
twenty-four hours longer in the furnace, and it will then be fit

SKY

to work, and will prove of a moft beautiful Iky-colour.
Neri's Art of Glafs, p. 40.

SKY-Flower, in Botany. See Cineraria.
SKY-Rcciet. See Rocket.

SKYE, in Geography, one of the Hebrides, or Weilern
iflands of Scotland, is fituated off the coaft of Invernefsand
Rofs-ihires, from which it is feparated by the found of Skye,
and a branch of the fea called Lochalfh, while the Minch
channel divides it from Long ifland. From the Point of
Sleat in tlie fouth-eaft, to the Aird of Trotternilh in the
north-weft, it extends 45 miles in length, but its breadth
varies from 10 to 24 miles. The whole contents, mcafured
carefully from Arrowfmith's map, are ftated in the General
Report of Scotland to amount to 535 fquare miles, including
336,000 acres of land, and 10 fquare miles of frefh-vvater
lakes. From the numerous indentations of the fea, no part
of the land is farther diftant from falt-water than four miles
and a half.

The general afpeft of this ifiand is extremely mountainous,
fo much fo indeed, that not above twelve parts in a hundred
of it are fufceptible of arable cultivation ; and even thefe
are difpofed in fmall patches or ftrips by the margin of the
different bays, except at its north-welterly extremity, where,
for four miles, the land is flat, the foil fertile and well culti-
vated, and the farms inclofed and divided. But notwith-
ftanding this great proportion of mountain, Skye is far from
being fterile or barren. On the contrary, its hills, fo widely
extended, and towering fo proudly to the (k'xes, are in general
ot confiderable value, from the excellent pafture with which
they abound. This is particularly the cafe in the central
and fouthcrn diftrifts, where the hills of Cullin, refting on a
bed of limeftone, produce very rich herbage, on which are
fed a remnant of the ancient herds of deer, for which this
ifland was formerly famed, and which continue ftill to roam
at large on thefe verdant heights. Moll of the hills, in re-
mote times, were clothed with wood ; but except on the
fouth coall of Sleat, fcarcely any foreft-timber now remains
in Skye. Here, however, are itill fome good ftools of na-
tural wood, confifting of oak, a(h, elm, and birch, befidcs
alder and willow.

The crops cultivated in this ifland are beans, oats, pota-
toes, and fome flax. Artificial grafles and turnips are little
known ; but they are partially introduced, ?nd jt feems pro-
bable will foon become more cxtenlive, as they are fo very
efiential to the welfare of cattle, which are the itaple land
commodity of the ifland. In the gardens and " kail yards,"
molt of the efculcnt vegetables cultivated on the Main-
land are raifcd with great fuccefs, as are alfo the fmaller
fruits.

The live-ftock of Skye is eftimated at 4000 liorfes, of a
fmall but hardy race ; 18,000 head of cattle of an excellent
breed, of which about 3800 are exported annually, forming
the principal export of the ifland. Tiie flieep are computed
at about 40,000 in number ; but this computation is con-
fefied by the reporter to the Board of Agriculture to be
little more than conjetture. They coiifill partly of the na-
tive yellow-faced kind, partly of Cheviots, and partly of
the black-faced Lintons, winch are the moft citeemed.
Several thoufands of this ufeful animal are exported every
year. Hogs, goats, and rabbits abound here, but they arc
all of them fo wild, and fo little under coiitroul, as to aftbrj
no permanent fource of revenue. Game of all kinds is
abundant, but i8 thought to derliiie more and more, in pro-
portion as the country is progrefTively cultivated. There
are on the ifland two kinds ot ferpcnts or vipers, botli of
which are reckoned very venomous.

In the furrounding feas, wliicli embrace 750 miles of coaft,
O 2 there

SKY

SLA

there are myriads of fifti, particularly herring, mackarel,
turbot, (kate, ling, cod ; and Ihell-fifh, fuch as oyfters, lob-
fters, &c. ; fo that combining the fituation with other fa-
cilities, the inhabitants of Skye have an opportunity of en-
riching themfelves by the fifheries, beyond any other iflanders
in Scotland, and in fadt they apply themfelves to them with
confiderable induftry, and frequently with great effeft.
Sometimes, liowever, they are miferably tantalized with a
iprofufion of fifh, when they cannot procure an ounce of
fait to cure them, owinij to the diftance from the cuitom-
houfe, and to the coinplicated falt-duty regulations, which
(hut them up completely from either bettering their own cir-
cumitances, or promoting the general profperity of the na-
tion by this othervviff abundant bounty of providence.

Kelp is made annually to the extent of 500 tons ; and the
manufafture of this article is capable of being greatly in-
creafed, to the no fiiiall emolument of the natives, as well as
to tlie increafe of proprietors' rents.

The want of good roads has hitherto greatly retarded the
internal profperity of Skye, from the difficulty of convey-
ance, and this difadvantage Joes not admit of being eafily
removed ; not merely from the inequality of the furface, but
from the circumttance of its being lo much cut up by brooks
and rivulets, which, on every Ihower, fwell into torrents
that would require a great number of bridges.

The number of inhabitants in Skye, which, notwith-
ftanding continued emigration, is liill increafing, was
17,775 '" 1809, the time when the lad cenfus was made ;
bemg at the rate of 33 co the Iquare mile, reckoning the
whole ifland, or 275 to tiie fame extent, limiting the eftimate
to the cultivated land only. It has been for many ages, and
ttill is, the property of the great clans, Macdonald, Mac-
leod, and, till of late, Mackinnon. From the iiril of thefe
has lately fprung up the kindred clan of Macalifter. The
people, ingenious, Ihrewd, and aftive, are nearly all of the
eftabU(hed church of Scotland. Among them refide a
number of gentlemen, who have been in the army or navy,
cadets of the chief fam.ilies, whofe manners have given a
pohfii to thofe of the inhabitants at large, which is ob-
fervable in the behaviour even of the lowed peafant. In
fad, every man in Skye feems to be a gentleman ; whillt the
demeanour of the females exhibits an eafe and an affability
that no perfon could expeft in a country fo remote, and
having fo little communication with drangers. Mr. Mac-
donald, in his Survey, juftly obferves, that " it is m truth a
fingular ifland, well dcferving the attention of the geologift
and natural hidorian, and capable, by nature, of one day
aftonifhing the patriot and political economilt."

The General Report, &c. of Scotland, drawn up under
the direftions of iir John Sinclair, bart. 8vo. 1814. Huf-
bandry of Scotland, by fir John Sinclair, 8vo. 1815. John-
fon's Journey to theWellern Iflands of Scotland, 8vo. 1775.
Martin's Defcription of the Wedern Iflands, 8vo. 1716.
Account of the prefent State of the Hebrides, by James
Anderfon, L.L.D. 8vo. 1787. Macdonald's Survey of
the Hebrides, 8vo. 1807.
SKYRO. See Sciro.

SKYTTE, John, in Biography, was born at Nykijping
in 1577. After being fome time fecretary in the Swedifli
chancery, he was chofen by the dates to be preceptor to
prince Gudavus Adolphus, and at the fame time by king
Charles to fupcriiitend the education of John, duke of Odro"-
gothia, who was five years older than Gudavus. It was,
therefore, confidered as a mafter-picce of policy in the king,
that he placed the crown-prince ar.d the pretender to the
throne under the infpeftioii of fo faithful and trudy an in-
ftruflor. In 1622 he was made chancellor of the academy

of Upfal, and in 1629 governor-general of Ingria, Livonia,
and Carelia. He was held in high edimation by the learned
of his time, and acquired great celebrity on account of his
eloquence, and was employed either as envoy or ambalTador
to many foreign courts. Gudavus Adolphus entertained for
him the highed refpedl, and in 1624 the rank of b;\ron was
conferred on him. He was a great patron of literature, and
rendered effential fervice to the academy of Upfal, by found-
ing a profedordiip for the cultivation of the Latin language,
literary criticifm, and the political fciences. As a politician,
he was a determined enemy of the aridocracy, and laboured
with great zeal to edablidi royal authority. He died in
1645. Among his works was one, of which the following
was the title ; " Brief Indruftions in regard to the Vir-
tues and Arts which a Prince, who widies to rule happily
over his Kingdom and States, ought to exercife and em-
ploy ; addrefled to that exalted Lord and Prince Gudavus
Adolphus."

Skytte, Benedict, fon of the preceding, was born iu
1614, and iludied at Upfal. In 1629 he accompanied the
Swedidi ambaffador, general Spence, to England, where,
on taking his leave, he was knighted by king Charles I.
After this he continued his dudies at Dorpat, and travelled
for his improvement, during which queen Chridiana gave
him a place in her houfehold. He bore the mardial's dafF
at the diet in 1648, was appointed chancellor of the academy
of Dorpat, and the year after was fent to Denmark, to be
queen Chridiana's proxy at the baptifm of the princefs So-
phia Amelia, daughter of Frederic III. He enjoyed for
feveral years the favour of his fovereign, and in 1651, when
the queen edabhdied the order of the Amaranth, he wag
nominated one of the knights. Afterwards he fell into dif-
grace, and was brought to trial, but he made fuch an able
defence that he was acquitted, and all the proceedings
againd him were annulled. He was redored to his feat as
fenator, and in 1665 was appointed governor of Edhonia.
He was employed on an important miffion from king Charles
Gudavus to the duke of Courland, and he managed the
bufinefs fo well, that he received the approbation and cordial
thanks of his iovereigii. In 1663 he was made fupreme
judge in Ingria, prefident of the tribunal of Wifmar, and at
the fame time envoy in Germany. But his good fortune
again deferted him, he was difmifl'ed from his offices at the
diet held in 1664, and declared incapable of ever being em-
ployed either at home or abroad. After this he retired to
his edate, and fpent his time in literary purfuits till his
death, in 1683. He was a man of great learning, and made
himfelf known by various works, among which were the
following : " Didertatiuncula de Argumcnto quod Foeminae
OfScium Legati mandari poflit," 410. " Oratio qua pro-
batur Utilitatem pro Juditia, in Adminidratione Rerum
publicarum colendam." Gen. Biog.

SLAA, in Geography. See Sallee.

SLAB, an outfide fappy plank or board fawed off from
the fides of a timber-tree : the word is alfo ufed for a flat
piece of marble.

Slabs of Tin, the letfer mafl'es which the workers at
the tin-mines cad the metal into : thefe are run into moulds
made of itone.

SLAB-Line, in Sea Language, a fmall cord paflTing up be-
hind a fliip's main-fail or fore-fail, and being reeved through
a block attached to the lower part of the yard, is then
tranfmittcd in two branches to the foot of the fail to which
it is fadened.

It is ufed to trufs up the fail as occafion requires, and
more particularly for the convenieuee of the pilot or deerf-

man,

SLA

SLA

man, that they may look forward beneath it as the ihip ad-
vances. Falconer.

SLABBERING-BiT, in the Manege See Masti-

QADOUR.

3LABETZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Rakonitz ; 7 miles S. of Rakonitz.

SLABODA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 40 miles N.W. of Braclaw.

SLAB-TOWN, a village of America, in Burlington
county, New Jerfey, about half-way between Burlington
and Mount Holly, and about four or five miles from each.

SLACK, in Agrkulturi:, provincially a valley or fmall
(hallow dale or dip.

Slack a Leg, in the Manege, called in French m&//ir la
Jamie, is faid of a horfe when he trips or ftumbles.

Slack the Hand, is to flack the bridle, or give a horfe
head.

SLACK-CLOTH, in Sail-Making, a certain quantity of
cloth allowed to be gradually gathered up, in fewing on the
bolt-rope to the fail, more than the length of the bolt-rope ;
otherwife the rope, by ftretching in the wearing, might oc-
cafion the fail to fplit.

SLACKEN, in Metallurgy, a term ufed by the miners
to exprefs a fpongy and femivitrified fubltance, which they
ufc to mix with the ores of metals, to prevent their fufion.
It is the fcoria, or fcum, feparated from the furface of the
former fufions of metals. To this they frequently add a
lime-ftone, and fometimes a kind of coarfe iron-ore, in
the running of the poorer gold-ores.

SLACK-WATER, in Sea Language, denotes the inter-
val between the flux and reflux of the tide, or between the
laft of the ebb and the firft of the flood, during which the
current is interrupted, and the water apparently remains in
a ftate of re it.

SLADE, in Agriculture, a term provincially fignifying
a fledge. See Sledge.

Slade, Down, a provincial term fignifying to draw back
part of the mould into the intcrfurrow with the plough
dragging or Hading upon its fide.

Slade Point, in Geography, a cape on the N.E. coaft of
New Holland; 15 miles S.E. of Cape Hillfborough.

SLAG, in Metallurgy, &c. denotes vitrified cinder.
See Smelting.

Slag it found an ufeful material in repairing the roads in
many places.

SLAGE, SlAGEN, or Schlagen, in Geography. See
Schlawa.

SLAGELSE, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of
Zealand; 42 miles W.S.W. of Copenhagen. N. lat.
SS° 26'. E. long. 11° 29'.

SLAIGHTWAITE, a townfliip and chapelry in the
parifli of Huddersfield, in Aylrig wapentake, and Welt
Riding of the county of York, England, is four miks
from the town of Huddersfield, and 190 from Lon-
don. According to the population reports of 181 1, this
townfliip contained 425 houfes and 2277 inhabitants, the
greater part of whom are engaged in the maniifatture of
cotton goods, which is the ftaple trade of this dillrift.

SLAKE, in Agriculture, a term fignifying the faturat-
ing of quick-lime with moiiturc, as water, &c.

SLAKED Lime, fuch as is reduced into a powdery Itate
by the aftion of water upon it, or the hydrate of lime.
In this cafe, the lime is combined with about one-third of
its weight of water, that is, about 55 parts of the former
abforb or drink up about 17 parts of the latter. Sec
Lime.

SLAM, the refufe of alum-works, which i8 ufed as a
manure with fea-weed and lime, in Yorkfliire.

SLAMMERSDORP, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Holltein; 7 miles N.E. of Segeborg.

SLANDER, in Law. See Scandalum Magnatum.

SLANE, in Geography, a poll-town of the county of
Meath, Ireland, fituated on the river Boyne. In the time
of Hugh de Lacy this was a town of fome note, being
one of the boroughs in his palatinate of Meath. Here
were many religious buildings, one of which was fometimes
ufed as the refidence of a royal prince, and was rebuilt by
the lord of Slane in IJ12. In the prefent remains of
lord Slane's building, there are, according to Mr. Arch-
dale, leveral fragments of the ancient abbey, and many of
the architraves were evidently cut out of the ornamental
parts, particularly one with the appearance of a head
crowned. The cafl;le that belonged to the lords of Slane,
and was forfeited by them in 1641, is now the property of
the Conyngham family. It has been much beautified, and
is an elegant refidence. At New Grange, near Slane, is a
moll remarkable mount, barrow, or rath, with a curious
chamber in the centre, conilrufted of rude Hones, and ac-
ceflible only by a long padage, low, and very narrow.
Governor Pownall has given a minute defcriptioa of this
barrow in the Archasologia, &c. It is alfo defcribed in
the " CoUeftanea de Rebus Hibernicis." Slane is 24 miles
N. by W. from Dublin.

SLANETZ, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Tobol ; 60 miles S. of Tobolfli.

SLANEY, a river of Ireland, rifing in the Wicklow
mountains, near the fource of the Liffey, and flowing in a
fouthern direftion through the counties of Wicklow,
Carlow, and Wexford, to the harbour of Wexford. The
towns of Stratford on Slaney, Baltinglafs, Rathvilly,
TuUow, Newtown Barry, Ennifcorthy, and Wexford,
are fituated on it, and it receives the waters of the Derry,
Bann, Urrie, and feveral fmaller ftreams. It is navigable
for fmall floops to Ennifcorthy.

SLANGE, Nicholas, in Biography, a Dutch hiftorian
of confiderable celebrity, was born at Slagelfe in the year
1657, of which place his father was the miniller, and he
was afterwards bifliop of Viborg. Nicholas travelled at
an early period, and in 1679 he paid a vifit to Oxford,
and in the year following he went to Cambridge. On his
return he became, in 1681, fccretary to the Danifli chan-
cery, and after going through various gradations of rank
and office, he was ennobled in the year 173 I. He died in
1737. He wrote " A HiRory of Chrillian IV." which
was publifhed at Copenhagen in 1 749, in two volumes,
foho. It was afterwards tranflatcd into the German Ian-
guage. Gen. Biog.

SLANGER, in Geography. SeeTuMB.

SLANGERUP, a town of Denmark, in Zealand ; 16
miles N.W. of Copenhagen. N. lat. 45° J i'- E. long.
12" 10'.

SLANT, in Commerce, a copper coin of Sweden. Here
are fingle and double Hants, at 1 and 2 ore filver, or 3 and
6 ore koppcr ; and ruiuUlycken, of i ore kopper ; and alfo
half ruiidilycken : 96 double Hants, 192 fingle Hants, or
576 rundllycken, are to pals for i Ipccie rikfdaler : and
this, commonly called the Swedifli dollar, is worth 4J. 7W.
ilcrllHg.

SLAPANITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia, io
the circle of Brunii ; 5 miles E.S.E. of Brunn.

SLAPDASH, in Rural Economy, provincially rough
call, or the liquid external coaiinjr of buildings.

SLAPER's

SLA

SLAPER's Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W. coaft
of Africa; lo miles E. of Cape Blanco.

SL ARABIA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia;
28 miles N.N.W. of Efldr-Shehr.

SLASHER, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes ap-
plied to a plafher of hedges.

SLATCH, at Sea. When a rope or cable hangs flack,
the feamen call the middle part, which hangs down, the
Jlalcb of the cable, or rope : fo alfo, after long foul weather,
if there come a fmall interval of fair, they fay, this is a
Jlatch of fair weather. But the term is generally applied to
the period of a tranfitory breeze of wind.

SLATE, Argillaceous Schiflus and Argillite of Kirwan ;
Clay-Jlale, Jamefon ; Thonfchiefer, Werner ; Schijte Argi-
/eu.v, Fr. ; in Mineralogy and Geology, one of the great
rock-formations compofing the cruft of the globe, of which
roof-flate is a well-known variety. The flaty or fchiftofe
ilruiSure is common to numerous rocks, which differ from
each other, both in their geological pofition and confti-
tuent parts ; hence we have a great variety of flate-rocks,
amongft rocks which have been denominated primary,
tranfition, and fecondary. (See Rocks.) The term
flate appears to have a more appropriate meaning, when
reftrifted to thofe rocks which, in their compofition and
ftrufture, are moft nearly allied to roof-flate or the clay-
flate of Werner.

The moit common colours of flate are a yellowi(h-grey, a
greenifli-grey, or a dark-blue or purple-grey : fome varie-
ties incline to a red, and others to a black-grey. Slate of
the moft perfeft kind has a gliftening luftre. It paffes by
gradation into mica-flate in the rocks called primary ; and
in rocks confidered as fecondary, it paffes into flate-clay or
ftiale.

The ftrufture of flate-rocks en maje is tabular, the fmall
ftr\ifture laminar, the cleavage of the lamina; being parallel
with the tables ; hence flate has been reprefentedby fome
geologifts as moil diitindly ftratified ; and the flaty cleav-
age is faid to be always parallel with the ftrata ; but this
we believe to be a millake, arifing from confounding the
divifions or joints of the tabular maffes with the inclination
of the beds. In the flate-quarries of Weftmoreland and
Cumberland, we have invariably obferved the tables or divi-
fions of the flate rife at a more elevated angle than the
bed of which they form a part ; and they are fometimes per-
pendicular, when the true dip of the bed is not more than
forty degrees.

The flaty ftrufture of the ftone is the refult of a pro-
cefs analogous to cryltallization, by which the flate is di-
vided into rhomboidal blocks or tables : between the bottom
of one block and the top of another, there is frequently
a feam of clay, which forms, what the workmen call, the
foot of the flate. The flate will divide to this feam in a
diredtion nearly at right angles with it ; and fometimes be-
tween the upper and the lower block, there will be a thin
horizontal itratum of flate occupying the place of the clay.
This proves that the flate is not formed by mechanical
ftratification, and that the elevation of tlie tabular maffes
IS unconnefted with the elevation of the rock itfelf.

Slate-rocks vary in hardnefs, but they yield to the knife.
Tiiey conlilt of an intimate intermixture, in various propor-
tions, of iiliceous earth, alumine, and iron ; and fometimes
contam a portion of lime, magnefia, manganefe, and bitu-
men. Slate forms entire mountains, and mountain chains,
and fometimes dillina beds, alternating with other rocks.
It moft frequently rcfts upon granite, gneifs, or mica-
flate.

Slate-rocks are frequently interfeaed by veins of quartz,

SLA

and by metallic veins of lead, cobalt, and filver ; it alfo
contains beds of copper pyrites, red copper-ore, copper-
green, malachite, iron pyrites, magnetic pyrites, glance
cobalt, grey cobalt -ore, arfenical pyrites, blende and galena.
Tiie tin-veins in Cornwall fometimes pafs through the
killas, which is a variety of flate-rock.

Various rocks frequently occur imbedded in flate, parti-
cularly whet-flate, or hone, chlorite-flate, talcous-flate,
drawing-flate, and alum-flate. Beds of flinty flate occur
in this rock, and alternate with as well as graduate into it.
Flinty flate appears to be flate in which a large propor-
tion of filiceous earth is combined, until it approaches
nearly to the nature of chert or flint. Organic remains
are occafionally found in flate, on which account it is not
confidered by many geol, gifts as a primary rock, if indeed
there be any to which that term is appropriate. The
flate which contains organic remains has been called by
the Germans the newer clay-Jl::'.:, and tranfttion-Jlale ; but
remains of vegetables have ben difcovered in the flate of
the Higher Alps in the vicinity of Mont Blanc, which may
be fuppofed to have a better claim to the rank of primary
than any other flate-rocks in Europe.

In a very large proportion of flate-rocks, the bafis of the
flate is intermixed with particles or fragments of other
rocks ;. and when thefe are fufficiently large to be difcerned
without a lens, this kind of rock has received from the
Germans the name of grauwacke flate. It is generally in-
cumbent on the rocks denominated primary, and is fup-
pofed to be of more recent origin than the finer flate ; but
late obfervations have fliewn that grauwacke is fometimes
covered with granite and mica-flate. The killas of Corn-
wall appears, in many fituations, to approach the nature of
mica-flate, having a (hining luftre, and a light grey colour,
as if compofed of an intimate intermixture of clay-flate
with mica-flate. In Cornwall and Devonfliire it occupies,
in general, the fame relative pofition with granite, in which
mica-flate freqtiently occurs in other diftrifts refting im-
mediately upon it. The metallic veins which interfeft thefe
rocks are principally filled with ores of tin and copper,
imbedded in a matrix of quartz ; but it is obferved, that the
contents of the vein frequently vary as it paffes through
different rocks : if it contain tin-ore in the granite, it will
change to copper-ores in the killas ; and if tin be moft
abundant in the killas, the vein will change its contents as
it pafles into the granite. Veins of granite are alfo ob-
ferved to ftioot up into the killas, which is a proof that
this kind of flate-rock is at leaft as ancient as the granite.
Tliis faft has given rife to fome controverfy among geolo-
gifts, the difciples of Werner contending that the granite
in the flate or killas was not in veins, but formed ridges
or inequalities rifing above the furface, which had been
inclofed by lubfeqtient depofitions of the flate. For this
explanation there can be no better reafon given than its
convenience in fuiting a particular hypothefis refpefting
the formation of thefe rocks. Among other fads, which
might be cited to prove that the granite veins penetrate
the flate, there is one defcribed in the " Annals of
Philofophy," May 1814, which appears decifive. It occurs
in Toufchole, in Cornwall. " The flate or killas is of a
greyifti dark colour, rather hard, but breaks into large
fragments in the direftion of the ftrata. The granite is of
a fine grain, and the felfpar is of a light flefh-colour, and con-
tains but a fmall portion of mica. At thejunftion, numerous
veins of granite may be traced from the rock of granite into
the flate. Some of thefe veins may be obferved upwards
of fifty yards, till they are loft in the fea ; and in point
of fize, vary from a foot and a half to lefs than an inch.

It

SLATE.

It may deferve notice, that as the felfpar is of a flelh-red
colour, it is impoffible for any obfervcr to confider them
as quartz veins. One of thefe large veins is diflocated,
and heaved feveral yards by a crofs courfe. Another of
thefe veins of granite, after proceeding vertically fome
diftance, fuddenly forms an angle, and continues in a
direftion nearly horizontal for feveral feet, with fchiltus,
jr Hate, both above and below it. This appearance moll
completely deltroys one of the theories fuggefted for the
explanation of fimilar veins at St. Michael's Mount ; -viz.
ttiat a ridge of projefting granite had been left, and flate
depofited afterwards on its fides." It is, indeed, quite
■mpoffible to conceive that a narrow vein of granite (bould
!ioot up into empty fpace for a confidcrable dillance, and
tlicn atlume a zig-zag direction, unfupported by any (olid
fubftance on the fides. The flate-rock mult have cxilled
when the vein was formed, and from its refiitance have
.riven it the form above defcribed. Slate is one of the molt
abundant rocks in alpine dillrifts, though that variety
which fplits into thin durable laminae, forming good roof-
flate, is far from being fo common. The localities of com-
mon flate are fo numerous in mountainous diltritls, that it
were ufelefs to point them out. Roof-Hate, the fchifle
ardoife of the French, is found on the weftern fide of our
ifland in the counties of Cornwall and Devon, in various
parts of North Wales and Anglefea, on the north-welt
parts of Yorkfhire, near Ingleton, and in Swaledale, alfo
in the counties of Cumberland and Wellmoreland. It
occurs in a low range of mountains at Chamwood forelt, in
Leicetterlhire, near the centre of England. Several geo-
logifts have Hated that flate is found in Derbyfhire, which
is a miftake, as no rock fimilar to clay-flate or roof-flate
occurs in that county. The inhabitants of that part of
England make ufe of a micaceous fand-llone for roofing,
which they denominate flate. This ftone is found in Itrata
among the other llrata accompanying coal. Of the qua-
lity of the different kinds of Englifh roof-Hate, we Ihall
offer fome obfervations at the conclufion of this article.
Slate abounds in various parts of Scotland, and in the
county of Wicklow, and other mountainous parts of Ire-
land. France polfeffes many valuable beds of roof-flate,
near Laferriere in Normandy, and in the neighbourhood of
Angers. The lall is the moll important, as furnifhing
flate of the moll perfcdl quality, and its extent and pro-
digious thickiiefs make it regarded as inexhauftible. It is
further remarkable on account of the very fingular and
intereiling organic remains that occur between fome of the
lamina; of Hate. It is, perhaps, one of the moll valuable
rcpofitories of Hate at prcfent known.

This bed extends for a fpace of two leagues, pafling
under the town of Angers, which is built, as well as covered,
with the Hate ; thofe blocks being employed in mafonry
which are the Icaft divi'fible. The quarries which are ac-
tually explored, are all in the fame line from well to eaft,
as well as the ancient pits, the bed of tiie befl roof-flite
rifing to the furfacc in this diredtion. Immediately under
the vegetable earth is found a brittle kind of flate, which,
for four or five feet deep, fplits into rhomboidal fragments.

A little lower is wliat is called the building-llone, which
is a firm flate, but fcarccly divifible. Tiiis is employed
in the conltruftion of houfcs, after it has been fufficienlly
hardened by expofure to the air. At fourteen or fifteen
feet from the fnrface is found the good Hate, which has
been quarried to the perpendicular depth of about three
hundred feet ; the remaining thicknefs being unknown.

As to the interior llrudlure of this great mals of Hate,
it is divided by many veins or feams of calcareous fpar and

quartz, about two /eet thick, by fifteen cr fixteen in height :
thefe veins are parallel, and proceed regularly from well to
eaft, in a pofition rifing feventy degrees to the fouth ; they
are interfefted by other veins at intervals of a fimilar kind,
but whofe rife is feventy degrees north ; fo that when they
meet the former, they either form rhombs, or half rhombs,
which have been compared to the letter V, fome being
upright, and others reverfed.

All the layers, or laminx, of the Hate, have a direftion
fimilar to thofe of the veins of quartz, which rife fouth
feventy degrees ; and when interfefted by veins that have an
oppofite inclination, the direftion of the Haty laminx is not
changed. The whole mafs is thus divided into immenfe
rhomboids, compofed of plates all parallel among them-
felves, and with two of the faces of the rhomboid.

The Hate of Angers is extracted in blocks of a fixed
fize, which are divided into leaves for roofing-Hate. It is
betwixt thefe leaves that there are frequently found vef-
tiges of marine animals, and particularly pyritous imprcffions
of pous de mer (the fea-loufe, a fmall univalve Hiell), alfo of
fmall cheviettes (Hirimps or prawns), and a fpecics of crab,
of which the body is about a foot in breadth, and fourteen
or fifteen inches in length, the tail having nine or ten rings.
The flirimps are fometimes fo numerous, that forty have
been counted on a Hate of a foot fquare.

None of the above animals refemble any known exifting
fpecies. But the moll remarkable circumltance in thele
imprefljons, particularly in the large crabs, is, that though
there be no fign of the body having been crulhcd, yet it
can fcarcely be faid to have any thicknefs whatever. They
rather refemble engravings than figures in relievo, the con-
vexity ,of thefe crabs above a thin leaf of flate not rifing
more than the fourth, and fometimes not more than the
tenth part of a line ; nor is it perceivable that the body of
thefe crabs penetrates into the leaves of flate. What adds
to the furprife, is the nearly vertical pofition in which
thefe impreflions are faund in the mine.

A feries of thefe leaves of flate may be compared to a fet
of books placed upon llielvcs ; and the impreflions of crabs,
and other marine animals, to engraved plates in the volumes :
they do not, in faft, occupy more thicknefs. It is equally
difficult to conceive how the bodies of thefe animals, tiiough
perfeftly defined, could be reduced to a fimplc lurface, with-
out thicknefs. Tliefe Hates alfo prefent bv.iutiful dendriti-
cal pyrites, more than a foot in extent. T'le pyrites are
fometimes in fmall grain?, difl'eniinated, like dull, upon the
furface of the Hates, where may alfo be obiervcd many little
ilars of felenite.

When the blocks of Hate have been drawn, from the
quarry, if they are left ex;"ofod to the fun, or the open air,
for fome days, tliey lofe what is called the iinarry-tvaUr,
and then become hard and untraftible, and can only be cm-
ployed as building Hone. Froll produces a lingular effcft
on thefe blocks : while frozen they may be broken with
more eafe than before ; but if thawed rather quickly, they
arc no longer divifible : yet this quality may be rellored by
expofing them once more to the froll ; but if the operation
be often repeated, it becomes impolfible to reduce them to
leaves.

Some fmaller beds of flate arc worked on the northern de-
clivities of the Pyrenees; but we have no account of any
flate-quarries on the foutherii fide, or in any part of Spain :
yet it can fcarcely be doubted that this rock exills in fome
of the mountainous parts of that kingdom.

Only one quarry of flate is faid to be opened in Italy ;
it is at Lavagna, in the Hate of Genoa, and furniflics
flate of an excellent quality, and fo impervious, that it

fcrvc*

SLATE.

ferves to line the ciftems in which olive oil is preferved.
The canton of Claris, in Switzerland, is the only one in
which roof-flate is procured. Roof-flate occurs in Saxony,
and in various mountainous diilrifts in the north of Europe;
it is found alfo on the continent of North America ; and as
it is only a modification of clay-flate, which is an abundant
rock, it is probable that its localities are much more nu-
merous than are at prefent known in alpine diltrifts in
every part of the globe.

As this fubftance forms the moft light, elegant, and
durable covering for houfes, and is, of courfe, of confi-
derable value ; it is rather furprifmg that fo much indifference
prevails refpefting the fearch for it, in thofe diflrifts where
common flate, or clay-Jlate, abounds. We believe all the
roof-flate quarries at prefent worked are thofe which acci-
dent has difcovered. This negleft is the more remarkable,
when we confider the great expence frequently incurred in
fearching for coal, a fubltance of much lefs value in propor-
tion to the weight.

All the bed beds of roof-flate with which we are acquaint-
ed, improve as they fink deeper into the earth ; and few,
if any, are of a good quality near the furface, or are indeed
fuitable for the purpofe of roofing. There cannot be a
doubt that many beds of flate, which appear fliattered and
unfit for architeftural ufe, would be found of a good qua-
lity a few yards under the furface ; for the befl; (late, in
many quarries, lofes its property of fplitting into thin
laminae by expofure to the air. Notwithttanding the value
of flate, few quarries are worked to a very great depth, or
have fubterranean galleries, like mines. The quarry or flate-
mine at Rimagne, four leagues to the well of Charlevillc,
on the Meufe, in France, is an exception. The mouth of
the mine is near the fummit of a hill : the bed inclines forty
degrees to the horizon : it is about fixty feet in thicknefs,
but its extent and depth are unknown. It has been pur-
fued, by a principal gallery, to the depth of 400 feet ; and
they have driven many lateral galleries, which extend about
200 feet on the fide of the main gallery, where 26 ladders
are placed in fucceflion, for the pafl'age of the workmen and
the carriage of the flate. In this bed, which is 60 feet in
thicknefs, there are only forty feet of good flate, the other
being mixed with quartz. They cut the flate into blocks
of about 20olbs., which they callyai.r .• every workman, in
his turn, carries them on his back to the very mouth of the
pit, mounting the 26 ladders, or a part of them, accord-
ing to the depth of the bed where hti is working. When
brought to day, thefe blocks are firit fplit into thick tables,
which are called tepartons. The workman holds the block
between his legs, puts a chifl'el on the fide, and divides it
with 3 blow of a mallet. The repartons are divided in a fimi-
lar manner into roof-flates. Thefe operations muft be per-
formed foon after the blocks are drawn from the quarry ; for
if the (lone has time to dry, it would no longer be poilible
to fplit It. Some of the (late-galleries pafs under the river
Meufe.

There are few places in Great Britain where flate is
worked as a mine under ground ; moft of the quarries are
open to the day ; and the covering of other rocks, or of
coarfe flate, which requires removing, greatly increafes the
expence. There is one flate-quarry worked as a mine by
penetratmg the interior of the mountain at Place-Fell, on
the head of the lake of Uilfwater, in Cumberland. Slate
IS alfo worked under ground on the weftern fide of York-
fliire, adjoining Weftmoreland. In many other fituations it
IS probable that flate might be worked to advantage, in fub-
terranean galleries, fimilar to thofe defcribed in the quarries
at Charlevillc ; for as this mineral is generally of a better

quality at a confiderable depth, the expence of procuring it
by mining would be much lefs than that of removing the load
of upper rocks, and working it in open quarries, as at pre-
fent ; at leaft the molt valuable flate might be purfued to a
far greater depth than is prafticable in the eommon method
in open quarries.

Slate, to be of a good quality for roofing, fliould have
the property of fplitting into thin even laminae : it fliould
refill the abforption of water; to prove which, it (hould
be kept fome time immerfed in water, being weighed before
and after the immerfion, wiping the furface dry ; it is ob-
vious, that the flate which gains the leaft weight by this pro-
cefs is the leaft abforbent. It (hould refift the proceis of
natural decompofition by air and moifture : this depends on
its chemical compofition and compaiSlnefs, and is (hewn by
its refiiting the procefs of vegetation. That flate which is the
moft liable to decay, will be the fooneft covered with lichens
and modes. The flate from Chamwood foreft, in Leicef-
ter(hire, refembles, in colour and appearance, the Weftmore-
land flate, but it will not fplit fo thin, nor would this be de-
firable, for the vegetation which takes place upon it re-
quires the roofs to be frequently fcraped ; this carries away
a portion of the furface : a fecond growth of moffes pro-
duces a further wearing of the flate : hence a flate of a cer-
tain thicknefs from this part of England is not fo durable as
that from North Wales, Cornwall, or Weftmoreland. This
decay is probably owing to the greater quantity of alumine
in its compofition ; it does not contain pyrites, nor have any
organic remains been difcovered in it.

Few flate-rocks have been accurately analyfed ; a reddi(h-
purple flate from North Wales contained, according to
Kirwan, .38 filex, .26 alumine, .8 magnefia, .4 lime, and
.14 parts iron; but as there is in this analyfis a lofs of
10 per cent; it cannot be confidered as very accurate. As
the hardnefs of flate arifes principally from the filex it con-
tains, which is of all the earths the leaft favourable to vege-
tation, thofe flates which are the hardeft when firft taken
from the quarry, and which have the leaft fpecific gravity,
are to be preferred ; for the increafe of weight in flates is
owing to the prefence of iron, either in pyrites, or a ftate
of oxyd. To the prefence of iron, many kinds of ftone and
flate alfo owe their tendency to decompofition. The py-
rites being decompofed by moifture, and the iron admitting
a ftiU higher degree of oxygenation, the furface of the ftone
fwells and peels off, or falls into an ochrey powder.

According to Dr. Watfon, (bifliop of LandafF,) the fpecific
gravity of the Weftmoreland flate varies in different quarries,
from 2797 to 2732 ounces the cubic foot. The effeft of froli
is very fenfible on tiled houfes, but is fcarcely felt on flated
houfes ; for good flate imbibes very little water. According
to an experiment made by Dr. Watfon on Weftmoreland
flate, compared with tile, in which two pieces of each, about
30 inches fquare, were immerfed in water 10 minutes, and then
taken out and weighed as foon as they ceafed to drop ; the
tile had imbibed about ith of its weight of water, and
the flate had not abforbed the xj^rth part of its weight :
indeed the wetting of the flate was merely fuperficial.
When placed before the fire, in a quarter of an hour the
flate was of the fame weight as it had been before it was put
into the water ; but the tile had only loft about 12 grains
of its moifture, which was as near as could be expetled to
the quantity which had been fpread over its furface ; for it
was the amount gained by the flate, the furface of which was
equal to that of the tile. The tile was left to dry fix days,
in a room heated to fixty degrees, but did not lofe all the
water it had imbibed till the end of that time.

The flate in Weftmoreland is blafted from the quarry in
1 1 large

SLATE.

large maiies, and fplit with proper tools by tlie workmen.
Though the fpecific gravity of Weftmorcland flate from
different quarries is nearly the fame, yet ull the forts
are not capable of being fplit into an equal degree of
thinnefs. Here alfo the quality varies with the depth
uf the quarry, that being the bell which is raifed from the
greatell depth.

The grey-blue (late from Donvball, in Cornwall, weighs
only 2JI2 ouncej to the cubic foot, which is confiderably
lighter than that of Wcltmoreland. This flate is generally
preferred to any other for its lightnefs, and enduring the
weather ; but Dr. Watfon is of opinion, that in durability
It does not excel that of Weftmoreland. The Donyball
(late IS fplit into laminx about one-eighth of an inch thick
when it is applied to the covering of a roof; it then weigh.-,
rather more than 26 ounces to the fquare foot. The pale
blue flate from Amblcfide, in Weftmoreland, weighs about
two oup.ccs more in the fquare foot than the former. In
many inftances, we believe flate of a thinner kind is ufed in
ieveral modern buildings to fave the expence of timber in
•.he roof, where cheapnefs rather than durability is a princi-
;)al objeft with the architedl. According to an ettimate of
Dr. Watfon, the relative weights of a covering of the fol-
lowing different materials, for forty-two fquare yards of
roof, are as under :

Copper
Fine flate
Lead

Coarfe flate
Tile

Cwt.

4
26
27
36
54

A ton of fine flate will cover a larger furface than a ton
oi lead ; and where there is water-carriage, does not colt one-
fourth of the price. Slate might, therefore, be ufed gene-
rally indead of lead, with great advantage. Watfon's
Chemical Edays, vol. iv.

The moll extenfive flate-quarries in Great Britain are
the property of lord Penryn, near Bangor, in Caernarvon-
fhire. There is a rail-road formed from the quarries to the
fea for the conveyance of the flate, which is of an excel-
lent quality, and is fent to various part^ of the world. The
motl remarkable fituation wheri; flate is procured in Cum-
berland, or perhaps in Great Britain, is Hourlton cragg, a
lofty mountain near the lake of Buttermere, about 2000
feet above the level of the lake, and nearly perpendicular.
On account of the difiiciilty of acccfs, the workmen take
their provifions for the week, and fleep in temporary huts
on the fummit. During the winter months they are gene-
rally involved in cloud's, and not unfrequently blocked up
by the (now. The flate is conveyed down a zigzag path
cut ill the rock on fledges, one man attending to prevent
the acceleration of the defcent. When the flate is emptied
at the bottom, the fledge is carried back on his flioulders to
the fummit.

There are confiderable flate-quarries near Ulverftone, in
Lancafhire. A coarfe flate is got near Ingleton, in York-
fliire, and alfo in the vicinity of Settle in that county. The
Ingleton flate frequently contains cubical pyrites, and is
iometimes covered with dcndritical pyrites.

Alum-flate, ampcUhe of Haiiy, 13 fometimes imbedded in
clay-flate, but more frequently in ftratified fccondary rocks,
and is not effentially different from fome of the coal fliales.
(See Ali'M.) The alum-flatc, or alum-fhale of Whitby,
is of vail and unknown thickncfs, forming the bafe of the
Cleveland Hills in the North Riding of Yorkfhire, cxtend-
iiiir about thirty miles call and well from Robinhood'a bay,

Vy... xxxiii.

to Ginfljorough, Stokefly, and Ofinotherly. On die fouth
fide of theClevcland Hills the alum-flate is principally covered
by fand-ftone and marie. On the north-eaft, the alum-rock
extends along the coall, about thirty miles from Robiiihood's
bay to Huntcliff. The height of the alum-cliffs, which are
perpendicular from the fea, varies from 100 to 140 yards.
Whitby abbey Hands near an awful precipice of alum-flate or
rock, which h undermined by every returning tide. At
low water the alum-rock may be feen extending far to the
ealt, forming a flat pavement, on which the obferver may
walk fecure, treading at almoll every flep on the organic re..
mains of the inhabitants of a former world, which are
abundantly difl'eminated through the whole mafs beneath,
and projeding from the fides of the black and frowninjr
cliffs above. The alum-flate has been perforated near the
fea to the depth of 1 30 yards, without difcovering the fub-
jacent rock, to which we may add the height of the cliff*
above, which will make a total thicknefs exceeding 220
yards. The upper parts of the bed are found more pro-
dudlive of alum than the lower. From the quantity of
pyrites contained in tliis rock, it fom.etimes takes tire fpon-
taneoufly, when a heap of it which has fallen from the Cliffi
becomes moifleiied with fea-water.

The animal remains are fcattercd through every part of
the rock. They confill principally of numerous ammonites,
nautilites, bclemnites, foffile vertebra (fuppofed to belong to
the fliark), with bivalve (hells, foffile wood, and jet. Mr.
Eakewell confiders the alum-fhale or flate, and the ftrata
which cover it, as a peculiar local formation fubjacent to
the roe-flone, but above the coal-formation of Yorkfliire
or Durham. The alum-flatc is in faft a thin bed of in-
durated pyritous flate-clay, differing little, except in geo-
logical pofition and its organic remains, from fome of the
coal-(hales.

The alum-flate of Wliitby has a very dark grey colour, a
flaty flrudlure, and rather a filky luflre ; it fplits, by ex-
pofure to the atmofphcre, into very thin lamini ; it varies in
hardnefs, but is all fofter than roof-flate. The particular
advantage which the country near Whitby poffefles for the
manufadlure of alum, h derived from the alum-flate riting
in precipitous cliff?, which afford facilities for working and
burning the ftone. Though many of the coal-fhales might
yield an equal quantity of alum, the difficulty of raifing
them to the furface would in moll fituations be too great to
repay the expence. The alum-flate is piled in vaft heaps
and fet fire to ; a flow combuiUon is continued for fevcral
months, by the inflammable matter combined with the ftone.
The faline contents are extradted by folution, a Imall quan-
tity of potalh is added, and the alum is cryllallized by eva-
poration. ( Bake well's Introduftion to Geology.) From
the alum-rock of Yorkfliire, nearly all the alum of com-
merce in England is produced.

According to the analylis of Klaproth, alum-flate
contains

Sulphur

Carbon

Alumine

Silex -

Black oxyd of iron

0.2S
1.96
1.60
4.00
64

Sulphate of iron, lime, and potafh, each 15
Water 70

M. Klaproth remark.^, that the fulphur in the alum-flate
which he analyfcd was not united to the iron but to the car-
bon, in a manner at prcfent unknown. In the ahmi-flate of
Whitby, we bilieve the fulphur is combined ijoth with the
iron and carbon.

P Drawing-

SLA

Drawing-flate frequently accompanies alum-flate ; it is
much fofter than common flate, and contains, like alum-
flate, a confiderablc portion of carbon : its colour is a
greyifh-black : it is known by the property which it pofTefles
of leaving a dark line when rubbed on paper. It is foft,
and fometimts rather unAuous : fome varieties have a fmall
degree of luftre. The frafture, in fmall fragments, is
fcarcely flaty, and fometimes approaches the conchoidal.
Drawing-flate is eafily cut with the knife. Under the
blowpipe it turns white or yellow. It fometimes efflorefces
like alum-flate. According to Wiegleb, it contains

Silex

-

.

64

Alumine

-

•

21.25

Carbon

-

-

II

Oxyd of iron

-

-

2.75

Water

-

-

7. JO

Drawing-flate is employed by mafons, carpenters, &c. to
mark with. When fine and pure, it is ufed by artifts for
defigns. In France it is called pierre d'ltalie, in England,
French chalk. It is found in France, near Seer, in the de-
partment of I'Ome, and in the environs of Cherbourgh.
It is found alfo in Spain and Italy.

Whet-flate, or hone, the novaculile of Kirwan, occurs
imbedded in clay-flate : its moft common colour is greenifh-
grey, inclining to yellow : it is much harder than common
(late : its texture is fine-grained, nearly compaft, and the
frafture of the fmall pieces fplintery or conchoidal, refem-
bling flinty flate. Its fpecific gravity is about 2.72. Whet-
flate is tranflucent on the edges ; it does not effervefce with
acids, and it melts into a brown enamel under the blowpipe.
From its green colour, and rather greafy feel, it may be
confidered as intermediate between hard talcous-flate and
clay-flate. Though it yields to the point of a knife, or
even of a copper tool, it afts upon the flattened or round
furfaces of metals, and is ufed for ftiarpening and polifhing
the finer kinds of cutlery. It is of confiderable value on
account of this property, and was firft brought from the
Levant. We have no whet-flate of a fine quality in Eng-
land. An inferior kind is procured from Chamwood foreft,
in Leicefterlhire. It exifts of a finer quality in the promon-
tory of Howth, near Dublin. The common whet-flate of
commerce is procured from Saxony.

ShATE-Spar, Schtefer-fpath, Werner, occurs in lime-ftone
beds, in mountains called primitive. Its colour is milk-
white, or greenifli and reddifli-white, its luftre fliining and
pearly. Slate-fpar is tranflucent and foft, its ftrufture
coarfely lamellar, paffing into flaty, and fometimes curved
or undulating : it is infufible, and effervefces with violence
in acids.

Slate, in Rural Economy, a well-known, neat, conve-
nient, and durable material, for the covering of the roofs
of buildings. There are great varieties of this fubftance ;
and it likewife differs very greatly in its qualities and colours.
In forae places it is found in thick laminse, or flakes ; while
in others it is thin and light. The colours are white, brown,
and blue.

It is fo durable, in fome cafes, as to have been known to
continue found and good for centuries. However, unlefs it
fliould be brought from a quarry of well reputed goodnefs,
it is neceffary to try its properties, which may be done by
ftriking the flate ftiarply againft a large ftone, and if it pro-
duce a complete found, it is a mark of goodnefs ; but if in
hewing it does not fliatter before the edge of ihefeB, or
inftrument commonly ufed for that purpofe, the criterion is
decifive. The goodnefs of flate may be farther eftimated
by its colour : the deep black-blue is apt to imbibe moifture,

SLA

but the lighter blue is always the lead penetrable : the
touch alfo may be in fome degree a guide, for a good firm
ftone feels fomewhat hard and rough, whereas an open flate
feels very fmooth, and as it were greafy. And another
method of trying the goodnefs of flate, is to place the flate-
ftone lengthwife, and perpendicularly in a tub of water,
about half a foot deep, care being taken that the upper or
unimmerfed part of the flate be not accidentally wetted by
the hand, or otherwife ; let it remain in this ftate twenty-
four hours ; if good and firm ftone, it will not draw water
more than half an inch above the furface of the water, and
that perhaps at the edges only, thofe parts having been a
little loofened in the hewing ; but a fpongy defeftive ftone
will draw water to the very top. There is ftill another
mode, held to be infallible. Firft, weigh two or three of
the moft fufpecled flates, noting the weight ; then immerge
them in a veflel of water twelve hours ; take them out, and
wipe them as clean as poflible with a linen cloth ; and if
they weigh more than at firft, it denotes that quality of
flate which imbibes water : a drachm is allowable in a dozen
pounds, and no more.

It may be noticed, that in laying of this material, a bufliel
and a half of lime, and three bufliels of frefli-water fand,
will be fufficient for a fquare of work ; but if it be pin
plaftered, it will take above as much more : but good flate,
well laid and plaftered to the pin, will lie an hundred years ;
and on good timber a much longer time. It has been com-
mon to lay the flates dry, or on mofs only, but they are
much better when laid with plafter. When they are to be
plaftered to the pin, then about the firft quantity of lime and
fand will be fufiicient for the purpofe, when well mixed and
blended together, by properly working them.

Slates differ very much in thicknefs as well as colour,
which fuits them for different fituations and purpofes. A
great deal of good flate of various kinds is raifed in different
parts of Wales, and much excellent blue and other coloured
forts is procured from the northern parts of Lancaftiire, and
other neighbouring places, as well as from different other
counties throughout the kingdom. In fome parts the flate
is diftributed into three kinds, as the beft, the middling,
and the wafte or common fort. See Quarry.

SLATE-^xf, provincially a mattock with a fliort axe-end,
ufed in flating, &c.

Slate Mount, in Geography, a mountain of Virginia ;
6 miles W. of Richmond. N. lat. 37° 35'. W. long. 72°.

Slate River, a river of Virginia, which runs into
James river, N. lat. 37° 40'. E. long. 78° 34'.

SLATEE, an African appellation of free black mer-
chants, often traders in flaves.

SLATERS, in Entomology. See Millepedes and Onis-
cus.

Slaters anJ Tilers, are thofe artificers who are employed
in flating or tiling houfes. In calculating and eftimating the
value of their work, they find the content of a roof by
multiplying the length of the ridge by the girt over from
eaves to eaves ; making allowance in this girt for the double
row of flates at the bottom, or for the quantity or fpace by
which one row of flates or tiles is laid over another. In an-
gles formed in a roof, running from the ridge to the eaves,
when the angle bends inwards, it is called a valley ; but
when outwards, it is called a hip. And in tihng and flating,
it is common to add the length of the valley or hip to the
content in feet. Deduftions are feldom made for chimney-
fliafts, or fmall window-holes. E. gr. Required the con-
tent of a flated roof, the length being 45 feet 9 inches, and
whole girt 34 feet 3 inches.

By

SLA

SLA

It) Decimals.

'45-75
34?

I!y Duodecimals,

45 9
34 3

18300

13725
1 14375

205 6
135
II 5 3

9)1566.9375 feet.
174.104 yards.

9)1566 II 3
174' 11' 3'

3"Anfwer.

E. gr. What is the amount of the tihng of a houfe, at
^ Jj. Gd.per fquare ; the length being 43 feet 10 inches, and
the breadth on the flat 27 feet 5 inches, and the eaves alfo
projeding 16 inches on each fide. Anf. 24/. (js. ^^d.

SLATINA, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the cir-
cle of Schlan ; 6 miles E. of Schlan. — Alfo, a town of Wa-
lachia, on the E. fide of the river Alaut ; 2 miles N.E. of
Brancovani — Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Mol-
davia ; 18 miles N.W. of Niemecz.

SLATTBOG, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 15 miles N.W. of Wexio.

SLATY Rock, or SchiJIus, in Agriculture, a fubftance
of a mouldering, enriching nature, which is fometimes
blended up with other matters as a compolt for land. The
lort of material of this kind which forms the under-foil in
many parts of Cornwall, and fome other diftrifts, is of an
argillaceous, unftuous, foapy quality ; which in fome cafes
(3 ploughed up with a ftrong plough ; and after being well
expofed to the fummer fun and winter froft, is mixed with
lime or fand ; in which (late it is faid to become a very capi-
tal thickener and fertihzer of thin poor worn-out foils, and
by which much improvement is afforded at little trouble or
expence.

SLAVANESS, in Geography, a cape on the E. coalt
of the ifland of Shetland. N. lat. 60° 31'. W. Ion?.
i»i3'. ^

SLAVE, a perfoB in the abfolute power of a mafter,
with regard to his life, liberty, and fortune. See Ser-
vant.

Menage and Voflius derive the word from Sclavus, the
name of a Scythian people, whom Charlemagne condemned
to perpetual iiriprifonment. See Sclavonic.

The Romans called their (laves, y^rw, from fervare, to keep,
or Ja-ve ; as being fuch as were not killed, but faved to yield
money, either by fale, or by their work. Though other
authors are of opinion, that the Roman name fervi might
come from that oi ferbi ; as that of flaves from Sclav'i, a
people.

The term for a flave born and bred in the family, was
■verna ; equivalent to fcurra, denoting the petulance and im-
pudence of thefe flaves. They fecm to have been entitled by
cullom to privileges and indulgences beyond others.

Among the Romans, when a flave was fet at liberty, he
changed his name into a furname ; he took the nomen or pre-
nomen of his mailer, to which he added the cognomen he had
been called by when a flave. See Name.

Among thofe who were denominated flaves in the more
lax and general ufe of the term, we may reckon thole who
were diftinguiflled among the Romans by the appellation of
" mercenarii," fo called from the circumltance of their hire.
Thefe were free-born citizens, mentioned in the law-books by
the name of liberi, and thus contradiltinguilhed from the alieni,
or foreigners, who, from the various contingencies of fortune,
were under a neccdity of recurring for lupport to the fer-
vice of the rich. To this clafj belonged thofe who, both
among the Jews and Egyptians, are recorded in the facred

writings. (Gen. ch. xlvii. Levit. xxv. 39, 40.) The Grecian
Thetes (9>iT!;-, fee Horn. Odyll. A. 642.) were alfo of this
defcription. The fituation of thefe perfons refembled that
of our fervants ; a contraft fubfilling between the parties,
and mod of the fubordinate dependants having a right to de-
mand and obtain their difcharge if they were ill ufed by their
mailers.

Among the ancients there was another chfs of fervants,
which confifted wholly of thofe who had fuffered the lofs of
liberty from their own imprudence. Such were the Gre-
cian prodigals, who were detained in the fervice of their ere •
ditors, till the fruits of their labour were equivalent to their
debts ; the delinquents, who were fentenced to the oar ; and
the German enthujiajls, mentioned by Tacitus, who were fo
addiftcd to gaming, that when they had parted with every-
thing, alfo itaked their liberty and their perfons. •' The
lofer," fays the hillorian, " goes into a voluntary fervitude ;
and though younger and (tronger than the perfon with whom
he played, patiently fuffers himfelf to be bound and fold.
Their perfeverance in fo bad a cullom is ftyled honour.
The flaves thus obtained are immediately exchanged away in
commerce, that the winner may get rid of the fcandal of his
viftory." The two claffes now enumerated comprehend
thofe that may be called voluntary flave^, and they are dif-
tinguiflied from thofe denominated in-voluntary flaves ; who
are forced, without any previous condition or choice, into a
fituation, which, as it tended to degrade a part of the hu-
man fpecies, and to clafs it with the brutal, mult have been,
of all fituations to which a human being can be reduced, the
mod wretched and infupportable.

We find no mention of flaves before the Deluge, but im-
mediately after, w'a. in the curfe of Canaan, Gen. vs.. 25 ;
whence it is eafily inferred, that fervitude commenced foon
after that time ; for in Abraham's days we find it generally
eftablilhed. Some will have it to have commenced under
Nimrod, becaufe it was he who fir ft began to make war, and
of confequence to make captives ; and to bring fuch as he
took, either in his battles or irruptions, into flavery.

" Proud Nimrod firft the bloody chace began,

Almighty hunter, and his prey was man." Pope.

Hence probably 9rofe the connexion between viftory and
fervitude, an idea of which has prevailed among the nations
of antiquity, and which has uniformly exifted, in one country
or another, to the prefent day. Accordingly, the firll
clafs of involuntary flaves, included thofe who were " pri-
foners of war ;" and thefe were more ancient than the ro-
luntary flaves, who are firfl. mentioned in the time of Plit-
raoh. The practice of reducing prifoners of war to the
condition of flaves, fubfilted both among the ealtern nations
and the people of the Weft ; for as the Helots became the
flaves of the Spartans, merely from the right of conquefl, fo
prifoners of war were reduced to the fame fituation by the
other inhabitants of Greece. The Romans, alfo, were
aftuated by the fame pnnciple ; and all thofe nations which
contributed to overturn the empire, adopted a fimilar cuf-
tom ; fo that it was a general maxim in their polity, that
thole who fell under their power as prifoners of war, flioold
immediately be reduced to the condition of flaves. See Pri-
son ers of War.

The flaves of the Greeks were generally, or very com-
monly, barbarians, and imported from foreign countries.

By the civil law, the power of making flaves is efleemed
a right of nations, and follows, _;«;■<• ^cn/;um, as a natural con-
fequence of captivity in war. " Jure gentium fcrvi noltri
funt, qui ah hollibus capiuntur." Julliiiian, 1. i. 5. 5. l.

This is the firll origin of the right of flavery affigned by
P z .lullinian.

SLAVE.

Juftinian, InR. i. 3, 4. whence flavei are called mancifia
qtiajl tminu captl. .

The conqueror, fay the civilians, had a right to the lite
of liis captive ; and having fpared that, has a right to deal
with him as he pleafes. But this pofition, taken generally,
is denied by judge Blackftone ; who obferves, that a man
has a right to kill his enemy only in cafes of abfolute necef-
fity, for felf-defence : and, it is plain, this abfolute necei-
fity did not fubfilt, fince the viftor did not kill him, but
made him prifoner. Since, therefore, the right of making
ihves by captivity depends on a fuppofed right of flaughter,
that foundation failing, the confequence drawn from it muft
fail likewife. Farther, it is faid that (lavery may begin
"jure civili," when one man fells himfelf to another; but
this, when applied to llrid flavery, in the fenfe of the laws
of old Rome or modern Barbary, is alfo impoffible. Every
fale implies a price, a quid pro quo, an equivalent given to
the feller in lieu of what he transfers to the buyer ; but
what equivalent can be given for life and liberty, both of
which, in abfolute Oavery, are held to be at the matter's
difpofal ? His property, alfo, the very price he feems to
receive, devolves ipfo faHo to his mafter the inftant he be-
comes his Have : and befides, if it be not lawful for a man
to kill himfelf, becauie he robs his country of his perlon,
for the fame reafon he is not allowed to barter his freedom :
the freedom of every citizen conltitutes a part of the pubhc
liberty. In this cafe, therefore, the buyer gives nothing,
and the feller receives nothing ; of what validity then can a
fale be, which deitroys the very principles upon which all
fales are founded ? Laftly, we are told, that befides thefe
two ways by which flaves " fiunt," or are acquired, they
may alfo be hereditary, " fervi nafcuntur ;" the children of
acquired flaves are, jure nature, by a negative kind of birth-
right, flaves alfo ; but this being founded on the two former
rights, muft fall together with them. If neither captivity,
nor the fale of one's felf, can, by the law of nature and rea-
fon, reduce the parent to flavery, much lefs can they reduce
the offspring. Blackft. Comm. b. i. c. 14. Montefquieu's
Spirit of Laws, b. 15. c. 2, &c.

The Lacedxmonians, fay fome, or, as others fay, the Af-
fyrians, firft introduced the praftice ; which the Romans not
only approved of, but they even invented new manners of
making flaves ; for initance, a man born free among them
might fell his freedom, and become a flave. This voluntary
flavery was lirll introduced by a decree of the fenate, in the
time of the emperor Claudius, and at length was abrogated
by Leo.

The Romans had power of life and death over their
flaves, which no other nations had ; but this feverity was
afterwards moderated by the laws of the emperors ; and by
one of Adrian it was made capital to kill a flave without a
caufe.

The flaves were efteemed the proper goods of their maf-
tere, and all they got belonged to them : but if the mailer
were too cruel in his domeftic correftions, he was obliged to
IcU his flave at a moderate price.

The cuftom of expofing old, ufelefs, or fick flaves in an
ifland of the Tyber, there to ftarve, feems to have been
pretty common in Rome ; and whoever recovered, after
having been fo expofed, had his liberty given him, by an
cdift of the emperor Claudius, in which it was likewife for-
bidden to kill any flave merely for old age or iicknefs.
(Suet, in Claud.) Neverthelefs, it was the profelfed maxim
of the elder Cato, to fell his fuperannuated flaves for any
price, rather than maintain what he deemed an ufelefs bur-
den. (Plut. in Caton.) The ergaltula, or dungeons,
where fl«ves in chains were forced to work, were very com-

mon all over Italy. Columella (I. i. c. 6. ) advifes that tbey
be always built under ground ; and recommends it as the
duty of a careful overfeer, to call over every day the names of
thefe flaves, in order to know when any ot them had de-
ferted. Sicily was full of ergallula, and was cultivated by
labourers in chains. Eunus and Athenio excited the fervile
war, by breaking up thefe monllrous prifons, and giving
liberty to 60,000 flaves.

In the ancient and uncivilized ages of the world, " pirscy"
was regarded as an honourable praflice ; and this was fup-
pofed to give a right of making flaves. " The Grecians,"
fays Thucydides (1. i.) " in their primitive ftate, as well as
the contemporary barbarians, who inhabited the fea-coafts
and iflands, addifted themfelves wholly to it : it was, in
fhort, their only profeffion and fupport." The writings of
Homer are fufiicient to ellabhfli this account ; as they (hew
that this was a common praftice at fo early a period as that
of the Trojan war. The reputation which piracy feems to
have acquired among the ancients, was owing to the (kill,
llrength, agility, and valour, which were neceflary for con-
■dufting it with fuccefs ; and the erroneous notions that were
thus entertained concerning it led to other confequences, im-
mediately connedled with the flavery of the human fpecies.
Avarice and ambition availed themfelves of thefe millaken
notions ; and people were robbed, llolen, and even murder-
ed, under the pretended idea that thefe were reputable ad-
ventures. But in proportion as men's fentiments and man-
ners became more refined, the praftice of piracy lolt its
reputation, and began gradually to difappear. The prac-
tice, however, was found to be lucrative ; and it was con-
tinued, with a view to the emolument attending it, long after
itceafed to be thought honourable, and when it was finking
into difgrace. The profits arifing from the fale of flaves
prefented a temptation which avarice and intereft could not
refill ; many were ftolen by their own countrymen, and
fold for flaves ; and merchants traded on the different coafts
in order to facihtate the difpofal of this article of commerce.
The merchants of Theffaly, if we may credit Ariltophanes,
(Plut. Aft ii. Se. 5.) who never fpared the vices of the
times, were particularly infamous for this latter kind of de-
predation ; the Athenians were notorious for the former ;
for they had praftifed thefe robberies to fuch an alarming
degree of danger to individuals, that it was found necef-
fary to enaft a law, which punifhed kidnappers with death.
From the above (latement it appears, that among the an-
cients there were two clalTes of involuntary flaves ; one con-
filling of thofe who were taken pubhcly in a ftate of war ;
and another compofed of thofe who were privately if olen in
a ftate of peace. To which might be added a third clafs,
comprehending the children and defcendants of the former.

The condition of flaves, and their perfonal treatment,
were fufficiently humiliating and grievous ; and may well
excite our pity and abhorrence. They were beaten, ft arved,
tortured, and murdered at difcretion ; they were dead in a
civil fenfe ; they had neither name nor tribe ; they were in-
capable of judicial procefs ; and they were, in fnort, with-
out appeal. To this cruel treatment, however, there were
fome exceptions. The Egyptian flave, though perhaps a
greater drudge than any other, yet if he had time to reach
the temple of Hercules (Herodotus, I. ii. 143- )> f>jund a
certain retreat from the perfecution of his mafter ; and he
derived additional comfort from the refleftion that his life
could not be taken with impunity. But no place was fo
favourable to flaves as Athens. Here they were allowed a
greater liberty of fpeech ; they had their convivial meet-
ings, their amours, their hours of relaxation, pleafantry,
and mirth ; they were treated in iuch a manner as to war-
rant

SLAVE.

rant the obfervation of Demollhenes, in his fecond Philip-
pic, " that the condition of a flave at Athens was pre-
ferable to that of a free citizen in many other coiintrits."
And here, if perfccution exceeded the bounds of lenity,
they had their temple, like the Egyptian, for refuge ; where
the Icgillature was fo attentive, as to examine their com-
plaints, and to order them, if thoy were founded in jullice,
to be fold to anotlier mailer. Bclides, they were allowed
an opportunity of working for themfelves ; and if their
diligence had procured them a fum equivalent to their ran-
fom, they could immediately, on paying it down, demand
their freedom for ever. To this privilege Flautus alludes,
in his " Cafina," where he introduces a flave, fpeaking in
the following manner :

" Quid tu me vero libertate territas ?
Quod li tu nohs, filiufque etiam tuus
Vobis invltis, atque amborum ingratlij,
Una libella liler pojfum Jier'i"

Thus we find, to the eternal honour of Egypt and Athens,
that they were the only places, if we except the cities of
the Jews, where flaves were confidered with any humanity
at all. The inhabitants of all other parts of the world
leemed to vie with each other in the debafement and op-
preflion of thefe unfortunate people.

The writer, of whofe valuable publication we are now
availing ourfelves, and to whom the caufe of humanity is
under inexpreffible obligations, proceeds to inquire by what
circumftanees the barbarous and inhuman treatment of flaves
was produced ?

The firlt of thefe circumftanees, which he mentions, ■ was
«* commerce ;" for if men could he confidered as " pof-
feflions ;" if, like " Cattle," they might be bought and/oW,
it will be natural to fuppofe, that they would be regarded
and treated in the fame manner. This kind of commerce,
which began in the primitive ages of the world, deprelled
the human fpecies in the general eltimation ; and they were
tamed, like brutes, by the itings of hunger and the lafli,
and their education was fo condufted, as to render them
commodious inllruments of labour for their poffeffors. This
degradation of courfe deprefled their minds, reltrifted the ex-
panfion of their faculties, ilifled almoll every effort of
genius, and exhibited them to the world, as beings endued
with inferior capacities to the reft of mankind. But for
this opinion there feems to have been no foundation in
truth or jullice. Equal to their fellow-men in natural
talents, and alike capable of improvement, any apparent or
even real diilerence between them and fome others miift
have been owing to the mode of their education, to the
rank tlicy were doomed to occupy, and to tlie treatment
they were appointed to endure.

Tliis commerce of the Jiuinan fpecies, which produced
fo pernicious an effeft on the nature and Hate of man, com-
menced at a very early period. The hiftory of .lofepli, re-
corded in the book of Genefis, leads ua to a very remote era
for the introdudtion of this nefarious traffic. In his time it
ftems to have been prevalent, and to have been carried on
in a manner, tiiat fufficiently indicated its iiaving been
long before cllablilhed. Egypt feems to have been at this
time the principal, as it was probably the firll, market for
the (ale of the human Ipccies. It was, indeed, fo famous,
as to have been known, within a few centuries from the
time of Pharaoli, both to the Gre';ian colonies in Afia, and
the Grecian iflands. Homer mentions Cyprus and Egypt
as the common markets for flaves, about the time of ihe
Trojan war. (Odylf. 1. xvii. 448. 1. xxvi.) Egypt is
alfo reprefented, as we have already intimated, in the book

1
I

of Genefis, as a market for flaves, and in Exodus (eh. 1. )
as famous for the feverity of its fervitudc. Homer alfo,
in the place above cited, points out to us Egypt as a mar-
ket for the human fpecies, and by the epithet of " h'ttter
Egypt," alludes in the ftrongeft manner to that ieverity and
rigour, of which tlie faered hiilorian tranfmitrcd to us the
firft account. The OdylTey of Homer (hews farther, that
this fpecies of traffic was praftifed in many of the iflands
of the ^geaii fea ; and the Iliad informs us, that it had
taken place among thofe Grecians on the continent of
Europe, who had embarked from thcnee on the Trojan ex-
pedition. To this purpofe, at the end of the Icventh book,
a fleet is dcfcribed, as having juft arrived from Lemnos,
with a fupply of wine for the Grecian camp. The mer-
chants are defcribed alfo, as immediately expofing it to lale,
and js receiving in exchange, among other articles of barter,
" a number of flaves." Tyre and Sidon, as we learn from
thp book of Joel, ch. iii. 3, 4, 6, were notorious for the
profecution of this trade. This cuftom appears alfo to
have exifted among other ftates ; it travelled all over Afia ;
it fpread through the Grecian and Roman world ; it was
in ufe among the barbarous nations, which overturned the
Roman empire ; and was therefore pradtifcd, at the lame
period, throughout the whole of Europe. However, as
the northern nations were fettled in their conquefts, the
flavery and commerce of the human fpecies began to de-
cline, and on their full eftablifliment they were abolifhed.
Some writers have afcribed their decline and abohtion to
the prevalence of the feudal fyftem ; whilft others, much
more numerous, and with greater ftrcngtli of argument,
have maintained, that they were the natural eflefts of
Chriftianity. The advocates of the former opinion allege,
that " the multitude of little ftates, which fprung up from
one great one at this era, occafioned infinite bickerings and
matter for contention. There was not a ftate or feigniory,
which did not want all the hands they could mufter, either
to defend their own right, or to difpute that of their neigh-
bours. Thus every man was taken into the fervice : whom
they armed they muft truft : and there could be no truft
but in free men. Thus the barrier between the two natures
was thrown down, and flavery was no more heard of in the
weft."

That this was not the necelTary confequence cif fuch a
fituation, is apparent. The political ftate of Greece, in
its early hiftory, .was the fame as that of Europe, when
divided by the feudal fyftem into an infinite number of
fmall and independent kingdoms. There was the fame
matter, therefore, for contention, and the fame call for all
the hands that could be muftered : the Grecians, in fliort,
in the heroic, were in the fame fituation, in thefe refpcds,
as the feudal barons in the Gothic times.

It muft be allowed, on the fligliteft confideration of the
fnbjeft, that Chriftianity was admirably adapted to this
purpofe. It taught, " that all men were originally equal;
that the Deity was no refpefter of perfijns; and that, as all
men were to give an account of their aftions hereafter, it
was nccellary that they (hould be Iree." Tliefe doarines
could not fail of havmg their proper influence on thofe
who firft embraced Chriftianity, from a oinviftion of its
truth ; and on thole of their defcendants afterwards, who,
by engaging in the crnfades, and lu/.arding their lives and
fortunes there, (hewed at leaft an attachment to that reli-
gion. VVc find them accordingly aftuated by thefe prin-
ciples. We have a pofitive proof, that the feudal fyftem
had no (hare in the honour of fupjirelfing flavery, but that
Chriftianity was the only caufe ; for the greateft part of
the charters, which were granted for tl»e freedom ol ilaves

SLA

in thofe times (many of which are ftill extant), were
granted " pro amore Dei, pro mercede animas." They
were founded, in (hort, on rehgious confiderations, " that
they might procure the favour of the Deity, which they
conceived themfelves to have forfeited, by the fubjugation
of thofe, whom they found to be the objefts of the divine
benevolence and attention equally with themfelves."

Thefe confiderations, which had thus their firft origin in
Chriftianity, began to produce their effefts, as the different
nations were converted ; and procured that general liberty
at laft, which, at the clofe of the twelfth century, was
confpicuous in the weft of Europe.

Within two centuries after the fuppreflion of flavery in
Europe, the Portuguefe, in imitation of thofe piracies
which exifted in the uncivilized ages of the v/orld, made
their defcents on Africa, and committing depredations on
the coaft, firft carried the wretched inhabitants into flavery.
This praftice, thus inconfiderable at its commencement,
became general ; and our own anceftors, together with the
Spaniards, French, and moft of the maritime powers of
Europe, foon followed the piratical example : and thus did
the Europeans, to their eternal infamy, revive a quftora,
which their own anceftors had fo lately exploded, from a
confcioufnefs of its impiety. The unfortunate Africans fled
from the coaft, and fought, in the interior part of the coun-
try, a retreat from the perfecution of their invaders ; but
the Europeans ftill purfued them ; they entered their rivers,
failed up mto the heart of the country, furprifed the Afri-
cans in their receffes, and carried them into flavery. The
next ftep, which the Europeans found it necefl"ary to take,
was that of fettling in the country ; of fecuring themlelves
by fortified pofts ; of changing their fyllem of force into
that of pretended liberality ; and of opening, by every
fpecies of bribery and corruption, a communication with
the natives. Accordingly they erefted their forts and fac-
tories ; landed their merchandize ; and endeavoured, by a
peaceable deportment, by prefents, and by every appear-
ance of munificence, to allure the attachment and con-
fidence of the Africans.

The Portuguefe erefted their firft fort at D'Elmina, in
the year 1481, about 40 years after Alonzo Gonzales had
pointed out to his countrymen the fouthern Africans as
articles of commerce.

The fcheme fucceeded : an intercourfe took place be-
tween the Europeans and Africans, attended with a con-
fidence highly favourable to the views of ambition and Ava-
rice. In order to render this intercourfe permanent as well
as lucrative, the Europeans having difcovered the chiefs of
the American tribes, paid their court to thefe ; and at
length a treaty of peace and commerce was concluded ; in
which it was agreed, that the kings, on their part, ftiould,
from this perioil, fentence prlfoners of luar and convi^s to
European fervitude j and that the Europeans (hould fupply
them, in return, with the luxuries of the north. This agree-
ment immediately took place, and laid the foundation of
that commerce, of which the following articles contain a
brief hiftory.

Slavery is abfolutely abolifhed in England and France as
to perfonal fervitude ; our fervants are not flaves, but only
are fubjeft to certain determinate fervices. It is faid, that
the moment a flave fteps on Englifti ground, he by law be-
comes free. See Negro.

When an attempt was made to introduce flavery within
this nation, by ftat. i Edw. VI. c. 3. which ordained, that
all idle vagabonds (hould be made flaves, and fed upon
bread, water or fmall drink, and refufe of meat ; ftiould
wear a ring of iron round their necks, arms, or legs ; and

SLA

fiiould be compelled, by beating, chaining, or othenvife,
to perform the work afligned them, were it ever fo vile ;
the fpirit of the nation could not brook this condition, even
in the moft abandoned rogues ; and, therefore, this ftatute
was repealed in two years afterwards. 3 & 4 Edw. VI.
c. 16.

For the cuftom of marking or ftigmatizing flaves, fee
Stigmatizing.

SLAVE-TRADE. At the clofe of the preceding
article we have ftated the manner in which this fpecies of
commerce commenced ; nor is it necefl'ary to mention one
oftenfible reafon that was alleged for introducing the Afri-
cans, in particular, as labourers into the newly difcovered
parts of the weftern world, and placing them under Euro-
pean mafters, viz. the duty of converting the heathen ; be-
caufe this was but an idle pretence. It was foon found that
a ufage, different from that which Chriftianity would have
diftated, was necedary, where people were tranfported, and
made to labour againft their will. A fyftem, therefore, of
feverity fprung up, as it related to their treatment, which
became by degrees ftill more cruel and degrading ; fo that
when in after-times the fituation of mafter and flave came to
be viewed, as it exifted in praftice between the two, the
mafters feemed to have attained the rank of monarchs, and
the flaves to have gone down to the condition of brutes.
Hence, very early after the commencement of the flave-
trade, the objefts of it began to be confidered as an inferior
fpecies, and even their very colour as a mark of it ; and
under this latter notion they continued to be tranfported
for years and years, till different perfons, taking an intereft
in their fufferings, produced fuch an union of public fenti-
ment in their favour in England, that the parliament there
were obliged, as it were, to confider their cafe, by hearing
evidence upon it. It is from this evidence, as from the
higheft authority, which was heard in the years 1791 and
1792, that we ftiall chiefly give our account of the trade in
queftion.

The treaty to which we have referred, ftipulated to
fupply the Europeans with captives and convifts ; but
thefe were not fufficient for their demand, on the eftablifli-
ment of their vveflern colonies. In order, therefore, to
augment the number, not only thofe who were fairly con-
vifted of offences were now fentenced to fervitude, but
even thofe who were fufpefted ; and with regard to prifoners
of war, they delivered into flavery not only thofe who
were taken in a ftate of public enmity and injuftice, but
thofe alfo who, confcious of no injury whatever, were
taken in the arbitrary ikirmifhes of the venal fovereigns of
Africa. Wars were made, not as formerly, from motives
of retaliation and defence, but for the fake of obtaining pri-
foners alone, and the advantages relulting from the fale of
them. When an European ftiip came in fight, this was
confidered as a motive for war, and a fignal for the com-
mencement of hoftilities. The defpotic fovereigns of Africa,
influenced by the venal motives of European traiHc, firft
made war upon the neighbouring tribes, in the violation of
every principle of juftice ; and if they did not thus fucceed
in their main objeft, they turned their arms againit their own
fubjefts. Tlie firft villages at which they arrived were im-
mediately furrounded, and afterwards fet on fire ; and the
wretched inhabitants feized, as they were efcaping from the
flames. Thefe, confifting of whole families, fathers, bro-
thers, hufbands, wives, and children, were inifantly driven
in chains to the merchants, and configned to flavery.
Many other perfons were kidnapped, in order to glut the
avarice of their own countrymen, who lay in wait for them ;
and they were afterwards fold to the European merchants :

while

I

SLAVE-TRADE.

while the feamen of the different (hips, by every pofTible ar-
tifice, enticed others on board, and tranfported them to the
Tf^ions of fervitude.

The coUedlors of flavea were diftributed into feveral
claffes. The firft confiHed of fuch black traders as pre-
ferved a regular chain of traffic, and a regular communica-
tion with each other, from the interior parts of the country
to the fea-fhore. Many of the flaves, thus driven down,
;uc reported to have travelled at lead 1200 miles from the
place where they were firft purchafed. A piftol or a fword
may have been the full value of one of thefe flaves, at the
firft coft ; but his price advances, as he travels towards the
fea-(hore. The fecond clafs of flave-traders is compofed of
fuch as travel inland, but have no chain of commerce or
communication with the fhore. At a certain diftance they
ftrike off in a line parallel to the (hore, and vifiting the fairs
and villages in their way, drop down occafionally to the
coaft, as they have procured flaves. The third clafs con-
filU of fuch as travel by water up the great rivers, in their
canoes, which are very long, well-armed, and carry from
50 to 70 hands. Thefe often proceed to the dillancc of
1000 miles, and bring down from 60 to 1 20 flaves at a time.
The fourth clafs includes thofe who, living near the banks
of the rivers, or the fea-fliore, fcarcely travel at all, but
coming by feme means or other into the pofleffion of flaves,
either drive them, or fend them immediately to the fliips
and faftories. Moil of the traders now defcribed traific on
their own account ; but there are fome of the poorer fort,
who travel for the fliips. The different forts of goods,
with which the traders deal for flaves in the inland country,
may be divided into three forts, viz. Eall Indian, home-
made or colonial, and Venetian. The firft confifts of
cowries, or fmall (hells, which pafs for money on fome parts
of the coaft ; blue and white baffs, romals, bandanoes, and
other cloths and produdlions of the Eaft. The fecond con-
fifts of bar-iron, mufliets, powder, fwords, pans, and other
hardware ; cottons, linen, fpirits in great abundance, with
other articles of lefs note. The third confifts totally of
beads. Almoft every (hip carries the three forts of articles
now ftated, but more or lefs of one than of the other, ac-
cording to the place of her deftination ; every different part
of the coaft requiring a different affortment, and the Afri-
cans, like the Europeans, repeatedly changing their tafte.
This is particularly the cafe with refpeft to beads. The
fame kind of beads, which finds a market one year in one
part of the coaft, will probably not be faleable there the
next. At one time the green are preferred to the yellow,
at another the opaque to the tranfparent, and at another the
oval to the round.

The flave-trade, at the time of its fubfiftence, may be faid
to have begun at the great river Senegal, and to extend to
the farther limits of Angola, a diftance of many thoufand
miles. On the rivers Senegal and Gambia, the Europeans
proceed in their (hips till they come to a proper ftation, and
then fend out their boats armed to different villages ; and on
their approach to them, fire a mudcet, or beat a drum, to
apprife the inhabitants that they are in want of flaves. The
country people fupply them in part, and they alfo procure
them from the large canoes above-mentioned.

The Moors, who inhabit the left bank of the river
Senegal, are notorious for depredations of this fort. They
crofs the river without any previous provocation, and make
war upon thofe on the other fide of it, and bring them in as
prifoners, and fell them at I'ort St. Louis for flaves. Mr.
Kiernan has foen the remains of villages, which they had
broken up in fuch expeditions.

Captains Hills and Wilfon, and Mr. Wadftrom, and licu-
8

tenant Dalrymple, inform \is, that the kings in this part of
the country do not hefitate to make war upon their own fub-
jecfs, when in want of money. They fend out their foldiers
in the night, who lying before, or attacking or burning a
village, feize fuch as come out of it, and return with them
as flaves.

On the river Sierra Leona there are feveral private fac-
tories, belonging to the merchants of Europe, in which
their agents, being white people, rcfided. Thefe agents
kept a number of boats, which were fent up the river for
flaves ; and thus they procured for the faAories a regular
fupply.

On the Windward Coaft, which reaches from Cape Mount
to Cape Palmas, the natives, when they have any flaves to
fell, generally fignify it by fires. Praftices fimilar to thofe
already recited prevail from the river Gambia to the end of
the Windward Coaft. Lieutenant Storey fays, that public
robbery is here called war. Mr. Bowman, another evi-
dence, fays, that when parties of robbers were fetting fire
to villages, war was faid to be carrying on. This account
is confirmed by Mr. Town and fir George Young, and all
of them concur in ftating, that thefe parties go out at night,
break up villages, and carry off the inhabitants as flaves.
Meffrs. Town, Bowman, and Storey, have feen them fet
out upon fuch expeditions ; and the latter, to fatisfy him-
felf, accompanied them on one occafion. Thefe came to a
town in the dead of the night, fet fire to it, and took away
many of the inhabitants. The above praftice is fo common,
that both up the river Scaffus, Sierra Leona, and Junk,
and at Cape Mount and Baffau, the remains of burnt and
deferted villages are to be feen, on which fuch attacks have
been made, and that the natives are found to be conftantly
armed. In one of the towns, two or three houfes only are
defcribed to have been left ftanding, and two plantations of
rice, which were ready for cutting down, but which the in-
habitants, by being carried off, had been deprived of en-
joying. Lieutenant Simpfon, of the royal marines, another
evidence, underftood that the villages on the Windward
Coaft were always at war ; and the reafon given was, that
the kings were in want of flaves. Mr. Morley, another
evidence, fpeaks in the fame language. Slaves, he fays, are
generally made by robbers geing from village to village in
the night.

The Gold Coaft, which is next to the Windward Coaft,
prefents us with the fame melancholy fcene. The Rev.
Mr. Quakoo, who had refided as chaplain to one of the
factories there for many years, informed lieutenant Simpfon
that wars were often made for the fole purpofe of making
flaves. Dr. Trotter fays, by prifoners of war, the traders
mean fuch as are carried off by robbers, who ravage the
country for that purpofe ; the Bu(h-men making war to
make trade, being a common way of (peaking among them ;
and in a large cargo of flaves, he could only recoiled three
who had not been fo obtained. Surgeon Falconbridge de-
fines the term war, when ufed by the flave-dealers on this
part of the coaft, to mean a piratical expedition for making
flaves. Mr. Morley fays, what they call war, is putting the
villages in confufion, and catching the inhabitants, whom
they carry down to the coaft and fell, wliere, it is well
known, no queftions are afl<ed how they had been obtained.
Indeed a flave-captain, when examined by tiie lioufe of
commons, acknowledged, that he believed a captain would
be reckoned a fool by any trading man, to whom lie flunild
put (uch a queftion. And Mr. Mirfh, the relidcnt at Cape
Coaft caftlo, told Mr. How, that he did not care how the
flavca he purchafed had been obtained ; and fluwed him in-
llruments which were put into the flaveu' mouths, to pre-
vent

SLAVE-TRADE.

vent their crying out for aflillance, while the robbers were
conveying them through the country.

From the end of the Gold Coaft to the extremity of An-
gola, which is the boundary of the flave-trade, and which
vaft diltrift comprehends many navigabls rivers, we are
(hocked by the repetition of the fame atrocious praAicea.
Here, as before, going to towns in the night, fetting them
on fire, and feizing the people, or putting the villages in
confufion, and catching the inhabitants, are called tvar.
Thefe piratical expeditions are frequently made by water in
tiiefe parts. Mr. Douglafs fays, when a flave-fliip arrives,
tlie kmg fends his war-canoes up the river, where they
furprife and feize all they can. Surgeon Falconbridge,
Mr. Morley, and Mr. Ifaac Parker, confirm the account.
Up the great rivers Bonny and Calabar thj» kine fends fleets
of canoes, v>ith armed men, which return with flavcs. Mr.
I. Parker was twice up the river Calabar in one of thefe
fleets, and perhaps the only white perfon who was ever per-
mitted to go with them. In the day-time, he fays, when
they approached a village, they lay under the bullies ; but
at night flew up to it, and feixed every one they could catch.
In this way they proceeded up the river, till they had gotten
forty-five perfons, which they brought back to New Town,
and fold to the European fhips. About a fortnight after-
wards, he was allowed to accompany them on another ex-
pedition. Here, he fays, they plundered , otlier villages
higher up the river than before, taking men, women,
and children, as they could catch them in their huts. They
feized on much the fame number, and brought them to New
Town, as before.

On the Gold Coaft, a veflel feeking flaves, generally
anchors at Annamaboe. A certain quantity of gold mull
be included in the articles defigned for purchafing flaves, or
elfe none can be obtained. At Whidah, Bonny, Calabar,
Benin, and Angola, gold is not demanded in exchange ; and
boats are unnecelfary, except for reaching the (hore, wood-
ing and watering, and fervices of a fimilar kind. This is par-
ticularly the cafe at Calabar and Bonny, which have been the
greateit markets for flaves. The traders of the firft clafs,
after an abfence of about nine days, have returned frequently
with I joo or 2000 flaves at a time.

The number of flaves that have been annually tranfported
from the African coaft has fluftuated according to circum-
ftances. In the year 1768, 104,000 natives of Africa were
taken from their own continent ; and it continued much the
fame for the next five years. During the American war it
was diminillied. In the year 1786 the numbers may be
ilated at 100,000, and the (hips that conveyed them to the
colonies at 350. The trade, before the abolition, was con-
fined to the Englifli, Dutch, Danes, Portuguefe, and
French. England, in 1786, employed 130 fliips, and
carried oft' about 42,000 flaves. Thefe were fitted out from
the ports of London, Briftol, and Liverpool; the latter of
which alone fent out 90 veft'els.

The unhappy flaves are divided by Mr. Clarkfon into
leven claifes. The moft confiderable, and that which con-
tains at lead half of the whole number tranfported, confifts
of kidnapped people. This mode of procuring them in-
cludes every fpecics of treachery. Mr. Wadftrom tells us,
that at Dakard lived one Ganna, who was a notorious man-
ftealer, and employed as fuch by the merchants there. He
fav/ a boy and a woman there in confinement, both of whom
had been ttolen. The boy had been privately taken from
his parents, in the interior part above Cape Rouge; and
the woman from her hulband and children at Rufilque. He
fsw afterwards many of the natives, who had been thus
taken, brought to Goree. At Sallum the king fent for

a poor woman, under pretence of buyiflg her millet, and
then feized and fold her. General Rooke, who was go-
vernor of Goree, detected three young perfons who had
been ftolen and broueht there ; and at their requell, he fent
them back to their friends. The fame governor was applied
to by three flave-captains, to kidnap one hundred and fifty
men, women, and children, the king of Cayor's fubjefts,
who had come to Goree in confequence of the friendly in-
tercourfe whicli had fobfilted between him and that king.
He refufed, and was much (hocked by the propofition ; but
the captains faid, fuch things li.id been done by a former
governor of the place. Captain Wilfon fays, that in his
time, when he commanded the Racehorfe (hip of war, fuch
private robberies were frequent on the continent, oppofite
to Goree. His predeceffor, captain Lacy, had fent one of
the natives into the country with difpatches on his Britannic
majefty's account ; but the poor man was foon way-laid,
feized, and fold. Captain Wilfon refcued him afterwards
from the hold of a flave-veffel, wheie his life had been en-
dangered by the inhumanity of the French captain. So
generally prevalent were thefe robberies, that they were
acknowledged by all. It was the firft principle of the na-
tives, never to go out unarmed while a flave-veffel was
upon the coaft, for fear of being ftolen. When he has met
them armed, and enquired the reafon, they have pointed to
a (hip of this defcription then lying at Portudal, and faid,
their fears arofe from that quarter. Captain Hills, when
he comhianded the Zephyr floop of war on the fame part
of the coaft, came to the knowledge of fafts fimilar to thofe
related. He tells us, he knew the fame Ganna mentioned
by Mr. Wadftrom, and that this very Ganna offered him a
young man for fale, whom he had kidnapped ; and that all
the natives went armed, for fear of being fo taken. Cap-
tain Hills, while lying in the river Gambia, cxpreffed a
wi(h, in the hearing of the black pilot, to obtain a few
black volunteers for his fliip. Upon this the black pilot
called to two boys, who were on the (hore carrying bafltets
of fhallots, and a(ked captain Hills if he thought the boys
would fuit him ; in which cafe, he would take them off,
and bring them on board. The captain declined taking
them. The black pilot appeared much mortified, and faid
that the merchantmen would not have refufed fuch an offer.
On the Windward Coaft, robbery of this kind was fo no-
torious, that, according to fir George Young and captain
Thompfon, it went by a diftinft name. It was there called
panyaring. Many are the inftances teftified in the evidence
of this kind of depredation, and this all over the coaft. Let
the following fuffice. At Sierra Leona a beautiful boy is
ftolen. Oft Galenas a trader, returning home with goods,
is feized by the way, and fold. Lower down a young man
is furprifed on the beach, and difpofed of in the fame man-
ner. Off Piccanini Seftus not only a young girl is kid-
napped, but her kidnapper is feized in turn, and fold to the
fame veffel. To the right of Piccanini Seftus a young man
is invited to a feaft, and then betrayed and enflaved. A
little farther on, a countryman, having occafion to go to a
black trader's houfe, the trader adcs him if he had feen a
fhip : the other replying, no ; he then engages to ftiew him
one. Tak.ng him on board a veffel, he receives the money
for him, and leaves him there. A young woman comes out
of the woods at Bonny Point to bathe: robbers watch her,
and then feize lier, and fell her. Three perfons, croffing
the river Benin, are overtaken by a black trader and his
people in one of their large canoes, and carried to a (hip,
and fold. On the other fide of the river Benin, a woman is
kidnapped, as flie is returning from a vifit ; and a father
and his fon, as they are planting yams for food ; and all of

them

SLAVE-TRADE.

them paffed down to the fliore, and difpofcd of in the fame
manner.

The fecond order of flaves, and that not inconfiderable,
eonfifts of thofe whofe villages have been depopulated for
obtaining them. The third clafs eonfifts of fiich as have
been faid to be convifted of crimes. Captain Wilfon fays,
that fuch as are fold on this account are fold for the benefit
of their kings or judges. On afking king Darnel's officer,
who had brought down a culprit for fale, whether the man
was guilty of the crime imputed to him, he was anfwered
by the officer, that this was of no confequence. Mr. Town
fays, it is not uncommon to impute crimes falfely, or to
bring on palavers, that is, accufations or trials, in order to
make Haves. Mr. Morley remembers a woman fold on pre-
tence of adultery at Old Calabar ; and in the river Ambris,
fays Mr. Falconbrid^^e, a king's officer wanting brandy and
other goods, but having no flave with which to purchafe
them, accules a man of Extortion in the fale of his fifli, and
after a fummary trial on the fpot, procures him to be con-
demned and fold.

The fourth clafs includes prifoners of war ; being either
fuch as are the produce of wars that have originated in
common caufes ; or fuch as have been fupplied by wars made
iblely for the purpofe of obtaining them. The fifth clafs
comprehends thofe who are flaves by birth. Some traders on
the coaft, it is faid, who have flaves in their pofleffion, make
a praftice of breeding from thofe, for the purpofe of felling
to others. After having been brought up to a certain age,
they are reckoned faleable. The fixth clafs is compofed of
thofe, who have facrified their liberty to gaming. The
feventh and laft clafs eonfifts of thofe, who having run into
debt, are feized according to the laws of the country, and
fold to their creditors. The two laft clafles are very incon-
fiderable, and fcarcely deferve mention.

Having loft their liberty in one or other of the ways now
defcribed, they are conveyed to the banks of the rivers, or
to the fea-coaft. Some are found to have belonged to the
neighbourhood ; others to liave lived farther up the country ;
and others in very diftant parts. It has been calculated,
that fome of the latter have been brought looo miles from
their homes. Of thofe who come from a diftance, many
have travelled by water, many have been made to walk alfo
over land. Thefe march in droves, or cauffles, as they are
called. They are fecured from rifing pr running away, by
pieces of wood, which attach the necks of two and two to-
gether ; or by other pieces, which are faftened by ftaples to
their arms. They are made to carry their own water and
provifions, and fome of them elephants' teeth, and other
commodities, which their mafters may have picked up on
their route. They are watched and followed by drivers,
who make the weak keep up with the ftrong. As they
pafs through different places, others, who have been re-
duced to flavery in a fimilar manner, are purchafed, and
added to the caiiffle. Many in thefe cauffles fpeak different
languages, and cannot at all underftand one another.

When they reach the banks of the rivers on the coaft,
they are offered for fale : fome to land faftories, or depots
kept for that purpofe by the Europeans ; others, where the
rivers are fmall and fhallow, to (hips' boats and tenders,
which are conftantly plying about to purchafe them ; and
others immediately to the fhips thcmfclves. In the rivers
Senegal and Gambia, from ten to forty are brought down
at a time ; in the rivers Bonny and Calabar, from a thou-
fand to fifteen hundred ; and on the Windward Coaft, per-
haps a folitary individual, or only two or three at a time ;
fo that Having, as it is called, is very tedious in that quarter.
}^\\ thofe, who are thus oftered for fale, undergo previous
Vol. XXXIII.

examination by a furgeon ; and none are taken but fuch as are
free from diforder, and in the prime of life. Indeed 25 years
of age is the ftandard, beyond which the purchafers do not
like to take them. In making their bargains, the goods as
well as the flaves are valued by a medium, which is known to
the parties concerned. From Senegal to the end of the Wind-
ward Coaft, this medium is called a bar both by African
and European brokers ; on the Gold Coaft and at Whidah,
an ounce ; at Calabar, a copper ; at Benin, a pawn ; and
at Angola, a piece. Thus every flave is valued at fo many
bars, ounces, &;c. Every piece of goode, every barrel of
powder, every knife and cutlafs, is valued in like manner.
One article is marked half a bar or ounce ; another a whole
bar or ounce ; another five, ten, twenty, and fo on. Bjr
means of this arrangement, the bill is eafily made out on
both fides. The Europeans reckon the amount by pen and
ink ; the Africans by fmall ilones or beads. Some of the
latter, however, reckon entirely by their heads, and are
found to be correft.

When the flaves are conveyed to the (hore, they are
carried in boats to the different fliips whofe captains have
purchafed them. The men are immediately confined two
and two together, either by the neck, leg, or arm, with
fetters of folid iron. They are then put into their apart-
ments ; the men occupying the fore-part, the women the
after-part, and the boys the middle of the vefTel. The tops
of thefe apartments are grated for the admiffion of light and
air, and they are ftowed like any other lumber, occupying
fuch quantity of room as has been allotted to them. Many
of them, whilft the fliips are waiting for their full lading,
and whilft they are near their native ftiore, from which they
are to be feparated for ever, have manifelled great appear-
ance of oppreffion and diftrefs ; and in fome cafes have re-
curred, for apprehended relief, to fuicide ; others have been
affefted with delirium and madnefs ; others, again, have
been aftuated by a fpirit of revenge, and have refolved on
punifhing their oppreflbrs at the hazard of their own Hves.
In the day-time, if the weather be. fine, they are brought
upon deck for air. They are placed in a long row of two
and two together, on each fide of the ftiip : a long chain
is then made to pafs through the fliackles of each pair, by
which means each row is at once fecured to the deck. In
this ftate they take their meals, which confift chiefly of
horfe-beans rice, and yams, with a little palm-oil and
pepper. Captain Hall informs us, that they are made,
after meals, to jump as high as their fetters will let them,
on beating a drum. If they refufe, they are whipped till
they comply. This the flave-merchants call dancing. Sur-
geon Falconbridge explains to us the reafon of this cuftom,
by Hating that the flaves are compelled to jump for cxercife ;
and furgeon Claxton fays, that the parts on which tlie
fliackles are fattened, are often excoriated by the violent
exercife they are forced to take : and of tliis they made
many grievous comphints to him. In the fame manner the
fong is faid to be promoted among tlicm ; whereas all their
fongs, fays furgeon Falconbridge, Mr. Morley, furgeon
Claxton, Mr. Ellifon, and others, are of a melancholy na-
ture, confifting of lamentations for the lofs of their couutry
and of their friends.

When the number of flaves U completed, the fliips weigii
anchor, and begin what is termed tlie yl'/i(/.//c palTage, to
carry them to their refpeftive colonies. The vciiels in which
they are tranfported arc of difTcrent dimenfions, from 1 1 to
800 tone, and they carry from 30 to 1500 flaves at a time.
The height of the apartments is difi'erent. according to the
fize of the veflel, but may be Hated to be from fix feet to
Icfs than three ; (» that it is impoffible to ftund cred in molt
Q of

SLAVE-TRADE.

ot the vedols that tranfport them, and in fome fcarcely to
lit down in the iame pofture.

When the veliel is full, their fituation is truly pitiable.
A grown-up perfon is allowed, in the bed resjulated fliips,
but fixteen Englilb inches each in width, two (Englifli) feet
eight inches in height, and five feet eleven inches in length ;
OT, as furgeon Falconbridge exprefles himfelf, not fo much
room as a man has in his coffin. Surcreon AVilfon defcribes the
(laves as much crowded below. He generally took off his
(hoes before lie went down among them, and was obliged to
be very cautious how he walked, left he fhonld tread upon
them. Captain Knox admits, that they had not room to
lie on their backs. It alfo appears, that if they are the leaft
dilatory or reluftant in packing themfelves, they are quick-
ened by the application of the whip. Dr. Trotter lays,
they are fo crowded below, that it is impoffible to walk
through them without treading on them ; and alfo, that it
is the firft mate's duty to fee them ifowed or packed to-
gether. Thofe who do not get quickly into their places,
are compelled by a cat-o'-nine-tails. But now their fitua-
tion becomes too wretched to be defcribed. No language
has words to explain it properly. Captain Hall has often
heard them cry out from below for want of air. The fpace
between decks was fo hot, that often, after he has been
there but a few minutes among them, he found his fhirt fo
wetted by perfpiration, that he could have wrung it. Mr.
Ellifon fays, that the fteam from their confined bodies be-
low comes up through the gratings like a furnace. Sur.
geon Wilfon has often heard them complain of heat. The
bad effefts, which refulted from this and their confine-
ment, were weaknefs and fainting. He has feen fome die a
few minutes after being brought up, which proceeded from
corrupted air and heat jointly. He has feen others go down
apparently well at night, and found them dead in the morn-
ing. He had an hofpital on board, but the fitk flaves were
obliged to lie on the bare boards, fo that the motion of the
veflel often cccafioned excoriations from the prominent parts
of their bodies. Surgeon Falconbridge declares, that he
has known flaves go down apparently in health, and
brought up dead in the morning. He once opened one of
them furgically, to difcover with certainty what was the
caule of his death ; and found, from the appearance of the
thorax and abdomen, that it was from fuffocation. He
fays, that once on going below, he found that twenty of
the flaves had fainted. He got them inftantly hauled up on
deck ; but notwithftanding the quicknefs of his movements
on this occafion, two or three of them died. And once,
though he was only fifteen minutes in their room below, he
became fo ill himfelf, that he could not get up aaain to the
deck without help ; and he never was below many minutes
together, but his Ihirt was as wet as if it had been dipt in
water. He fays alfo, that as the flaves, whether well or ill,
always lie on the bare planks, the motion of the fliip rubs
the flefh from the prominent parts of their body, and leaves
the hones almoll bare. And when the flaves have the flux,
which is frequently the cafe, the whole place becomes co-
vered with blood and mucus, like a flaughter-houfe ; and as
they are fettered and wedged clofe together, the utmoft dif-
order arifes from endeavours to get to three or four tubs,
which are placed among them for necefl'ary purpofes : and
this diforder is ftill further increafed, by the healthy being
not unfrequently chained to the difeafed, the dying, and
the dead. Dr. Trotter, fpeaking on the fame fubjed,
gives us an equal mefencholy account. When the fcuttles,
fays he, in the fliip's fides, are obliged to be fliut in bad
weather, the gratings are not fufficient for airing the rooms.
He never himfelf could breathe freely below, unlefs im-

mediately under the hatchway. He has feen the flaves
drawing their breath with all that laborious and anxious
effort for life, which are obferved in expiring animals, fub-
jected by experiment to foul air, or in the exhauded re-
ceiver of an air-pump. He has alfo feen them, when the
tarpauhngs have been thrown over the gratings, attempting
to heave them up, crying out, in their own language,
Kickeriiboo, ikieraioo, that is, " We are dying." Molt
of them have been recovered, by being brought upon deck ;
but fome have perifhed, and this entirely by fuffocation, as
they had no previous figns of indifpofition.

The flaves, after having been flowed, foon begin to ex-
perience the effedfs that might be naturally expeAed from
their fituation. The peftilential breath of many in fo con-
fined a If ate renders them fickly, and the vicifTitude of heat
and cold generates a flu.x. Several die, and others are in-
duced to deftroy themfelves, or to revenge themfelves on
their oppreffors. The fhips, having completed the middle
paftage, anchor in their deftincd ports ; and the unhappy
Africans on board are prepaivd for fale. Some are con-
figned to brokers, who fell them for the fliips. With this
view they are examined by labourers, who want them for
their farms ; and in tlie felection of them, friends and rela-
tions are parted without any confideration ; and when they
part with mutual embraces,- they are fevered by a lafh.
Another mode of fale is by vendue ; in which cafe, they are
carried to a tavern, or other public place, where, being put
up to fale, the%' become the property of the higheft bidder.
Thefe are ufually fuch as are in a fick and emaciated ilate,
and are generally fold for a few dollars. The third mode of
felhng them is by the " fcramble." In this cafe, the main
and quarter-decks of the (hip are darkened by fails, which are
hung over them at a convenient height. The flaves are then
brought out of the hold, and are made to ftand in the
darkened area. The purchafers, who are furniftied with
long ropes, rufh, as foon as the fignal is given, within the
awning, and endeavour to encircle as many of them as they
can.

Thefe fcrambles, however, are by no means confined to
the fhips. They are made frequently on the fhore. When
the latter happens to be the cafe, the unhappy objefts of
them are (hut up in an apartment, or court -yard, the doors
of which being thrown open, the purchafers rufh in, with
their ropes in their hands, as before defcribed.

Nothing can exceed the terror which the wretched
Africans exhibit on thefe occafions. An univerfal (hriek is
immediately heard. All is confternation and difmay. The
men tremble. The women clng together in each other's
arms. Some of them faint away, and others have been
known to expire. If any thing can exceed the horror ot
fuch a fcene, it muft be the iniquity of valuing a part of the
rational creation in fo debafed a light, and of fcrambling
for human flefh and blood.

During the time that elapfes from the flaves being put
on board, on the African coalt, to the time when the re-
ceivers leave the colonies, after having difpofed of their
cargoes, about 25,000 lives are deftroyed, i. e. one-fifth,
or nearer one-fourth of the number put on board. About
20,000 of thofe who are annually imported die during the
" feafoning ;" which feafoning is faid to expire, when the
firft two years of fervitude are completed. This is the time
whicii an Africanmuit take to be fo accuftomed to the colony,
as to be able to endure the common labour of a plantation,
and to be put into the gang. From the period when their
feafoning terminates, their fituation is as follows. They
are fummoned at five in the morning to begin their work.
This work may be divided into two kinds, the culture of
lof the

SLAVE-TRADE.

the fields, and the coUeftion of grafs for cattle. The lafl.
is the mod laborious and intolerable employment ; as the
grafs can only be coUefted blade by blade, and is to be
fetched frequently twice a day at a confiderable diftance
from the plantation. In thefe two occupations they are
jointly taken up, with no other interminion than that of
taking their fubliftence twice, till nine at night. They
then feparate for their refpettive huts, when they gather
fticks, prepare their fupper, and attend their famihes.
This employs them till midnight, when they go to rell.
Such is their daily way of life for rather more than half the
year. They are lixteen iiours, including two intervals at
meals, in the fervice of their mailers : they are employed
three afterwards in their own nccelFary concerns ; five only
remain for fleep, and their day is finifhed.

During the remaining portion of the year, or the time of
crop, the nature, as well as the time, of their employment
is confiderably changed. The whole gang is generally di-
vided into two or three bodies. One of thefe, befides the
ordinary labour of the day, is kept in turn at the mills, that
are conitantly going, during the whole of the night. This
is a dreadful encroachment upon their time of relt, whicii
was before too fhort to permit them perfeftly to refrelh
their wearied limbs, and adf ually reduces their fleep, as long
as this feafon lails, to about three hours and an half a night,
upon a moderate computation. Thofe who can keep their
eyes open during their nightly labour, and are willing to refill
the drowfinefs that ia continually coming upon them, are
prefently worn out ; while fome of thofe, who are overcome,
and who feed the mill between fleeping and being awake,
fuffer, for thus obeying the calls of nature, by the lofs of
a limb ; a hand or arm being frequently ground ofl. In
this manner they go on, with little or no refpite from their
work, till the crop feafon is over, when the year (from the
time of our firft defcription) is completed. They are badly
clothed, and very fcantily fed ; and on fome plantations
treated with great feverity.

The condition and treatment of the Africans are juftified
by the allcrtion, that they are an inferior link of the chain-
of nature, and made for flavery. Accordingly the inferi-
ority of their capacities has been urged, and alfo their in-
abihty for any mental exertions and attainments. But
inllances of genius and of improvement, and of (kill in tlie
mechanical arts, have been adduced, both among the ancients
and moderns, fufficient to refute this objeftion. Some have
inferred their inferiority in the fcale of nature, from their
colour. We refer thofe, who wilh to fee this argument dif-
cufTed, to Mr. Hume's Ellays, EIT. xxi. p. 222, note M ;
Dr. Beattie's ElTay on Truth ; and Clarkfon's EfTay, &c.

Sir George Young and captain Thompfon, both of the
royal navy, and the reverend Mr. Newton, and furgeons
Falconbridge and Wilfon, who were fevcrally called upon
for their public tillimony on this fuhjeft, all declare, that
the capacities of the Africans are good ; and that they
would be equal, under equal advantages, to thofe of the
Europeans.

Mr. Wadllrom, another of thofe examined, who travelled
on difcovery in Africa, by order of the king of Sweden,
afi'erts the fame thing ; for he fays, they are as capable of
improvement as the whiles. He found among them perfons
who could manufafture gold and iron. Others made cloth
and leather with ncatnefs, dyeing the former, and tanning
the latter. Others made indigo, fait, foap, and earthen-
ware, with confiderable (kill. He offered to produce dif-
ferent fpecimens of their work.

This account of their capacity and manufafturc is corro-
borated by captain Wilfon of the royal navy, lieutenant

Dalrymple of the army, and Mr. Kiernan, three other wit-
neffes, all of whom vifited the fame part of the coaft.

Of their fenCbihty, feveral inllances occur in the evidence.
Mr. Wadllrom is convinced that they furpafs in affeftion
fuch of the Europeans as he has known, and that they are
honell and hofpitable. He has been among them without
fear, though alone, and was always treated by them with
civility and kindnefs. Captain Wilfon fays, that they are
grateful and alFeftionate ; that when he was many miles up
their country, alone and unprotefted, they treated him molt
kindly, vying with each other in entertaining him, and
fhedding tears at his departure. Captain Thomfon, before
mentioned, lieutenant Storey of the royal navy, lieutenant
Dahymple, Mr. How, the botanift, Mr. Towne, and
captain Hall of the merchants' fervice, concur in defcribing
them as harmlefs, friendly, hofpitable, juft and pundtual in
their dealings, and ns capable of virtuous aftions as the reft,
of mankind. Mr. Bowman, who refided among them as a
trader, found them good and honeft, friendly and hofpit-
able, indullrious, difpofed to trade, raiCng rice for fale.
They faid, they Ihould hke to trade with good white men,
and would foon raife more plantations of rice. Captain
Hills of the royal navy has feen them raifing provisions,
and drefling their corn. They appeared to him to poflcfs
great fenfibihty. Several of them fpoke good French and
Englilh.

This is the charafter given of them by the witnefles now
mentioned. It is melancholy, however, to obferve, that
as they become acquainted with the European flave-traders,
their difpofition ieems to be changed ; and that they are
belt, where they have the lead intercourfe with the latter.
Lieutenant Storey tells us, they are more honell inland than
upon the coaft. Mr. Towne, who was three or four hun-
dred miles up the country, fays, the natives are hofpitable,
kind, and ready at learning languages ; that in the inland
country they are innocent, but, on the coaft, their inter-
courfe with Europeans has made them adepts in roguery,
and taught them to plunder, and pick up one another to fell.
Dr. Trotter, phyfician, fays, that they are fufceptible of
all the fecial virtues. He has known inllances of feehng
equal to thofe of any civilized people whatever, and has
feen no bad habits but among thofe engaged in trade with
white men. Captain Hall found cultivation in the higheft
Hate at i'crnandipo, where they had no trade in flavcs. Mr.
How, the botaiiilt, had been upon almoll every Britifh
fettlement, and always found the culture in a higher degree,
where there was but a little of the fiave-trade ; and jnll the
revcrfe, where it prevailed. The reverend Mr. Newton
fays, the bell people were thofe who had the leall intercourfe
with the Europeans ; and they were worfe, in proportion
to their acquaintance with us ; and when charged with a
crime, would fay, " Do you think I am a white man .'"
He lived alone among the Sherbro people in lafety. who
were friendly and civilized. Lieutenant Dalrymple dates,
that in natural capacity the Africans equal any people what-
ever. They arc humane, hofpitable, and well difpofed.
He apprehends, that if they had a proper market for their
produce, they would be as indullrious as any Europeans ;
for wiicre there was no fiave-trade, they were very induf-
trious, manufafturing cotton-cloth, working in gold, filver,
and iron, and alfo in wood and leather, making faddleSt
bow-cafes, fcabbards, and other articles.

It appears from the above account, that the Africans are
perloiis of the like feelings as ourfelves; that they have the
fame intelleftnal powers, and the fame capability of im-
provement ; the fame fecial difpofitions, and the fame
moral qualifications ; but that they are more or lefs in-
Q 2 noccnt,

SLAVE-TRADE.

nocent, as they have more or lefs conneftion with the Eu-
ropeans.

To one argument that has been alleged in favour of
flavery, we wifh to direft the attention of our readers, be-
fore we clofe this article. It has been faid, that flavery was
not formally aboli(hed by the gofpel, and that it therefore
continued for a long time after the introduftion of Chrif-
tianity. It has been faid, that St. Paul, having converted
Onefimus to the Chrittian faith, who was a fugitive flave of
Philemon, fent him back to his mailer. This circumftance
has furnifhed the receivers with a plea, that Chriftianity en-
courages flavery. But they have not only (trained the paf-
fages which they produce in fupport of their aflertions,
but are ignorant of hiftorical fafts. The benevolent apoftle,
in the letter which he wrote to Philemon, the mailer of
Onefimus, addrefl'es him to the following effeft : " I fend
him back to you, but not in his former capacity, not now
as a fervant, but above a fervant, a brother beloved. In
this manner I befeech you to receive him, for though I
could enjoin you to do it, yet I had rather it fliould be a
matter of your own will, than of neceflity."

It appears that the fame Onefimus, when he was fent
back, was no longer a flave, that he was a minifter of the
gofpel, that he was joined with Tychicus in an ecclefiaftical
commifiion to the church of the Coloflians, and was after-
wards bilhop of Ephefus. If language, therefore, has any
meaning, and if hiilory has recorded a fa£l which may be
believed, there is no cafe more oppofite to the doftrine of
the receivers, than this which they produce in its fupport.

It is faid again, that Chriftianity, among the many im-
portant precepts which it contains, does not furnifli us with
one for the abolition of flavery. But the reafon is obvious.
Slavery, at the time of the introduftion of the gofpel, was
univerfally prevalent, and if Chriftianity had abruptly de-
clared, that the millions of flaves fliould have been made
free, who were then in the world, it would have been uni-
verfally rejefted, as containing doftrines that were dan-
gerous, if not deftruftive, to fociety. In order, therefore,
that it might be univerfally received, it never meddled, by
any pofitive precept, with the civil inftitutions of the times :
but though it does not exprefsly fay, that " you ftiall
neither buy, nor fell, nor poilefs a flave," it is evident that,
in its general tenor, it fufBciently militates again il the
cuftom.

The iirft doftrine which it inculcates is that of brotherly
love. It commands good will towards men. It enjoins us
to love our neighbour as ourfelvee, and to do unto all men,
as we would that they fhould do unto us. And how can
any man fulfil this fcheme of univerfal benevolence, who
reduces an unfortunate perfon, againft his will, to the moft
infupportable of all human conditions ; who confiders him as
his private property ; and treats him, not as a brother, nor
as one of the fame parentage with himfelf, but an animal of
the brute creation ?

But the moft important doflrine is that, by which we are
aflured that mankind are to exill in a future flate, and to
give an account of thofe aftions which they have feverally
done in the flefti. This ftrikes at the very root of flavery.
For how can any man be juftly called to an account for his
aftions, whofe aftions are not at his own difpofal ? This is
the cafe with the proper flave. His liberty is abfolutcly
bought and appropriated ; and if the purchafe is juft and
equitable, he is under the neceifity of perpetrating any
crime, which the purchafer may order him to commit ; or,
in other words, of ceafing to be accountable for his aftions.
Thefe doftrines, therefore, are fuflicient to fliew, that
flavery is incompatible with the Chriftian fyftem. The

Europeans confidered them as luch, when, at the clofe o(
the twelfth century, they refifted their hereditary prejudices,
and occafioned its abolition. Hence one, among many
other proofs, that Chriftianity was the produftion of infinite
wifdom ; that though it did not take fuch exprefs cogni-
zance of the wicked national inftitutions of the times, as
fliould hinder its reception, it fliould yet contain fuch doc-
trines, as, when it fliould be fully eftabliflied, would be .
fuflicient for the abolition of them all. See Clarkfon's
Eflay on the Slavery and Commerce of the human Species,
paflim.

Slave-trade, Abolition of the. It is a circumftance fa-
vourable to the hiftorian, that this great work was never re-
gularly attempted till our own times ; becaufe the fadls re-
lating to it being frefli in every one's memory, an opportu-
nity has been afforded him of examining them, and of efti-
mating their truth : hence pofterity will have the advantage
of having more than ufually accurate ilatements on the fub-
jeft. Mr. Thomas Clarkfon, a gentleman now living, who
was among the warmeft patrons of this facred caufe, has
publiflied an account of the different meafures purfued to
promote it. Thefe were regiftered at the time, either by
himfelf, or the eilimable committee which adled in concert
with him. His hiftory, in two volumes oftavo, has been
now more than fix years before the public, and not the
fliadow of a doubt has been expreffed as to the authenticity
of any thing afterted therein ; we cannot, therefore, we
conceive, hand down information on this great fubjeft in a
more fatisfaftory manner, than by giving to the reader a
concife abridgment of the work itfelf.

The great work of the abolition, according to Mr. Clark-
fon, was not the entire produce of his own day. It was too
mighty to have been accompliflied, either by a few indivi-
duals, or in a fliort period of time : it was neceflary that
men's minds fliould have been previoufly inftrufted and pre-
pared : hence, from the very beginning of the infamous
traffic, to the time when he became a public aftor in the
fcene of its fuppreffion, which was in the year 1787, there
had not been wanting good men to lift up their voices
againft it : and as the fentiments of thefe, who were moft of
them authors, had been given to the public in their refpeftive
works, either in poetry or profe, for a long fuccelfion of
years, hundreds of perfons had been then taught in England
to condemn it. Thefe, that is, the good men jull alluded
to, Mr. Clarkfon confiders as fo many necefl^ary forerun-
ners (indeed he gives them that title) ; and confiders them
alfo, though moft of them lived before his own time, as
fo many coadjutors in the work. The firft mentioned are
cardinal Ximenes, the emperor Charles V., pope Leo X.,
queen Elizabeth of England, and Louis XIII. of France ;
concerning all of whom he gives anecdotes in fupport of
the title thus given them.

Having fpoken firft of the men in power, Mr. Clarkfon
divides the forerunners who walked in humbler life into four
claffes. The firft confifts principally of perfons in Eng-
land, of various religious defcriptions, who bore their tefti-
mony againft the trade in their fucceflive writings up to the
year 1787. Among the poets were Pope, Thomfon, Shen-
ftone, and Cowper ; among the divines, bifliop Warburton,
Rd. Baxter, Beattie, Wefley, Whitfield, Wakefield, and
Paley ; among the others, were Montefquieu, Hutchinfon,
Wallis, Burke, Pottlethwaite, Day, Hartley, Millar, and
Granvflle Sharp. The latter, however, is to be particu-
larly diftinguiftied from the reft, and alfo to be borne in
mind ; for whereas the others had only handed down the traffic
in queflion as infamous, by the mention made of it in their re-
fpeflive works, this good man fpent whole years in bringing

the

SLAVE-TRADE.

t?ie cfuehy and wickednefs of it into public notice. He
tried, at his own expence, the famous cafe of Somerfet, and
feveral others, in our courts of law. He was, in faft, the
firft labourer in the caufe. He began to be the public ad-
vocate of the opprefTed Africans in 1765, and was waiting
for opportunities for farther exertion in 1787, the partieular
epoch before-mentioned.

The fecond clafs coiififts of the Quakers in England. This
cilimable fociety palTed a public cenfure upon the traffic at
cheir yearly meeting in London, in 1727. This they fol-
lowed up, by other refolutions as a body, in 1758, 1761,
1763, and 1772, when they had become principalled againil
it as againil a crime of the deepelt dye. Tn 1783 they pe-
titioned parliament againft its continuance. In this year
certain members of the fociety thought it their duty to make
their fellow countrymen at large acquainted with the hor-
rible nature of it : thefe were, Thomas Knowles, George
Harrifon, Samuel Hoare, John Lloyd, Jofeph Woods, and
WiUiam Dillwyn. They formed themfelves into a committee
in London for this purpofe; they wrote and circulated books ;
they conveyed alfo information on the fubjeft through the
London and country newfpapers. It was not known, how-
ever, from whom the information came, as their names were
concealed from the public. In this manner they continued
to work their way from 1783 to 1787.

The third clafs confiils of the Quakers and others in
North America. The Quakers there entertained the fame
opinion as their brethren in England on this fubjeft. In
1696 and in 171 1, they condemned, m a religious body,
this cruel traffic; and in 1754, 1755, I774> 1776, and
1 778, they not only pafTed refolutions againil it, as far as
their own members were concerned, but alfo againil flavery
itfelf. In procefs of time, however, individuals rofe up out
of this benevolent body, and became public labourers in the
caufe of the unhappy Africans. The two principal of
thefe were John Woolman and Anthony Benezet. The
former travelled many hundred miles on foot, to converfe
with planters, and others, on the iniquity of holding their
fellow creatures in bondage ; and the latter laboured for
years in colleAing information concerning Africa and the
llave-trade, and in handing it to the world. At this time
other people, of other religious denominations, came for-
ward in North America, and contributed to increafe ihe
odium which the Quakers had been the firll to excite there
againil the traffic ; when, in 1774, James Pemberton, a
pious Quaker in Pennfylvania, and Dr. Rufli, an eminent
phyfician, and a man of weight among the Prefbyterians in
the fame province, formed a committee, in which perfons of
diflerent religious fcfts joined for the purpofe of abolilhing
both the (lave-trade and flavery on their own continent.
This committee was obliged to fufpend its operations during
the war with Great Britain, bnt afterwards refumed its func-
tions. In 1787 it added confiderably to its numbers, and
took in, among others, the celebrated Dr. Franklin, who
was its fiill prefidcnt in its renovated Hate.

It will be proper to Hop here, and to interrupt the thread
of the hillory for a moment. It has appeared, from what
has been faid above, firll, that Mr. Granville Sharp, the
moll confpicuous member of the firll of the clalles now
mentioned, was alive in 1787, and then waiting for an op-
portunity of exerting himfelf fartlier in behalf of the in-
jured Africans ; fecondly, that of the fecond clafs, William
Dillwyn was one of a committee for the fame objeft in the
fame year ; and, thirdly, thac James Pemberton was alfo
alive in the very fame year, and a very conipicuons member
of the third. Now it happened that William Dillwyn, who
liad been born and long relident in America, had been 111 ha-

bits of intimate friendlhip with James Pemberton ; and that
in confequence of his acquaintance alfo with the venerable
Anthony Benezet, he had been introduced, by means of a
letter from him, upon coming to England, to Mr. Gran-
ville Sharp. Here then we find that a member of the fe-
cond clafs was accidentally known to a member of the firll,
and alfo to a member of the third : thus we fee how eafily
William Dillwyn might be made the medium through whom
the members of all the claffes might be eafily united, if a fit
occafion Ihould offer.

To return, we come now to the fourth clafs of forerun-
ners. The firll in this clafs was Dr. Peckard, mailer of
Magdalen college, in the univerfity of Cambridge. This
gentleman had not only cenfured the flave-trade in the fevered
manner, in a fermon preached before the univerfity itfelf;
but when he became vice-chancellor of it, in 1785, he gave
out the following fubjeft for one of the bachelors' prizes,
" Anne liceat invitos in fervitutem dare ?" or, " Is it right
to make flaves of others againil their will I" At this time
Mr. Thomas Clarkfon, before-mentioned, who had obtained
the bachelor's prize of the former year, determined to be-
come a candidate for that of the prefent. He took prodi-
gious pains to make himfelf mailer of the fubjeft, as far as
the time would allow, both by procuring proper books, and
by feeing as many perfons as he could of thofe who had
been in iVWca, and who had become in any degree acquaint-
ed with the nature of the flave-trade. Having thus gained
a confiderable flock of necelfary information, he wrote his
Latin effay, and having fent it in to the vice-chancellor, he
foon found himfelf honoured with the firll prize. Af-
ter this, being then in London, he went down to Cam-
bridge at the time of the commencement, in order to
read it publicly, as is ufual, in the fenate-houfe. The
next day he returned towards London : he was then on
horfeback ; but while upon the road the fubjeft of the
effay entirely engrofled his thoughts ; he became at times
ferioufly affefted as he travelled on. He once Hopped his
horfe, and difmounted and fat down on a bank by the road-
fide. Here he tried to perfuade himfelf, that the contents
of the effay which he had read in the fenate-houfe the
day before, were not true. The more, however, he re-
flefted upon the authorities on which he knew them to be
founded, the more he gave them credit ; and the more he
gave them credit, the more he was convinced that it was an
imperious duty in fome one to endeavour to fee the fufferings
of the unhappy Africans to an end. Agitated in this
manner, he reached London. This was in the fummer of
1785. In the autumn of the fame year, he found himfelf
often fimilarly exercifed ; till at length he began to have fe-
rious thoughts of devoting his life to the caufe of injured
Africa. Being then but twenty-four years of age, he con-
fidered his youth and his want of knowledge of the world as
a great obltacle. Many other circumflances occurred to
difcourage him. He thought, however, that there was one
way, in which he might begin to be ufcful to the caufe ;
namely, by tranflating his Latin effay, and publifliing it in
Englifli. Accordingly he began the work, and having
finifhed it, he was looking out for a publilher, when he ac-
cidentally met an old friend of hii family, who belonged to
the relip-ious fociety of the Quakers. This gentleman, of
his own .iccord, alked him why he had not publilhcd his
prize ellay in Englifh. Many of his brethren (the Quakers),
he laid, were anxioufly cxpefting it. Upon tarther con-
verfation, this gentleman introduced Mr. Clarklon to Mr.
Phillips, a bookfcller in George-yard, Lombard-flreet, and
who was alio of the religious fociety before-mentioned ;
at which interview it was agreed that the latter fhould im-
mediately

SLAVE-TRADE.

mediately publifti the work. In a fhort time after this, Mr.
PhiUips introduced Mr. Clarkfon to Mr. Dillvvyn of Wal-
thamftow, one of the fecond clafs of coadjutors before-
inentioned, with wliom hefpent the day. Here it was that
he heard for the firit time of the labours of Mr. Granville
Sharp. But how furprifed was he to learn that Mr. Dill-
wyn had two years before affociated himfelf with five others
(as has been already mentioned), for the purpofe of en-
lightening the public mind in England on this great fub-
jeft. How aftonidied was he to find that a fociety had been
formed in North America for the fame purpofe, with fome
of the principal of which Mr. Dillwyn was himfelf ac-
quainted. He was almoft overwhelmed with the thoughts,
which darted upon him on this occafion. He could not but
confider that he had been providentially led to Mr. Dill-
wyn's houfe ; that the day-ftar of African liberty was
rifing i and that probably he himfelf might be now per-
mitted to have the honour of becoming an humble inftru-
ment in promoting it. Soon after this he was introduced
to the venerable Mr. Sharp, the lail and moit eminent of
the fecond clafs of coadjutors, and foon after this his work
came out under the title of " An EHay on the Slavery and
Commerce of the human Species, particularly the African,
which was honoured with the firll Prize in the Univerfity of
Cambridge, for the Year 1785." The work having been
now uftlered into the world, (this was in June 1786,) Mr.
Clarkfon refolved upon the diftribution of it in the moft fe-
left manner he could, in order that the cafe of the unhappy
Africans might be known by thofe who had in fotne degree
the power of relieving them. Accordingly, at his requeft.
Dr. Baker, a moft exemplary clergyman in London, lord
and lady Scarfdale, fir Charles and lady Middleton, and
Mr. Bennet Langton, the intimate friend of Dr. Johnfon,
of Jonas Hanway, of fir Jofhua Reynolds, of Edmund
Burke, and of other celebrated perfons, undertook to dif-
tribute copies of it perfonally among their own friends, in
the higher ranks of life, and to ufe their intereft in pro-
curing a perufal of them. Under their aufpices the book
was firft introduced into the polite world. The mind, how-
ever, of the author became daily more and more agitated on
the fubjeft of it. He was not fatisfied that what he was
then doing was all that was necefTary to be done ; or that it
was all that was required of him. To make the cafe of the
unhappy Africans known, was defirable as a firlt ftep ; but
would this of itfelf put a (top to the horrors of the trade?
He believed not : he believed there would be no hope of fuc-
cefs, unlef ■ fome ohe would refolve to make it the bufinefs of
his life. The queftion then was, was he himfelf called upon
to do it .' His own peace of mind required that he ftiould
give a final anfwer to this quellion. To do this he retired
frequently into folitude. The refult was, after the moft
mature deliberation, and the moft painful itruggle, that he
determined to devote his whole life, (hould it be neceffary,
to the caufe. This determination was made about the lat-
ter end of December, 1786; in the beginning of 1787 the
diftribution of the elfay went on, but by additional hands.
Mr. Sheldon, fir Herbert Mackworth, lord Balgonie (now
lord Leven), each took a part on the occafion. The
Quakers joined in the diftribution alfo, among whom, Mr.
Richard Phillips (nov/ living) is to be particularly noticed.
This arrangement having been made, Mr. Clarkfon was now
able to devote all his time to qualify himfelf for the arduous
fituation to which he liad devoted himfelf. He gained intro-
duftions to perfons who had been in Africa and the Weft
Indies, and obtained ftill farther information on the fubjedl
in its different branches. He vifited flave-ftiips lying in the
Thames, either as they came in or failed out of port, that

he might know their conftruftion and other particulars. He
went frequently to the cuftom-houfe in London, where lie
learnt the nature of the articles which conitituted the traffic,
the lofs of feam.en employed in it, and other matters which
he found it efiential to knw. He kept up a correfpondence
with perfons in Liverpool for the fame purpofe. He vifited
alfo members of parliament, and this almoft daily, to inte-
reft them in his caufe ; to give them information ; to anfwer
queftions ; and to explain doubts, if they had any, on any
part of the fubjecl. Among thofe who appeared moft af-
fefted by his vifits, and moft anxious to co-operate with him,
was Mr. Wilberforce, the member for the county of York.
Tills gentleman not only read the evidence which Mr. Clark-
fon fent him on the fubjeft, as he collefted it frefh from day
to day, but aftually fent for, and took tlie pains to examine,
at his own houfe, thofe perfons who had given it, that he
might judge for himfelf, from their own mouths, of the
truth or falfehood of the enormities which had been
charged upon the flave-trade. The fame gentleman ap-
pointed alfo a meeting once a week, at his own houfe, of a
few feleft friends, to deliberate on the propriety, and, if
this were relolved upon, on the proper method of taking up
the caufe. Thefe meetings csntinued for fome time, when
at length, at a dinner at the houfe of Mr. Bennet Langton,
who has been before-mentioned, where feveral perfons of
confequence were invited for the purpofe of talking over the
matter, and of coming to a final determination upon it, Mr.
Wilberforce pledged himfelf to bring forward the great
queftion of the abolition of the flave-trade in parliament, as
foon as ever he ftiould feel himfelf prepared for fo tremen-
dous a tafli. Here then the matter began to affume a fhape.
A parhamentary leader had been fecured, and one whofe
virtuous life correfponded with the facrednefs of the caufe
which he was to advocate. Mr. Clarkfon, who was prefent
at this dinner, carried direftly the news of what had taken
place to feveral of his friends, but particularly to Mr. Gran-
ville Sharp, Mr. Dillwyn, and three or four others of the re-
ligious fociety of the Quakers, all of whom he had previoufly
taught to expeft fuch a refult. The confequence was, that
the following perfons met the next day, and without lofs of
time formed themfelves into a committee, " for procuring
fuch information and evidence, and publifhing the fame, as
may tend to the abolition of the (lave-trade, and for direft-
ing the appfication of fuch monies as may be collefled for
the above purpofe," viz. Granville Sharp, Samuel Hoare,
George Harrifon, John Lloyd, Jofeph Woods, William
Dillwyn, Thomas Clarkfon, Richard PhiUips, James Phil-
lips, Philip Sanfom, John Barton, and Jofeph Hooper.
Mr. Granville Sharp, the firft mentioned, may be confidered,
from what has been before faid, as reprefentinsf the firft of
the clalfes which have been defcribed. The fur next were
the real reprefentatives of the fecond. The third clafs,
or that of the Quakers in America, may be confidered as
reprefented in the perfon of William Dillwyn, by whom,
indeed, it was afterwards united to the committee now
formed ; and Mr. Clarkfon and Mr. R. Phillips as rcpre-
fenting the fourth, moft of the members of which thev had
been the means of raifing. " Thus," fays the hiftorian,' " on
the 22d of May, 1787, the reprefentatives of all the four
dalles, of which I have been giving a hiftory from the year
15 16, met together, and were united in that committee, to
which I have been all along directing tlie attention of the
reader ; a committee, which, labouring afterwards with Mr.
W'llberforce as a parhamentary head, did, under Providence,
in the fpace of twenty years, contribute to put an end to
a trade, which, meafuring its magnitude by its crimes and
fufferings, was the greateft praftical evil that ever affliAed

the

SLAVE-TRADE.

tiie human race. After the formation of the committee,
i.otice was fent to Mr. Wilborforce of the event ; ai d a
iriendlhip began, which has continued uninterruptedly be-
tween them from that to the prefer.t day." In the follow-
ii!C; month, that is, in June 1787, the committee fimplificd
its former title, and was ufhered into the world. It profefTed
to have nothing to do with the emancipation of flaves al-
ri'.idy in bondage. Its only objeft was the abolition of the
African flave-trade. From this period we (hall give a hif-
•-ory of its proceedings, year by year.

The committee was no fnoner formed, than Mr. Clarkfon
drew up' " A Summary View of the Slave-Trade, and of
the probable Confequences of its Abolition." It confdted
■inly of aboijt a dozen pages. It detailed the different me-
lods of making flaves in Africa, their treatment, fufferings,
, i,d mortahty in the paffage ; and alfo the treatment of the

urvivors in the colonies to which they were carried ; and it
promifed the publication of an Eflay on the Impolicy of the
Slave-trade. This fummary the committee determined to
print, and to circulate all over the kingdom. In the mean
time Mr. Clarkfon was to take a journey to the different
ilave-ports, to increafe his own knowledge of the fubjeft.
Such knowledge was abfolutely neceffary in cafe parliament
(honld call for evidence : and if there was any one time
more fit than another for procuring fuch evidence, it was
the prefent ; for men's minds had not then been heated by
calking upon the fubjeft, nor had interell hitherto felt itfelf
biafled to conceal the truth ; but as foon as ever it fhould
get abroad that parliament was to look into the fubjeft, all
avenues to farther information would be fhut againit him.
The firit place he vifited was Briftol, where he refided for
feme weeks. Here he obtained a knowledge of feveral ar-
ticles of African produce, fuch as rice,' indigo, cotton,
fpices, and woodn, and cdlefted fpecimeiis of them. He
obtained fpecimens alfo of the different manufaftures of the
natives of Africa, both in wood, cotton, leather, iron, and
gold. He examined the conttruftion of flave-fhips, and took
the dimenfimis of feveral. He obtained hiltorie.s of their
former voyages. He colleftcd chains, handcuffs, thumb-
fcrcws, and other horrid initruments ufed in this execrable
traffic. He difcoverod the fcandalous modes of procuring
and paying thofe feamen who were employed in it, the fad
ratio of their mortality on the voyage, and the prodigious
difference between the mortality of thefe and of thofe em-
ployed in other trades, of which he was enabled to take a
I'omprehenfive view, from procuring the mufler-roUs of al-
nioll every (hip belonging to the port. But th.it which
hurt his feelings the moll, and which kept him indeed in a
ite of conftant miiery while in Brillol, was the barbarous

lUige, and this almolt without an exception, of the fea-
men employed in this traffic. He took many out of the
flave-veflcls there. He took up the caufe of fomc of thefe,
and obtained damages for them in the courts of law. He
fent a chief mate to prifon for the murder of one of the
crew ailing under him. While at Briltol, he formed a com-
mittee to acl in union with that of London, and obtained
promifes of petitions to parliament againll the continuance
of the inhuman traffic from that city, and from Bath, Mon-
moulli, and Bridgewater. On his journey from Briltol t;>
Liverpool, he procured the promife of fimilar petitions
from Gloucerter, Worcelfer, and Chellcr, and fecured the
provincial newfpapcrs as he travelled on in behalf of his
caufc. On his arrival at Liverpool, he followed the fame
line of enquiry as at Briftol, for (ix weeks, after which pe-
riod (fo incenfed were merchants, captains of (hips, and
others connefted with the trade, againfl him) it would have

been dangerous to ftay. From thence he vifited Lancafter,
the laft of the flave-ports, and at length returned to London,
after an abfei'ce of five months, in the December of 1787.
The committee, in the mean while, that is, during his ab-
fence, had been equally well employed, and had been
equally indefatigable. The (iril thing they did was to make
known, by public adverlilement, theirexilfenceas aci'mmit-
tee, and the great objeft they had in view. They ordered a
ieal to be engraved for their correfponde-.ce. The device
upon it was a negro in chains, kneeling, and in a fupplicating
manner lifting up his hands to heaven. The motto round
the device coniilted of thefe words, " Am I not a man and
a brother?" They then added to their committee, to in-
creafe their labourers ; and having done fo, they direftly
opened a correfpondence throughout England, Wales, and
Scotland, which they extended afterwards to America. This
gave them an opportunity of making their caufe known in
the moll extenfive manner. Accordingly, when things had
been thus prepared, they circulated many thoufands of the
fummary views before-mentioned, and, at the fame time, ad-
drefled by letter all the corporate bodies in the kingdom.
Thefe efforts foon convinced them, that there were thoufands
of kindred fouls in their own country, who felt with them
on the great fubjeft of their inftitution. The Quakers were
the firlt, as a body, to acknowledge and approve it ; the
general Baptifts the next : then followed letters of approba-
tion, and promifes of fupport from people f)f all religious
denominations. Among thefe were, the famous Dr. Price
and John Wefley ; Mr. Rofcoe, the hiftorian and poet ; Dr.
Porteus, bifhop of Chefler ; Dr. Woodward, bilhop of
Cloyne ; Dr. Hinchliffe, bifhop of Peterborough ; Dr.
Home, afterwards bifhop of Norwich ; Dr. Bathurlt, now
bi(hop of the fame; archdeacons Paley and Plymley (now
Corbett) ; the celebrated marquis de la Fayette, now alive,
who was foon afterwards confpicuous in the French revolu-
tion ; and Briffot and Claviere, afterwards two diftinguifhed
members of the national convention in France, and who fuf-
fered under the tyranny of Robefpierre. This good feeling
continued to fprcad, when, in the month of February, 1 788,
there appeared to be among the people of England a gene-
ral feeling in behalf of the injured Africans. By this time
thirty-five petitions had been prefented to parliament from
different places, praying for the abolition of the flave-trade,
and feveral others had been refolved upon. Thefe proceed-
ings produced fuch an effeft upon the governm.ent, that the
king was advifed to order a committee of privy-council to
inquire into the nature of the flave-trade. This order was
dated February n. An inquiry was of courfe immediately
fet on foot. The iirft witnedes examined, were perfons fent
exprefsly as delegates from Liverpool, who had not only
been themfelves in the trade, but who were then interelled in
its continuance. Thefe endeavoured to ihew, that none of
the enormities with which it had been charged belonged to
it ; and that it was even attended, with circumdances fa-
vourable to the unhappy viftims of it. A great prejudice
therefore was excited, in the very beginning of the iiujuiry,
in the minds of fome of the privy-council againll the abo-
litionifts ; whom they confidered a» milinforming the jJublic
mind with refpeft to a traffic, which a])peared to be lo vi-
tally connefted with the manufafturing and commercial in-
terells of the country, that it would be almoll national ruin to
aboiifh it. Happy w.u it for the caufe, at this nionient, that
Mr. Clarkfon had taken his journey to Brillol and other
places, as before-mentioned ; for he had become acquainted,
in the courfe of it, with perfons who had witiiclled the hor-
rors of the trade ; but who, having then quitted it, had no

intereft

SLAVE-TRADE.

interelt in concealing the truth. Thefe, though few, were
highly refpeftable ; and their evidence, when called before
the council, contributed to counteraA that of the Liver-
pool delegates, and others, and to turn the tide, which had
run fo itrong againft the abolitionifts, in their favour. The
inquiry which had been thus fet on foot, continued through
February, March, April, and a part of May. During
this time the petitions from the people to parliament had in-
creafed to one hundred and three. The committee alfo had
circulated many new books throughout the kingdom, writ-
ten by eye-witneflcs of the feveral fafts they contained, and
all contributing to give new information, and to add new
horror to the trade. Mr. Wilberforce alfo had been pre-
paring to introduce the fubjeA into parliament ; but at
the time vifhen his motion was expefted, he was too ill to
make it. Indeed|hi3 life was defpaired of. Under thefe cir-
cumltances, his friend, Mr. Pitt, then chancellor of the ex-
chequer and prime minifter, undertook to fupply his place.
On the 9th of May he opened the bufinefs in the houfe of
commons, and concluded by a motion, " that this houfe will,
early in the next feflion of parliament, proceed to take into
confideration the circumftances of the flave-trade complained
of in the petitions, and what may be fit to be done there-
upon." A difcuffion took place in confequence, during
which there waj an apparent enthufiafm in the houfe in be-
half of the injured Africans. The members for Liverpool,
however, denied the exiltence of any of the cruelties com-
plained of ; but they did not oppofe the motion, and there-
fore it was unanimoufly agreed to. This pledge having been
given by parliament, the public feemed fatisfied with it, and
of courfe nothing more was expefted in that feflion ; when,
on the 2ift of May, fir William Dolben fuddenly rofe up
in the houfe of commons, and moved for leave to bring in a
bill on the fubjeft of the flave-trade. As the trade, he faid,
was evidently allowed to go on till the next feflion, he
thought it was the duty of the houfe to take care that it
fhould be carried on with as much humanity as poflible in the
interim. His great objeft, therefore, was to alleviate the
fufferings of the poor Africans in their tranfportation, by
allowing them more room, which might be done by regu-
lating the number to be carried by the tonnage of the vefl'el.
Leave was accordingly given ; but the merchants of Liver-
pool determined to oppofe the bill in every ftage. They
difpatched immediately to London thofe very perfons to be
examined before the houfe, whom they had before fent for
examination to the privy-council. When counfel had clofed
their cafe, a debate enfued, in which the ftatements of thefe
witnefles were expofed, greatly to their mortification, and
the bill paffed by a majority of fifty-five to five. It was
then carried to the lords. Here a ftill more determined op-
pofition was begun, and carried on in fuch a manner, and
with fo much apparent fuccefs (the houfe being very thin at
that feafon), as to alarm the abolitionifts, not only for the
fate of the bill itfelf, but for that of their great queftion
the enfuing year. At length it paffed the upper houfe, as
through an ordeal of fire, and received the king's afTent,
on July II. During all this time, the privy-council conti-
nued their examinations. Mr. Clarkfon underwent an ex-
amination among others. It was at this time that he brought
out his powerful ellay on the impolicy of the flave-trade.
This was circulated in great numbers by the committee,
upon whom too much praife cannot be bellowed for their
labours. From July 1787 to July 1788, the time we are
now come to, they had held fifty-one long committees : they
had held as many more fub-committees : they had diftributed
\S»efide8 16,526 reports, debates in parliament, and other

matters) 51,432 pamphlets or books. They had roufed
the feelings of the whole Englifh nation, and had attrafted
the notice of fome of the moft diftinguiftied perfons in
France and Germany.

The feflion of 1788 was no fooner over, than Mr. Clark-
fon undertook a journey to all the fea-ports of the kingdom
lying between Kent and Cornwall. His objeft'was to find
out, if poflible, new witnefles to ftrengtlien the good caufe.
He met with confidcrable fuccefs in his journey, and he
formed committees, auxiliary to that of London, as he
went along. On his return to London he was again exa-
mined by the privy-council, to whom he fliewed, by way
of evidence, his coUeftion of African curiofities, confiiling
of produce and manufaftures, which he had now completed.
He introduced alfo to their lordfliips, for examination, all
the new witnefles he had difcovercd, and whofe teftimony
was of the highell value. The committee, in the mean time,
had been indefatigable. They had direfted their corre-
fpondence to new parts of the kingdom, as well as of
North America. They had addrefied the rulers of Spain,
Portugal, and Sweden, in behalf of their inftitution, and
had opened a communication with Germany on the fame
fubjeci. They had printed and circulated no k-fs than five
new works to promote their caufe, and, befides, that famous
engraving of the feftion of the flave-fhip (where the bodies of
the negroes were feen packed in the different parts of it),
which afterwards excited fuch univerfal fympathy in the
country, and which caufed fuch an univerfal abhorrence of
the trade. About this time, that is, on the 19th of March,
1789, Mr. Wilberforce, who was then but jufl: recovered
from his long and fevere illnefs, moved in the commons,
that the houfe (hould on Thurfday, the 29th of April, take
into confideration its own refolution of the lalt feflion.
This motion was agreed to, but it became immediately the
fignal to all thofe who fuppofed themfelves interefted in the
continuance of the trade, fuch as planters, mortgagees,
merchants, manufafturers, and others, to begin a tremen-
dous oppofition. Meetings were called, and frightful re-
folutions entered into. The public papers were filled with
them. Here, as well as in pamphlets, the moft bitter in-
veftives were poured forth againft the abolitionifts. Eman-
cipation was induftrioufly confounded with abohtion. Com-
penfation was demanded to a moft monftrous degree. The cry,
indeed, was fuch, that many began to be ftaggered about
the propriety of the total abolition of the trade. At this
time Mr. Pitt, his majefty's chancellor of the exchequer,
laid the privy-council report, confifting of the examinations
before-mentioned, which came out in the fliape of a large
folio volume in print, upon the table of the houfe of
commons, and mcved, in order that members might have
time to become acquainted with the evidence it contained,
that the confideration of the flave-trade, which ftood, by
Mr. Wilberforce's motion, for the 29th of April, (hould
be poftponed to the 1 2th of May. This was agreed to.
On the day appointed, Mr. Wilberforce rofe, and in a
fpeech of three hours and a half, introduced the great
queftion into parhament. He reafoned entirely from the
evidence contained in the report juil mentioned, and deduced
from it twelve grand propofitions, which he read, and then
laid them upon the table. Thefe propofitions contained
the whole queftion. He wifhed them to be argued at a
future day. Upon th's, great oppofition was manifeiled
by the members for Liverpool and others, and a warm
debate took place, when it was agreed that they fliould be
taken into confideration on the 21ft of May. When the
day arrived, feveral petitions were prefented to the hoi.fe,

4 by

SLAVE-TllADE.

ny perfons interelled in the traffic, againft its abolition.
Mr. Wilberforce rofe up and addrefled the houfe. After
tliis, an altercation took place rather than a debate, in
which much heat and animofity were manifefted. Thofe
members who efpoiifed the caufe of tlis interelled perfons,
feeing that it would be overthrown, if they judged of the
merits of it by the privy-council report, would not now
abide by the latter, but rejefted it as an imperfeft fort of
evidence, and demanded that witneffes fliould be heard at
the bar of the houfe of commons in explanation of many of
the mis-ltatements which that book contained. By thefe
means they endeavoured to get rid of the propofitions alto-
gether. Their demand, however, after a good deal of
contention, was complied with, and on the 26th of May
counfel were heard, and one witnefs, a flave-captain, was
examined. Their objedl now was to interpofe every legal
fpecies of delay, and in this they fncceeded fo well, that
from the 26th of May to the 9th of June, only two of their
writneiTes had been examined. In this flow way they went
on till the 23d of the fame month, when it was feen that
it would be utterly impolTible to bring the quellion to a
final decifion in that feffion, for they declared that they
had many evidences yet to produce, and that they muft
and would be heard. Accordingly they moved, and Mr.
Wilberforce agreed, that the farther confrderation of the
fubjeft (hould be poftponed to the next feffions.

As thofe who were interelted in the continuance of the
trade had now got rid of the privy-council report, and had
introduced new evidences to the commons in behalf of their
cafe, it became the committee to coUeft as refpeftable a
body of witneffes as poliible on their own fide of the queltion.
Mr. Clarkfon had undertaken to traverfe the kingdom again
for this purpofe, and had fet out, when, hearing that the
French revolution had broken out, and that a committee for
the abolition of the flave-trade had been formed in Paris, he
returned, and immediately haltened to the latter city, where
he arrived at the latter end of .July. He foon became ac-
quainted with the marquis de la Fayette, monfieur Necker,
the duke de la Rochefoucauld, the marquis de Condorcet,
and MelTrs. Mirabeau, Petion, Brifl'ot, Claviere, and other
diftinguiflied perfons. He fpent his time, while in Paris,
in attending the committee there, in vifiting members of the
National AflTembly, and in the perfonal dittribution of books
among them, but particularly his " Effay on the Impolicy
of the Slave-Trade," which he had caufed to be tranflated
into French for that purpofe. Returning to London in
January 1 790, he found that Mr. Wilberforce had carried
a motion in the commons, that witneffes fliould not be
examined in future at the bar of that houfe, but in a com-
mittee-room, which fliould be open to all members. This
was ncced'ary f^r the fake of difpatch, as the examinations
othcrwife might have taken up ten years. Mr. Clarkfon
now refumed the journey which he had begun in the pre-
ceding fummer, in fearch of new asd refpeftable witneffes.
He made a tour of 1 200 miles in three weeks, during which
he found out fixtcen perfons capable of giving good tef-
timony on the fubjcft, but could only prevail upon three
to be examined. On his return to London, he found
that the examinations of witnefles in behalf of thofe in-
terefted were going on in the committee of the houfe of
commons, and with fo much rapidity, that it was expefted
their cafe would be foon clofed. This alarmed him
exceedingly ; for out of feventeen perfons who flood upon
his lill as having promifed to give their tellimony in behalf
of the abolition, one had lately died, and no Icfs than eight,
being feafaring perfons, were then out of the kingdom.
He determined, therefore, upon another journey ; aud un

Vol. XXXIII.

turning the fubjeft over in his mind, he thought he fliould
obtain the greateil number of difinterefted witnefles in the
fliortell poffible time, if he could go on board all the fhips
of war lying in ordinary at the king's ports in different parts
of the kingdom. Imprefled with this idea, he went to
Deptford, and firft boarded all the men of war that were
lying there. He then proceeded to Woolwich, and after-
wards to Chatham, Sheernefs, Portfmouth, and Plymouth,
where he boarded others in like manner, to the number alto-
gether of four hundred, in which he picked up feveral very
excellent and important witneffes. On the 20th of April,
the perfons intereiled had juft clofed their cafe. Accord-
ingly Mr. Wilberforce moved, on the 23d of the fame
month, in the houfe of commons, that witnefles fhould be
heard in behalf of the abolition. Upon this much cla-
mour enfued. The members, who afted in union with
the perfons interelled in the continuance of the flave-trade,
wilhed to have the cafe direftly argued, that is, upon their
own evidence, and without hearing any on the other fide,
and refilled accordingly. Their oppofition, however, proved
ineffedlual againft the eloquence of Mr. Wilberforce, fup-
ported powerfully as he was by that of Mr. Pitt and Mr.
Fox. At length, the witneffes in behalf of the abolition
took poffefHon of the ground which the others had left,
and no lefs than twenty-four, fome of whom had been
found out fince the lafi tour, were examined before the
clofe of the fefTion. At this time it is very curious to re-
mark, that the feelings of parliament, and thofe of the
people, were very different on this great queftion. The
tide certainly ran againft the abolitionifls in the houfe of
commons. The old hue and cry had been revived of in-
tended emancipation under the pretence of abolition ; of
montlrous indemnification to the planters; and of the certain
mafi'acre of the whites by the negroes, if the trade were to
be abohflied, but in more furious language, and to a greater
extent than before. The feeling, on the other hand, in the
country, was warmly on the fide of the abolition. It had
been kept up and increafed by various circumflances. The
committee had been daily employed in anfwering, through
the medium of the public papers, every objection which
had been ftarted as hoftile to their caufe. They had a)fo
by this time dillributed all over England, Scotland, and
Wales, the horrible and affefting engraving of the feClion
of the flave-fliip before-mentioned. Individuals, too, had
kept alive the popular feeling in various ways. Wedgewood^
the celebrated manufafturcr, had taken the committee's feal,
as before explained, for a model, and had ftruck off and
diftributed many thoufand fmall cameos in plafler. The
ground of each of thefe cameos was white, but the negroe,
who was feen imploring compaffion on his knee.t in the
middle of it, was of his own native colour. Cowpcr alfb,
and other poets, had written beautiful and affefting fongs
on the fubjeft. Thefe were circulated very copioufly
through the kingdom, and fome of them were fung in the
very.flreets.

Not more than half the evidence, which was deemed
neceflary, having been heard on the fide of the abolition in
the fcflfion jull pafled, it became an imperious duty in the
committee to ufe every pofTible exertion to complete it,
and this in the bell poflible manner, before the next. Such
exertion was abfohitely effential to viftory. Mr. Clarkfon
was, therefore, again folicited to traverfe the kingdom for
this purpofe. Tlus journey being of the ntmoft importance,
Mr. Wiiberf )rce prepared an ingeniou; lill of queflions to
aflill him in his examinations and inquiries. With this he
departed, and travelled from Augult 1790, to February
1751, during which time he went over the greateil part of
R the

SLAVE-TRADE.

the ifland, and had the good fortune to add a confiderable
number of new and important witnefTes to his hft. At
length the examinations were refumed in the committee of
the houfe of commons, and they were clofed finally on the
4th of April. No lefs than fixty-nine perfons had given
their teftimoiiy in this and the preceding feflion in behalf
of the abolition of the ilave-trade. The evidence having
been printed on both fides for the ufc of the members, as
the balls upon which to argue the cafe, the i8th of April
was fixed upon as the day for deciding it. By this time every
effort had been made by the perfons interefted to render the
queftion unpopular in the commons. Emancipation, indem-
nification, maffacre, ruin, had been vociferated over and
over again in the ears of the members there. At this time,
Unhappily the moll fanguinary fcenes were taking place in
St. Domingo, in confequence of the revolution which had
been effefted there, and an infurrc£lion had broken out in
the Britifh ifland of Dominiea. All thefe had been induf-
trioufly detailed in print, but with great exaggeration,
and added to the cries juft mentioned. This union of re-
ports and cries had produced fuch a terrific effeft upon
many members, that they confidered the abolitionifts, by
perfevering in their queftion, as ferocious monfters ; and in
this unfavourable frame of mind they went into the houfe
on the day fixed for the difcuHion, to difcharge their duty
with refpeft to this great queftion. On this day, namely,
the 18th of April, 1791, Mr. Wilberforce made a moft
luminous and affefting fpeecli, in which he took a moft
malterly view of the whole queftion in all its different de-
partments, as it related both to Africa and the Weft Indies.
He argued the inhumanity of the traffic ; he argued its
impolicy ; he appealed to feeling ; he appealed to reafon ;
he tried to difarm his opponents by candour ; he exhorted
them to attend to their own intereil ; and concluded by mov-
ing for leave to bring in a bill to prevent the farther import-
ation of flavcs into the Britifh colonies in the Weft Indies.
After this, a moft ferious difcufiion enfued, which lafted till
three in the morning, when feveral members, being yet
defirous of fpeaking, the bufinefs was adjourned to the
next day. It was then argued again till half paft three in
the morning, when the houfe divided on the original motion.
There were for it but 88 votes, and againll it 163 ; fo
that this great caufe of humanity, juftice, and reUgion,
which had coft fo many years of labour, was loft by a
majority of 75 votes. Upon the news of this fignal defeat,
the committee for the abolition of the flave-trade held a
meeting, which was condufted wi^h the moft folemn
dignity. They voted thanks to the illuttrious minority which
had lately ftood forth the affertors of Britifli juftice and
humanity, and the enemies of a traffic in the blood of man ;
and entered into feveral refolutions, the fubftance of one
of which was, that they confidered the late decifion of the
houfe rather as a delay than a defeat ; that they did not
defpair of final fuccefs ; and that they would never defill
from appealing to their countrymen, till tlie commercial
intereourfe with Africa fhould ceafe to be polluted with
the blood of its inhabitants. Thefe refolutions wrere fol-
lowed up by a fuitable report, and fent to all the country
committees throughout the kingdom. At length the fef-
fion ended, and a cruel one it had proved to thofe who
had interefted themfelves in the abolition of this cruel
traffic. The defeat, however, which they had experienced,
had been rendered more tolerable, becaufe, in confequence
of the unjuft clamours by which the minds of many members
of parliament had been affefted, it had been expefted. It
had been rendered more tolerable again, by knowing that
feveral of the moft diftinguifhed charaiiers in the kingdom,

and all of fplendid talents in the,houfe of commons, fuch le
Pitt, Fox, Burke, Grey, Sheridan, Wyndham, Whitbread,
Courtnay, Francis, Rider, W. Smith, and H. Thornton,
had fupported the facred caufe ; and becaufe a bill had
been carried through both houfes of parliament in this
very feffion for the eftablifhment of the Sierra Leona com-
pany, the objeft of which was to form a fettlement on the
coaft of Africa, which fhould be made a medium for civi-
lizing that continent through two channels, viz. by the
introduftion of a new fpecies of commerce there, and of
cultivation alfo in its neighbourhood, on the principle of
free labour.

The people of England, foon after the news of the defeat
juft fpoken of had been communicated to them, began to
be fenfibly affefted, and many, in order to wafh their hands
of the blood of Africa, left oft the ufe of fugar. Mr.
Clarkfon, after a confultation with Mr. Wilberforce and
the committee, undertook to abridge the evidence which
had been offered to the houfe of commons on the fide of the
abolition, with a view of circulating its horrible content*
through the kingdom, and of thus making the public im-
preffion ftill deeper. This abridgment was begun in June

1791, and was written, printed, and in the hands of all the
committee's correfpondents in England, Wales, and Scot-
land, by the latter end of September. Mr. Clarkfon now
undertook to follow the book, and to fee, if poffible, that
it was aftually read. Accordingly he left London in the
beginning of November. It was his intention to wait per-
fonally upon every perfon in every county in the kingdom,
to whom the book had been fent, to get others of the town
or neighbourhood to meet him there, to converfe with them
on the fubjecl, to intreat their individual perufal of the
abridgment, and their united efforts in lending it out judi-
cioufly, and in feeing that it was read. This he attempted
to realize, but the procefs was very tedious. He had tra-
velled 6000 miles in the execution of his plan, when he
found that he had yet 40O0 to go. To perform this was
impoffible, fo as to anfwer the purpofe. He therefore made
his fituation known to the committee. The confequence
was, that Dr. Dickfon, a gentleman who had greatly
affifted the caufe by his writings, fet off from London, and.
took the whole of Scotland off his hands. The refult of
the two journeys was foon vifible. The people could not
bear the faAs which the abridgment had difclofed to them.
Great numbers left off immediately the ufe both of fugar
and rum. The great bulk of the nation, however, vented
their feelings in public meetings to addref* the legiflature
on the fubjeft, and this they did with fo much earneftnefs
and aftivity, that by the latter end of the month of March^

1792, no lefs than 5 17 petitions, including feveral from whole
counties, were laid on the table of the houfe of commons,
praying for the total abolition of the flave-trade. Em-
boldened and fupported in this manner by the voice of the
people, Mr. Wilberforce introduced the queftion again
into the commons. This was on the 2d of April. After
a fpeech of four hours, during which he added a profufioa
of new light to the fubjeft, and during which he endea-
voured, in the moft mild and pcrfuafive manner, to do away
objeftions and prejudices, he moved, " that it is the opinion
of this houfe that the Africa^ flave-trade ought to be.
abolifhed." This led to a very long and uncommonly in-
terefting debate. Never, certainly, in the houfe of commons,,
and never probably in any other place, was fo much fplendid
oratory difplayed, as on that night, on the fide of the aboli-
tion of the flave-trade. It appeared, in the courfe of the
debate, to be the fenfe of the houfe, that fome fort of abo-
lition fhould take place. Two divifions took place. la

the

SLAVE-TRADE.

the firft, there were 193 votes for gradual abolition, and
125 for immediate ; and in the fecond, there were 230 for
gradual, and 85 for no abolition at all. In this ftate the
queftion was left till the 23d of April, when Mr. Dundas
(afterwards lord Melville) came forward and propofed
a plan conformable with the refolutions of the houfe juft
mentioned. The outlines of it, however, were oppofed by
Mefl'rs. Pitt, Fox, and Wilberforcc, not only as being
very defedtive, but as built upon falfe data. The bufinels
was accordingly adjourned to the 25th. On that day,
Mr. Dundas brought forward the fubjeft again. He con-
fidered that eight years ought to be allowed the planters
to (lock themfelves with negroes, and therefore moved that
the year 1800 (hould be the epoch, after which no more
Haves fhould be imported from Africa in Britifh veflels to
the Weft Indies. Lord Mornington (now marquis Wel-
ledey), in a mod brilliant fpeech, moved an amendment,
which was, that the year 1793 fhould be fubftituted for
that of 1800. There appeared, on a divifion, to be 158
for Mr. Duiidas's motion, and 109 for the amendment.
On the 27th of April the fubjeft was refumed in the houfe.
Mr. Dundas propofed the year 1800, as before, and lord
Mornington the year 1795. His lardfhip's motion was
again loft, but by a lefs majority than on the former occa-
fion, ii;'z. by 161 to 121, when fir Edward Knatchbull ftruck
out a middle line, by propofing the year 1796, which
motion was carried by a majority of 151 to 132. The
gradual abolition having been thus agreed upon for 1796,
a committee of the commons carried the refolution to the
lords. On the 8th of May the lords met to confider it,
when, cruel to relate, a motion was made by lard Stormont,
on the part of the planters, merchants, and other interefted
perfons, to hear new evidence. This, after fome little
oppofition, was acceded to. On the 15th of May, the
firft witnefs on this fide of the queftion was introduced ;
and on the 5th of June, when only feven witnefles had been
examined on the fame fide, all further examination was
poftponed to the next feflion.

Nothing could be more diftrefling to the abolitionifts
than the determination of the lords now mentioned ; firft,
becaufe there was no faying how many, even years, the
hearing of evidence there might take ; and fecondly, be-
caufe they (the abolitionifts) had the laborious work to do
over again, of finding out and keeping up a refpeftable
body of witnefles on their own fide of the queftion. This
latter work was eflentially neceflary ; for it was impofTible
to allow the perfons interefted to throw in a weight of
teftimony for the furtherance of their own caufe, and not
to take means to counteraft it. Mr. Clarkfon, therefore,
fct out again in the month of .July, on his old errand. Dr.
Dickfon, the gentleman before-mentioned, left London
about the fame time, in order to aflift him. He was to
take a different route, which had been before fettled.
They were very fuccefsful in their refpeAive journeys, and
both returned in the month of February, 1793. The houfe
of commons was then fitting. The only itep to be taken
there (but this was eflentially neceflary), was to bring
before it, in fome part or other of the feflion, its own vote of
the former year, by which the flave-trade was to be abo-
lifhed in 1796, in order that this vote might be reconfidcrcd
and renewed. Accordingly Mr. Wilberforce moved the
houfe upon the fubjeft. It it only neceflary to ilate, that
his motion was moit furioufly oppoled, and aftually loft by
amajority of 61 to 53. By this determination the commons
aftually refufed to fanftion their own vote In tliis dif-
trelTing fituation, Mr. Wilberforcc fcarccly knew what to
do. H« was not, however, to be difmayed by one ub-

expefted defeat. He refolved, therefore, that he would
not allow the fefTion to pafs without trying the queftion
in fome other fhape. Accordingly, in the month of May,
he moved for leave to bring in a bill to abolifh that part of
the trade by which the Britifh merchants fupplied foreigners
with flaves. His motion was carried, but only by a ma-
jority of 7 ; and, alas ! on the third reading, it was loft by
a majority of 31 to 29 ! During all this time the exami-
nation of witnefles had been going on in the houfe of lords.
Only feven witnefles, however, had been heard there in the
courfe of the whole feflion.

After this moft cruel fefTion, the abolitionifts were at a
lofs how to aft for the advantage of their caufe. One
meafure, however, was obviouQy neceffary, viz. to endeavour
to keep up a refpeftable body of evidence to oppofe that
which fhould be heard againtt the abolition in the lords.
For this purpofe, Mr. Clarkfon, at the requeft of the com-
mittee, once more traverfed the kingdom. He began his
journey in September, and returned in February, 1794.
Mr. Wilberforce, in the interim, moved in the commons for
leave to renew his former bill for the abolition of the foreign
flave-trade, as carried on by Britifh fubjefts. He carried
it, though with great difficulty, in all its ftages, through
the houft of commons ; but it was almoft direftly loft in
the houfe of lords. In this latter houfe only two evidences
had been examined in the courfe of the feffion. At this
time Mr. Clarkfon was in fuch a wretched ftate of health,
as to be unable to lend any farther afftftance to the com-
mittee. The inceffant labour of body and mind for fo
many years, aggravated by anxiety and difappointments,
had made a very ferious inroad upon his conllitution. His
nervous fy ftem had been literally fhattered to pieces ; his hear-
ing, memory, and voice, were nearly gone. He was, in fhort,
utterly incapable of any farther exertion; and he was there-
fore obliged, though very reluftantly, to be borne out of the
field, where he had placed the great honour and glory of
his life. The queftion was now in a very defperate ftate,
for if the houfe of commons would not renew its own refo-
lution, and if the lords would not abolifh even the foreign
part of the flave-trade, what hope was there of fuccefs ?
But neither, however, were Mr. Wilberforce nor the com-
mittee to be deterred by the profpeft. They determined
never to abandon the caufe. Accordingly Mr. Wilberforce
moved in the commons, in the felTion of 179J, for leave to
bring in a bill for the abolition of the flave-trade. This
motion was now neceffary, and juftifiable on that account,
if the trade, according to a former refolution of that houfe,
was to ceafe in 1796 ; but it was loft by a fmall majority.

In the feflion of 1796, Mr. Wilberforce refolved upon
trying the queftion again, but in an entire new form. He
moved that the flave-trade be abolifhed in a limited time, but
without affigning to its duration any fpecific date. He
wlfticd the houfe to agree to this as a general principle.
After much oppofition the principle was acknowle^lgcd ;
but when, in confequcnce of this acknowledgment of it,
he brought in a bill, and attempted to introduce into one of
the claufes the year 1797, as the period when the trade
fhould ceafe, he loft it by a majority of 74 to ■]«.

He judged it prudent, after mature confiiieration, to let
the fefTion of 1797 pafs without any parliamentary notice of
the fubjeft, but in tliat of 1798 he renewed his motion for
abolition in a limited time. This, however, met with the
fame fate as the former.

In 1799, undifmaycd by former defeats, he tried the fame

motion again, when there appeared for it 74, and againft it

82 votes. He determined, however, that tlie remainder of

the feflion fheuld not pafs without an eff'ort to obtain fome-

R 2 thing,

SLAVE-TRADE.

thing, if it were only a fmall part, of what belonged to the
caufe. Accordingly his eftimable friend, Mr. Henry Thorn-
ton, lately deceafed, brought in a bill, at his requeft, to
abolifh a very fmall part of the flavc-trade. It may be re-
membered, that a colony had been eftablifhed at Sierra
Leona, to promote agriculture and a new fpecies of com-
merce in Its neighbourhood. Now, while the flave-trade was
carried on all around it, it was found that thefe objefts
could be but little advanced. The bill, therefore, of Mr.
Thornton, went only fo far as to fay that the llave-trade
Ihould not be carried on within a certain diftance of that
colony. This bill was carried through the commons, but
though it only aflied that an infant eftabUfhment, founded
on the principles of liberty, and this by parliamentary fanc-
tion, (hould be protefted from the ravages of the flave-
trade, it was loft in the houfe of lords. This latter cir-
curaftance was indeed truly diflieartening ; yet amidft the
clouds which darkened the horizon, one gleam of hope ap-
peared ; for the queftion had been fo argued, fo fifted, and
put into fuch various lights, that it began now to be under-
ftood. The confequence was, that conviftion flafhed upon
many, among whom were three planters, Mr. Ellis, Mr.
Barham, and Mr. Vaughan. Thefe gentlemen had the can-
dour to rife up in the houfe of commons, and exprefs them-
felves in favour of the abohtion, in one of the laft debates.

The queftion had been now tried and loll in almoll every
poffible fhape ; Mr. Wilberforce and the committee feemed
to have but two alternatives of choice left them, either to per-
fevere againft all hope, or to hold themfelve» in readinefs to
feize the firft favourable opportunity which fliould prefent it-
felf for furthering the caufe. It was determined to adopt the
latter, and by no means to let the queltion degenerate into a
mere annual motion of form. It was thought proper alfo, as
feveral members of the houfe of commons were changing
their opinions on the fubjeft, to give others time to digeft
the powerful eloquence which had been expended upon it,
Mr. Wilberforce, therefore, fuffered the years 1800, 1801,
1802, and 1803, to pafs over without noticing it. In 1804,
however, he refolved to renew his exertions. The commit-
tee refolved to fecond them, and immediately increaled its
number, that it might aft with extraordinary vigour. The
circumftance, which marked this year in particular as favour-
able for another trial, was the union with Ireland, in con-
fequence of which a great number of Irifli members, gene-
rous, and open-hearted, and in general friends to the poor
Negroes, were added to the Britifti parliament. Mr. Wil-
berforce, therefore, under thefe circumltances, afl<ed leave to
renew his bill for the abohtion of the llave-trade within a
limited time. This motion was as violently oppofed as any
of the former, but was carried at length in a very handfome
manner: nolefsthan 124 divided in favour of it, and but
49 againft it. The bill was oppofed in its fecond reading,
for which however there were 100, and againft it but 42.
When a motion was made for going into a committee it was
oppofed, but carried by 79 to 20. The bill alfo was op-
pofed in its laft ftage, but carried by a majority of 69 to
36. It was taken up to the lords, but on a motion by lord
Hawkefbury (now lord Liverpool) the difcullion there was
put off till the next fcffion.

In the fedion of J805, Mr. Wilberforce renewed his
former motion. Leave was at length given him to bring in
the bill, but not till after a moft furious oppofition. On
the fecond reading of it the oppofition increafed, and an
amendment was propofed, -viz. to put it off to that day fix
months. This amendment was aftually carried by a majority
of 77 to 70. This defeat occalioned the abohtionifts the fe-
vereil difappointment. The committee inftantly met, when

forrow was feen in the countenances of all prefent. Their
firft objeft was to endeavour to develope the caufes of the
mifcarriage now mentioned. It appeared clearly, after the
moft minute examination, that thefe were accidental. The
committee, therefore, refolved upon renewing the contelt
with redoubled vigour the enfuing year. Juft at this mo-
ment, who (hould join them but Mr. Clarkfon ! Eight
years' retirement had nearly reftored him, and the tirlt
moment he found himfelf able to embark again in the caufe,
he returned to his poft. As it then feemed probable that
the queftion would be carried the next year through the
commons, and, if fo, that it would go to the lords, and
that the lords would probably require farther evidence, it
was judged proper that evidence fliould be prepared. But,
alas ! the noble band of witncflcs which had been laft col-
lefted, had been broken by death and difperfion, and a new
one was to be formed. Herculean taik ! tremendous, how-
ever, as it was, Mr. Clarkfon undertook it. He left Lon-
don in two or three days afterward, and returned in January
1806, after having travelled in purfuit of his object above
5000 miles. In this month died Mr. Pitt, who was then
prime miniftef, and who had been one of the great fup-
porters of the caufe.

On the 31ft of March, 1806, this great queftion was
wfliered again into parliament, but under new aufpices,
namely, under the adminiftration of lord Greiiville and Mr.
Fox. It was thought proper that Mr. Wilberforce fhould
be as it were in the back-ground on this occafion, and that
the attorney-general, as a confpicucus officer of the govern-
ment, fliould introduce it. The latter accordingly brought
in a bill, one of the objefts of which was to prohibit Britilh
merchants and Britifti capital from being employed in the
foreign flave-trade. This bill palled both houfes of parlia-
ment, and was therefore the firft that difmerabcred this cruel
traf&c. In the debate which enfued upon it, it was de-
clared in fubitance, both by lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, in
their refpeftive houfes, that they would do every thing to
effeft the abolition, and ftiould they fiicceed in fuch a noble
work, they would regard their fuccefs as entailing more true
glory on their adminiftration, and more honour and advan-
tage on the country, than any other ineafure in which they
could be engaged. Conformably with this fentimont, Mr.
Fox himfelf, on the loth of June, in a fpeech moft luminous
and pathetic, followed up the viftory which had been juft
gained, by moving a refolution, " that this houfe, confider-
int; the African flave-trade to be contrary to the principles
of humanity, juftice, and policy, will, with all praftical ex-
pedition, take effeftual meafures for the abolition of it, in
fuch manner and at fuch a period as may be deemed moft
advifeable." This motion produced an oppofition as before,
and an interefting debate. It was fupportcd by fir Ralph
Milbank, Mr. Francis, fir Samuel Romilly, Mr. Wilber-
force, lord Henry Petty (now marquis of Lanfdown), fir
John Newport, Mr. Canning, and Mr. William Smith. It
was carried by a majority of 114 to 15. Mr. Wilberforce
direftly moved an addrefs to his majefty, " praying him to
direft a negociation to be entered into, by which foreign
powers (hould be invited to co-operate with his majefty, in
meafures to be adopted for the abolition of the African
flave-trade." This was alfo carried, but without a divifion.
On the 24th of June, the lords met to confidcr both the
refolution and addrefs. A propofition was direftly made in
that houfe (in order to create delay), that counfel and evi-
dence fhould be heard. This, however, was happily over-
ruled. Lord Grenville then rofe up and introduced the fub-
jeft. His fpeech was among the mailer-pieces of eloquence.
He was fupported in the debate, which followed by the
I of lord

SLA

SLA

lord chancellor (Erfkine), the bifhop of London (Dr.
Portetis), the bifliop of St. Afaph (Dr. Horfley), earl
Grofvenor, carl Stanhope, earl Spencer, carl of Suffolk,
and the lords Holland and EUenborough. The refolution
iir.d addrefs were at length both carried, by a majority of
41 to 20. After this a belitf was generally prevalent, that
the flave-trade would fall in the next feffion. This occa-
Jioned a fear in the abolitionifts, left it fhould be carried on
in the interim, being as it were the laft harvclt of the mer-
(.hants, to a tenfold extent, and therefore with tenfold mur-
der and defolation to Africa. It was therefore thought
necellary, as the feffion was about to dole, to introduce
another bill into parliament, and this as quickly as poffible,
that no new veflel (liould be permitted to go to the coaft of
Africa for flaves. Accordingly a bill to that efFeft was pre-
pared, and it pafled both houfes. In the month of Odober
following, after thefe great and decifive vidlories, died tlie
right honourable Charles James Fox, one of the nobleft
champions of this noble caufe. He had lived juft to put it
into a train for final triumph. This triumph, however, he
enjoyed in anticipation. The profpeft of it foothed his
pains, and cheered his fpirit in the hours of his ficknefs. At
•his melancholy feafon it became with him a frequent topic
of converfation, and the hope of it was perceived to quiver
on his lips, in one of the laft moments of his life.

The feffion of 1807 had not long commenced, when the
conteft was renewed. Lord Grenville judged it expedient,
at this particular crifis, to reverfe what had been hitherto
the order of proceeding, that is, to agitate the queftion firft
in the houfe of lords. On the 2d of January he pre-
fented a bill there, which he called an aft for the abolition
of the African flave-trade. It was very fhort ; he propofed
that it fhould be printed, and that it fhould then lie on the
table for a while, that it might be maturely confidered be-
fore it was difcuffed. On the 4th, no lefs than four coun-
fel were heard againft it. On the 5th the debate com-
menced. Lord Grenville took a brilliant part in it. He
was fupported by his highnefs the duke of Gloucefter, the
bilhop of Durham (Dr. Barrington), the earls Moira, Sel-
kirk, and Rofslyn, and the lords Holland, King, and Hood.
The bill was at length carried, at four in the morning, by
a majority of 100 to 36. On the ipth of February it went
to the commons. On the 20th counfcl were heard againft
it there. On the 23d a debate enfued upon it, on the mo-
tion oi lord vifcount Howick (formerly Mr. Grey, and now
lurd Grey), who urged the commons to confirm it. The
other fpeakcrs in favour of it were Mr. Rofcoe, Mr. Fawkes,
Mr. Lufhington, the lords Mahon and Milton, fir Samuel
Romilly, fir John Doyle, Mr. Wilberforce, and earl Percy ;
and it was carried by the vail majority of 2R3 to 16. On
the 6th of March the blanks were filled up. It was pro-
pofed, firll, that no vellel (hould clear out for flaves from any
port within the Britifh dominions, after the lit of May
following, that is, 1807, and that no Have fliould be landed
in the Britifh colonies after the ift of March 1808. This
and almoft every other propofition were oppofed, but hap-
pily without eft'cft. Suffice it to fay, that on the 1 8th the
bill, with the blanks filled up, was carried back to the
lords ; that in confequence of various amendments, it pafled
and repaired from one houle to the other, but always witli
oppofition ; that on the 24th it paffed both lioufes ; and
that on the 25th, at half palt eleven in the morning, it re-
ceived the royal afient. Thus pafled, after a twenty years'
hard flruggle, during whicli the field iiad been dilputed inch
by inch, and won at lall by the arms of rcafon, this magna
charta for Africa in Britain, under the adminillration of
lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, an adminillration which, on
account of its noble exertions in behalf of the opprcfled

African race, will pafs to poflerity, living through fuc-
ceffive generations, in the love and gratitude of all the moll
virtuous of mankind. The news of this great event gave un-
common joy throughout the kingdom, and this joy was farther
heightened by authentic news juft then received from North
America, that the govtrnmcnt there had pafled a fimilar bill,
which was to be oblervcd as a law through the United States.

In France, on there-eftab'.ifhmcnt of the Bourbon dynaily,
it was pri pofed to abolifli the flave-tradt at a diitant period.
Upon the return of Bonaparte from E'ba: an order was
iflued for its immediate abolition ; and a decree to the fame
purpofe has been paffed fince the txpulfien of Napoleon, and
the reftoration of the prefent reigning monarch.

SLAVE-COAST, in Geography., a traft of country in
Africa, bordering on the Atlantic, fituated between the
Gold Coaft and Benin, and comprehending the kingdoms of
Ardra, Koto, Popo, and Whidah. See each refpeftively,
and alfo Slave-trade.

The inhabitants refemble tbofe of the Gold Coaft in their
politics, religion, and manners.

SLAVE-FALLS, a cataraft of North America, in
Winnipeg river, 100 yards wide and 20 feet in height. N.
lat. 50° 6'. W. long. 95° 2c'.

SLAVE-INDIANS, Indians of North America, who
were driven from their original country by their enemies the
Knifteneaux, along the borders of the Unjigah or Peace river,
where it aflumes from them the name of the Slave river ;
though the term by no means involves the idea of fervitude,
but was given to thofe fugitives as a term of reproach, that
denoted more than common favagtnefs.

SLAVE-LAKE, Great, a large lake of North America,
fo called by the Knifter.eaux, which derived its name from
that of its original inhabitants, who were calltd flaves. This
lake IS well known to the Knifteneaux, who are among the
inhabitants of the plains on the banks of the Safliatchiwine
river ; for formerly, when they ufed to make war in this
country, they came in their canoes to that lake, and left
them there ; from whence there is a beaten path all the way
to the Forks, or E. branch of this river, which wa^- their
war-road. This lake is faid to be more than 200 miles in
length, and about 12 in breadth. It is fuppofed to be the
fame with Hearne's Alhapufcoiu, which fee. B'tumen ig
found on the coaft of this lake, in N. lat. 60°, near its dif-
charge by Mackenzie's river, which, flowing from Slave-
lake, difcharges itfelf into the North fea, on the banks of
which are coal and bitumen, as far north as latitude 66°.
N. lat. 61° 20'. W. long, 115°.

Slave-lake, Lrjfer, a lake of North America, in N.
lat. 55" 30'. W. long. 115°, which difcharges itfelf into the
Elk river.

SLAVENSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Ekaterinoflav, on the Dnieper ; 48 miles S. of Ekateri-
iioflav. N. lat. 47° 24'. E. long. 34^ 44'.

SLAVE-RIVER, a river of North America, being a
continuation of Unjigah or Peace river, wliich dilcharges
itfelf into the greater Slave-lake. Near that part of the
Slave-river, where it firft lofes the name of Peace river, and
along the extreme edge of the adjoining plains, are very
ftrong fait fprings, which in the iummer concrete and cryf-
talli/.e in great quantities.

SLAUGHTER. See Manslaughter, Homicide,

MuKTllEn, BlJTfllEU, &c.

SLAUOHTEK-//o«/f, in Rural Praaice, the place where
neat cattle and other animals arc kiUgd for th.' butcher. In
common houfes for this purpole, the bloc d, filth, and i-'her
nallinefs are left to remain upon the floors ; but in tliofe of
the improved kind, the floors are laid in fuch a manner as to
have a proper full degree of fall or declination towards the

middle

S L E

S L E

middle parts, where there is a drain made for taking away
all fuch offenfive matters, and keeping the houfes quite clean
and fweet, merely by pumping or throwing water upon the
floors of them.

Houfes of this fort have ufually the dimenfions of about
twenty-two feet in length by fixteen in width ; but they
may be conllrufted in this way to any fuitable extent that
may be necelTary. The drains of flaughter-houfes are often
conneAed with pits or refervoirs, by which means large
quantities of excellent manure are accumulated.

Thefe houfes, hkewife, fometimes form parts in the ar-
rangement of farm buildings in large farm-yards.

SLAVGHTER-Siins, a term ufed by our curriers and lea-
ther-dreflers for the (Ifins of oxen, or other beads, when
frefli, and covered with the hair : fuch as they receive them
from the flaughter-houfes where the butchers flay the
carcafe.

Slaughter Creei, in Geography, a bay of America, on
the coaft of Maryland, in the Chefapeak.

SLAUGHTERING of Animals, the cuftom of kill-
ing them for the purpofe of food. This operation, for
the fake of humanity, (hould conftantly be performed in the
moft fudden and ready manner poflible, and not in the lin-
gering, brutal, protrafted way which is ufually praftifed
by the generality of butchers in this country. See Strik-
ing or Pithing Animals.

SLAVI, Slavonia, and Slavonians. See Sclavi,
ScLAvoNiA, and Sclavonians.

SLAWATICZE, in Geography, a town of Lithuania,
in the palatinate of Brzefc, near the Bug ; i6 miles S. of
Brzefc.

SLAWENTITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principahty
of Oppeln ; 24 miles S.E. of Oppeln.

SLAWIETIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan ; 12 miles N.W. of Schlan.

SLAWKOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in the pala-
tinate of Cracow ; 25 miles N.W. of Cracow.

Slawkow. See Austerlitz and Schlakenwald.

SLAWONICA. See Zlabings.

SLEAFORD, or New Sleaford, a market-town in
the wapentake of Flaxwell, parts of Keiteven, and county
of Lincoln, England, is fituated 16 miles S. of Lincoln
and 116 N. of London, on a fmall rivulet called the Slea,
which rifes in the vicinity, and runs to Chapel Hill, vphere
it joins the river Witham. Many Roman coins of the Con-
ilantine family have been found here, from which, and other
circumftances. Dr. Stukeley conjeftures, that this was a
Reman town. " We find the dillance," he obferves,
" between Caitor and Lincoln about forty miles, has two
towns upon it at proper intervals for lodging : thefe are
Sleaford and Stanfield. The original names of them are in
irrecoverable filence, but the eternity of the Romans is in-
herent. It is probable that Alexander, bifhop of Lincoln,
built his work upon the fcite of a Roman citadel. Be-
fide, at Sleaford comes in the other Roman road from the
fen country by Brig End Caufy, and at the interfeftion of
thefe two roads the old town ftood." The work here
alluded to was the cattle, which, in Leland's time, was
ftanding, and is thus defcribed by him. " Withoute the
towne of Slcford ftandith, weft-fouth-weft, the propre
caftell of Sleford, very well mantayned ; and it is compafled
with a renning llreme, cumming by a cut oute of a little
feene, lying almofte flatte welle againft it. In the gateway
be two portcuUifes, a high towre in the middle of the caf-
telle, but not fet upon a hill of raifed earth : the vaults of
the cattle by the ground be fair. The houfe, or manor place,
lately almoll new, buildid of ilone and timbre, ttandith
Southward without the town. The town nor market is of

no price : the ornaments of it is the bifhop of Lincoln'*
cattle, and the late lord Hufley's houfe." Since Leland's
time, however, Sleaford has become a different place, and
is ttill improving both as to buildings and population. In
the return to parhament in the year 1811, the houfes are
ftated to be 385, the inhabitants 1781. The cattle has
been wholly levelled with the ground, and lord Huffey's
manfion, at Old Sleaford, is now a farm-houfe. A weekly
market is held on Mondays, and four fairs are held annually.

The church is a handfome, fpacious ftrufture, and, from
a manufcript found in the parifli cheft, appears to have been
built in the year 1271, by Roger Blunt and Roger Brick-
ham, of Sleaford, merchants. It confitts of a chancel, nave,
tranfept, and two aides ; with a tower crowned by a fpire,
which rifes to the height of 144 feet. In the chancel are
feveral monuments to the family of Carr, by one of which
a free-fchool was erefted and liberally endowed in the year
1603 ; and alfo an hofpital for twelve poor men. The
manor and ettates were conveyed by marriage, with an heirefs
of the Carr family, to the late earl of Briftol.

At Kyme, about three miles from Sleaford, Leland fays,
there was in his time " a goodly houfe and park." Philip de
Kyme, in the reign of Henry II., built here a priory for
black canons of the order of St. Auguftine, to the honour
of the Blelled Virgin. Its furrender by a prior and nine
canons to Henry VIII. is noticed by Willis.

About feven miles eaft of Sleaford, is Haverholme
priory, the feat of fir Jenifon William Gordon, bart. The
houfe and grounds occupy an area of about 300 acres,
which conftitute an ifland, formed by two branches of a
river. It was given by bifhop Alexander, in 1 139, to the
nuns and canons of the order of St. Gilbert of Sempring-
ham ; and at the difTolution was granted to Edward, lord
Clinton. The prefent pofleffor of Haverholme made nume-
rous additions to the old remains in 1788, and has formed
a manfion in a ftyle correfponding with the importance of
the place. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. by
J. Britton, F.S.A.

SLEA MORE Point, the fouthern extremity of the
ifland of Inifherkan, oppofite to Baltimore, in the county
of Cork, Ireland. N. lat. 51^24'. W. long. 9° 19'.

SLEASY Holland, a kind of holland thus called, be-
caufe made in Silefia in Germany; and which, from its flight-
nefs, occaiions all thin, flight, ill-wrought hollands, to be

called _/7f a/5'-

SLEBEZE, or Slybze, in Geography, a fmall ifland in
the ftraits of Sunda. S. lat. 5° 54'. E. long. 105° 24'.

SLECK, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied
to the fmall of pit-coal : alfo to the black matter of fmutty
grain.

SLED, in Agriculture, provincially a fledge.

SLEDGE, a kind of carriage without wheels, for the
conveyance of very weig'hty things, as huge ftones, bell?,
&c. The fledge for carrying criminals, condemned for high
treafon, to execution, is called hurdle.

The Dutch have a kind of fledge, on which they can
carry a vellel of any burden by land. It confitts of a
plank of the length of the keel of a moderate fhip, raifed
a little behind, and hollow in the middle ; fo that the fides
go a httle aflope, and are furnifhed with holes to receive
pins, &c. The reft is quite even.

Sledge, in Agriculture, an implement employed for con-
veying various articles upon. It is made of two ftrong
pieces of wood framed together.

It is a very ufeful fort of contrivance for different kinds
of work and purpofes in farming in different fituations of
land, but efpeciaJly thofe that are rather of a hilly nature ;
fuch as the conveying away various forts of heavy materials,

as

S L E

S L E

ts thofe of ftones and earthy matters, and in fome inftances
the produce of the land. Sledges alfo ferve the purpofe of
tranfportiiig ploughs and other heavy tools of agriculture
to the different fields and other places where they are to
be ufed or employed, being contrived exprefsly for fuch
ufes and intentions. They are a kind of tool, which are
made much ufe of in many of the northern diltrifts of the
kingdom, as well as in fome of the fouthern ones.

In the county of Cornwall they employ a fort of fledge
or dray, on moll farms, for the carriage of their hay, corn,
faggot-wood, and many other matters. Their fledges
moitly confill of two Itrong lide-pieces of wood, fome-
what in the form of a common boat, only more fharply
turned upwards at the ends, which have five, fix, and fome-
limes feven crofs-bars mortifcd into each, being (hod below
with thick rough portions of ftrong timber, on which the
whole (lides upon the fiirface of the ground.

In fome caies two, fmall, low wheels are attached, on
which the machine moves. Thefe fledges are drawn either
by horfes or oxen in the above diltrift, and are found to
be handy and convenient in various ways.

Sledoe is a I'lrge fmith's hammer, to be ufed with both
hands: of this there are two forts, the up-hand Jledge, which
is ufed by under workmen, when the work is not of the
largelt fort ; it is ufed with both the hands before, and
they feldom raife it higher than their head. But the
other, which is called the alout-Jledge, and which is ufed
for battering or drawing out the largeft work, is held by
the handle with both hands, and fwung round over their
heads, at their arms end, to ftrike as hard a blow as they
can.

Sledge, among Miners. See Digging.

Sledges, in Rope-making, are frames of oak mortifed
together, and clamped with iron in different parts. They
are from three feet wide, and eight or twelve feet long, to
five feet wide and fifteen feet long. The two fides are the
length of the lledge, five by feven inches thick, and lied
in by oak bars at each end : near the front arc two uprights
five feet high, mortifed into the fides, and fupported by
two (lanting pieces from the upper end. A breall-board
nine inches wide, and from three to five inches thick, is
fattened with iron pins to the uprights, and contains holes
for the hooks to go through, on which the yarn is hung,
which being turned by men, is twifted into llrands, and
then clofed and finifhcd into rope. Thefe (ledges are
loaded to any degree the rope in making may require.

Sledge IJland, in Geography, an ifland in the North
Pacific ocean, near the weft coalt of North America ; about
12 miles in circuit. This ifland is compofed of large loofe
ftones, covered with mofs and other vegetables, of which
there are twenty or thirty different fpecies, mollly in (lower.
Captain Cook faw neither fhrub nor tree, either upon the
ifland or continent. He obferved one fox, a few plover, and
other fmall birds, and alfo fome decayed huts conllruftcd
partly below the ground. A beaten patli was fecn from
one end of the ifland to the other, and thefe circumftances
indicated its having been lately vifited by fome people. A
(ledge alfo was found, which gave name to the ifland : this
was fuch as the RuiFians in Kamtfchatka ufed to convey
goods from one place to another, over the ice or fnow. It
was lo feet long, 20 inches broad ; it had a kind of rail-
work on each fide, and was (hod with bone. Its con-
ftruftion was admirable, its parts being neatly put together,
partly with wooden pms, but principally with thongs or
lalhings of whale-bone. N. lat. 64" 50'. W. long. 166° 3'.

SLEDINGEN, a town of France, in the department
of the Scheld j 5 miles N. of Ghent.

SLEEAN, in Rural Economy, provincially the finut in
corn.

SLEEP, in Phyfwlogy, the more or lefs complete fuf-
penfion of the funftions of fenfation and volition, that is,
of the aftion of the five fenfes, of the brain, of the volun-
tary mufcles, and the voice, or the organs which connfft
us with the external world, to which animals, at leaft thofe
of the clalfes mammalia and birds, are fubjeft at certain
more or lefs regular intervals, for the purpofe of renewing
the power of adlion exhaufted by exercife.

In the article Life we have ftated, that the internal
funftions, which make up the organic hfc, differ remark-
ably from the external, which compofe the animal life, in
the duration of their aftion ; that while the former go on
inceffantly, the latter are fubjeft to intermiffions or periods
of complete repofe, each particular organ experiencing,
from its adlivity, an exhauftion of power, a fatigue, which
renders reft abfolutely necefl'ary before it can be again ex-
erted ; which exhauftion or fatigue is unknown in the or-
ganic life. This law, of the intcrmiffion of action, has
been very fatisfacSorily applied by Bichat to the theory of
deep. " General (leep," fays he, " is the ademblage of
particular (leeps. It is derived from that law of the animal
life, which caufes in its funttions a conftant fuccelTion of
periods of aftivity, and times of intcrmiffion ; — a law, which
pointedly diftinguilhes it from the organic life. Hence
(leep influences the latter only in an indireil way, while it
exerts its full operation on the former.

" Numerous varieties may be remarked in this periodic
ftate, to which all animals are expofed. The moft com-
plete fleep is that, in which the whole external life, that
is, the fenfes, perception, imagination, memory, judgment,
locomotion, and the voice, are fufpended ; the leaft perfeft
aft'efts only a fingle organ. We fee numerous gradations
between thefe two extremes ; foroetimes the fenfes, per-
ception, locomotion, and the voice, are fufpended; imagina-
tion, memory, and judgment remaining aftive ; fometimes
locomotion and the voice are added to the latter. Such is
the fleep which is agitated by dreams. A portion of the
animal life Itill continues aftive, having efcaped the torpi-
dity in which the reft is plunged. Three or four fenfes
only may have paffed into the ftate of repofe, and ceafed
to be influenced by external objefls ; then that kind of fom-
nambulifm occurs, in which, to the aftion of the brain, the
mufcles, and the larynx, are added thofe of hearing and
touch, often in a very diftinft form.

" Let us then no longer regard (leep as a conftant
ftate, invariable in its phenomena. Scarcely do we (leep
twice together in the fame way ; a multitude of caufes
modifies this condition of our being, by applying to a greater
or fnialler portion of the animal life the general I:iw of in-
termittent aftion. The various modifications mull be cha-
rafterifed by the funftions, which are uffeCled in different
initances. The principle is the fame throughout, from the
fimple relaxation, which follows the contratlion of a volun-
tary mufcle, to the entire fufpenfion of the animal life.
Sleep is in all cafes a confequcnce of that general law of
intermiffion, which exclufively charaderifes this life, but
the application of which to the various external functions
varies infinitely.

" This explanation of fleep is undoubtedly very different
from thofe narrow fyftcms, which place its caufc in the
brain, the heart, the large vefiels, the ftomach, &c. and
thus prefent an infulated phenomenon, often illufory, as the
bafis of one of the great modifications of life.

" Why do light and darkncfs, in the natural order of
things, correfpond refpedively to the activity and repofe of

the

SLEEP.

the external funftions ? Becavife, during the day, the ani-
mal is furrounded with a multitude of excitiiij^ caufes ; a
thoufand things exhavift the powers of the ientieat and loco-
motive organs, fatigue them, and thus prepare a relaxation,
which is favoured at night by the abfence of all itimuh.
Thus, in the modern way of life, in which this order is
partly inverted, we affemble round us, during the night, vari-
ous Itimuh, which prolong the ilate of watchfulnefs, and
make the intermiflion of the animal life coincide with the firlt
hours of the dawn, favouring it by removing all circum-
ftances that might produce fenfations.

" By multiplying around them caufes of excitation, we
can, for a certain time, prevent the organs of the animal life
from obeying the law of intermiflion ; but they yield at
laft, and nothing, after a certain time, can fufpend its in-
fluence. Exhaufted by continued exertion, the foldier fleeps
at the fide of the cannon, and the criminal even amid the
tortures of the queftion.

" Let us, however, diftinguifh natural deep, the confe-
quence of fatigue of the organs, from that which is caufed
by afFeftions of the brain, as apoplexy, or concuflion. In
the latter cafe the fenfes are awake, they receive impref-
fions, and are affedled by them as ufual ; but thefe impref-
fions cannot be perceived by the difordered brain, and we
confequently are not confcious of them. In fleep, on the
contrary, the intermiflion of aftion affedls the fenfes as
much, and even more than the brain." Recherches Phyfiol.
fur la Vie et la Mort, p. 34 — 37.

Although the remarks of Bichat m the preceding quo-
tation, refpefting the fleep of the particular fenfes, may
be regarded rather as illuftrations, than as proofs that the
ftate of fatigue from exertion of any particular organ is ex-
aftly the fame as its condition in fleep, we confider the
general view of the fubjedl as perfeftly correft. In the
moft complete fleep, our relations to external objefts are en-
tirely fufpended, and confcioufnefs undergoes an equally
complete interruption. The appropriate ftimuli, prefented
to the external fenfes, excite no fenfations ; the operations
of the mind do not go on ; hence there is nothing to ex-
cite volition, and the voluntary powers are confequently
quiefcent. The portion of exiilence parted in fuch fleep is
a perfeiit blank. We have examples of it in the molt tran-
quil and healthy Hates of the body and mind, and after
confiderable fatigue, or in the recovery from fevere and
painful difeafe.

But this found fleep is much lefs common, than that
which is more or lefs interrupted by dreams, in which a
ferics of fenfations, perceptions, and reflections, pafl'es
through the mind, as in the waking itate. We are con-
fcious of the fame kind of tranfaftions as occupy our wak-
ing hours ; we fee, hear, walk, talk, and perform all the
cuitomary offices of life. The mind reafon=!, judges, per-
forms volition, and experiences the various afiFedlions, as
love, hatred, indignation, anxiety, fear, joy, even in a
much more lively degree, than when they are excited by
their real caufes. In dreaming, as in the foundelt fleep,
the attion of the external fenfes is fufpended ; but the in-
ternal faculties are aftive in greater or lefs number. Voli-
tion tikes place, but the inufcles do not obey the will.
That dreaming is a lefs fou.id fpeciis of fleep, appears from
the familiar faft, which has pmbably "teen obferved by
every individual ; viz. tha'. .he firfl: fleep is much freer from
it than the fecund. We retire to rdt, fatigued by the ex--
ertions of the day, and fleep foundly for five or fix hours:
we wake, and then fall afleep again towards the morning,
and dream the whole time of tliia fecond fleep.

Haller, who mentions that he had attended much to his

dreams, obferves, that in perfeft health he remembered
only the fenfation of flying throuj;h the air, conceiving him-
felf fufpended above the earth and carried to a diitance.

The order of the images and refleAions, which pafs
thr -ugh our minds in fleep, and the laws of their fucceflion
and connexions, are the fame as when we are awake. We
mult obferve, however, that thefe internal procefles now go
on by tliernfclves, and are not coriefted by that referencc
to external objects, and that exercife of the external fenfes,
which takes place in the waking ftate. Thus we fee a
friend long dead, without being aware that he is not alive ;
and grofs incorfiilencies and abfurdities take place without
being remarked.

The great activity of the imagination and judgment in the
act of dreaming, is evident from the nature of many dreams.
" Often," fays Haller, " in my dreams, I feem to read books,
printed poema, hiftories of travels, &c. ; and I even fee the
plants of diltant regions, fuited to their climates." Others
folve problems, write, make verfes, &c. The reafonings
which are carried on in fleep, the fpeeches which are made,
&c. are often more quickly and eafily performed than when
we are awake.

The caufes of dreams are very obfcure ; we cannot deter-
mine how the intellectual po.vers are called into exercife, nor
what (limiili fliould be applied for that purpofe. It is known,
however, that various bodily derangements have an important
influence. The Itate of the ftomach, which fo often afts on
the brain, will frequently difturb our reft ; if a perfon, un-
accullomed to fuch mdulgence, eat a hearty fupper, he will
experience nightmare, that is, a fenfe of prefl^ure about the
cheft, and of fome moft dreadful impending danger, without
the poffibility of efcaping it. When the painful fenfation is
arrived at its height, we awake, and can immediately move.
Or the fame caufe, inftead of producing nightmare, may
diftrefs us with terrific dreams, in which dangers aflail us
in every fliape : we fancy that we cannot efcape from the
intricate pallages and rooms of a houfe ; that we ftiall fall
from a precipice, or into a river. In thefe inftances, too,
fome very ftrong impreffion generally roufes us in 3 ftate of
great alarm. Inftances are not wanting of perfons who have
determined to remember that the dangers prefented to the
mind in dreaming are fallacious, and have recollected this at
the time, fo as to be protefted from the alarm, which would
otherwife have been caufed. Profeflbr Stewart mentions
that Dr. Reid freed himfelf in this way from the diftrefs of
frightful dreams, which had annoyed him for fome time.
The writer of this article has experienced the lame circum-
ftance, and Haller mentions a fimilar faft : " Ita ille, quern
diximus, ad vitandas pollutione? voluntatem firmam attuhfie,
expergifcebat ad fenfum lubricas imaginis."

In many bodily diforders, broken fleep, and alarming
dreams, which make the patient Hart and awake, are com-
mon fymptoms ; fuch is the cafe in hydrothorax, and dif-
eafes of the heart. The delirium of fever is an unnatural
activity of the internal faculties, the fenfes being more or
lefs quielcent, produced by the excitation of the brain, and
not diff'enng in its eflential nature from dreams.

Immediate impreffions fometimes influence us during fleep ;
children will evacuate their urine on a chamber-pot being put
in their bands ; and the fame effcft is faid to have been pro-
duced by puttmg the hand of a flecping child in cold water.
The caufe adts more powerfully than it would in the waking
ftate ; and the fame remark holds g'^od with refpeft to the
excretion of the feminal fecretion in fleep. " Somnium,"
fays Haller, " quam fer.'.atio fortius eft, et vehementius ani-
mam percellit. Id tribuas folitudini, quieti, adtentioni ad
unicum objedtum. Certe vix unquam fanus homo ex qua-

cunque

SLEEP.

Clinque libidine femen profuderit. In fomniis id fit, certa
qiiidem sctatc, neque fere in fenis, perfacile in pueris. Sed
■icque fenfatio, qm lomnii caufa ell, aut fola aut pura mcnti
reprtfentatur. Ex lege afTociationis idearum ad fimplicem
Uimiihim nafcitur idea femins pulchrx, amatx, quam am-
bias, quae cedat facilis : accedit leftulus, et omne fatellitium
arcaiii amoris. Et magis et magis poll pnmos fermones
adpropiiiquat comii)US fperata vokiptar, ut viciffim perinde
anxictatis hieroglypha continno graviora menti incum-
bunt."

Tlie dreams which occur almoft nightly in moil indivi-
duals, (hew the aflivity of the internal mental operations
during fleep : voluntary motions are lefs commonly per-
formed. Some horfes fleep (landing ; and the lower jaw is
maintained elevated in us during fleep. The hand is often
raifed when any llimulus is applied to the body, although
it may not be llrong enough to interrupt fleep. The (atl of
children expelling their urine, when the pot is brought to
them, has been already noticed. Many perfons laugh, weep,
(Igh, and talk in their fleep : the words are indeed generally
indilliiidtly pronounced, and the fentences incomplete.

The (leep-walkers diflFer from thefe only in degree. They
execute the voluntary motions, which arife out of the men-
tal procefles carried on in fleep. It would be endlcfs to
recount the particular cafes belonging to this fubjeft. It is
fufBcient to mention that individuals rife from bed aflcep,
and with their eyes clofed, and not only walk about the
room or houfe, going up or down (lairs, hnding their
way readily, and avoiding obftacles, but pafs fafely through
very dangerous pLces, as windows, or on the roofs of houies.
They execute, too. Hill more difficult feats. They drefs
themfelves, go out of doors, light a fire, undrefs and bathe,
iaddle and bridle a horfe, ride, write, make verfes, and exe-
cute all the aftions of life correftly, and even fometimes
acutely. During this time they are afleep ; the eyes are (hut,
or do not fee i( open ; the iris is not irritable. When
awakened, which is fometimes not eafily effeiited, they do not
remember what they have done.

The proportion uf time paded in fleep differs in different
individuals, and at different ages. From fix to nine hours
may be reckoned about the average proportion. Men of
aftive minds, whole attention is engaged in a (eries of inte-
rellmg employments, fleep much lefs than tlie lilllefs and
indolent ; and tlie lame individual will fpend fewer hours in
this way, when (Irongly interefted in any purfuits, than when
the llream of life is gentle and undiilurbcd. Tlie great
Frederic of Pruflia, and John Hunter, who devoted every
moment of their time to the moll aftive employments of
body and mind, generally took only four or five hours fleep.
A rich and lazy citizen, whofe life is merely a chro-
nicle of breakfalis, dinners, (uppers, and fleep, will flum-
iier away ten or twelve hours daily. When any fubjeti
ilrongly occupies us, it keeps us awake in fpitc of our-
(elves. Thefe p'lenomena are confillent with what we have
already faid ; the animal organs, when the period of their
intermifljon and repofe has arrived, are kept in adtivity by
new and unufual caufes of excitation, and thus the ordi-
nary period of fleep may be pafTed over, and its ordinary
quantity much diminilhed. When a perfon, who has thus
been kept long awake by the occupation of his mind with
important aud urgent fubjedts, at lalt falls aflcej), the flighted
irritation calls up in the fancy all the trains of tliouglit
which have jull occupied u', and fets at work again all the
internal machinery winch has hardly yet become quiet ; the
fleep, under fucli circumllances, is imperfeiit, and mueli dil-
turbed by dreaming.

The newly-born child fleeps mod of its time ; it feems to
Vol. XXXIII.

wake merely for the purpofe of feeding. Some have called
(octal exifttnce a perpetual fleep ; but the animal organ?,
never having been yet exercifed, can hardly be faid to be
in a Hate of repofe. See Embuvo.

For the firll two or three yearf, children (leep more than
once in the twenty-four hours. Again ; very old perfons
fleep much of their time : in the natural progrefs towards
death, the animal faculties are firft extinguilhed ; accord-
ingly, when they begin to decline in decrepid old age, the
periods of their intermilTion are longer. The celebrated
De Moivre, when eighty-three years old, was awake only
four hours out of the twenty-four (Hid. de I'Acad. des
Sc. for 1754) ; and Thomas Parr at lalt flept the gieateft
part of his time. Aniin.ils which do not prey by night,
feem to pafs as much time afleep as awake ; that is, they
fleep during the dark, and are awake fo long as the fun is
above the horizon.

The (late of torpidity in which many animals pafs the
winter months, cannot properly be called ilcep ; it is not
a repofe of the animal organs, confequent on the fatigue
produced by their exercife ; but is a peculiar condition of
the whole frame, affefting the internal ai well as the external
organs, and caufed diredtly by the aflion of cold.

The exhauftion of the powers of the animal organs bv
exercife being the determining caufe of fleep, it comes on
after the clofe of our daily occupations, when darknefs ne-
cedarily caufes an intermilTion of labour and a general quiet,
which are favourable to repofe. The number of hours de-
voted to aftive occupation, and the time at which difpofition
to fleep is felt, are indiienced confiderably by habit : after
confiderable and unufual exertion, fleepinefs will be felt in
the day-time.

The period of fleep may be protraftcd, by unufual exci-
tation, much beyond the ordinary period ; but the effeft
is lod after a certain time, and fleep comes on under circum-
ftances, which appear at firll moll unfavourable to it. An
eye-witnefs reported that lomc boys, completely exhauded
by exertion, fell afleep amid all the tumult of the battle of the
Nile ; and other inltances are known of (oldiers fleeping amid
difcharges of artillery, and all the tumult of war. , Couriers
are known to fleep on horfeback, and ooachmen on their
coaches. A gentleman who faw the faft, reported to the
writer of this article, that many (oldiers in the retreat of fir
•lohn Moore, fell aflcep on the march, and continued walking
on. Even (Iripes and tortures cannot keep off fleep be-
yond a certain time ; but it then indicates the greatell ex-
haudion, and confequently affords an unfavourable progiiofis.
Noifes at firft prevent us from deeping, but their influence
foon ceafes, and perfons red foundly in the moll noify fitua-
tions. The proprietor of fome vail iron-works, who flept
clofe to tliem, through the incedant din of hammers, forges,
and blad-fiirnaccs, would awake if there was any interrup-
tion during the night. And a miller, being very ill and
unable to fleep, when his mill was flopped on this account,
reded well and recovered quickly when the mill was fct a,
going again.

Great hunger prevents fleep ; and cold affefting a part of
the body has the fame effeft. Thefe caufes operated on the
unfortunate women who lived thirty-four days in a fmall
room overwhelmed by fnow, and with the flighted fufte-
iiance : they hardly flept the whole time. ( SoinisRagiona-
mento fo[)ra un (alto avvenuto in Bergemoletto, See. p. 74.)
Indigellion, and various bodily afleftions, produce fleeplefl-
nc(p. We have .ilready noticed, that all mental occupa-
tions attended with intenfe tliought, and great intercd,
prevent fleep ; and any great aft'eftions of the mmd have the
fame cdeft.

S It

SLEEP.

It will eafily be underftood that circumilances oppofite to
thofe juft enumerated are favourable to fleep. Bodily ex-
ercife with tranquillity of mind, and abfencejof all excitation,
are the moft important of thcfe. A full repaft is often fol-
lowed by fleep, even in animals, as'dogs. The dillention
of the ilomach excites the circulation, and thus brings on a
condition of the brain favourable to fleep. Various vege-
table fubftances taken into the ilomach aft on the brain in
the fame way. Intenfe cold, affefting the whole body, ex-
haufts the animal powers and brings on fleep, which is
fpeedily 'fatal. See Cold.

Sleepinefs, when it occurs naturally, after our daily oc-
cupations, is marked, firft, by a fenfe of mufcular fatigue,
particularly in the long mufcles : it may be experienced in
various parts, according as they have been more exercifed.
We begin to gape ; the intellcftual funftions languifli ; cu-
riofity is blunted ; attention becomes painful ; and a great de-
fire of repofe is fell over the whole body. The imprefTions
on the external I'enfes are indiitinct ; we cannot read well,
nor does the memory ac"f with its ufual force or order : an
uneafy fenfation is perceived in the eye ; the upper eye -lid
falls in fpite of every effort to keep it elevated. Now the
mufcles of the whole body are more or lefs relaxed : hence
the head inclines forwards, and the whole body would come
to the ground if the perfon were itaading. The lenfe of
hearing feems to be fufpended lalt ; we hear and underltand
the converfation of thofe near us, when the eyes no longer
att. Now the fucceffion of our mental operations becomes
quite involuntary ; and a kind of delirium takes place, in
which the trains of thought preferved in the memory fuc-
ceed according to their natural affociations and connec-
tions. Thefe operations are then fufpended, and fleep is
complete.

Refpefting the (late of the body in fleep we have very
little to add to our general account already given. In com-
plete fleep the body is perfeftly motionlefs ; the fenfes are
not affedled by their refpeftive external objedts, unlefs the
impreflions (hould be ftrong enough to aroufe us. Hunger
and third are not felt ; nor are we confcious of the neceflity
of emptying the bladder or bowels, until the diftention is
fufficient to waken us. The functions of the organic life
go on uninterruptedly ; digeftion, chylitication, and the
converfion into faeces, abforption, circulation, refpiration,
nutrition, fecretion, are all continued. There mav be feme
flight modifications, but they are unimportant.

After the fleep has laded long enough to reltore the ani-
mal powers, we awake, without any change or occurrence
which can be fliewn to affeft particularly the brain or other
parts, of which the atlion was fufpended by fleep. We
open our eyes, and often rub them. We move the limbs
and ilretch them ; and in a few feconds we have the full ufe
of our fenfes, intelleftual faculties, voice and voluntary
mufcles, and they recover their powers of aftion com-
pletely.

There are rare examples of individuals, who have gone
on deeping for days, weeks, and mouths : but thefe hifto-
ries are not accompanied with fuch particulars as would ena-
ble us to judge of the caufe for fuch a deviation from the
ordinary courfe of nature.

Sleep, Somnus, in Mythology, the fon of Erebus and of
Night, according to Homer and Hefiod, and the brother of
Mors or Death.

Virgil (jEn. vi. v. 278.) affigns to this deity an abode
with death, in the fubterraneous or invifible world.

Statius and Ovid place the chief refidence, or great palace
of Somnus on our earth, in the country of the Cimmerians ;
no country agreeing better with fleep than that which is

overfpread with eternal darknefs. Tlieb. x. v. 8410 117.
Met. xi. v. 592 to 645.

Dreams werejthe children of fleep ; Ovid names three of
them, t'iz. Morpheus, Phobetor, and Phantafia.

This deity is moft commonly reprefented by the artifts as a
foft youth, ftretched at his eafe on a couch, refting his head
on a lion's (kin, and fometimes on a lion ; with one arm
either a little over or under his head, and the other dropping
negligently by the fide of the couch, and cither holding
poppies, or a horn with the juice of poppies in it. He is
often winged, and much refembles a little Cupid, from
whom he is diilinguifhed by the lizard (^an animal fuppofed
to fleep half the year) placed at his feet. There is fcarcely
any one of the deities that is more fully and particularly de-
fcribed by tlie poets than this deity of fleep. Spence'g Po.
lymctis, p. 263, &c.

Sleep of Plants, Somnus Plantarum, in Vegetable Phyfto-
logy, is a term ufed by Linnaeus, to exprefs a peculiar itate
in the conftitution of many plants during the night, evinced
by a change of pofition, generally a drooping, or a folding
together, of their leaves or leaflets. Such a change, being
occafioned by the withdrawing of the (limulus of light, i«
probably a ftate of reil to their vital funtlions, and there-
fore the above terra is not fo hyperbolical as at fir(t appears.
Linnxus has given a curious treatife on this fubjeft, in the
Amanitates j^cademkie, v. 4. 333. The phenomenon itfelf
had been noticed long before, by Acofta and Profper Al-
pinus, in the Tamarind-tree ; and the latter points out feve-
lal parallel inftances in other leguminous plants with pin-
nated leaves, natives of Egypt. It is indeed moft remark-
able in fuch plants. Herbs with ternate leaves, as the Tre-
fofl and Oxalis, deep with their leaflets folded together ia an
ereft poiture ; and Phny has obferved that the former of
thefe alTumes that pofition at the approach of ftorms.
Cloudy weather, no doubt, produces this efteft, in propor-
tion as the plant is in vigour, and the (limulus of preceding
fun-fhine has been ftrong. Not that a celTation or diminution
of heat appears to caufe the change alluded to ; for Lin-
nxiis has well remarked, from observing ftove-plants, that
fuch is not the cafe. It is the withdrawing of a confiderable
portion of light. The more young and tender the plant,
the more fenfibly is it affedled by this caufe.

Linnaeus has, in the above-mentioned treatife, elaborately
defcribed the various pofitions which the leaves of different
plants allume in their fleep. In general, it may be remarked
that they cover, or fold together, the upper furfaces of
their leaves, expofing the under, which latter is almoit uni-
formly impatient of light. This is fo much the cafe, that
we cannot but fufpeft the eifeft of the returning hght upon
the backs of fuch leaves, may be the immediate caufe of their
withdrawing from it, and thus the upper furface becomes
necefTarily prefented to its rays.

A fimilar effedl of light is feen in many flowers, particu-
larly of the compound tribe. But the expanfion of thefe
is regulated by other and more abllrufe laws, which often
limit their changes to certain hours of the day, partly,
though not abfolutely, in^pendently of light. Many of
the Campion tribe, efpecially, unroll their delicate petals in
an evening only, in a precife and determinate manner, not to
be attributed either to the prefence or the abfence of light.
So the moving-plant, Hedyfarum gyrans, performs its cu-
rious gyrations with apparently perfedl indifference as to the
degree of light to which it is expofed, provided the fur-
rounding atmofphere be warm and (till. The clofing or
drooping of flowers, moreover, when it depends only on the
diminution of light, generally anfwers an evident fecondai-y
purpofe, in (heltering the organs of impregnation from the

injurious

SLEEP.

injurious effefts of rain, or noAurnal dews. But fuch is
feldom the cafe with leaves, except incidentally, as in Lotus
ormthopodloldes, which plant firlt led Linnsus to attend par-
ticularly to the fubjecl before us.

Sleep of the Soul, in Theology, denotes that infenfible,
unconfcious, and inactive ftate, into which fome have fup-
pofed that mankind are removed at death, and in which they re-
main till the period of the general refurreftion and laft. judg-
ment. The term deep has been ufed by way of contradiilinc-
tion to that which has been commonly called the intermediate
or feparate Hate. Of the advocates of this opinion, fome have
allowed the eflential diftinftion between body and fpirit, and
the natural immortality of the human foul ; fo that, being a
fubftance and not a mode, it will go on to exift, till by fome
pofitive a(ft of the Creator it is annihilated. They cannot
admit the fuppofition, that the whole man becomes extinft.
at death, or that death dettroys or annihilates the thinking
fubftance ; becaufe, they fay, the refurreftion on this
hypothefis, will not be a relurreftion, but a creation of a
new fet of beings : if death annihilates us in this fenfe,
there can be no future itate ; becaufe, a being who has loft
his exiftence cannot be recovered. Accordingly, they main-
tain, that what happens to the foul at death can be no more
than a fufpeniion of theexercife of its faculties, or an inca-
pacitation, from which it will, by the power of Chrift, be
delivered at the refurreftion : and they allege, that there is
an infinite difference between the annihilation of the foul at
death, and its incapacitation ; becaufe, one who believes
the former, could not poflibly entertain the hope of a
future itate ; but one who believes the latter, might rea-
fonably entertain fuch a hope. Death, they fay, is a dif-
trefs in which our fpecies has been involved by extraor-
dinary caufes, and from which we have obtained the hope
of being faved by the moft extraordinary means, <vi%. by
the interpofition of Jefus Chrift, who, taking upon him
our nature, and humbling Limfelf to death, has acquired
the power of deilroying death, and is on this account Ityled
the Saviour of the world. However, molt of thofe who
deny the notion of an intermediate ftate of confcious percep-
tion between death and the general refurreClion, rejeft the
fuppoiition of two diltinft natures in man, and confider that
principle, which is called the foul, not as a fpiritual fub-
ftance, but as a quality, or property, either fuperadded to
matter by the creator of our frame, or refulting from the
organization of the human body, and particularly of the
brain. See Sour,.

Accordingly, they allege, that when the organized fyf-
tem, to which the power of thinking, Sec. is annexed, on
which it depends, and from the organization of which, as
fome maintain, it neceflarily refults, is diftolved by death ;
all the percipient and thinking powers of man, all his ca-
pacities of adtion, and of fufferiiig, or of enjoyment,
muft be extinguifhcd, and ceafe of courfe. And if the
property of thinking neceflarily attends the property of
life, as fome apprehend, nothing can be requifite to the
rcftoration of all the powers of the man, hut the re-
lloration of the body (no particle of which can be loft) to a
ftate of life. Whatever is decompofed, it is faid, may cer-
tainly be recompofed by the iam-- Almighty power that firlt
compofcd it, witii whatever change in its conltitution, ad-
vantageous or diladvantageoii,;, he (hall think proper ; and
then ttie powers of thinking, and whatever depended upon
them, will return of courfe, and the man will be, in the
moft proper fenfe, the fame being that he was before.
Thole who hold this opinion maintain, that, according to
the fcriptures, life and iminovtalitv were brought to light by
the gofpel of Chi ill, in a fenfe cxclulive ot all other teachers,

and all other revelations, at leafl; from the birth of MofeR
downwards ; cxclufive, likewife, of all information from
the light of nature, or the refult of philofophical difquifi-
tion on the fubftance or qualities of the human foul. They
hold, moreover, that the fentence pronounced upon our firlt
parents, imported a total deprivation of life, without any re-
ferve, or faving to the life of the foul ; and confequently,
that eternal life, or a rettoration and redemption from the
confequences of this fentence, was efFetled for, revealed,
configned, and infurcd to man, in and through Chrift, and
will be accomplilbed in no other way than that fpoken of by
Chrift and his apoftles, who, they fay, have left no room to
conclude, that there is a feparate or intermediate life for the
foul, when difunited from the body.

The learned Dr. Law, bidiop of Carlifle, having, with
a particular view to the controverfy concerning the interme.
diate ftate, enumerated the feveral paftages both in the Old
and New Teftament, in which the words, that are tranflated
loul or fpirit in our verfion, occur, mamtains, that none of
them ever Hand for a purely immaterial principle in man, or
a fubftance wholly feparable from, and independent of, the
body ; and after examining the account which the fcriptures
give of that ftate to which death reduces us, he obferves,
that it is reprefented by fleep, by a negation of all life,
thought, or adion ; by reft, relling-place, or home, filence,
oblivion, darknefs, deftruftion, or corruption. He adds,
that the fcripture, in fpeaking of the conneftion between
our prefent and future being, doth not take into account
our intermediate ftate in death ; no more than we, in de-
fcribing the courfe of any man's aftions, take in the time
he fleeps : and that, therefore, the fcriptures, in order to
be confiftent with themfelves, mult affirm an immediate con-
neftion between death and judgment. As for thofe texts
that are ufually alleged on the other fide of the queftion,
which he has cited and endeavoured to accommodate to his
own opinion, he thinks that they are quite foreign to the
point, or purely figurative, or capable of a clear and cafy
folution on the principle which he adopts, ws. that the
times of our death and refurrcdion are coincident ; and that
they cannot be fairly oppofed to the conftant, obvious
tenor of the facred writings. With refpeft to philofophical
arguments, deduced from our notions of matter, and urged
againft the poffibility of life, thought, and agency, being
fo connected with fome portions of it as to conititute a com-
pound being or perfon, he imagines that they are merely
grounded on our ignorance, and that they will e(jualiy prove
againft known fa£t and obfervation, in the prodndion of
various animals, as againft: the union of two fuch hetero-
gencous principles as thofe of the foul and body are fup-
pofed to be. With refpcd to the confequences of either
opinion, he fays, that on the one fide, there is nothing more
tlian a temporary ceftation of thought, which can hurt no-
body, except tlie felf-interefted papift, or the fclf-fnfficient
deift ; but on the other fide, there is a manifell derogation
from, if not a total fubvcrfion of, that pofitive covenant,
which profed'es to entitle us to evcrlalling life. He adds,
that all proper and confiftent notions of death, returrcAion,
and a future judgment, are confounded, and in fine, all
tiie great fanftions of the gofpel rendered unintelligible or
ufelefs.

The dortrine of tlie New Teftament, fays another writer
againlt a feparate itate, is that man (hall become immortal,
by the way of a refurredioii of the dead, a relloration of
the whole man to life ; and the New Teftament is fo far
from acknowledging any intermediate conlcioufncfs in man,
between death and the refurrcftion, that it always fpeaks
of that interval as a deep, which implies a fulptnlioji of

S 2 the

SLEEP.

the thinking faculty, a retl from thofe labours, which re-
quire thought, memory, confeioufBefs, &c. during which
thofe faculties ;ire ufelefs.

Bcfides, the fciiptural fylteni of immortality fuppofes,
that man had forfeited his original title to immortality,
and would never have received it, but for the interpofition
of a Redeemer. The confequence of this doftrine is, that
between the time of the forfeiture and the aftual appearance
of the Redeemer, the dead could have life in no fenfe at
all ; and that neither before nor after the appearance of the
Redeemer, dead men were, or would be reftored to life,
■ntherwife than in the way revealed by him, namely, a re-
furreftion of the dead.

On the other hand, the advocates of a feparate ftate
infill, that the foul, being an aAive, fimpie, uncompounded,
immaterial fubltance, is immortal in its own nature, and
capable of an adive and confcious exiftence, in a ftate of
difunion and feparation from the body ; that this natural
capacity of the foul was not impaired, or at all affefted by
any thing that happened upon the tranfgreffion of our firll
parents ; that the death, to which they were condemned,
was only the death of the body : hence they infer, that
there is, and would have been, a future immortal ftate ot
being beyond the prefent life, and (the moral attributes of
God prefuppofed) a juft retribution therein, independent
of the dodrine of a refurreftion of the dead ; and that in
the interval between death and the general refurreckion,
there is an intermediate ftate, in which the departed fouls
of good men are luppofed to have an imperfeft reward, and
the fouls of the wicked an imperfeft punilhment ; but that
every one, at the period of the reunion of the foul and
body, and of final judgment, will receive a full and com-
plete recompence for the deeds done in the body.

In proof of this opinion, they allege a variety of paf-
fages both from the Old and New Tellament, the principal
of which we Ihall here enumerate ; feveral of which they
think cannot be confiftently explained on the other hypo-
thefis. Gen. ii, 7. xv. 15. xxxvii. 35. Exod. iii. 6.

1 Sam. xxviii. 11 — 19. i Kings, xvii. 21, 22. Pf. xxxi. 5.
Ecclef. iii. 21. xii. 7. Matt. x. 28. xvii. 3. Luke, xvi.
19. XX. 38. xxiii. 43. xxiv. 39. Afts, i. 25. vii. 59.

2 Cor, y. 8. xii. 2. Phil. i. 21 — 24. i Pet. in. J9. iv. 6.
Heb. xi. 40. xii. 23. Rev. vi. 9, 10. xiv. 13.

To thefe authorities of fcripture, they add the tefti-
mony of the fathers of the church, who lived in or near
the time of the apoftles, who are faid to be unanimous in
this opinion, and perfuaded that the foul of every man upon
the diffblution of the body died not, but had a proper
place to go to, and that accordingly this doftrine is to be
found in the moil ancient Chriftian liturgies.

Great ftrefs has been laid, in this controverfy, en the
meaning of the term death, as it occurs in fcripture, and
particularly in the fentence denounced againft the firft
parent of the human race. (See Death, in Theology.)
The bilhop of Carlifle obferves, that the word ileath, in its
original and obvious fenfe, implies a celTation of all natural
hfe, or a real diifoliition and dellruAion of the whole man.
But Mr. Farmer, a well-known and excellent writer, in the
introduftion to his learned work of the " General Preva-
lence of the Worfhip of Human Spirits, &c." 1783, has
taken fome pains to afcertain the meaning of the word
death, in the threatening denounced againll Adam. To
this purpofe, he fays, that if human fpirits were worfhipped
in the age of Mofes, particularly in Egypt and Phoenicia,
the word death could not at that time, and in thofe coun-
tries, denote more than the deftruclion of bodily life ; for,
if this term had farther included in it the infenfibility or

extinftion of the foul, the dead would not have been
honoured as gods. And if Mofes had ufed it in this ex-
tenfive fenfe, he would have been mifunderftood by the
Egyptian,', who afterted the immortality of the foul, and
by the Hebrews, who dwelt among them, and had adopted
their fyftem of religion.

This learned writer, in confirmatien of this interpreta-
tion of death, obferves, that although one great defign of
Mofes, in giving an account of the introduClion of death
into the world, was to guard againft the worlhip of de-
parted fpirits, and though nothing could have anfwered
this defign more effectually than reprefenting the foul of
Adam as a mere quahty, or as the refult of the peculiar
ftruclure and organization of his body, yet, fo far is he
from fuppofing this to be the cafe, that according to him,
after the body of the firtl man was perfectly organized by
the immediate hand of the Almighty, he did not become a
living foul or pcrfon, till God breathed into his noftrils
the breath of life ; a prmciple dillinA from the duft out
of which his body was formed, and, therefore, capable of
fubfilling in a ftate of feparation from it. Nor does
Mofes ufe the fame language in relating the formation
of any other living creatures ; which proves that the prin-
ciple of life in man is of a fuperior kind to that in brutes.

BeCdes, the ancient patriarchs did not believe that the
foul of man periihed witli his body. Agreeably to the
raoft ancient opinion concerning departed fpirits, the facred
writers fuppofed the fouls of the dead to exift mjheol, or
hades, a place invifible to human fight, and that, in the
diftribntion of them, regard was had to the former relation
in which they ftood to one another. Moreover, Mofes
himfelf believed the feparate fubfiilence of the foul, and
has even given it a divine fanClion. Gen. xv. 15.

Nor do any of the facred writers ever defcribe death in
terms different from thofe ufed by perfons, who certainly
acknowledged the continuance of the foul after it.

Sleep, by which it is defcribcd, is not a ftate of non-
exiftence, but of relt ; and it is well known, that this foft
image of death was commonly ufed to exprefs the thing
itfelf, by thofe who afferted the exiftence of fouls in hades.
Silence, oblivion, darknefs, and corruption, by which the
ftate of the dead is defcribed, refer only to the body, or
to the fuppofed ftate of the foul, while it wa ; in fheol, and
are not peculiar to the facred writers, but were common in
all countries, where both the popular belief, and the efla-
blifhed worfhip, were inconfiitent with the notion of the
foul's perifhing with the body.

And many of the terms, by which death was defcribed
in all countries, clearly imply, and are built upon, a belief
of the diftinclion between foul and body, and of their be-
ing feparated at death.

According to the Greeks, to die was to, depart, to go
away ; and the <vriters of the New Teftam.ent defcribe
death by a departure, (Luke, ix. 31.) that is, of the foul
from the body to another ftate. To all which it may be
added, that the Jews, from the time of their return from
Babylon, alferted the feparate exiftence of the foul after
death ; as appears from their im.itation of the heathen idola-
try, from their evocation of the dead, and from the early
references in fcripture to the receptacle of departed fouls,
and many other proofs. This was the opinion, not only of
a few eminent individuals, fuch as Philo, but of the learned
feftc, the EiTenes and Pharifees, and of the whole body of
the people, almoll without exception, in the time of our
Saviour. To this principle the Pharifees, whofe doArine
formed the popular creed, added another, vi-z. the refur-
reftion of the dead. The Sadducces believed the extinc-
tion

SLEEP.

t!on of the foul at death, but did not admit the refurrec-
tion J the Pharifecs, on the other hand, admitted the latter
and denied the former. By the term revivifcence, or re-
turn to life, by which the refurreftion is defcribed, the
Jews could not mean creating anew the foul, that had been
deilroyed, becaufe, if it were poffible, they did not allow
that the former foul perifhcd at death. Nor did they be-
lieve, that man had no foul ; and, therefore, that hi;, refur-
reAion coiifilled in the re-organization of his former body, or
ill furnilhing him with a new body, organized as that was ;
becaufe this is a flat contradiction to their belief of the dif-
tinttion between foul and body, and the feparate exiftence
of the former. What then did they, or could they mean
by the refurreftion to life, but the i-eiloration of that kind
of life which they had lolt, by the reunion of their fouls
to a human body, either the fame which they had before,
or one in effedl the fame ? In virtue of this reunion, the
dead man became a living man, the fame as he was before
he died, with the fame conicioufnefs and recolleAion, the
principle of confcioufnefs having never perifhed. And if,
in or near the time of Chrill, the terms refurreftion, re-
vivifcence, or living again, as ufed both by Jews and Gen-
tiles, denoted the reunion of a foul to a human body, the
fame terms, wlicn adopted by Chrilt and his apolUes, muit
have the fame meaning : and every one would underftand them
in their common and ordinary figniiication. Confequently,
t life, as expreffmg the relurreCtion, fignifies the foul's
- cturn to a human body, death, its oppofite, denotes its
ifparation ; both terms imply the continuance of the foul
ifter death: a principle, fays Mr. Farmer, held in the molt
•ncient times, by Heathens and Jews, by patriarchs and pro-
;)hets, and by the people, particularly in the times of Mofes
md the Meffiah, and which gives great probability to the
doftrine of a refurrcttion.

The advocates of the deep of the foul, on the other
hand, earnellly contend, that it was the opinion of the
apolUcs and early Chriftians, that, whatever be the nature
of the foul, its percipient and thinking powers ceafe at
death ; and that they had no hope of the reiloration of
thofe powers, but in the general refurreftion of the dead.

Dr. Campbell, in his " Preliminary Didertations,"
(Part ii.) has introduced fome remarks, that deferve atten-
tion, on the controverfy concerning an intermediate ftate
between death and the refurreftion. He obferves, Jirji,
that the arguments, on which tlie denicis of that ftate chiefly
build, arife, in his opinion, from a milapprehenfion of the
import of fome fcriptural cxpreffions. Kavsuosiv, xoi^xxv, to
ftetp, are often applied to th'.- dead ; but this application is
no more than a metaphorical euphonifm, derived from the
refemblance which a dead body bears to the body of a per-
fon adeep. Traces of this idiom may be found in all lan-
guages, whatever be the popular belief about the Itate of
the dead. Tiiey often occur ni tlie Old Teilament ; yet it
has been ihewii, that the common doctrine of the Orientals
favoured tlie feparate cxillence of the foids of the deceafed.
But if it did not, and if, as tome luppufe, tlie ancient
Jews were, on all articles relating to another life, no better
tiian Sadducees, this llievvs the more Itrongly, that fuch
metaphors, fo frequent in their writing?, could be derived
folely from bodily likenefs, and having no reference to a
refurrcftion, could be employed folely for the fake of
avoiding a difagrecable or ominous word. It is acknow-
ledged, at the fame time, that Chrillians have been the
more ready to adopt fuch expreflioiis, as their dortrine of
the refurredtion of the boily, prefeiited to their minds an
additional analogy between the bodies of the deceafed and
the bodies of thole afleep, that of being one day awaked.

But our author fees no reafon to imagine that, in this ufc,
they carried their thoughts further than to the corporeal and
vifible refemblance now mentioned. Another miflake about
the import of fcriptural terms, is in the fenfe which has
been given to the word avaraVi,-. They confine it, by a ufe
derived merely from modern European tongues, to that re-
novation which we call the reunion of the foul and the
body, ai;d which is to take place at the laft day. But
this is not always the fenfe of the term in the New Tefta-
ment.

Dr. Campbell remarks, fecondly, that many exprefTions
of fcripture, in the natural and obvious fenfe, imply that an
intermediate and lisparate ftate of the foul is aftually to fuc-
ceed death. Such are the words of our Lord to the peni-
tent thief upon the crofs (Luke, xxiii. 43.) ; Stepnen's
dying petition (Atfs, vii. 59.); the comparifons which
the apoltle Paul makes in different places (2 Cor. v. 6, &c.
Philip, i. 21.) between the enjoyment which true Chrillians
can obtain by their continuance in this world, and that on
which they enter at their departure out of it, and feveral
other pailages. Let the words referred to be read by any
judicious perfon, either in the original, or in the common
tranflation, which is fufficiently exaft for this purpofe, and
let him, fetting alide all theory or fyftem, fay candidly,
whether they would not be underftood, by the grofs of
mankind, as prcfuppofing that the foul may and will exill
feparately from the body, and be fufceptible of happinefs
or mifery in that ftate. If any thing could add to the na-
tive evidence of the expreflions, it would be the unnatural
meaning that is put upon them, in order to difguife that
evidence. The apoltle Paul, they are fenfible, fpeaks of
the faints as admitted to enjoyment in the prefence of God,
immediately after death. Neverthelefs, in order to palliate
the direft contradiction this bears to their doftrine, that the
vital principle, which is all they mean by the foul, remains
extinguiftied between death and the refurreftion, they re-
mind us of the ditfcrence between abfolute or real, and
relative or apparent, time. They admit that, if the apoftle
be underllood as fpeaking of real time, what is faid flatly
contradifts their fyftem : but they fay, his words muft be
interpreted as fpoken only of apparent time. He talks
indeed of entering on a ftate of enjoyment, immediately
after death, though there may be many thoufands of years
between the one and the other : for he means only, that
when that Itate fhall commence, however dillant in reality
the time may be, the perfon entering on it will not be fen-
fible of that diltance, and confequently there will be to him
an apparent coincidence with the moment of his death.
But, fays Campbell, does the apoftle any where give a hint
that this is his meaning i' or, is it what any man would na-
turally difcover from his words ? Did the facred penman,
then, as our author proceeds, mean to put a cheat upon the
world, and, by the help of an equivocal exprcflion, to
flatter men with the hope of entering, tlie inftant they ex-
pire, on a ftate of felicity ; when, in fa<S, they knew that
it would be many ages before it would take place? But,
were the hypothefis about the oxtiiidion of the mind be-
tween death and the refurreftion well founded, the apparent
coincidence they fpeak of is not fo clear as they feem to
think it.

Our author remarks, thirdly, that even the various equi-
vocation, (or, perhaps, more properly, mental refervation,)
that has been devifed for them, will not, in every cafe, fave
tlie credit of apollolical veracity. The words of Paul to
the Corinthians are, " Knowing, that whilft we are at
home in the biidy, we are abfent from the Lord." Again :
«' We are willing rather to be abfent from the body, and

prcftiit

S L E

prefeTit with the Lord." Could fuch exprefilons have been
iifed by him, if he had held it impoffible to be with the
Lord, or indeed any where, without the body ; and that,
whatever the change was which was made by death, he
could not be in the prefence of the Lord, till he returned to
the body ? Abfence from the body, and prefence with the
Lord, were never, therefore, more unfortunately combined,
than in this illuftration. Things arc combined here as co-
incident, which, in the hypothefis of thofe gentlemen, are
incompatible. If recourfe be had to the original, the ex-
preffions in Greek are, if poffible, ilill ftronger. They are,
01 E»^>iju«i1i; f J Tw o-D/xali, thofe ivho dwell in the body, who are
£)tS)i(xKil£,- KTTo T« KufiK, at o dtflatice froTti the Lord; as, on
the contrary, they are oi sn^n/iavl!,- ix th a-wfuccKjf, thofe ivho
have travelled out of the body, who are oi tvJnjiav]!.; r^j; to»
Kffiov, thofe luho rejide, or are prefent 'With the Lord. In
the paflage to the Phihppians alfo, the commencement of
his prefence with the Lord is reprefented as coincident, not
with his return to the body, but with his leaving it, with
the diilolution, not with the reftoration, of the union. We
may here fubjoin an inquiry, how the apolUe could be in a
jlra'it helwtxt two (Philip, i. 23.), that o{ living in the Jlcjh,
and being with Chrijl, which he pronounces to be far better,
if the exercife of his powers of fervice and capacity of en-
joyment ceafed at death. A mind like his conld not hefi-
tate between living in the flefh, and thus ferving the Chrif-
tian caufe, and finking at death into a flate of total inaSion,
and of thus continuing for a long but indefinite period.

Thit fourth remark made by Dr. Campbell on this fubjecl
is, that from the turn of the New Teftamcnt, the facred
writers appear to proceed on the fuppofition, that the foul
and the body are naturally diftinft and feparable, and that
the foul is fufceptible of pain or pleafure in a ftate of repa-
ration. It were endlefe to enumerate all the places which
evince this. The ftory of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke,
xvi. 22, 23.); the lail words of our Lord upon the crofs
(Luke, xxiii. 46.), and of Stephen when dying; Paul's
doubts, whether he was in the body or out of the body,
when he was tranflated to the third heaven and paradile
(2 Cor. xii. 2, 3, 4.); our Lord's words to Thomas, to
fatisfy him that he was not a fpirit (Luke, xxiv. 39.) ; and
the exprefs mention of the denial of fpirits, as one of the
errors of the Sadducees (Afts, xxiii. 8.) : thefe are irre-
fragable evidences of the general opinion on this fubjedt,
both of Jews and Chriftians. By fpirit, it is obferved, as
diftinguiflied from angel, is evidently meant the departed
fpirit of a human being ; for that man is here, before his
natural death, poilelfed of a vital and intelhgent principle,
which is commonly called his foul or fpirit, it was never
pretended that they denied. It has been faid, that this
manner of exprefling themfelves has been adopted by the
apollles and evangelilts, merely in conformity to vulgar no-
tions. To me, fays Dr. Campbell, it appears a conformity,
which (if the facred writers entertained the fentiments of
our antagoniits in this article) is hardly reconcileable to the
known fimplicity and integrity of their charafter.

Before the council of Florence, held in 1439, under pope
Eugenius IV., the ancient doftrine, both of the Greek and
Latin churches, is faid to have been, that the fouls of the
faints were in abditis receplaculis, or in exterioribus atriis,
where they expected the refurreiSion of their bodies, and the
glorification of their fouls ; and thoHgh the fathers behevcd
all of them to be happy, yet they did not think they would
enjoy the beatific vifioii before the refurreftion. But in
this council it was decreed, that the fouls of thofe, who,
after baptifm, have incurred no itain of fin, and alfo thofe
fouls, which having contrafted the llain of fin, whether in

S L E

their bodies or divclled of their bodies, hare been purged
by the facrifice of the raafs, prayer, and alms, are received
into heaven immediately, &c.

In the Lateran council, held under Leo X., in 1513, it
was decreed, that the foul is not only truly, and of itfelf,
and elletitially the form of the human body, as is exprelfed
in the canon of pope Clement V., publilhed in the general
council of Vienne, but likewife immortal, and according to
the number of bodies into which it is infufed, is Angularly
multipliable, multiplied, and to be multiplied.

However, Peter Pomponatius, a philofopher of Mantua,
pubhfliel a book in 15 16, on the immortality of the foul,
in which, after ftating the moral arguments againft the mor-
tahty of the foul, and endeavouring to Ihew that they are
weak and inconclufive, infers upon the whole, that the im-
mortality of the ioul, being a problematical queftion, we
can have no affurance of it but from revelation ; and that
they who would build immortality upon any other founda-
tion, only verify the character given, to certain felf-fufficient
reafoners by the apoftle, viz. profefling themfelves wife,
they became fools.

In I J 20, Luther, in the defence of his propofitions,
which had been condemned by a bull of Leo X., ranks the
natural immortahty of the foul among the monftrous opinions
of Popery ; and he afterwards made ufe of the doftrine of
the flecp of tlie foul a? a confutation of purgatory and
faint-worfhip, and he is faid to have continued in that belief
to the lalt moment of his life.

William Tyndall alfo, the famous tranflator of the bible
into Englifh, in defending Luther's doftrine againil fir
Thomas More's objections, confiders the fleep of the foul
as the doftrine of the Proteftants in his time, and founded
on the fcriptures : though, in confequence of the oppofition
given to this doctrine by Calvin, in his Pfychopannychia,
publifiied in 1534, and the turn hereby given to the fenti-
ments of the Reformed in general, he feems to have re-
canted his opinion. Calvin, however, feems to have been
embarrafled with the fouls of the wicked, and fays, he
would only be refponfible for the faithful.

The firil exprefs condemnation of the doftrine of the
fleep of the foul, in a Proteltant confeflion, occurs in the
fortieth of king Edward's Articles, compofed in 1552.

After the long prevalence of the doctrine of the inter-
mediate fi:ate, that of the ileep of the foul has of late years
been revived, and, as one of its zealous advocates affirms,
gains ground, not fo much from confiderations of philo-
fophy, as from a clofe attention to the fenfe of the fcrip-
tures.

We fhall clofe this article with obferving, that a fingular
hypotheiis was advanced a few years ago by Dr. Caleb
Fleming, and of late vindicated by an anonymous writer ;
and this is, that the relurreftion takes place immediately
after death. On this fubjeft, fee Law's Appendix and
Poilfcript to his Confiderations on the Theory of Religion,
Sec. 1774. Hiiforical View of the Controverfy concerning
an intermediate State, &c. 1772. Prieltley's Difquifitions
on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Correfpondence between Dr.
Price and Dr. Priellley, 1778; and the publications of
Steffe, Warburton, Goddard, Coward, Peckard, Jortin,
Sec. on both fides of the quelHon, cited by the author of the
Hiftorical View, &c. Fleming's Search after Souls.

SLEEPERS, in Natural Hijlory, a name given to fome
animals which fleep all the winter : fuch as bears, marmots,
dormice, bats, hedge-hogs, &c. Thefe do not feed in
winter, have no fenfible evacuations, breathe little, or not
at all, and moft of the vifcera ceafe from their fuiiftions.
Some of thefe creatures feem to be dead, and others to re-
turn

S L E

S L I

, itn to a ftate like unto that of the fcetus before birth. In
this condition they continue, till by lengtli of time matiirat-
iiig the procefs, or by new heat, the fluids are attenuated,
the folids tlimulated, and the functions begin where they
kft off. See Dr. Stevenfon in Med. Ed. Edinb. vol. v.
art. 177. See MlcKATiON.

Sleeper, in Building, a name ufcd for the obhque rafter,
It lies in a gutter.

.Sleepers, in the Glafs Trade, are the large iron b^rs
f ifling the fmaller ones, and hindering the paflage of the
oals, but leaving room for the afhes.
Sleeper-s, in the Military Art. Sec Pl.atform.
Sleepers, in Ship- Building, pieces of long compafs-
tiniber, fayed and bolted diagonally upon the tranfoms and
timbers adjoining withinfide, to Ihengthen the buttock of
the (hip. There are from two to three pairs.

SLEEPY Creek, in Geography, a river of America, in
North Carolina, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 34^
43'. W. long. 76° 44'.

SLEETS, in Gunnery, are the parts of a mortar, paffmg
from the chamber to the trunnions, for Itrengthening that
part.

SLEEVE, HiPPOCRATEs'j. See Hippocrate.s.

SLEIDAN, John, in Biography, a celebrated hiftorian,

was born in 1506 at Sleidan, a imall town at Cologne.

His origin, it has been inferred, was obfcure, becaufe he

took no other name than that of the town in which he was

orn. He received the early part of his education in his

.'.live country, and then went to Paris, whence he removed

10 Orleans, in order that he might itudy the law as a pro-

fefiion. On his return to Paris, he was recommended by

his countryman and fchool-fcUow, J. Sturmius, to cardinal

archbifhop du Bellay, who obtained for him a penhon, and

initiated him into the routine of public bufinefs. In 1542

he was obliged, owing to his attachment to the reformed

rehgion, to retire to Strafburg. He war. at firil a follower

of Zuingle, but he afterwards joined the Lutherans, and

became a confiderable writer in their defence. He was alfo

"ntrulled with employments <jf confiderable importance to

the welfare of the party which he had joined. In 1545 he

was deputed to the king of England; and in 1551 he was

one of the Proteltant envoys to the council of Trent,

which, however, was foon diffblved by the troops of

Maurice, eledlor of Saxony. The death of his wife, which

happened in 1555, threw him into a deep melancholy, which

had the calamitous effeft of obliterating liis memory to fuch

a degree, that he did not know even his own children. He

died at Strafburg, in the following year. He is chiefly

known as an author by a work, entitled " De Statu Re-

ligionis et Reipublicx Carolo Quinto Cxfare, Commentaria,

Lib. XXV." which was firlt publilhcd in 1555. It corh-

prehcnds the hiltory of his own times, from 15 1 7 to the

year of its publication, and has always been in great credit

among the Proteltants ; though it has been charged with

partiality by Catholic writers, and by the adherents of the

emperor Charle.s. " Much of it," fays his biographer,

" is extracted from public records, and from the archives of

the city of Strafburg, witli which he was furnifhed by his

friend J. Sturmius." De Thou fpcaks of it as a work

drawn up " exatta fide et diligentia," and he praifes very

highly the writer's learning and talents for bufinefs. This

work has been tranflated into feveral modern languages :

tlie French verfion was made by Ia' Courayer. Another

celebrated work of Sleidan's is a compendium of ancient

hillory, entitled " De qiiatuor Summis Inipcriis, Lib. tres,"

which has gone through a great number of editions. He

publifhed likcwife a Latin tranflation of the Hiltory of

Philip de Comines, and an abridgment of that of FroifTart,
befides verfions of other works on general hiflory and
pohtics.

SLEKTENES, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
North fea, near the coafl of Lapland. N. lat. 70° 25'.

SLEMISH, or Slen'ish, a mountain of the county of
Antrim, Ireland, near the centre, and forming a very con-
fpicuous objeft from moft parts of the county. Dr.
Richardfon calls it a round hummock, formed by an accu-
mulation of reftilineal bafaltic llrata of fleady parallelifm.
The height, as meafurcd by the barometer, is 1398 feet.
See Hummock.

SLESWICK, Duchy of, fometimes called South Jut-
land, (fee Denmark and Jutl.vnd,) a province of Den-
mark, bounded on the north by Jutland, on the eaft by the
Baltic, on the fouth by the duchy of Holftein, and on the
well by the North fea ; about 72 miles in length, and from
30 to 56 in breadth, without including feveral iflands on the
coail. The country is well fuoplied with corn, cattle, and
lifli ; it has no mountains, and but few eminences that de-
ferve the name of hills. The foil is, in general, well culti-
vated, and agriculture is much encouraged by the crown.
Slefwick has from time immemorial been united to Denmark,
but has fometimes been given to a brother of the reigning
king, as a fief ; but this grant has produced confiderable
difputes, more efpecially in the laft century, when the duke
in pofleffion attempted to become an independent prince.
In 1720 it was recovered to the crown. The adminiflra-
tion is veiled in a governor, chancellor, vice-chancellor, and
counfellors : the governor refides at Gottorp. The in-
habitants are a mixture of Danes, Saxons, Frifchians, and
Hollanders, who refpeftively fpeak their own languages.
The prevalent religion is Lutheran. This duchy contains
feveral towns, and 1500 villages.

Sleswick, the capital of the above duchy, fituated on
the river or gulf of Sley ; formerly called " Hetheby,"
from queen Hetha, who was the founder. After having
undergone a variety of viciflitudes, it is now no longer a
port, the Sley being choaked up with fand. It is an irre-
gular town of great length, and contains about 5630 in.
habitants. The houfes are conllrucfcd with brick, and in
neatnefs and manner of building rcfcmble thofe of Holland ;
the inhabitants are alfo the Dutch, and many of them fpeak
their tongue, though the ufual languages are the German
and the Danifh. Clofe to Slefwick is the old palace of
Gottorp, which is a large brick edifice, furrounded with
a rampart and moat. It was formerly the ducal rcfidciice,
and more lately inhabited by the ftadtholdcr or governor,
prince Charles of HeiTe Callel, who married Louifa, princefs
of Denmark. From this calUe the ducal line, formed by
Adolphus, fon of Frederic I. king of Denmark, was de-
nominated Hulltein-Gottorp, which ftill iublllls in the per-
lon of the great duke of Rullia ; 60 miles N. of Hamburg.
N. lat. 54° 33'. E. long. 9° 34'.

SLETDALER, or Safe Rixdollar, in Commerce, a
money of account in Denmark, reckoned at 4 mark?, or
64 fkillings Danifh.

SLICES, in Ship- Building, tapering pieces of plank,
ufed to drive between the timbers before planking, as now
praitifed in the navy, for fetting up a fliip on her ways for
launching, &c.

SLICH, in Metallurgy, the ore of any metal, parti-
cularly of gold, when it has been pounded, and prei>ared
for farther working.

The manner of preparing the flich at Crcmnitz, in Hun-
gary, is this : they lay a foundation of wood three yards
deep, upon this tl^y place the ore, and over lliis there arc

four-

S L I

four-and-twenty beams, armed at their bottoms with iron ;
thefe, by a continual motion, beat and grind the ore, till
they reduce it to powder : during all this operation, the ore
is covered with water. There are four wheels ufcd to move
thefe beams, each wheel moving fix ; and the water, ai it
runs off, carrying fome of the metalline particles with it, is
received into feveral bafons, one placed behind another ; and
finally, after having paffed through them all, and depofited
fome fediment in each, it is let off mto a very large pit, of
almoft half an acre of ground ; in this it is fuffered to ftand
fo long, as to depofit all its fediment, of whatever kind,
and after this it is let out. This work is carried on day
and night, and the ore taken away, and replaced by more,
as often as occafion requires. That ore which lies next
the beams, where it was pounded, is always the cleanelt or
richell.

When the filch is wathed as much as they can, a hundred
weight of it ufually contains about an ounce, or perhaps
but half an ounce of metal ; which is not all gold, for there
is always a mixture of gold and filver, but the gold is in the
largell quantity, and ufually is two-thirds of the mixture :
they then put the flich into a furnace with fome lime-llone,
and flaken, or the fcoria of former meltings, and run them
together. The firft melting produces a fubftance, called
lech ; this lech they burn with charcoal, to make it hghter,
to open its body, and render it porous, after which it is
called ro/l ; to this roll they add land in fuch quantity as
they find neceffary, and then melt it over again.

They have at Cremnitz many other ways of reducing
gold out of its ore, but particularly one, in which they
employ no lead during the whole operation ; whereas, in
general, lead is always neceflary, after the before-mentioned
proceffes. See Gold.

SLICKENBORCH, in Gfography, a town of Holland,
in the ftate of Friefeland, on the river Linde, at its union
with the Kuynder ; 28 miles S. of Le warden.

SLICKENBURG, a fmall ifland near the N.W. coaft
of Borneo. N. lat. 3° 59'. E. long. 112° 31'.

SLIDE-5i///, in /Igr'tcuUm-e, a fort of fledge contrived
in the form of a Itrong, oblong box, and fliod underneath
with ilrong, rough, thick pieces of timber. It is capable
of holding about three or four common wheel-barrows full
of earth or compoft. In Cornwall and other hilly diftrids,
it is found ufeful and convenient for drawing out dung and
other dreffings to fmall diftances from the large heaps depo-
fited in the fields or other places. They are ufed with one
or two oxen or horfes for the moft part. They have
fometimes alfo low wheels, when they are denominated
gurry butts in the above county.

SLlVE-Raih, or Guard-Rails, in the conftrudlion of
Canals, are long pieces of timber fixed to piles or plugs in
the face of the walls of locks, bridges, tunnels, &c. gene-
rally a little above the furface of the water, to prevent
boats from ftriking and injuring the walls.

SLIDING, in Mechanics, Superincejfus radens, is, when
the fame point of a body, moving along a furface, defcribes
a line on that furface.

Such is the motion of a parallelepiped, protruding along
a plane.

SLiDlNG-/?«/f , a mathematical inftrument, ferving to work
quettions in gauging, meafuring, &c. without the ufe of
compafies ; merely by the fliding of the parts of the in-
itrument one by another, the fines and divifions of which
give the anfwer, by infpedfion.

This inftrument is varioufly contrived, and applied by
yaripus authors, particularly Everard, Coggefhall, Gunter,

S L I

Hunt, and Partridge ; but the moft ufual and ufeful ones
are thofe of Everard and Coggelhall ; the defcription and
ufes of which are 3=; follow.

SLiDiNG-./?u/f, Everard's, is principally ufed in gauging ;
being ordinarily made of box, a foot long, an inch broad,
and xVths of an inch thick. It coiififts of three parts :
a rule, on each fide of which, a ^ and c d [Plate VII. Stir-
•veying. Jig. 4. ) is a groove, and two fmall icales, or fliding-
pieces, m, n, Aide in the grooves. Whei both thefe pieces
are drawn out to their full extent, the inftrument is three
feet long.

On the firft broad face of the inftrument, ab, are four
lines of numbers ; for the properties, &c. of which, fee
Gunter's Line. The firll, marked A, confilling of two
radiufes numbered i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, i ; and then
2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to 10. On this line are four brafs centre-
pins, two in each radius ; one in each of which is
marked M B, to fignify that the number it is fet againit,
2150.42, is the number of cubic inches in a malt-bu(hel ;
the other two are marked with A, to fignify that the num-
bers they are fet againft, viz. 282, are the cubic inches
in an ale-gallon. The fecond and third lines of numbers
are on the Hiding-pieces, and are exadlly the fame with the
firft. They are diltinguKhed by the letter B. Clofe to
the figure 7, in the firlt radius, is a dot, marked S /', fet
exactly over .707, denoting .707 to be the fide of a fquare
infcribed in a circle, whofe diameter is unity. Clofe to
9 is another dot, marked S e, fet over .886, which is the
fide of a fquare equal to the area of a circle, whofe diameter
is unity. Another dot, near W, is fet over 231, the num-
ber of cubic inches in a wine-gallon ; and another, near C,
is fet over 3.14, the circumference of a circle, whofe dia-
meter is unity. The fourth line of numbers, marked M D,
t9 fignify malt depth, is a broken line of two radiufes, num-
bered z, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, I, 9, 8, 7, &c. the
number i being fet diredlly againft M B on the firft radius.

On the fecond broad face, marked c d, are i. A line of
numbers of one radius, numbered i, 2, 3, &c. to 10, noted
by the letter D. On this are four centre-pins; the firft,
marked W G, is the gauge-point for a wine-gallon, i. e. the
diameter of a cylinder, whofe height is an inch, and content
231 cubic inches, or a wine-gallon, which is 17.15 inches :
the fecond centre-pin, A G, ftands at the g^uge-point for
an ale-gallon, which is 18.95 inches. The third, MS,
ftands at 46.3, the fide of a fquare, whofe content is equal
to the inches in a folid bufhel. Tiie fourth, M R, is the
gauge-point for a malt-buftiel, which is 52.32 inches.
2. Two fines of numbers on the fliding-piece, which are
exaftly the fame as thofe on the fliding-piece on the other
fide, called C. Clofe to the divifion 8 is a dot, marked c,
w-hich is fet to 795, the area of a circle, whofe circum-
ference is unity ; and another, marked d, ftands at .785,
the area of a circle, whofe diameter is unity. 3. Two
lines of fegments, each numbered i, 2, 3, to loo ; the firft,
for finding the ullage of a cafli, taken as the middle fruftum
of a fpherord, lying with its axis parallel to the horizon ;
and the other for finding the ullage of a cafk Handing.

Again, on one of the narrow fides, noted e, are, i. A
fine of inches, numbered i, 2, 3, &c. to 12, each fub-
divided into ten equal parts. 2. A line, by which, with
that of inclies, we find a mean diameter for a cafk, in the
figure of the middle fruftum of a fpheroid : it is numbered
I, 2, 3, &c. to 7, and marked fpheroid. 3. A line for
finding the mean diameter of a calk, in the figure of the
middle Iruftum of a parabolic fpindle, which gangers call
the fecondary variety of cq/hs ; it is nunibcred 1, 2, 3, Sec.
and noted fecond variety. 4. A line, by which we find the.

mean

SLIDING-RULE.

mean diameter of a caflc of the third variety, !. e. of a
cafk in the figure of two parabolic conoids, abutting on a
common bafe ; it is numbered I, 2, 3, &c. and noted thitd
variety.

On the other narrow face, marked f, are, i. A foot
divided into 100 equal parts, marked F M. 2. A line
of inches, 'ike that before-mentioned, noted I M. 3. A
line for findmg the mean diameter of a fourth variety of
caflis, which is the middle fruftum of two cones, abutting
on a common bafe. It is numbered i, 2, 3, &c. and noted
FC, fignifying frullum of a cone.

On the back fide of the two fliding-pieces is a line of
inches, from 13 to 36, when the two pieces are put endwife ;
and againll that, the correfpondent gallons, or hundred
parts, that any fmall tub, or the like open vellel (from i j
to ^6 inches diameter), will contain at one inch deep.

Mr. Overley, and other writers on this fubjeft, have
fuggefted fome improvements in the conllruftion of this
inilrument. See Overlcy's Young Gauger's Inftruftor,
p. 108.

SLiDlNG-/?a/i?, Ufe'of Everard^s. — I. To multiply one
number by another. Suppofe 4 required to be multiplied
by 6 : fet I on the line of numbers B, to 4 on the line A ;
then, againll 6 upon B is 24, the produdl fouglit upon A.
Again, to multiply 26 by 68, fet i on B to 26 on A ;
then, againll 68 on B is 1768 on A, the produdl fought.

2. To divide one number by another. Suppofe 24 to
be divided by 4 : fet 4 on B to i on A ; then againll 24
on B is 6 on A, which is the quotient. Again, to divide
952 by 14 ; fet 14 on A to i on B, and againll 952 on A,
you have, on B, 68, which is the quotient.

3. To work the rule of three. If 8 gives 20, what will
22 give ? Set 8 on B to 20 on A, then againft 22 on B
(lands 55 on A, the number fought.

4. To find a mean proportional between two numbers,
fuppofe between 50 and 72: fet 50 on C to 72 on D ;
then againll 72 on C you have 60 on D, which is the mean
required.

5. To extraft the fquare root of a number. Apply
the lines C and D to one another, fo that 10 at the end of
D be even with 10 at the end of C; then are thefe two
lines a table, fhewing the fquare root of any number lefs
than looooooby inlpeftion : for againft any number on C,
the number anfwering to it on D is the fquare root of it.

Note, if the given number confills of i, 3, 5, or 7 places
of integers, feek it on the firft radiue, on the line C, and
againll it is the root required at D.

6. Either the diameter or circumference of a circle,
being given, to find the other. Set i on the line A againll
3.141 (to which is written C) on the line B ; and againll
any diameter ou the line A, you have the circumference
on B, and contrariwife : thus, the diameter being 20 inches,
the circumference will be 62.831 inches; and the circum-
ference beiDjT 94.247, the diameter will be 30.

7. The diameter of a circle given, to find the area in
inches, or in ale or wine-gallons. Suppofe the diameter
20 inches, what is the area ? Set i upon D, to .785
( noted d) on C ; then againll 20 on D is 3 1 4. i J9, the area
required. Now, to find that circle's area in ale-g.il!ons,
fet 18.95 (marked A G) upon D, to i on C ; then againll
the diami.tcr 20 upon D, is the number of ale-gallons on C,
viz. I.I I. The fame may ferve for wine-gallons, regard
being only had to the proper gauge-point.

8. The two diameters of an ellipfis being given, to find
the area in ale-gallons. Suppofe the tranfvcrfe diameter
72 inches, and the conjugate 50 : fet 35905, the fquare of
the gauge-point, ou B, to one of the diameters (luppofo 50)

Vol. XXXIII.

on A ; then againft the other diameter 72 on B, you will
have the area on A, viz- 10.02 gallons, the content of this
ellipfis at one inch deep. The like rnay be done for wine-
gallons, if, inftead of 359.0J, you ufe 249.1 1, the fquare of
the gauge-point for wine-gallons.

9. To find the area of a triangular furface in ale-gallons.
Suppofe the bafe of the triangle 260 inches, and the per-
pendicular let fall from the oppofite angle no inches: fet
282 (marked A) upon B, to 130, half the bafe, on A ; then
againll 1 10 on B is 50.7 gallons on A.

10. To find the cont-nt of an oblong in ale-gallons.
Suppofe one fide i3oiiches, and the other 180: fet 282
on B, to 180 on A ; then againft 130 upon Bis 82.97 ale-
gallons, the area required.

11. To find the content of a regular polygon in ale-
gallons, one of the fides being given. Find the length
of the perpendicular let fall from the centre to one of
the fides : this, multiplied by half the fum of the fides,
gives the area. For an inllance ; fuppofe a pentagon,
whofe fide is i inch, here the perpendicular will be found
.837, by faying, as the fine of half the angle at the centre,
which, in this polygon, is 36°, is to half the given fide
.5, fo is the fine of the complement of 36^ wz. 54°, to the
perpendicular aforefaid. Whence the area of a pentagon,
whofe fide is unity, will be found 1.72 inches, which,
divided by 282, gives .0061, the ale-gallons in that polygon.

12. To find the content of a cylinder in ale-gallons.
Suppofe the diameter of the bafe of the cylinder 120 inches,
the perpendicular height 36 inches : fet therefore the
gauge-point (A G) to the height 36 on C ; then againll
120, the diameter on D, is found 1443.6, the content in
ale-gallons.

13. The bung and head-diameters of any cadt, together
with its length, being given ; to find its content in ale or
wine-gallons, i. Suppofe the length of a caflc taken (as
the middle fruftum of a fpheroid, which is the firft cafe or
variety) be 40 inches, its head-diameter 24 inches, and
bung-diameter 32 inches : fubtradl the head-diameter from
that of the bung, the diflerence is 8. Look, then, for 3
inches on the line of inches, on the firll narrow face of the
rule ; and againll it, on the line fpheroid, ftands 5.6 inches,
which, added to the head-diameter 24, gives 29.6 inches
for that caflc's mean diameter : fet, therefore the gauge-
point for ale (marked AG) on D, to 40 on C ; and
againft 29.6 on D, is 97.45, the content of the call': in ale-
gallons. If the gauge-point for wine (marked WG) be
ufed inllead of that for ale, you will have the veflel's con-
tent in wine-gallons.

2. If a calk, of the fame dimenfions as the former, be
taken (as the middle fruftum of a parabolic fpindle, which
is the fecond variety), fee what inches, and parts, on the
line marked fecond variety, ftand againft the difference of
the bung and head-diameters, which, in this example, is
8 ; and you will find 5.1 inches, which, added to 24, the
head-diameter, makes 29.1 inches, the mean diameter of
the caflc : fet, therefore, the rule, as before, and againft
29.1 inches, you will have 94.12 ale-gallons for the con-
tent of the caflc.

3. If the cade taken be the middle fruftum of two pa-
rabolic conoids, which is the third variety ; againll 8
inches, the diflerence of the head and bung-diameters,
on the line of inches, you will find 4.57 inches on the line
called third variety ; this, added as before to 24, gives
28 57 for the calk's mean diameter ; proceeding, as before,
you will find the content 90.8 g.illons.

4. If the calk taken be the frullums of two cones, which
is the fourth variety, againft 8 inches on the line of inches,

T you

SLIDING. RULE.

you will find on the line marked FC, 4.1 inches to be added
to 24 inches : the reft, carried on as before, gives the con-
tent of the caflc 87.93 ale-gallons.

14. A ca(k partly empty, lying with its axis parallel
to the horizon ; to find the quantity of liquor in it. Find
its whole content as above, which fuppofe 97.455 gallons ;
and fuppofe the inches left dry, S, and the bung-diametcr
32 : then, as the bung-diameter on C is to lOO on the line
of fegments L, fo are the dry inches on C to a fourth
number on the hne of fegments : and as 100 upon B is to
the cafe's whole content on A, fo is that fourth number
to the liquor wanting to fill up the cafli, which, fubtrafted
from the whole content of the cadi, gives the liquor re-
maining therein ; e. gr. fet 32, the bung-dtameter on C, to
100 on the fegment-line L; then againit 8, the dry inches
on C, ftands 17.6 on the fegment-liae : fet, therefore, 100
on B to the caflc's whole content on A ; and againll 17.6
on B, you have l (^.^ gallons on A : fubtracling, therefore,
the faid gallons from 97.45, the veffel's whole content, the
liquor in the caflc will be 80.95 gallons.

15. A caflc ftanding upright, or with its axis perpen-
dicular to the horizon, to find the liquor therein. Sup-
pofe the length of the caflc 40 inches, and 10 of them dry ;
fet 40 inches on the line C, to 100 on the fegment-line S ;
and againft 10, the dry inches on the line C, ftands 24.2
on S, the fegment-line. Set then looon B to 97.455, the
caflc's whole content on A ; and againft 24.2 on B, you will
have 2^.5 gallons, which is what is wanting to fill up the
caflc : "this, therefore, fubtrafted from the whole content
97-455' g""^^ 73-955 gallons, for the quantity of hquor
remaining in the caflc.

16. To find the content of any right-angled parallele-
piped (f. gr. a ciftcrn, uting-fat, or the like) in malt
buftiels. Suppofe the length of tlie bafe 80 inches, the
breadth 50, and depth 9 inches ; fet the breadth 50 on B,
to the depth 9 on C ; then againll the length 80 en A,
ftand 16.8 buftiels on B, the number required.

SLiDiXG-/?u/f, Coggejliall's, is principally ufed in meafur-
ing of the fuperficies and (olidity of timber, &c.

It confifts of two rulers, each a foot long, which are
framed or put together various ways ; fometimes they are
made to Aide by one another, like glaziers' rules : fometimes
a groove is made in the fide of 3 common two-foot joint-
rule, aud a thin fliding-piece put in, and Caggefhall's lines
added on that fide : but the moft ufual and commodious
way is, to have one of the rulers Aide in a groove made
along the middle of the other, as it is reprefented in Plate
VII. Surveying, Jig. 5.

On the Aiding fide of the rule are four lines of numbers,
three of which are double, that is, are lines to two radiufes,
and one, a fingle broken line of numbers : the three firft,
marked A, B, C, are figured i, 2, 3, &c. to 9; then
1, 2, 3, &c. to 10. Their conftruftion, ufe, &c. are the
fame as thofe on Everard's Aiding rule. The fingle line,
called the girt-line, and noted D, whofe radius is equal to
the two radiufes of any of the other lines, is broken, for the
eafier meafuring of timber, and figured 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
20, 30, Sec. from 4 to 5. It is divided into 10 parts,
and each tenth fubdivided into two, and fo on from 5 to
10, &c.

On the backfide of the rule are, 1. A line of inch-
Bfieafure, from i to 12; each inch being divided and fub-
divided.

2. A line of foot-meafure ; confifting of one foot, di-
vided into 100 equal parts, and figured 10, 26, 30, &c.
The backfide of the fliding-piece is divided into inches,

halves, &c. and figured from 1 2 to 24 ; fo that when did
out, there may be a meafure of two feet.

Sliding-/? u/i?, in mcafm-ing plain Juperficia, ufe of Cogge-
fljaWs. I. To mcafu'e a fquare. Suppofe, f.^r. the fides
be each five feet : fet i on the line B, to 5 on the line A ;
then againit 5 on the line B is 25 feet, the content of the
fquare on the line A.

2. To meafure a long fquare. Suppofe the longeft fide
18 feet, and the fhortelt 10 : fet i on the line B, to 10 on
the line A : then againft 18 feet on the line B is 180 feet,
the content on the line A.

3. To meafure a rhombus. Suppofe the fide 1 2 feet,
and the length of a perpendicular let fall from one of the
obtufe angles to the oppofite fide, 9 feet : fet i on the
line B, to 12, the length of the fide, on the line A ;
then againft 9, the length of the perpendicular on the line
B, is 108 feet, the content.

4. To meafure a triangle. Suppofe the bafe 7 feet, and
the length of the perpendicular let fall from the oppofite
angle to the bafe 4 feet : fet i on the line B, to 7 on the
line A : then againft half the perpendicular, which is 2
on the line B, is 14 on tlie line A, tor the content of the
triangle.

5. To find the content of a circle, its diameter being
given. Suppofe the diameter 3.5 feet: fet 11 on the
girt-line D, to 95 on the line C ; then againft 3.5 feet
on D, is 9.6 on C, which is the content of the circle in
feet.

6. To find the content of an oval or ellipfis. Suppofe
the longeft diameter 9 feet, and the Aiorteft 4. Find a
mean proportional between the two, by fetting tiie greater
9 on the girt-line, to 9 on the line C ; then, againft the lefs
number 4, on the line C, is 6, the mean proportional fought.
This done, find the content of a circle, whofe diameter is
6 feet ; this, when found by the laft article, will be equal
to the content of the ellipfis fought.

Sliding-ZJu/it, in meafuring limber, ufe of Coggejhall's.
I. To meafure timber the utual way. Take the length
in feet, half feet, and, if required, quarters ; then niealure
half-way back again ; there girt the tree with a fmall cord
or line ; double thie line twice, very evenly ; and meafure
this fourth part of the girt or perimeter, in inches, halves,
and quarters. The dimenfions thus taken, the timber is to
be meafured as if fquare, and the fourth of the girt taken
for the tide of the fquare, thus ; fet 12 on the girt-line
D, to the length in feet on the line C ; then againft the
fide of the fquare, on the girt-line D, taken in inches,
you have, on the hne C, the content of the tree in feet.

For an inftance : fuppofe the girt of a tree, in the middle,
be 60 inches, and the length 30 feet, to find the content :
fet 12 on the girt-Une D, to 30 feet on the line C ; then
againft 15, one-fourth of 60, on the girt-fine D, is 46.8
feet, the content on the line C. If the length fliould be
9 inches, and the quarter of the girt ^^ inches, here, as
the length is lefs than a foot, meafure it on the lir.e of foot-
meafure, and fee what decimal part of a foot it makes,
which you will find .75 : fet 12, therefore, on the girt-line,
to 75 on the firft radius of the line C, and againft 35 oa
the girt-line is 6.4 feet on C, for the content.

2. To meafure round timber the true way. The former
method, though that generally in ufe, is not quite juft.
To meafure timber accurately, inllead of the point 12 on
the girt-line, ufe another, 1)12. 10.635 ; at which tiiere
Aiould be placed a centre-pin. This 10.635 '^ '^^ '''^^ °^
a fquare equal to a circle, whofe diameter is 12 inches.
For an inftance: fuppofe the length 15 feet, and 5th of
the girt 43 inches : fet the point 10.635 •■'' '5> '''^ length ;

then

SLIDING-RULE.

then againft 42 on the girt-line is 233 feet for tlic content
fought ; whereas, by the connmon way, there arife only
184 feet. In efFedl, the common meafure is only to the
true meafure, as 1 1 to 14. See Timber.

3. To meafure a cube. Suppofe the fides to be 6 feet
each: fet 12 on the girt-line D, to 6 on C ; then againit
72 inches (the inches in 6 feet) on the girt-line are 216
feet on C, which give the content required.

4. To meafure unequally fquared timber ; that is, where
the breadth and depth are not equal. Meafure the length
of the piece, and the breadth and depth (at the end) in
inches ; then find a mean proportional between the breadth
and depth of the piece. This mean proportional is the fide
of a fquare equal to the end of the piece : which found,
the piece may be meafured as fquare timber.

For an inftance : let the length of the piece of timber be
13 feet, the breadth 23 inches, and the depth 13 inches:
fet 23 on the girt-line D, to 23 on C ; then againll 13 on
C is 17.35 on the girt-line D for the mean proportional.
Again, letting 12 on the girt-line D to 13 feet, the length
on the line C, againft I7-3S> on the girt-line is 27 feet, the
content.

5. To meafare taper timber. The length being mea-
fured in feet, note one-third of it ; which is found thus :
fet 3 on the line A, to the length on the hne B ; then
againft i on A is the third part on B : then if the folid be
round, meafure the diameter at each end in inches, and
fubtraft the lefs diameter from the greater ; add half the
difference to the lefs diameter ; the fum is the diameter in
the middle of the piece. Then fet 13.54 on the girt-line
D to the length on the line C, and againft the diam.eter in
the middle, on the girt-line, is a fourth number on the
line C. Again, fet 13.54 on the girt-line to the third part
of the length on the line C ; then againft half tlie difference
on the girt-line, is another fourth number on the line C :
thefe two fourth numbers, added together, give the con-
tent. For an inftance : let the length be 27 feet (one-
third of which is 9), the greater diameter 22 inches, and
tlie lefs 18; the fum of the two will be 40, their differ-
ence 4, and half the difference 2, which, added to the lefs
diameter, gives 20 inches for the diameter in the middle of
the pjece. Now, fet 13.54 on the girt-line, to 27 on the
line C, and againft 20 on D is 5%. 9 feet. Again, fet 13.54
on the girt. line to 9 on the line C ; and againft 2 on the
girt-line (reprefented by 20) is .196 parts; therefore, by
adding 58.9 feet to .196 feet, the fum is 59.096 feet, the
content.

If the timber be fquare, and has the fame dimenfions ;
that is, the length 27 feet, the fide of the greater end 22
inches, and that of the lefl'er 18 inches; to find the con-
tent : fet 12 on the girt-line to 27, the length on the line
C ; and againft 20 inches, the fide of the mean fquare on
the girt-line, is 75.4 feet. Again, fet 12 on the girt-hnc
to 9 feet, one-tliird of the lenp^th, on the line C ; and againft
2 inches, lialf the difference of the lides of the fquares of
the ends on the girt-line, is .25 parts of a foot : both to-
gether make 75.65 feet, the content of the folid.

The girt or circumference of a tree, or round piece of
timber, given ; to find the fide of the fquare within, or the
number of inches of a fide wlicn the round timber is fquared.
Set 10 on A to 9 on B ; then againft the girt on A are
the inches for tlie fide of the fquare on the line B. See
Dendkometeh.

Dr. Roget has lately communicated to the Royal Society
the " Defcription of a new InUrumeiit for performing the
Involution and Evolution of Npmbers," by which he has very

much improved the conftruftion, and extended the applica-
tion of the " fliding-rule."

In his ingenious paper on this fubjeft, he has ftated and
elucidated the general principles on which inltruments of this
kind are conftrufted, and the ordinary purpofes to which they
are applicable. It is well known, that the Gunter's line
and common fiiding-rule are derived from the properties of
logarithms, and that their primary ufe confills in facihtating
the mulliplicalion and d'tvifwn of numbers. (See Gi;nter'x
Line and Gunter'j Scale.) Our author's inilrument is
founded on a particular mode of employing logarithms, and
is defigned for immediate application to the involution and
evolution of numbers. The common Hiding-rule, it is ob-
vious, ferves for comparing the intervals between the num-
bers on Gunter's fcale ; and for this purpofe it confifts of a
fcale, called the Aider, exaftly of the fame length with the
former, and bearing the fame divifions, which, by being move-
able along the fide of the other, allows of the application of
any part of the one to any part of the other. If the two
fcales originally coincide, and the Aiding fcale is the under-
moft, then, by advancing the Aider through any given dif-
tance, each of its divifions will be brought under thofe of
the fixed fcale, which before were refpeftively fituated far-
ther forwards by an interval equal to that given diftance.
Every number in the upper fcale will therefore have to the
number ftanding under it on the Aider the fame conftant ratio ;
a ratio indicated by the number under which the unity, or
commencement of the fcale of the Aider has been placed.
The former numbers will therefore be the multiples of the
latter by this conftant number. Thus, by adjufting the
Aider lo that its unity ffiall Hand under any given multiplier
or divifor, the upper line will exhibit the feries of the pro-
dufts of all the fubjacent numbers by the given multiplier ;
and converfely, the Aider will exhibit the feries of the quo-
tients refulting from thedivifion of the numbers immediately
above them by the given divifor. In order to faciUtate the
general ufe of the Aiding-rule, Dr. Roget has pointed out the
following propofition, as leading diredly to the folution of
every cafe to which the inftrument can be applied. " ,In
every pofition of the Aider, all the fraftions formed by taking
the numbers on the upper line as numerators, and thofe im-
mediately under them as denominators, are equal. Thus,
every correfponding numerator and denominator, having to
each other the fame ratio, may be confidercd as two terms
of a proportion. Any two of thefe equivalent fradions
will therefore furniih the four terms of a proportion ; of
which any unknown term may be fupplied when the others
are given, by moving the Aider till the numbers corapofing
the terms of the given fraftion are brought to coincide on
the two lines. The required term will then be found occu-
pying its proper place oppofite to the other given term.
Thus, from the proportion A : B :: C : D, wo may derive

A C

— = — ; and adjufting the Aider fo that B fhall ftand under
B D J 6

A, D will be found under C, when C is given ; or C will
be found over D, when D is given. A fimilar procefs would
have furnifiied A or B, when one of them, together with
C and D, were given. Since the produAs of each numerator
by the denominator of the other fraftion are equal (that is,
AD = B C) ; when one of the terms is unity, the queftion
becomes one of fimple multiplication or divifion. The pro-
dud of A and B, which we may call P, will be found as
before, by placing the Aider fo as to exprels the frac-

A P

tions - - = TT- The quotient of A divided by D, which

T .

we

SLIDING-RULE.

the fraftions

— ; that is, in the former cafe, the pro-

ve may call Q, will in like manner be found by forming

A_Q
B

duft P will ftand over B, when the i on the Aider is brought
under A ; and in the latter cafe, the quotient Q will Hand
over the i of the flider when B is brought under A."

The fliding-rule has been varioudy modified, fo as to ferve
for the calculation of exchanges, the meafurement of
plane and folid bodies, and the computations of trigonometry ;
and lately by Dr. WoUalton, in his fynoptic fcale of che-
mical equivalents ; but notwithftanding thefe modifications,
its ufe is neceffarily limited to operations that are per-
formed by the fimple addition or fubtraftion of logarithms,
and to the correfponding arithmetical operations above men-
tioned. It is not direftly adapted to perform the involution
or evolution of numbers, to which the multiplication and
divifion of logarithms, correfpond. (See Logarithm.)
Neverthelefs, queftions that involve geometrical progrefllons,
or exponential quantities, and the computation of the terms
of a feries in obtainmg approximate folutions, not unfre-
quently occur. The common flidmij-rule affords no direft
method of determining even the fimple power or root of any
given number ; but when the exponent of the required power
or root is not an integral, but a fraftional number) it is Hill
more inadequate to the folution of the queftion. Indeed,
the fquares and fqnare roots are often pointed out on the
common rules by means of a fupplementary line graduated
fo that each of its divifions is double in length to thofe of the
other two hnes. A hue of cubes, or cube-roots, or of any
other given power, might, in hke manner, be fubjoined. But
the ufes of fuch additional lines are reilrifted to cafes where a
particular power is concerned ; but they afford no aflillance
in the cafe of any other power or root, which is not imme-
diately related to the power.

Dr. Roget adopts a new mode of graduation, exhibiting
on fimple infpeftion all the powers and roots of any given
number to any given exponent, with the fame facihty, and in
the fame way, that produfts, quotients, and proportionals are
exhibited by the common fliding-rule. Accordingly it is a
meafure of powers, juft as the fcale of Gunter is a meafure
of ratios. The principle of its conftruftion will be belt il-
luftrated by an example. If it were required to raife the
number 2.123 '° ^^^ i'fth power; with the ufe of loga-
rithms we Ihould multiply the log. of 2.123 ('"^0.32695)
by 5 ; the produdl ( i .63475 ) would be found by the tables
to correfpond to 43.127, the fifth power of 2.1 23. If the
exponent, inllead of being a whole number 5, were fraftional,
as 4.3719, the operation may be abridged by the aid of lo-
garithms: thus, add the log. of 0.32695 or 9.5144813,
to that of 4.3719 or 0.6406702, and. the fum, or
0.1551525, is a logarithm anfwering to the number 1.4294,

the produft required, -viz. 26.878, or zTiiJl '-^ " ' '.
In this example, the firll of the numbers added together

is the logometnc logarithm (that is, the logarithm of the
logarithm) of the given root; tlie fecond is the fimple
logarithm of the exponent, and the fum of thefe is the
logometric logarithm of the power. If a table were con-
ftrufted having three fets of columns, the firit containing the
natural feries of numbers, the fecond their correfponding
logarithms, and the third the logarithms of thofe logarithms,
we (hould be able to raife any given number to any given
power, by the fimple addition of the num.bers in the fecond
and third columns ; as common multiplications are per-
forioed by the addition of common logarithms. Hence it
9

is evident, that a line might be graduated fo that its divifiont
fiiould correfpond to the numbers in the third column, or re-
prefent the logometric logarithms of the numbers marked
upon them ; and if this hne were applied fo as to flide againft
another line logometrically divided, we might be able by it
to perform the operation that has been defcribed ; and we
fhould thus have, by infpeftion, the powers correfponding
to any given root and exponent.

The inftrument propofed would therefore, in its fimpleft
form, confill of two graduated fcales applied to each other.
In PlateWW. Surveying, fig. 6. a portion of thefe fcales is
reprefented. The lower rule A A, called the flider, is the
common Gunter's double line of numbers, or a hne logometri-
cally divided ; the divifions of the firft half being from I to lo,
and repeated on the fecond half in the fame order. The up-
per, or fixed rule B B, is fo graduated, that each of its other
divifions is fet againit its relpeftive logarithm on the flider ;
and, confequently, all the numberson the flider will be fituated
immediately under thofe numbers in the upper rule, of which
they are the logarithins. Thus, 2 on the rule will be over
0.30103 of the flider ; 3 over o. 47712 ; 2 on the flider will
iland under lOO on the rule ; 3 under 1000, and fo on.

As the feries of ordinary logarithms exprefs the expo-
nents of 10, of which the correfponding numbers are fo
many fucceflive powers, in this pofition of the inftrument it
is evident, that the upper line will exhibit the feries of the
powers of 10, correiponding to all the exponents marked
on the flider. E. gr. The 2d power of 10 is 100 ; the 3d,
1000, &c.; the 0.5th (or the fquare root) is 3.163 ; the
0.25th (or 4th root) is 1.778 ; the 0.2th (or the 5th root)
is 1.585, &c.

In every other pofition of the flider, the upper rule will
exhibit, in like manner, the feries of powers of that num-
ber, under which the unit of the flider has been placed,
while the oppofite numbers on the flider are the exponents of
thofe powers. Thus, if (Plate V\\. Jig. 7.) the unit of
the flider be placed under the divifion 3 of the upper rule
(at R), the fquare of 3, or 9, will be found over the 2 of the
flider ; its cube, 27, ever the 3 ; its 4th power, 81, over
the 4, &c. Hence, in order to find a given power of any
number, the unit of the flider mult be fet underneath that
number in the upper rule ; and the number fought will then
be found above that number in the flider, which expreflea
the magnitude of the required power. The ufe of the in-
ftrument will be obvious in performing the contrary opera-
tion of finding the roots. In this cafe the root might be
confidered as a fraftional power ; but as this would require
a reduftion into decimals, the eafieft mode will be to place
the number expreffing the degree of the required root under
the given number, and the root itfelf will then be found
over the unit, or beginning of the fcale, in the flider. For
fraftional powers, the denominator of the exponent muft
be placed under the root, and its numerator will then point
out the power. By the fame mode we may difcover the ex-
ponent of any given power to any given root ; fince, what-
ever be the root over the unit of the flider, the whole feries
of the powers of that root, with their correfponding ex-
ponents, are rendered apparent. This circumftance may
be confidered as ah additional recommendafion to the em-
ployment of this inftrument ; for it affords to thofe lefs
verfed in the contemplation of numerical relations, an ocu-
lar illultration of the theory of involution. It prelents, at
one view, the whole feries of powers arifing from the fuc-
ceflive multiplication of all pollible numbers, whether entire
or fraftional ; and exhibits this feries in its whole continuity,
when the exponents are fraftional, and even incommenfurate

with

SLIDING-RULE.

with the MOt itfelf. The produftion of the upper line in
one direftion, conveys a more accurate notion of the pro-
greflive and rapid incrcafe of thofe powers, than can be ac-
quired by mere abftradl refledlion ; and its continuation on
the other fide (hews the flow approximation to unity which
takes place in the fucceflive extraftions of higher and higher
roots. Among the variety of forms of con Itruftion of which
inllruments that operate on the principle now explained are
capable, Dr. Roget conceives the fjUowirg to be, upon the
whole, the moll convenient for practical purpofes. Its re-
prefentation, on a reduced fcale, appears in P/ateV II. Jig- 8.
With a view of preferving a fufficient extent of fcale, the
line of root? and powers is divided into two parts ; one being
placed above and the other below, and between them a
Aider with a double fcale of exponents. The Aider of the
common fliding-rule is graduated in a way that is exceedingly
well fuited to this purpofe, having divifions on each edge,
and carrying two fets of numbers from i to lo. Adapting
a blank ruler to one of thefe Aiders, which mult be fixed in
a proper pofition. Dr. Roget marks off, on the upper line,
the feries of numbers againll their refpeftive logarithms on
the Aiders; placing lo over the middle unit of the Aider,
loo over the 2, 1000 over the 3, and fo on, proceeding
towards the right, from 10 to loooooooooo, the loth
power of 10 ; an extent which is more than fufRcient for all
ufeful purpofes. The fpace to the left is alfo graduated on
the fame principle, from 10 to 1.259, which is the loth
root of 10, orTo'"-'. The upper portion of the rule
being thus filled, Dr. R. places the continuation of the fame
line on the lower portion, beginning on the right hand, and
proceeding in a defcending feries of fraftional powers of 10,
correfponding with the exponents on the intermediate Aider,
which, when applied to this portion, are to be taken as only
-r^Tfth of their value when applied to the upper portion. While
1.259 therefore is marked on the right, 1.0233 (= io\°"°')
will occupy the middle, and 1.002305 (= io)"'°"') the
left end of the lower line. The graduation, it is plain, might
be thus continued indefinitely in both direftions. But for
all praftical purpofes, the limits thus obtained will be found
amply fufficient. In proportion as numbers in a defcending
feries approach very near to unity, their logarithms bear
more and moreexaftly a conftant ratio to the excefs of thofe
numbers above unity, viz. ihe ratio expreflcd by the mo-
dulus of the fyltcm, or i to .4342944819. As we defceiid
in the fcale, therefore, the decimal part of the exponents
becoming fmaller and fmaller, the correfponding logarithms
will approximate fo nearly to the multiple of that decimal
part by this modulus, that no fenfiblc error will refult from
an"um!iig them to be the fame. Thus the log. of 1.05 is
.02 1 1 89 ; that of 1 .005 is .002 1 66 1 ; and that of i .0005 is
.00021709, which differs from the produdl of the moduliif
by .0005 (or .0002 17 15) by a quantity affedliiig only the 4th
fignificant figure. The roots 1.0005, 1.00005, 1.000005,
&c. may, therefore, without fenfible error, be conlidered
as coinciding with the <?vifion 217 on the Aider. Heiice,
the divifions to the left ot the lower portion of the rule may
be taken as fnffitiently accurate reprefcntations of the divi-
fions which would occur in the fucceeding portions of the
line, if it were prolonged indefinitely in that direction.

This inftriiment may, from the principle of its conltruc-
tion, be applied to the folutioii ot various problems in which
geometrical progrcffions are concerned. E. ^. As tlie fuc-
ccffive amounts of a fum placed at compound interell com-
pofe a geometrical progreAion, all fjuellions of compound
interelt are refolvable by this inllrument. The rate of in-

tereft, or the^^r eentage per annum, being added to I, gives
the amount of i/. at the end of one year. Thus, at 5 per
cent, the amount is 1.05, at 3 per cent. 1. 03, &c. In either
cafe this number is to be regarded as the firft term, or
root of the feries. Setting the unit of the Aider againft this
number on the rule, we (hail find the amount of i/. at the
end of 5^ years oppofite to the number 5.5 on the Aider,
and the fame of any other interval of time. If it be required
to afcertain in what time a fum placed at compound interell
at 3 per cent, will be doubled ; placing the unit over 1.03,
the number 2 on the rule will indicate 23.45 on the Aider, as
the number of years required for doubling the fum at that
rate of compound interell. The interpolation of a given
number of mean proportionals between two given numbers,
is fometimes required for the lolution of a problem ; and it
is eafily effeitled by the rule above defcribed. Thus, in di-
viding the mufical oftave into 12 equal femitones, the follow-
ing feries of numbers mull be calculated, oiiz. 2iV» 2tV» 2tV»
2xV> 2tV> 2-iV> i-frt 2rV> 2 ,Vt 2 14', 2.i: this ma^ rea-
dily be done in one pofition of the Aider ; fur when the 12
marked on it is placed under 2 on the rule, the i of the
Aider will point to 1.0595 — 2-rV) the 2 of the Aider will
indicate 1.1225 = 2t't> the 3, 1.1892 = 2^, &c.

A variety of queftions relating to the general theory of
logarithms may be illuftrated bv this inllrument. The af-
fumption of the number 10, as the bafis of our fyllem of lo-
garithms, is arbitrary, and chofen merely for greater conve-
nience in computation. The hyperbolic fyllem, whofe
bafis is the number 2.302585093, &c. has its pecuhar
advantages, efpecially in the higher branches of analyfis.
The inilrumeiit may be made to exhibit at one view the fe-
ries of any particular fyftem of logarithms, that is, of a fyf-
tem with any given bafis, or any given msdulus, by merely
fetting the unity of the Aider againll the given bafis on the
rule, or the given modulus on the Aider again!! the number
2.7182818, &c. on the rule. The divifions on the Aider will
then denote the logarithms of the numbers oppofed to them
on the rule.

Let it be required to determine the particular fyftem
of logarithms, in which the modulus (hall be equal to the
bafis. Take out the Aider, and introduce it in an inverted
pofition, fo that the numbers on it Aiall iiicreafc from right
to left ; and place the numbers -4343, &c. (the modulus of
the common fyftem) under 10 (its correfponding bafis) on
the rule, as reprefented in PLile VII. Jg. 9. We (hall find
that, in thi.s pofition, all the other numbers oa the Aider will
be the moduli correfponding to the relpcilive bafcs of each
different fyftem on the rule. Thus, the I on the Aider, or
the modulus of the hyperbolic fyftem, is oppofite to 2.718,
the bafis of that fyitem. On the other hand, the divifioa
2 on the rule is oppofite to 1.4427, which is the modulus
of the lyllem having for its balls the number 2. Carrying
the eye Hill more to the left, and obfervlng the point where
fimilar divifions appear, both on the rule and the Aider, we
fhall find it to be at the number 1.76315, which therefore
expred'es the modulus and the bafis in tliat particular fyftem
in which they are both equal. The reafon of the above
procefs will readily appear, when it if confidercd, that the
modulus of every fyllem is the reciprocal of the hyperbolic
l>ig:>rlthm of its balls.

This inverted condition of the Aider will alfo afford an eafy
method of (olving cxoonential equations, for which there
exifts no diieil analy'.ical method. Eg. Let the root of
the equation .v' — 100 be required. Set the unit of the in-
verted Aider under 100 on the rule, and oblcrve, as before,
the point wiicre fimilar divifions coincide : this will be at

3-6.

S L I

3.6, wliich is a near approximation to the required root ;
and accordingly, 3T6^ '• ' =100.

Our author's inllrument admits of being applied in various
forms to the feveral purpofes above recited, as well as to
others which he has enumerated : but the following deferves
particular mention, on account of the pecuhanties that at-
tend them. If to the upper fcale, which we may fuppofe
to be fixed, and to be graduated logometrically, conftitutmg
the line of exponents, a Aider be adjulled, graduated on
both edges, according to the logometric logarithms ; and
the line below, which, like the upper one, is fuppofed to be
fixed, be graduated in the fame manner as the Aider, the
inftrument will poilefs tlie fallowing property. When the
divifion 10 on the Aider is fet againft any particular number,
or exponent, in the upper line, all the numbers on the lower
line will be the powers, to the fame degree, of the numbers
oppofite to them on the Aider ; the degree of the power being
marked by the exponent on the upper Hne, which is above
the 10 on the Aider. The lower line will, therefore, exhi-
bit the whole feries of fimilar powers belonging to all poAi-
ble roots ; and converfely, the Aider will exhibit all the
roots of the fame dimenfions, with regard to all poffible
numbers. Thus, if the 10 on the Aider be under 3 in the
line of exponents, it will itfelf be above 1000 (which is its
cube) in the lower line ; all the other numbers in that line
will be the cubes of their oppofites on the Aider ; and, con-
verfely, the former will every where be the cube-roots of the
latter. This will fufficiently appear, when it is recolkaed
that the addition or fubtraftion of logometric logarithms,
anfwers to the multiplication or divifion of fimple logarithms,
and therefore to the involution and evolution of numbers.
The rule in this form of it, therefore, bears a clofer analogy
to the common Aiding-rule ; fince in every pofition it exhibits
the feries of fimilar powers and roots, exaftly in the fame
way as the latter exhibits the feries of fimilar produfts and
quotients.

Dr. Roget has alfo contrived to give another form to the
inftrument, by throwing the whole fcale, like Gunter's line,
into a circular form : and of this form he has given a draw-
ing. The circle on the outfide being logometrically divided
from I to 10 round the circumference, will conftitute the
line of exponents. The line of powers, being difpofed in a
fpiral, will occupy the interior fpace, which may be made
to revolve within the former, and fhould be provided with
one or more threads, extending from the centre to the cir-
cumference, and ferving as radii to mark the pofition of all
the parts of the fpiral line with regard to the divifions of the
outer circle. One of thefc threads may be fixed at the unit
or beginning of the fcale, and will ferve to mark the pofi-
tion for the root of any required power. The fpiral itfelf
muft be graduated exactly as the upper line in the firft de-
fcribed rule ; that is, thefituation of the divifion 10 muft be
firft determined upon, and then brought under the unit in
the circle of exponents ; that is, under the fixed thread.
Every other divifion mull then be marked with reference to
the place of its logarithm on the circle, or muft be made to
occupy the fame angular diftance from the thread. This
graduation will be moft conveniently made by means of the
moveable leg of a fedor revolving on the centre of the cir-
cle. The comparifon of the divifions of the fpiral with
thofe of the circle may be made, either with this moveable
feftor, or with the threads already mentioned. The num-
bers on the fpiral will increafe as they recede from the centre,
and each turn will carry on the powers to an exponent ten
times higher than the preceding ; and the converfe will ob-

S L I

tain with regard to the defcending portion. Thus, imme-
diately in a line with the 10, on the fuperior branch of the
fpiral, is found the number loooooooooo, or 10' °; below
it, on the inferior branches, we find fucceflively 1.258926

= lo"-', 1.023293 = io|°'°', 1.00230524= loV"',
1.000230285 = To) •"'"", 1. 0000230261 =iol*''°°°',
&c. of which the decimal figures approach nearer and nearer
to 2.302585093, &c. the reciprocal of the modulus of the
logarithmic fyftem. Oar ingenious author has further ftiewn
how to exhibit in one view the whole feries of roots, powers,
and exponents, in all their pofiible relations, by a fuitable
difpofition of lines. For further particulars we refer to the
Phil. Tranf. for 1815, part i. p. 9, &c. For an account
of Mr. W. Nicholfon's improvements of the Gunter's
fcale, &c. fee the Phil. Tranf. for 1787, vol. Ixxvii. part 2.
See Gunter'j Line and Scale.

StlDlttG-Keels, in Ship-Building, an invention of the in-
genious captain Schank, of the royal navy, to prevent vef-
fcls from driving to leeward. They were compofed of plank
of various widths, erefted vertically by a winch, fo as to
Aide up and down in a trunk, and through the keel. Many
veAels were built with no lefs than three of thefe keels ; but
it has not feemed to have anfwered.

Sliding- P/an/fj, are the flat forms upon which the bilge-
ways Aide in launching the ftiip.

SLIDING-GUNTER-SAIL, in Sail-Making, a tri-
angular fail, uied in boats, bent at its foremoft leech to
loops or grommets that Aide on the lower maft : the peek or
head is attached to a fmall top-inaft, that Aides up in the
diredion of the lower maft, through two hoops fixed at its
head, about three feet afunder. When the top-mall is
lowered, the fail furls up clofe to the lower maft.

SLIEBH, or Sliabh, the Irifli name for a range of
mountains, or a fingle one, covered with heath. O'Brien
lays it fignifies heath-land, whether mountain or plain. It
is prefixed to the names of many IriAi hills.

SLIEBH-AN-ERIN, in Geography, a range of moun-
tains in the county of Leitrim, Ireland, extending in a N.E.
direftion from Lough Allen.

SLIEBH-EN-EWR, called alfo Dartry mountains, a
clufter of hills, covering almoft the whole of the northern
barony of the county of Leitrim, Ireland. Of thefe and
the preceding it is obferved by Dr. Beaufort, that they are
far from unprofitable ; for producing abundance of coarfe
grafs, they annually pour forth immenfe droves of young
cattle.

SLIEVE-BAUGHT Mountains, a chain of moun-
tains on the confines of the counties of Monaghan and Ty-
rone, and extending in-to both. They form an uninterrupt-
ed ridge of high land, the higheft part of which is called
Cairn-more. They have, in general, neither a fruitful foil,
nor any natural beauties to recommend them, being an un-
interefting wafte, and almoft always wet and moory. There
are parts, however, which have beds of the richeft lime-
ftone, and abundance of marie, particularly on the eaftern
fide of Cairn-more. This mountain is famous for its mill-
ftone quarry : thofe moft valued confift of a red and very
hard grit or fand-ftone, the grain of which is clofe : there is
alfo a foft whitilh fand-ftone, more eafily procured, but
which foon waftes away. Potters' clay found in the neigh-
bourhood is carried to the pottery at Dundalk. Stat. Ac.
of Monaghan.

SLIEBH-BAUGHTA Mountains, an extenfive

range of rather low hills, which cover the fouthern part of

° the

.S L I

the county of Galway, and the adjoining part of Clare, in
Ireland.

SLIEBH-BLOOM, or Slie-ELGOM, a mountaiM in
Ireland, or rather a chain of mountains, of confiderable
extent, dividing the King's and Queen's counties, and ex-
tending into the county of Tipperary. It is about 25 miles
in length, and, in feme parts, 10 miles broad, at the bafe.
It is very unequal in lieight. Some few ridges are of confi-
derable altitude, efpecially thofe which divide Eli O Carrol
from OlTory. One of thefe is called Ard-Erin, i. e. the
higheft part of Ireland. This, however, is very doubtful,
as it is probable that no accurate comparifon on the fub-
jeft has been ever made. Slie-blooin affords, in general,
good padurage, and in fome parts, like many other Irifli
mountains, is green to the funimit ; but in other parts it is
rocky, wild, and inacceffible, infomuch that wolves are faid
to have found harbour in its caverns later than in any
other part of the kingdom, even within the lad century.

Some of the declivities of this mountain yield good corn,
and are highly improved by plantations, and gentlemen's feats
which command very extenfive and pitlurefque views. It
is remarkable for the number of fine rivers that fpring
from it. Three of thefe form an inteiefting fubjeft to
poets as well as geojrraphers. " Near Offory," fays Cam-
den, " are thofe huge copling mountains named Slieiv-blamy,
which Giraldus calls Blad'inx Monies-, of a vail height, out
of the bowels whereof fpring three rivers, the Suire, the
Nore, and the Barrow. Thefe defcend in three feveral
channels, but join in one before they fall into the fea, wliich
made the ancients call them the Three Sillers."

It may be oblerved, that the moderns likewife call them
fillers, although Spenfer reprefents them as brothers, the
fons of the giant Bloemius and the nymph Rheufa, born in
the mountain Slew-bloome ; and the poet thus dcfcribes their
courfes and final confluence.

•' Thefe three fair fons, which being tlienceforth powr'd,
In three great rivers ran, and many countreis icowr'd.
The firll, the gentle Shurc, that, making way
By fweet Clonmel, adornes rich Waterford ;
The next, the llubborn Newre, whofe waters gray,
By faire Kilkenny and Roifeponte boord ;
The third, the goodly Barrow, which doth hoord
Great heaps of falmons in iiis deepe bofome :
All which, long fundred, doe at lad accord
To ione in one ere to the fea they come ;
So, flowing all from one, all one at lall become."

Faille Queen, book iv. canto xi.

For a more particular account of the three fillers of Slic-
bloom, fee Bauuow, NoRii, and Suike ; and for a delcrip-
tion of the foil, quarries, &c. of this mountain, fee King'j
and Queen'/ Counties.

SLIEBH-BONN Mountains, a range of mountain!
in the county of Rofcommon, Ireland, extending nearly
parallel to the Shannon, at a few miles ditlance, from Rufl<y-
bridge to Lanelborough.

SLIEBH-BUY Mountains, a mountainous tract in
the county of Wexford, Ireland, near tlie borders of
Wicklow.

SLIEBH-CROOB Mountains, in the county of
Down, Ireland, north of the Mourne mountains, and lying
between Bally nahinch and Caitlewellan.

SLIEBH-DH.-VM, a mountainous range in the weftcrn
part of the county of Sligo, Ireland, being part of the
ridge to which Arrowfmith has given the name of Knock-
na-ree.

SLIEBH-DONARD, one of the Mourne mountains,

.S L I

in the county of Down, Ireland, faid to be the higheft of
them, and to be 2800 feet in height. See Moukne.

SLIEBH-GALLAN, a duller of hilh; in the fouth of
the county of Londonderry, Ireland ; about 1250 feet
above the level of the fea.

SLIEBK-GULLIEN, in the fouth-eail of the county
of Armagli, Ireland, which is thought to be nearly as high
as Sliebh-Donard ; and which, like it, confills of granite. It
has a cairn on the fummit.

SLIEBH-LEAGUE Mountains, a cluftcr which oc-
cupies the peninfula welt of Killybegs, in the county of
Donegal, Ireland ; called by Arrowfuiith S/t-avi-long.

SLIEBH-LOGHER Mountain.-;, in the county of
Kerry, Ireland, on the borders of the county of Cork.
Spenfer has reprefented this range as the fource of the river
Allow :

" Strong Alio tumbling from Slicbh-Logher fteep :"

but in this he departs from geograpliical accuracy, as the
Allow takes its rife in the Limerick mountains, and the
Blackwater pafles under Sliebh-Logher, from which it re-
ceives a large fupply of water. See Blackwater.

SLIEBH-MISH, a range of hills fouth of Tralee, in
the county of Kerry, Ireland.

SLIEBH-MORE, a mountain in Achil ifland, county
of Mayo, Ireland.

SLIEBH-NA-COILTRA Mountains, a range in
the county of Wexford, Ireland, fouth of tlie town of
New Rofs.

SLIEBH-NA-MAN, a high mountain of the county of
Tipperary, Ireland, not far from the Nine-mile houle, on
the road from Clonmel to Kilkenny.

SLIEBH-NA-MUCK, a range of hills N. of the
Galtees, in the county of Tipperary, Ireland, extendino-
eaft and well, and lying fouthward of the town of Tip-
perary.

SLIEBH-RUSSEL, a mountain of the county of Ca-
van, Ireland, near Swanlinbar.

SLIEBH-SNAGHT, a mountain of the county of
Donegal, Ireland, in tlie peninfula of Inifhowen.

SLIGO, a county of Ireland, in the province of Cou-
naught, bounded on the E. by tlie county of Leitrim, on
the S. by Rofcommon, on the S.W. and W. by Mayo,
and on tlie N. by the bay of Donegal. Its greatell length,
from Bunduif in the N. to the Curlew mountains in the S.
1331 Irifh (39^ Enghfh) mileB, and the grcateit breadth
29 Irifh (37 Englilli) miles. It contains 247,150 acres, or
386 fquare miles, Irifli meaiure, equal to 397,060 acres, or
620 fquare miles, Englifli. The number of houfes was
11,509, fsppofed to contain 60,000 inhabitants; but the
documents on which this is ilated were very imperfetl, and
the increafe mull have been incoiifiderable. Tlicre are 39
parifhes, of which 16 only had churches when Dr. Beau-
fort pubhihed his valuable work ; they lie in the bifhoprics
of Eiphin, Achonry, Killalla, and Ardagh. This county
and the town of Sligo are reprefented in parliament by three
members.

Sligo contains very good land, intermixed with large
tratis of coarfe and unprofitable ground. In the northern
dillridt, lying between the county of Leitrim and the fea,
are the mountains of Beiibulb and Samore. A chain of
rough hills extends from Lonijh Gilly to the bounds of
Rofcommon and Leitrim. The barony of Tyreragh,
though level along the coall, is interfedled by large bogs ;
and the fonthern part of it is bounded by the Ox mountain,
Sliebh-Dliam, and a great range of defolate hills, that ex-
tend acrofs tlie middle of the country ; wliilfl the Curlews

and

S L I •

and other mountains cover much of the fouthern part of it.
Among thefe hills there are many large lakes, and abundance
of rivers. The Moy, which rifes in the mountain of Knock-
ra-ree, flows firft to the fouthward, and after a winding
courfe, takes a northerly direftion to the bay of Killalla.
It receives in its courR' the luperfluous waters of I.ough
Conn, and forms, for fonie miles, the weltern boundary of
the county. Lough Arrow is about eight miles long, full
of iflands, and of a very irregular form : a river of the
fame name proceeds from it, and running northward to Bal-
lyfadere, rufhes at once into the fea in a ftupendouscataraft.
Lough Garra, on the borders of Rofcommon, in the moll
fouthern part of the county, communicates with Lough
Key by the river Boyle, which joins the Shannon. Lough
Gilly exhibits that variety of charming profpedls which bold
hills, wooded lawns, and large idands clothed with verdure,
and crowntd with trees, united with a great extent of water,
cannot fail to produce. Upon the river by which the
waters of this lake are difcharged into the bay of Sligo,
called by Arrowfmith the Garwoag, ftands the town of
Sligo, the only town of note in the county. There are,
ho'Vtver, ports at Bailyfidere and Ediy-bridge, at the
mouths of the rivers Arrow and Efliy. Hazlewood, the
feat of Owen Wyniip, efq. is diltinguiflied for its beauty as
well as for agricultural m-.provement, which has been car-
ried here probably to a greater extent than at any other place
in Ireland. The linen manufaflure has made great progrefs
in different parts of the county, efpecially in the vicinity of
Ballymote, where it was eftabHlhed by the late Hon. Tho.
Fitzniaurice.

Sligo, a poft-town of Ireland, chief town -of the
county of the fame name, and a fea-port, fituatcd at the
mouth of the river which flows from Lough Gilly to the
bay of Sligo. Veflels of 200 tons can come up to the
quays, and the trade of Sligo has been increafing for many
years. When Dr. Beaufort publilhed, its population was
eftimated at upwards of 8000, the number of houfes being
916. The county aflizes are held here, and it fends a mem-
ber to the imperial parliament. The niagiftrates are a pro-
voft and town-clerk. A caftle was built herein 1 24 J, and
foon after a monaitery, ,of which Mr. Archdall has faid,
" that the few ruins which remain evince its former fplendour.
Three fides of thecloiiler may Itill be feen, covered with an
arched roof: the arches and pillars are of extraordinary
workmanfliip, and a few of the pillars are ornamented with
fculpture. The great call window is beautiful, and the
high altar, adorned with relievos, in the Gotliic ftyle. The
nave is fpacious, with a paflage round it in the nature of a
gallery, fupported by ftone pillars. Tins great and curious
monument of antiquity feems to have fallen a prey to the
devouring teeth of time, rather than to the hands of man,
though Cromwell is faid to have injured it." Sligo is 105
miles N.W. from Dublin.

SLIME, in ylgriculture, a material left by the tides and
other waters in different places, which is an ufeful manure.
See Ooze.

SLINCK, or Slinghe, in Geography, a river of Hol-
land, which joins the Berchel, near Borckeloe, in the county
of Zutphcn.

SLINE^HEAD. See Slyme-head.
SLING, FuNDA, a ilring inftrument, ferving for the
calling of ilones, &c. with the greater violence.

Pliny, 1. Ixvi. c. 5. attributes the invention of the fling to
the Phoenicians ; but Vegetius afcribes it to the inhabitants
of the Balearic iflands, now called Majorca and Minorca,
who were famous in antiquity for the dexterous management
of them. Flprus and Strabo fay, thofe people bore three

S L I

kinds of flings, feme longer, others fiiorter, which they
ufed according as their enemies were nearer or more remote.
Diodorus Siculus adds, that the firil ferved them for a
head-band, the fecond for a girdle, and that the third they
conftantly carried with them in their hand.

In figl t they threw large ftones with fuch violence, that
they feemed to be projefted from fome machine, infomuch
that no armour could refill their itroke. In befieging a town,
they wounded and drove the garrifon from the walls, throw.
ing with fuch cxailnefs, that they feldom mifled their mark :
this dexterity they acquired by conilant exercife, being
trained to it from their infancy, the mothers placing their
daily food on the top of a pc'.e, and giving them no more
than they beat down with ilones from their flings. This
art is Hill, in fome meafure, preferved by the Minorquin
(hepherds. The invention of the fling has been erroneoufly
afcribed by fome writers to the inhabitants of thefe iflands.
Froilfart (vol. i. c. 85.) gives an inllance in which flings
were employed for the Englifli by the people of Brittany
in a battle fought in that province during the reign of Philip
de Valois, between the troops of Walter de Mauni, an Eng-
lifli knight, and Louis d'Elpagne, who commanded 6000
men in behalf of Charles de Blois, then competitor with the
earl of Montfort for the duchy of Brittany. According
to the fame author, they were alfo ufed in naval combats.
Shngs were ufed in 1572, at the fiege of Sancerre, by the
Huguenots, in order to fave their powder. D'Aubigne,
who records this faft, fays that they were hence called
Sancerre harquebuflfes. Slings were conllrufted for throwing
not only ftones, but leaden bullets, and clay-balls, baked or
hardened in the fun. They were made of different materials,
chiefly flax, hair, or leather, woven into bands, or cut into
thongs, broadeft in the centre, for the reception of the
ftone or ball, and tapering off gradually towards both ends :
with one of thefe flings, a good flinger would, it is faid,
throw a (lone 6co yards. An ancient Icelandic treatife,
entitled " Speculum Regale," fuppofed to have been written
about the 12th century, mentions flings fixed to a ftafF.

Sling, in Surgery, a well-known bandage for the arm
and hand.

Slings, in Rigging, fliort ropes ufed to hang the yards
to the mafts, &c. See Slinging.

SLINGELANDT, Peter Van, in Biography, was
born at Ley den in 1 640. He was a laborious diiciple of
Gerard Douw, and wrought in the highly finifhed ftyle of
that mafler ; and is as neat in his execution. His pidlures,
however, do not poflefs the relifh found in thofe of Gerard,
either in compofition or colour ; and they are taftelefs in
defign. He is faid to have been molt patiently perfevering
and induftrious, employing months and years upon one
performance ; and never being fatistied till he found every
individual part imitated, however trivial, of any objeft
which he had chofen to reprefent. His works are often
paffed off for thofe of his mafter, and of Mieris ; and it
fometimes demands a confiderable portion of connoiffeur/hip
to difcover the impofition. He died in 1691.

SLINGER's Bay, in Geography, a bay of the Eaft
Indian ocean, on the N- coalt of New Ireland. S. lat. 3°,
E. long. 1,1°. — Alfo, an inlet of the Pacific ocean, be-
tween the iflands of Ramos and St. Juan.

SLINGING is ufed varioufly at fea ; but chiefly for the
hoilting up of calks, or other heavy things, with flings, /. e.
contrivances of ropes fpliced into themfelves at either end,
with one eye big enough to receive the calk, or any thing
to be flung.

There are other flings which are made longer, and with
a fmall eye at each end ; one of which is put over the

breech

S L I

S L I

oreech of a piece of ordnance, and the other eye comes
over the end of an iron crow, which is put into the mouth
of the piece, to weigh and hoill the gun as they pleafe.

There arc alfo flings for the yards ; which is done by
binding them fait to the crofs-tree aloft, and to the iicad
of the mail, with a ftrong rope or cliain, tliat if the tie
fliould happen to break, or to be fliot to pieces in fight,
the yard, neverthelefs, may not fall upon the hatches.

Slinging a Man overboard, in order to Hop a leak in a
Ihip, is done thus : the man is truffed up about the middle
in a piece of canvas, and a rope to keep him from linking,
with his arms at liberty, a mallet in one hand, and a plug,
wrapped in oakum and well tarred in a tarpawling-clout, in
the other, which he is to beat with all difpatch into the
hole or leak.

SLIP, zxnong Ship- Bulldtrs, denotes a place lying with
a gradual defcent on the banks of a river, convenient for
Jliip-bmld'ing ; vifhich fee.

Slips, mafles of earth which are apt to flip out of the
banks of canals, refervoirs, &c.

Slips, in Gardening, fuch portions of plants as are flipped
oft from the Items or branches for the puipole of being
planted out as fets. A great number of plants, both of
the woody and herbaceous kinds, is propagated by flips,
which is effefted in the woody kinds by flipping off fmall
young (hoots from the fides of the branches. Sec. with the
thumb and finger, inltead of cutting them off" with a knife ;
but there is no material difference, in the fuccefs or future
growth, between flips and cuttings, only the former in
fmall young (hoots is more proper to be flipped off by the
hand, which, in numerous fmall flirubby plants, will grow ;
but it is more commonly praftifed in the lower ligneous
plants, fuch as fage, winter-favory, hyffop, thyme, fouthern-
.vood, rofemary, rue, lavender, and others of flow (hrubby
growths. The belt feafon of the year for effefting the
work, is generally the fpring and beginning of fummer, though
many forts will grow if planted at almolt any time, from
the fpring to the latter end of the fummer, as fhcwn in
fpeaking of their culture.

And in performing thr work of flipping in thefe forts,
the young (hoots of but one year's growth, and in many
forts the (hoots of the year, (hould be chofen as growing
the mod readily, even when to plant the fame fummer
they are produced, efpecially the hard-wooded kinds : but
in the more foft-wooded plants, the flips of one year's growth
will alio often readily grow ; being careful always to
choofe the moderately-growing fide-flioots fituated on the
outward part of the plants, from three to fix or eight
inches long, flipping them off clofe to the branches, and
clearing off the lower leaves ; then planting them in a fliady
border, if in fummer, and watered, or fo as they can be
occafionally (haded in hot funny weather, efpecially fmall
flips, inferting the whole two parts of three into the ground,
giving occafional water in dry warm weather, till properly
rooted ; and then towards autumn, or in the fpring follow-
ing, tranfplanting them where they are to remain.

But in planting flips of the flioots of tender fhrubby
exotics of the greenhoufe and Hove, many forts require the
aid of a hot-bed or bark bed, to promote their emitting
roots more effedually, as (hewn in their refpeftive culture ;
but fome others of the (hrubby kinds, fuch as geraniums,
will root freely in the natural earth in fummer ; and many
of the herbaceous tribe, producing bottom-rooted olfsets
for flips, as aloes, &c. alfo readily grow, cither with or
without a hot-bed ; but where there is the convenience of
hot-beds in which to plunge the pots of flips of tender
plants, it runs them off more eipcditioufly ; and molt hot-

Vol. XXXIII.

houfe plants in particular require that affiftance. But
many flirubby plants, growing into large bunches from the
root of the fmall under-flirubby kinds, as thyme, favory,
hyffop, fage, &c. as well as thofe of larger growth, as rofes,
fpira:as, rafpberries, and numerous other forts, may be
flipped quite to the bottom into feparate plants, each fur.
niflied with roots, and planted either in nurfery.rows, or at
once where they are to remain.

And as to the flipping of herbaceous plants, various
forts multiply by the roots, &c. into lar^je bunches, which
may be flipped into many feparate plants, bv flipping off
the increafed fuckers or offsets of the root,' and in fome
forts by the offsets from the fides of the head of the plants,
and in a few forts by flips of their bottom ftioots, as well as
of the (talks and branches in plants of bufliy growth ; but
the greater part by flipping the roots, as in many of the
bulbous-rooted tribe, and numerous fibrous-rooted kinds of
plants. The flipping of the bulbous plants is performed
in fummer when their leaves decay, the roots being then
taken up, flipping off all the fmall offsets from the main
bulb, which are generally foon planted again in nurfery-
beds for a year or two. See Bulbous Roots.

In the fibrous-rooted forts, the flipping fliould generally
be performed in the fpring or early part of autumn, which
may be effefted either by flipping the outfide offsets with
roots, as tlie plants ffand in tha ground ; or more effeftually,
by taking the whole bunch of plants up, and flipping them
into feveral feparate parts, each flip 'being furniflied alfo
with roots, planting them, if fmall, in nurfery-rows for a
year, to gain ftrength ; or fuch as are ttrong may be
planted at once where they are to remain. See the culture
of the different forts under their relpeftive heads.

SLIPPER. See Plinth.

Supper, a kind of iron fledge, or lock, for the ufe of a
tram-waggon.

Slipper //land, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea. N. lat. 14° 8'. E. long. 93° 30'.

Slipper, Lady's, in Botany. See Cypripedium.

SLIPPERY Rock, in Geography, a townfliip of Ame-
nica, in the (late of Pennfylvania, and county of Mercer,
containing 789 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townlliip of Pennfyl-
vania, in Butler county, containing 658 inhabitants.

SLIPPING, among Gardeners, the tearing off a fprig
from a branch, or a branch from an arm of a tree.
Thefe forts of flips take root more readily than cuttings.
See Slips.

Slipi'ing, in Rural Economy, a term ufed among animals
to denote abortion in them. Thus, marcs are faid to flip
their colts, ewes their lambs, and cows their calves. And
it has been fuggeffed, that cows in calf, by fmelling to any
flefli, particularly in a putrefcent ftate, are afledied by fuch a
naufea as to (limulate the womb to adion, and to ejeft the
foetus: this is well known in the north of Scotland, where
it is particularly guarded againll. It is obferved by Mr.
Rofs, in the 25th volunr.e of the " Annals of Agriculture,"
that through the inattention of a game-keeper, there was
always horfe-flclh lying about his yards, and he had many-
cows which flipped calves. It is fiippofcd, in the " Eflex
Agricultural Report," that bleeding, when one-third or
halt gone, is a preventative. When it happens, the abor-
tion (hould be immediately buried, and the cow kept as
widely apart as poffible from the herd, and not receive the
bull that goes with them. It is confidered as certainly
infedious.

And in Suffcx it has been fuppofed by fome that the

flipping of lambs has been caufed by too free a ufe of rape,

as one large (heep-farmer, fome years fince, loft eighty or

U ninety

S L O

S L 0

ninety in this way ; which was fuppofed to arife from
feeding the ewes upon it about the end of the year, though
it had been made ufe of before without any bad effeft of
this kind. The ewes in this inftance had been hard kept.
The fame circumftance has alfo taken place among the
flocks of other fheep-farmers. The fame fort of crop has,
however, been fed on the other fide of the hedge at the
fame time with tlie fame fort of (lock without any incon-
venience of this nature occurring. It is, therefore, moft
probably to be afcribed to fome other unperceived caufe.
Ewes are, Iiowever, certainly, from fome caufe or other,
very fubjeft to (lip their lambs, and of courfe require much
care and .ittention in this refpeft. They fhould conitantly
be kept in a ftate of quiet, and free from all fort of dif-
turbance fir fome time after the ram has been put to them.
SLIRE, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro-
vince of Agtcerhuus ; 68 miles N.N.W. of Chriftiania.

SLIT, in jigr'icuhure, a crack or cleft in the brealls of
fat cattle, &c.

S].iT-Grafting. See Engraftixg.
Sur-P/anl'tng, among planters, a mode of planting trees
in fmall openings without the whole of the ground being
dug out, a fmall flit or opening only being made for each
tree. See Planting.

SLITTE, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which runs
into the Tiviot, near Hawick, in Roxburghfhire.

SLOANE, Sir Hans, in Biography, immortalized as
the principal founder of the Britifh Mufeum, was born at
Killaleagh, in the county of Down, Ireland, April i6,
1 660. His family is faid to have been of Scottifli extrac-
tion ; but whatever their fituation in life might be, they
were deflined to acquire more honour from him, than he
derived from them ; though, by the education which he
received, his circumftances appear to have been far from
indigent. He is faid to have been attached, from his youth,
to the ftudy of nature, and this led him perhaps to that of
medicine, as a profeflion. A fpitling of blood confined
him at home for three years, and it was not till his 19th
year that he was able to enter on a regular courfe of medical
education at London. To this he devoted the four fuc-
ceeding feafons, during which he was introduced to the
V acquaintance, and even the friendfliip, of Boyle and Ray ;
great names, whofe continued favour affords fufBcient tef-
timony of the fuccefsful application of the young ftudent,
to the two fciences in which they refpeftively took the lead.
Sloane proceeded to Paris, in company with Mr. Tancred
Robinfon ; fee Robinsonia. There he attended the lec-
tures of Toumefort and Du Verney ; and he is reported to
hare taken his medical degrees at Montpellier. This he
could hardly have done as a Proteftant, and therefore we
prefume another report to be more correft, of his having
graduated at Orange, where poflibly there might, at that
time, be a fort of Proteftant univerfity. Returning to
London late in 1684, Dr. Sloane became a favourite and,
inmate of the great Sydenham, who feems to have intended
taking him by the hand as a phyfician. He was foon
chofen a fellow of the Royal Society, and in April 1687,
entered into the College of Phyficians. Thefe early ad-
vancements afford, as Dr. Pulteney remarks, the ftrongeft
prefumptions in favour of his knowledge and abihties.
Yet he relinquifhed his domeltic profpefts, to gratify his
ardour for natural knowledge.

A defire of invettigating the natural hiflory of the Welt
Indies, the appetite for which, among the learned of Europe,
had rather been whetted than fatisfied by flight and fuper-
ficial information, induced Dr. Sloane to embark for Jamaica,
in September 1687, as phyfician to the duke of Albemarle,

juft then appointed governor of that ifland. But the death
of this nobleman, on the 19th of December, foon after their
arrival, putting an end to the office of his phyfician, the
ftay of the latter in the new world, which he had been fo
eager to vifit, became abridged by his circumftances, and
necefl'ary profpefts in life. He fnatched fifteen months
from thefe calls, and devoted that period, with all pofTible
ardour, to the accompliftiment of the real objeft of his
voyage. The Weft Indies had hitherto been vifited by
Englilhmen, for none but the moft fordid purpofes, and
the paffions, taftes, and charafters of the fettlers have
generally been formed and moulded by tlie mahgnant in-
fluence of their domeftic fyftem, their luxurious habits,
and the natural eifefts of the chmate. Sloane paffed through
this triple ordeal untouched ; for he was armed by a love
of nature, a thirft for knowledge, and lufficient fcientific
acquirements to be fenfible of the value of what he podeffed,
and of what lay within his reach. He made ample col-
leiStions of natural hiltory, bringing home from Jamaica,
Barbadoes, Nevis, and St. Kitt's, about 800 fpecies of
dried plants, enriched with a moft abundant itore of in-
formation refpefting their quahties and ufes. He arrived
in London, May 29, 1689, where he direftly refumed his
medical occupations, with which he happily and fuccefs-
fuUy affociated his literary purfuits. A fine perfon, and
agreeable manners, doubtlefs contributed more to his fuccefs
as a London phyfician, than the fkill of Hippocrates would
have done by its own intrinfic worth. The intereft of
Dr. Sloane feems to have lain much in the city. In 1694
he became phyfician to Chriil's hofpital, and the next year
he married Ehzabeth, daughter of alderman Langley, who
lived with him near thirty years, dying in 1724. She
bore him- a fon and daughter^ who died young ; befides
two daughters, who carried rich inheritances into the
families of Stanley and Cadogan, and who both furvived
their father. — In 1693 Dr. Sloane was defied fecretary to
the Royal Society, which ofHce he held for nineteen years,
to the great honour and benefit of that body as well as
himfelf, for he immediately revived the publication of its
Philofophical Tranfaftions, which had for fix years been
neglefted. He was no lefs attentive to his medical duties
in the College, for he projefted and eftablifhed a difpenfary
for the poor, fleering fl<ilfully through all the difficulties
which ufually attend any fcheme for public benefit, where
bodies of men are concerned. The oppofition he encountered
gave rife to Dr. Garth's celebrated and beautiful poem of
the " Difpenfary," by which alone the memory of thefe
contefts, and of moft of the parties engaged, is now pre-
ferved. But it is not fo with Sloane. Unfading wreaths,
though not of poetic laurel, adorn his buft, and his favourite
fcience confecrates his name in one of the moft ftately Weft
Indian plants. See Sloanea.

In 1696, the fubjeft of our memoir publifhed his Latin
Catalogue of the Plants of Jamaica, a clofely printed oftavo
of 232 pages. He follows Ray's fyftem of arrangement,
and is content with referring his fpecies, as well as he could,
like that great writer himfelf in his catalogues of Britifh
plants, to fome popularly received genus ; in which habit
and general refemblance, rather than the ftru<fture of the
fruftification, are his guides. In fcientific generic difcrimi-
nation indeed, Sloane murt yield the palm to Plumier and
many others. His incompetence in this point, rendered him
unfit to eftimate the talents of Lmnxus ; when the latter
vifited him in 1736, and remarked to Haller, that no bo-
tanift in England, except Dillenius, underftood, or cared
about, generic charafters. But Sloane is iievertheltTs en-
titled to rank high as a literary botanilt from liis uncommon

attention

SLOANE.

attention to fynonyms, by which the little volume in qiief-
tion is rendered alraoil a complete Pinax of the plants it
contains, and the hiltory of the feveral fpecics is prefcrved,
as much as poiTible, from confufion. That fuch a work
fliould be free from errors, is impoilible, but it evinces the
learninjT and diligence of its author. This catalogue was
not followed up, till the year 1707, by the publication of
the firft volume of the great work, to which it was a kind
of Prodronms, and which is entitled " A Voyage to the
Iflands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, St. Chriltopher's and
Jamaica, with the Natural Hiftory of the Herbs and Trees,
four-footed Beafts, Fifhes, Birds, Infefts, Reptiles, &c. of
the laft of thofe iflands." To this volume is prefixed an in-
troduftion, of 154 pages, containing an account of the
hiftory and climate of Jamaica, the manners, domellic eco-
nomy, food, trade. Sec. of the inhabitants, and particularly
an ample detail of their difeafes. The whole is full of cu-
rious and inftruftive matter. The body of this volume,
comprifing 264 pages, 47 of which are devoted to a journal
of the author's voyage, confiits of defcriptions of plants,
■with every thing that could be got together, relative to
their hiftory or qualities. The whole is illuftrated by 256
plates, chiefly of plants, each plate often being occupied by
feveral fpecies. Thefe were taken from the dried fpecimens,
ilill extant in the author's herbarium ; and are therefore
very imperfeft as to botanical details, though charafteriftic
in their general appearance. It is fcarcely necelfary to re-
mark that certain coloured copies which exift, are mere im-
pofitions upon the purchafer. It is more important to ob-
ferve, that the genera or affinities of the plants are fometimes
widely erroneous, in confequence of the work having been
compofed from a rather fuperficial infpeftion of dry fpeci-
mens. Thus Cardamomum minus, pfcudo-afphodeli foliis ;
Cat. 61 ; page 166. t. 103. f. 3, of the prefent work, is
aftually an Orchidea, of the genus Neotlia ; whiltt Orchis
elatior latifoUa, afphodeli radice, /pica Jlrigofd ; Cat. 119;
p. 250. t. 147. f. 2, is, according to the herbarium, an Jil-
pinia. The figure however reprefents an Orchidia.

The ftatiftical part of this book is valuable, but there are
fome remarks relative to the management of (laves, which
we cannot pafs over, efpecially as the queltion of the flave-
trade ftill calls for all the vigilance of the Chriltian moralift
and politician, to defeat the machinations of its advocates,
and fecret promoters. The following, amongft others, are
Sloane's words. " The puni(hments for crimes of flaves,
are ufually for rebellions burning them, by nailing them
down on the ground with crooked fticks on every limb, and
then applying the fire by degrees from the feet and hands,
burning them gradually up to the head, whereby their pains
are extravagant. For crimes of a Idler nature, gelding, or
chopping off half of the foot with an axe. Thefe punifli-
ments arc fuffered by them with great conftancy," The
author proceeds as coolly to dcfcribe " ufual" whipping and
other puni(liniL-nts, and concludes thus. " After they are
whip'd till they are raw, fome put on their (kins pepper
and fait, to make them fmart ; at other times their mailers
will drop melted wax on their Hcins, and ufe feveral very ex-
quifite torments. Tiiefe pimilhments ^rc fometimes merited
by the blacks, who are a very pervcrlc generation of people ;
and though they appear harjh, yet are fcarce equal to fome
of their crimes, and inferior to what punilhments other
European nations infliA on their (laves in the Eall Indies,
as may be feen by Moquet, and other travellers." The
author, in palliating thefe enormities, worthy of Spanifli in-
quifitors, and perhaps originally derived from fome fuch
hellilh fource, does not inform us whether our Chrillian
Proteftant minillers preached againll them ; but we learn

from other documents that they durft not. We know alfo
that the parent Uate, ecclefiallical as well as civil, for ages
looked on, without interfering ; and even at this moment,
all the (trcnuous exertions of the virtuous few, fupported
by the awakened zeal of mod Chriftian divines, of every
perfuafion, are fcarcely able to fucceed in demolifliing the
root of the evil. Regulations have indeed been made to
guard againit fome of the above enormities, and the African
(lave-tradc has been abolifhcd by law. But let Britons
never forget that fuch things have exilled, and guard, with
all their power and vigilance, againll a pofTibility of their
return. The coolnefs or partiality of Sloane, only proves
the callous ftate of the public mind rel'peding this quellion,
upon which he tried to make himfelf as ealy as he could.
He was, on the whole, a man of good feelings, charitable
to the poor, alive to their interefts wherever they came in his
way, and friendly to all improvements in his profelBon ;
fuch as inoculation for the fmall-pox, and the ufe of the
Peruvian bark ; both which were combated in his day, even
more abfurdly, and no lefs difhoneftly, than vaccination is
at prefent.

The fecond volume of Sloane's Jamaica did not appear
till the year 1725. By fome accident, this is much the
molt common of tiie two, and frequently fells for a trifle,
wliile both together fetch about twelve guineas. Of this
fecond volume, 187 pages are devoted to the vegetable, and
148 to the animal, kingdom. There is befides a copious
index of 102 pages. About 80 of the plates relate to
plants, and 42 to animals. A (liort account is given of the
author's return to England, with the dowager duchefs of
Albemarle ; and numerous correftions, or additions, to the
tirll volume are fubjoined. The author frequently refutes
his antagonilt Plukenet in a deciiive ftyle, but with lefs
acrimony than the latter has ufually betrayed. It would be
tedious and unprofitable to follow them through all the
mazes of their criticifm, but as far as we have incidentally
done this, Plukenet is generally molt exaft. (See Pluke-
net.) We muft not omit to notice, that Sloane liberally
allowed Ray to make ufe of his Jamaica manufcripts, in
the third volume of the Hijloria Plantarum, where the
original generic diftributions of the author, if they merit
that appellation, are followed. Though Sloane tells us, in
the preface to his firll volume, that fome of the plants, with
his obfervations upon them, had received the approbation of
his illuftrious friend ; it does not any where appear that
queltions of botanical arrangement, or technical difcrimina-
tion, had been particularly dilculled between them. We
mull not therefore lay any defedls of tiiis kind to the ciiargc
of Ray, to whom the fcicntific botany of the Weft Indies
was nearly an unexplored field, of which Sloane iurnilhed
him by no means with fulficient materials for the cultivation ;
the latter having examined nothing very deeply in this rc-
fpeft, and his dried fpecimens being moltly inlufEicicnt for
the purpofe.

The colleilions of natural hiftory, made by Sloane in his
voyage, feem to have laid tiie foundation of that mufeuni,
which became gradually fo famous. A brother coliedlor
and friend, Mr. Courten, in 1702, left his own acqnifitions
to augment it, on condition of the payment of certain debts
and legacies, to an amount niucii below the value of what
was thus bequeatlad. How foon curiofities of art were
included in Dr. Sloane's mufeum, or whether fuch made a
part of Mr. Courten'i^, we knov/ not ; but the whole col-
leAion was now very confidcr.ilile, and continued increafing
during the long life of its owner, wlio, the year before hr
died, reckoned up the articles of natural hiftory, cxclufivc
of 200 volumes of dried plante, n:. amounting to more than
U '■ ;o,6oo.

SLOANE.

30,600. His tafte or collefting was followed by many
perfons, nor fliould his humble imitator, Mr. Salter of Chel-
fea, the founder of the well-known Don Saltero's cofFee-
houfe, be altogether defpifed. Who can anfwer for the
tafte or curiofity that may have been awakened by this humble
popular mufeum, or the purfuits and difcoveries to which it
may have led ? The writer of this is not alhamed to ac-
knowledge his own obligations to it at a very early period.
The difcoveries of Sloane in the Welt Indies were moreover
ufeful, in exciting coUeftors of living plants to enrich their
gardens from that novel and fertile fource, by v,^hich all the
iiot-houfes in Europe profited. Hence the French were led
to fend out Plumier, fee that article ; and though at war
with England in the year 1708, that nation was generous
enoutrh to admit the fubjedl of our memoir, with the per-
miffion of queen Anne, as one of the eight foreign members
of tlie Jcademie dts Sciences. His honours and appoint-
ments at home were rapidly increafing. He was confulted
by the royal family, and created a baronet by kmg George I.
This rank, it is faid, had never before been conferred on a
phyfician ; though fuch an application of it has fince been
frequent ; as being eafier to the giver, and more advan-
tageous to the receiver, than more folid, but lefs brilliant,
rewards for court fervice. Sir Hans became phylician-
general to the army, and in 17 19 was eledted prefident of
the College of Phyficians, which Itation he held for fixtcen
years ; but all his other honours fade before that of the prefi-
dency of the Royal Society, conferred upon him, on the death
of fir Ifaac Newton, in 1727. He refigned the latter, at the
age of fourfcore, in 1 740, when he retired to the manoi-houfe
of Chelfea, which manor he had purchafed about the year
1720. Here he received the vifits of his fcientific and other
friends, patronized the ingenious, and affilted the diftrefl'ed.
The worthy George Edwards record?, in his Ed'ays en
Natural Hiftory, that he feldom milled drinking coffee
with " the good fir Hans Sloane" on a Saturday, during
his retirement of about fourteen years at Chelfea. " He
■was fo infirm as to be wholly confined to his houfe, except
fometimes, though rarely, taking a little air, in his garden,
in a wheeled chair." Edwards unexpeftedly found him in
the agonies of death, on the loth of January, 1753, N.S.
at four in the afternoon. He expired at four the next
morning, in the 92d year of his age, and was buried, along
with his lady, in a vault, at the fouth-ealt corner of Chelfea
church-yard, where a handfome, and very confpicuous, mo-
nument to his memory ftill exifts. His epitaph relates that
he died " without the lead pain of body, and with a
confcious ferenity of mind." Edwards fays, " I continued
with him later than any one of his relations, but was
obliged to retire, his laft agonies being beyond what I
could bear ; though under his pain and weaknefs of body,
he feemed to retain a great firmnefs of mind, and refigna-
tion to the will of God." Thefe accounts may not be
totally irreconcileable. The convulfions of death are
" agonies" probably in appearance more than reality ; and
it is confolatory to fee a well-direfted mind, even in ordinary
cafes, generally fupeiior to them, in a remarkable manner,
Sloane was, in every refpedl, prepared to meet them.

The perfon of fir Hans Sloane was tall and handfome ;
his manners eafy, polite and cheerful. He delighted in ex-
hibiting and explaining to llrangers, and efpecially fo-
reigners, whatever he pofTefled, and is faid to have kept an
open table once a-week, for his friends, particularly fuch
as belonged to the Royal Society. That his reception of
the great Linnaeus was not peculiarly flattering, has often
been mentioned with regret ; nor can we account for it
otherwife, than by recoUefting that he was not fufficiently

gifted with the talifmanic power of genius, by which kin-
dred minds difcover each other, through every difguife of
rank, or external appearance. But the principal obftacle
to the free intercourfe of thefe diftinguillied men arofe, per-
haps, from the want of a common language. Linnaeus
could fpeak nothing but Latin, and that with the foreign
accent. He was moreover, at this time, full of thofe novel
ideas of botanical philofophy, by which he fubfequently
gave laws to the learned world. Boerhaave, who recom-
mended him with enthufiafm to Sloane, could appreciate
thefe ; but to the latter, as at firft fight to Dillenius, they
promifed nothing but confufion and inconvenience ; and
though the Oxford profeflor foon looked further into their
merits ; the opulent patron and colledfor, who had rifen to
eminence by his own means, felt no inclination to go to
fchool to a poor Swcdifii ftudent, hardly fuperior in his
eyes to a working gardener. Few men can be ferviceable
in many different ways. The merits of fir Hans Sloane
were traufceudant in his own line. He neglefted no means,
that appeared to him eligible, for promoting literature or
fcience. On purcliafing his great ellate at Chelfea, he pre-
fented the Apothecaries' company with the fee fimple of
the garden which they had already made there, on a con-
dition, equally beneficial to their fame and to fcience, that
it fiiould for ever continue a botanic garden. " He was
governor," fays Dr. Pulteney, " of almoft every hofpital
in London ; and to each, after having given an hundred
pounds in his life-time, he left a more confiderable legacy
at his death. He was ever a benefaflor to the poor, who
felt the confequences of his death feverely. He was zealous
in promoting the eftabhfhment of the colony of Georgia, iu
1732; and formed, himfelf, the plan for bringing up the
children in the Foundling; Hofpital, iu 1739."

Nor was the pen of this aftive philofopher idle, amid his
other occupations. To particularize even the titles of his
papers, printed by the Royal Society, amounting to 35,
would lead us too far. However curious and uleful the
contents of moll of the rell may be, the lall in the lift, on
Inoculation, vol. 49. ji6, is pre-eminently important, as re-
cording the introduttion of that practice into England, and
difplaying the candour, as well as good fenfe, of the writer,
in every thing relative to the fubjedl.

It remains for us only to mention the eftabliftiment of the
Britifh Mufeum, for which the nation is entirely obhged to
fir Hans Sloane. He bequeathed it to the pubhc, on con-
dition of a payment, to his heirs, of 20,000 pounds ; a
fum faid barely to equal the intrinfic value of the precious
metals and gems, of the medals and mineral fpecimens.
Befides the abundance of natural and artificial curiofities,
his library, amounting to 50,000 volumes, of books and
manufcripts, was included in the bequeit. In collefting
thefe books, he is reported to have fent his duplicates,
either to the College of Phyficians, or the Bodleian library.
Parliament having accepted the legacy of Sloane, aug-
mented it with the library of fir Robert Cotton, and tha
valuable manufcripts of the lord treafurer Harley ; fee
that article. The whole, with various additions, has been
depofited in the vail and maily palace of Montagu Houfe,
where it is now, in the moft eafy manner, and free of ex-
pence, acceflible to the public. Two of the founder's de-
fcendants are always hereditary truitees of thefe treafures,
adoeiated by the original aft of parliament, or by particu-
lar eleftion, with a limited number of the moll eminent men
in the kingdom. For the prefent ftate of this noble repofi-
tory, and its more particular hiftory, fee Museum, Britijh.
Sloane's Works. Pulteney's Sketches of Botany. Aikin's
Gen. Biog. S.

SLOANEA,

S L O

S L O

SLOANEA, in Botany, fo named by Plumier, m honour
of his celebrated predeceflbr in the botanical inveftigation of
the Weft Indies, Sir Hans Sloane. (See that article.) —
Linn. Gen. 265. Schreb. 353. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 115J.
Mart. Mill. Di(ft. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 296.
Swartz Obf. 212. JufT. 291. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 469.
(Sloana; Plum. Gen. 48. t. 15.) — Clafs and order, Poly-
andria Monogynta. Nat. Ord. Amentacea:? Linn. Tiliacea,
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five,
or more, acute, rather unequal, fegments. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments very numerous, above 100, fhort, inferted
into the downy, flefliy receptacle ; anthers oblong, of two
cells, attached lengthwife to the filaments. P'lfl. Germen
fuperior, roundifh, angular; ftyle fimple, awl-fhaped,
longer than the ilamens ; ftigma nearly fimple. Feric.
Capfule large, roundilh, prickly, of from three to fix
valves, and as many cells, burfting at the top, the partitions
from the middle of each valve. Sends two or three in each
cell, oblong, obtufe, involved in a pulpy tunic.

Ed'. Ch. Corolla none. Calyx of one leaf, inferior, in
five or more fegments. Anthers attached longitudinally to
the filaments. Capfule prickly, of from three to fix valves,
and as many cells. Seeds two, with a pulpy tunic.

Obf. Linnsus feem<; to have been led by the very er-
roneous opinion of Miller, (who referred this genus to
Caftanea or Faults,) to confider it as probably of his amen-
taceous order. Juflieu has far more correAly ranged it with
Ills own genuine Tiliacea, near Sparrmannia. Three fpecies
are now known ; fine South American, or Welt Indian,
trees, of which Linnius was acquainted with the firft only.
His S. emarghiata, Sp. PI. 731, taken up from Catefby's
work, without the infpedlion of any fpecimen, is, as Will-
denow remark?, no other than Achras Sapota. Concerning
the reft, great confufion, originating with Aublet, is per-
petuated by no lefs authority than that of Swartz, followed
by Willdenow and Aiton. JufTieu alfo errs in fuppofing
the Linnaean Sloanea to be Aubletia, or Apnha. Such may
indeed be the plant of the Horlus Ciifforlianus, but that of
Sp. PI. is certainly Plumier's. We (liall attempt a cor-
reftcd view of the Ipecics and thejr fynonyms, from authentic
fpecimen-.

I. S. dtntata. Chefnut-leaved Sloanea. Linn. Sp. PI.
730. Ait. n. I. (S. Mafloni; Swartz Ind. Occ. 938.
Willd. n. 2. Sloana amplis caftanese foliis, fruttu echinato ;
Plum. Ic. 240. t. 244. f. 1.) — Leaves toothed; hcart-
(haped at the bale. Stipulas Imear, ferrated. Calyx
deeply divided. — Native of South America and the Weft
Indies. Our fpecimens were gathered by Matlon in the
ifland of St. Kitt's. Miller is faid to have cultivated this
plant in tiie ftove at Chelfea, but it has not been known to
blolTom in Europe. In its native country this is a lofty
tree, with round leafy branches, finely downy when young.
Leaves alternate, (talked, a foot or more in length, and half
as broad, fmooth, with one rib and many ilrong tranfverfe
veins, rather coriaceous ; more or lei's heart-fiiaped at the
bafe ; the margin diilantly and rather (lightly toothed.
FootJIalks downy, two or three inches long. Stipulas near
an inch in length, narrow, deeply toothed, almoll pinnatifid,
iituated in pairs at the bale of each footttalk. Cliijlers axil-
lary, towards the ends of the branches, compound, many-
flowered, drooping, not half fo long as the leaves. Floivers
green, about three-quarters of an inch wide, confpicuous
for their numerous \.wki;A Jlamens. Anthers, as well ?i^ ger-
men, hairy. Capfule woody, above an inch in diameter,
clothed with very long, rigid bridles, fpreading in all di-
reiiions.

2. S. grandiflora. Large-flowered Sloanea. (S. den-
tata; Swartz Obf. 213. Willd. n. i, excluding the (y-
nonyms,' except the following. S. Plumierii ; Aubl. Gutan.
v. I. 536.) — Leaves toothed ; tapering at the bafe. Sti-
pulas triangular-heart-ftiaped, ferrated. Calyx with (hallow
fegments. — Gathered in the foreits of Guiana by Aublet,
whofe fpecimen is before us. He found it bearing flowers
and fruit in November. The trunk is forty or fifty feet
high, and two in diameter. Leaves pointed at each end.
Stipulas very broad at the bafe, and more (lightly ferrated
or toothed. Flowers almolt twice as large as thofc of the
preceding ; the calyx remarkably and elfentially different,
having a broad, hemifpherical, cup-like bafe, and very wide
(hallow fegments in the border ; whereas the dentatu has a
calyx divided nearly to the bafe, into lanceolate, or fome-
what ovate, taper-pointed lobes. Capfule of from three to
five cells. Seeds one, two, or three in each cell, enfolded
in a red fucculent tunic. The fpecific charafter and de-
fcription given by profefTor Swartz, cannot be midaken ;
but it is remarkable that he fhould not have detefted
Aublet's mifapphcation of Plumier's fynonym. This error
is indeed the more pardonable in Aublet, as he was ac-
quainted with but one of thefe two fpecies, and took it, of
courfe, for what Plumier had figured.

3. S. Aubletii. Small-flowered Sloanea. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 940. (S. finemarienfis ; Aubl. Guian. v. I. 534.
t. 212. Willd. n. 3.) — Leaves roundilh, abrupt, entire.
Calyx in five deep ovate fegments. — Gathered by Aublet in
the forefts of Guiana about the river Sinemari, 30 leagues
above its mouth, bearing flowers and fruit in November.
Swartz fays it was found by Maffon in St. Kilt's. The
trunt is defcribed as forty or fifty feet high, with a reddifh,
cracked, and wrinkled bark. Branches fiender, finely
downy when young. Leaves in Aublet's fpecimen near a
foot long, on (talks about one-third that length, coriaceous,
fmooth, Itrongly veined. He defcribes thcjlipulas as being
long, broad, and pointed. Thefe we have not (een, any
more than the powers, which grow in diort, fimple, axil-
lary clujlers, and are much fmaller than either of the pre-
ceding. The flyle in Aublet's plate, as well as his own
French defcription, is reprcfented divided into four or five
deep flender fegments. The capfule is oblong, an incli in
length, with four or five cells and as many angles, clothed
with long, flender, afcending filaments or bridles. We fliould
gladly have given the name oi parvi/hra to this fpecies, but
we have taken the leaft exceptionable of thofe that already
exilt. The Gaiibis call this tree Oulouqua-Pulou, but no-
thing is recorded of their applying it to any ule.

SLOATH, or Sloth, in Zoology, the name of an animal
remarkable tor its flow motion. Of this animal there are
two fpecies. See Bradypus.

The three-toed floth has a blunt black nofe, a little length-
ened ; very (mall external ears ; fmall, black, and heavy
eyes, with a dufliy line from the corner of each ; tho colour
of the face and throat a dirty white ; hair on the limbs and
body long, and very uneven, of a cinereous brown colour,
with a black line along the middle of the back ; each fide,
about the (boulders, is daflied with rud colour ; the rell of
the back and limbi (potted irregularly with black ; the tail
Ihort ; legs thick, long, and aukwardly placed ; the f.ice
naked ; and three very long claws on each foot. lVnn.int.

This creature, which grows to the bulk of a middle-fized
fox, is fo very tedious in all its motions, that it will be three
or four days in climbing up, and coming down a tree, and
does not go the length of fifty paces upon even ground in a
day. It never ilirs till compelled by hunger : its food is
fruit, or the leaves of trees, its inutioii is altcndsd with a
12 very

S L O

very moving and plaintive cry, fo that beads of prey avoid
it with horror.

The found of its voice feems only to exprefs the word
hail, for which reafon the Brafilians call him by that name ;
but he ufually repeats the found about fix times together,
defcending, as if one fhould fing la, fol, fa, mi, re, tit.

Its look is fo piteous as to move compaffion, and accom-
panied with tears. Whatever he takes hold of, he does it
fo ftrongly, or rather fo ftiffly, that he will fometimes fleep
fccurely while he hangs at it.

Clulius, Marcgrave, Pifo, and others, have given defcrip-
tions of this animal, but they none of them mention the
length of his fore-feet ; which, according to the animal
preferved in the Mufeum of the Royal Society of London,
is double that of the hinder pair.

From the (hag of his body, the fhape of his legs, and his
having httle or no tail, as alfo from the flownefs of his gait,
and his climbing up trees as little bears ufe to do, he feems
to come near the bear-kind, from which he differs chiefly in
having but three claws upon a foot.

This creature breeds principally in Florida and Brafil.
Grew's Muf. p. II.

The two-toed floth has a round head ; Ihort projefting
ncfe ; ears like the human ; two long ftrong claws on the
fore-feet, and three on the hinder ; long and rough hair on
the body, in fome parts curled and woolly ; in fome, of a
pale red above, and cinereous below ; in others, of a yel-
lowilh-white below, cinereous-brown above ; it has no tail.
This animal inhabits South America, and the ifland of
Ceylon. Pennant.

SLOATS of a Cart, the under pieces which keep the
bottom of the cart together.

SLOB-FuKROWiNG, in /Igriculture, a particular method
of ploughing land.

SLOBNA, in Geography,' a town of the duchy of VVar-
faw ; 25 miles S. of Kalilh.

SLOBNICK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 24 miles
N.N.W. of Pofen.

SLOBODSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Ekaterinoflav ; 64 miles N.E. of Ekaterinoflav.

SLOBODSKOI, a town of RulTia, in the government
of Viatka ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Viatka. N. lat. 58° 40'.
E. long. jo° 44'.

SLODTZ, Ren^ Michael, in Biography, furnamed
Michael Angelo, a fculptor, was born at Paris in 1705.
He lludied under his father, who was a native of Antwerp,
after which he went to Rome, and upon his return was ad-
mitted a member of the Academy of Paris, where he died
in 1764. One of his moll confidtrr^ble works is the monu-
ment of Languet, in the church of St. Snlpice.

SLOE, Prunus Sylvejlris, the Enghlh name for the wild
plum. See Prunus.

The juice exprelTed from the fruit of the floe-bufh while
unripe, iiifpilTated by a gentle heat to drynefs, is called Ger
man acacia. It differs from the Egyptian moil remarkably
in this property, that it gives out its ailringency in good
meafure to reftified fpirit as well as to water, v.-hereas that
of the other is not at all dlflbluble in fpirit.

A conferve of this fruit has been prepared in the (hops,
by mixing the pulp, prelled out through a fieve after the
floes have been lleeped in water over the fire, till they are
fufiiciently foft without burfting, with thrice its weight of
double refined fugar.

In fome places, the unripe floes are dried in an oven, and
then fermented with wines or malt liquors, for a reftringent
diet drink in alvine and uterine laxities. The bark, both
of the branches and roots, is^iud to be fuccefsfully given in

S L O

intermitting fevers, and it has been recommended by fome as
equal to the Peruvian bark. It is apparently a ilron^
flyptic. The watery infufion of the flowers, fweetened
with fugar, or made into a fyrup, is faid to be a very ufeful
purgative for children. Lewis's Mat. Med.

Sloe- IVorm, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of an infeft
found on the leaves of the floe, or black-thorn, and fome-
times on thofe of the garden plum.

This, and a like worm, found on the leaves of the oak,
both remarkable for the hairs which cover them, each of
which is forked, or divided into two at the ends, are ufually
efteemed caterpillars, but they are in reahty animals of a very
different clafs : the caterpillar has, at the utmoft, but fix-
teen legs ; thefe have twenty-two, and have all the other
charatlers of that clafs of infefts called by the French na-
turahfts fmijfes chenilles, or baflard caterpillars.

All the animals of that clafs are very remarkable for the
different figure they make after the lad change of their fliins ;
but this is in none feen fo obvioufly, a- in thefe two fpecies :
that of the oak is of a greeniih colour, and its hairs, which
are fo (liff that they almoft deferve the name of fpines, are
black ; that of the floe is of a greyifli hue, and its fpines
longer, and of a deep brown : every one of thefe is, towards
the extremity, divided into two, in the manner of tlie tines
of a fork. Thefe give the animal a very remarkable fie;ure,
and are call off with the feveral Ikins, while the new Ikins
have others in their place ; but in the lall change, before
that into the nymph tlate, the change made in the creature
is fuch, that it could never be fufpefted to be the fame
animal by any one, who was not an eye-witnefs of the
change.

The creature in this, throwing off its fl<in, becomes per-
feAly fmooth, and of a dirty yellowilh colour, with not the
flighted variegation on it, nor the lead appearance even of
the remains of the fpines. In this date it remains till it goes
into the nymph date ; and from that, after about fixteen
days, it comes out in the fliape of a four-winged fly. The
whole procefs of the change is tlie fame, in the two fpecies
of the oak and the floe ; but the flies they produce are very
different. Reaumur's Hid. Inf. vol. ix. p. 119. See
Prunus, in Gardening.

SLOKUM'S LsLAND, in Geography, 3 fmall ifland in
Barndaple bay, near the coad of Maffachufetts.

SLOMIG'RODEK, a town of Audrian Poland, in
Galicia ; 20 miles W. of Lemberg.

SLONEK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, on the Vif-
tula ; 15 miles N.W. of Ploczk.

SLONIM, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 32 miles S.S.W. of Novogrodek.

SLONITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan ;
4 miles S. of Schlan.

SLOOP, in Sea-Language, a fmall veffel furniflied with
one mad, the main-fail of which is attached to a gaff above,
to the mad on its foremod edge, and to a long boom below i
by which it is occafionally fliifted to either quarter.

Sloops, fmacks, barges, and hghters, that pafs through
bridges, have the mall confined in a trunk or wooden cup,
above the deck, and fadened in by an iron drap on the aft-
fide. Some have a drong iron hinge at the heel of the malt,
or a bolt through the heel ; fo that it can be lowered at
pleafure, by the llav-tackle eafing away the fall by degrees.
To raife the mad, the fall is brought to the windlafs, and
hove upon, until the mad is up in its place : the fall is then
dopped to the windlafs bitts.

Dutch Jloops are fmall veffels, ufed upon the canals in
Holland, with one mad, on which are hoided a fprit-fail
and a fore-fail, fet clofe to the dem. There are many

4 filhing-

S L O

S L O

{idiinfiT-boats in Holland, rigged in the fame way, with the
addition of a bovv-fprit and jib, and they are there called
" pinks." Their fails are generally tanned.

Sloop of War, is a name given to the fmalleft veflels of
war, except cutters. They are rigged either as flups or
Inows. See Ratk and Ship.

SLOOTEN, or Sloten, in Geography, a town of Hol-
land, in the department of Fiiefland, capital of Weftergoe,
car a large lake called Slooter-Meer. Its fortifications,
onllrufted by the confederates, and afterwards deftroyed
by the Spaniards, have been enlarged by the ftates of the
province, and defended by five baftions. The magiftracy is
compofed of four burgo-mafters and three fenators ; lo miles
E. of Bolfwaert. N. lat. 52° 55'. E. long. 5° 35'.

SLOP, Street, in Jgricu/lure, that fort of moiil floppy
fubilance, which is raked, fweeped, and fhovelkd up from
the ftreets of large towns, for ufe as manure. It is a kind
of material which is much made ufe of in this way, in the
vicinity of the metropolis, in the neighbourhood of Man-
chclter, and of feveral other places, where it is coUefted in
large quantities. Near the firll of thefe places the barge-
men on the river are faid, in the agricultural report of
the county, lo convey to and deliver the flop of the llreets
at any diftance which is capable of being reached in one tide,
at the price of about four guineas for feventeen or eighteen
cart-loads, each load confifting of nearly two tons weight.
This is called co/d manure, in contradiitinftion to that of
the liable littery fort, which is denominated kol manure, and
delivered at the ex pence of one guinea more.

Slop of this kind is alfo fent from the different wharfs,
by the barges, on the river Lea canal, which carry about
thirty tons, or fifteen cart-loads ; and delivered, as far as
the towns and villages at about thirteen miles diltance, for
four pounds.

At Manchefter, the value of this fort of manure, from
almolt nothing, has increafed to a very confiderable fum, in
the courfe of the laft twenty-five year;,.

Moft other large towns might afford vafl fupphes of ma-
nure of this nature, and be of great advantage to agricul-
ture ; while, at the fame time, they would derive an increafed
revenue from it. At prefent much negleft takes place in
this rcfpeft, in many places. See Manure.

SLOPAN, in Geography, a town of Poland, in Vol-
hynia ; 52 miles N.E. of Lucko.

SLOPE-HoLEs, in Canals, are holes or marks made in
the points E and L {Platel. Canals, Jigs. 14 and 15.),
to direft the navigators, or workmen, where to begin to
cut or dig the fides of a canal.

SLOPES, are fuch parts of the ground as have been dug
'iT left floping, as G I and KP {Platel. Canals, Jigs . 3
and 6.) Some alfo denominate the fides of the canal, as
C B and H I, {Jigs. 14 and 15.) the Hopes.

SLOPING Alley. See Alley.

Sloping Banks, in Rural Economy, the fhelving borders
of rivers and fea-lhorc3, which are highly ufcful and necef-
fary for fecuring and protefting them agamft itrong floods
and tides. The more flow and gradual fuch flopcs are
made, tlie more beneficial they will be in giving fafety to
fuch banks. See \K.\yt.\\- Banks, Securing of, and Embank-
ment.

SLOP-ROOM, in Ship- Building, an apartment on the
orlop, appointed for the'purfer to keep the fhip's flops in.

SLOT, in yfgricullure, a term ufed to fignify any broad,
flat, woodf-n bar.

Slot, in the Sporlfman't Language, a term ufed to ex-
preis the mark of the foot of a Hag, or other creature
proper for the chacc, in the clay or earth, by which they

are able to guefs how long the creature has been crone by,
and which way he went. The flot, or treading of the ftag,
is very nicely ftudied on this occafion. If the flot be large,
deep printed in the ground, and with an open cleft, and,
added to thefe marks, there is a large fpace between mark
and mark, it is certain that the flag is an old one. If there
be obferved the flots, or treadings of two, the one long,
and the other round, and both of one lize, the long flot is
always that of the larger beail.

There is alfo another way of knowing the old ones from
the young ones by the treading ; which is, that the hinder
feet of the old ones never reach to their fore-feet, whereas
thofe of the young ones do.

Old flags alfo are long-jointed, and they never tread
double or falfely, as the young ones do, becaufe the ten-
dons, that hold the joints of their feet, are ilronger ; but
the feet of the young ones are fometimes forced, for want
of thefe Itrong finews, to turn away double.

It is to be obferved alfo, that there is a great difference
between the flot of a itag or hart, and that of a hind ; for
there is no hart of the fecond head fo young, but that he
leaves a larger and wider flot than the hind, excepting when
the hinds are big with young, for on th.it occafion their
claws will open as wide as thofe of the hart.

Another method of knowing the age of a flag is by his
fumets, though fome general rules are to be known, before
any thing can be judged from this article. Thefe are, that
in April and May they call their fumets as it were in cakes ;
and in June and July they call them in thin, long, and large
crotels ; and from thence to the end of Augult they hold
the fame form and fize ; but they are in this laft; month al-
ways hard and knotty. In all thefe cafes, the largell and
longeil fumets are efteemed to be the marks of the largell
and oldell flags. If they have been diilurbed, or if they
have received any hurt, they ufually call them fharp at one
end, and dry. This alfo is conftantly the cafe, when their
new horns are juft grown to their hardnefs, and tliey rub
them againfl the trees to get off the cracked membranes,
which were the velvetings in their firfl flate.

There is always alfo a difference between the fumets of
the morning and thofe of the evening : thofe made at night,
when they go to relief, are better digelted, and confequently
moifler than thole made in the morning ; becaufe having
taken their rell all day, there is a more perfidl digellion
made than can be in the night, as they are, during that
time, fceking food.

Tiiere are alfo fcvcral other ways of judging of the
growth and fize of a flag, as by his carriage, or bearings,
according to the huntfman's phrafe ; that is, according to
the breaking of the tender branches of trees which he makes
with his horns in pafTing through. When the boughs are
found biuifed and broken very high, and to a good width,
there is no doubt of his being an old one ; but this judgment
is not to be made in the months of March, April, May, and
June, becaufe their horns are at that time cither wholly
wanting, or they are young and velvety. The height of
the creature's entries into the woods is alfo another mark of
his fize ; for the old ones are always proud and Itately, and
go in erett, but the young ones will creep.

The older the Hag is, the fooner he goes to fray, and
the larger are the trees he choofcs for this ufe ; the young
onef go later into it, and always choofe the weaker and
lower trees. Notwithflanding that, after the fixth year,
the age is not certainly known by the honi':, as there is,
after this time, no increafe in the number of their branches ;
yet a probable gucfs may be made from their being all
thicker and more robufl, and the tops more upen.

Slot,

S L U

S L U

Slot, Dranu'mg on the. See Drawing.

SLOTH, in Zoology. See Sloath.

SLOUGEA, in Geography, a town of Tunis, on the
north fide of the Mejerdah ; 12 miles N.E. of Tuber-
foke.

SLOUGH, a hamlet in the parifhes of Upton and Stoke
Pogeis, and hundred of Stoke, county of Buckingham,
England, is 21 miles W. from London, and i mile N. of
Eton. This place is feated on the great weftern road, and
has long been the refidence of Dr. Herfchel, the celebrated
aftronomer, who manufaftured here fome of the larged re-
flefted telefcopes ever known. One of thefe, forty feet in
length, ftill remains in the garden attached to his houfe ;
and by the ufe of this very powerful inftrument, the doftor
has made feveral important difcoveries in the planetary fyf-
tem. A particular account of this telefcope, with eighteen
engravings, is publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions
for 1795. Beauties of England, vol. i. by J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley, 1801. Lyfons's Magna Britannia,
vol. i. 4to.

Slough, a deep rut or hole in a road or carriage-way.
The call flvin of a fnake, the damp of a coal-pit, and the
fear of a wound, are alfo called by the fame appellation.

Slough of a tuild Boar, is the bed, foil, or mire, in
which he wallows, or in which he lies in the day-time.

SiLOvan-Silver, in Old Writers, a rent paid in fome
places in lieu of certain days work in harveit, heretofore re-
ierved to the lord from his tenants.

SLOUTH, or Slought, in Hunting, is ufed for a com-
pany of fome forts of wild beafts : as, a flouth of bears.

SLOW Fevers. See Fever.

Slow Pulfe. See Pulse.

Slow -Worm, the Engliih name of the accilia, or anguis
fragilis of Linnxus, called alfo the bltnd-'worm, and by
fome the deaf adder, which, in the Linnaean fyllem, is a
fpecies of the anguis or fnake ; the ciecitia bemg a diitinft
genus of ferpents. See Serpentes.

It is diftinguiflied from all our fnakes by its fmallnefs,
and by the (hape of its tail, which runs out a great way
beyond the anus, and yet is blunt and confiderably thick at
the end.

The colour of the back is cinereous, marked with fmall
lines compofed of minute black fpecks ; the fides are of a
reddifh call ; the belly duflcy ; both marked like the back ;
the tongue is broad and forky ; the teeth fmall, but nu-
merous, and the fcales fmall. It is flow in its motion, and
inoffenfive in its nature.

Thefe fnakes lie torpid in the winter, and are fometimes
found in vaft numbei-s twined together.

It refembles the viper in its manner of producing its
young, which are brought forth aUve.

Dale, from Gefner, gives an account of theriaca being
prepared of this ferpent and treacle water, for a fudorific in
the plague. James.

SLUCH, or Slutch, in Agriculture, a term often applied
to fignify a foft liquid muddy fort of material, found in dif-
ferent fituations where water ftagnates.

SLUCHAU, or T.SHLUCHOW, in Geography, a town of
Pruffian Pomerelia ; 44 miles S.S.W. of Dantzig.

SLUCK, or Sluckz, a town of Lithuania, in the pala-
tinate of Novogrodek, in which are three Greek churches,
one for Roman Catholics, one for Lutherans, and one for
Calvinills; 68 miles E.S.E. of Novogrodek. N. lat. 52°
50'. E. long. 27" 33'.

SLUDGE, m Agriculture. See Sluss.

SLUDKA, in Geography, a town of Ruffiaj in the go-
vernment of Perm ; 8 miles S. of Obvinfk.

SLUDS, a terra ufed by the miners in Cornwall for
half-roafted ores.

SLUE, To, is to turn any cylindrical or conical piece of
timber about its axis, without removing it. This term, in
fea-language, is generally applied to the movement by
which a mad or boom is turned about, in its cap or boom-
iron.

SLUG. See LiMAX.

Slug, in Agriculture and Gardening, a deftruftive animal
of the fnail kind, which is highly mifchievous in the field,
as well as the garden, by eating off the yflung flems of tender
plants. There are feveral different kinds of thefe little
animals. The while and brown leathery kind often even
deflroy the flrong flems of young cabbage, and other fimilar
plants. The deftruAion of them has been fuggefled to be
effefted by the ufe of tar-water, fprinkled over the ground ;
and alfo by having recourfe to lime, in the preparation of tlie
land for fuch crops. They conceal themfelves in the holes
and crevices, only making their appearance early in morn-
ings and late in the evenings. The white flug or fnail is
likewife very deflruftive to young turnip crops, by rihng
out of the holes of the foils, on wet and dewy mornings
and evenings. Rolling the ground with a heavy implement,
before the fun rifes, has been advifed as a means of dellroying
them in thefe cafes.

Slugs of this fort are likewife very deftruftive, in fome
diflrifts, to the roots of corn crops, during the day-time, in
the early fpring months, while they he concealed in the
ground, by eating and devouring them ; and by coming out
in the evenings, and during the night-time, to commit ra-
vages on the blades, and other parts above the ground.
Numbers of them are fometimes met with upon the fame
plant, and they may eafily be extirpated and removed from
the land by the above praftice, while they are at vpork,
efpecially in moon-light feafons, and any further injury to
the crops be guarded againfl. Warm moill weather is al-
ways a great encouragement to their coming out of their
hiding-places ; and advantage fhould conftantly be taken of
it for their extermination, as they fuddenly retire under
ground during the time of cold.

The flrong lands of other places are occafionally much
infefled with them in the pea, bean, and rye crops and
ftubbles, as well as clover roots, when a wheat crop is put
in upon them. The flugs, in fome cafes, are of about half
an inch in length, having their backs of a blueifh caft in
the flcin part, and their under parts wholly of a white ap-
pearance.

A mixture of fulphur and lime, made fo as to be con-
veniently applied, has been found to be highly deftruftive
of flugs in general.

The ufe of hme-water has lately been advifed as an ex-
cellent and cheap mode of dellroying flugs in gardens, as
well as fields, in the fecond volume of the Tranfaftions of
the Horticultural Society of London. It is found to be
far preferable, in this intention, to quick-hme, which is
liable to become too foon faturated with moiilure, and ren-
dered ineffedlual. The manner of employing the water is
after it has been newly made from flone lime, by means of
hot water poured upon it, to pour it through the fine rofe
of a watering-pot over the flugs, which have been coUefted
by means of pea-haulm, or fome other fimilar fubllance,
laid down on the ground in portions, at the diltance of
about a pole from each other. In proper weather, the
flugs foon coUeft in this way, in great numbers, for fhelter
as well as to get food. When a boy takes up the fub-
flance, and by a gentle fhake leaves the whole of the flugs
on the ground, another perfon then pours a fmall quantity

of

S L U

of lime-water on them, and the boy removes the haulmy
material to feme intermediate place, in order that the fame
praftice may be repeated. By perfcvering in this method
for a little while, the whole of the flugs may be deltroyed,
as the lead drop of the water fpeedily kills them. This
praftice, it is fuppofed, will be found highly beneficial in
the flower-garden, as by watering the edgings of box,
thrift, or other kinds, the (lugs will be killed with certainty,
even when the weather is moift.

The application is confidered Ample, the effeft certain,
and the expence trifling, whether in the garden or the field ;
a few pots only being required, in the latter cafe, to the
acre, which can be made with a very fmall quantity of lime.
And the labour is not of any material confequence, fo that
the whole charge will not, it is imagined, exceed five (hil-
lings the acre.

SLUICE, a frame of timber, Hone, or other matter,
fervingto retain and raife the water uf a river, &c. and, on
occafion, to let it pafs.

Such is the iluice of a mill, which Hops and coUedls the
water of a rivulet, &c. to let it fall, at length, in the
greater plenty, upon the mill-wheel : fuch alio are thofe
ufed as vents or drains to difcharge water off land. And
fuch are the fluices of Flanders, &c. which ferve to prevent
the waters of the fea overflowing the lower lands, except
when there is occafion to drown them.

Sometimes there is a kind of canal inclofed between two
gates or fluices, in artificial navigations, to fave the water,
and render the paiiage of boats equally eafy and fafe, up-
wards and downwards : as in the fluices of Briare in France,
which are a kind of maflive walls built parallel to each other,
at the diftance of twenty or twenty-four feet, clofed with
Itrong gates at each end, between which is a kind of canal,
or chamber, confiderably longer than broad ; in which a
vefTel being inclofed, the water is let out at the firft gate,
by which the vefTel is raifed fifteen or fixteen feet, and pafTed
out of this canal into another much higher. By fuch means
a boat is conveyed out of the Loire into the Seine, though
the ground between them rife above one hundred and fifty
feet higher than either of thofe rivers.

The (luice of a canal has generally a fliding-board or
door, but fometimes foldmg or double doors moving on
hinges, ufed to flop or let go water at pleafure.

Sluice-gates fometimes fignify the lower gates of a lock,
from the paddles or fluices that are ufually fixed in them.

Sluices are made different ways, according to the ufe for
which they are intended : when they ferve for navigation,
they are (hut with two gates, prefenting an angle towards
the ftream ; when tiiey are made near the fea, two pair of
gates are made, the one to keep the water out, and the
ither in, as occafion requires. In tliis cafe, the gates to-
wards the fea prefent an angle that way, and the others the
contrary way ; and tlie fpace inclofed by thofe gates is
called the chamber. When fluices are made in the ditches
of a fortrefs, to keep up the water in fome parts, inftead of
gates, (hutters are made fo as to Aide up and down in
grooves ; and when they are made to raife an inundation,
they are then (hut by means of fquare timbers let down in
culhfes, fo as to lie clofe ar.d firm.

The word (luice is formed of the French tfclufe, which
Menage derives from the Latin exclufa, found in the Sahc
law in the fame fenfe. But this is to be redraincd to the
fluices of mills, &c.; for as to thofe fcrving to raife veffels,
they were wholly unknown to the ancients.

In Rural Economy, a fluice is very convenient in many
cafes. It ought to be itrongly framed in deep water», par-
ticularly where a great height is nccefl^ary, fo at to (land

Vol.. xxxin.

S L U

firm and immoveable againft the rufliing of heavy bodies ;
for a fmall flraiii makes it leaky, and a fmall thing will oc-
cafion this, unlefs fufficiently guarded by proper abutments.
Larch, green elm, or willow, are the boll forts of timber
to be always in water ; but heart of oak, for the purpofe of
(landing above it, in wet and dry. The importance of
fluices is extremely evident on many occafions, as when a
prefTing necelTity demands the difcharge of a great quantity
of water, either the expenfive mode of engines mu(t be re-
curred to, the bank cut, or a fluice drawn. If the bank be
cut, the paflage is interrupted, and there remain the trouble
and charge of removing the earth, and re-embanking ; but
a fluice vents the fuperfluous water, without the lead incon-
venience or charge. Their utility in many cafes of drainage
and embankment, as well as irrigation, is alfo very great
and indifpenfable.

SLUIDENAIA Kopi, in Geography, a town of Ruffia,
in the government of Irkutfk. N. lat. 52^ 42'. E. long.

«13°44'-

SLUIN, a town and fortrefs of Croatia, on the Ko-
rana ; 34 miles S. of Carliladt. N. lat. 45° 15'. E. loner.
16° 8'.

SLUIS. See Sluys.

SLUM, a town of Pruflia, in Fomerelia ; 8 miles S. of
Marienburg.

SLUPCA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 15 miles
S.S.E. of Gnefna.

SLUPECZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of San.
domirz ; 16 miles N. of Sandomirz.

SLUPICK, a town of Holland; 3 miles N.E. of
Goude.

SLUR, in Muftc, a mark like the arc of a circle, drawn
from one note to another, comprehending two or more notes
in the fame or different degrees. If the notes are in different
degrees, it fignifies that they are all to be fuiig to one fyl-
lable ; for wind inttruments, that they are to be made in one
continued breath ; and for ftringed inllruments, that are
ftruck with a bow, as a vioHn, &c. that they are made with
one (Iroke. If the notes are in the fame degree, it fignifies
that it is all one note, to be made as long as the whole notei
fo connefted ; and this happens moil frequently betwixt the
laft note of one line, and the firft of the next ; which is par-
ticularly called fyncopation.

SLUSE, Rene Frakxis, in Biography, an eminent
mathematician, was born of a noble family at Vife, a fmall
town in the bifhopric of Liege, in 1622. He was educated
for the church, and was canon of St. Lambert in that city,
was appointed abbot of Amaz, and grand chancellor and
counfellor to the bi(hop and prince ; all which offices he re-
tained with high reputation till his deatli in 1 685, in the
63d year of his age. He was a man of great learning, not
only in the particular line of his profefiion, but in jurif-
prudence, and even in medicine. He was eminently flcilled
in the Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and other Oriental lan-
guages; and on that account was employed by the pope,
during his refidence at Rome, and after his return to Liege,
in tranflating Greek, Armenian, and other writings. He
was an excellent mathematician, and furnifhed fome papers
for tlie Tranfaftions of the Royal Society, of which lie wa»
eletted a member. As an author his principal work is
entitled " Mefolabiura ct Problemata Solida," 410. In
this work M. Slufe rendered great fervicc to the mathe-
matical fciences, by fimplifying fome parts of the analyfis
of Des Cartes, wliicli had engaged the attention of many
eminent geometricians. He is author of a method, by
which any folid equation being propofed, it may be con-
ilructed in an infinite variety of ways, by means of the
X circle

S L Q

S M A

circle and any one of the conic feftions. He firft gave a
fpecimen of this method in the above work, but concealed
the analyfis till he publifhed the fecond edition of it in 1688.
An account of it is given by Montucla, in his " Hiftory of
the Mathematics." This author remarks, that Slufe's
Geometrical Mifcellanies, which appeared in this fecond
edition, do honour to the author, and afford a proof of the
great progrefs he had made in analyfis. Befides the work
here referred to, he wrote two letters on the fuperiority of
the Latin to the French language, which were tranflated
from the Latin to the French, and publifhed with the letters
of M. Le Laboureur, in wliich a contrary opinion is mam-
tained, under the title of " Avantages de la Langue Fran-
joife fur la Laiigue Latm." Slufe's Papers in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaftions are, I. " A (hort and eafy Method
of drawing Tangents to all Geomelrical Curvea," vol. vii.
2. " A Demonttration of the fame," vol. viii. 3. " On
the Optic Angle of Alhazen."

SLUSS, or Sludge, in ylgrkuhure, a word applied to
mud or mire. It is fometimes written Jlu/h.
SLUTCH. See Sluch.

SLUTER, Matthew, in Biography, a patrician of
Hamburgh, was born in that city in 1648. He iludicd
jurifprudence at Jena and Altdorf, and made a tour through
Germany and Holland. In 1673 he took the degree of
doftor at Roflock. He praftifed the law in the chancery
court of Giiftrau, and afterwards vifited France, and other
places, from which he returned in 1679. He continued his
profeffional labours in his native place, where, in 1701, he
became fyndic, and in two years afterwards a member of
the council. He died in 17 19, in the 7 2d year of his age.
Befides various works on jurifprudence, he was author of
one entitled " Sciagraphia Bibliothecx Patrum maximje,"
which was added to the " Propylxum Hiftorise Chriltianas"
of his brother Severus Walter. Sluter was a curious ob-
ferver of the weather, and wrote an illuflration of a treatife
on Meteorology, pubhflied at London in 1 690, by William
Cock of Edinburgh. In this tra£l the author endeavours
to eilablifh a connedlion between the changes of the weather
and the heavenly bodies ; and the objeA of Sluter in his
illullration and commentary was to prove the truth of his
theory from experience. The German edition of Cock's
Meteorology was publifhed at Hamburgh in 1691. Our
author likewife publilhed trafts, entitled " Caufes of the
fevere Winter and continual Storms in the Years 1694 and
1695;" ^"<5 " Indications of the Afpefts from the Years
1696 to 1703."

SLUYS, or L'EcLUSE, in Geography, a town of France,
and principal place of a diftrift, in the department of the
Efcaut. The place contains 141 5, and the canton 4479
inhabitants, on a territory of 925 kiliometres, in 6 com-
munes. This was formerly one of the beft ports on the
coaft of Flanders, and capable of conveniently receiving
500 veffels ; but it has been fo much "deteriorated, that it
can now accommodate only fmall veflels. Its ancient name
was " Lammens Vliet." It belonged to the comtes of
Nevers, but was obtained in exchange for Bethune of Wil-
liam, comte of Namur, by Philip the Hardy, duke of Bur-
gundy, who furrounded it with walls in 1385. In 1495
Philip de Cleves, lord of RaveMllein, revolted againit
Philip le Beau, and retired to Sluys, which was befieged by
Albert, duke of Saxe, and after four months it furrendcred.
The city having taken part with the Hollander-, was be-
fieged by the prince of Parma in 1587, and the Englifh
garrifon was compelled to furrender, but upon honourable
terms. Until the year 1 604 it remained in the pofllffion of
Spain ; but being befieged by prince Maurice of Naflau, it

was obliged to furrender after a defence of four months.

The town is furnilhed with fluices, by which the whole

country may be inundated ; and hence it derives its name.

After feveral changes of matters, the garrifon vvas fummoned

by tlie French republicans in July 1794; and on the Z5th

of Auguft, after a gallant defence, became prifoners of

war ; 18 miles N.E. of Ottend. N. lat. 5 1 - 20'. E. long,
go J .<_

SLYBZE. See Slebeze.

SLYME-HEAD, a cape on the well coaft of Ireland,
in that part of the county of Galway, called Ballinahmcli.
N. lat. 53° 24', according to Beaufort, but ^7,° 29', ac-
cording to Arrowfmith's late map. W. long. 10° 12'.

SLYPE, a town of France, in the department of the
Lys ; 5 miles N.N.W. of Mcnin.

SLYRET, a town of Norway, in the province of Ag-
gerhuus ; 80 miles N. of Chrilliania.

SMACK, IS a fmall vellel only rigged as a fioop, or hoy,
and ufed in the coafting or fifhing trade ; or as a tender in
the king's fervice. See Sloop.

SMALAND, or S.MOLAND, in Geography, a province
of Sweden, about 100 miles long and 60 broad, formerly
governed by its own kings ; and, for a confiderable time, in-
cluded in Eall Gothland, and fubjeft to the fame laws. It
is faid to have derived its name Smaland, i. e. fmall parcels
of land, from the circumitance of its having been overfpread
with woods and waltes, which reilridled tlie culture to a few
intervening fpots. Smaland is mountainous ; neverthelefs
fome parts are fo improved by cultivation as to be very fer-
tile, and its pailures in particular are excellent, and of
courfe profitable to the graziers. This province compre-
hends large forelts of beech and other trees ; and alfo filver,
copper, and iron mines, a great quantity of iron-ore being
found at the bottom of the lakes. A vein of gold-ore has
likewife been difcovered in Smaland. The chief employ-
ment of the inhabitants is agriculture, mining, and graziery.
The articles of trade are alfo planks, beams, malts, tar,
pot-afh, iron, grain, cattle, butter, cheefe, flefh, bacon,
tallow, hops, and fi(h. In this province are 21 lakes, and
its chief towns are Calmar, Wexio, and Jonkioping.

SMALBROKE, Richard, in Biography, an Englith
prelate, was fellow of Magdalen college, Oxford ; and in
1723 he was advanced to the bilhoprie of St. David's, fronj
whence he was tranflated, in 1730, to Lichfield and Co-
ventry. He died in 1 749. He was diilinguilhed by a
vindication of the miracles of Chriit againft Wooliton.

SMALCIUS, Valentine, a celebrated writer in fa-
vour of Unitarianifm, was born in Thuringia, and died at
Cracow, in Poland, in 1622. His principal work wa&
" A Treatife on the Divinity of Chrift," written in the
Latin language, and printed in 1608.

SMALKALDEN, in Geography, a river of Germany,
which runs into the Werra, 12 miles W. of Smalkalden.

Smalkalden, or SchmalkaUen, a large, thriving, and
populous town of Germany, in the county of Henneberg,
on a river of the fame name. In its vicinity are falt-pits,
and mines of iron and ileel. The Proteftant princes have
had feveral meetings in this town, preparatory to the league
which was concluded here in 1 53 1, and to their confirma-
tion of the theological articles drawn up by Luther, which
have given this town confiderable celebrity in ecclefiaftical
hiftory ; 27 miles N.N.E. of Schweinfurt. N. lat, 50^ 47'.
E. long. 10° 40'.

SMALL of an Anchor, is that part of the ftiank, next.
under the fquare, or anchor.

SMALL-Crfl//, in Sea-Language. See Craft.
Small Fruits, iu Gardening, a term applied to thofe
10 which

S M A

S M A

which are produced by different plants of a low fhrubby
jrrowth, as thofe of the goofeberry, currant, and rafpberry
kindi, when grown alone, and in a feparate itate. See
Standakd FruU-Trtes.

Small Key, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eait
Indian fea. N. lat. lo"' 37'. W. long. 247° 16'.

Small Oat, in /igrlculture, a name applied to a parti-
cular kind of black grain of this fort, in fome places. It

hardy, and capable of being grown with fuccefs on
,H)or land of the chalky and other kinds. Other names
are alfo given to it ; and there is a fort of oat termed the
fmall fhort, or fmall (horts, in the farmer's language. See
Oat.

Small Point, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of
Maine, forming the eaft point of Cafco bay.

Small Repeat. See Repeat.

Small Sallad Herbs, or Sallading, in Gardening, are fuch
young tender herbs as are made ule of through the year, for
the purpofe of furnifhing fallads. For this ufe, feveral young
feedling herbs of a warm nature are in requeft to mix with
the larger principal fallad herbs, as lettuces, endive, and
celerv, in order to improve their flavours and wholefome
qualities. The forts moitly in ufe are crefles, muftard, rad-
difh, rape, and turnep ; alfo fometimes cabbage-lettuce for
winter and early fpring ufe ; all of which, for this ufe, are
in perfection when quite young, that is, while not more
than a week, or ten or twelve days old, whilil they remain
moftly in the feed-leaf, being then cut up clofe to the
ground for ufe ; for, being molUy of a warm relifh, in
which confifts their chief excellence for winter and fpring
fallads, if flittered to grow large, and run into the rough
leaf, they become of a difagreeable, ftrong, hot talle ; but
when ufed as above, they are exceedingly crifp and tender,
with an agreeable v/arm flavour. For the purpofe of fal-
lading, thefe plants may be obtained young at all times
of the year, in the fpring and fummer in the open ground,
and in winter under the flielter of frames and glafles, and
occafionally on hot-beds. This fort of fallading is procured
by (owing the feeds of the different plants at different times,
throughout the whole year.

Winter and Spring Culture. — In the winter and fpring it
may be raifcd either in hot-beds, or in the open borders,
and, accordmg as it may be required, early or late ; but
when it is required as early as poflible, it mull be fown in
hot-beds, under frames and lights, &c. or in a bed or bor-
der of natural earth under glailes. The fowing fhould be
made on hot-beds any time in December, January, or
February ; and where a confiderable lupply is daily re-
quired, it may be continued fowing every week or fortnight,
in hot-beds, till March, or during the cold weather, for
which a moderate hot-bed of dung (hould be made for one,
two, or more garden-frames ; but only half a yard or two
feet depth of dung, accordmg to the temperature of the
feafon, as the heat is only required to bring up the plants
quickly, and forward them a week or two in growth, placing
a frame direftly thereon, and moulding the bed all over with
light rich earth, five or lix mches thick, making the fur-
face level and imooth : when, if it is to be forwarded as
much as poffible, dircdly fow the (eed, which may be done
either in drills as fliallow as poUible, about two or three
inches broad, and flat at the bottom, and three inches
afundcr, fowing the feeds of each fort feparately, and very
thick, fo as almolt to cover the ground, only juit covering
them with earth; or, to make the moil of the bed, it may
be fowH all over the furface, previoufly fmoothing it lightly
with the back of the fpade, the different forts leparately,
and all very thick ; and after prefling them all even and

lightly down with the fpade, covering them very thmly with
earth, by fifting over as much light mould as will only juft
cover the feed ; and as foon as the fowing is performed in
either method, putting on the lights. The feeds foon come
up, as in two or three days, or lefs, bemg careful, at this
time to give vent to the fteam arifmg in the bed, as well as
to indulge the plants with plenty of free air daily, either by
tilting the lights in the back or front, according to the tem-
perature of the weather, or by drawing the light.s a little
down, or taking them quite off occafionally in mild days at
firit ; for the hot. bed bemg yet new, there will be a con-
fiderable lleam arifing ; and the fallading coming up very
thick, unlefs due vent be given to pafs off the lleam, and
admit frefli air, the plants will be apt either to burn or fog,
(as the gardeners term it,) and mould off as fall as they
come up. Such hot-beds, however, as are not frefli made,
do not require this precaution ; but in new-made beds it
muff be ftrifilly obferved, till the fallading is all fairly come
up, and as long as the ftrong fteam continues. The plants
will molUy be iit for ufe in a week, or ten or twelve days,
from the time of fowing the feed.

But in order to have a proper fucceffion, the fowing in
the hot-beds fliould be repeated every week or fortnight
during the cold weather ; the fame hot-bed fometimes re-
taining its heat, will admit of two fowings, by fowing again
as foon as the firft crop is gathered : however, to obtain a
regular fupply daily, it is neceflary to continue making frefli
hot-beds occafionally. Where only a fmall quantity may
be wanted at a time, and there is the convenience either ot
cucumber and melon hot-beds, or a hot-houfe, &c. fome
feed of each fort may be fown in pots or boxes, and placed
in thefe hot-beds, or the ftove, juft to bring up the plants
fit for ufe. And where there are not frames and glaffcs,
hand or bcll-glaffes may be ufed, or the bed be arched over
with low hoop-arches, in order to cover it with mats every
night, and in bad weather.

Where, however, there are no hot-beds, in cold weather,
early in the fpring, part of a warm border, or a bed of light
earth in a funny fituation, may be prepared for garden-frames
and lights, hand-glades, &c. raifing the ground fomewhat
to the fun ; and having dug it, and raked it fine, fow the
feed as above, covering it lightly with earth ; and having
fet on the frames and glafles, the feeds will foon come up,
and the fallading be ready a confiderable time fooner than in
the open ground.

Culture in the full Ground. — From about the end of
February, or beginning of March, according to the for-
wardnefs or mildnefs of the feafon, fmall fallading may be
fown in the open ground, repeating the fowings every week
or ten days ; the firft fowing being performed on a warm
border ; continuing the fowings in that fituation till the be-
ginning or middle of April, when it may be fown in any of
the open quarters, and in which the fowings may be re-
peated weekly, or once a fortnight, a.s required ; but ac-
cording as the hot weather approaches, fowing in a lome-
what ihady fituation. The ground for each fowing in tlw
dift'erent fituations fliould be properly dug, and the lurface
raked imeoth and even.

Thefe fowings are moilly made in fliallow drills, which
fliould be drawn with a fmall hoe, either with the corner, or
held edgeways downward, horizontally, drawing the drills
along evenly, as fliallow as poffible, and flat or level at bot-
torn, at three or four inches afunder, in which the feeds
fliould be put evenly all along the bottom, each fort fepa-
rately, and very thick, covering them in evenly with the
fined of the mould, not more than a quarter of an inch deep ;
or if the fmaller feeds are but juft covered, it is fufficient ;
X 2 fo'

S M A

S M A

for when fown very thick, if deeply covered with mould,
the plants do not rife regularly. In thefe early fpring fow-
ings, on cold nights, and in all bad weather, it is proper to
cover the ground, both before and after the plants begin to
rife, with large mats ; which will be better, if fupported on
low hoop-arches, or ranges of pegs (luck in the ground juft
high enough to fupport the mats a little from the earth, by
which a more effedlual as well as forward crop is pro-
duced.

But in the latter fowings, when dry warm weather com-
mences, it is proper to give occafional waterings. It is
likewife fometimes necellary, where the furface of the ground
becomes crulted from wet, &c. as the plants rife thick, to
flightly bru(h over the furface with the hand or a foft broom,
fo as to reduce the furface mould a little, and promote their
coming up.

Summer Sowings. — When the fowings are praftifed in
fummer, they (hould be made more frequently, and the
ground be kept watered occafionally, both before and after
the plants are come up.

jiutumn Sewings. — The fowings may be continued in the
open ground all September and Oftober, alfo occafionally
in November, in mild feafons ; and until towards the middle
of Oftober, they may be made in any open fituations ; but
from the middle or latter end of Oftober, and in November,
they muft be on warm fouth borders, performing the fow-
ings as above ; and in cold nights, bellowing a covering of
mats or hand-glafles, &c. repeating the fowings every week
or ten days, or a fortnight, as required.

In gathering young fallading, it (hould be cut carefully
clofe to the ground, while quite young ; in performing
which, a large pair of fciflbrs is very convenient.

In order to have good feed, fome plants Ihould be pre-
ferved annually for the purpofe.

Small Stones, among Jewellers, denote diamonds under
the weight of a carat.

SMALL-lFori, is ufed to denote the ftar and (hell-facets
of diamonds.

SMALL AGE, in Botany, a fpecies of aplum ; which
fee.

SmaUage grows naturally by the fides of ditches, in many
parts of England, and is therefore rarely cultivated in gar-
dens : it is biennial, and flowers in Augutl. Care fliould
be taken to diftinguifli fmallage from the poifonous water-
hemlock, which grows naturally in the fame places with it :
the latter has its leaves deeply divided, quite to the pedicle,
into three long narrow ftiarp-pointed fegments ; whereas
thofe of fmallage are only flightly cut into three roundifh
obtufe ones.

The root is that part which was formerly ufed in medi-
cine : it is about the thicknefs of a thumb, whitilh, fibrous,
of a warm tade, and a fragrant fmell ; and was reckoned
one of the five greater openers of the (hops. It was reputed
to be grateful and detergent, to promote urine, and to dif-
lodge gravel ; and it was alfo recommended in diforders of
the breaft, and for promoting expedloration.

The fre(h roots, efpecially when produced in their native
watery places, are fuppofed to participate, in fome degree,
of the ill quality of thofe of the hemlock kind, and to
be particularly hurtful to epileptic perfons and pregnant
women.

Its feed was alfo of the number of the letter hot feeds,
and was thought to poffefs greater virtues as a carminative
and aperient than the root ; its leaves having been given in
decoAion, or the exprelTed juice of them in nephritic com-
plaints. The root was greatly recommended againft fup-
preflions of the raenfes, and of the lochia, and was even

faid to be alone a remedy for the king's evil ; but thi»
wants proof.

Smallage is now wholly exploded from the materia
medica.

SMALL-POX, in Medicine, the Variola of authors, a
highly contagious and formidable eruptive fever, which oc-
curs in general but once during the life of any individual,
and is diftinguilhed by the appearance of puilules on the
(kin, on the third or fourth day of the fever.

As we have already entered into a brief detail of the littie
that is known relpefting the origin and early propagation of
fmall-pox, (fee Inoculation,) it may be fufficitnt to men
tion in this place, that it is generally believed that this con-
tagious malady exilted in China and Hindoollan, perhaps for
fome centuries previous to its appearance in Europe ; but
that there are no very authentic records of its travelling to
the welt, until the period of the fiege of Mecca by the Abyf-
finians, in the year 572, when it deilroyed the invading army.
Alexandria being at that time the great mart of Indian com-
merce, was foon infcfted with the contagion, and the firll
defcription of the difeafe was given by Ahron, a phyfician of
that city, in the beginning of the following century. From
that time it accompanied the Arabs or Saracens in their pro-
grelTive expeditions, and Europe was contaminated by their
invafions of Spain, Sicily, Italy, and France in the eighth
century. Previous to this period, it is generally believed
that this deftruftive peililence was unknown in Europe.
This is principally inferred from the filence of all the ancient
phyficians, Greeks and Romans, who have left us accurate
defcriptions of many of the difeaies, with which we are now
familiar, but who have not defcribed the llriking and pecuhar
fymptoms which charafterize this feverc and often fatal
malady. Some authors, however, and not without a (how
of probability, have maintained that fuch an inference is not
flridlly deducible from this circumllance. For the ancients
were apt to confound every Ipecies of fatal fever under the
term pejlilence, and were milled, by their hypothetical doc-
trines about the four humours, to make no diftinflions from
a view of the fymptoms. Some of the ancient plagues, and
particuLirly that of Athens, defcribed by Thucydides, were
raanifeltly not the plague properly fo called, but were con-
nefted with extenfive fores and eruptions on the (kin. (See
Plague.) It has been urged, too, that in a fragment of
the works of one Herodotus of Rome, preferved by Aetius,
there is a defcription of various fevers, accompanied bv
eruptions, in which the fmall-pox appears to be diftin£lly
included. It is remarkable, too, that the firlt Arabian phy-
ficians, even Ahron of Alexandria, do not mention the dif-
eafe as a new malady, but fpeak of it as one familiarly known ;
and Rhazes refers to Galen, as hi.ving mentioned many of
its fymptoms. _ The evidence in fupport of this opinion
is certainly very imperfed, and fcarcely fufRcient to build a
controverfy upon ; nor is it of any farther importance than
as an objedl of curious inquiry.

.^11 that relates to the hillory and praftice of inoculation
(which, indeed, (hould now be fuperfeded by vaccination)
has been alfo detailed in the article already referred to. At
prefent, therefore, our objeft is to give only the medical
hiftory of fmall-pox, as it occurs in the cafual, or, as it is often
called, the natural way ; defcribing, firll, its fymptoms, with
the prognollics, and various tendencies of the difeafe, and
afterwards the bell methods of treatment.

The term variola, which ii of modern origin, is fuppofed to
be derived from vari, which are fmall inflamed tumours of
the face, occurring about the period of puberty, and noticed
firft by Celfus under that appellation. The words pod,
pods, and pox, from the Anglo-Saxon pocca, fignifying a

pouch.

SMALL-POX.

pouch or pocket, and applicable to any puttule or puftular
difeafe, were appropriated early to this formidable malady ;
and the epithet yma// was fubfequently added to dillinguifh
it from a Itill more recent difeafe, the lues venerea, to which
the fame appellation was applied.

Several varieties of the fmall-pox have been noticed by
different writers, but they may be all included under the two
principal forms, which were fo ably pointed out by Syden-
ham, and which fince his time have been commonly recog-
nized under the appellations of the diJlinB and the conjluent
fmall-pox. Although originating from the fame contagion,
and not differing from each other effentially, they exhibit a
different feries of fymptoms, purfue a fomewhat different
courfe, and require a different mode of treatment, and there-
fore it is convenient to treat of them feparately.

I. Of the Dift'ma Small-Pox :—VartoU Difcrette.—ln this
form of the difeafe, the eruptive fever is moderate, and not
eafily dillinguifhcd from an ordinary attack of common in-
flammatory fever. It generally begins about mid-day, with
a chillinefs and Ihivering, accompanied by a confiderable lan-
guor and drowfinefs, which are foon followed by a great
heat, pains in the head and back, ficknefs at the (tomach,
with a forenefs or preflure in that part, and in adults, efpe-
cially if they are kept in bed, with a great difpofition to
perfpiration. In children the iweating does not occur ; but
they are liable to frequent ftartings from their flumbers, and
on the third day are fometimes affefted with one or two fits
ofconvulfion. Sydenham confidered this fymptom as rather
favourable ; having obferved that it was commonly fuc-
ceeded by an eruption of a large and mild fmall-pox. On
the evening of the third, or the morning of the fourth day,
the eruption appears, and gradually incrcafes during the
fourth and fifth days, arifing firil on tiie face, and fucceflively
on the inferior parts, fo as to be completed over the whole
body on the lall-mentioned day. With the appearance of
the eruption, the febrile fymptoms abate, and nearly or alto-
gether ceafe on the following day, with the completion of
the eruption. This appears firft in fmall red fpots, fcarcely
eminent, but wliich, by degrees, riie into minute pimples,
which are feparate and di'linft from each other, and gene-
rally not very numerous. The day after their appearance,
a fmall veficle, containing a clear or flightly whey-coloured
fluid, fhews itfelf on each of the fpots. For two days thefe
veficles increafe in breadth only, and tliere is a fmall depref-
fion in their centre. As they extend, they continue to be
furrounded with an exaftly circular inflamed margin, which,
when the pullules are numerous, covers the greater part of
the intervening fkin, and diffufes fomewhat of a damaflc hue
over the fpaces between the puflulcs. Under the touch they
are hard, and rather painful, and give the imprefiion of fmall
round Iceds under the cuticle to the finger ; a circumflance
which tends to di(lingui(h them from the veficles of chicken-
pox, which feel like fmall feeds flattened by prellure.

About the eighth day, the eruption is elevated into fphe-
roidal puftules; andif thefe are numerous, the incrcafcof their
fize and the fuUntfs of the furrounding parts occafioii a con-
fiderable fwelling of the whole face, and efpecially of the eye-
lids, which are fo dillendcd as entirely to clofc the eyes, and
often fhinc hke an inflated bladder. Sometimes, where nume-
rous pultules fix upon the eye-lids, the blindnefs comes on be-
fore the eighth day. The eruption now aflumes a whiter ap-
pearance; for, as the difeafe proceeds, the matter in t lie puftules
becomes by degrees more opaque, and at length, as the fuppu-
ration increafes, of a yellovvifli colour. A fimilar progrefs is
obferved in the hands, but a little later ; lo that when the face
is becoming rough and yellow, the extremities are becoming
fmoother and whiter. On the eleventh day the Iwelling of

the face is much abated, and the inflammation diminiftied :
the puftules are now at their height, and fecm quite full.
On the top of each a darker fpot appears ; and at tliis place
the puftule, on the eleventh day or foon after, is fpontancoufiy
broken, and a portion of the matter oozes out ; in confe-
quence of which the puftule is (hnvelled and fubfides, while
the matter oozing out dries, and forma a cruft upon its fur-
face. Sore^etimes very little of the matter oozes out, but
remains in the puftule, becoming tluck, and even forming a
hard little fcab. After foine days, generally about the four-
teenth or fifteenth, both the crufts and the hardened puftules
fall off, leaving the (Icin on the points which they covered of
a brown red colour ; and it is only after many days that
thefe red marks are effaced. The diftinft fmall-pox feldom
leaves any pits in the flvin ; but in fome cafes, where the
matter of the puftules has been more liquid, the crufts formed
by it are later in falling off, and the points which they
covered undergo fome degree of ulceration, which partially
deftroys the fubftance of the fkin, and produces a fmall ex-
cavation or pit. Sydenham and CuUen afcribe this erro-
neoufly to the defquamation which enfues.

As the eruption is fucceffive, fo the maturation on the
body and extremities follows the fame courfe as above de-
fcribed, but a little later. On the tenth and eleventh days,
as the fwelling of the face fubfides, a fwelling arifes in the
hands and feet, which again fubfides, as the puftules come to
maturity. In the puftules of the hands and arms, indeed,
the matter is frequently abfoibed ; fo that at the height of
the difeafe, thefe puftules appear as empty veficles.

When the puftules on the face are numerous, fome degree
of feverilhnefs appears on the tenth and eleventh days, but
it ceafes again after the puftules are fully maturated, or con-
tinues only in a very flight degree till the laft puftules on the
feet have finifhed their courfe. In the diftindl fmall-pox
this fecondary fever is never confiderable, and feldom con-
tinues longer than the period juft mentioned. Under the
fame circumftances, an abundant crop of puftules on the
face, fome uneafinefs in the throat, and a hoarfenefs of voice,
occur about the fixth or feventh day, and a tliin fluid is
poured out from the mouth. Thefe fymptoms increafe with
the fwelhng of the face ; and the difchargcs from the mouth
and throat becoming thicker and more vifcid, are more dif-
ficultly ejected. Some difficulty of fwallowing alfo oc-
curs ; fo that liquids taken in to be fwallowed are fre-
quently rejefted, or thrown out by the nofe. But all thefe
affedtions of the fauces abate as the fwelling of the face
fubfides.

Some varieties of the diftinft fmall-pox have been defcribed
by different authors under fpccific appellations, fuch as the
contiguous, X.\k coherent, X.\\e luarty, &c. fmall-pox (fee Walk-
er's Inquiry into the Small-pox, chap. viii. and Roe's Trea-
tife on the Natural Small-pox, chap. i. ) ; but thefe are merely
more violent degrees of the difeafe, p.irtaking more or lefs
of thecharafterof the confluent fpecies, and requiiing to be
treated accordingly.

2. Of the Confluent Small-pox. — This form of the fmall-pox
follows a fimilar courfe with the preceding fpecies, but the
fymptoms of every ftage are more violent, and feveral of the
circumftances are alfo different. Tlie eruptive fever elpecially
is much more violent ; the pulfe is more frequent, (harp,
and contrafted ; the liead-ache, and the pain and anxiety at
the pra:cordia, the ficknefs and vomiting, arc more fevere ;
the coma is more confiderable, and there is frequently a de-
lirium. In adults tiiere is lefs dilpofition to perfpiration
than in the other fpecies, and fometimes a diarrhoea occurs ;
and in children epileptic fits are frequent on the firll days
of tlie difeafe, and fometimes prove fatal before any eruption

appears,.

SMALL. POX.

appears, or they uflier in a very confluent and malignant
fmall-pox.

The eruption appears more early than in the benign fmall-
pox ; commonly early on the third day, or on the evening
of the fecond, and fcarcely ever fo late as the fourth day ;
except, as Sydenham remarks, in a few rare cafes, where it
appears to be delayed by fome violent fymptom, fuch as an
acute pleuritic or rheumatic pain, or a violent pain in the
ftomach, with ficknefs and vomiting, which manifeftly indi-
cate the confluent and dangerous nature of the forthcoming
difeafe. The eruption too is often preceded by an extenfive
erythematous efllorefcence, like a commencing eryfipelas ;
and fometimes it comes out in little irregular clufters, like
the meafles, confifting of many crowded red points or pim-
ples. The pimples are always mofl: numerous on the face,
and at the fame time fmaller and lefs eminent. The little
veficles which form on the tops of the pimples, appear
fooner than in the diftinft fpecies, and while their diameters
extend, they do not retain a circular form, but are of very irre-
gular figures. Many of them run into one another, forming
a flat irregular furface, fo that the face very often appears
to be covered rather with one extended veficle, than with a
number of puilules. And when there is any diftinft fepara-
tion of the puftules, they do not rife to a fpheroidal form,
but remain flat, and their circumference is not bounded by
an inflamed margin, the part of the flcin that is free from
puftules being commonly pale and flaccid, and not exhibit-
ing the damafl< hue of the diltinft fmall-pox. The fluid in-
cluded within the puftules changes about the eighth day
from a clear to an opaque appearance, being firft whitifh
and now brownifli, but never acquires the yellow colour and
thick confiftence that appear in the mild fpecies.

In the confluent fmall-pox, the fwelling of the face, which
is fometimes abfent from the diftinft fpecies, but is generally
prefent when the puftules are numerous, never fails to ap-
pear, and it comes on more early, and arifes to a greater de-
gree, fometimes annihilating every appearance of the features.
It abates, hovi'ever, on the tenth day, and on the eleventh
ftill more. At this time the puftules or veficles, or rather
the extended pellicle, which from the eighth day had
become rough and brown, is ruptured ; and, fhrivelling,
pours out a fluid, which concretes into brown or black
crufts, which do not fall oft^ for many days, even till after
the twentieth day ; and, in confequence of the ulceration
which takes place under them, pretty certainly leave the
furface of the face confiderably pitted. On the other parts
of the body, and on the extremities, efpecially the hands
and feet, ftill more than on the trunk, the puftules of con-
fluent fmall-pox are larger and more diftinft than upon the
face ; but they never acquire the fame maturity and confift-
ence of pus as in the properly diftinft kind.

The confluent fmall-pox is attended by two other fymp-
toms of confiderable importance, the one in adults, the other
in children. The former is falivation, or exceflive fecretion
of faliva, which never fails to accompany the confluent form
of the difeafe in grown perfons, and is fometimes feen in
a flight degree in the diftinft kind. It fometimes begins as
foon as the eruptions appear ; and fometimes not till a day
or two after. The faliva is for fome time thin and copious,
and eafily difcharged, having very much the appearance of
the ptyahlm excited by mercury, except that it does not
fmell fo offenfively ; but about the eleventh day it becomes
thick and more vifcid, and is expeftorated with great diffi-
culty. The patient is very thirfty, and coughs while he
attempts to drink, expelling the liquor through his noftrils.
The affeftion of the throat is alfo generally aggravated at
the fame time. The falivation often ceafes after the eleventh

day, about which time the hands commonly fwell (or at
leaft, Sydenham fays, eught to do fo) ; but fometimes, after
a complete ceffation for a day or two, it returns again.

In children, a diarrhoea occurs frequently in the place of
the falivation ; but it does not feize them fo early as the
falivation attacks grown perfons. Whenever it begins, how-
ever, unlefs it be checked by art, it attends the difeafe to
its termination.

In the diftinft fmall-pox, as we have already ftated, the
fever commonly ceafes with the completion of the eruption
on the fifth day ; but it is not fo in the confluent fpecies.
In the latter, the febrile fymptoms only fuffer a remiffion at
the time of the eruption, which continues to the period of
complete maturation, that is, to the eleventh day, in the
latter part of which day it is often renewed with confider-
able violence, conllituting what has been called the fecondary
fei)er, which is the fource of much danger, and is of vari-
ous duration. The pulfe quickens, the heat of the body
increafes greatly, much thirft, with great anxiety and reft-
leftnefs, fevere head-ache, ftiort and confufed flumbers, de-
lirium, and fom.etimes coma, enfue. Tliefe fymptoms, in-
deed, are often fo fudden and violent, being accompanied
alfo with fuppreflion of the falivation, and a difficulty of
breathing and of deglutition, that, if nothing has been done
to alleviate the early inflammator)' aftion, death foon fol-
lows. Whence Sydenham fpeaks fo often about the dan-
ger of the eleventh day. In other cafes, however, this
fever is protrafted to the fourteenth and feventeenth days,
and fometimes even later, and yet terminates fatally. In
fome inftances, thefe fevere forms of confluent fmall-pox are
accompanied by fymptoms of great malignancy or putref-
cency, as it has been called : purple fpots, or petechia, ap-
pear in the interftices of the fl<in between the puftules ; and
fometimes fmall black fpots, fcarcely fo large as pins' heads,
arife on the top of the eruptions in different places : or a
difpofition to gangrene under ferous veficles ftiews itfelf :
or laftly, various fpontancous haemorrhages take place from
the internal parts, as from the kidneys and bladder, whence
bloody urine is difcharged ; or from the lungs, in bloody
expeftoration ; and fometimes from the inteftines, in bloody
ftools.

From a confideration of the preceding detail of the various
circumltances which accompany the different forms and itages
of the fmall-pox, the degree of danger under the various
fymptoms, and the probable event in particular cafes, may
be eilimated. The following points of prognofis will be
obvioufly inferred. In general, the more exaftly the dif-
eafe retains the form of the diltinft kind, it is the fafer ;
and the more it approaches or takes the form of the con-
fluent kind, it is the more dangerous. It is only, indeed,
when the diftinft kind exhibits a great number of puilules
in the face, which are contiguous or coherent, that it is
attended with any danger : for it muft be obferved, that it
is chiefly from the crowd of puftules on the face, and not
from thofe on the body, that the danger of the difeafe is
to be apprehended. Particular fymptoms will enable us to
anticipate particular occurrences. Thus, if the previous
or eruptive fever be very violent in its attack, and be ac-
companied with great proftration of ftrength, anxiety, and
lownefs of fpirits, with fevere head-ache, weeping and red-
nefs of the eyes, great pains in the back, a burning heat
of fliin, and a quick hard pulfe ; — the occurrence of a con-
fluent eruptien may be expefted. The more early the
eruption, the more danger is to be anticipated ; but a re-
tardation of the eruption beyond the fourth day, alfo im-
phes a probability of a confluent difeafe. The more gra-
dual the eruption of the puftules, the more favourable ; pro-
vided

SMALL-POX.

vided the time of their rifing be not protrafted beyond the
ufual hmits by diarrhoea, pain, or deprefling paflions. The
more diltinftly fuppuration takes place about the eighth
day, and the more rofy the interftices around the puftules,
the lefs danger is to be apprehended. A fudden ceflation
of the fwelling of the face about the eleventh day, and the
non-appearance of that fweUing about the eighth day,
when the puftules are very numerous, are indicative of great
danger ; as are alfo a fudden fuppreffion of the falivation
in adults, and of the diarrhoea in children, at the former
period ; efpecially if the hands and feet liave not exhibited
any ftt-elling about that time. If, in the diftinft fraall-pox,
convulfions occur m children after the eruption is come out,
ar after incruftation has taken place, death commonly en-
fues ; or, if the patient furvives, a paralyfis of fome of the
limbs often remains. The difcharge of pale and clear urine,
with frequent urging to pafs it, in any period of the dif-
cafe, denotes great danger.

On the other hand, regular gentle fweats, and a free dif-
charge of urine, which depofits a fediment, are favourable
fymptoms in every fpecies of fmall-pox. If, in the turn of
the confluent fmall-pox, the puftules, which were before
pale and flat, fhould acquire a rednefs or damafli-rofe colour
round their bafes, and fuppuration come on, the patient
generally recovers.

When the fmall-pox attacks women in a llate of preg-
nancy, it is attended with confiderable danger, and com-
monly produces mifcarriage or premature labour. It has
been a qucflion among pathologills, whether the conneftion
between the child in the womb and the mother was (uch as
to admit of the infeftion of the former with the fmall-pox
under thefe circumllances. Whatever hypothetical differ-
ences might exift upon this topic, experience has proved
that fuch infeftion often takes place in the fcetus in utrro,
though not invariably. It would appear, too, that the
;'hild is not afFeited at the fame moment with the mother,
but foon afterwards by fubfequent infeiftion. For, in a cafe
related by Dr. Laird, a woman in tlie fifth month of her
pregnancy paffed through a fevere fmall-pox, which com-
menced about the end of Auguil : flie felt the motion of
the child till the month of Oftober, on the 28tb of which
month (he was delivered of a child, which was thought to
be of fix months' growth, and wiiich had been dead fome
days. " On the back, fhoujders, and fide, and particularly
about the upper part of the thighs, v;here the integuments
were perfeftly found, there were feveral puilular elevations,
with central depreflions, ftrikingly charafterillic of the ap-
pearances which dillinguifh fmall-pox. The fcetus was placed
1 the mufeum of Guy's Hofpital, and Itill diftinftly ex-
ihits the charafters of the eruption." See Edinburgh
Med. and Surg. .Journal, for April, 1807.

A IliU more extraordinary circumftaiice, in refpeft to the
infeftion of the child in the womb, occafionally occurs ;
namely, the produftion of fmall-pox in the child, in confe-
quence of the mother's expofure to the contagion, although
the latter may have been prevented from iuffering the dif-
•■afe herfelf, by liavirg previoufly undergone tliat difeafe, or
the cow-pox, and therefore efcapes the influence of the in-
ieftioii. Dr. Jenner relates the following cafe, which came
under his obfervation, in the inltance of a lady in London.
" A few days previous to her contincment, (he met a very
difgufting object, whofe face was covered witii the fmall-
pox. The fmell and appearance of the poor creature af-
feftcd her much at the time ; and though flie mentioned the
circumllance on her return home, (he had no idea that her
infant could fufler from it, having had the fmall-pox her-
lelf when a child. During a few days after its birth the

little one feemed quite well ; but on the fifth day it became
indifpofed, and on the feventh the fmall-pox appeared. The
puftules, which were few in number, maturated completely.
Dr. Croft, who attended her, being curious to know the
effeft of inoculation from one of the puftules, put fome of
the matter into the hands of a gentleman eminently verfed
in that praftice, which produced the difeafe correftly.
Mrs. W. was not fenfible of any indifpofition herfelf from
this expofure, nor had (he any appearance of the fmall-
pox." Another cafe is mentioned by Dr. Jenner, in which
the child in utero was infefted with fmall-pox contagion,
and born with the eruption upon it, five weeks after the
mother had been vaccinated, and 2 month after (he had been
expofed to the contagion of fmall-pox from three of her
children. Whence, as Dr. .Jenner juftly infers, it is ob-
vious, " that the fmall-pox virus may affeft the human
frame, even to its inmoll receffes, although apparently
fecured from its effects, and yet give no evidence of its
prefence by exciting any perceptible diforder." (See Me-
dico-Chirurgical Tranfaftions, vol. i. p. 272. Alfo, Van
Swieten, Comment, ad Aphor. 138 1 ; and Dr. Mead's
Difcourfe on Small-pox, chap, iv.) Dr. Mead ftates the
following analogous faft. " A certain woman, who had
formerly had the fmall-pox, and was now near her reckon-
ing, attended her hulband in the diftemper. She went her
full time, and was delivered of a dead child. It may be
needlefs to obferve, that (he did not catch it on this oc-
cafion ; but the dead body of the infant was a horrid fight,
being all over covered with the puftules ; a manifeft fign
that it died of the difeafe before it came into the world."

Though the confluent fmall-pox (hould not be imme-
diately fatal, yet the more violent kinds are often followed
by a morbid ftate of the body, under which various dif-
agreeable and dangerous complaints arife. Whether thefe
confequences may be afcribed, with Dr. CuUen, fometimes
to an acrid matter, generated by the preceding difeafe, and
depofited in difterent parts, and fometimes to an inflamma-
tory diathefis produced, and determined to particular or-
gans of the body, is a theoretical inquiry, which we are
not difpofed to puzzle ourfelves and our readers by purfuing.
It is manifeft, in general, that the conftitiition is often left
in a ftate of great debility ; does not thrive under the ordi-
nary nutrition ; and in many cafes exhibits a great tendency
to fcrofulous inflammation, cipecially of the glandular fyf-
tem, to chronic derangements of the lungs, mefentery, and
other vifcera, and to various local affcdions of the (]<in,
membranes, and bones. Another feries of evils, which the
confluent fmall-pox is hablc to inflift, is the various degrees
of injury and deftrudiion which it occafions in the organs of
fenfe, efpecially in the eyes and ears. Deafnefs of one or
both ears, and the lofs of fight in one or both eyes, is no
uncommon refult of this formidable malady. It appears
indeed, from the records of the humane " Inftitution for
the indigent Blind," that a very large proportion of all that
claim its protection have been blinded by the fmall-pox.

Caufts of Sninll-pox, and of its Furitties.— The only ex-
citing caufe of fmall-pox is the ipcci(ic contagion, generated
in the puftules of the difeafe itfelf. In what manner, or at
what period of time, this gre.-'.t depopulator of the human
race was generated, or what phyfical circumllances con-
curred to give it cxiftcnce, hillory affords us no means of
afcertaining" The abfurd fpcculations of the Arabian phy-
ficians, refpefting the origin of the difeafe from fome con-
tamination of the fcKtus with the mcnftrual impurities of the
mother, deferve no notice. The obvious origin of a dif-
eafe, (fo analogous to fmall-pox, as to fuperfcde the in-
fluence of its contagion on man, ) from a difeafe of the Ikin

of

SMALL-POX.

of the heels of a horfe, of which the cow-pox has recently
afforded an example, has led fome fpeculators to the more
probable conjeaure, that the poifon of fmall.pox may have
been communicated to the human from fome domellicated
animal. The camel has been fuggefted : but it was for-
gotten, that, though Arabia was the country from which
Europe probably received the contagion ; yet that that
country appears to have received it from the moft eaftern
nations, by its early commerce, among whom it had pre-
vioufly exifted from remote antiquity. (See Moore's in-
tereftmg " Hiitory of the Small-pox," 1815.) At pre-
fenl we can only attend to the operation of this contagion,
and inveftigate its qualities from the eifedls which it pro-
duces.

It is evident, that the contagion of fmall-pox is capable
of being communicated, and of exciting the difeafe in others,
both b^ the aftual contaft of the fluid of the pultules, and
the dried cruHs, and by difFufion in a ftate of folution in
the atmofpheric air. It may be alfo fixed and adherent
to various fubftances, fuch as woollen, hnen, cotton, and
other materials of clothing, as well as to wood, and other
articles of furniture ; from which alfo it may exhale in a
itate of vapour. Whence a perfon may be infcfted, with-
out aftual contaft either of the difeafed, or of fom'ites, that
is, of infefted fubftances. We have already ftated, how-
ever, at great length, under the article Contagion, (which
fee,) the proofs and experiments by which it is rendered
manifelt, that the influence of this, and probably of moft
other contagions, by diffufion m the atmofphere, is limited
to a very fmall diftance from the fource of infeftion. We
refer efpecially to the experiments of Dr. O'Ryan, of Mont-
pellier, upon that fubjeft, which are related in the article
jult referred to. See alfo Dr. Haygarth's Plan for the
Extermination of Small-pox in Great Britain.

One property of the contagion of fmall-pox, which it
poii'effes in common with tlie contairion of meafles, fcarlet
fever, and chicken-pox, but which does not belong to the
contagion of gaol-fever, or typhus, nor to that of the plague,
nor to the chronic contagious maladies, fyphilis, and fca-
bies, is its power of afEefting the conftitution but once during
the life of the individual. The occurrence of the difeafe,
under the mildeft or the moft fevere form, equally renders
the body incapable of receiving the difeafe again. This is
the general fa6t ; but in regard to none of thefe eruptive
fevers can it be affirmed, without many exceptions : and
the fmall-pox prefents many anomalies in this refpeft. The
extreme rarity of a fecond attack of fmall-pox was no-
ticed by the Arabian writers ; and their admidion of fuch
a faft would fcarcely be admitted as a proof of its occur-
rence, fince they deemed the fmall-pox and meafles to be
but varieties of the fame difeafe. They attempted to explain
the occafional recurrence of the difeafe upon their abfurd
theory of its origin, fuppofing that the whole of the men-
ftrual blood, which contaminates the child, is not thoroughly
depurated and expelled by the firft attack. Even Boer-
haave feems to have believed, that the di/lina fmall-pox
did not invariably fecure the individual from a fubfequent
attack of the confuent form ; though the latter eft'eftually
prevented a recurrence. (See his Praxis Medica, § 1381.)
This, however, is not confiftcnt with faft : for fome of the
moft formidable and even fatal attacks of yiYow^/ fmall-pox
have occurred in perfons previoufly much pitted and dif-
figured by the difeafe. It will not be neceflary to enter,
in this place, into a very minute detail of the cafes of fecon-
dary fmall-pox : it will be fufhcient to ftate the fad, and
to refer to fome of the authorities on the fubjeft of recent
4ate, fince the diftindlions between chicken-pox, and the

modifications of Imall-pox, have been fully eftablifhed.
The celebrated Dr. De Haen has related feveral very clear
inftances of fecond fmall-pox, which occurred in his own
praftice. One young man, a ftudent of law, received the
contagion twice within three years ; the firft attack left
him pitted, and the fecond proved fatal. ( See his Ratio
Medendi, p. ix. ch. 7 : alfo his Epift. Apolog. Refponf.
ad B. L. Tralles. ) One of the moft ftriking cafes of this
fort, is that of Mr. Langford, whole countenance was
" remarkably pitted and feamed" by a former malignant
fmall-pox, " fo as to attraft the notice of all who faw
him :" yet at the age of fifty, he was attacked again with
confluent fmall-pox, which proved fatal to him, and to an-
other member of his family, five of whom received the in-
feftion from him. (See Memoirs of the Medical Society
of London, vol. iv. ) A cafe of diftinft recurrence of
fmall-pox is related by Dr. Laird, in the Edinburgh Jour-
nal, already referred to ; another by Dr. Bateman, in the
Medico-Chirurgical Tranfaftions, vol. ii. p. 31 ; and Mr.
Ring has eoUefted a great number, to the amount of fixty
or feventy, in his Tieatife on Cow-pox, and in various
numbers of the London Medical and Phyfical Journal,
efpecially in volumes 12, 14, and 15. We may add, that
the recurrence of meafles, in feveral cafes, has been lately
authenticated, by the firft medical authority now living,
(we mean by Dr. BaiUie,) in a paper pubhihed in the third
volume of the Tranfaftions of a Society for the Improve-
ment of Medical and Chirurgical Knowledge. The fcarlet
fever appears to be alfo fubjeft to the fame anomalies occa-
fionally. The exceptions, however, are rare in all thefe
eruptive fevers, and the general rule will ftill hold good.
Yet the confiderations of thefe exceptions flionld remove
our furprife, that the cow-pox fliould not invariably fecure
the conftitution from a fubfequent feizure by the fmall-pox ;
fince its influer.ce on the fyftem is commonly lefs confider-
able, than that of the mildeft diftinft fmall-pox. We be-
lieve, however, that the fmall-pox, which, under the excep-
tions, has been occafionally feen to follow the cow-pox, has
always been much mitigated by the prior operation of the
vaccine virus, both in the violence and duration of the
fymptoms, and that it has never, in thefe cafes, terminated
fatally.

It appears, from the preceding hiftory of the fymptoms,
that the fafety and danger of the fmall-pox depends almoft
entirely upon the fmaller or larger number of the pultules : ,
it becomes very important, therefore, both with a view to
the prevention and to the treatment of the difeafe, to in-
veftigate the origin of this difference in the eruption, and
in the fymptoms which accompany it.

From the difference in the appearance, confiftence, colour, ;
&c. of the matter produced, as well as in the number and
form of the puftules, and from the various degrees of fever,
and other fymptoms, whicli accompany the different fpecies
of fmall-pox, it might be readily fufpefted, that the con-
tagion itfelf was different. Experience, however, has com-
pletely refuted this fuppofition : for there are innumerable
inftances of the contagion, arifing from a perfon affefted
with the mild and diftinft fmall-pox, producing the con-
fluent kind in others ; and, on the other hand, it is ex-
tremely common to fee the diftinft kind produced by ex-
pofure to the contagion arifing from a perfon affefted with
the worft confluent fmall-pox. The praftice of inoculation
has ftill farther dcmonftrated this fact. For the fame
matter was not unfrequently obferved to produce in one
perfon the diftinft, and in another the confluent fmall-pox.
And in order that no time fliould be unneceffarily loft,
where perfons have been in the moft imminent danger from

complete

SMALL-POX.

complete expofure to the contagion, inoculation has been
immediately performed from a confluent fubjedl ; yet the
fubfequeiit difeafe has been diftinft and mild. We re-
member to have heard Dr. Gregory, the able profeflbr of
the praftice of phyfic at Edinburgh, alTert, in his ledlures,
that he had once taken matter from the confluent fmall-
pox of a dying child, with which he inoculated two of its
brothers : they had both a very mild difeafe : one of them,
however, had previoufly taken the cafual infeftion, for he
iickened in three days from the time of inoculation. In-
deed we could (late other faCls, from the fame authority,
to prove that matter, taken from the puHules of the dead
body, has produced even the mildelt form of fmall-pox.
It is manifelt, therefore, nutwithftanding the prejudices of
mankind, that the nature of the original contagion has no
influence in modifying the difeafe which it inflidls : and
we muit infer, th.it the various forms which tlie difeafe
allun.es, origmate from fome particular ftate of the confti-
tution in the mdividnals whom it thus varioufly handles.
And this condition of the conltitution mult be the refult of
external caufes, fuch as the feafons, and ftate of the atmo-
fphere ; or of internal and perfonal caufes, fuch as plethora,
obefity, irritability, or the contrary, depending on original
conformation, or upon indulgence, intemperance, affections
of the mind, and lo forth. It is not the contagion of fmall-
pox alone, which is varioufly modified in this way by the
cxilling condition of tiie conftitution ; almolt all external
agents are fo modified. The fcratch of a thorn will not
be felt for an hour by one perfon ; while in another it will
inflame and form an abfcefs, even excite the abforbents,
and produce a bubo and fever ; or it may run on to gan-
grene, and occafion death. In like manner, if feveral people
are expofed to cold, by falling into water, for inltance, and
remaining wet : the effefts will be very different individually.
Many will cfcape without inconvenience ; fome with a
common coryza or fore-throat ; another will be confined to
bed for weeks with an univcrfal rheumatilm ; another will
be attacked with pleurify, or a fpitting of blood, or an
inflammation in the bowels. It is preciiely the fame with
the varieties of fmall-pox : they are not the refult of a
difference in the caufe, but folely of a difference in the
Itate of individual conftitutions.

Tlie cffeft of different fcafons upon the human conlli-
tution does not admit of very fatisfadtory explanation.
Sydenham and Boerhaave, both able obfervcrs of nature,
rtmarkcd, that the regular and dillinft fmall-pox ufually
appears about the vernal equinox, when it is epidemic,
increafing through the fummer, and attaining its height
and fcverity in the autumn, and commonly difappearing
with the approach of the winter's cold. They both alfo
obftrved, that if it commences early, as in January or
February, (and Boerhaave adds, more particularly if it has
been abfent from the place fix years,) the following fummer
will be dillinguiflied by an epidemic of a fevere and fatal
kind, fparing none who have not prcvioufly undergone the
difeafe, and proving extenfively dcltruftive.

The internal peculiarities of conltitution, which mo-
dify the operation of morbific caufes in general, and of
the contagion of fmall-pox in particular, are more obvious
and intelligible. Various hypothefes about the fermentation
excited in the blood, and the free exit or depofition in the
Ikin of the contagious matcer, thus multiplied by that
proccfs, have been formed to explain this point : and even
Dr. CiiHcn has adopted this ablurd humoral notion, and
endeavours to point out the circumftances " which deter-
mine more or lels of the variolous matter to Jl'tck in the Jim,
or to pals freely through it." (Firlt Lines, <i 598.) But
Vol.. XXXIII.

thefe notions are inconfillent with fafts. In the firft place,
there is no evidence that the contagion afts like leaven
upon the blood, " and affimilates a great part of it to its
own nature." (CuUen, loc. cit.) The blood, as far as
its properties are cognizable by the fenfes, pcffefles no
qualities which are not common to all inflammatory difeafes.
There does not appear, indeed, to be any thing analogous
to fermentation in the procefs. The pus that is generated
is the refult of the inflammatory aftion of the veffels of the
llvin, and is generated in the fliin only ; it is not floating in
the mafs of circulating fluids, and detained in the fliin, as
by a fieve. Whatever, therefore, increafes the inflamma-
tory aftion, increafes the number of puflules. Thus, parts
of the body that are much heated, as by lying upon them,
or keeping them in long and clofe contaA, have 3 greater
number of puftules than others ; and parts that are covered
with plalters, cfpecially thofe of a ftimulant kind, are
always more thickly befet with pultules. If we extend this
principle to the conftitution generally, we fliall find, that
thofe perfons who are by nature, their period of life, their
mode of living, previous indifpofition, the feafon of the
year, or other caufes of a more irritable and inflammatory
habit, will be more liable to fuffer fevcrely from the in-
fluence of fmall-pox. An intelligent writer has ftated,
from his own obfervation, that perfons of a fwarthy com-
plexion, of a dry rigid fibre, not much difpofed to per-
fpire, with brown or black hair, which is of a ftrong texture
and in great quantity, are more liable to a fevere fmall-pox
than thofe of a fair complexion, with thin, weak, and light
hair, and who are moderately fat, but perfpire freely. He
remarks, too, that '• perfons afflifted with the palfy, ague,
dropfy, and rickets, have commonly a favourable fmall-pox ;
and thofe afflicted with the two former frequently recover
from both." (Roe on the Small-Pox, p. 57.) But the
natural irritability may be much augmented or diminifhed
by various circumftances, and thus the danger from the
attack of fmall-pox in like manner increafed or leffened.
Thus, to ufe the words of the fame author, " if a perfon
fliould live intemperately, ufe violent excrcife, drink much
fpirituous liquors, or give any occafion whatfoever to inflam-
mation, before the attack of the fmall-pox, the difeafe will
prove more virulent, although tlie natural habit be good.
On the contrary, if a perfon be of an indifferent habit, and
an unpromifing temperament, but live temperately, eat
little animal food, and lead a fober and fcdentary life, be-
fore the difeafe attacks him, he bids fair for a happy reco-
very." We may add, that, upon the fame principle, the
adult age, as more robull and more connedted with full
living, is more liable to fuffer the difeafe fevcrely than child-
hood.

It feems, therefore, fatisfaftorily proved, " that an in-
flammatory ftate of the whole fyftem, and more particularly
of the flcin," is the caufe of the multiplication of the puf-
tules, as well as of the other circumftances, which belong
to the confluent fmall-pox, fuch as the early eruption, the
erythematous rafli, the continuance of the fever, the cffu-
fion of a more ichorous matter, and from thence the pecu-
liar form, hue, incruftation, &c. of the puftules. See
CuUen, Firft Lines, ^ 600.

Diflcrent caules have been affigncd for the fuperior mild-
iiels of the difeafe, when produced l)y inoculation, over that
which occurs in the cafual way. Some have fuppofed that
this advantage arofe from having the choice of the matter
of infeftion in the former cafe ; and others have imagined
that it was owing to the fmall quantity of matter which
was introduced by the lancet. But from what has been
faid above, it is inanifell that the choice of the matter i* of
Y no

SMALL-POX.

BO importance ; and we know not how fmall a quantity is
received when infeftion is communicated in the cafual way.
But it is very obvious, that, by avoiding the caufes of an
inflammatory diathefis, by leflening this condition when it
exifts, by (hunning the concurrence of other difeafes with
the fmall-pox, and by choofing the proper feafon and time
of life, we gain many advantages ; and probably thefe were
the principal advantages which inoculation poflefled.

Seat of the Small-pox. — It has been a fubjeft of much
difpute, though eafily determined by obfervation, whether
the pL-.ftules of the fmall-pox affeft the vifcera and other
internal parts. The moil refpeftable teilimony in favour
of their exiftence internally, is that of Wrilberg, in the
New Gottingen Commentaries, vol. Ixvi : but fome others
have alfo maintained that they had feen the puftules, upon
difleftion, upon the internal organs. There is no doubt,
however, that fuch obfervations have originated in miftake.
For all the difleftions made by recent and more accurate
anatomilts have demonftrated, that, beyond the exteniion of
the cuticle, no variolous puftules ever arife. Cotunnius, an
Italian profeflbr of anatomy, didefted above forty perfons,
who died of fmall-pox, for the exprefs purpofe of afcertain-
ing what parts or organs were inveiled with the puftules.
Thefe examinations were condufted with great attention
and accuracy, and in the prefence of a number of Undents :
and the refult was, that, though the mouth, tongue, palate,
and top of the pharynx, were often full of puftules, and in
fome few cafes the internal membrane of the trachea was
inflamed, and exhibited fome efFufion ; yet not the leaft
veftige of puftules was found upon any of the internal parts,
even in the oefophagns. " Etcnim quod fpeftat interiores
partes, — certe non vifcus, non membrana, non glandula,
non pars demum interior ulla fuit, quae in tot exemplis
apparuerit puftulata." (Cotun. de Sedibus Variolarum,
^ xxxix.) The truth is, as we have already obferved, the
puftules are little cutaneous abfceffes, the refult of inflam-
mation in the flcin alone, and not depofitories of contagious
matter diftilling from the blood.

Diagnqfis. — It is not eafy, in general, to diftinguifli the
fever, which is about to uflier in the fmall-pox, from
common fimple fever, or from fome other febrile difeafes ;
fince its early fymptoms are not materially different from
thefe. It may be prefumed to be variolous fever, when the
fmall-pox is a prevailing epidemic, provided the individual
has not undergone the difeafe ; and efpecially if he may
have been in circumftances which rendered the communi-
cation of infeftion probable, or if his expofure to it were
well afcertained. On children, the occurrence of a con-
vulfive fit, on the evening of the fecond, or on the third
day, will lead to a fufpicion that the fmall-pox is about to
appear. In all cafes, however, this doubt will commonly
be cleared up by the fourth day, when the fmall-pox will
have appeared.

It is not eafy to confound the eruption of fmall-pox
with any other febrile eruption, except the chicken-pox,
which, indeed, has not been demonftrated as a dillinft
difeafe more than fifty or fixty years. It had been called
iiariola fpur'i,!, lajlard fmall-pox ; and even Dr. Heberden,
who has the merit of having given the firft clear defcription
of the chicken-pox, (fee Medical Tranfaftions of the Col-
lege of Phyficians, vol. i. p. 433.) ftill applied the term
'variola to it ; calling it variola pujtlla. See his Commen-
tarii de Morbis, cap. 96.

The eruption of fmall-pox is flower and of longer duration
than that of chicken-pox, the latter being commonly com-
pleted in three days, and being covered with flight brown
fcabs on the fifth day, at which time the fmall-pox is at

the height of fuppuration. The inflammation round the
chicken-pox is very fmall, and the contents of them do not
f«em to be owing to fuppuration, as in fmall-pox, but rather
to what is extravafated immediately under the cuticle by
the ferous veficles of the fl<in, as in a common blifter ; whence
this fluid appears in a veficle on the fecond day, and, upon
the cuticle being broken, is prefently fucceeded by a flight
fcab. On the third and fourth days, the flirivelled or
wrinkled ftate of the veficles which remain entire, and the
radiating furrows of others, the ruptured tops of which
have been clofed by a flight incrullation, fully charafterife
the chicken-pox, and diftinguifli its eruption from the firm
and durable puftules of fmall-pox. Another circumftance is
alfo to be added to the diagnofis of thefe two difeafes.
If the whole eruption of chicken-pox on the face, breaft,
and limbs, be infpefted on the fifth or fixth day, every
gradation of the progrefs of the veficles will appear at the
iame time, which cannot take place in the flow and regu-
lated progrefs of the fmall-pox. (See WiUan on Vaccine
Inoculation, p. 95.) We have already noticed the dif-
ference in the fenfation excited by touching the early erup-
tion of the two difeafes with the point of the finger, pointed
out by the laft-named author.

Since the introduction of the praftice of vaccination, which
maybe deemed oneof the greateft benefits ever conferred upon
mankind by any individual, the diagnofis between fmall-pox
and chicken-pox has, however, been rendered a httle more
difficult. For in feveral cafes in which the fmall-pox has
occurred in perfons who had undergone the cow-pox (and
we have feen that even fmall-pox and mealies are not always
fecurities againft themfelves), a mitigated and modified fmall-
pox has commonly enfued, of a veficular charafter, or of a
fmall horny appearance, which has not gone through the
ufual ftages ; but, inftead of proceeding to full fuppuration,
has begun to fubfide and dry away on the fixth day from
the commencement of the eruption. It requires confider-
able attention, therefore, to difcriminate between this variety
of mitigated fmall-pox and the chicken-pox ; and decifion
cannot always be obtained without the experiment of in-
oculation with the matter of the puftules. The inipreffion
under the finger, the form, and regular progrefs of the fmall-
pox, nay be generally recognized, however, up to the fixth
day, by careful obfervation.

Treatment of Small-pox. — Until the year 1798, when Dr.
Jenner immortalized his name by the announcement of his
great difcovery of the properties of the cow-pox, no means
of prevention could be fuggefted to any individual, by which
he could avoid or proteft himfelf from the fmall-pox. In
all large towns, and efpecially fince the introduftion of the
praftiee of inoculation, a conftant colleftion of contagion
fubfilted, which operated upon every one who vifited them,
even for a ftiort time, from their more infulated fituations
in the country, if they remained fufceptible of the difeafe.
A preventive, however, is now difcovered, and every one
may be i-endered fecure from the influence of this baneful
contagion. (See Cow-pox.) At prefent, however, this
valuable preventive is not yet univerfally adopted, and the
fmall-pox has carried off^ in this metropolis, during the
year which has juft terminated (iSijI, no lefs than one
hundred and twenty-nine perfons. We have ftill, there-
fore, occafion to ftudy the beft mode of treating the dif-
eafe, under the different forms which it aflumes, when it
occurs in the cafual way.

From a view of the hiftory of the difeafe, as above de-
tailed, it appears very evident, that the danger and violence
of the fymptoms are nearly in proportion to the quantity of
the eruption } which is again much conneded with the de-
gree

SMALL-POX.

trree of fever that accompaniej and precedes it. The firft
indication, therefore, is, to moderate the eruptive fever.

In the cafe of inoculated fmjU-pox, this procefs may be
commenced in the interval between the infertion of the
matter and the beginning of the diforder, that is, feveral
days previous to the origin of the fever ; when, by a light
and cooling diet, and by the ufe of laxative medicines, if
the habit be full, the body may be brought into a lefs in-
flammatory ftate ; and thus rendered lefs fufceptible of vio-
lent inflammatory diieafe. But in the cafual fmall-pox, we
have commonly no warning of the malady, until the
eruptive fever aftually commences ; nor, when it has already
begun, can we be certain, from any peculiar fymptoms, that
it is any thing but an ordinary fever ; unlefs it occurs in
perfons who, not having previoufly undergone the difeafe,
have been notorioufly cxpofed to the infeftion. It is fortu-
nate, however, that our inability to dillinguifh the fever
which is about to uflier in the fmall-pox from common in-
flammatory fever, is of no moment ; fince the fame reme-
dies are the moll appropriate in both cafes. The older prafti-
tioners, indeed, mifled by their h\imoral hypothefes, about
a fermentation in the blood, a llruggle of the conftitution
to rid itfelf of the fcum and dregs that were feparated, and
a falutary effort to difcharge them by the flcin, which was
fuppofed to be manifelt in the pullules, unfortunately took
an oppofite view of the fubjeft. They thought it neceflary
to afiitl and encourage the fever, and very dangerous to re-
prefs it ; and therefore they excluded the cool air, kept the
patient in a hot bed, and adminiftered warm drinks and cor-
dial medicines. The pernicious influence of this praftice
(which was extended to all febrile complaints) was firft de-
tefted by the fagacity of our great countryman, Sydenham,
in fpite of the hypothetical doitrines, in which he had him-
felf been educated ; and his prophecy, that, after his death,
liis opinion and praftice would prevail, has been amply veri-
fied. In faft it is now univerfally admitted, that the more
the previous fever is moderated, the more all the enfuing
fymptoms will be mitigated. According to the degree of
violence with which the fever commences, the aftivity of the
meafures for moderating it will be various. If the fymp-
toms are not fevere, the patient may be recommended not
to keep his bed, but to remain, according to the advice of
Sydenham, in a cool apartment, having the benefit of cool
air ; and at the fame time to difcard animal food, and adopt
that of a cooling nature, vegetable decoftions, acidulous
fruits, and diluent drinks, luch as plain cold water, lemonade,
whey, &c. All his drinks (liould be given cold ; and the
bowels rtiould be freely opened by fome cooling purgative,
as by the neutral falts, with a little calomel. If thefe mea-
fures are adequate to keep down the fever, and if, at the
fame time, the eruption appears early, and in fmall numbers,
the lafcty of the patient may be confidered as afcertained ;
and no farther treatment, except a continuance of the anti-
phlogillic (yftem, is neceflary. The praftice of continuing
to give purgatives as the eruption declines, appears to be al-
together unneceflary, and may in fome cafes be hurtful ;
and it leems to be continued rather in compliance with the
exploded hypothefis of feparating the contagious matter
from the blood, than from any rational inference of expe-
rience.

Where the fever comes on, however, with great violence,
manifelting early its charafter, by a quick, hard pulfe, in-
tenfe heat, and thirft, a flufhed countenance, inflamed eyes,
fevere head-ache, a quick and oppreffcd rrfpiration, with de-
lirium, efpecially in adult perfons, and in thofe of vigorous
or pletiioric habits, very adlivc meafures fliould be imme-
diately adopted. In perfons of the latter defcriptioii, the

firft objeiS would be to let fome blood, the quantity
of which mull be determined by a confideration of the
patient's age, conftitution, and habits of life, and of
the violence of the fymptoms. At the fame time, al.
though he cannot obey Sydenham's injunftion of fitting
up, the cooling plan muft be adopted to the fulleft ex-
tent in refpeft to his apartment, which fliould be freely
ventilated by the admiffion of the external air, through
open windows and doors, and to his bed, which fliould be
a mattrafs, and as lightly covered as the feafon and his feel-
ings will permit. If the fkin is intcnfely hot and dry, much
benefit will be obtained, in the moll expeditious manner, by
fponging the furface occafionally with cold water, or even
by the ufe of the cold afl^ufion. We have known feveral
inftances, in which this fever, not being fufpefted to be
the variolous fever, was treated by the cold aftufion, with
the moll decided alleviation of the fever, and of the fub-
fequent eruption. The benefits of this praftice in fear-
let fever, even during tlie extenfion of the eruption over
the whole flcin, are now generally acknowledged by all phy-
ficians who have witneiled the falutary and rapid change
which it produces, both in the feelings and in the malady of
the patient; being, in fa<3:,the moft efficacious phyfical agent,
as well as the moft expeditious and grateful, that the whole
art of medicine is poflefled of ; and the only expedient fully
entitled to the commendation of the ancient empiric, that of
curing " cito, tuto, et jucundc." It is, in truth, but the
perfeilion of the cooling iyftem recommended by Syden-
ham ; and when united with cool air, cool drinks, and light
coverings, it affords the moil certain means of controlling
the inflammatory fever.

An aftive purgative will alfo contribute to relieve inflam-
matory adlion, and (hould be fpeedily adminiftered, and re-
peated according to circumllances. Diaphoretics are alfo
recommended, and if they are not of a Ilimulating kind,
they may be given with advantage : but the moft effeftual
mode of inducing perfpiration is by reducing the dry and
burning heat of the flcin, by cool air and waftiing.

If, however, thefe falutary meafures have been omitted,
or have proved inadequate to prevent a numerous eruption,
efpecially upon the face ; if the puftules are not diftinft ;
and particularly, if, on the fifth day, the fever docs not fuf-
fer a confiderable remiflion ; the difeafe will ftiU require a
great deal of attention. It will ftill be neceflary to avoid
heat and a heating regimen, and to continue to admit the
free accefs of cool air, although the more aftive applica-
tions of cold, by fponging or aff^ufion with water, need
not be continued. The beneficial influence of cool and frefli
air, indeed, at all periods of the difeafe, is very manifeft ;
and in order to imprefs this truth more ftrongly, it may not
be improper to relate a cafe or two, from among many that
have been recorded, to fliew the extent of that influence,
even in the later ftages. Sir George Baker, in his «' En-
quiry into the Merits of a Method for inoculating the
Small-pox, &c." obfcrves, " The hiltory recorded by Sy-
denham, of a young man at Briftol, who owed his recovery
to his being laid out on a table, as if dead, is fuffi-
ciently known. To this hiftory there is a great refemblance
in a cafe which is mentioned by Dr. Kirkpatrick, ai having
happened in Carolina. Mr. Benjamin Marych had a violent
natural confluent fmall-pox in the liot weather. His at-
tendants tliought him dead ; upon which the (aflies were im-
mcdi.itcly fct open, and a frefli quantity of air, or poflibly
a wind, rufliing in, produced a frefli relpiration and motion
in the pcrfon who was thought dead. When this was ob-
ferved, they went to put them down again. The patient
who faw it, and was fpeechlefs, but fcnfiblc of tlie alteration
Y 2 and

SMALL-POX.

and benefit, beckoned with his hand to prevent them ; and
by degrees entirely recovered." Another cafe of the fame
kind is related by a gentleman of great veracity and expe-
rience. " In the year 1736, a man who lived as fervant
with Mrs. Broderep, one of the daughters of archbilhop
Wake, in Great Ormond-itrect, had the confluent fmall-
pox ; and on the evening of the fifteenth or fixteenth day,
his life was entirely defpaired of. On the next morning,
when I went rather to enquire after liim than to vifit him,
the nurfe's report was, that he had grown worfe and worfe
till two or three o'clock in the morning, at which time he
ceafed to breathe, became infenfible and motionlefs, and ap-
peared to be abfolutely dead. About five or fix o'clock,
the body was removed and placed on a large table, near an
open window, with no covering except only a fhirt. No
fign of life appeared, but the body continued hotter than
is cummon after death. This heat, however, the nurfe at-
tributed to the weather. In this ftate he had remained about
an hour, when the nurfe heard a fort of figh, or faint
breathing ; and it was obferved that he had moved his arm
acrafs his ftomach. Being raifed up with fome difficulty,
he took a fpoonful of a cordial medicine, ordered for him
on the preceding day ; and as foon as he was able to fpeak,
hs faid the cold air was very refrefhing. Being carried back
to the bed, he fell into a fweat, and flept three or four
hours. About this time I faw him. His pulfe was now
equal and ftrong ; his refpiration better than it had been for
feveral days before ; and his fenfes perfett. The door and
windows were left open, and in a few days the man was
quite out of danger." (See fir G. Baker's EfTay, above
quoted; and Dr. Walker's work on Small-pox.) Thefe
fatts require no comment. They demonllrate the beneficial
influence of cool air at all periods of the dileafe. It is,
however, particularly beneficial at the period of which we
are now fpeaking, when a thick eruption is coming out,
and the fever does not remit. At this time the expofure to
cool air, with the other antiphlogiftic meafures, will often
greatly leflen the indiflinft crowd of puftules that is fpread-
ing over the face, and occafion a few regular ones to arife,
the head will lofe its confufion, and the breathing become
lefs opprefled.

At this period of the difeafe, too, under the fame cir-
cumftances, it may be necefiary, in adult and plethoric fub-
jefts, to take away fome blood. This, however, feldom re-
quires to be repeated. But a cooling purgative fliould be
adminiftered and repeated, or aided by a frequent repetition
of laxative glyfters ; and the free ufe of diluent drinks
fliould be permitted.

Moft writers from Sydenham downwards, and Boerhaave
and CuUen among the reil, have recommended the admi-
iiiftration of an opiate, every night, under this febrile condi-
tion, that continues after the eruption of confluent fmall-pox
has appeared. Sydenham, however, only gave it to patients
whofe age exceeded fourteen years : but Boerhaave and
CuUen fpecify the fifth day as the time for the commence-
ment of opiates, and mention no exception. It does not
appear, that modern experience has confirmed the views of
thefe great phyficians : indeed, when Sydenham fpeaks of
ufing opium or bleeding to effeft the fame purpofe, we are
unable to conjedlure what powers he afcribed to the former
retnedy. " Jam non aliis auxiliis (cuii in propinquo mors
fit) aegro fubveniri pofle autumo, quam vel narcolica affatim
exhibendo, vel fanguinan liberaliter extrahendo," &c. (Obf.
Medica:, feft. iii. cap. 2.) Dr. Walker has juftly animad-
verted on this praAice, which, however it may alleviate
reftlefsnefs and pain, in flight cafes, unaccompanied by
ECiite fever, is well known to accelerate the circulation, to

harden the pulfe, to augment the heat and third, to increafc
delirium, to diminifh the fecretions ; in a word, to aggra-
vate all the fymptoms of inflammatory fever, while it fails
to produce the anticipated reft, or rather baniflies it more
cffeftually. Such we know to be the effetts of an opiate
in all the phlegmafis, or acute and vifceral inflammation ; as
well as in the atlive flages of common fever ; and we know
no circumltance in the early ftage of fmall-pox, which con-
ititutes any exception to this fatt, or which modifies the ordi-
nary operation of the medicine. A fteady purfuit of the anti-
phlogillic plan is a much more effeftual footherof the irrita-
tion which the patient fuffers. Sydenham and other writers
urge the impropriety of interfering with the ptyalifm, that
ufually occurs in confluent fmall-pox ioon after the eruption
is out, and deem the fuppreffion of it highly dangerous.
Yet the tendency of opium to leflen the fecretions is well
underftood : but the principal injury to be apprehended from
it is the excitement which it produces. In the later periods
of the dileafe, however, when the febrile excitement is low,
and much irritation is kept up by the hardening cralts, the
moderate ufe of opiates is to be recommended.

The antiphlogiftic praftice, above recommended, fliould
be continued during the progrefs of the eruption to matura-
tion, unlefs fome particular fymptoms of failure of the ms
■v'ltic fliould enfue. For in every cafe of fmall-pox, where
the eruption of pufl;ules is numerous, although fome abate-
ment of the fever is difcernible upon the complete eruption
of the fpots, yet there is feldom a perfeA remiffion of the
fever, the pulfe rarely defcending below 90 or 100 in the
minute. The ficondary fever, therefore, which occurs about
the eleventh day, upon the complete fuppuration of the
puftule?, or at Icait when thefe are perfectly full and
Stretched to their utmoft extent, whatever may be the nature
of the fluid which they contain, is rather an augmentation
of the exilling fever than a new fever. The origin of this
fever, in the opinion of Sydenham and moll of the writers
who followed him, was the re-abforption of the virus of the
pullules into the blood, as well as the retention of the or-
dinary perfpirable matter, which could not pafs ofi^ by the
(liin. Whence they recommended blood-letting, which,
they believed, was the molt effeftual mode of depurating
the blood thus contaminated, as the means of cure for this
fever. But not only was their theory very bad, (for furely
drawing a few ounces of blood from the circulating mais
could have no eff'efl in removing the corruption from that
which remained in the veflels,) but their praftice was often
injurious, by reducing the ftrength of tiie patient, at a time
when the powers of life were about to fail, and require all
poflible fupport. Dr. Freind had the merit of pointing out
the fuperior advantages of gentle purgatives in mitigating
the fecondary fever. The bowels fliould be gently but
ft;eadily opened, in all cafes, at the commencement of this
fever, provided no diarrhoea has occurred. According to
the ftate of the pulfe, and the appearance of the matter in
the eruptions, the ilrength of the patient, and other fymp-
toms, more or lefs of a cordial plan of treatment muft, how-
ever, be combined with the laxatives. Light liquid nourifti-
ment, with a little wine and water as drink, fliould be fre-
quently adminiftered ; and a decoAion or infufion of cia-
choHa, with the mineral acids and a flight aromatic, will be
given with advantage. If the difeafe put on a more malig-
nant charafter, with petechirc and hxmorrhages, the cordial
treatment muft be increafed both in quantity and ftrength ;
but the ftate of the bowels mult itill be regulated. Under
this cordial plan, the petechia will fometimes difappear ;
the empty veficles will become filled with matter ; and
the ichorous fluid of others be changed into white thick

pus J

SMALL-POX.

pus J the other fymptoms of courfe improving in a fimilar
•Jcgree.

Such is the general plan of cure which experience has
fandlioned in the fmall-pox. Bat in particular cafes parti-
cular fymptoms are very urgjcnt, modifying the character of
tlie difeafe, and requiring feme modification of the method
of treatment.

Little can be done to controul effectually the fal'ivat'wn,
vhen that difcharge is exceffive, nor to rcftore it when it
iiddenly fublides. In the former cafe, and when the pa-
tient is in danger of fuffocation from the vifcidity of the
faliva, and the difficulty of difcharging it, the mouth and
throat may be frequently wafhed or fyringed with a gargle
containing oxymel, or fome of the mineral acids. And,
as the faliva often begins to thicken on the eleventh day,
Sydenham recommended a blifter (which has been often
found benelicial) to be apphed between the (houlders, on
the evening of the tenth day, by way of prevention. The
diarrhica, when it occurs fpontaneoufly, being by all writers
deemed rather falutary than injurious, fhould not be inter-
fered with. The Jkvelli/ig of the head, fcice, znA fauces, when
it is exceffive, is highly dangerous, and commonly accom-
panied by vifcidity or iuppreffion of the falivary difcharge.
The fteady purfuit of the antiphlogillic fyftem is the belt
preventive of this danger, and the free difcharge occafioned
by laxatives affords the befl means of drawing off the deter-
mination of the fluids to thofe parts.

The head-ache and delirium, when violent and accompanied
with intolerance of light, and other phrenitic fymptoms,
mark the violence of the fever from the beginning, as well
as the too great fulnefs of the vcflels of the head, and
therefore demand, not only the moft rigid purfuit of the
antiphlogillic plan, the free admiffion of cool air, and aftive
purgation, but alio the particular application of cold to the
head ; the detraction of blood by leeches or cupping from
the temples or nucha ; or even general blood-letting. The
pediluvium is fometimes recommended for the purpofe of
relieving the head on the principle of revulfion ; but we
have more than once exprcfled our doubts both of the truth
of the hypothefis and of the advantages of the praftice.
When the determination to the head is fuch as to produce
aftual coma, during the eruptive fever, a moll dangerous
fmall-pox is to be apprehended ; and the cooling evacuating
meafures jull recommended fhould be carried as far as dif-
cretion and experience will juflify, and a bliller fltould be
applied to the nick.

Inflammation of the throat is a common attendant on all
the varieties of Imall-pox, even the mildell ; but in the
latter it is flight, and eafily relieved by any acidulous and
mucilaginous gargle, fuch as an infufion of figs, acidulated
with lemon-juice, apple-tea, or lemonade. But the angina,
which accompanies the worll kinds of fmall-pox, is more
acute and obdinate, and from extending to the glottis, it
frequently produces a confiderable degree of hoarftnefs. It
is alfo iiicrealcd by tlie general inflammation ar.d t\miefac-
tion of the contiguous parts, and continue^ till thefe fubfide.
This fymptom is moderated by the antiplilogitlic regimen,
by blood-letting in inflammatory habits, and efpecially by
the early courle of laxatives, which contribute to prevent
and diminifh all the inflammatory fymptoms.

Difficulty of breathing is an alarming fymptom in fmall-
pox, and feldom occurs except in the worfl kinds, and in
the lail ilage of the difeafe, efpecially when it is left to
nature, or improperly treated in the preceding periods. In
cafes where the chefl is narrow and contracted, or there is a
conflitutional predifpofition to dileafe in the lungn, this
fymptom may occur at an carhcr flage. Its appearance

implies a threatening or prefent inflammation or peripneu»
mony, and requires more than any other fymptom the free
ufe of blood-letting, as well as the exhibition of cooling
purgatives, and the whole antiphlogillic plan.

Some degree of fupprejfwn of urine not unfrequently takes
place in fevere cafes of fmall-pox, efpecially from bad ma-
nagement in the beginning of the difeafe ; it is commonly
attended by collivenefs, and is mofl efieftually relieved by
promoting the inteltinal difcharge, efpecially by laxative
glyflers. An immediate evacuation is fometimes produced,
as Sydenham remarked, by taking the patient out of bed,
and fupporting him expofed to the cool air in his fhirt, but
Hill more eft'ediually by placing his feet on a cold floor or
hearth, which commonly induces a fpeedy difpofition in the
bladder to contraft and expel its contents.

It only remains that we allude to the means which have
been devifed to prevent the deformity which is too often
produced by fmall-pox by the pits which it leaves behind.
As the pits have been afcribed to the retention of the acrid
matter under the cuticle, and the confequent corrofion of
the true flvin ; fo it has been propofed to open the puftules,
in order to allow the ichor to be difcharged. (See Van
Swieten, Comment, ad Aph. 1402.) This plan, however,
has not proved fuccefsful, and the theory is probably er-
roneous. Others have propofed the covering of the face in
the laft Itage of the difeafe, to fecure it from the air, and
the ufe of fomentations at the fame time with warm milk,
and inundlions with unfalted butter, hog's-lard, or oil. Dr.
Walker, in his valuable work already often quoted, adopts
a fimilar method, but at a fomewhat earher period. He
maintains that the pits do not originate either from the acri-
mony of the contained matter, from ulceration, or from any
lofs of fubllance of the fliin ; but that they are, in faft,
merely imprejjions, made in the tender flcin by the preflure
of the hardened and deficcated puftules, or fcabs, as a
feal imprelfes melted wax. This, however, may be juftly
queftioned ; for the flcin, tender as it may be, is probably
not capable of receiving any imprcffions lo permanent, and
mult be partially ulcerated, and lofe a portion of its fub-
ftance by Houghing, under each hardening puftule. It is
true, however, that the face is chiefly hable to be pitted,
from the greater drying and hardening of the crowd of puf-
tules which cover it, and that this may probably be owing
to its greater expofure to the air. Whence the early pre-
vention of fuch expofure, and the foftening of the drying
puftules, certainly promife the beft fecurity againft fevere
pitting. About the tenth day of the difeafe, fometimes
fooner, according to the kind of fmall-pox, the apices of
the puftules on the face change colour, feel rough, and
begin to harden, efpecially about the movith and chin, which
are more chafed by the bed-clothes. At this time, there-
fore. Dr. Walker iprcad over the face a malk, of tine old
cambric, thinly fmcarcd with a mild liniment, compoled of
oil, fpennaceti, and a little wax. 'J'his mafk he renewed
three or four times in twenty-four hours, and fometimes
oftener, elpccially when urged by the patient, who gene-
rally felt an agreeable and refrefliing coolnefs for fome time
after each application. On removing the mafk, the f;icc
was gently touched with a ioft cambric handkerchief, and
expofed to the air for as fliort a time as poflible. By this
expedient, he affirms, the variolous matter is feen through
the tranfpari'nt mafk to be preferved in a ftate of fluidity as
long as it remains in lliat ftate on other parts of the body,
or until it is gradually difcliargfd by oozing out. The
maflc is to be continutd till the puftules are perfectly emp-
tied, which happens in the courfe of ten, twelve, or fifteen
days, and iu forac kinds of fmall-pox in a longer lime. Dr.

Walker

S M A

Walker affirms, " in the application of this theory of pits,
in the varieties of fmall-pox that have come under my care,
1 have conftantly found the above mode of treatment to
anfwer my higheit expeftation, not only in preventing pits
in the worft cafes of this difeafe ; but muft obferve an
agreeable and unexpefted effett, which I have conltantly
found to accompany it, namely, a prefervation of the na-
tural features. Many have experienced fuch an alteration
in the countenances of their friends and children, from the
effefts of this difeafe, that they could fcarcely know them
again. This difagreeable effeft has been completely pre-
vented, in every cafe that I have met with, by the method
aboTe direfted." (Loc. cit. p. 398.) He adds, however,
that the fuccefs of this application (lands connefted with
the antiphlogiflic and evacuant plan of treatment, which he
judicioufly recommends, and which accords with that which
we have above detailed.

In fome conftitutions, as we have already Hated, the dif-
turbance excited by the fmall-pox is fuch as to leave the
patients in a ftate of great prcdifpofition to difeafe, efpe-
cially in the glandular fyllem, and all the forms of fcrofula
are occafionally feen to follow its ravages, as well as fome
other cacheftic conditions. One of the moft formidable
confequences, however, of confluent fmall-pox is the lofs
of fight, which it frequently occafions, and which is fo
common indeed in this country, that a large majority of the
blind who are feen in the ftreets owe their lofs of vifion to
the fmall-pox. This, however, is rather the refult of the
extenfion of inflammation to the eyes during the attack of
the confluent fmall-pox, than a fequela of the difeafe, and
therefore is to be prevented rather by the proper practice
during the eruption above detailed, than by any fublcquent
treatment. With a view to anticipate the morbid confe-
quences, upon the fuppofition that they arife from the re-
mains or dregs of the contagion ftill contaminating the
blood, it is ufual to adminiiler a fucceflion of purgatives,
to clear the circulating fluids of thefe impurities. We do
not profefs to underftand how, by exciting the aftions of
the exhalents of the inteltines, we can draw out of the
blood juft the impure portion, leaving the refl: unpolluted ;
and confider both the contamination and the purification of
the blood as equally gratuitous fuppofitions. Where the
patient comes out of the difeafe with every appearance of
returning health, we do not perceive the necefiity of refort-
ing to thefe hypothetical cleanfers, which, if violent, may
do harm, and can only be produftive of benefit by aflifting
the digcltion and propulfion of the aliments in a gentle way.
And where there are appearances of a bad habit of body,
or a flow convalefcence, more advantages are probably to
be obtained by a proper attention to diet and regimen, with
a judicious courfe of alterative and gently tonic medicine,
than by the repetition of cathartics. A diet of milk and
vegetables, or very light animal fluids, with appropriate
exercife, change of air, the tepid bath, and other means
which medicine affords of regulating the funftions and gra-
dually i-eitoring the ftrength, fhould be purfued with dili-
gence, efpecially where there is a difpofition to heftic fever
connefted with the debihty. Some forms of fcrofula and
cachexia, however, which are more local and unaccompanied
by fever, require a more nutritious and cordial plan of
treatment, to be determined by the age and other circum-
ftances of the patient.

An able and ingenious projeft was propofed feveral years
ago by Dr. Haygarth for the extermination of fmall-pox in
Great Britain, turning upon the principle of a general ino-
culation. (See his Sketch of a Plan, &c. in 2 vols. 1793.)
It is unneceflary, however, now to enter into any difcuflion

S ]\I A

refpefting the efficacy or importance of fuch a plan ; fince
the difcovery of the influence of the cow-pox, by the im-
mortal Jen'ner, has aff^orded us an antidote, which requires
only a general adoption to fuperfede altogether that fatal
and formidable malady, and to preferve mankind from all
the miferies and evils which it has fpread over the earth for
many centuries pall. See Cow-pox and Inoculation.

SMALLS, The, in Geography, rocks in the Irifli fea,
on which a light-houfe is ereAed for the guidance of fea-
men, about 15 miles S.W. from St. David's Head. N.
lat. 5i°44'. W. long. 5° 33'.

SMALRIDGE, George, in .Bioj-ra/^y, a learned Eng-
lifh prelate, was the fon of a dyer at Litchfield, in which
city he was born in 1663. He was educated at Weltminlter
fchool, where his fine talents and excellent difpofition ren-
dered him a general favourite. In 1682 he was elefked to a
Undent's place in Chrilt's college, Oxford, in which he be-
came in due time a tutor ; and his reputation caufed him, at
an early age, to be felefted, with others, as managers of the
controverfy with Obadiah Walker, mafter of the Univerfity
college, a convert to popery. In this connection he pub-
lifhed, in 1687, " Animadverfions on the Eight Thefes laid
down, and the Inferences deduced from them, in a Dif-
courfe entitled ' Church Government,' " &c. About this pe-
riod he difl.inguiflied himfelf as a votary of polite literature,
of which he gave fpecimens in the " Mufx Anglicana:."
He entered into holy orders in 1692, and was appointed
minifter of Tothill-fields chapel, and he alfo obtained a pre-
bend in the cathedral of Litchfield. In 1700 he took the
degree of D.D., and frequently afted as deputy to Dr.
Jane, regius profeflbr of divinity at Oxford. On the death
of Dr. Jane, in 1707, he was ftrongly recommended by the
univerfity for his fucceflbr,' but the Whig intereft carried it
againd him. Being now a celebrated preacher, he was
chofen, in 1 708, lefturer of St. Dunltan's m the Weft, Lon-
don, and he was alfo appointed a member of the lower houfe
of convocation, and exerted himfelf very much to procure
for his friend. Dr. Atterbury, the prolocutor's chair, on
which occafion he pronounced an elegant Latin panegyric
on his friend, touching with much feeling and delicacy, as an
apologift, upon the heat in controverly imputed to him.
Dr. Smalridge, though of the party, avoided the animofi-
ties too prevalent in its difputes. He held alfo 3 friendly
correfpondence with Dr. Clarke and Whiiton, and was
extremely ufeful in moderating the violent proceedings infti-
tuted by the convocation againft them. He affifted Whif-
ton in his tranflation of the Apoftolical Conftitutions. He
propofed a conference with Dr. Clarke on the fubje£l of the
Trinity, which was held at the feat of Mr. Cartwright, at
Aynho, in Northamptonfhire, and in which Dr. Smalridge
was the advocate of orthodoxy. Thefe conneftions caufed
him to be fufpefted of an inclination towards Arianifm, from
which he deemed it neceflary to vindicate himfelf by a letter
to bifhop Trelawny, a fliort time before his death. In 171 1,
Dr. Smalridge was made a canon of Chriftchurch, Oxford,
and afterwards dean of Carlifle. When Dr. Atterbury was
promoted to the biftiopric of Rochefter in 1713, his friend
fucceeded him as dean of Chriftchurclv In the following
year he was raifed to the epifcopal bench as bifhop of Brif-
tol, and very foon after he was nominated lord-almoner to
queen Anne. Upon the acceflion of George I. he refufed
to fign the declaration made by fome of the bifhops, on oc-
cafion of the rebellion in 1715, becaufe it contained a re-
fleftion on fome of the clergy who had joined the Jacobites.
This ftep caufed the polt of almoner to be taken from him,
but he pofleffed the eiteem of the princefs of Wales, after-
wards queen Caroline, with whom he continued in favour
8 till

S M A

S M A

liil his death, which happened in 17 19, at Chriftchurch,
where he was interred, and where, fome years after, a hand-
fome monument was erefted to his memory, with an elegant
Latin infcription. He left a widow and two children, who
were much befriended by the generofity of the princefs of
Wales. A colleAion of 6c of his fermons was printed after
his death, which foon came to a fecond edition. Biog.
Brit.

SMALT, the laft produce of cobalt, a kind of mineral
matter, prepared and purified abroad, and brought hither,
fometimes in form of a blue powder, and fometimes in
lumps ; chiefly ufed along with (larch, to give linens the
finer and clearer cad ; and belt known by the name of
powder-blue. See Cobalt.

The preparation of fmalt, as praftifed in Hermanduria,
we iind defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions by Dr.
Krieg ; who tells us, that the matter it is made of is the mi-
neral (lone called cobalt, or cadmia mineralis ; which being
pulverized, and the lighter iluffwafhed away, the remainder
is laid on a furnace, and by a fire underneath and afide it,
the flames of which are reverberated over it, a matter is fe-
parated from it in form of a fmoke ; which, flicking to the
walls, makes what we call arfenic.

When the cobalt has done fmoking, it is cooled, mixed
with pot-afhes and powder of white flint-ftones ; the mixture
is put in pots, and melted for five or fix hours in a furnace.
By this means, the matter is formed into a blue glafs, which
being put in cold water, cracks and grows tender ; and is,
at length, powdered by an engine, the fineft part feparated
by a fieve, put into a mill, and ground in water into a very
fine powder ; which, by walhing, is ftill farther feparated
from the coarfer, then dried in warm chambers, barrelled
up, and fent away.

There is not a more precarious procefs in all metallurgy
than the preparation of this fine blue glafs from cobalt,
nor any manufafture in which fo expert workmen are ne-
cefTary. The carrying the heat to too great a degree, in the
roalling of the cobalt, is a very mifchievous error ; and the
fuffering as much of the arfenic as may be to remain in the
earth, is greatly to the advantage of the fmalt ; and its co-
lour may be greatly heightened by adding common arfenic
to it while it is in fufion.

It is always neceflary to make careful and repeated expe-
riments on a new ore, or a kind of cobalt which has not been
worked before ; by trying it with various degrees of heat
in the roailing, and with different proportions of the flints
and pot-afh in the fufion. On comparing the feveral pro-
dufts of thefe experiments, it will ealily be feen which yields
the fineft colour, and this mull be always after followed in
the great operations.

It is well known, that the beautiful blue glafs, called
fmalt, is prepared from the fixed earth of cobalt ; but expe-
riments have proved, that this earth alone will not acquire
that fine colour. Dr. Link tried fome of it, by keeping
it eight hours in the molt intenfe heat ; yet on taking it out,
it was only a grey glafs, excepting that there were a few
blue fpccks in it near tlie edges of the crucible. Thefe
fpecks make no objedlion to this dodlrine, when properly
confidered ; for they were owing, doubtlefs, to the fame
fubilance which is found necelliry to be ufed, in order to
procure the blue colour.

Flints are the neceflary addition to cobalt for the making
of the blue glafs, or fmalt ; and the crucible being made of
earth, might eafily contain fome particles of fand. Every
piece of fand is a fmall (lone, of the nature of flint ; that
is, a piece of cryllal debafed by earth ; and thefe fmall
flinta mixing with the glafs of the cobalt earth, while in fu-

fion, rendered the fmall fpecks, where they were mixed,
true fmalt, while the reft remained grey and unaltered.

This earth of cobalt evidently contains fome portion of
copper, though fo fmall in quantity, that it can never be
difcemed by the common figns, and fo intimately blended
with the earth, that it can never be procured feparate. The
lightnefs of this earth alfo, in which the copper refides
after the fublimation of the arfenic, is a proof that its
quantity muft be very fmall ; yet that it exitts there is evi-
dent from the colours it affords.

Copper is well known to yield a green colour with acids,
and a fine blue with alkalies. Thus, a folution of this earth
in aqua fortis is of a deep green, and its glafs, when mixed
with the alkali of flints and of pot-a(h, is the deep blue
fmalt : nor is it wonderful, that the vitrified earth of cobalt
will never become blue by calcination alone, fince, if it owes
this colour to copper, it cannot be fuppofed to Ihew itfelf
till called forth by an alkali.

Some cobalt yields fmalt before roafting, even better than
it would afterwards : this is a peculiar kind of cobalt, but
is fo like the relt, that it cannot be dillinguifhed by the
eye ; but experiment alone (hews this property in it.

Though cobalt in general requires roafting, in order to fit
it for yielding the fmalt, yet its different kinds require fome
more, and fome lefs roailing ; and the degree can never be
judged of by the infpeftion of the mineral, but is only
known by the experienced artift in the procefs. Hence it is,
that expert and inteUigent perfons areneceliary in the fraalt-
works more than in almolt any other branch of this fort of
bufinefs.

The addition of a fmall quantity of arfenic, or of the ar-
fcnical flowers, during the time that the fmalt is in fufion,
adds greatly to the beauty of the colour : this is a praftice
kept fecret by the workmen of fome places ; and by this
means their fmalt is always rendered better than that of their
neighbours.

It is eafy to fee from this, that the roafting of cobalt is
the neceflary beginning of the fmalt-work, not the divelt«
ing it of its arfenic, which only happens accidentally in that
procefs ; and it would be much better if it did not happen,
fince we find the arfenic added afterwards exalts the colour.
From hence it is evident, that thofe cobalts which will make
fmalt without previous roalling, mull, as they are found to
do, make the very fineft fmalt, becaufe their arfenic is yet
left in them in great part ; and from this alfo appears the
neceflity of having expert workmen for the fmalt-making ;
fince the knowing the degree of fire neceflary to the ore is a
mofl efRntial article, and after the roafting has been carried
to a fufficient degree, every moment's heat diverting it
of more of its arfenic than was neceflary, makes the co-
lour of the fmalt to be made afterward; fo much the worfe.
From this alfo appears the reafon why the blue, made by
precipitation from a folution of cobalt, is fo much fupcrior
to the common fmalt made by fire ; becaufe in this the arfe-
nic is all prefcrved, whereas, in the common way of pre-
paring it by fire, it is driven off. Philof. Tranf. N° 396.
See Azure and Zai'fuk.

SMAMLEVO, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
the government of Viatka, on the Kama; 16 miles S. of
Sarapul.

SMARA, a name of Kama, the Hindoo cupid. (See
Kama. ) Smara means the ideal, and in the fanciful mytho-
logy of the Eafl, is the reputed fon of Maya, or illufion.
See Maya.

SMARAGD, rTfxi(xy^oc, a precious ilonc of a green
colour, very beautiful and brilliant ; called alfo the emerald ;
which fee. See alfo G£Mti.

SMAKAGDUS

S M E

S M E

SMARAGDUS Mons, in vincient Geography, a moun-
tain of Egypt, on the coalt of the Arabic gulf, between
Nechefia and Lepte Extrema, according to Ptolemy.

SMARIS, in Ichthyology, the name of a fmall fifh caught
in the Mediterranean, and common in the markets of Rome,
Venice, and elfewhere, and fold to the poorer fort of people
at a very fmall price. This, in the Linnsean fyftem, is a
fpecies of the fparus ; which fee.

It is feldom of more than a finger's length, and of a round,
not flattened body, of a dnflvy blackifh-green on the back
and fides, and not marked with any variegations, but having
on each fide, near the middle of the body, one large black
fpot ; its gill-fins and tail are of a faint red ; the iris of the
eyes is of a browni(h-white, and the tail is forked.

SMART, Peter, in Biography, a native of Warwick-
fhire, was educated at Weltminfter fchool, from whence he
removed to Oxford, and became a ftudent of Chriilchurch.
After entering orders, he obtained a prebend in Durham
cathedral, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his oppofitiou
to the ceremonies in religion, and the removal of the altar
from the middle of the choir to the eaft end of the church.
He preached and printed fome fermons on the vanity and
downfall of fuperilition ard popifh ceremonies, for which
he was degraded from the mmillry, and imprifoned. He
died in 1642. He was likewife author of poems, Latin and
Englilh

Smart, Christopher, a confiderable poet, born in
April, 1722, at Shipbourne, in Kent, was educated at
Maidftone and Durham fchools, and at the age of feventeen
he was entered at Pembroke Hall, Cambridij-e. By the
death of his father hi» affairs were cmbarraffed, but his
fpirits were not weighed down by family misfortunes, and
while he was the companioH of the gay, he cultivated the
Mufes, and obtained great credit and feveral academic prizes
for his college exercifts. His talents, however, were not
adapted to augment the means of fubfiftence, and at length
his diltrelles were fo great as to produce a derangement of
his mental faculties. He died in 1771, leaving behind him
a widow and two daughters, who fettled as bookfellers at
Reading. His works confift of fables, fonnets, odes, prize-
poems, &c. printed at Reading, in 2 vols. i2mo. 1 79 1. He
publifhed a profe tranflation of the works of Horace, and
tranflations in verfe of the Pfalms, and of the fables of Phs-
drus. As a poet, he poflefTed a large Ihare of originality ;
was fometimes very pathetic ; and, according to his biogra-
pher, he fometimes reached the true fublime.

StiART-lVecd, in Agr'uullure, a term applied to the biting
or pale-flowered perficaria, or arfmart, which is a troublc-
fome weed in arable land.

SMATCH, in Ornithology, a name by which the com-
mon oenanthe is called in many parts of England.

SMEAR-DAB, in Ichthyology, \s a name given to a fpe-
cies of dab amDng the filfimongers of London, which is of
equal goodnefs with the common dab.

SMEATON, Mark, in Biography, a mufician in the
fervice of Anna Bullen, and groom of her chamber, whom
Henry VIH. in a fit of jealoufy, or pretended jealoufy,
accufed of familiarity with his queen. The mufician, in
the vain hope of Hfe, was prevailed on to confefs a criminal
correfpondeiice with his royal mittrefs ; " but even this
unfortunate queen's enemies expected little advantage from
this cnnfeffion, for they never dared confront him with her."
Hume's Hift. Hen. VIH. chap. v.

" The queen faid, he was never in her chamber, but when
the iing was lalt at Winchefter ; and then he came in to
play on the virginah. She faid, that fhe never fpoke to
him after that, but on Saturday before May day, when fhe

faw him ftanding in the window, and then ftie aficed htm,
why he was fo fad ? he faid, it was no matter : fhe anfwered,
you may not look to have me fpeak to you, as if you were
a nobleman, fince you are an inferior perfon. No, no,
madam, laid he, a look fufficeth me." Burnet's Hiit. of
the Reform, vol. i. book iii. p. 199.

Smeaton, John, an eminent civil engineer, was born on
the z8th of May, 1724, at Aullhorpe, near Leeds. The
Itrength of his underftanding, and the originality of his
genius, appeared at an early age ; his playthings were not
the playthings of children, but the tools which men employ ;
and when he was a mere -child, he appeared to take greater
pleafure in feeing the operations of workmen, and afking
them queftions, than in any thing elfe. Before he was
fix years old, he was once difcovered at the top of his father's
barn, fixing up what he called a wind-m.ill of his own con-
flruftion ; and at another time, while he was about the fame
age, he attended fome men fixing a pump, and obferving them
cut off a piece of the bored part, he procured it, and ac-
tually made a pump, with which he ra'.fed water. When
he was under fifteen years of age, he made an engine for
turning, and worked feveral things in ivory and wood,
which he prefented to his friends. He made all his own
tools for working in wood and metals, and he conitrufted a
lathe, by which he cut a perpetual fcrew in brafs, a thing
but little known, and which was the invention of Mr,
Henry Hindley of York, with whom Mr. Smeaton became
acquainted, and indeed extremely intimate. Mr. Smjcaton,
by the time that he was eighteen years of age, acquired,
by the ilrength of his genius and indefatigable induftry, an
extenfive fet of tools, and the art of working in molt me-
chanical trades, without the affiftance of a mailer. A part
of every day was ufually occupied in forming fome inge-
nious piece of mechanifm. His father was an attori-cv,
and being defirous to bring up his fon to the fame profeffion,
he brought him up to London with him in 1742, and at-
tended the courts in Weltminfter-Hall ; but after fome time,
finding that the law was not fuited to his difpofition, he
wrote a ftrong memorial to his father on the fubject, who
immediately defired the young man to follow the bent of
his inchnation. In 1751 he began a courfe of experiments
to try a machine of his own invention to meafure a fhip's
way at fea, and alfo made two voyages, in company with
Dr, Knight, to try the effeflof it, and alfo for the purpofe
of making experiments on a compafs of hij own conllruction,
which was rendered magnetical by Dr. Knight's artificial
magnets. In 1753 he was elefted a fellow of the Royal
Society ; and the number of papers which he publifhed in
their Tranfaclions, will fhew how highly he deferved the
honour of being enrolled a member of that ufeful and im-
portant body. In 1759 he received from the council of
the Royal Society, by an unanimous vote, their gold medal
for his paper, entitled " An experimental Inquiry concern-
ing the natural Powers of Water and Wind to turn Mills
and other Machines, depending on a circular Motion."
The paper was the refult of experiments made on working
models in the years 1752 and 1753, though not commu-
nicated to the fociety till 1759 ; and in the interval he had
opportunities of carrying into effeft feveral of his inventions
and theories, which rendered his paper of much more real
value to the fociety and the public at large. In 175 J, the
Eddystoxe Light-houfe was burnt down (^fce the article),
and Mr. Smeaton being recommended to the proprietors
of that building as an engineer in every way calculated to
rebuild it, he undertook the work, which was completed in
1759, much to the fatisfadion of the parties concerned.
Still he was not fully employed as a civil engineer, for in the

vear

S M E

S M E

year 1764, while he was in Yorkfhire, he offered hirafelf as
a candidate for the office of receiver to the Derwent water
eftate ; and in the courfe of the year he obtained the ap
pointment in a manner moft flattering to himfelf, inafmuch
as his own merit carried the point in oppofition to two
other candidates who were ftrongly recommended and
powerfully fupported. He was very happy in this appoint-
ment, particularly in the alTiftanee which he received from
Mr. Walton, the other receiver, who took upon himfelf the
management of the accounts, leaving Mr. Snieaton leifure
and opportunity to exert his abilities on public works. In
the year 1773, he had fo much bufinefs as a civil engineer,
that he wifhcd to refign this appointment ; but his friends
prevailed on him to continue in office two years longer.
After this, Mr. Smeaton was employed on many works
of great public utility. He made the river Calder navi-
gable, a work that required talents of the very firll order,
M owing to the impetuous floods in that river ; he planned
I and attended to the execution of the great canal in Scot-
land, for conveying the trade of the country either to
the Atlantic or German ocean ; and as a proof of the
difintereftednefs of his habits, having brought it to the
place originally intended, he declined a handfome yearly
falary, in order that he might attend to other bufinefs.
On the opening of the great arch at London-bridge, the
excavation around and under the ftarlings was fo confider-
able, that the bridge was thought to be in great danger of
falling. Mr. Smeaton was then in Yorkfhire, and was
fent for exprefs, and he arrived without any delay. " I
think," fays his biographer, " that it was on a Saturday
morning when the apprehenfion of the bridge was fo ge-
neral, that few perfons would venture to pafs over or under
it. Mr. Smeaton applied himfelf immediately to examine
it, and to found about the ftarlings as minutely as poflible,
and the committee being called together, adopted his
advice, which was to repurchafe the ftones that had been
U taken from the middle pier, then lying in Moorfields, and
to throw them into the river to guard the darlings. In
this way Mr. Smeaton probably faved London-bridge from
falling, and fecured it till more effeftual methods could be
adopted."

Mr. Smeaton was appointed engineer to Ramfgate har-
bour, and brought it into a (tate of great utility by various
operations, of which he piiblifhed an account in 1791.
The variety of miUs which Mr. Smeaton conftrufted, fhews
the great ufes which he made of his experiments already re-
ferred to ; for it was a rule with him, from which he never
willingly deviated, not to truil to theory in any cafe, where
he could have an opportunity to invelligate a fubjeft by
real trial. He built a Iteam-engine at Auilhorpe, and
made a vaft number of experiments with it to afcertain
the power of Newcomen's engine (fee SrEAM-Engine),
which he improved and brought to a far greater degree of
pcrfeAion, both in its conftruftion and powers, than it was
before. Mr. Smeaton, during many years of his life, was
a frequent attendant upon parliament, his opinion on various
works begun or projefted being continually called for.
And in thefe cafes the ftrcngth of his judgment and per-
fpicuity of expreflion had f'jU fcope. It was his conftant
cuftom, when applied to plan or fupport any meafure, to
make himfelf fully maflcr of the fubjeft, to underfland its
merits and probable dcfefts, before he would engage in it.
By this caution, added to the clcarnefs of his expreflion,
and the integrity of his heart, he feldom failed to obtain
for the bill which he fupported the fanftion of an aft of par-
liament. No one was ever heard with more attention, nor
had any one ever more confidence placed m his tcltimony.
Vol. XXXIIL

In the courts of law he had feveral compliments paid liim
from the bench by lord Mansfield and other judges, for
the new light that he always threw upon difficult fubjefts.
About the year 1785, the health of this excellent man began
to decline, and he took the refolution to avoid all the bufinefs
he could, in order that he might hare leifure to publi(h an
account of his inventions, improvements, and works, by
which he conceived he Ihould be doing a public benefit to
his country and the world. In September 1792, he had
a paralytic feizure, which put a period to his life in about
fix weeks.

Mr. Smeaton had a warmth of expreffion that might
appear to thofe who did not know him, to border upon
harlhnefs, but thofe more intimately acquainted with him
knew that it arofe from the intenfe application of his mind,
which was always in the purfuit of truth, or engaged in
fome difficult fubjefts. If he were fometimes apparently
hafty and impetuous in his difpofition, he would always
liften to reafon, and yield to the force of argument.

In all the focial duties of life he was exemplary : his
manners were firaple, and his mode of life abitemious. He
was fingularly moderate in his pecuniary concerns. He
was fond of fcience for-its own fake, and fpent much of
his leifure in cultivating that of aftronomy ; for which pur-
pofe, he fitted up an obfervatory in his houfe, furnilTied
with curious contrivances of his own invention. He wa«
a friend and encourager of merit wherever he difcerned it,
and many perfons were indebted to him for important
affillance on their entrance into hfe. Mr. Smeaton was
the inftitutor, in 1771, of a fociety of civil engineers, which
was diii'olved at his death, but afterwards renewed ; they
publi(hed, in 1797, a volume of his Reports. For his
works in conftrufting bridges, mills, harbours, engines, &c.
fee his Reports, in 3 vols. 4to. Of his inventions and im-
provements of philofophical inftruments, an idea may be
formed from the lift of his writing! which is inferted in
Hutton's Diftionary.

SMECTIS, in Natural Nijlory, a name ufed by feveral
authors for the common fuUer'.s-earth, more commonly
called tlmolia purpurafcens .

SMECTYMNUUS, a cant term that made forae figure
in the time of the civil war, and during the Interregnum.
It was formed of the initial letters of the names of five
eminent Prefbytcrian miniftcrs of that time, viz. Stephen
Marlhal, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew New-
comen, and WiUiam Spurllow ; who, together, wrote a
book againlt epifcopacy, in the year 1641, whence they and
their retainers were called Smeftymnuans.

SMECZNA, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Schlan ; 3 miles S. of Schlan.

SMEGMA, a kind pf walh in ufe among the ancients.
See Detkrsorium.

SMEGMADERMOS, in Botany. Sec Smkgmahia.

SMEGMA RI A, judicioufly abbreviated by Willdenow,
from Smfgmadermos, the name originally given to this genus,
by the authors of the Flora Peruviana ; which, being com-
pofed oi ajxtfj fLV., foab, and it(iJ.a,Jiin, alludes to the ufe made
of the bark in wafhing, — " Ruiz et Pavon Prodr. 144.
t. 31." Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 1123.— Clafs and order,
Polygamia Dioecia, WilU. More properly, a» wc prefume,
DecanJria Penlagynia. Nat Ord. allied to Rutacex of
Juffieu.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth Inferior, of one leaf, coriaceous,
downy, in fire deep, ovate, equal fegmcnts, permanent.
Cor. Petals five (not fix), obovate, the length of the calyx,
alternate with its fegments ; their claws flendcr, Neftary
of five orbicular, I'mooth, dcpreffed lobes, oppofite to, and
Z lying

S M E

lying; upon, the fegments of the calyx, and about half as
long. Stam. Filaments ten, a\vl-(haped, fmooth, the length
of the calyx, five of them inferted into the receptacle, five
into the neftaries ; anthers incumbent, nearly orbicular, of
two cells burfting in front. Fiji. Germeii fuperior, fnriall,
roundilh, villous, in five dillinft lobes ; ftylea five, vertical,
ereft, cylindrical, fmooth, {horter than the Ilamens ; ftigmas
fmall, obtufe. Perk. Capfules five, fpreading in the form
of a ftar, obovate, coriaceous, of one cell and two valves.
Seeds feveral, winged. •

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five. Neftary of
five orbicular deprefled lobes, oppofite to the calyx, alter-
nate with the petals, and bearing five of the ftamens. Cap-
fules five, fuperior. Seeds numerous, winged.

I. S. emarginala. Chili Soap-bark. ( Smegmadermos
emarginatus ; " Ruiz et Pavon. Syft. Veg. v. i. 288.
Quillaja faponaria ; Molin. Chil. ed. Germ. 150.") — Native
of woods in Chili, about Puchacay, where it is known by
the name of Ouillay. Our fpecimen was fent by the late
abbe Cavamlles. The tree is faid to be twenty ells in
height, bearing abundance of leafy branches, which are round,
much fubdivided, knotty, finely downy when young. Leaves
an inch long, alternate, on (hort broad ftalks, broadly ellip-
tical, obtufe, coriaceous, evergreen, fmooth, fliining, veiny,
entire in our fpecimen, though reported to be fometimes
toothed. Sttpulns minute, awl-fhaped, membranous, in
pairs, deciduous. Flowers few together, on axillary or
terminal, rtiort, downy flalks. Calyx expanding more than
half an inch, thickly clothed all over with (hort, denfe, white
pubefcence, as in Gretuia and TUia, to which we at firlt fuf-
pefted this genus might be allied ; as perhaps is the cafe,
though it will not anfwer to Jufiieu's definitions of his
TUiacee, or indeed any other order. The petals are probably
white or pink, but of this we have no information. Cap-
fules near an inch long, externally downy ; their inner coat
fmooth, cracking tranfverfely with age, but we can difcern
nothing like the feparate elaftic tunic of the true Rutace<e. —
Nothing but error and inconvenience can refult from placing
this genus in the clafs Polygamia.

SMELBURG, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 50 miles N. of Gnefna.

SMELL, Odor, with regard to the organ, is an im-
preffion made on the nofe by little particles continually ex-
haling from odorous bodies.

Smell, with regard to the objeft, is the figure and dif-
pofition of odorous effluvia, which, flicking on the organ,
excite the fenfe of fmelling.

Smell, with regard to the foul, is the perception of the
impreflion of the objeft on the organ ; or the affeftion in the
foul refulting from it.

Smell, like tafte, confifts altogether in the arrangement,
compofition, and figure of the parts, as appears from the
following experiments of Mr. Boyle.

1. From a mixture of two bodies, each of which is,
of itfelf, void of all fmell, a very urinous fmell may be
drawn : this is done by the grinding of quicklime with fal
ammoniac.

2. By the admixture of common water, which of itfelf
is void of fmell, or inodorous, another inodorous body may
be made to emit a very rank fmell. Thus, camphor dif-
folved in oil of vitriol is inodorous, yet mixed with water
It immediately exhales a very itrong fmell.

3. Compound bodies may emit fmells, which have no fimili-
tude to the fmells of the fimples of which they confift. Thus,
oil of turpentine, mixed witli a double quantity of oil of
vitriol, and diftilled ; after diftillation, there is no fmell
but of fulphur ; and what is left behind in the retort, be-

S M E

ing again urged by a more violent fire, yields a foiell like
oil of wax.

4. Several fmells are only to be drawn forth by motion
and agitation. Thus, glafs, ftones, &c. which, even when
heated, yield no fmell ; yet, when rubbed and agitated in
a peculiar manner, emit a ftrong fmell : particularly beech-
wood, in turning, yields a kind of rofy fmell.

5. A body that has a llrong fmell, by being mixed
with an inodorous one, may ceafe to have any fmell at all.
Thus, if aqua fortis, not well dephlegmated, be poured
on fait of tartar, till it ceafe to ferment ; the liquor, when
evaporated, will yield inodorous cryftals, much refembling
nitre ; yet thefe, when burnt, will yield a molt noifome
fmell.

6. From a mixture of two bodies, one of which fmellg
extremely ill, and the other not well, a very pleafant aroma-
tic odour may be gained, w'z. by a mixture of aqua fortis,
or fpirit of nitre, with an inflammable fpirit of wine.

7. Spirits of wine, by mixing with an almoft inodorous
body, may gain a very pleafaiit aromatic fmell. Thus, in-
flammable fpirits of wine and oil of Dantzic vitriol, mixed
in equal portions, then digelted, and at lall dillilled, yield
a fpirit of a very fragrant fmell. »

8. A moll fragrant body may degenerate into a fetid
one, without the admixture of any other body. Thus, if
the fpirit mentioned in the former experiment be kept in
a well-clofed receiver, it will foon acquire the ranknefs of
garlic.

9. From two bodies, one of which is inodorous, and the
other fetid, a very pleafant fmell may arife, much refem-
bling muflc, ii/'a. by putting pearls into fpirit of vitriol ;
for, when diflblved, they yield a very agreeable fmell. See
Smelling.

Smell is ufed as a name for a peculiar fort of wine, of
which there are two fpecies ; the one fort is very fragrant,
mufcatelline, and aromatic ; this is called fimply ihefmell-
ivine: but the other, which is very rank and ofFenfive to
the nofe, is called by the Germans fmell-bruntzer. Many
have been the conjeftures about the occafion of the rank
fmell of this wine.

The fmell is truly urinous, and is that of a volatile al-
kali ; which not^being embodied in, or fubdued by the acid
of the grape in this imperfe& fermentation, vents itfelf in
this rank manner.

It is evident, that the fmell is of a volatile nature, for it
is often loll in the drawing of the wine feveral times out
of one veflel into another, evaporating during the time of
drawing it out.

SMELLIE, William, M.D., in Biography, an emi-
nent teacher and pradlitioner of midwifery, was a native of
Scotland. After having fucceffively praAifed this art in a
fmall town of that country for a period of nineteen years,
he removed to London, and in 1 741 was living in Pall-
Mali, where Dr. William Hunter refided with him. This
circumftance implies, that he had already rifen to confider-
able eminence in his line, and he was in fadl in high repute
as a lefturer, being attended by a numerous concourfe of
pupils of both fexes. This reputation, indeed, he appears
to have merited by his talents and afliduity ; for he was
the firll in propofing many of the practical improvements,
which modern experience has admitted into the praftlce of
midwifery, and by his mechanical llcill he contributed mate-
rially to the improvement of the inltruments employed to
facihtate delivery in difficult cafes, and to the difufe of
thofe which were lefs fafe and convenient ; and he efta-
blifhed fome ufeful rules for their application. He was the
firft writer, who, by accurately determining the fliape and
4 fize

S M E

fizc of the pelvis, and of the head of the fcetus, and com-
paring their proportions, and the true pofition of the fcetus
in utero, pointed out clearly the whole progrefs of the
child during parturition : and his opinions were fubfequently
confirmed, efpecially by Dr. Hunter, from obfervations
made after death, where parturition had not been completed.
The improvement which he made in the forceps, which has
fince been univerfally adopted, is well known, and he taught
the prefent manual mode of ufing them. He aboliflied
many fuperftitious notions and erroneous cuftoms that pre-
vailed in the management of parturient women and of the
children ; and he had the fatisfaftion to fee the greater part
of his maxims adopted, not only in this ifland, but by
many of the moft refpeftable praftitioners in Europe.

In the year 1752, he piiblilhed the fubitance of his lec-
tures, in the improvement and correftion of which he affirms,
that he had fpent fix years, in one volume 8vo., under
the title of " A Treatife on Midwifery ;" to which, in
1754, he added a fecond volume of cafes, intended to
illullrat'e the precepts laid down in the former. An ad-
ditional volume of cafes, which he promifed in his pre-
face, did not appear till about five years after his death,
in 17 68. The whole formed the moll complete fyftem of
the art of midwifery, which had then appeared, and
was regarded as the beit authority : it was, in faft, the
refult of an extenfive experience of forty years, and
contained a very comprehenfive view of the various cir-
cumftances that ufiially occur, with inftruftions refpefting
the beft rieans of obviating them. In 1754, Dr. Smelhe
likewife publiihed jI fet of anatomical plates, of a large
folio fize, and thirty-fix in number, which were intended
farther to elucidate the doftrines of his leftures. In eleven
of ihefe he acknowledges the affiftance of the late profelTor
Cowper. Like other ingenious men of original charafter.
Dr. Smellie was affailed by fome critics and opponents, efpe-
cially by Dr. Burton of York, and by Dr. W. Douglas,
with great acrimony ; but he ever maintained the charafter
of a man of ingenuity and judgment ; he was remarkably
candid and modelt in his demeanour, and upright and difinte-
relled in all his concerns. His reputation and fuccefs were
the refult of his merit alone ; for his awkwardnefs of per-
fon and unpoliflied manners prevented him from rifing to
the higheft line of praftice ; but he was much eileemed by
his pupils, and by thofe who employed him. He ultimately
retired to Lanark, where he fpent the latter years of his
life, and died in 1763, at an advanced age. Hutchinfon
Med. Biog. Gen. Biog.

SMELLING, the aft whereby we perceive fmells, or
by which we become icnfible of odorous bodies, by means
of certain effluvia, which, llriking on the olfaftory organ,
brifldy enough to have their impulfe propagated to the brain,
excite a fcnfation of the foul.

Ttie principal organs of fmelling are the nollrils and the
olfaftory nerves ; the minute ramifications of which latter
are diftributed throughout the whole concave of the former.
See NcsE.

Smelling is performed by the odorous effluvia, floating in
the air, being drawn into the noftrile, in infpiration, andflruck
with fucli force againlt the fibrilla: of the olfactory nerves,
which the figure of the nofe, and the fituation of the little
bones, render oppofite thereto, as to fhake them, and give
them a vibratory motion ; which aftion, being communi-
cated hence to the common fenfory, occafions an idea of a
fweet, or fetid, or four, or an aromatic, or a putrefied
objeft, &c.

The matter in animals, vegetables, fodilv, Sccwhichchiefly
affcft the fcnfe of fmelling, Boerhaave obfcrves, ie that

S M E

fubtiie (ubttance, inherent in the oily parts of them, called
fptrits : becaufe, when this is taken away from the molt fra-
grant bodies, what remains has fcarcely any fmell at all; but
this, poured on the moft inodorous bodies, gives them a
fragrancy.

Willis obferves, that brutes have, generally, the fenfe oi
imelling in much greater perfeftion than man ; as by this
alone, they dillinguilh the virtues and qualities of bodies un-
known before ; hunt out their food at a great dillance, as
hounds and birds of prey ; or hid among other fubllances,
as ducks, &c.

Man, having other means of judging of his fof J, &c.
did not need fo much fagacity in his r.jfe ; yet have we
inltances of a very conCderable degree of it, even in man.
In the Hiftoire des Antilles, we are allured, there are
Negroes, who, by the fmeUing alone, can diltinguilh be-
tween the footfteps of a Frenchman and a Negro.

It is foiand that the laminx, with which the upper part
of the noftrils is fenced, and which ferve to receive the
divarications of the olfaftory nerves, are alw.'iys longer, and
folded up together in greater numbers, as the animal has
this fenfe more accurate : the various windings and turnino-s
of thefe lamins detain and fetter more of the odoriferous
particles.

The fenfe of fmelling may be diminilhed or deftroyed by
difeafes ; as the moilture, drynefs, inflammation or fuppu-
ration of the olfaftory membrane, the compreflion of the
nerves which fupply it, or fome fault in the brain itfelf at
their origin. A defeft, or too great a degree of folidity
of the fmall fpungy bones of the upper jaw, the caverns of
the forehead, &c. may likewife impair this ienfe ; and it
may be alfo injured by a coUeftion of fetid matter in thefe
caverns, which is continually exhaling from them, and alfo
by immoderate ufe of fnufF. When the nofe abounds with
moifture, after gentle evacuations, fuch things as tend to
take off irritation, and coagulate the thin fliarp ferum, may
be applied, as the oil of anife, mixed with fine flour, cam-
phor difl'olved in oil of almonds. Sec. the vapours of amber,
frankincenfe, gum-maftic, and benjamin, may likewife be
received into the nofe and mouth. For moiltening the
mucus when it is too dry, fome recommend fnufF made of
the leaves of marjoram, mixed with oil of amber, marjoram,
and anifeed ; or a Iternutatory of calcined white vitriol,
twelve grains of which may be mixed with two ounces of
marjoram water, and filtrated. The ileam of vinegar upon
hot iron, and received up the noitrils, is alfo of ulc for
foftening the mucus, removing obitruftions, &c. If tliere
be an ulcer in the nofe, it ought to be drcffed with fome
emollient ointment, to which, if the pain be very great,
a little laudanum may be added. If it be a venereal ulcer,
twelve grains of corrofive fublimate may be diflolved in a
pint and a half of brandy, and a table-fpoonful of it taken
twice a-day. The ulcer ought likewife to be waflied
with it, and the fumes of cinnabar may be received up the
noflrils.

If there be reafon to fufpcft that tlic nerves, which fup.
ply the organs of fmelling, are inert, or want Simulating,
volatile falts, or Itrong fnufl^s, and other things, which oc-
cafion fneezing, may be applied to the nofe ; the forehead
may likewife be anointed with baliam of Peru, to which
may be added a little oil of amber. See Brain, Lii-i;, and
Nkuvous Syjltm.

SMELNITZ, or SzoMOLNOK, in Geography, a town of
Hungary ; 14 miles S. of Kapfdorf.

SMEl/r, jlpua Phalfrica, or Sahno Eperlanut of Lin-
nxus, in Ichthyology, a filh which is clafled, by the gene-
rality ol writera, among tlie truttaceous kinds, and is ac-
Z 2 knowledged

S M E

S M E

knowledged to have a general external refemblance to the
falmon. See S almo E^crlanus.

It inhabits the feas ot the northern parts of Europe, and,
Mr. Pennant apprehends, is never found as far fouth as the
Mediterranean.

Thefe fi(h will live almoft any where, but they are very
apt to degenerate. They are common in the rivers of New
England, and are as large as with us, often weighing two
ounces and a half; but a pailful of thefe being taken from
one of their rivers, and put into an adjoining pond, they
all degenerated in fuch a manner, that they were afterwards
found fo fmall, that the largeft did not weigh more than
five pennyweights. Though thus fmall, however, they are
much valued, and are better tafted than the others. Philof.
Tranf. N° 374. p. 232.

They are called fmelts, becaufe they melt, as it were, or
diiTolve between the fingers in handling them ; or, as others
fay, on account of their fcent, quajl fmell It. The name
fparling, by which they are called in Wales and the north
of England, is taken from the French eperlan : fmelts are
often fold in the ilreets of London fplit and dried, and
called dried fparlings .

Smelt Ftjh'mg. See Fishing, Smelt,
Smelt, among the fifhermcn in Yorklhire, and fome
other parts of England, is alfo a name given to the falmon,
while in its firft year. See Salmon.

SMELTING, among MetaUifls, the melting of a
metal from the ore in a fmelting furnace ; in order to fepa-
rate the metallic parts from the fulphur and arfenic, and the
earthy and ftrong fubltances of all kinds with which they
are combined.

Smelting, in propriety, is reftrained to large works, in
which ores from the mines are melted down and fepa-
rated.

In fpeaking of works in a lefTer way, we do not fay
fmelting, but melting.

In the more precious metals this is called refining; which
fee. And fmelting is moil commonly applied to the reduc-
tion of iron ores.

The art of fmelting the ores of all metallic fubftances
was, probably, at firlt very imperfeft ; hence the ufe of
iron has every where been of a more recent date than that
of the other metals, becaufe it requires the application of a
much ftronger fire to fmelt the ores of iron than thofe of
any other metal. We have no certain accounts when, or
by whom, the feveral metals were difcovered. Wallerius
fayj, that, as far as he knew, Pliny was the firft who enu-
merated the fix metals ; but they were certainly known long
before his age, and were mentioned both by Homer and by
Mofes, a much more ancient author. (Numb. xxxi. 22.)
From this teftimony we may certainly infer, that all the
metals, anciently mentioned, were known, at leaft in the
country of the Midianites, above fourteen hundred and
fifty years before the birth of Chrift, or near nine hundred
years after the deluge. Moreover, iron and copper were,
without doubt, known before the deluge, and probably all
the other metals, which are more eafily exlrafted from their
ores than the former.

In the time of Abraham, however, gold and filver were
efleemed, as they are at prefent, precious metals (Gen.
xxiii. 16. Gen. xiii. 2.) ; and hence it is reafonable to
conclude, that Noah was able to inftruft his defcendants
in the art of fmelting metallic ores ; this art was after-
wards loft among the various colonies, which quitted the
plains of ACa in fearch of fettlements ; and as the earth,
foon after tlie deluge, and long before it could have been
peopled by the pofterity of Noah, muft have become cover-
lot

ed with wood, and in procefs of time different coimtrin
might have been cleared by fetting the wood on fire, which,
might flux metallic ores contiguous to the furface of the
earth, it is not improbable, that the firft idea of fmelting
ores might have been thus fuggefted to many nations. See
Creech's Lucretius, vol. ii. p. 572.

We may hence coiijcfture, that tlie firft rude procefs, by
which metals were extrafted from their ores, was that ot
putting a quantity of ore upon a heap of wood, and fet-
ting the pile on fire, in conformity to the manner, in which
ores were fmclted during the burning of forefts; but as
the force of the fire is greatly diminiftied by the difperfion
of its flame, and as the air afts more forcibly in exciting
fire, when it ruihes upon it with greater velocity, it is likely
that the heap of wood and ore would foon be furrounded
with a wall of ftone, in which fufficient openings would be
left for the entrance of the air, and thus a kind of furnace
would be conftrufted.

The Peruvians, we are told, had difcovered the art of
fmelting and refining filver, either by the fimple apphcatioa
of fire, or where the ore was more Itubbom, and impregnated
with foreign fubftances, by placing it in fmall ovens or fur-
naces on high grounds, fo artificially conftrufted, that the
draught of air performed the funftion of a bellows, a ma-
chine with which they were totally unacquainted. This
method of fmelting ores on high grounds, without the aflift-
ance of a bellows, or at leaft of bellows moved by water,
feems to have been formerly praftifed in other countries as
well as in Peru. There are feveral places in Derbylhire,
called loleshy the inhabitants, where lead has been anciently
fmelted, before the invention of moving bellows by water ;
thefe boles were always fituated upon high grounds, and
moftly upon that fide of a hill which faces the weft, pro-
bably becaufe the wind proceeds moft frequently from that
quarter.

From a pig of lead, dug up in 1 766 at one of thefe bolej
near Matlock, and bearing an infcription in relievo, from
which it appears to have been fmelted in the age of Adrian ;
many of the boles in Derbyftiire feem to be of high anti-
quity. However, this method of fmelting ore by the va-
riable aftion of the wind, being a very troublefome and pre-
carious procefs, has been univerfally difufed, and the more
regular blaft of a bellows has been introduced in its ftead.

The invention of the bellows is attributed by Strabo
to Anacharfis, the Scythian ; but he was probably the im-
prover of this machine ; for Homer, who lived long before
his time, defcribes Vulcan as employing twenty pair of
bellows at once in the formation of the ftiield of Achilles.
Iliad, hb. xviii. v. 470.

When the art of moving bellows by means of a water-
wheel was firft difcovered, is uncertain ; the ancients feem
to have been unacquainted with it ; but we learn from
Agricola (De Re Metal. publi(hed in 153O, pp. 165. 338.)
that it was very generally known, at leaft among the Ger-
mans, in his time ; for he fpeaks of it often, without hint-
ing at its being a recent invention. By this advantageous
contrivance, however, the moderns have, in many inftances,
worked over again, with confiderable profit, the heaps of
iron and other kinds of flag, from which the metal has been
but imperfeftly extrafted, before the moving of the bellows
by water was difcovered.

About fifty years ago, the blaft, or hearth-furnace, was
the only one in ufe for fmelting lead-ore in Derbylhire. In
this furnace, ore and charcoal, or ore, and what is called
ivhite coal, which is wood dried but not charred, being
placed, ill alternate layers, upon a hearth properly con-
ftrufted, the fire is raifed by the blaft of a bellows, moved

by

SMELTING.

by a water-wheel ; the ore is foon fmelted by the violence
of the fire, and the lead, as it is produced, trickles down a
proper channel, into a place contrived for its reception.
Thefe ore-hearths are now very rare ; though they are fre-
quently applied to the extradling lead from the flag which
is produced, either at the ore-hearth, or the cupola furnace,
and they are then called Jlag-htarths, and the lead thus
obtained is cMedJlag-lead ; the fire in a flag-hearth is made
of the cinder of pit-coal inftead of charcoal ; the furnace
called a cupol, or cupola, and rcverbtratory furnace, and by
the Germans a luind-furnace, in which ores are fmelted
by the flame of pit-coal, is faid to have been invented
about the year 1698, by a phyfician named Wright ; though
Becher may, perhaps, be thought to have a prior claim to
its invention, or introduftion from Germany. But who-
ever was the firft inventor of the cupola, it is now in
general ufe, not only in Derbyfhire and other counties for
the fmelting of ores of lead, but both at home and abroad,
where it is called the Englijb furnace, for the fmelting of
copper ores. This furnace is fo contrived, that the ore is
melted, not by commg into immediate contaft with the fuel,
but by the reverberations of the flame upon it. The bot-
tom of the furnace, on which the lead-ore is placed, is fome-
what concave, (helving from the fides towards the middle ;
its roof is low and arched, refembling the roof of a baker's
oven ; the fire is placed at one end of the furnace, upon an
iron grate, to the bottom of which the air has free accefs ;
at the other end, oppofite to the fire-place, is a high perpen-
dicular chimney ; the diredlion of the flame, when all the
apertures in the fides of the furnace are clofed up, is necef-
farily determmed, by the ftream of air which enters at the
grate, towards the chimney, and in tending thither it ftrikes
upon the roof of the furnace, and being reverberated from
thence upon the ore foon melts it. This furnace does not
require the ufe of bellows, and may, therefore, be con-
ilrufted any where. In fmelting lead-ore, they generally
put into the cupola furnace a ton of ore, previoufly beat
fmall and drelTed, at one time, wliich quantity they call a
charge ; and they work oft three charges of ore in every
twenty-four hours. In about fix hours from the time of
charging, the ore becomes as fluid as milk. In order to
obtain the lead free from the flag which fwims over it, the
fmelters ufually throw in about a bufliel of lime, which dries
up the flag, and prevents its running out with the lead.
The flag, thus thickened, is raked up towards the fides of
the furnace, and the lead guflies out through a hole in one
of the fides of the furnace, which having been properly flop-
ped during the fmelting of the ore, is opened for this pur-
jjofe into an iron pot, from which it is laded into iron
moulds, containing what they call a pig of lead ; the pigs,
when cold, being ordinarily llamped with the maker's name,
are fold under tiie name of ore-lead. After the lead has all
flowed out of the furnace, they (lop up the tap-hole, and
drawing down the flag and lime into the middle of the fur-
nace, they raife the fire, till the mixture of flag and lime,
which they fimply term Jlag, is rendered very liquid ; upon
this mafs they throw another quantity of lime, and proceed
as before. When the lead thus obtained, amounting gene-
rally to twenty or thirty pounds, is let out of the furnace, a
new charge of ore is |)ut in and the operation renewed.

In order to fpare the time and expence of fuel, they have,
in fome furnaces, lately contrived a hole, through which they
fufl^er the main part of the liquid flag to flow out, before
they tap the furnace for the lead ; upon the little remaining
flag they throw a fmall portion of lime, and draw the mix-
ture out of the furnace without fmelting it. This kind of
furnace they have nicknamed a moccuroni.

Dr. Watfon has fuggelled fome improvements in the con-
ftruAion of this furnace, and in the procefs of fmelting above
defcribed. He propofes to fubftitute an horizontal chimney
in the place of the perpendicular one now in ufe, and that
the end fartheft from the fire fliould be turned up by a
tube of earthen-ware, or otherwife ; fo that the fulphureous
acid, fet at hberty during the burning of the fulphur, may
iflue out in a diredion parallel to the flue of the chimney,
and at the diftance of about one foot and a half above it.
Let a number of large globular veflels be made either of glafs
or lead, each of which muft have two necks, fo as to be
capable of being inferted into one another : let thefe veflels
be placed in the flue of the chimney, the neck of the firft
being inferted into the above-mentioned tube, and the neck
of the laft being left open, for fear of injuring the draught
of the furnace. Let each of thefe globular veflels contain
a fmall quantity of water, in which cafe, he apprehends,
that the heat of the flue will raife the water into vapour, and
that this watery vapour will be the means of condenfing the
fulphureous acid vapour, in fuch a degree as to render the
undertaking profitable. When the fulphur is all confumed,
the draught of the furnace may be fuffered to have its ordi-
nary exit at the end of the horizontal chimney, by a very flight
contrivance of a moveable damper.

The fame ingenious writer alfo obferves, that very ful-
phureous ore fliould be roalled for a long time with a gentle
heat. He alfo propofes to leave as little lead as poflible in
the flag ; for this purpofe he fuggelts, that it might be
ufeful to throw a quantity of charcoal-duft upon the liquid
fcoria in the cupola furnace, in order that the calcined lead
might be converted into lead, by uniting itfclf to the inflam-
mable principle of the charcoal ; and that it might be alfo
ufeful to flux fulphureous lead-ores in conjunftion with the
fcales or other refufe pieces of iron, or even with fome forts
of iron-ore.

The fmelter nfight farther find it worth his while to re-
duce the flag into a powder by a ftamping mill, or to grind
it by any other contrivance, and then he may fcparate the
ftony part of the flag from the metaUic, by wafliing the whole
in water, inafmuch as the metallic part is heavier than the
other. Watfon's Chem. Efl". vol. iii. p. 253, &c.

The other furnaces ufed in fmelting are fupplied with
large bellows, moved by the arbor of a wheel, which is
turned round by a current of water. Thefe have obtained
different names, according to fome difference in their con-
ftruftion. Their greater or lefs height gives occafion alfo
to the diftinftion of high furnaces and middle furnaces. The
high furnaces are of modern invention ; they were firft intro-
duced at Mansfelt in 1727, and are now ufed in almolt all
countries where ores are fmelted, as in Saxony, Bohemia,
Hungary, &c. They contribute, by their great height, being
above eighteen feet high, which allows the ore to undergo a
roalling by di|Terent degrees of heat before it is melted, to
Amplify and diminifli the labour. They are chiefly em-
ployed for crude fufions, and particularly for the flate
copper-ore.

In order to facilitate the extraftion of metallic (ubflances
from the ores and minerals containing them, fome operations,
previous to the fufion or fmelting of thefe ores and minerals,
are generally nccefl'ary. Thefe operations confi It of, i. The
feparation of the ores and metallic matter from the .idhering
unmetallic earths and ilones, by hammers, and other me-
chanical inftruments, or by wafliing with water. 2. Their
divi/!on or rcduftion into fmaller parts by contufion and
trituration, that by ■.inotlur waihing with water they
may be more perfeftly cleanfcd from extraneous matters,
and rendered filter for the fubfcquent opcratiouE. 3. Roaji-

SMELTING.

jHf, or eakineitton, the ufes of which operation are to ex-
pel the volatile, ufelefs, or noxious fubftances, as water,
vitriohc acid, fulphiir, and arfenic ; to render the ore
more friable and fitter for the fubfequent contufion and
fufion ; and, laftly, to calcine and deftroy the viler metals ;
for inftance, the iron copper-ores, by means of the fire, and
of the fulphur and arfenic. Stones, as quartz and flints,
coutainiiig metallic veins or particles, are frequently made
red-hot, and then extinguilTied in cold water, that they may
be rendered fufficiently friable and pulverable, to allow the
reparation of the metallic particles.

Roafting is unnecefTary for native metals ; for fome of the
richer gold and filver-ores ; for fome lead-ores, the fulphur
of which may be feparated during the fufion ; and for many
calciform ores, as theie do not generally contain any fulphur
and arfenic.

In the roafting of ores, the following attentions muft be
given : i. To reduce the mineral previoufly into fmall lump?,
that the furface may be increafed ; but they muft not be fo
fmall, nor placed lo compaftly, as to prevent the paffage
of the air and flame. 2. The larger pieces muft be placed
at the bottom of the pile, where the greatelt heat is.
3. The heat muft be gradually applied, that the fulphur
may not be melted, which would greatly retard its expul-
ilon ; and that the fpars, fluors, and ftones, intermixed with
the ore, may not crack, fly, and be difperfed. 4. The ores
not thoroughly roafted by one operation muft be expofed to
a fecond. j. The fire may be increafed towards the end,
that the noxious matters more ftrongly adhering may be
expelled. 6. Fuel which yields much flame, as wood and
foffile coals free from fulphur, is faid to be preferable to
charcoal or coaks. Sometimes cold water is thrown on the
calcined ore at the end of the operation, while the ore is yet
hot, to render it more friable.

No general rule can be given concerning the duration or
degree of the fire, thefe being very various according to the
difference of the ores. A roafting during a few hours or
days is fuffieient for many ores ; while fome, fuch as the
ore of Rammelftjerg, require that it ftiould be continued
during feveral months.

Schlatter enumerates five methods of roafting ores. i. By
conftrufting a pile of ores and fuel placed in alternate ftrata,
in the open air, without any furnace. 2. By confining fuch
a pile within walls, but without a roof. 3. By placing the
pile under a roof, without lateral walls. 4. By placing the
pile in a furnace confifting of walls and a roof. 5. By
roalting the ore in a reverberatory furnace, in which it muft
be continually ftirred with an iron rod.

Several kinds of ftifions of ores may be diftinguiflied.
I. When a fulphureous ore is mixed with much earthy mat-
ter, from which it cannot be eafily feparated, by mechanical
operation?, it is frequently melted, in order to difengage it
from thefe earthy matters, and to concentrate its metallic
contents. By this fufion, fome of the fulphur is diffipated,
and the ore ic. reduced to a ftate intermediate betwixt that
of ore and of metal. It is then called a mitt (lapis ful-
phureo-metallieus), and is to be afterwards treated like a
pure ore by the fecond kind of fufion, which is properly the
(melting, or extraftioii of metal by fufion. 2. By this
fufion or fmelting, the metal is extrafted from the ore
previoufly prepared by the above operations, if thefe be
neceflary.

The ores of fome very fufible metals, as of bifmuth, may
be fmelted by applying a heat fuffieient only to melt the
metals, which are thereby feparated from the adhering ex-
traneous matters. This feparation of metals by fufion,
without the vitrification of extraneous matters, may be

called eUquatlon. Generally, a complete fuGon of the ore
and vitrification of the earthy matters are neceflary for the
perfeft feparation of the contained metals. By this me-
thod, metals are obtained from their ores, fometimes pure,
and fometimes mixed with other metallic fubftances, from
which they muft be afterwards feparated. To procure this
feparation of metals from ores, thefe muft be fo thinly
liquefied, that the fmall metallic particles may difengage
themfelves from the fcoria ; but it muft not be fo thin as to
allow the metal to precipitate before it be perfeAly difen-
gaged from any adhering extraneous matter, or to pervade
and deftroy the containing veflels and furnace. Some ores
are fufficiently fufible ; but others require certain additions,
called ^a.vf J, to promote their fufion, and the vitrification
of their unmetallic parts ; and alfo to render the fcoria
fufficiently thin to allow of the feparation of the metallic
particles.

Different fluxes are fuitable to different ores, according
to the quality of the ore, and of the matrix, or ftone ad-
herent to it.

The matrixes of two different ores of the fame metal
frequently ferve as fluxes to each other ; as, for inftance,
an argillaceous matrix with one that is calcareous ; thefe
two earths being difpofed to vitrification when mixed,
though each of them is fingly inlufible. For this rcafon,
two or more diffiereiit ores to be fmelted are frequently
mixed together.

The ores alfo of different metals require different fluxes.
Thus, calcareous earth is found to be beft fuited to iron
ores, and fpars and fcoria to fufible ores of copper.

The fluxes moft frequently employed in the fmelting of
ores, are calcareous earth, fluors or vitreous fpars, quartz,
and fand, fufible ftones, as flates, bafaltes, the feveral kinds
of fcoria, and pyrites.

Calcareous earth is ufed to facilitate the fufion of ores of
iron, and of fome of the poorer ores of copper, and, in
general, of ores mixed with argillaceous earths, or with fel-
fpar. This earth has been fometimes added with a view of
feparating the fulphur, to which it very readily unites : but
by this union, the fulphur is detained, and a hepar is formed,
which readily diflblves iron and other metal?, and fo firmly
adheres to them, that they cannot be feparated without
more difficulty than they could from the original ore. This
addition is therefore not to be made till the fulphur be pre-
vioufly well expelled.

Fluors, or fufible fpars, facilitate the fufion of moft
metallic minerals, and alfo of calcareous and argillaceous
earths, of fteatites, afbeftus, and of fome other infufible
ftones, but not of filiceous earths without a mixture of cal-
careous earth.

Quartz is fometimes added in the fufion of ferruginous
copper ores, the ufe of which is faid chiefly to be, to enable
the ore to receive greater heat, and to give a more perfeft
vitrification to the ferruginous fcoria.

The fufible ftones, or flates, bafaltes, are fo tenacious
and thick when fufed, that they cannot be confidered pro-
perly as fluxes, but as matters added to leflen the too great
liquidity of fome very fufible miner.jls.

The fcoria obtained in the fufion of an ore is frequently
ufeful to facilitate the fufion of an ore of the fame metal,
and fometimes even of the ores of other metals.

Sulphurated pyrites greatly promotes the fufibility of the
fcoria of metals, from the fulphur it contains. It is chiefly
added to difficultly fufible copper ores, to form the ful-
phureous compounds called matts, that the ores thus brought
into fufion, may be feparated from the adhering earthy mat-
ters, and tliat the ferruginous matter contained in them may

be

S M I

SMI

be dedroyed, during the fubfequent calcination and fufion,
by means ef the fulphur.

As in the ores called calc'iform, the metallic matter exills
in a calcined itate ; and as calcination reduces the metals of
mincralifed ores (excepting the perfeft metalsj to that ftate
alfo ; therefore all calciform and calcined ores require the
addition of fome inflammable fubjlance to reduce them to a
metallic ftate. In great works, the charcoal or other fuel
iiled to maintain the fire, produces alfo thiseffeft.

Metals are fometimes added in the fufion of ores of other
"lore valuable metals, to abforb from thefe fulphur and
I fenic. Thus, iron is added to fulphurated cupreous and
. Uer ores. Metals are alfo added in the fufion of ores of
other more valuable metals, te unite with and coUcit the
Imall particles of thefe difperfed through much earthy mat-
ter, and thus to alTill their precipitation. With thefe in-
' iitions, lead is frequently added to ores and minerals con-
iiiing gold, filver, and copper.

Ores of metals are alfo fometimes added to allift. the pre-
cipitation of more valuable metals. Thus, antimony is fre-
quently added to aflill the precipitation of gold intermixed
with other metallic matters. Macquer's Chem. DiCt. Eng.
<dit. art. Smelting, note m. See Copper, Gold, Iron,
Lead, Silver, Tin, &c. See alfo Schlutter's Treatife
j en the Smeltinsr of Ores, tranflated from the German into
French by M. Hellot, and Chem. Di£t. art. Smelting, Eng.
1. notes n, o, p, q.

The following iimple method of fmelting is praftifed by
the natives of the province of Mekran in Perfia ; which,
although it may, at times, leave a trifluig portion of the
earth mixed with the metal, is, from its ingenuity, worthy
of notice. When a fufRcient quantity of the ore is col-
lected, it is placed upi'n a pile of wood, which is fet on
lire, and conllantly replenilhed with frcrti fuel, until the ore
melts and falls to the bottom, when it is feparated from the
alhes, and found to be confu'erably clearer than when firft
taken from the mine. It is then placed in a pit, made of
earthen tiles, fo conftrufted as to admit a fire under it.
Ttie ore is again melted in this pit, and a confiderable quan-
tity of the drofs and dirt removed, by fkimming the furface.
After this procefs, the metal is lifted out in a liquid ilatc,
poured into hollow cylinders of clay, and then fold.

SMELTitiG-Hou/e, a houfe where they run and melt the
ore into lead : one of thefe will run a ton in ten or twelve
hours ; but a fodder is their ufual day's work, that is, twenty-
two hundred and an half weight.

SMELTZ, in Geography, a river of Pruflian Lithuania,
which runs into tiic Curilh Half, two miles S. of Memel.

SMENUS, in yindent Geography, a river of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Laconia. It had its fource in mount Taigetes,
and its mouth on the left of a very elevated promontory,
upon which was a temple of Diana Diftymna, according to
Paufanias.

SMERWICK, in Geography, a fmall town of the county
of Kerry, Ireland, fituated on a bay to wiiich it gives
name; 7 miles N.W. from Dingle, and 173 S.W. by W.
from Dublin.

SMEW, in Ornithology, the Englifh name of the common
mergiis, known among authors by the names of albellus, and
mergus cirratus.

SMICH, in Geography, a river that runs into the Danube,
3 miles W. of Sigraaringen.

SMIDARY, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koiii-
gingratz ; 3 mi^s N. of Biezow.

SMlHANJi:!, a town of Croatia ; 40 miles E. of
Bihacs.

SMILA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in

the country of Croffsea, on the confines of Thrace and

Macedonia.

SMILACINA, m Botany, a name which, with all our
refped for its excellent author, profeflbr Desfontaines, we
cannot admit, as being fabricated from another cxifting
generic name, Smilax, and therefore contrary to found Lin-
nxan laws, and to right reafon. The eftablifhment indeed
of the genus itfelf, which is feparated from Cmvallaria
merely on account of the deep divifions of the corolla, re-
vives an old queltion, long ago fet at relt, as we prefume,
by Linnseus. It would be more defirable to difcovcr a cha-
radler by which the Linna;an Convallaria, including the
Polygonatum and Smilacina of other authors, could be clearly
diftinguiflied from one or two of its neighbours. See CoN-
vallaria, the third feftion of which comprifes the Smi-
lacinit of Desfontaines, Ann. du Muf. d'Hill. Nat. v. 9. 51.
Purfh North Amer. v. i. 232. The eflential charatter is
thus given by the author laft cited.

Corolla inferior, in fix deep fpreading fegments. Stamens
diverging, inferted into the bafe of each fcgment. Berry
globofe, of three cells. Flowers terminal, panicled, or
fomewhat. umbellate.

SMILAU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Czaflau ; 5 miles N. of Pohia.

SMILAX, in Botany, s-(iii?,a| of the Greeks, a name
originally belonging to the Yew, Taxus ; but likewife ap-
phed by Diofeorides, with different epithets, to fome other
plants of a climbing nature. One of thefe he terms rja;^!iK,
rough, and as the name of Smilax remains with this, among
modern botanifls, De Theis fuppofes the word to originate
from cr^iXu, a fcraper. We cannot prefume to offer any
conjefture refpefting its etymology or meaning. The
a-fxiXa^ of Diofeorides, fimply fo denominated, is ftigmatized
by him as a moll dangerous poifon ; while his o-/hiXk| T^a;^!!*
is celebrated as an antidote, fo powerful, that if given to a
new-born infant, he can never be poifoned as long as he
lives!— Linn. Gen. 524. Schreb. 692. AVilld. Sp. PI.
V. 4. 773. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 5. 387. Sm. Prodr, Fl. Grsec. Sibth. v. 2. 259.
Purfh 249. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 293. JulT. 24.
Lamarck Iliuftr. t. 817. Ga;rtn. t. 16. ( Ripogonum ;
Forft. Gen. t. 25. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 293.)
— Clafs and order, Dioeeia Hexandria. Nat. Ord. Sar-
mentacex, Linn. Afparagi, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth widely bell-fhaped, of
fix oblong leaves, approximated at the bafe, reflexed and
fpreading at the extremity. Cor. none, unlefs the calyx
be taken for fuch, (which, from the analogy of Ajparagusy
Convallaria, &c. it furely ought to be.) Slam. Filaments
fix, fimple ; anthers oblong.

Female, Cal. as in the male, deciduous. Cor. none.
Pijt. Germcn fuperior, ovate ; ftyles three, minute ; fligmas
oblong, reflexed, downy. Peric. Berry ulobofe, of three
cell:'. Seeds folitary in each cell, globofe, one or two of
them generally abortive.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of fix leaves. Corolla none.

Female, Calyx of fix leaves, inferior, deciduous. Co-
rolla none. Styles three. Berry of three cells. Seeds
one, two, or three.

Obf. Mr. Brown defines the calyx permnnem ; we find
it, as Linnxus fays, deciduous. RlPOGONUAf (lee. that
article) has the Ikamens and piltils in the lame flower.

Of this ample genuf, Linnxus in Sp. PI. has only thirteen
fpecies ; Wilidenow has forty-one. To tli -fe, tour North
American ones arc added by Purfh, and Mr. Brown has
four trom New Holland, exclufive of the fecond fpecies
of Ripogonum. They are all climbing perennial plants,

with

SMILAX.

with fimple, alternate, ribbed, entire leaves, with or without
tendrils ; the ftem moftly (hrubby, fmooth or prickly, round
or angular; flowers generally umbellate. The following
examples may fuffice.

Sea. I. Stem prickly, angular. Fourteen fpecies in
Willdenow.

S. a/pera. Red-berried Rough Smilax. Linn. Sp. PI.
1458. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth.
1,959, unpubli(hed. Mattli. Vaigr. v. 2. 551. Ger. Em.
859. (S. afpera, rutilo frudu ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. iiz.)—
Stem angular, very prickly. Leaves oblong-heart-lhaped,
fomewhat haflate, with feven or nine ribs, coriaceous, bor-
dered with fpinous teeth. — Native of hedg:es and thickets,
throughout the fouth of Europe. Dr. Sibthorp found it
abundantly in marfhy and rough ftony ground, in Greece
and all the neighbouring iflands, flowering late in autumn.
'Yhejlems climb, by means of tendrils, like our Bryony, and
hang in feiloons from the tops of hedges. They are
woody, perennial, branched, zig-zag, plentifully armed with
ftrong, fcattered, hooked prickles, as are likewife the/ooN
fialks and edges of the evergreen leaves. Flonuers white,
with a fleih-coloured tint extended to their ftalks, in fmall
umbellate tufts, difpofed in terminal, zig-zag, fmooth
clujlers. Berries of a dull fcarlet red, the fize of currants,
umbilicated, with three feeds in each. — This is doubtlefs
the o-pAaf T{»;^!io; of Diofcorides ; the Lofty, or Woody,
Bramble of the modern Greeks.

The figure in Plukenet's Phytographia, t. 1 10. f. 3, indi-
cated as a variety, is hardly fuch, but exhibits nearly the
ufual form of the leaves ; what has been generally taken
for 5. a/pera being in faft the following fpecies, whofe
leaves are always broader.

S. nigra. Black-berried Rough Smilax. Willd. n. 2.
Prodr. Fl. Grxc. n. 2313, unpublilhed. (S. afpera S ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 145^' S. afpera nigro fruftu ; Cluf. Hift.
V.I. 113. S. afpera lufitanica ; Ger.Em. 860.) — Steman-
gular, prickly. Leaves oblong-heart-fliaped, feven-ribbed,
coriaceous, fmooth at the edges. — Native of hedges in
Spain, Portugal, and the fouth of France. Dr. Sibthorp
obferved it about Prufa, in Bithynia. The ^ems are lefs
prickly than in the former ; the leaves broader, not at all
dilated at the fides, nor contracted in the middle, fo as to
approach a haftate form ; their edges very flightly, or not
at all, prickly ; and the berries are black.

5. excel/a. Tall Smilax. Linn. Sp. PI. 1458. Willd.
n. 5. Ait. n. 2. Prodr. Fl. Gnc. n. 2314, unpublilhed.
(S. orientalis, farmentis acnleatis, excelfas arbores fcanden-
tibus, foliis non fpinofis ; Tourn. Cor. 45. Buxb. Cent. 1.
l8. t. 27.) — Stem angular, prickly. Leaves ovate, flightly
heart-fhaped, with five or feven ribs, and no marginal
prickles. — Native of the countiy near Conftantinople.
Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in woods at the village of Bel-
grad. Buxbaum fays it is frequent in hedges about villages
in Thrace, as well as in Pontus and Cappadocia, and that
it is very ufeful for fences and (hade. The Jlo'wers are yel-
lowilh-green ; the berries red.

Whether S. afpera, Alpin. Egypt. 141, cited with doubt
by Linnseus, be this plant, is not clear to us. Willdenow
thinks it a diilinft fpecies, not yet defcribed by fyftematic
writers.

6. Sarfaparilla. Medicinal Smilax, or Sarfaparilla. Linn.
Sp. 1459. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 4. Purlh n. 5. Woodv.
Med. Bot. t. 194. (S. peruviana, Salfaparilla ; Ger. Em.
859.) — Stem prickly, fomewhat quadrangular. Leaves
eUiptical, pointed, abrupt, three-ribbed ; without prickles ;
flightly glaucous beneath. Common flower-ftalk longer
than the footftalk. — Common in the hedges and fwamps

of North America, flowering in June and July. Purjh.
The Jlem is flout, a little zig-zag, roundilh, with about
four flight unequal angles, and a few fcattered hooked
prickles. Full-grown leaves nearly orbicular, two and a
half inches broad, abrupt or contrafted at each extremity,
with a fliort terminal point ; their furface finely reticulated
with veins, and marked with three ftrong ribs, the lateral
ribs defcribed by Willdenow hardly deferving to be fo
denominated. Footjlalks fliort, broad, channelled, each
crowned with two tendrils, fubfequently deciduous. Flowers
yellowifli-white, in axillary, foUtary, (talked umbels. Ber-
ries red, according to Woodville, whofe figure, the only
one extant, has not been noticed, his work being never
quoted by Mr. Alton, though it furely ranks high as an
ufeful medical book, and the plates, by Mr. Sowerby, are,
as far as poffible, original. It is much to be wi(hed that
what are merely done from dried fpecimens, or from other
authors, had been every where fo acknowledged, by which
the authority of the publication would have been unim-
peachable, and on a par with any whatever. For the hil-
tory, and medical qualities, of the root, fee Sarsaparilla.

S. melaftomifoUa. Rough-ribbed Smilax. — Stem with
many angles, denfely and minutely prickly ; as well as the
feven ribs of the ovate, pointed, flightly hcart-(haped,
rough-edged leaves. — Gathered by Mr. Menzies, in the
Sandwich iflands. A fine new fpecies, whofe branches are
zig-zag, nearly round, with numerous angles, all copioufly
befet with minute, ftraight, rigid prickles. Leaves three
inches long, and near one and a half broad, with five prin-
cipal ribs, and a pair of flender, wavy marginal ones.
Thefe all bear underneath copious prickles, like thofe of
the branches and footjlalks, ranged in feveral rows on the
larger ribs. The reticulated veins are alfo rough with
prickles, fo that the leaf altogether refembles that of fome
fpecies of Melajloma. Umbels axillary, ftalked, one or more
from each leaf, accompanied by large concave, (heathing
braBeas.

Sett. 2. Stem prickly, round. Nine fpecies in Willdenow.

S. ati/lralis. Strong-veined New Holland Smilax. Br.
n. 1. — Stem round, with copious prickles. Leaves ovate-
oblong, acute, five-ribbed, fmooth, without prickles. Ten-
drils in pairs on the footftalks. — Gathered by Mr. Brown,
near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. We received from
Kew garden, in 1798, a fpecimen in flower of what we
prefume to be this fpecies. It is diftinguifhed by the
copious, ftrong, ftraight prickles, of its round, flightly
ftriated, zig-zag branches. The leaves are rigid and coria-
ceous, fmooth, with five ribs, and innumerable prominent
reticulated veins ; their bafe fomewhat heart-fhaped ; the
footjlalks (hort, broad, channelled, bearing from the middle
two long fpiral tendrils. Floiuers white, numerous, in
axillary umbels, whofe ftalks rather exceed the footftalks.

S. China. Chinefe Smilax, or Cliina-root. IJnn. Sp.
PI. 1459. Wiild. n. 15. Ait. n. 5. Woodv. Med. Bot.
t. 236. (Sankira, vulgo Quaqiiara ; Smilax minus fpinofa,
fruCtu rubicundo, radice virtuofa. Chime didta ; Ksmpf.
Amoen. 781. t. 782. Frutex convolvulaceus fpinofus fini-
cus, &c. ; Pluk. Amalth. loi. t. 408. f. i. China vul-
garis officinarum ; Ger Em. 1618.) — Stem roundifh, with
fcattered prickles. Leaves roundifh- ovate, acute at each
end, with three principal ribs. — Native of China and Japan ;
faid to have been cultivated by Miller, in 1759. The Jlem
is ftrongly zig-zag. Leaves one and a half or two inches
long, and nearly as broad, fmooth, with three ftraight
principal ribs, and two wavy, more flight, lateral ones.
Footjlalks bearing two, or more, long twifted tendrils.
Flowers, according to Ksmpfer, grcenifh-yellow, in umbels,

CM)

SMILAX.

on (lender, folitary, axillary ftalks, longer than the foot-
italks. Berries tlie fize of black currants, fcarlet, mealy,
aultere like a medlar, faid to contain four, five, or fix
feeds, a jrreater number than ufual in this genus. We
llrongly fufpeft that more than one fpecies is confounded
under the hi'Aory of this fpecies. The Linnxan Chinefe
fpecimeiis have more heart-fhaped leaves than any of the
figures exhibit, nor is their Jlem prickly. Very poffibly,
howerer, thefe do not belong to the officinal China-root.

This root was brought into Europe, towards the middle
of the 1 6th century, with ftrong recommendations of its vir-
tues, as a cure for the venereal difeafe, as well as for various
chronic, cutaneous, or rheumatic diforders. Thefe are
neither confirmed by experience, nor rendered probable
by the fenfible qualities of the root itfelf, which i$ farina-
ceous and nearly infipid.

S. caduca. Deciduous Smilax. Linn. Sp. PI. 1460.
Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 9. Purfh n. 12. — Stem round,
with diftant ilraight prickles ; branches angular. Leaves
ovate, pointed, five-ribbed. Common flower-llalks hardly
longer than the footftalks. Tendrils capillary, much
fhorter than the leaves. — In dry fields, from Canada to
Virginia, flowering in June. PxirJIi. The Jlem is rather
ftout, quite round when full-grown, but the branches are
decidedly angular, and (Irongly zig-zag. Prickles dillant,
ftout, tipped with black. Leaves broadly ovate, or (lightly
heart-fhaped, fmooth, green on both fides, very finely
veined, their lateral ribs often obfolete. Tendrils very fmall
and flender, from the middle of each footflalk. Flowers
few, greenifh, in fohtary umbels.

S. fpinulofa. Briftly Smilax. — Stem round, with crowded,
capillary, curved prickles ; branches fomewhat angular.
Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, five-ribbed ; glaucous be-
neath. Tendrils capillary. — Sent from Pennfylvania, by
the late Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, who thought it had been
improperly confounded with 5. caduca. The quantity of
fine fetaceous prickles, on the Jlem or branches, feems to be
variable ; but the more oblong leaves, opaque and glaucous
beneath, are very different from the lall. We cannot refer
this to any of Mr. Purfh's fpecies.

Sc£l. 3. Stem wilhout prickles, angular. Seven fpecies in
Willdenow.

S. latifolia. Broad-leaved Smilax. Br. n. 4. Ait. n. 1 1.
— " Stem angular, without prickles. Leaves ovate, five-
ribbed, fmooth ; fomewhat heart-fhaped or obtufe at the
bafe. Footlfalks bearing the tendrils." — Gathered by Mr.
Brown in the tropical part of New Holland. Sent to
Kew, in 1791, by fir Jofeph Banks. It is there treated
as a greenhoufe plant, but has not yet flowered.

S. herlacea. Herbaceous Smilax. Linn. Sp. PI. 1460.
Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 12. Piirfh n. 16. (S. claviculata
hcderifolia tota laevis, e terra Mariana ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 225.
f. 3, marked 4.) — Stem herbaceous, angular, fimple, eredt.
Leaves oval, fevcii-ribbed. Tendrils from the bafe of the
long footllalks. Common flowcr-flalks very long, com-
prclied. — In dry fields, on the edges of woods, from
New York to Carolina, flowering in June and July. Pitrjh.
The root is perennial. Stems annual, brownifll-piirple,
fmooth, with a pair of revolute tendrils to each leaf. Umbels
globofe, of numerous Jloiuers, on axillary Italks, near fix
inches long. Berries dark purple, depreffcd. — Plukcnet's
figure, if rightly quoted, is a very bad one, tlie leaves being
not fufHciently elliptical, and the foolJlalLs much too fhort.

Scdt. 14. Stem luithout priciles, round. Eleven fpecies
in Willdenow.

S. elliptica. Elliptical Smilax. Br. n. 3. — " Stem with-
out prickles ; branches round, ftriatcd. Leaves clliptic-

VoL, XXXIII.

ovate, fomewhat pointed, five-ribbed, fmooth ; rather acute
at the bafe. Footftalks bearing the tendrils." — Gathered
by Mr. Brown in the tropical part of New Holland.

S. glyciphylla. Sweet-leaved Smilax. Smith in White's
Voyage, 230. t. 24. f. A, B. Br. n. 2.— Stem round,
without prickles. Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, three-rib-
bed, fmooth, fomewhat revolute ; glaucous beneath. Foot-
ftalks bearing the tendrils. — Sent from the neighbourhood
of Port Jackfon, New South Wales, among the firlt commu-
nications from thence. The leaves, having a very fwcet
tafl;e, like liquorice-root, accompanied with fome bitternefs,
were ufed by the firil fettlers in that country, to make a
fort of tea, which was thought good for the fcurvy. The
Jlem is wiry, fmooth, and flender. Leaves about two or
three inches long, reticulated, coriaceous ; broad and rounded
at the bafe, on fhortifh curved fooljlalks. Flowers in axil-
lary, ftalked umbels.

S. Pfeudo-china. Baftard Virginian China-root. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1461. Willd. n. 38. Ait. n. 15. Purlh n. 10,
excluding Sloane's fynonym. (S. virginiana, fpinis innocuis
armata, latis canellx fohis, radice arundinacei craffa et car-
nofa ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 1 10. f. 5. China fpuria nodofa ; Bauh.
Pin. 297. Pfeudo-china radix ex Virginia ; Cluf. Exot. 83. )
--Stem round, without prickles. Leaves ovate, pointed, five-
ribbed. Tendrils from the bafe of the footftalks. Common

fiower-ftalks longer than the leaves In fandy fields and dry

woods, from New Jerfey to Carolina, flowering in May and
June. AJhrub. The roots very large, fearched after by
hogs. Purjl:>. The Jlem is of a purplift-brown, very fmooth.
Branches long, flender, leafy, climbing by means of flender,
not very long, tendrils, fpringing in pairs from the very bafe
of the zngnXnTfootJlaUs. Leaves two inches, or 2\, in length,
an inch or more in breadth, flightly heart-fhaped at the
bafe, undulated or crifped, but hardly crenate, at the mar-
gin, reticulated with veins, which, as well as the ribs, are
fometimes rough with minute prickles beneath. Floiuer-
Jlalhs axillary, umbellate, longer than the leaves. — The root
of this fpecies is faid to have been brought from Virginia
for the true China-root, of which we have fpoken under the
fecond feiftion. They feem to agree in their farinaceous or
ftarch-like fubftance, which, it feems, is common to the roots
cf various other plants of this genus. Sloane defcribes one
under the name of S. afpera, fruftu nigro, radice nodofa,
magna, Ixvi, farinacea, China difta ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 231.
t. 143. f. I. This, he fays, ha$ a root as thick as a man's
leg, crooked and fwelling, with a thin red-brown (Icin, and
a friable light red internal fubftance, giving a roddifli tinc-
ture to water. Its quahties are like the real China-root,
in the place of which Sloane recommends its ufe, at Icaft in
the Weft Indies. Linnius cites (his fynonym under his
S. Pfeudo-china, with which it has little connection ; and he
refers alfo to the S. afpera, foliis trincrviis oblongis, pctiolis
biclaviculatis, Browne's Jamaica, 359, a fpecimen of which
is attached, in the Linnasan herbarium, to the real S. Pfeudo-
china. The leaves of this are elliptical. Common Jloiuer-
Jlalks extremely ftiort. Tendrils from the midillc of each
footJlalL Stem angular ; f;iid to be prickly in the lower
part. By thefe latter charafters this plant of Browne
fhould belong to the firit fcdtion ; while Sloane's, defcribcd
with a round and very pricklyj^i'm, mult be referred to the
fecond. Moreover, Browne's is defcribcd with fk-nder
branching roots, and we mult prefume that his Smilay, n. i,
is rather Sloane's plant, as Mr. Lunan, in hisHortusJa-
maiceiifis, v. i. 180, makes it. We do not choofo to run
the riflt of determining thefe feveral fpecies, without au-
thentic fpccimens, more efpecially as Dr. Swart z li.is \:k
them untouched. Two more of thi» tribe arc reprefented in
A a Plumjer's

5 M 1

S M I

Plumier's hones, t. 82 auJ 84, which cannot be referred to
any of the before-mentioned. The latter, indeed, is thus
adopted by Willdenow.

S. macrophylhi. Large-leaved Smilax. Willd. n. 39. —
(China altera, non aculeata, foliis amplioribus ; Plum. Ic.
73. t. 84.) — Stem round, without prickles. — Leaves ovate,
obtufe, fomewhat lieart-lhaped, feven-ribbed. Tendrils from
the middle of the Ihort footllalks. — Native of the Well
Indies. The leaves nearly agree in fize and fliape, as well
as ihe foot/lalis, with Pajjijlora data. The umbels are ax-
illary, folitary, on ftalks twice the length of the /ooJ/?<7/^.

Smilax, in Gardening, contains plants of the (hrubby,
climbing, evergreen kinds, of which the fpecies cultivated
are, the rough fmilax (S. afpera)j the tall fmilax (S. ex-
celfa) ; the medicinal fmilax, or farfaparilla (S. farfapa-
rilla) ; the bay-leaved fmilax (S. laurifolia) ; the black
bryony-kaved fmilax (S. tamnoides) ; the herbaceous fmi-
lax (S.herbacea) ; the Chinefe fmilax (S. china) ; and the
baftard Chinefe fmilax (S. pfeudo-china.)

In the firft fort there is a variety which has the leaves
eared at the bafe.

Method of Culture. — The fix firil hardy forts may be in-
creafed by flipping the roots, layers, and feed. In the firft
mode, the ftalks arifing from the roots lliould be flipped with
roots to each in the autumn, and be planted out either in
nurfery-rows for a year or two, or, which is better, where
they are to grow. In the layer method, the ftalks fhould
be laid down in the common manner in autumn, and when
well rooted, in the autumn following be taken off and planted
out as above. The feed fhould be obtained from abroad,
and be fown in pots filled with fine mould in the fpring,
being plunged in a hot-bed to forward their coming up ;
when the plants have attained fome growth they fliould be
planted out and managed as the others.

The two laft tender forts may be increafed by layers
of the young (hoots, and dividing the roots, which fhould
be laid down, or planted out in the fpring feafon, in order
to have the culture of other woody greenhoufe plants of
the fame nature. The layers will be ready to take off in the
fpring following.

The firft forts are proper for fliady fituations, borders, ^c.
and the latter afford variety in the gieenhoufe coUeftions,
among others of fimilar growths.
SMILE', in Surgery, a lancet.

SMINTHEAN, Smintheus, trfti.Sftf, in Antiquity, an
epithet given to Apollo ; from the Greek o-juivS®-, a rat.
There are two different accounts of the origin of this ap-
pellation ; the firft is, that, in the city of Chryfa in Myfia,
was a prieft of Apollo, called Crinis, with whom that god
being offended, fent a herd of rats to fpoil all his lands ; but
Crinis appeafing the deity, he came in perfon to his affiil-
ance, took up liis lodgings with Crinis's thepherd, told him
who he was, and deftroyed all the rats with his arrows ; in
memory of which Crinis built a temple to hr, deliverer, under
the name of Apollo Smintheus.

Strabo (1. 13.) fays, that in Chryfa was to be feen a
flatue of Apollo by the hand of Scopas, the celebrated fta-
tuary of Paros, with the figure of a rat near his feet ; and
Heraclides of Pontus afferts, that the rats about that temple
were facred.

Clemens Alexandrinus, in his exhortation to the Greeks,
gives us a d fferent llory. The Cretans, fays he, intending
to fend out a colony, confulted the oracle of Apollo as to
the place : the aiifwer was, that they I'hould fix their co-
lony where thofe born of the earth fhould oppofe them.
Upon their arrival in the Hellefpont, the rats, in the night-
time, gnawed afuuder all the ftrings of their bows : this

they deemed an accomplifhment of the oracle, and there buih
a city called Smiutha.

SMINTO, Sminthium, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia Minor, in the Troade, or, as Strabo fays, in the terri-
tory of Adramyttium. But its true name was C/6r)ya. (See
Sminthean'.) M.d'Anville has placed Sminthium at a fmall
dillance S. of Tros, or Trey : according to Homer, this
town was in an ifland. It gave name to a neighbouring
mountain, called " Sminthium Nemus." Steph. Byz.

SMIRIS, in Natural Hi/lory. See Emery.

SMIRSITZ, in Geography, a town of Boliemia, in the
circle of Konigingratz ; 6 miles NE. of Konigingratz,
N. lat. 50° 14'. E. long. 15° 42'.

SMITH, Adam, in Biography, a diftinguifhed writer in
moral and political philofophy, was born in the year 1723»
at Kirkaldy, in Fifefhire, where his father held the comp-
trollerfliip of the cuitoms. He received his early education
under the care of his mother, then a widow, at the fchool of
Kirkaldy, where he was noticed for an extraordinary paflion
for reading. At the age of fourteen he was removed to the
univerfity of Glafgow, in which he fpent three years, attend-
ing, among the other leftures, thofe of the celebrated pro-
fellor Hutchefon. In 1 740 he was fent as a penfioner to Ba-
liol college, Oxford. Here he fpent feven years, and it is
thought that during this period he employed himfelf chiefly
in acquiring an exaft knowledge of the languages, ancient
and modern, and in cultivating an Englifh ftyle, by the prac-
tice of tranflating works of high reputation into his own
language. Upon quitting the univerfity he abandoned all
thoughts of entering into the EngUfh church, for which
purpofe he had been fent thither, and went to Edinburgh,
and found a friend and patron in lord Kaimes. In 1751 he
was elected profefFor of logic at Glafgow, from which he
was removed, in the following year, to that of moral philo-
fophy. He now felt that he was in a fituation accommo-
dated to his talents and difpofition, and in later life he was
accuftomed to fpeak of his refidence and employment at
Glafgow as the moft ufeful and happiell portion of his
life. His lectures, both logical and moral, were extremely po-
pular ; and his mannerof delivering them, if not graceful, was
faid to be highly impreffive. In thofe on moral philofophy
were contained the rudiments of his two moft celebrated works
as an author. Of thefe, the firft is entitled " The Theory
of Moral Sentiments," and appeared in the year il^g. The
fundamental principle is fympathy, which the author makes
the fource of our feelings concerning the propriety or im-
propriety of actions, and their good or ill defert. To this
work he afterwards fubjoined " A Differtation on the Origin
of Languages." Thefe works were extremely well received,
and gave him a place among the belt writers of the time. •
They alfo made him known to feveral eminent charafters;
and it was in confequence of the reputation thus acquired,
that he was engaged to accompany the duke of Buccleugh
in his travels. He of courfe refigned his office as profefTor, and
in the beginning of the year 1764, he fet outfor the continent.
He had now an opportunity of comparing the ideas which
he had already formed refpecting political economy, with
thofe of the ableft men in foreign countries, and alfo with
fafts that prefented themfelves to his obfervation in the
courfe of his travels. A long refidence in France intro-
duced him to the acquaintance of Turgot, Quefnai, Necker,
D'Alembert, Helvetius, Marmontel, and others, to whofe
particular notice he was recommended by hit countryman
David Hume, with whom he had long been in habits of
frieiidfhip. He returned to his own country in the autumn
of 1 766, and the following ten years he paffed in retirement
with his mother at the obfcure town of Kirkaldy. Here he

was

SMITH.

was habitually employed in reading, the fruits of which were
at length given to the world in his celebrated " Inquiry
into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of Nations."
This work has long been a ftandard work, not only in our
own country, but throughout Europe. It has been ftudied
and referred to by all who pay attention to the important
pohtical topics on which it treats. After the publication
of this " Inquiry," he fpent a great part of two years in
London, where his fociety was courted by perfons of the
higheft rank in the philofophical and literary world. In the
year 1778 he obtained, through the intereft of the duke of
Buccleugh, the lucrative place of a commidioner of the cuf-
toms of Scotland, in confequence of which he removed to
Edinburgh, which was thenceforth the place of his refi-
dence. His mother, who lived to a great age, fpent her lail
days with him here. After the death of his friend, Mr.
Hume, he publiflied that philofopher's memoirs of his own
life, with fome additions, in which he expreffed himfelf fo
favourably with regard to the character and opinions of the
deceafed, that it was readily inferred his own fentiments
with refpeft to revealed religion could not be very different
from thofe of his friend, which drew upon him an attack in
an anonymous letter, fince known to have been from the pen
of the late Dr. Home, afterwards bifliop of Norwich. In
1787 he was appointed rector of the univerfity of Glafgow,
and in 1790 he died, at the age of fixty-feven. A few days
before his death he caufed all his papers to be burnt, except
a few Elfays, which have fince been publifhed.

Dr. Smith was a man of great fimplicity of character,
lubjeft to abfence of mind in fociety, and fitter for fpecu-
lative than aftive life. He was much beloved by his friends,
and pofTefled a calm and benignant difpofition. Of the ori-
ginality and comprehenfivenefs of his views, the extent,
variety, and the correftnefs of his information, and the inex-
hauftible fertility of his invention, he has left lafting monu-
ments behind him. To his private worth, the moll certain of
all teftimonies may be found in that confidence, refpedl, and
attachment, which followed him through all the various re-
lations of life. When perfeftly at eafe, and when warmed
with converfation, his geltures were animated and not un-
graceful ; and in the fociety of thofe whom he loved, his
features were often brightened by a fmile of inexpreffible
benignity.

Smith, Edward, one of the minor Englifh poets, born
in 1668, near Tenbury, Worcefterlhire, was the fon of Mr.
Neale, a merchant, by the daughter of lord Lechmere.
The conncftion of his parents was dubious, or at leall un-
avowed ; for after his father's death, being left to the care
of Mr. Smith, who had married his paternal aunt, he ail'umcd
his guardian's name, by which he was ever afterwards known.
He was indeed, when grown to mature years, acknowledged
by his motiicr as her legitimate fon, but lie derived no ad-
vantage from this declaration. He was educated at Well-
minllcr fchool, under Dr. Bufty, who is faid to have formed
a high opinion of his talents, and, in confequence of this
opinion, to have detained him longer than the ufual time
under his tuition. From Wcftminlter he was eleftcd to
Trinity college, Cambridge, but having at the fame time an
invitation from Chrillchurch college, Oxford, he preferred
the latter, and became a (Indent of that college. Here he
diftinguifhed himfelf by Latin verfes, written on fome public
occafions ; and a Latin ode, which he compofed in 1691, on
the death of Dr. Pococke, the learned Orieiitalift, obtained
for him much celebrity for a poetical imagination. In 170J
lie was expelled from his college, on account of his intem-
perance and licentious conduft. He had, however, previ-
oufly to this, taken his degree of M.A. He now went to

London, where his wit and convivial powers caufed him to
be much carcffed by perfons of eminence, cfpecially of the
Whig party ; though neither his manners, nor his external
appearance, rendered him adapted to good fociety. In 1708
he publilhed a " Poem to the Memory of Mr. John Phillips,"
which is faid to be the only one of his mifcellaneous pieces
that merits notice. It has been much admired, becaulc it
partakes more of fatire than elegy. In the following year
he produced his tragedy of Phsedra and Hippolitus, which
was not very well received. Addifon, however, wrote the
prologue, and Prior the epilogue ; the principal aftors took
parts in it, and it was patronifed by men of high rank,
yet it was fcarcely heard to the third night. " It has," fays
the critic, " more poetical than dramatic merit, and is greatly
inferior, in point of delicacy, pathos, and condud, to Racine's
tragedy on the fame fubjeft." Mr. Smith died in the forty-
fecond year of his age, and his early death was imputed,
probably with great juftice, to his intemperate habits. He
had attained much harmony of verfification as a poet, and
pofFefled a certain luxuriance of fancy, but he gives no indi-
cation of a higher genius ; and did very little for the inte-
refts of literature. He was lifted to temporary fame by the
efforts of academic partiality, but has now funk to the
level of many who are well nigh forgotten. Johnfon'o Lives
of the Poets.

Smith, Sir Thomas, an eminent fcholar and ftatefman
of the 15th century, was born at Saffron-Walden, in Effex,
in 1524. He was educated for, and fent early to. Queen's
college, Cambridge, and by his proficiency in learning ob-
tained a penfion as king's fcholar. Being chofen fellow of
his college, he was appointed, in 1535, to read the pubhc
Greek lefture, on which occafion he concurred with Cheke
in introducing an improved mode of pronouncing that lan-
guage. In 1539 he travelled to the continent, for the fupe-
rior advantages offered by the foreign univerfities, and at
Padua he ftudied the civil law, in which faculty he gra-
duated. On his return he refumed his refidence at Cam-
bridge, where, in 1542, he was admitted to the degree of
doftor, and was nominated king's profellor in civil law.
He purfued with great ardour his fcheme of reforming the
pronunciation of the Greek, and he llkewife attended to
the improvement of his native tongue, and publifhed a work
concerning its corrcdl orthography and pronunciation. He
was a promoter of the principles of the reformation in re-
ligion, and did his utmofl to flieltcr thofe reformers who
were cxpofed to the perfecution of the tyrant Henry VIII.
He had himfelf taken orders, poffeffed a rcftory, and alfo
the deanery of Carhfle. On the accelTion of the virtuous
Edward VI., he was taken into favour by the proteftor
Som -rfet, and raifed to feveral lucrative polls, and in 1548
he was knighted, and appointed fccretary of flate. On the
difgrace of the protedlor he vVas deprived of the fecretary-
fliip, but was foon replaced in it, and continued during the
remainder of the reign in trull and honour. When Mary fuc-
ceedcd to the throne he loll all his offices, and was forbidden
to quit the kingdom ; but by his caution and prudence he
was enabled to fleer in fafety through the ftormy and peril-
ous period. As foon as Elizabeth became queen he was in-
vited to court, and reinftated in the deanery of Carhfle, and
employed in various public concerns, particularly in the re-
vifion of tlie Liturgy. He was fent on various embafTies to
the court of France, and during one of his rclidenccs in
that country he compofed his work " On the Common-
wealth of England." Owing to fome difappointment he
retired to the country, where he fpent three years, exercifing
the duties of a magiflrate, and dillinguilliing himfelf by his
feverity againll fuppoled witches. In 1571 he returned to
A a z court,

SMITH.

court, was nominated a privy counfellor, and made affillant
to lord Burghlcy, in his office of fecretary of itate. In
1572 he was employed to negociate an alliance with France,
and after his return lie fucceeded lord Burghley, who was
advanced to the pod of treafurer. He died in 1577, at
the age of 63. Sir Thomas Smith is charafterifed by his
eulogift, as " a mafter of various languages, ancient and mo-
dern, and as extremely well verfed in feveral fciences.
He was pious, upright, and benevolent, and feems to have
been perfeAly free from the duplicity and craft which were
too frequent in the ftatefmen of that age." He is chiefly
known as a writer by the " Commonwealth of England,"
already referred to. Several of his letters have been printed
in different colleftions, and four of his orations, on queen
Elizabeth's projefted marriage, are annexed to his Life by
Strype. Biog. Brit.

Smith, Thomas, a learned writer, was born at London
in 1638. He was admitted of Queen's college, Oxford,
in 1657, and after taking his degree in arts, was chofen, in
1663, mafter of the free-fchool adjoining to Magdalen col-
lege. He became fellow of that college in 1666, and was
diftinguifhed for his great knowledge in the Oriental lan-
guages. He accompanied the Englilh ambafiador to Con-
Santinople in 1668, and afterwards lived feveral years as
chaplain with (ir Jofeph Williamfon, fecretary of ftate.
He quitted him without any preferment, and was earnelUy
folicited by feveral eminent clergymen, his particular friends,
who knew his value, to return to the Levant, in order to
colledt MSS. ; but knowing the danger attending fuch a
bufmefs, he put a negative on their propofal. He had
already made himfelf known to the learned world by a
Latin difiertation on the Chaldee paraphratls, and their ver-
fions, another on the Druids, and feveral fermons on doc-
trinal points. He had alio publifhed fome Latin epiftles
concerning the manners and inftitutions of the Turks, and
the feven churches of Afia ; of which he afterwards
printed an Englifh tranflation ; and in 1680 he publifhed an
account of the Greek church. To thefe works, relative to
what he had obferved in the Eaft, may be added fome papers
communicated by him to the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
and others contained in a coUeftion of trafts, entitled " Mif-
cellanea." In 1683 he took his degree of D.D., and was
prefented to a college-living, which he foon refigned, and
continued to refide on his fellowlhip. When James II., iu
1 687, fent a mandate to Magdalen college for the admiffion
of a popifh fellow. Dr. Smith was one of the few perfons
who petitioned again ft the meafure, but he was far from
fteady in his oppofition ; and when the king fignified his
determination to be obeyed. Dr. Smith was one of the
two fellows who fubmitted, and in confequence preferved
their fellowfhips, while the others had the honour of being
expelled. The doftor, however, did not go far enough to
pleafe his fovereign, and was eventually expelled from his
office. The fucceeding troubles produced his reftoration :
but in 1692, refufing to take the oaths required by the
government of WiUiam and Mary, he loft his fellowfhip
and living with which he had been prefented. He thence-
forth refided chiefly in the family of fir John Cotton, oc-
cupied in his ftudies, and in the compofition of a variety of
works. Of thefe, the greater part was of the antiquarian
and biographical clafs. In the latter, his principal publi-
cation was entitled " Vits quorundam eruditiffimorum et
illuftrium Virorum," containing the lives of archbilhop
Ulher and feveral other eminent charafters. Dr. Smith
died in 17 10: he is charafterifed by his biographer as
a man of great induitry and learning, but he dif-
played in his writings much party bigotry and illibe-

rality. His Latin ftyle is neither clear nor fimple. Bioe
Bnt. ^'

Smith, Charlotte, daughter of Nicholas Turner, efq.
a gentleman of confiderable property in the counties of
Surry and Suifex, when very young married Mr. Smith,
the fon of a Weft India merchant. This match was not
the effedt of attachment on either fide, and was produftive
of much mifery, of which a long account is given in
the Monthly Magazine, vol. xxiii. p. 244. The affairs
of Mr. Smith not proving profperous, the, after various
perfecutions from creditors, and after palling fome time
in the gloom of a prifon with her hufband, retired to a
convent in Normandy. Here fhe was reduced to the ut-
moft indigence, yet the exertion of her talents adminiftered
to her wants. She wrote feveral novels, which gained her
a comfortable fubfiftence. She died, after various changes
and misfortunes of hfe, at Thetford, near Farnham, Surry,
in the year 1806. Her principal novels are as follow :
" The Romance of Real Life ;" " Emmeline ;" " Ethe-
linda ;" " Celeftina ;" " Defmond ;" and " The Old
Manor Houfe." They difplay great powers of invention ;
and it is remarkable, that in them all fhe has contrived to
interweave much of her own perfonal hiftory, and painted
in very ftrong colours the charafters of certain rapacious
perfons, to whofe difhonelly fhe afcribed all, or at leaft the
greater part, of her forrows. Mrs. Smith was alfo author
of poems, fonnets, and two fmall volumes, entitled " Con-
verfations introducing Poetry, chiefly on Subjefts of Natu-
ral Hiftory, for the Ufe of young Perfons." Her defcrip-
tions are interefting, and her ftyle is elegant. Her fonnets
poflefs great beauty, and all her writings every where dif-
play the powers of a fine imagination, correft tafte, and
ftrong judgment.

Smith, George, a native of Chichefter, born in 1714, was,
in defpite of circumflances in every refpeft unfavourable, a de-
votee to the art of painting, particularly in landfcape ; and
by dint of determined perfeverance fucceeded in producing
fome works which do honour to his name. He was among
the firft who refcued the Englifh name, in art, from the
odium caft upon it by foreigners, and prepared the way for
the brilliant efforts of Wilfon, His idea of compofition
may be eftimated from the print, which Woollett engraved
after the picture for which the Society in the Adelphi gave
him their higheft premium, and which prefents a conception
almoft worthy of Claude : his colouring, indeed, did not
keep pace with the defign, and his touch was too minute
and trifling. There are many prints of his other produc-
tions, fome etched by himfelf, but the one we have men-
tioned is the fineft. He died in 1766.

Smith, Robert, LL.D. and D.D., was a contem-
porary to Barrow. After all our refearches, we have not
been able to colleft any particulars relating to the place of
his birth, which was probably in Lincolnfhire, and the pro-
grefs of his early years. It appears, however, that he
was admitted A.B. in 17 11, A.M. in 17 15, LL.D. in
1723, and S.T.P. by royal mandate in 1739. He was firft
fellow, afterwards profeffor of aftronomy and experimental
philofophy, of which he was made Plumean profeffor in
1 7 1 6, fupplying the place of his coufin, the celebrated Cotes ;
and he fucceeded Dr. Bentley, in 1742, in the mafterfhip of
Trinity college, in the univerfity of Cambridge. He had
been preceptor to William, duke of Cumberland, and was
mafter of mechanics to the king. In the year 1722 he
publiflied, at Cambridge, Cotes's "Harmonia Menfurarum,"
with additions, in 4to. : in 1738 appeared his " Complete
Syftem of Optics, in four books, -viz. a popular, a mathema-
tical, a mechanical, and a philofophical treatife," &c. 2 vols.

4to. :

SMITH.

Ato. : in 1747 he pub!i(hed at Cambridge, in 8vo., a fecond
edition of Cotes's " Hydroftatical and Piieumatical Lec-
tures:" and in December 1748, he publifhed his "Har-
monics," of which a fecond edition, much aujjmentcd and
improved, appeared in October 1758. Ttie iilcription over
him is H. S. E. Robertu'? Smith, S. T. P. Hujus CoUcgii
Magilter, obiit Aug. 1768, statis 79.

Dr. Smith left two annual prizes of 25/. to two com-
mencing bachelors of arts, who were to be the beit pro-
ficients in mathematics and natural philofophy of the year.
He alfo left 2000/. towards repairs of Trinity college, and
2500/. to the univerfity.

Dr. Smith was a performer on the violoncello, and a
curious inquirer into the defefts of the mufical fcale on
keyed inftruments ; which he tried to remedy by many in-
genious experiments and calculations. He had a harp-
fichord made by Kirkman, with quai-ter-tones, as they
are called, with only a fuigle ilrmg to each note, by
which means the inltrument, not being crowded with two
or three firings to each, by pedals could make any key
perfeft, as it allowed of two firings for each of the five
fhort keys, differently tuned, to each note ; as F« and G b,
G« and A b. A* and B b, &c. which rendered thofe keys
delightful, and which, in the old tuning, were infufferable.
But this perfeift harmony only fuited regular and iober mo-
dulation : the compofitions of Haydn and Mozart, and
their imitators, would want a new fcalc every two or three
bars. Poor Claggett purfued this plan, and by means of
multiplied firings and pedals had acquired perfect intonation
to all the twenty-four keys. But by additional bridges,
and the preflure of fo many firings on the belly of the in-
ilrument, the tone was injured and enfeebled. This, alas !
but confirms the two melancholy reHeftions, which tell us
that " we cannot have every thing ;" and that, " il faut
fouffrir dans ce monde."

The great mathematician, Dr. Smith, had fo accuftomed
himfelf to perfeft harmony, that he neither could bear the
throwing of the imperfeftions of the fcale on the wolf, or
E b, nor even on two or three fhort keys feldom ufedin old
church mufic ; but all the compound ftops in the organ,
fuch as the fefquialter and cornet, and the fingle ftops of
the twelve and the tierce in the chorus, he took out of the
fine organ of Trinity college, Cambridge, built by father
Smith, and reduced the whole chorus to unifons andoftaves,
which was thought by many to injure the inllrument fo
much as to bereave it of all its fpirit, and render it ini5pid.
And after the deceafe of Dr. Smith we have been alFured,
that the excommunicated pipes have been again received
into the bofom of the church.

Dr. Smith's " Harmonics," already mentioned, was pro-
feCFedly written to affill organ-builders and tuners to divide
the redundancies of the fcale equally, or nearly equally,
among all the twelve lemitones in the oftave by a table of
beats. To give the reader an idea of Dr. Smitli's plan, we
mult refer him to the article Beats, where this efTedt, pro-
duced by two organ-pipes nearly in tune, is explained. But
Dr. Smith's treatife, fo far from being intelhgible to tuners
of organs, and organ-players in general, requires a knowledge
in geometry and Huxions, which none but great mathemati-
cians able to read Newton's Principia pofl'cfs. Yet the book
is written in fo pleafing and alluring a ftyle, that many perufe
as much as they are able of the unfcientific part, and give
the author credit for the accuracy of his calculations.

Smith, John Chkistopher, a good mufician, and a
rcfpcftablc man. He was the cldeit fon of the worthy
John Chriftopher Schmidt, Handel's copyill, Reward, and
confidential countryman, who came over with him from

Germany, and lived an inmate with him to nearly the time
of h\i death. He ufed to engage and pay the performers
in the oratorios carried on by Handel himfelf; and being a
good mufician, was the moft correct copyill of his time.

His fon, John Chrillian, was a Itudious and cultivated
man, and much efteemed by many of the firfl people in the
kingdom. He was particularly reirarded by the late lord
Barrington, and all that noble family ; and having early in
life travelled with a gentleman of fortune, at Geneva he be-
came acquainted with fome Englilh gentlemen of learning
and talentSj among whom were Mr. Price, of Foxley, Here-
fordfliire ; Mr. Windham, of Felbrig, Norfolk ; Mr. Tate,
of Mitcham, Surry ; and Mr. Benjamin Stiliingfleet, &c.
This gave him a talle for, and procured him admiffion into,
good company ; fo that he formed his charafter on models
of a higher clafs than that of a mere mufician.

In the Monthly Review of a pamphlet publifhed in
1780, entitled "Anecdotes of George Frederick Handel,
and of John Chrillian Smith," there are fome pafTages re-
lating to the venerable Mr. Smith, which we fhall tran-
fcribe, being certain that they are accurate, from our own
knowledge.

« After the period of Mr. Smith's return to England,
he mixed very httle with his profeflional brethren, though
he continued to compofe mufic, and to teach the harpfi-
chord, till the year 1760; when, being in pofl'efTion, not
only of l\\e /cores of Handel's oratorios, but of the fingle
vocal and intlrumental parts, which had been tranfcribed
for, and ufed by his numerous bands, Mr. Smith undertook
to continue the performance of oratorios in Lent, during
eight years, on Ms own account ; and during nine more,
jointly with Stanley.

" We have heard, from the firfl contemporary authority,
that there was a fhynefs between Handel and the younger
Smith for feveral years, which kept them afunder till the
great mufician loft his fight : but the diflerence was occa-
fioned by no dignified caufe of quarrel. Mr. Smith, early
in life, having had fome inftructions from Handel, though
his principal matters were Dr. Pepufch and llofeingrave,
when about the year 1739, he pubhfhed a book of harpfi-
chord leffons, in 410. Handel took it amifs that his fcholar,
the fon of his copyill, Ihould prefume to have a title-page
to his leflons engraved exadtly in the fame form and text-
hand with his own firfl book of " Pieces de Clavecin," the
bell of all his produftions. Mr. Smith's pieces were then
perhaps inferior only to thofe of his model. Thuy con-
filled, as was then the general fafhion, of preludes, fugues,
allemandes, corants, and jigs.

" Mr. Smith was certainly an elegant mufician, and in his
conduft and manners far above the general level of the pro-
feffors of his art ; but we are not certain, that his execu-
tion as a praftitioner was great, nor that his invention as a
corapofer was original. It is plain, that Mr. Smith's ftyle
of compofition was that of the day, without an attempt at
deviation ; a flyle, which Handel had rendered a-la-modc, and
to which not only Mr. Smith, but all the Englilh compofers,
flrictly adhered during more than forty years ; as is manifefl
in the works of Green, Boyce, Arne, (in his oratorios,)
Worgan, and Stanley. Arne, in his dramatic mufic, adopted
eafy and elegant paffages from Italian operas ; but we muft
except his Comus, in which there is much original melody,
as well as in his Vauxhall ballads. Mr. Smitli never was a
popular compofer. His oratorios, though new, and in fup-
port of wlucli he had the patronage of feveral lUuflrious
friends and great families, (particularly tliat of Barrington,)
were not heard and attended fo well as thofe of Handel,
which had been in conftant ufe for many years. The Eng-
lilh

SMI

SMI

lifh opera of " The Fairies," in which Giradagni and Frafi
performed the principal parts, had a confiderable run ; but
it was never revived ; nor did the airs penetrate into Vaux-
hall, Ranelagh, Mary-le-bone, private concerts, or private
families, like thofe of Arne's Comus, or Boyce's Chaplet,
after having been heard at the theatres.

Smith, Father, or, as the Germans write his name,
Schmidt, brought over with him from Germany, of which
country he was a native, two nephews, Gerard and Ber-
nard, as afTiftants ; and to diftinguifh him from thefe, as
well as to exprefs the reverence due to his abilities, which
placed him at the head of his profeflion, he was called Father
Smith. During the grand rebellion, molt of the organs in
the kingdom having been deftroyed, or llolen out of the
churches, at the reftoration a fufficient number of workmen
for the immediate fupply of cathedrals and parifh churches,
with organs, not being found in our own country, it was
thought expedient to invite foreign builders of known abi-
lities to fettle among us ; and the premiums offered on this
occafion brought over the fubjeft of our article and Harris.
The firft organ which Smith engaged to build for this
country was for the royal chapel at Whitehall, which, being
liaftily put together, did not quite fulfil the expeftations of
thofe who were able to judge of its excellence. An organ
is fo operofe, complicated, and comprehenfive a piece of
irechanifm, that to render it complete in tone, touch, va-
riety, and power, exclufive of the external beauty and ma-
jefty of its form and appearance, is perhaps one of the
greateft efforts of human ingenuity and contrivance. It
was probably from fome fuch early failure, that this ad-
mirable workman determined never to engage to build an
organ upon fhort notice, nor for fuch a price as would
oblige him to deliver it in a ftate of lefs perfection than ho
wifhed. And we hive been affurcd by Snetzler, and by
the immediate defcendants of thofe who have converfed with
father Smith, and feen him work, that he was fo particularly
careful in the choice of his wood, as never to ufe any that
had the lead knot or flaw in it ; and fo tender of his reputa-
tion, as never to wafte his time in trying to mend a bad
pipe, either of wood or metal ; fo that when he came to
voice a pipe, if it had any radical defeft, he inltantly threw
it away, and made another. This, in a great meafure, ac-
counts for the equality and fweetnefs of his ftops, as well as
the foundnef; of his pipes, to this day.

Smith had not been many months here, before Harris
arrived from France, with his fon Rene Renatus, an in-
genious and aftive young man, to whom he had confided all
the fecrets of his art. However, they met with but little
encouragement at firft, as Dallans and Smith had the chief
bufinefs of the kingdom ; but upon the deceafe of Dallans,
who died while he was building an organ for the old church
at Greenwich, 1672, and of the elder Harris, who did not
long furvive him, the younger became a very formidable
rival to Smith.

For the contention between thefe eminent artilts, at the
time of erefting the admirable organ which ftill Hands in
the Temple church, fee Burney's Hift. of Mufic, vol. iii.

P- 437-

Smith, Theodore, a modern and pleafing compofer of
natural and eafy mufic. He was a native of Germany, and
publilhed at Berlin, at 1780, three different fets of fonatas
a quatre main, three in each fet ; and in 1782, fix con-
certos for the harpfichord. Though a native of Germany,
he refided fo long in England as to be fufRciently acquaint-
ed with our language to pubhfh, befides various mufical
compofitions, a Mufical Direflory, printed by Welcker in
1778, 3n elementary work of confiderable merit for its ar-

rangement and clear explanation of the firft rudiments of a
player on keyed-inftrurnents.

Smith, in Geography, a county of America, in the dif-
trift of Well Tenneffee, containing 1 1,649 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Wafh-
ington, containing 1646 inhabitants.

Smith's Inlet, a bay on the weft coaft of North America,
the entrance of which is nearly clofed by rocky ifles. From
the entrance into the inlet, whofe north point lies from its
fouth point N. 20 E. about a league diftant, it was found
to extend nearly in an eaft direftion about fix leagues ; here
it takes a turn to the N.E., and terminates in N. lat. 51°
24'. E. long. 232° 47I'. About three leagues within the
entrance, the rocks and ifles terminated, and the inlet con-
trafted to a general breadth of about half a milcj though in
fome places it was near twice that diftance from fhore to
fhore ; both of which were formed by high rocky precipices
covered with wood. About half way up the canal a village
of the natives was difcovered, fuppofed to contain 200 or
240 perfons. This was built upon a detached rock, con-
nefted with the main by a platform, and cwnltrufted for de-
fence. A great number of its inhabitants, in about thirty
canoes, vifited captain Vancouver's party, and allured them
in various ways to vifit their habitations. They offered the
fl<ins of the fea-otter, and other animals, to barter ; and be-
fides promifes of refrefhment, made figns, not eafily mif-
underltood, that the female part of their fociety would take
pleafure in their company. The entrance is in N. lat. ci"
20'. E. long. 232° 12'.

Smith's IJland, a fmall ifland near the eafl coaft of An-
tigua.— Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, near the coafl
of Virginia ; part of a clufter coUeftively called " Smith's
Iflands." N. lat. 37= ij'- W. long. 75° 52'.— Alfo, a
large and lofty ifland in the South Pacific ocean, difcovered
by lieutenant Ball, commander of the Supply, in 1790.
S. lat. 9° 44'. E. long. 161° 54'.

Smith's Point, a cape on the coaft of Virginia, forming-
the fouthern limit of the Potomack river. N. lat. 37° 54'.
Smith's River. See Staunton.

Smith's Sound, a bay on the eaft coaft of Newfoundland,
bounded by Cape Bonavifta.

SMITHERY, a fmilh's (hop ; alfo the art of a fmith,
by which iron is wrought into any fhape by means of fire,
hammering, fihng, &c.

SMITHFIELD, in Geography, a fmall poft-town of
Virginia, on Pagan creek, which difcharges itfelf into
James river, in the Ifle of Wight county ; 85 miles S.E. of
Richmond. The creek is navigable for veffels of 20 tons. —
Alfo, a poft-town, and the capital of Johnfon county, in
North Carolina, on the eaft fide of Neus river, on a beautiful
plain, about 100 miles N.W. of Newburn. In the centre
of the town is an Indian burying-place, once in the form
of a cone, 16 feet high, 30 feet in diameter, but its height
is now reduced to five or fix feet. — Alfo, a town of Jef-
ferfon county, in the ftate of Ohio, containing 1228 in-
habitants — Alfo, a townihip of New York, in Madifon
county, bounded north by Lenox, eaft by Augulla in
Oneida county, fouth by Eaton and Nelfon, and weft by
Cazenovia ; erefted in 1807 from Cazenovia, and about
12 miles eaft and weft, and 5 north and fouth. The prin-
cipal part of this traft was leafed of the Oneida Indians
by Peter Smith, 1794, and purchafed by the ftate in 1795'.
The foil is of a fuperior quality, and the whole traft is one
of the beft in the ftate. It is amply irrigated by fmall
ftreams, and alio by the main branch of the Chenango
river, itfelf a branch of the Sufquehanna. This town is
principally fettled by emigrants from the eaftern ftates, and
8 comprifea

SMI

S M O

comprifes the largell part of the traft called New Peterl-
burg. The population in 1810 confifted of 2651 perfons.
The principal village is Peterboro', fituated on the Oneida
creek. N. lat. 42*^57', and W. long. 1° 37' from New York.
— Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Lycoming county,
containing 1084 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town of Rhode illand,
in Providence county, containing 3828 inhabitants.

Smithfield, Lower, a townihip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Northampton, containing 1326 inhabitants.

Smithkield, Upper, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Wayne, containing 520 inhabitants.

Smithkield, Middle, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Wayne, containing 682 inhabitants.

SMITHIA, in Botany, was fo named, after the writer
of the prefent article, in the firft edition of the Hortiis
Kewenjis, of his ever valued and lamented friend the late
Mr. William Aiton, publiflied in 1789. — Ait. Hort. Kew.
cd. I. v. 3. 496 and 512. ed. 2. v. 4. 336. Schreb. 809.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 1161. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. La-
marck Diiil. V. 7. 222. lUuftr. t. 627 Clafs and order,

Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. P apilionacee, Linn.
Legumimife, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, two-
lipped ; the fegnients ovato-lanceolate, concave, acute,
nearly equal. Cor. papilionaceous. Standard inverfely
IjL'art-fhaped. Wings oblong, obtufe, rather Ihorter than
the ilandard. Keel linear-oblong, of one petal, cloven at
the bafe, the length of the wings. Stam. Filaments ten,
united into two equal fets, combined at the bottom ; anthers
oblong. Pyi. Germen fuperior, embraced by the bafe of
the calyx ; ftyle capillary, permanent ; ftigma fiinple.
Peric. Legume included within the calyx, of from four to
feven orbicular, finglc-feeded, dillintt, muricated joints,
connetled with the permanent folded llyle, and lying hori-
zontally over each other. Seeds folitary, kidney-lhaped,
comprefled^ fmooth.

Elf. Ch. Stamens in two equal fets. Legume of feveral
horizontal, feparate joints, connefted by the folded ftyle,
and mclofed in the two-lipped, equal calyx.

This genus, though eltablilhed under the authority of
two very eminent botanifts, Mr. Dryander and Mr. Salif-
bury, who thought it peculiarly well marked, has of late

entire ienjlets, about a quarter of an inch long ; oblique at
the bafe ; glaucous beneath, their mid-rib and margins
efpecially befet with long, brilUy, tawny, clofe-preffed
hairs. Slipulas in pairs, lanceolate, membranous, ribbed ;
auricled and (purred at the bafe. The leaves fold together
when touched, as in the Mimoja pudica, but more tardily,
unlels in a very hot atmofphere. l^\\e Jloivers are yellow,
rather frnall, with a purplilh cedyx, accompanied by a pair
of clofe braSeas, half its own length. Joints of the legume
as fmall as Red-poppy feed.

2. S. conferta. Clofe-flowered Smithia. — Lips of the
calyx toothed. Cluiters feflile, fiiorter than the leaves. —
Gathered in the tropical part of New Holland, by fir Jofeph
Banks, to whom we are obliged for a fpecimen. This
feems likewife to be an annual herbaceous plant. Thejlems
are ereft, flender, unbranched, round, fmooth. Lea-vet
few, diftant, except at the top, where two or three are
crowded together ; their leaflets much as in the foregoing.
Stipulas fpurred, but fcarcely auricled. Clujlers axillary,
leflile, of a very few Jloivers, whofe petals, in the dried
fpecimen, are of a reddifh or tawny hue. By the pofitioii
of the dried leaves this fpecies feems aUo fenfitive ; and per-
haps they fold at night over the Jlowers, like thofe of the
Lotus tetragonolobus, celebrated for having firft led Linnxus
to conlider what he afterwards called the Sleep of Plants.

SMITHLAND, in Geography, a poft-town of Ken-
tucky, in the county of Livinglton, containing 99 inha-
bitants : the county contains 3575.

SMITHTOWN, a poft-townfhip of New York, in Suf-
folk county, Long Ifland ; 92 miles E. of New York ; con-
taining 1592 inhabitants, including 72 (laves. This place
employs 14 vcfTels principally in the trade with New York,
of 30 to 100 tons burthen.

SMITHVILLE, a town of North Carolina, near the
mouth of Cape Fear river; 30 miles S. of Wilmington.
— Alfo, a townfhip of Chenango county, ercfted from a
part of Greene in 1808 ; 13 miles S.W. of Norwich ; con-
taining 995 inhabitants, who manufafture moft of their
clothing in the houfehold way.

SMITING-LiNii, in a Ship, is a fmall rope faftcned to
the mizen-yard-arm, below at the deck, and is always furled
up with the mizen-fail, even to the upper end of the yard.

been found fo nearly to accord with the ori.jinal fpecies of and from thence it comes down to the poop. Its ufe is to

Jefchynomcne, as to be fcarcely diltinguifhable therefrom
Mr. Brown, however, who made this difcovery, ftill con-
fiders Smithia as diltinft ; the legume of Aefchynomene being
flrai^,ht, compofed of a leries of vertical joints, conneded
by their edjres, and projefting out of the calyx, while the
latter is deeply divided. Their habits, and even the fenfi-
bility of their foliage, bring them fo clofely together, that
we doubt, at lealt, the propriety of keeping them feparate,
though we are content, for the prefent, to leave them as
we find them. Two fpecies only of the genus before us
have been obferved.

I. S. Jcnfiii'ua. Annual Smithia. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. I. V. 3. 496. t. 13. cd. 2. n. i. Willd. n. i. Salifb.
Parad. t. 92. — " Lips of the calyx entire. Clufters llalked,
of few flowers." — Difcovered in moift paftures, on the
coaft of Coromandel, by J. G. Koenig, M.D., by whom
feeds were fent in 1785 to fir Jofeph Banks. The plant is
annual, and ul'ually kept in a hot-bed, or Itovc ; but, ac-
cording to Mr. Saiifbury, the feeds fcattering tliemfelves in
favourable fituations, will fometimes come up in the open
ground, even in dry gravel. The root is tapering. Stems
leveral, fpreading, various in luxuriance, more or Icfs
branched, round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves alternate, ab-
ruptly pinnate, of four, five, or fix pair of elliptical, obtufe, miniflied ; and thus, beiii

loofe the mizen-fail, without ftriking down tlie yard, which
is eafily done, becaufe the mizen-fail is furled up only with
rope-yarns ; and, therefore, when this rope is pulled hard>
it breaks all the rope-yarns, and fo the fail falls down of
itfelf. The word of art ii, fmite the mizeii, (whence this
rope takes its name,) that is, hale by this rope that the fail
may fall down.

SMITTL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Caramania ; 18 miles E.N.E. of Cogni.

SMOCK, Lady's, or Bitter Crejfes, in Agriculture, a
plant of the weed kind, found in coppices, and on the banks
of rivers, which fheep are laid fometimes to eat. The com-
mon fort is thought by fome to be nfefnl in epilepfies.

SMOKE, or S.MOAK, Fumus, a humid matter, exhaled

in form of vapour by the aftion of heat, either external or

internal ; or fmoke confills of palpable particles, elevated

by means of the rarefying heat, or by the force of the

afccnding current of air, from bodies expofed to heat ; and

tlicfe particles vary much in their properties, according to

the lubllances from which tliey are produced. See Fl.\.mk.

Smoke, fir Ifaac Newton obferves, afcend^. in the chimney

by the impulfe of the air it floats in : for that air, being

rarefied by the fire underneath, has its fpecific gravity di-

determincd to afcend itfelf, it

carries

S M O

carries up the fmoke along with it. The tail of a comet
that great author takes alfo to afcend from the nucleus,
after the fame manner. (See Comet.) Smoke of fat
unftuous woods, as fir, beech, &c. makes what we call
lamp black.

Smoke, arifing from the combuftion of vegetables, is a
mixture of water, oil, volatile falts, and all the gafeous
produfls which refult from the combination of vital air with
the feveral principles of the vegetable.

There are various inventions for preventing and curing
fmoky chimnies ; as the seolipiles of Vitruvius, the venti-
dufts of Cardan, the windmills of Bernard, the capitals of
Serlio, the little drums of Paduanus, and feveral artifices of
De Lorme. See Chim\ey and ¥lRE-Places.

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions we have the defcription
of an engine, invented by Monfieur Dalefme, which con-
fumes the fmoke of all forts of wood, and that fo totally, as
the mod curious eye cannot difcover it in the room, nor the
riceft nofe to fmell it, though the fire be made in the middle
of the room. It confifts of feveral iron hoops, four or five
inches in diameter, which fhut into one another, and is
placed on a trevet. A brand taken out of the fire fmokes
inltantly, but ceafes as foon as returned : the moil fetid
things, as a coal fteeped in cat's pifs, which ftinks abomi-
nably when taken out of the fire, yet in it makes not the lealt
ill fcent ; no more than red-herrings broiled, &c.
SMOKE-Jaci. See Jack.

Smoke- Fcirthings were the pentecoftal or cuftomary obla-
tions offered by the inhabitants within any diocefe, when
they made their procefiions to the cathedral church ; which
came, by degrees, into an annual (landing rent, called
fmoke-farthings. See Pentecostals.

SMOKE-Silver, in our Old Writers. Lands were held in
fome places by the payment of the fum of fix-pence yearly
to the fheriff, called fmoke-filver.

Smoke-filver and fmoke-penny are to be paid to the
minifters of divers parifhes as a modus, in lieu of tithe-
wood ; and in fome manors, formerly belonging to religious
houfeG, there is Hill paid, as appendant to the faid manors,
the ancient Peter-pence, by the name of fmoke-money.

SMOKEY Bay, in Geography, a large bay on the weft
coaft of the entrance into Cook's river, between Cape
Doug:la5 and Point Banks.

SMOLEN, an ifland in the North fea, on the coaft of
Norway, 25 miles in circumference. N. lat. 63° 24'. E.
long. 8° 2&.

SMOLENSK, a town of Ruflia, and capital of a go-
vernment, fituated on the Dnieper ; the refidence of a
governor, and a bifliop's fee, with very confiderable com-
merce. The podeffion of it has been often difputed between
the Poles and the Ruffians. It is built on two hills, be-
tween which are a valley and river, and furrounded with
walls, 30 feet high and 15 thick, the lower part being Hone,
and the upper brick, wliich trace the courfe of the hills, and
enclofe a fpace of about five miles. At every angle towers
are erected. The houfes of the common people are moftly
conftrufted of wood : the number of inhabitants is faid to
exceed 4000. The chief articles of trade are flax, hemp,
timber, malls, planks, honey, wax, hides, hogs' bridles,
and Siberian furs ; 420 miles E.N.E. of Warfaw. N. lat.
54° 40'. E. long. 32=" 18'.

Smolensk, a government of Ruffia, bounded on the
north by Pfovllioe and Tverflioe, on the eafl. by Mofcovlkaia
and Kaluzfkoe, on the fouth by Oilovflioe and Nov£;orod
Sievcrfliue, and on the woil by Polotzflioe and Mogilevfkce;
at its greatell length 180 miles from N. to S., and 160 from
E. to W. This government contains White Ruffia, pro-

a writer of con-
at Dalquhurn, in

S M O

perly fo called, and was ceded by Poland to Ruflia, as a
duchy, by a treaty, concluded in the year 1667, and con-
firmed in 16S6. Its capital is Smolenflc. N. lat. 53° at/
to 56° 15'. E. long. 31° to 36^.

SMOLIN, a town of Hungary ; 22 miles N.N.E. of
Prefburif — Alfo, a mountain of Boinia ; 32 miles S.S.W.
of Zwornick.

SMOLLET, Tobias, in Biography,
fiderable reputation, was born, in 1720,
Dumbartonffiire. After a common education he was put
apprentice to a furgeon in Glafgow, and .-.l ihe fame time
he availed hitnfelf of the opportunity of attending medical
leftures at the univerfity. At this early period he compofed
a tragedy. In his nineteenth year he quitted Scotland for
London, where he quickly obtained the fituation of fur.
geon's mate in the navy. He failed in the expedition
fitted out acjainft Carthagena, under admiral Vernon and
general Wentworth ; and during the voyage he difplayed his
powers of obfervation, as well as his fatirical turn, by the
account he drew up of that ill condudled and unfuccefsful
enterprize. He was foon difgulled with the fervice in which
he had engaged, and quitted it in the Weit Indies. It had,
however, been of great fervice, by introducing him to that
acquaintance with the manners and language of failors, of
which he made the raoft amufing exhibitions in his novels.
The favage cruelties ufed by the king's troops after the
battle of CuUoden called fonh SmoUet's warmeft feelings,
and occafioned his poem entitled " The Tears of Scotland,"
which by its fpirit and elegance placed the author high in
the rank of mmor poets. It was followed by two fatires, a
fpecies of compofition to which the natural irritabihty of
temper gave him a propenfity. He married, in 1747, a
lady, with whom he expefted a good fortune, of which)
however, he received very little, and the expenfive ftyle in
which he fet out in life brought him very foon into ferious
difficulties. In this emergency he had recourfe to his pen,
and in 1748 he produced his firft novel, entitled " Roderick
Random," which had no doubt ftrong allufions to his
own hiitory, and became extremely popular. ~A trip to
Paris, in 1750, enlarged his knowledge of the world, and
gave rife to his " Adventures of Peregrine Pickle," in
which he exerted all the powers of humorous invention and
delineation, though often at the expence of delicacy and
morality. He now determined to purfue his profeffion, and
commenced phyfician at Bath, but he met with fo little
fuccefs that he foon abandoned it, and refumed writing as
a proteffion. His next publication was " Adventures of
Ferdinand Count Fathom," which was followed by a new
tranflation of Don Quixote. In 1756 he undertook the
management of a new Revievi-, under the title of the
" Critical," which, after undergoing a number of changes,
ftill exiils. His fatirical and acrimonious fpirit foon broke
out in this journal, and involved him in a quarrel with ad-
miral Knowles, on whofe conduCl in the expedition to
Rochefort he had fpnken with great feverity. SmoUet was
profecuted and conviAed of a libel, and fuffered the punifh-
ment of the law, viz. fine and imprifonment.

After this he wrote for the theatre an after-piece, entitled
the " Reprifai, or the Tars of Old England ;" this was
aiSled at Drury-lane in 1757 ; and in the following year he
publifhed a hailily written " Complete Hiftory of England,
from the Defcent of Julius Caefar to the Treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle," in two vols. 410. About the fame period he
publifhed a novel, entitled " The Adventures of Sir Launce-
iot Greaves," and he is fuppofed to have written the hif-
tories of France, Italy, and Germany, in the modern part
of the Univerfal Hiitory, In 1761 he began to pubhfh hi»

«< Con-

S M U

S M U

« Continuation of the Hiftory of England," taken up at
the Revolution, where Hume left it, and brought down to
the year 1765.

At the beginning of the prefent reign, Dr. Smollet was
an advocate in defence of the meafures adopted by the ad-
minidration, at the head of which was lord Bute, and in
conneftion with others he publidied a weekly paper, called
" The Briton," which was encountered by the more famous
one entitled '♦ The North Briton," fet on foot by the well-
known John Wilkes. The rancour difplayed on both fides
diflolved the frienddiip which had long fubfilled between
thefe two political champions. Smollet, from fome do-
meftic affliftions, determined to vifit the continent, whither
he went in 1763, and he fpent two years in a tour through
France and Italy. After his return he publifhed, in 1766,
his " Travels" in thefe countries, in a ieries of letters, in
two vols. 8vo. which contained many lively and fenfible re-
marks, but which were deeply tinged with the gloomy
temper of mind, which rendered him diflatisfied and out of
humour with almoft every thing he faw. In 1769 he pub-
lifhed a fort of political romance, entitled " The Adventures
of an Atom," intended to ridicule different adminiftrations,
but efpecially that of the earl of Chatham.

Increafing ill-health induced him, in the year 1770, to
pay another vifit to Italy, accompanied by his wife, and
during his lad voyage he wrote his laft novel, " The Expedi-
dition of Humphry Clinker," which fome critics regard at
the bed of all his novels. He died in the neighbourhood
of Leghorn, in October 1 771, in the fifty-firit year of his
age. " Dr. Smollet," fays the author of the article in the
General Biography, " was undoubtedly a man of talents
and great variety of powers, though he did not attain the
highed rank in any thing. He is bed known as a novelid,
and they who read thofe conipofitions for amufement only,
without much nicety of taile, feldom fail of being enter-
tained by him. Yet his portraits are often caricatures, his
fcenes of humour coarfc and extravagant, and his jeds bor-
rowed. As an hidorian, he has attained more credit for the
elegance and animation of his dyle, than for the higher
qualities of judgment, accuracy, and impartiality ; and though
his continuation is annexed to Hume's Hidory, the two
writers will bear no comparifon." His poetic powers were
confiderable. His " Tear<^ of Scotland," " Ode to Leven
Water," and fome other fliort pieces, are polifhed, tender,
and piiTturefque. His " Ode to Independence" is a loftier
flight, and has perhaps few fuperiors in the lyric drain. His
fatircs are vigorous, but violent and difguding.

SMOLNITZ, in Geograjihy, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of J>clilan ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Schlan.

SMORGONIE, a town of Ruffian Lithuania, in the
p.ilatinate of Wilna.

SMORZATO, in Ilalian Miific, for the violin family,
implies that the bow fliould be drawn or prciled to its full
length, not witli tlie fame force throughout, but lighter by
degrees, till fcareely any found is heard. This term feems
now fuperleded by illm'mucndo and pcrJcndqfi.

SMOSTRIE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in Po-
dolia ; 15 miles N. of Kaminiec.

SMOTHER-FI^Y, in /tgrkullure, a provincial term ap-
plied to the bean aphis.

SMOTRZICZ, in Geography, a river of Poland, which
runs into the Dniedcr, 8 miles S. of Kaminiec.

SMRDOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaf-
lau ; 9 miles S. of Czaflau.

SMUGGLING, a cant term for the runnin;^ of goods,
or the oflence of importing them without paying the duties

Vol., XXXIII.

impofed thereon by the laws of the cujlom and excife. See
each of thefe articles.

This is redrained by a great variety of datutes, which
inflidl pecuniary penalties, and feizure of the goods, for
clandedine fmuggling ; and affix the guilt of felony, with
tranfportation for feven years, upon more open, daring, and
avowed praftices : but the laft of them (19 Geo. II. c. 34.)
is for this purpofe injlar omnium ; for it makes all forcible
afts of fmuggling, carried on in defiance of the laws, or
even in difguife to evade them, felony without benefit of
clergy. For the chief provifions of this att, which was at
fird temporary, but made perpetual by 43 Geo. III. c. 15,
fee Customs.

SMUSH-POT, amongd Palntert, is the vedel into which
they rub off the paint from the pencils, and put the fcrap-
ings of the pallet.

SMUT, or UsTlLAGO, in /IgrtcuUure, a difeafe in corn,
and which, according to M. Duliamel, exhibits the follow-
ing marks or appearances. I. This didemper dedroys en-
tirely the germ and fubdance of the grain. 2. It affefts
not only the ear, but alfo, in fome degree, the whole plant,
when it has made a great progrefs. 3. It very feldom hap-
pens, but that when one fialk is fmutty, all the ears of the
other dalks from the fame root are fo too. 4. So early as
in March or April, upon opening carefully the hood or
blades which cover the ear, and examining the young ear,
then not above the fixth part of an inch in length ; and
almoll clofe to the roots, he found this embryo already
black, and attacked with this didemper. Perhaps it may
not always feize the plant fo early. 5. When the didem-
pered ear comes out of its covering formed by the blades, it
looks lank and meagre : the common, and immediate cover-
ings of the grains, are in this cafe fo very (light and thin,
that the black powder is feen through them : and from this
time nothing is found in lieu of grain, but a black powder,
which has a fetid fmell, and no confidency. As this pow-
der, of wiiich the condituent particles have but very little
cohefion, and of which the coverings are dedroyed, is
eafily blown off by wind, or wafhed away by rain ; the huf-
bandman, in houfing thefe plants, houfes only fkeletons of
the ears. If any impreffion of this powder remains, it is
eafily taken off by fifting ; but he has not experienced it to
be contagious, like that of burnt grain. And Mr. Tillet,
it is remarked, has obferved that thefe corrupted cars are
often found to be vitiated even in the hood, though this lad
looks as green and perfeft as if nothintr ailed the corn
within. The upper part of the dalk of a fmutty plant is
not commonly quite ilraight, from within about half an
inch below the ear. If fuch a dalk is fqueozed there, it
fcarcely yields at all to the preffure. If it be cut afunder
at about a fixth part, or a quarter of an inch below the ear,
it will be found to be almod entirely filled with pith, in
fuch a manner that only a very fmall opening can be per-
ceived in the heart of the dalk, indead of the large pipe
that is in healthy denif. He concludes from hence, that
the circulation of the juices is obdruAed in the upper part
of the dalks of fmutty plants. Bearded wheat is apt to
be fmutty, as well as that which is not bearded ; but
neither Mr. Tillet nor he ever met with a fmutty ear of
rye.

And in refpeit to the caufcs of fmut, it is obferved, that
the fmuttinefs of corn cannot be owing to a want of fecun-
dation, as many have hitherto millakcnly imagined, fince it
aflefts and delhoys the organs of both (exes, long before
the time of tiiat fecundation : — that it cannot be imputed
to the fettling uf wet upon the cars, or to fogs, or to a
violent impreflion of the fun ; fince we have fccu the ears
B b fmutty

SMUT.

fmutty long before they ceafed to be covered with the
blades, which continue green till the diftemper has made
great progrefs : — that the fame obfervations refute abfo-
lutely the opinion of thofe who fuppofe the caufe of the
fmut to be in the grains after they are fcrmed, and before
they are pall their milky Hate : — that the fmut of corn has
been alfo afcribed to the moirture of the earth ; but we do
not fee more fmutty plants in the lowelt, and confequently
wetted parts of a field, than in the highelt and moll dry.
Beiidcs, why (hould there be a fingle fmutty plant in the
midft of numbers of found ones ? However, as it appears
that corn is more frequently attacked with this diftemper in
wet years than when the feafons are dry, too much moifture
may perhaps, without being the immediate caufe of the fmut,
favour its progrefs more than drought would do.

Some naturalilts have afcribed this diftemper to infefts.
Our author, if he is not authorifed abfolutely to deny this,
can at leaft affert, that, after having been of this opinion
for fome time, all his endeavours to eftablifh it by fafts have
proved ineffedlual. Some obfervers have indeed ftiewn him
different infefts in fmutty grains ; but as he found the very
fame kinds likewife in found ears, he believes, with Mr.
Tilltt, that they are not in any manner the caufe of this
diftemper. We know that the corn-caterpillar devours the
mealy fubftance of the grain : but it does not occafion fmut.
Numbers of flies lay their eggs upon thefe feeds, and the
worms and maggots which proceed from them eat the
feeds ; but this does not occafion any thing like fmut. The
Rev. Dr. Hales, to fatisfy himfelf whether the fmut of corn
might not proceed from the feeds being bruiied by the flail,
took a number of grains, of different fizes, and bruifed them
with a hammer. Thus his own experience convinced him
that he had conceived a wrong idea of the caufe of this
diftemper.

Several cultivators have thought that pigeons' dung
and that of ftieep render corn fmutty : but this is a ground-
lefs notion. We have large pigeon-houfes, the dung of
which is ftrewed upon our wheat-lands ; yet we do not
find that thefe fields are more affefted with fmut than others.
This allegation is, therefore, abfolutely deftitute of proof.
It is added, that Wolfius was of opinion that the fmut of
corn proceeded from a monftrofity of the embryo ; but
M. Almen has refuted that fuppofition, by (hewing, that
the male flowers of certain kinds of plants are attacked with
this diftemper : now the flowers have not any embryo.

And this laft philofopher has judicioufly obferved, that
the fmut of corn cannot derive its origin from a defeCl
in the fap ; as all the parts of the plant, except the ear,
look healthy, and there are plants whofe roots are perennial,
which appear vigorous, though their feeds are fmutty every
year. He is of opinion, that whatever weakens tlie plant
is apt to bring on the fmut, and inftancss as a proof of this,
that it is a frequent cuftom in his country, to cut rye as
foon as it fpindles, for food for their cattle ; and that this
rye generally produces other ears, which feldom contain
any but diftempered grain : to which he adds, tliat feed-
corn which had been pricked or run through with a needle,
or which is not thoroughly ripe, and that which produces
lateral or fecond ears, is fubjeft to the fmut. And he
afterwards, from other trials, feems difpofed to afcribe this
difeafe to mouldinefs.

But in the " Memoirs of the Bath Agricultural Society,"
it is faid to be a difeafe that only occurs when the weather
is wet, during the period of the flowering of the plants, in
which the anthers may burit and the farina be waihed way.
It is fuppofed not to be produced by any infcftious mate-
rial, or the ova of infedls that may adhere to the grain, as

fmutty ears and found ones are found proceeding from the
fame root ; and, in fome inftances, both fmutty and found
grains to be contained in the fame ear ; fome of the corns
having even one end fmutty and the other found, confe-
qucntly to arife from the want of due impregnation, from
the farina fecundans being faulty or imperfeft, and that
putrefaftion takes place on the death of the corn. And
this fuppofition is fupported by the experiments of the
Italian philofopher Spallanzani, who found that the feed is
produced in the plants long anterior to impregnation,
which cannot be performed until the flower is open, and
the duft of the anther fully in a ftate of maturity. And
Dr. Darwin, on thefe principles, conceives, that for want
of impregnation, or the vivifying principle, the wheat-corn
may putrefy, as is the cafe with addle eggs of oviparous
animals. However, the inquiries of other writers feem to
lead to the opinion that the affeftion is produced by the
attacks of an infeft, and that, though certainlv infeclious,
it may be prevented or cured by the ufe of different kinds
of pickles.

Further, a variety of fails and refleftions have been
offered on this fubjeft by Mr. R. Somerville, in the fecond
volume of " Communications to the Board of Agriculture;"
who begins by remarking, that fome years ago, he col-
ledfed a quantity of fmutted ears from one field of wheat,
in which they were very numerous, and a number of healthy
well-filled ears from another field, in which there was no
fmut. The grains were rubbed out of both, intimately
mixed, and kept in a box for two months, at the end of
which time they were rubbed between the hands in fuch a
manner as to break the whole of the fmut-ball. The par-
cel was then divided into two equal parts, one of which
was three or four times wafhed with pure water, and well
rubbed between the hands at each wafhing, and afterwards
fown in a drill in his garden ; the other half was fown in
another drill without any wafhing or preparation whatever,
the foil and every other circumftance being equal. Both
parcels vegetated at the fame time, and for about two
months thereafter there was no vifible difference in their
appearance ; about that period, he however obferved, that
many of the plants in the drill that had been fown without
being wafhed, were of a darker colour than the others ;
thefe, when narrowly examined, were of a dirty-green.
The plants in the drill that had been wafhed were all of
one colour, and feemingly healthy ; as the feafon advanced,
the difference in colour became more itriking, and con-
tinued to increafe till the grain was fairly out of the blade :
about this time many of the dirty- green ears beiran to
exhibit fymptoms of decay. As foon as the ear was fairly
fhot out, the whole of thofe in the unwafhed drill, that had
the dirty-green appearance above defcribed, were found to
contain nothing but fmut ; and thefe fmutted ears were in
the proportion of more than fix to one of the healthy ones ;
while, on the contrary, the drill in which tlie wafhed grains
had been fown, and which confuted of feveral hundred
grains, had hardly a fmutted or unhealthy ear in it. The
fame experiment was repeated the following feafon, and
with nearly the fame refult. Satisfied with knowing that
complete wafhing would be found a remedy for the difeafe,
he made no farther inquiry upon the fubjedl till laft autumn,
when he was employed in making obfervations upon the
blight, in the courfe of which he met with a good deal of
fmut in many fields ; and being at the time poffeiTed of
fome excellent glaffes, he carefully examined fome of the
fmutted plants. This at firft was done more as a matter
of amufement, than from any expeftation of difcovering
any thing that might contribute to throw light upon the

fubjeft.

SMUT.

fubjeft. Upon a near infpeftion with the glafs, he found
that the dirty-green colour of the blades of the fmulted
ears was owing to a number of fpots infinitely fmall, and
bearing a near refemblance to thofe upon blighted ears :
his obfervations were continued throughout the whole
period of the ripening, in the courfe of which he made no
additional difcovery, except obferving, that the leaves and
ftalks of the fmutted ears decayed fooner than fuch as were
healthy. About the end of autumn, however, having one
day brought home fome fmutted cars of rather an unufual
appearance, he examined them very narrowly, and obferved
that the balls were perforated in many places with fmall
round holes, a thing he had not before obferved in any
that he had met with : this he afcribed to vermin ; and
upon Iticking one of the grains upon a pin, and placing it
under the glafs in a very bright fun, he could dillinftly ob-
ferve feveral fmall tranfparent fpecks upon the beard, or
downy part of it. He examined feveral more, and met with
exaftly the fame appearance ; but upon being called hallily
away upon bufinefs, he was under the neceflity of leaving
them upon the table, without being able to afcertain
whether the objefts he had feen were eggs or infefts. In
the evening, when he came home, he refumed the invtfti-
gation by candle-light ; in the courfe of which, a? he was
under the neceflity of holding them very near the candle,
the heat foon relieved him from his embarralTment, by put-
ting them in motion, and he then difcovered that the fpecks
above-mentioned were real inftfts, refembling wood-lice in
(hape. Next day he repeated the fame trials by fun-light
with new fmut-balls, and difcovered the fame appearances,
but without being able to make any of the infedls ilir.
Difappointed and vexed at not being able to fee them in
motion with the fun-light, and recoUefting the heat of the
candle, he threw the concentrated rays of the fun upon
them with a burning-glafs, which completely anfwered his
purpofe of putting them in motion, and (hewing them in
every different point of view. To defcribe minutely an
infeft fo fmall as not to be diltiiiguifhable by the naked eye,
would, he thinks, be no eafy matter ; it is fufficient to fay,
that its general appearance is very fimilar to the wood-loufe,
though infinitely fmaller. As foon as he had clearly af-
certained the exiftence of this infeft, his mind was pcr-
feftly at eafe with regard to the caufe of the diltemper ;
but though he could very readily conceive that vermin, in
the early llagcs of the growth of a plant, might fo injure
the ftamina as to render it unfit to produce any thing but
fmut, he could not fo well underftand how it was poflible
for the mere touch of the black earth contained in the
fmut-balls to produce the fame effeft. It is well known,
that in the animal body, certain infeftions are communicated
merely by the contact of the found and unfound parts ;
but that in every inftance where this happens, the injury
can be diftindlly traced to an abforption of the virulent
matter, by the vedels of the healthy fubjeft.

And we are now, he thinks, fo well acquainted with
vegetation, as to know that plants have a circulating fyltem
an well as animals ; and that while they are in a growing
Hate, poifon as well as nourifhmcnt may enter their ved'eb,
and do infinite mifchief. If this reafoning is landtioned by
expedience, and there can be no doubt of it, and if there is
the flighteft analogy between animal and vegetable life, it
will at once appear, that no bad effeft could polfibly arife
from fmutted and healthy ears coming in contact, either in
the (lack or xhc barn, as at that time they are in a (late of
relt, and no circulation going on. It may be argued in
anfwer to this, tliat while the plants are green, the (baking
of the wind may bring the fmutted and the healthy ears

into contaft, and that the acrimony of the fmut may cor-
rode and dellroy the healthy wheat, fo as to produce the
difeafo. This idea he knows is entertained by many very
good farmers : it is, however, clearly difproved by the
experiment above recited, by which it appears that a fimple
wadiing in water, provided it is properly performed, is a
very efie&ual cure for the diltemper : common fcnle will
inform us, that had the ftamina, or germ of the grains fo
wadied, been injured by any thing of a corrofive nature,
even in the (lightclt degree, no ablution whatever could
poflibly have repaired the milchief. And the fame reafon-
ing, he fuppofes, applies with equal jullice to the other
caufes affigned, with the fingle exception of infefts ; for
if either the grain was naturally weak, or had been fprung
in harvelt, or was deficient in its male organs, as is ridi-
culoudy iuppofed, nothing but the highelt degree of weak-
nefs and credulity could make any perfon believe, that
either the wadiing with water, or indeed any other prepa-
ration, could cure fuch defefts.

It is, therefore, his opinion, that the fmut is occafioned
by the fmall mfeft above defcribed, as leen by the glafs in
the downy part of the grain ; and that when the balls are
either broken in the operation of thra(hing, or come in con-
tact with clean healthy grains, the infefts leave the fmutted
grains, and, adhering to fuch as are healthy, are fown with
them, and wound the tender ftem in fuch a manner as to
render the plant incapable of producing any thing but
fmut. It is not an eafy matter to account for the manner
in which this takes place ; but a little attention to the
circumftances he is now to mention vi'ill perhaps throw
fome light upon it. It is known that plants of very op-
pofite natures and qualities will grow and produce abun-
dantly upon the fame foil, where the nourifhment is feem-
ingly the fame. This effeft is alfo known to be owing to
the ftrufture of their veffels, by the aftion of which the
juices that circulate through them are differently prepared
in every different plant. From this ftriking difference,
owing confeffedly to organization, is it not, he aflts,
prefumable that the fmnt in wheat is produced by the
infefts wounding the veffels of the plant in fuch a manner
as to render them incapable of taking up any other prin-
ciple from the foil, but the fmut contained in the balls,
which, upon examination, feems to have no quality different
from the fineft vegetable earth ? This opinion, he thinks,
is llrongly fupported from the circuraftance of certain
pickles being found a cure for the malady. The effeft of
thefe pickles is, however, completely mifunderdood ; for,
in place of fuppofing, as is erroneoudy done, that they
operate by flrengthcning the grain, and thereby removing
that debility which has been long confidered the caufe of
fmut, their benefit depends upon the powers they podefs
of dcftroying the infefts above defcribed : but to fhew the
abfnrdity of the commonly received opinion in a more
ftriking point of view, it is only neccflary, he adds, to
date, that many of thefe preparations, which are fuppofed
to be fo friendly to vegetation, are in faft inimical to it,
unlefs they are ufed with tlie utmofl caution ; even Itale
urine, which has long been confidered as a fafe and inno-
cent remedy, is, under certain circumftances, highly per-
nicious. After he had difcovered the infeft, he made
trial of all the fubflaiices commonly ufed, and found all of
them, when properly applied, deftruftive to it. Is it Hot,
therefore, he contends, more agreeable to plain common
(enfe to fuppofe, that the virtue of thefe preparations con-
fifts more in the power they have of dcftroying vermin, than
in any ftren^tliening quality they polfefs ?

The following opinion has been offered on this vege-
Bb 2 table

SMUT.

table affeftion by fir John Call, who fiippofes, that the
fmut is occafioned by certain animalcula depofited in the
hufks of the ear, when the wheat h in bloflbm, which are
fed and brought to perfedion by devouring the milky
iuice, and obferves, that were the difeafc radical in the
original grain of the feed-wheat, or infeffious from the
juice arifmg through the pores and tubes of the ttalk, there
could not be in the fame ear, grains, fome decayed and
others quite perfeft. But to bring the matter to the tel^
of experiment, he collefted a quantity of fmutted ears of
wheat, in fome of which were two or more grains apparently
perfeft, all which he caufed to be rubbed out with the
hand in a bag, fmut and altogether ; the frefh grains found
in the bag were then fown in a particular ridge amonglt
other wheat, in a field under tillage. Their growth from
the firll was fimilar to the reft of the wheat ; and from a
certificate of refpeftable farmers, it appears their produce
was as free from fmut, as that of the field in general. And
hence the conclufion is drawn, that wafhing or pickling
wheat, as a remedy againft the fmut, is unnecefTarjr and ufe-
lefs • and that as bhghts and other difeafes of plants are
more prevalent from circumftances in fome feafons than in
others, fo the fmut is an accident of a like nature, which
mankind can neither forefee nor prevent. The general

experience of farmers is, however, in oppofition to this
fuppofition. And whether this vegetable difeafe may be
produced by infefts, or be the effeft of fome other caufe,
to many of which it has been afcribed by different philo-
fophical inquirers ; the moft general praftice of farmers
has been that of preparing their feed by the means of fome
fort of wafhing or brining. The following is a tabular
view of the relults of trials made with different fteeps, in
order to afcertain their utility in this intention, as well as
in promoting the growth of the grain, as given by Mr.
Bevan, in the 9th volume of the " Agricultural Magazine."
It contains twelve famples of fmutty wheat, and the fame
number of found good wheat, iteeped in twelve different
folutions of the moft common acids and alkalies, and falts,
moft readily procured. The wheat was fown at Leighton,
Bedfordfhire, on a fandy foil. The folutions were all made
cold, and the famples continued about twenty-four hours
in iteep. The columns marked A are the refults from the
good wheat, and thofe marked B are from the fmutty
famples. It may be obferved, that neitl.er of the famples
fteeped in the folutions of nitric acid cair.e up, excepting a
fingle corn in the good fample, and which produced above
1200 corns from it.

Kinds of Subftances vSei.

I.

2.

3-
4-
5-
6.

7-
8.

9-
10.
1 1.
12.
13-

Solution of potafh

of muriate of potafh

of nitrate of potafh

of foda

of murate of foda

of fulphate of foda

of muriate of ammonia

of common foot

of lime faturated

of nitric acid

of muriatic acid

of fulphuric acid

Dry in its natural ilate
Wafhed in common water

Specific
Gravity of
ihe Solution.

Number of
fraulty Kars in
Three Sheaves.

'•357
1.097
1.080
1.056
1.089
1.047
1.026
1.025
1.003
1.016

I.OII

1.050

I
3
7
9

12
1

6

.\'oiie ?
fo-,v!>. 5

B.

81

218

IIS

159

290

241
150
123

2
136

323
107

Bufhels of gooil W^hedl,
per Acre.

A.
21.6

20.2

23.8

20.2
24.0

21.6

19.8

20.8

21.9

2.07
2.04

20.3

B.

13.6

10. 1

14-3
11.7
14.5

12-3

17.6
11.4
12.4

16.1
17.8
14.7
18.3

C»is. of Straw, per .Acre.

36^6
36 O

36-9

35-6
41.5

38.5
35-4

34-8
38-7

35-7
35-4

35-7

B.

29.1
21.1

31-9
26.7

33-3
27.8
30.2

25-3
25.9

34-1
37-1
311

35-8

But M. de LigneroUe contends, that the fureft means of
avoiding fmut, and that which he has long praftifed with
fuccefs on upwards of three hundred acres of land, is to
change the feed every year, to be very careful that the feed-
corn be well dried and thoroughly ripe, and that it be not
fmutty, nor have any fmutty powder fticking to it. He
then pours boiling-water on quick-lime, in a large tub ; and
after the ebullition is over, as much cold water as there was
hot, and itirs it all ftrongly together, in order to difl'olve
and thoroughly mix the lime. The quantity of wheat in-
tended to be fowed is fprinkled with this ley, and then well
ftirred with a fhovel, and laid in as high a heap as poflible.
It is beft, he fuppofes, to keep the grain for a week after
this preparation, turning it every day ; for otherwife it
would heat fo as to deftroy the germ. By thefe means he
has not had any fmut, when the fields around him have been
infefted with that diftemper. And Mr. Donat, near- Ro-
thelle, has ufed the followiHg with fuccefs : take quick-lime
and pigeons'-dung, of each twenty -five pounds, forty pounds
of wood-alhes, and twenty-five pounds of fea-falt, or falt-

petre. Put all thefe into a tub large enough to hold half
a hogfhead of common water, which fhould be added to
them. Stir them all well with a ftick, till the lime is quite
diffolved. This ley will keep fome time without fpoiling.
It muft be ftirred juft before the corn is fteeped in it. The
grain is then put into a bafket, and plunged into the ley,
where it remains till it has thoroughly imbibed it ; after
which it is taken out, and laid in a heap till it is quite
drained of all its moifture : or, which is a ftill better way,
take a mafhing-tub, fill it with grain to within four inches
of the brim, and then pour in the ley well ftirred before-hand.
When the tub is full, let the ley run out at the bottom into
fome other veftel, in order to ufe it again for more corn.
Let the grain be then taken out and laid in a heap to drain ;
and continue in this manner to fteep all the feed-corn. The
wheat, thus prepared, may be fowed the next day, and muft
not be kept, above five or fix days, for fear of its heating.
This quantity of ley will ferve to prepare more than twenty
bufhels of wheat. Mr. TuU has alfo long fince obferved,
that brining and changing the feed are the general remedies

for

SMUT.

for fmut. Likewife a very intcHiffent writer in the eleventh
volume ot the Agricultural Magazine fays, that he can truly
ftate, that in the courfe of long and cxtenfive prattice, he
has never difcovered the produce of any good and pro-
perly prepared feed-wlieat fmuttcd, while that of his un-
prepared efcaped. On the contrary, whenever he has
fown any in the latter itate, he has always obfcrved much
fmut ui the crops raifed from it ; and refers his readers
to the following account of an accurate comparative ilate-
ment. On the 15th of March laft he fowed two con-
tiguous ridges (in tlie middle of a very large field,) equal
in foil, condition, and expofure, with wheat of the fame va-
riety, raifed on the fame kind of foil, in precifely the fame
mode of management, and thoroughly mixed. The feed
contained a very fmall quantity of fmut, perhaps one black
ball to a quart ; but the other grains were not at all dif-
coloured. The ridges were fet out in an eaft and weft di-
reftion, each eighty yards long and nine broad. On the
weit half of the northern ridge he fowed the feed without any
preparation whatever ; and on the eall, after being well
walhed in clean river-water. On the weft half of the other
ridge the wheat was fown after having been wet with old
chamber-ley ; and on the eaft half, after being prepared
(provincially pickled) in the ufual manner, with old cham-
ber-ley and lime in tine powder. All the land was ploughed
and fown broad-caft on the fame day, without any variation
of weather, and equally well harrowed. We had a calm,
dry, and tolerably warm blooming feafon. Some time after
the ears were out he examined the crop very minutely.
That after the unprepared feed, the wafhed feed, and the
wheat wet with chamber-ley, contained a great, and that
from the feed which received the chamber-ley and lime, a
very fmall, quantity of fmut. The ftraw of this appeared as
good as that of the found wheat. Upon every piece of ground
he found ears partly fmutted and partly found. In part of
thefe ears he found fome rows of grain containing found
wheat near the middle of the row, and fciut bath above and
below it. With a view of finding the proportion (at harveft)
with fome degree of precifion, he took four Iheaves from the
middle of the crop raifed from the pickled feed, mixed them
thoroughly, reduced them to an equal fixe, viz. to the cir-
cumference of twenty-four inches, and then carefully picked
out and counted the n\imber of fmutted ears they con-
tained. He purfued precifely the fame mode with the crops
ipon the other pieces of ground, and the refults were as
ander :

Smutted
Ears.
The four fhcaves after the pickled feed contained - 165
The four do. from the Iced which was wafhed in

clean water - . - . - -1212

The four do. from the feed wet with chamber-ley 723

The four do. from the feed which received no wa(h-'

ing or preparation - - . . . 1270

It is fuppofcd that it is ftated in fome of our agricultural
publications, that one of the ftrong acids, much diluted with
water, has been fuccefsfully ufed in preparing feed-wheat,
with a view of preventing fmut ; a difeafe which has been
improperly confounded with blight or mildew. The latter
remedy he never tried ; he has, however, on feveral occa-
fions, ufed lea-water (fo (IrongJy impregnated with fait, that
an egg would fwim on it ) and lime, and alio thu draiiiings
of fold-yards and lime, and is of opinion that thefe inixtures
are not nearly fo efficacious as the latter article and ftrong
chamber-ley. The bcft mode of preparation is, he thinks,
to immcrle the wheat in the chamber-Icy, Itirring it well

I

(about five or ten minutes), and (kimming off the light grains,
&c. The chamber-ley fhould be let out by a tap, and the
wheat fpread on a floor, and fo well mixed with the lime that
every grain may receive a part of it. If this mode be care-
fully praCtifed with feed free from fmut, he can, from ex-
perience, afiure the hufbandman that he will never fuffer, in
ar:y confiderable degree, from that difeafe. As the lime and
chamber-ley will foon deftroy the vegetative principle of the
jjrain, if it be fuffered to remain in a heap, or in bags, it
fhould be committed to the ground within fix or eight hours
after it has been thus prepared. He has fometimes known it
confiderably injured after being kept twenty-four hours thinly
fpread out upon a well aired floor. And as, when the feed
is in a very moift ftate, it will not pafs regularly through the
drill-machine, it is neceflary on that account to have it drier
in the drill than the broad-caft hufbandry.

When the wheat ufed in the above experiment was pre-
pared, a proper veffel was not at hand, and therefore the
chamber-ley was fprinkled upon it. This, however, is not
a good method, for we lofe the chamber-ley, and the ad-
vantage of flcimming off the light grains, black balls, &c. ;
and notwithftanding frequent turnings, it fometimes happens
that all the grains do not receive a fufficient quantity of the
liquid. A proper veflel ftiould therefore be conftantly had
recourfe to for this purpofe.

But on the fuppofition of this difeafed ftate of grain being
produced by an infefl, the following method of kiln-drying
has been propofed in the third volume of the Farmer's Ma-
gazine. Let the wheat be laid upon the kiln about three or
four inches thick, the kiln being heated middhngly ftrong
with blind coal ; the wheat to continue on the kiln for
twenty-four hours, but turned frequently. After taking it
off the kiln, it mull be allowed twenty-four hours to cool,
during which time it mult be frequently turned, and then put
th)-ough the fanners once or twice. After the wheat has
Iain a few hours on the kiln, and the fire begins to have efledt,
a great number of very fmall worms, formerly undifcovered
by the eye, appear on the top of the grain, and are foon de-
ftroyed Isy the heat. Thefe come from blacked wheat or
other corns that could not be fulpeifted to be indifferent ;
or may lie in, or on good wheat, which worms continuing,
(when not thus killed,) might confume the corn after it is
thrown into the earth, thereby checking the growth entirely,
or preventing it from having the ftrength it otherwife would
have, to bring forth a ftrong produftive ftalk. It is added,
that the firft farmer in Clackmannanfliire who tried the
kiln-drying of wheat, inflead of pickling it, learnt it about
twenty-five years ago (and he has continued the praftice
ever fince) from an Irifliman, who had been appointed by
the Board of Truftees to ftamp the linens, &c. mamifatilured
in the village of Alva, who afl'erted that it was pradifed in his
part ot Ireland ; but at this diftance of time, the farmer has
forgot what part of Ireland the man laid he came from.
See Pickle and Steki'ING.

Further, with the view of cleaning fmutty grain,' various
methods have been propofed ; as by agitating it with differ-
ent fiibllances, as land, and lime made from ftoue, or white
or grey chalk, which, wlu-n ufed, fhould be finely fifted, and
then well blended with tin- wheat in proportion to the ftate
of the fmut, as from one to two bufhels for a load of five
quarters, which fhould then be pafled through a machine
one or more times, according to the purpofe tor which the
wheat is intended. And for common purpofes, it is iuppofed
that tlie fmut in wiieat may be removed by a machine with
brunies, invented for the purpofe ; but that if it be for feed,
it Ihould be put in a trough, or wicker receiver, under the
fpout of a pump, or the fall of a ftream, and be brifkly

ftirred

S M U

ftirred about, until the injurious fubftance floats away, or
can be fliimmed off from the furface. When intended for
flour, after this waftiing, it mult be dried on a malt-kiln
for the fpace of eighteen hours, but heated fo as not to ex-
ceed 85° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The reprefentation
of a machine contrived for this ufe, may be feen in the Cor-
refted Agricultural Report of Bcrkftiire.

M. Chantran prefented a memoir to the French National
Inftitute in 1799, on the fmut is wheat, and its acid. Aftqr
remarking, that ilalks which bear charred ears do not differ
from others, and that thefe ears often contain good and bad
grains, he thought himfelf authorifed to advance, that this
difeafe does not exift, as generally believed, in the germ of the
feed from which they fprung. However, he does not con-
fider liming the feed as ufelefs ; he thinks that it deitroys
the aniraalculse attached to the feeds, and that the reafon of
its not entirely extirpating the fmut, is becaufe it cannot aft
on thofe fmall infeds which occafion it, and which happen
to be fcattered in the ground.

Having analyfed forty-Hx grains of fmut, he found in
this fubitance an acid eafy to be demonftrated. For this
purpofe, boiling water being infufed over it, gave a ftrong
tinge of red to tinfture of turnfole, while the remainder
of this tinfture retained its former charafter. Smut, de-
prived of the acid, and calcined in the open air, emitted
the odour of burnt corn, and gave a refiduum fix times as
large as the fame quantity of the farina of wheat treated in the
fame manner. This, joined to microfcopic obfervations, fays
Chantran, proves the animal nature of this fubitance, and a
difference between it and the farina of wheat greater tlian
could arife merely from difeafe. Tfie acid of fmut is not
volatile, and may be concentrated by diflillation. With hme
and with ammonia it proves an infoluble fait ; and this dif-
tinguifhes it from the phofphoric acid. Combined with pot-
afh it gave a fait cryitallized in fmall dehquefcent needles of
a bitter taite. It decompofes carbonate of lime.

Smut, or Blacks, in oats, a fort of vegetable difeafe that
often occurs or takes place in crops of this kind, in much
the fame manner as that of fmut in wheat, in many of the
country diftrifts. It is faid by feme to affeft the whole of
the ear of the grain, being occafionally met with in different
ftages of its progrefs in the Handing crops, as well as at the
time of threfhing out the corn, as in thofe of a foft unc-
tuous ftate, in the ftate of a ball, and in a powdery itate,
or that of a fine dull, which difperfes itfelf in threfhing, and
fixes upon different parts of tlie faces of the men who tlirelh,
rendering them quite black. But others, probably without
fufficient obfervation or knowledge of the faft, fuppofe it to
be a plant growing leparately among the oats.

It is an affeftion of this fort of grain which happens fre-
quently on the eallern fide of tlie county of Lancalter, in the
Ille of Man, and in feveral other fituations. It is found to
prevail lefs among the potatoe oat crops than thofe of any
other forts of that grain, and to be much more prevalent in
fome years than in others.

No effeftual method of preventing it has yet been dif-
covered, but it is found to be much lefl'ened by the good cul-
tivation and management of the land on which this fort of
crop is grown. The oat crops, where it exiits to any con-
fiderable extent, are much lefs produftive than in other cir-
cumftances, and the quality of the produce is probably not
fo good. But the difeafed fubitance is fo light in its nature,
that it is readily blown away in dreffing or cleaning the grain
without its doing much mifchief to it.

Suvr-BaUs, the fmall balls of fmutty matter which are
found among difeafed wheat and other crops. Thefe balls,
as well as the difeafed parts of the crops, appear now, from

S M Y

aftual experience, to be conftantly of a very infeftious na-
ture, and fhould, of courfe, be as much guarded againft,
and cautioufly avoided, in preparing the feed of the crops
for fowing, as poDible ; as ii is not improbable, but that
the dileafe may fometimes be communicated and propagated
in this way, without the farmer being in the leaft aware of
it. See Steeping Seed-Grams and Seeds.

SMYNHUSEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holllein ; 6 miles E. of Lunden.

SMYRHIZA, in Botany, a name ufed by Pliny, and fome
other old a\ithors, for the common myrrhis, or chervil.

SMYRNA, in Ancient Geography, one of the Ionian towns
of Afia Minor, fituated towards the northern part of the iflh-
mus of the peninfula of Colophon, upon a gulf bearing the
name of the town. This town is very ancient, and is faid to
have been founded by the Smyrnceans, who inhabited a quarter
of Ephefus called " Smyrna," from whom it derived this name.
Being expelled by the .(EoUans, they retired to Colophon ;
but the Colophonians having been obliged to expatriate
themfelves on account of fedition, found an afylum among
the inhabitants of Smyrna. Some time afterwards,* finding
that the Smyrnseans celebrated without their city a feafl in
honour of Bacchus, they fhut the gates and took poffefllon
of the town. The jEolians came to their fuccour ; but it
was at length determined, by common confent, that they
fhould leave the lonians in poffefTion of the town, and with-
draw themfelves with all their moveable eflefts. The Smyr-
nseans having accepted this condition, they diltributed them-
felves into eleven other ./Eolian cities, where they obtained
the right of citizenfhip. At a fubfequent period the Ly-
dians took poflefHon of Smyrna under Ardys ; and having
deflroyed it, the inhabitants difperfed themfelves into differ-
ent diftrifts. Four hundred years afterwards, Alexander
rebuilt it about twenty lladia from its ancient fcite. Strabo,
however, attributes its re-eflablifhment to Antigonus and
Lyfimachus, without mentioning Alexander. Nor does
Arrian, in his hiftory of this province, take notice of this
circumftance. Hence it is natural to conclude, that Alex-
ander only formed a defign of rebuilding it, or that he par-
tially executed his projeft ; that it was continued by Anti-
gonus, and completed by Lyfimachus. This town was de-
itroyed by an earthquake A.D. 180, according to Eufebius,
but according to Dion CafTius, two or three years fooner.
The Chronicon Pafcale dates it A.D. 178. Marcus Aurelius
re-eilablifhed it. The river Meles ran by its walls, and near its
fource was another, where it has been faid that Homer wrote
his poems. Hence it was that Tibullus (1. iv. c. i.) called
thefe poems " Meletere Carmen," but Smyrna arrogates
to itfelf the honour of having given birth to Homer. At
Smyrna there was a quadrangular portico, with a temple of
Homer and his flatue. The Smyrnsans had alfo a bronze
coin, which they called " Homerium." This town was
built partly on the brow of a hill and partly on a plain ;
and towards its front and the gymnafium was the temple of
the Mother of the Gods. The ftrcets were paved, and inter-
fefted one another at right angles. It had feveral grand
porticoes of a fquare form, ranges of buildings, and a fine
library. In procefs of time Smyrna became the centre of
the commerce of Afia. Luxury Akw hither the arts ; and
it was decorated by fuperb edifices, and crowded by a mul-
titude of ftrangers. At Smyrna there were none of thofe
tyrants who opprefled many otlier cities of Afia, and even
the Romans refpefted the happy ftate of this town, and left
it the fhadow of liberty. This city has retained a very
confiderable degree of its ancient celebrity. See the next
article.

Smyrna, or Ifm'tr, in Geography, a city and fea-port of

AlJatic

S M Y

S M Y

Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia, fituated on a
gulf of the Mediterranean, which is capable of containing
the largefl navy in the world. On account of the extent
and convenience of its harbour, it is become the common
rendezvous of mercliants from the four parts of the world,
and the ftaple of their commerce ; fo that it is the firft port
for trade in the Turkifh dominions. Its fituation is de-
lightful ; and approaching it by fea, it has the appearance of
a capacious amphitheatre, crowned at the fummits with the
ruins of an ancient cattle. The bay isextenfive, the anchor-
age excellent, and the water fo deep, that fliips of confider-
able burden may anchor clofe by the wharf. Many Englifh
merchants relide here, and they have i conful to proteft them.
The trade is condufted by Jew brokers, who are wealthy,
and live handfomely and even fplendidly. The whole town
is a continual bazar, or fair, abounding with every thing
that ferves for clothing, fultenance, and pleafure ; all the
be ft commodities of Europe and Afia being brought hither
for fale.

The adjacent territory is very fertile, abounding with fine
olive-trees and vines ; and it affords excellent wine. The
European conful lives here in great ftate and magnificence.
The popnlation of Smyrna confills of about 130,000 per-
fons : of ihefe, about 70,000 are Turks, 30,000 Greeks,
15,000 Armenians, 10,000 Jews, and 5000 ftrangers and
Franks. The governor is appointed by the Porte, who
manages the civil concerns in the city ; but in all criminal
cafes is fubjeft to the mollah or cadi, who is judge of his
diftrift. The falary of the governor, or mufelim, is efti-
mated at nearly 300,000 piaftres, or about 17,000/. iterling.

In the environs are feveral fine villages, to which the
Franks and wealthy inhabitants refort m fummer, particu-
larly Bournabat, at the diftance of about half an hour's
ride, (landing on the banks of the Mirlica, and at the foot
of feveral mountains. Other villages are Cucklueiah, where
the imperial conful has a palace; Bugiah, where the Britiih
conful has a good houfe ; and Sadig, where the Dutch con-
ful refide-;.

The total value of goods from Smyrna to London amount-
ed, on an average of the years 1785, 17S6, and 1787, to
463,349/. Iterling, and from London to Smyrna to 423,548/.
In 1790, 1791, and 1792, the exports to London amounted
to 779,610/., and the imports from thence to 848,240/.
This city fuffered very much by a fire on the 6lh of Auguil,
1763, which dcllroyed many of the bell houfes, faftories,
and magazines, and occafioned very exterifive defulation.
The lofs fuJtained was reckoned at 200,000/. (terling ; 176
miles S.S.W. of Conflantinople. N. lat. 38° 28'. E.
long. 27° 8'.

Smyrna, a poft-townfhip of America, in the ftate of
New York, and county of Chenango ; 105 miles W. of
Albany, bounded N. by Lebanon in Madifon county, E.
by Sherburne, S. by Plymouth, and W. by German. It
is fix miles fquare, and its Itreams fupply grain-mills, faw-
mills, and a fulling-mill. It has alfo a fmall furnace for
cafting of iron. Its vallies are rich and productive, and a
great part of the hilly land is either arable, fit for meadow,
or good for grazing. Hemp is cultivated on the rich mould
of the vallies, and the timber is principally maple, beech,
elm, bals-wood, and hemlock. The firll fettler here was
Porter, in 1792, and a poll-office was eftablifhed in 1808.
The whole population, in 18 10, coTifilled of 1344 perfons.

S.MVRNA, Neiu, a town of Eall Florida, inhabited by a
colony of Greeks and Minorquins, ellabliflicd by Dr. Turn-
bull, on a branch of the Mofquito river. N. lat. 28".

SMYRNIUM, in Botiwy, indubitably the <r^u{v»i/ of
Diofcorides, wliofe ample defcription is peculiarly appli-

9

cable to one of the fpecies, S. perfoUatum. By his account
of the fenfible qualities of the feed, being fo like Myrrh,
the origin of the name from 5-;.(Ufvz, myrrh, is fufficiently ap-
parent.— Linn. Gen. 144. Schreb. 194. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. I. 1467. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 328.
Prodr. Fl. Groec. Sibth. v. I. 202. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 2. 157. Purlh v. I. 196. JufT. 219. Tourn. t. 168.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 204. Gsertn. t. 22. — Clafs and order,
Pentandr'ia D'igynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellata:.

Gen. Ch. Gcwra/u/nW unequal, increafing daily in fize ;
partial eredt. General as well as partial involucrum wanting.
Perianth fcarcely difcernible. Cor Univerfal uniform ;
the flowers of the did-; abortive; partial ui five lanceolate,
keeled, flightly inflexed petals. Stam. Filaments five,
fimple, the length of the corolla; anthers fimple. Pi/l.
Germen inferior, llyles two, fimple ; iligmas two, fimple.
Peric. Fruit oblong, ftriated, feparable into two parts.
Seeds two, crefcent-ftiaped, convex on the outer fide, and
marked with three angles ; flat on the other.

EIT. Ch. Involucrum neither general nor partial. Fruit
oblong, with angular ribs. Petals pointed, keeled, in-
curved.

1. S. perfoUatum. Perfoliate Alexanders. Linn. Sp.
PI. 376. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Sm. Fl. Grsc. Sibth.
t. 289, unpubhlhed. (S. creticum; Matth. Valgr. v. 2.
131. Ger. Em. 1024. An Hippofeliiium ; Column.
Ecphr. V. 2. 21.) — Stem-leaves fimple, clafping the item
with their heart-fliaped bafe, all ferrated and alternate. —
Native of Italy and the Levant. Common in the hilly
parts of Greece, as well as in Crete and Cyprus. S'ithorp.
A hardy biennial plant, one of the handfomeft of its tribe,
naturalized, in a manner, on rock-work, neglefted banks,
or open borders, in Chelfea garden, flowering in May.
This anfwers mod precifely to the o-fii'^iov of Diofcoridcs,
infomuch that we can only wonder at the doubts of any of
his commentators. " na^ci.^vu.S%; -xovfci rtoXXy.;" furely al-
ludes to the abundance of very peculiar leaves furrounding
the (tern, which are contrafted, in the next fcntence, with
the broader foliage, fpringing from the root. That ex-
preflion, therefore, is improperly rendered by the word
foboles, offsets or fcyons, of which there are no traces.

The root is brown, flefliy, tuberous, with thick fibres.
Stem two feet high, much branched, with dilated membra-
nous angles, efpecially in the branches. Radiail leaves
Italked, twice or thrice ternate ; their leaflets llalked,
fmooth, fliining, ovate or wedge-fliaped, notched, three-
cleft, or variouily lobed; Jlem-leaves feflile, fimple, roundifll-
heart-fliaped, crenate, fmooth, reticulated with veins, either
m<!re or lefs obtufe, or acute and elongated, embracing
the item with their broad, rounded bafe, one of whole
lobes folds over the other ; their colour becomes a rich
golden yellow as the flowers advance toward perfedion ;
the upper ones are gradually fmaller, more coloured, and
clofer together. Umkels yellow, of many rays. Seeds
black, globofe, angular, fcarcely ribbed, about the fize ot
cabbage feed, of a hot, pungent, aromatic flavour, like
the rell of the plant. The petals are really heart-lhaped,
with inflexed points.

2. S. itgyptiaciim. Egj'ptian Alexanders. Linn. Sp.
PI. 376. Amoen. Acad. v. 4. 270. Willd. n. 2. — Floral
leaves oppnfite, heart-fhapcd, entire. — Gathered in Egypt
by Haffclqnift. Of this there is no figure. By the Lin-
nocan fpecimcn, which confills of the top of the plant only,
it appears nearly akin to the preceding ; but differs elicn-
tially in having the branches oppofite, or three together,
not alternate, the Jloral leaves being alfo difpofed in the
fame manner, and nearly, if not abfolutely, entire.

3, S.

8MYRNIUM.

J. S. laterak- Cape Alexanders. Thunb. Prodr. 51.
WiUd. n. 3. — Stem-leaves ternate, cut and ferrated. Um-
bels lateral, feffile. — Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of
Good Hope.

4. S. Olufatrum. Common Alexanders. Linn. Sp. PI.
376. Willd. n. 4. FI. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 230.
(Smyrnium; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 130. Hippofelinura ;
Ger. Em. 1019. Petrofelinon Alexandrinum ; Trag. Hift.
436.) — Stem-leaves ternate, ftalked, ferrated. Umbels
terminal. — Native of rocks near the fea, the borders of
marihes, or the neighbourhood of ancient buildings, in
Britain, France, Spain, Holland, Cyprus, Greece, and
Alia Minor, flowering in fpring. The root is flefliy, ufually
biennial, but we have obferved it to live feveral years in a
fituation where it could not produce flowers. Whole
plant fmooth, light green, fliining, bufliy, three feet high,
of an aromatic and fweetifh flavour. Stem round, pale,
furrowed, hollow. Lower leaves thrice ternate, with broad,
deeply ferrated, varioufly fliaped leaflets, ovate or wedge-
fliaped at tlie bafe. Footjlalls dilated, concave, ribbed,
and membranous. Umbels numerous, greenifh-white, glo-
bofe, of many general and partial rays ; very rarely accom-
panied by a few fmall, awlfhaped leaves of a general invo-
lucrum, but this is accidental, and occurs now and then in
other genera that, like this plant, have never any partial
involucrum. The fruit is black, corapofed of two aromatic,
acrid, bitter, three-ribbed feeds, as big as thofe of the
garden Tropxolum, or Nafturtium. Tiiere can be no more
doubt of this being the i^ct3-Aivg» of Diofcorides, than
there is refpefting his fynonym for our firft fpecies. The
old name of Olus atrum, or Black Pot-herb, probably alludes
to the colour of the feeds, which are remarkably large and
confpicuous. Our Enghfh one was perhaps introduced
from Germany, where, as well as in Italy, Ray fays the
plant is called Herba Alexandrina- Were it not for this
information, we might fufpeA Alexanders, or Alifanders,
(as the word fometimes is written,) to be a corruption of
Olufatrum pronounced with a broad foreign twang. The
root and young herbage formerly ferved thofe purpofes in
fallads and broths, which are now better anfwercd by the
more delicately flavoured Celery.

5. ^ apiifolium- Smallage-leaved Alexanders. Willd.
n. 5. Ait. n. 3. (S. creticum, paludapii folio; Tourn.
Cor. 22.) — " Stem-leaves wedge- (haped, obtufe, three-
cleft, toothed." — Gathered in Crete, by Tournefort, from
one of whofe fpecimens, confilling of a branch with umbels in
feed, Willdenow adopted this fpecies. He informs us there
was no general or partial involucrum. We have feen nothing
anfwering to the above account.

6. S. cordatum. Heart-leaved Alexanders. Walt.
Carolin. 114. Purfli n. I. (Thapfia trifoliata; Linn. Sp.
PI. 366. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1465. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 2. 156. Sium folio infimo cordate, caulinis ternatis,
omnibus crenatis ; Gron. Virg. 43.) — Radical leaves
roundifli-heart-fhaped, crenate, fimple ; thofe of the Item
ternate, ftalked, acute, ferrated. Ribs of the feeds pro-
minent, compreiled. — In woods, frequently on the moun-
tains, from New England to Carolina, flowering in June
and July. Root perennial. Flaiuers yellow. Purfli. The
habit of the whole plant, and, if we miftake not, the
tharafter of the feeds, both agree with the prefent genus,
but not at all with Thapfia ; yet it is to be wifhed that
Walter, in transferrmg this fpecies hither, had not need-
lefsly changed the fpecific name. The herb is fmooth,
(lender, ered, flightly branched. Leaves light-green ; the
radical ones fimple, (haped like thofe of a violet, on long
ftalks ; the reft ternate, more ovate and acute. Umbels

fmall, denfe, terminal, folitary. Walter fays the flowers
are white ; and fo they appear rather than yellow, in
Kalm's fpecimen. The feeds are fmall, oval, brown, with
three prominent, rounded, thick-edged, flat ribs to each.

7. S. aureum. Golden Alexanders. Linn. Sp. PI. 377.
Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 4. (Angelica acadienfis, flore luteo;
Dodart Mem. ed. Amlterd. 557. t. i.) — Leaves twice ter-
nate ; the middle divifion often pinnate ; leaflets ovato-
lanceolat^ (trongly ferrated. Seeds elliptical, furrowed.
— On the mountains and hills, near banks of rivers, from
Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering in Jane and July.
Purfli. Root perennial, black, tufted. Stems numerous,
eredl, hollow, a foot and a half high, angular, furrowed,
fmooth hke every other part of the plant, except at the
origin of the footflalks- Lower leaves on long italks,
fpreading ; their leaflets an inch or more in length, coarfely
ferrated, acute, but not pointed. Umbels fmall, denfe,
yellow. Seed brown, not unlike Caraway feeds. The
whole plant is faid by Dodart to be acrid, bitter, and aro-
matic, " very different in flavour from common Angelica."
We have, from the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, a variety of
this, with much narrower, (harper, more finely ferrated
leaflets.

8. S. acuminatum. Pointed-leaved Alexanders. (S. au-
rcum B ; Linn. Sp. PI. 377. Willd. n. 6. S. foliis cau-
linis decompofitis acuminatis ; Gron. Virg. 44.) — Leaves
twice ternate; the middle divifion pinnate; leaflets ovate,
taper-pointed, copioufly and (harply ferrated. Rays of the
umbel elongated. — Native of Virginia ; fent by Gronovius
to Linnaeus, who confounded it improperly with the laft.
The whole plant appears to be much larger. Stalks of the
radical leaves at leaft a foot long ; leaflets two inches or more
in length, with very numerous, clofe, acute, rather unequal
ferratures, and taper points ; item-leaves fmaller, lefs com-
pound. Umbels folitary, on long terminal (talks ; the gene-
ral rays above an inch long, while in flower, accompanied,
in our folitary fpecimen, with a ferrated acceffory leaf,
which cannot be fuppofed a general involucrum, though a
few of the partial umbels are each alfo fumilhed with a
fingle entire lanceolate leaf, more indicative of a partial in-
volucrum. The flowers feem to be yellow. We have no
knowledge of the feeds, and the genus of this plant mufl
therefore remain doubtful.

9. S. atropurpureum. Dark-purple-fiowered Alexanders.
Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 667. Purfh n. 3. — '< Leaves all
ternate ; leaflets ovate, acute, ferrated." — On dry (late hills
in Virginia and Carolina, flowering from May to July.
Purfli. Root perennial. Stem a foot or more in height,
flightly branched, angular, fmooth. Leaflets ovate, more or
lefs elongated, pointed, fmooth, rather fle(hy, finely and re-
gularly ferrated, and fomewhat cartilaginous at the edges,
green on both fides. Umbels fmall, terminal, (talked, of
a very dark purple ; the partial ones having fometimes a
very fhort involucrum. Defrouffeaux (in Lamarck).

10. S. integerrimum. Entire -leaved Virginian Alexan-
ders. Linn. Sp. PI. 377. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 5.
Purfli n. 4. — Leaves glaucous, twice or thrice ternate;
leaflets oval, entire. Rays of the umbel elongated. Cen-
tral flowers abortive. Seeds ovate, angular. — On dry hills,
from New England to Carolina, but fcarce ; flowering in
June. i?oo/ perennial. Purfli. The whole /lAzw/ is fmooth;
and glaucous in fome degree. Stem round, fomewhat
branched, leafy. Leaflets about an inch long. Common

footflalk ol the ftem-leaves concave, dilated, membranous ;
partial ones long and (lender. Umbels without any general
or partial involucrum ; the general rays long and (lender :
partial ones ftiort. Flowers yellowi(h ; the central ones

male,

S N ^

SNA

male, or abortive. Fruit the fize of muftard-feed, blackifh,

obfcurtly angular in Kalin'j dried fpecimen, agreeing much
with fome kinds of Ligvjlicum, to which genus this plant
is clolely allied in habit ; fee Ligusticum. The feeds of
thefe genera are, in fome cafes, nearly akin ; which "circum-
ilance has led a learned botanical traveller, Marfchall von
Bieberllein, to name a plant of mount Caucafus Smyrnium
nudicaule, which is no other than Ligujlicum cornubienfe, ac-
cording to a fpecimen from Dr. Fifclier. This is the more
Airprifing, as the fame able botanilt had previoufly de-
fcribcd Danaa of Allioni, which is the very fame fpecies,
for a Plmpiiiella. See Sims and Konig's Ann. of Bot.
v. 2. 433. The prefence of a general and partial /«Wa-
crum, and efpecially the fmall, not capitate, Jligmas, prove
it, neverthelefs, to be no Pimpmella ; nor do t)\<i feeds them-
felves anfwer to that genus.

II. S. nudicaule. Naked-ilalked Alexanders. Purrti
n. J — " Leaves radical, ternate ; leaflets with a few un-
equal teeth. Flower-ftalk radical. Rays of the umbel
elongated, with fcarcely any general or partial involucrum."
— Gathered by governor Lewis, on the Columbia river,
flowering in April and May. Root perennial. The natives
cat the tops of this plant, and boil it in their foiips, as we
ufe celery. Pmjli.

Smyiinium, in Gardening, contains a plant of the her-
i baceous efculcnt kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is
the common alexanders (S. oluiatrum).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are raifed from feeds,
which (hould be fown in the ipring, in any light foil and
open fituation, in (hallow drills, fifteen or eighteen inches
afunder ; and when the plants are come up two or three
inches high, be thinned out to fix or eight inches diilance in
the rows, to give them room to flioot up llrong ; when
earth mull be drawn up about them gradually, in order to
blanch or whiten them a little below, that they may be
more crifp and tender for autumn and winter ufe ; but as in
the fpring following tiiey fhoot out again vigoroufly, fome
earth fhould be hoed up clofe about each plant, and in three
or four weeks they will be blanched fit for nfe.

This is ufed as a culinary plant, when blanched, in the
fame manner as celery, and is of a warm aromatic quality.

SMYRUS, in Ichthyology, a name fometimcs given by
Pliny to the iilh called by authors myrus, the Munenti myrus
of Linnaeus, and by WiUugliby the fea-ferpent, with a
comprelled tail.

It is a fpecies of the murxna according to Artedi, and is
diftinguifhed from all the others by that author, under the
name of th"^ mnrina with a (harp fnont, variegated with
white fpofs, and with the edge of the back-fin black.

SMYTHAM, in Mineralogy, lead-ore (tamped and
pounded down, like powder or fand, to cleanfe the (tones
aiiil earth from the ore.

SNAA8EN, in Geography, a lake of Norway, in the
province of Dronlheim, 24 miles long and three wide ; 54
miles N.N.E. of Drontheim.

SNACKENBURG, a town of Weftphalin, in the
principality of Luneburg-Zelle ; 52 miles E.S.E. of Lune-
burg.

SN^EFELL'-s Sy.s.skl, a dillrift of Iceland, about fix
miles to the well of Miklalioh, which is a village fituated
on a fmall eminence, completely lurrounded by moralfes,
and conlilts of a church, the pried's houfe, and a few cot-
tages. This SyfTcl forms the extremity of the peninfula,
terminated by the Siixfell .lokul. The central pjrt of this
peninfula, through its whole length, is occupied by a lofty
range of mountains, between which and tlie fea, on the

Vol. XXXIIl.

fouthern fide, an extenfive trad of flat land intervenes. Be-
yond Miklaholt, this plain narrows confiderably, becoming
not more than three or four irtiles in width. Some part of
this extent is fandy, and appears to have been left by the fea.
The greated part, however, is boggy ; and the whole is
covered with an abundance of fine grals, on which numbers
of cattle and (heep are feen grazing. Here and there are
fmall elevations. See Stader.stad.

The height of Snaefell Jokul was afcertained by calculation
to be 4558 feet ; which eftimate differs no more than a few
feet from the meafurement of the Danifh officers, who
at this time (1810) were employed in furveying the coalls of
Iceland. Neverthelefs, Egbert Oladoo, one of the molt
eminent naturalilts in modern times, afferts that, by ba-
rometrical meafurement, he found the height of this moun-
tain to be not lefs than 7.000 feet ; a calculation that certainly
dilfers widely from the truth. This mountain is volcanic, as
part of it has difcharged lava, which has flowed into the fea :
but this lava is very ancient ; a-; no eruptions have taken place,
either from the Snjefell Jokul, or from any part of the ad-
jacent mountains, flnce the ifland firll became inhabited.
This mountain was alcended by the travellers whofe report
we are now citing, and they have defcribed the pcogrefs of
their afcent, which was a very adventurous undertaking, on
account of the chafms and precipices occafioned by the fnow
that covers the fummit and fides of it.

Snaefell SylTel is fituated on the weitern coaft (feeSyssEL),
and contains 270 farms, 6j2 families, and 3541 inhabitants.
Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland.

yNAFELSNESS, a promontory on the welt coaft of
Iceland, 45 miles long, and five broad.

SNAFFEN, a town of Norway, in the province of
Drontheim ; 46 miles N.E. of Drontheim.

SNAFFLE, in the Manege, a well-known kind of bridle.
The fnaffle, after the Englifh falhion, is a very (lender bit-
mouth, without any branches ; they are much ufed in Eng-
land inftead of true bridles, which are only employed in the
feivice of war. The French call them bridons, by way of
dillindlion from brides, i. e. bridles.

The fnaffle, or fmall watering-bit, is commonly a fcatch-
moiith, accoutred with two little very (Iraight branches, and
a curb, and mounted with a head-ftall, and two long reins
of Hungary leather. See Biudle.

The InafHe is much recommended by Mr. Berenger in his
Hiltory and Art of Horiemanfhip, vol. ii. p. 225, &c.

SNAFIELD, in Geography, the highcll mountain in the
Ifle of Man ; its height, obferved by an exacl barometer,
the mercury of whicli fnbfidcd 2-,',, inches, being at>out
580 yardf. The fnmmit of this mountain alTords a pro-
(peft of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.

SNAG-GllEET. See SSAIL-Co^/.

SNAIL, in Ichthyology. See Lu'ARls Noflras.

Snail, Helix, in Natural Hijlory. Sec Hi:lix.

The garden fnail, or helix lucorum of Pultney, is a well-
known fpecies: it abounds witii a vilcid (limy juice, which
it readily gives out by boiling to milk or water, fo as to
render tliem thick and glutinous. The decodtions in milk
are apparently very nutritious and demulcent, and have been
recommended in a thin acrimonious (tatc of the humours, in
conlumptivc calcs and emaciations. See Heli.x Horlenfis.

The exotic fnail, or pomatia helix of Linnaeus, is alfo ce-
lebratcd on account of its naturalization in this country, by
fir Kenelm Digby, and its ufe, as a food, in fcverai parts
of Europe during Lent. See PoMATiA and Helix Fo-
malia.

PL-rraiih doiibtnof fnails having eyes, and Dr. Brown 4enic;
C c it i

SNA

SNA

it ; but according to Dr. Porterfield, a good raicrofcope
fliews them dittinftly.

The eyes of fhails are lodged in tlieir horns, one at the
end of each horn, which they can retraft at pleafure.
Med. Eil. Edin. vol. iii. art. 12.

The manner of examining thefe eyes, which are four in
number, is this ; when the horns are out, cut off nimbly the
extremity of one of them, and placing it before the micro-
fcope, you may difcover the black fpot at the end to be a
really femiglobular eye.

The dilieftion of this animal is very curious ; for by this
means the microfcope not only difcovers the heart beating
jufl againlt the round hole near the neck, which feems the
place of refpiration, but alfo the liver, fpleen, ftomach, and
inteflines, with the veins, arteries, mouth, and teeth, are
plainly obfervablc ; the guts of this creature are green, from
its eating of herbs, and are branched all over with fine ca-
pillary white veins ; tlie mouth is like a hare's or rabbit's,
with four or fix needle-teeth, refembling thofe of leeches,
and of a fubllance like horn.

Snails are faid to couple three times at the diftance of
about fifteen days from each other, nature producing a new
fpear for each time of copulation, which laft s ten or twelve
hours ; at the end of about eighteen days they bring forth
their eggs, by the aperture of their neck. Baker's Mi-
crofcope, p. 217. Mem. Roy. Ac. Abr. vol. iii. p. 85.

So fmall an animal as the fnail is not free from the plague
of fupporting other fmall animals on its body ; and as in
other animals we find thefe fecondary ones either hving only
on their furface, as lice, &c. or only in the intellines, as
worms ; it is very remarkable that this creature infelts
the fnail in both thefe manners, being found fometimes
on the furface of its body ; and fometimes within its in-
teflines.

There is a part of the common garden fnail, and of
ether of the like kinds, commonly called the collar ; this
furrounds the neck of the fnail, and is confiderably thick,
being the only part that is vifible when the animal is retired
quietly into its fhell. In this ftate of the animal, thefe in-
fefts, which infeft it, are ufually feen in conliderable num-
bers, marching about very nimbly on this part : befides, the
fnail, every time it has occafion to open its anus, gives them
a place by which to enter into its inteftines, and they often
feize the opportunity. Mem. Roy. Ac. Abr. vol. iii.
p. 377, &c.

Snails are great deftroyers of fruit in our gardens, efpe-
cially the better forts of wall-fruit. Lime and afhes fprinkled
on the ground where they mofl refort, will drive them
away, and dcflroy the young brood of them : it is a com-
mon praftice to pull oft the fruit they have bitten, but this
fhould never be done, for they will eat no other till they have
wholly eat up this, if it be left for them.

Ariftotle and the old Greeks had no idea of the genera-
tion of thefe infefts in the manner of other animals, but
fuppofed them produced fpontaneoufly ; but the Romans
(hew, by many paflages in their writings, that they have
got over this error ; and even feem, by the preference they

fave to the neck of this animal in this intention, to have un-
erilood the hermaphrodite Itrufture of this infeft, which
much later ages have pretended to make a new difcovery.

The eaftern nations at prefent run much into the opinions
»f the Romans of old, as to provocatives ; they ufe, as the
others did, every thing that ferves to the purpofes of
generation in other animals, and every thing that has but
the refemblance of the external figure of the parts fubfer-
Tienl to It.

Snail, Ear. See Sheh.s.

Snail, Naked, Limax. See Slug and Limax.

Snail, Oat, a name given by Dr. Litter, in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaftions, to a fmall fnail, which he obferved
under the loofe bark of old willows, elms, and other trees,
and which is of a very Angular ftrufture ; the fheli refembling
an oat-corn, whence the name, and its volutx, or wreaths,
running contrary to the direilion of them in other fnails,
that is, eatl and weft, as the philofophers exprefs it, re-
ferring it to the motion of the fun ; but thefe (hells, to ufe
that language, have the turns well and ealt, or more plainly,
they have the turns running from the right hand to the left,
not from the left to the right, as other fnails. Phil. Tranf.
N^ 250.

Sn.\il is alfo the name of the animal inhabiting many
kinds of (hells, as the patella, cochlea, nerite, buccinum,
turbo, trochus, voluta, murex, purpura, iyra, and concha
Veneris. See Patella, Cochlea, &c.

Snail-Co^/, in Jigriculture, a name given by Mr. Wor-
lidge to a fpecies of manure found at the bottom of deep
rivers. It is a kind of mud or (ludge, very foft, full of
wrinkles, and intermixed with many little (hells and fnails, to
which it is thought to owe a great part of its richnefs. It
is fometimes CdXied fnag-greet .

SnAlL-Flcwer, in Botany. See Phaseolus.

SsAlL-Honied, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the
horns of fuch cattle as have them Ihort and down-hanging,
with blunt points, and fomewhat bent, in the common form
of the fnail.

S'SAlL-Shell, Medic or Trefoil, in yfgricufliire, a plant of
the artificial grafs kind, often known by the name of heart
clover or trefoil. It was introduced into Berkfhire, ac-
cording to the agricultural report of that diftrift, by cap-
tain Vancouver, on his return from his voyage round the
world, though a native of that country, under the notion of
the feeds being thofe of fome more important plant from
the South Sea iflands. It has fince been cultivated there,
it is faid, with fuccefs, producing a luxuriant herbage,
of which cattle are extremely fond. It (lands the winter
well, and a crop may at any time be produced. It is afferted
to have the advantage of lucerne, in not beir.g eafily
choaked, and in growing on a light foil, though it without
doubt produces the moll abundantly in good foils. The
cultivators have hitherto fown it in the broad-cafl method,
and are, it is faid, determined to perfevere, having now col-
lefted a fufficient quantity of its feed to enable them to ex-
tend their trials to fome acres of land.

It would feem to be deferving of trials in other counties,
where herbage is fcarce and not eafily raifed.

S}^AiL-Trefoil, in Botany. See Medicago.

SNAITH, in Geography, a market-town in a parifh of
the fame name, lower divifion of the wapentake of Ofgold-
crofs, liberty of the honor of Pontefrafl, and Weft Riding
of Yorkfhire, England, is fituated at the diftance of 22
miles S. by E. from York, and 174 miles N. by W. from
London. The feite of this town is a gentle eminence, which
rifes from the fouthern bank of the river Aire, and over-
looks a flat and fertile diftrift of country. The market-day
here is Thurfday, weekly ; and there are fairs on the firft
Friday in April, loth of Augufl, and firft Friday in Sep-
tember, for horned cattle, fheep, woollen cloth, linen, and
cheefe. The church is an ancient building, in the pointed
ftyle ; remarkable only as the burial-place of the ancedors
of lord vifcount Down, who has a feat at Cowick, about a
mile S.E. from Snaith. Carlton, two miles to the N.E., is
the feat of the family of Stapleton, whofe anceftors diltin-

guifhed

SNA

SNA

i^uidied themfelves by their bravery and loyalty during the
civil wars between king Charles I. and his parliament.

According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, Snaith
parifh includes eleven townthips, viz. Armin, Bain, Cowick,
Goole, Hick, Henfall, Hooke, Foilington, RawclifF, and
Snaith, which united contain 1133 houfes, and 509 J iiiha-
bitanti, of whom about 74:5 refide in the town of Snaith.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Big-
!and, 8vo. 1812. Carlifle's Topographical Diftionary of
England, 4to. 1R08.

SNAKE, Anc.UIS, in the 'Lmnxa.n S^Jlcm 0/ Zoology, is
a genus of ferpents, the charafters of which are, that the
animals belonging to this genus have abdominal and fub-
caudal fcales. Here we may obferve, that Linnsus has
diftinguiflied the Imall fcales, with which the back and fides
of the animals belonging to the clafs of ferpents are covered,
by the name ai fquamx ; and the oblong, narrow, tranf-
verfe plates, with which the bellies of fome of them are
covered, by the denomination of j'cuta. Thofe that have
both fquamse and fcuta, he diftributes under the genus of
coluber ; thofe that have only fquamae, under the appellation
of anguis. In conformity to this diltribution, he has ranked
the common fnake, as well as the viper, &c. under the
;fenus of coluber (which fee); and clalled fixtecn different
pecies, as the four-footed Javan fnake, the common flow-
worm, &c. under that of anguis. See Serpentes.

Snake, ylnnulated. See Amphisbjena and Serpentes.
Snake, Argus. See Coluber Argus.
Snake, Aujlralafian. Sec Coluber Aujiralaftn. '
Snake, Black. See Cohjber Conjlriaor.
Snake, Black and Red. See Coluber Torquatus.
Sn.\ke, Blood, Hitmorrhous, the name ot a peculiar
ipccies of ferpent, fo called, becaufe it was fuppofed, that
on a perfon's being bit by it, the blood flowed out of every
part of the body.

It is a fmall lerpent, feldom arriving to more than a foot
long ; its eyes arc remarkably vivid, bright, and fparkhng ;
its (kin is very glofl'y, and its back variegated with a great
number of black and white Ipots ; its neck is very (lender ;
its tail extremely (harp, and it has a fort of fmall horns
placed over its eyes. It is found in Egypt.

Tiiere is alfo an American kind of this, found in the
fouthcrn parts, and called by the natives ahucyatli, which is
larger tlian the otlier, and refejnbles the rattle-fnake in
many particulars, but wants the diilinguidiing character in
the tail.

Snake, Boaform. See Coluber Bonformis.
Snake, Brajilian. See Coluber.
Snake, Bull-headed. See Coluber Bucephalus.
Snake, Coach-'whip. See Coluber Fhigellum.
Snake, Common, at Ringed, Coluber Nalrix of L,innxus.
See Na IRIX and Coluber Nalri.v.

The following account of an eafy method of preferring
makes may not be unacceptable. When the fnake is killed,
it mult bi- wa(hed clean, and put into a glafs of a proper li/.e,
the tail tirft, and afterwards the reft of the body, winding it
in fpiral afcending circles, and difpofing the back, which is
always the moll beautiful, outwardly. A thread connefted
with a (mall bead is tlien, by a needle, to be palled through
the upper jaw from within outwardly, and then through the
cork of the bottle, where it nnift be faftened : by this means
the head will be drawn into a natural polture, and the mouth
kept open by the bead, by which the teeth, &c. will be dif-
covered. The glafs is then to be filled with rum, and the
cork fcaled down. In tiiis manner the fnake may be pre-
ferved for many years ; nor will the fpirits impair or change
the liiftre of its colour.

Snake, Daboya. See Coluber.

Snake, Hooded. See Coluber Naja.

Snake, Homed. Sec Cerastes and Coluber Ct-
rajles.

Snake, Ja-can. See Coluber ,/avanicus.

Snake, Oak. See Dryinas and Crotalus.

Snake, Panther. See Coluber.

Snake, Rattle, a very dreadful genus of ferpents. See
Crotalus.

Snake, Rujelian. See Coluber Rujfelli.

Snake, Sand, the Engliih name of a kind of ferpent
found in Lybia, and fome parts of Italy. See Ammo-

DYTES.

Snake, Sea, Serpens Marinus, the name of a (ifh of the
eel-kind, being the cyhndric mureena (which fee), with the
tail naked and acute, ulually of five or fix feet in length, and
a furrowed body, continuing all the way of the fame thick-
nefs, till near the tail. Its back is of a duflcy yellow, and
its belly a (hining blue ; its fnout is long, (lender, and
pointed, and the opening of its mouth extremely large;
near the end of the under jaw it has four or live large (harp
teeth, which bend backwards ; the reft of the teeth are very
fmall, and ftand clofe together ; at the very extremity of
the upper jaw it has four very large teeth, and all the reft
are fmall, and like thofe in the under one; but the largcft
teeth of all are placed in a row, in the middle of the palate ;
it has only one pair of (ins, which are placed nc^r the gills ;
the opening of the gills is at a coniiderable diftance from
the head, and it is marked with dotted lines down its fides.
It is common in the Mediterranean, and its flefh is very fine
tailed, but full of fmall bones. Willughby, Hift. Pifc.
p. 108.

Bifliop Pontopiddan mentions (in his Hift. of Norway,
vol. ii. p. 195, Sec.) a fea-fnake of a very prodigious fize ;
for the particulars of its dimenfions, &c. we mull refer to
the tellimonies which he has recorded. Thele animals, lome
of which are faid to be no lefs than fix hundred feet long,
are dangerous to navigators, as they throw themfelves over
vcffels of fome hundred tons burthen, and fink them to the
bottom by their weight. The prefervative againft them is
caller, the fmell of which they are faid to avoid. The
bilhop apprehends, that this creature, which inhabits the
North fea, is the leviathan mentioned in the fcripture.
Ilaiah, xxvii. i. Job, xxvi. 13.

Snake, Sleep. See Hypnoticus Serpens.

Snake, Spetlacle. Sec Cobras de Capello and Coluber.

Snake, Triangular-headed. See Coluber.

Snake-Gou»y/, in Botany. See Tricosanthes.

Snake-/?»o/, Serpenlaria, the root of a fpecies of ariflo-
lochia. See ARlSTOLOflllA Serpenlaria.

The ancients were only acquainted with two kinds of
ferpentaria, the grei-.t and the fmall : but fince the difcovcry
of America, botanills have added fcvcral others ; as the fer-
pentaria Virginians, or Virginian fnakc-root ; befides that of
Canada, and that of Brafil.

They were fuppofed to be alexipharmics, or counter-
poifons ; and as fuch were ingredients in the Venice treacle.

The herb dragon is alfo called, by fome writers, the gr<'at
ferpentaria ; by the ancients, dracunculus major. This hiM
its Hem very flraiglit, fmooth, and marked"with red fpots,
like the (kin of a ferpent ; whence, probably, as much as
from its virtues, it is that it takes its name. Its root is big,
round, and while, covered with a thin (kin. The Imallcr
ferpentaria, of this kind, has its ftalk mucli like that of thtf
larger, only ite loaves are like tliofe of ivy, whereas thofe of
the larger are dij^itatcd, after the manner of baftard helle-
bore. Its root IS round and bulbous.

Cc 1 The

SNA

The ferpentaria of Virginia, cajled alfo colubrina Vir-
giniana, afarum Virginianum, ferpentaria nigra, and the
contrayerva of Virginia, has its leaves green and large, al-
moll in figure of a heart ; its fruit round, and its root,
which is oif a very itrong aromatic fmell, has, at bottom, an
infinite number of long^fmall filaments, reprefenting a knid
of beard, of a brownifh colour on the outfide, and paler or
yellovvifh within.

It was firft brought into Europe from Virginia by the
Englifli ; and is by the Americans efteemed a fovereign anti-
dote againlt the bite of the rattle-fnake.

We are told by travellers, that this root not only cures
the bite of a rattle-fnake, but that that animal flies the very
fmell of it ; for which rcafon the Indians, and other tra-
vellers, always carry it with them on the end of a ItafF, by
way of a prefervative from that creature.

The dried ferpentaria root is imported into this country
in bales, each containing from two to five hundred weight.
The dried root has an aromatic odour, not unlike that of
valerian ; and a {harp, warm, bitter talle, refembling in fome
degree that of camphor. Water extratls all the fenfible
qualities of the root, aflbrding a yellowifh-brovvn infufion,
which is not altered by fulphate of iron or zinc, the nitrate
of filver, oxymuriate of mercury, tartarized antimony, the
mineral acids, and the alkalies ; nor is it precipitated by
gelatine or tannin. The fuperacetate of lead throws down
a flocculent precipitate, which is not foluble in acetic acid,
fhewing the prefence of mucus. With alcohol it affords a
bright greenilh tintture, which is rendered turbid by the
addition of water. The attive principles of ferpentaria,
therefore, appear to refide in a bitter refin ; and perhaps
camphor, and eflential oil.

For medical purpofes, ferpentaria, or Virginian fnake-
root, is reckoned a Simulating diaphoretic and tonic. It is
beneficially employed in typhoid and putrid fevers, whether
idiopathic, or accompanying the exanthemata, to excite
diaphorefis, and fupport the powers of the fyilem ; and is
found frequently to increafe the efficacy of cinchona in re-
moving protracted intermittents. It is alfo an excellent
remedy in dyfpepfia, particularly when the flcin is dry and
parched ; and is fometimes ufed as a gargle in putrid fure-
throat. On account of its (limulant properties, it is con-
traindicatcd when the inflammatory dlathefis is prefent ;
and previous to its exhibition, the bowels Ihould be well
evacuated.

It may be given in fubftance, or in infufion made by ma-
cerating ^iv of the bruifed root in f ?xij of boiling water,
in a covered veilel for two hours, and ftraining. Decotftion
is a bad form of giving ferpentaria, as the boiling diflipates
the eflential oil, on which the virtues of the remedy chiefly
depend. The dofe of the powdered root is grs. x, or
grs. XX, increafed to jfs ; that of the infufion f |jfs to f^ij,
every fourth hour.

The ofKcirml preparations are as follow : via. the " tinc-
tura ferpentarias," the " tinftura cinchonx compofita," and
the " eleftuarium opiitum." The " tinfture of fnake-
root" of the Lond. and Dub. pharmacopeias is prepared
by macerating for fourteen days (feven days, Dub.) three
ounces of fnake-root (cut and bruifed, Dub.) in two pints
of proof fpirit, and filtering. The " tindlura arillolochioe
lerpentarise," or " tinfture of fnake-root," of the Edinb.
Ph., is obtained by digefting for feven days two ounces of
fnake-root bruifed, a drachm of cochineal in powder, in
two pounds and a half of proof fpirit, and filtering through
paper. This tinfture is an ufeful addition to infufion of
cinchona in typhoid and putrid fevers, gout, and periodic
bead-ache. The dofe is from f jfs to f 5ij ; or when taken

II

SNA,

in water, as much as can be taken without any injury from
the operation of the fpirit.

The " tinftura cuichonae compofita," or " compound
tinfture of cinchona," of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is pre-
pared by taking of lance-leaved cinchona bark, powdered,
two ounces ; dried orange-peel, an ounce and a half (half
an ounce. Dub.); Virginian fnake-root bruifed, three
drachms ; faffron, one drachm ; cochineal in powder, two
fcruples ; macerating for fourteen days m twenty fluid-
ounces of proof Ipirit, and filtering. This tinfture is more
grateful than the ofScinal tinfture of cmchona, and though
it contains lefs cinchona, yet the addition of the other in-
gredients render.? it more ufeful both as a ftomachic and a
febrifuge. It is the fame as the celebrated tinfture of
Huxham, who generally gave it in intermittents and low
nervous fevers, in diluted wine or any proper vehicle, with
ten or fifteen drops of elixir of vitriol (aromatic fulphuric
acid, Edinb.) The dofe is from f 3j to f jiij, or more, in
intermittents. For an account of the " eleftuarium opia-
tum," fee Opium. Thomfoii's Lond. Difp.

S^AKii-Root, Rattle. See Polvgal.'\ Senega.

SsAKE-Root, Rattle, in the J\Iatena Medico. See Se-

NEKA.

S>tiAKV.-Stone, in Mineralogy. See Ammonite.

SsAKR-IVeetl Knot-Grafs, in Agriculture, a common grafs
by way-fides, which, if cultivated, the feeds are found to
anfwer the fame purpofes as thofe of buck-wheat. It is
annual, or at moll biennial, in its growth.

SsAKE-lVood, in the Materia Medica, is the wood or
root of the tree which affords the nux vomica, or of other
trees of the fame genus. It is brought from the Eall Indies
under the name of lignum colubnnum, in pieces about the
thicknefs of a man's arm, covered with a rully-coloured
bark, internally of a yellow colour, with whitifh ilreaks.
This wood, in r.'.fpi.-'g or fcraping, emits a faint but not
difagreeable fmell ; and when chewed for fome time, dif-
covers a very bitter tafte.

From the experiments of Cartheufer, water appears to
be the proper menitruum of its adlive matter. It has been
recommended, in fmall doles, not exceeding half a drachm,
as an anthelmintic, and in obftinate quartans, jaundices,
cachexies, and other chronical diforders. It is faid to
operate moft commonly by fweat, fometimes by ftool, and
fometimes by vomit. It appears, however, to be poflefled,
in a lower degree, of the fame ill qualities with the nux
vomica. • Lewis.

Snake Creek, in Geography, a river of Louifiana, on the
north-eait fide of the Miflburi, in N. lat. 38^, 18 yards
wide.

Snake IJlands, a cluiter of fmall iflands in the Indian fea,
near the coalt of Africa. S. lat. 5° 20'.

Snake Indians, a tribe of Indians in Louifiana, on the
fouth-weft fide of the Millouri river, near the heads of the
Arkanfas, Platte, and Yellow-llone rivers. The number
of warriors is 200, and of inhabitants 5500. They trade
with New Mexico. Thefe Indians, though a very numerous
race, are badly armed, and much at the mercy of the other
Indians, by whom they are made flaves, when taken pri-
foners. They are alfo called Ayuten bands, and Camanches.
They wander about the heads of the Platte, and in the vaft
plains bordering on New Mexico and New Spain, fouth of
the Arkanfas ; and are divided into many bands. One of
thefe bands is probably that denominated Paunch Indians,
who wander along the Rocky mountains, and fometimes
venture acrofs. The Snake Indians pollels a very great
number of horfes, alfes, and mules. Mr. Brackenridge, in
his " Views of Louifiana," obferves, that thefe Indians were

different.

SNA

S N fi

<fifFerent, both in language and appearance, from any wlioni
he had ever lecn ; and lie thinks, that the found of the lan-
guage bears a confiderable refembiar.ee to thofe of Africa
which he had heard. We (hall here fubjoin a brief account
of the river, near which thefe Indl.ins are fettled. The
Arkanfas, next to the MifTouri, is the moll coniiderable
tributary of the Mifhrippi. It is nearly 2500 miles in
length, and navigable at proper feafons through nearly the
whole dillancc. The chief rivers which fall into it are the
Verdigris, the Negracka, Canadian river, Grand river, &:c.
Several are much impregnated with (alt, and the Arkanfas,
at certain feafons, is alfo bracki(h. The lands on this river,
for 600 or 800 miles upwards, are delcribed as very fine,
and capable of aflbrding fettlemciits, though principally
untimbered. There is a remarkable communication between
the Arkanfas and White river, by a channel connefting the
two rivers, with a current fetting alternately out of the one
or the other, as the flood in either happens to predominate.
The Platte is the longed and largell of the rivers which dif-
clTarge themfelves into the Miiloiiri, being little (hort of
2000 miles, and yet it can hardly be reckoned a navigable
ftream ; the channel being- very wide, and the quickfands,
with which it abounds, ever varying. Several liHe navi-
gable rivers, however, dilcharge themfelves into it ; fuch
are the Elk Horn, the Wolf river, and llie Padoncas Fork.

The Yellovv-itone, or Roche .laune, much refembles the
MilTouri in extent and difficulty of navigation, and is a very
coniiderable river. After the junftion, the Midburi under-
goes a very perceptible change. In feafons of high water,
it is more properly a found, and indeed the defcriptions of '
its rapidity are almolt incredible. It enters the Millouri
1880 miles up. Its principal branches are Big Horn,
Tongue river, and Clark's river.

SNAKENBURG, a town of Brandenburg, in the Old
Mark, on the Elbe ; 10 miles N. of Sechaufen.

SNAKING, in the PraBke of R'tggmg, a fort of faf-
tening to confine the outer turns of feizings, &c. with the
fame fize rope, line, fpun-yarn, &c. by palling it acrofs
and under the outer turns at angles ; fo that one part may
remain perfedt and independent, if the other (hould be (hot
awav.

SNAP-DRAGON, or Calfs-Siwut, in Botany. See
Antirkhinum.

The lead fort of this plant is fometimes a troublefome
weed in corn-fields, but it is annual in its growth, and, of
courfe, with care, eafiiy and readily dellroyed by prevent-
ing its flowering and producing leeds.

Snap-I)RA(;()X nf America. .See RiiELLl.\ and Barlf.ria.

SNAPE, in Anchor- Making, denotes the fudden diminu-
tion of any part.

SNAPPERTUNA, in Geography, a town of Sweden,
in tiie province of Nyland ; 7 miles E.N.E. of Eknas.

SNAP-TREE, \n Botany. Sec .lusTlciA.

SNARES, in Geography, a duller of craggy iflands in
the South Facilic ocean, difcovered by Capt. Vancouver,
on the 24th of November, 1 79 1, and appearing witliout
vecdurc. The north-ealternmoil, which is the largell, he ap-
prehended to be equal in extent to all the reft ; it is about 9
miles in circuit, and may be feen 8 or 9 leagues off. It is
fituated in ti. lat. 48' 3'. E. long. 166^ 20'. Mr. Biough-
ton alfo difcovered thele illaiids on the zjd of tiie fame
month, and in pufling through tiiem, cidled the largell
«' Kniijiit's Kland ;" which fie.

SNARNVIER, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Sivas, anciently called " Sy:'.oria," and once the
place where Mithrldates kept his treasures ; 25 miles S.S. W.
of Arabkir.

SNATCH-BLOCKS, in Block- Making. See Blocks.
SNATHE, in Agricultare, a term applied to the handle
of a fcythe.

SNAYERS, Peter, in Biography, a painter of very
coniiderable merit in almoll every branch, but particularly
in battles, huntings, and landfcapes. He was born at An-
twerp in 1593, and was a difciple of Henry van Balen.
He wa; held in great eilimation by the archduke Albert,
who patronized him, appointed him his painter, and fent
leveral of his piftures into Spain. Bcfides this fuperior en-
couragement, he was employed for many of the churches in
the Netherh:ids, and his battle-pieces are to be found in all
the mod choice collections of that country. Rubens and
Vandyck honoured them with their approbation ; and the
latter painted the portrait of Snayers among the eminent
artids of the day. He died in 1670, aged 77. '

SNEATH, or Sneyth, in Agriculture, a term applied
to the Ihaft of a fcythe in fomc places.

SNECK, in Rural Economy, provincially the latch of a
door or gate.

SNECKEN, in Geography, a town of Prullian Lithu-
ania ; 8 miles W.S.W. of Tillit.

SNEECK, a town of Holland, in the province of
Friedand, (ituated in the Cviuntry of Wedergoo, called by
the natives " Snitz." The town is well-built, and encom-
palled by ditches and ramparts. Several learned men have
been educated in the- Latin ichool of this town; 38 miles
W.S.W. of GroninGren. N. lat. 53'' 4'. E. long. 5= 35'.

SNEEZE-WORT, in Botany, a fpecics of Achillea;
which fee.

Sneeze-wout, Aujlrlan, a fpecies of Xeranthemum; which
fee.

SNEEZING, in Medicine, Sternutatlo, a violent con-
vulfive motion of the inuicles of relpiration, which is pre-
ceded by a deep infpiration tilling the lungs, then forces the
air violently throus^h the nofe, while the lower jaw is at
the fame moment clofed, and Ihakes the head and whole
body. See Lungs.

Sneezing is always excited by fome irritation aftefting the
inner membraiie of the nofe ; and the air, therefore, which
in cougiiing is expelled through the mouth, is vehemently
driven through the nodrils in Ineezing, for the purpofe of
expelling th;it irritation. When a perfon is about to fneeze,
he perceives a fort of gentle and agreeable tickhng in the
nofe, and fometimes there is alfo a fimilsr fenfatiou about
the pr.ecordia : when one or both thcle arc felt, the perfon
is obliged to (ufpend all the bodily actions and wait the
event ; tiie whole elfort of tiie body appears to be centered
in the convullion which eiilues, and the expullion of the air
through the nodrils is accompanied by the peculiar noife
fo well known. In general, oile or two of thele convullive
ell'orts effefts the purpofe of removing the irritating caufe ;
but cafes are recorded, in which the repetition and violence
of the convullion have been incrcaied to the extent of be-
coming a difeafe ; and, in perfons of an apoplctlic dllpoli-
tion, it is even laid to have induced that difeafe, and thus
to have proved fatal. (See a cafe related by Morgagni, De
Sed. et Cauf. Morborum, Epiil. xiv. art. 27.) It is clearly
demondrable, indeed, as Van Svvieten has (hewn, that con-
tinued paroxyfn-.s of fneezing tend to load the vellcls of the
head with blood: for the violent contraftion of the clielt
impedes for the time the pallage of the blood through the
lungs, and therefore obdructs the return ol ihe venous
blood from the head, the veflel!! of wjiieh iiecellarily become
diltended. That this is aAually the cafe is evident trom the
appearances; bccaufe, on a repetition of Ineezing, tiie lace
fwells and looks redder, the eyes water and appear full and

diilended.

S N E

S N E

diftended, and the nofe drops from tlie increafed iecretion
into its cavities. (Van Swieten Comment, ad Aph. 271.)
Its occafional dangerous violence is faid to have been the
caufe of the benediftion, fo univerfally beftowed on thofe
who fneeze, of which we (hall fay more prefently.

The caufes of fneezing are various, and confiil not only
of irritating matters immediately ftimulating the lining mem-
brane of the nofe, but of fympathetic irritations from neigh-
bouring, or even from diltant parts. Any extraneous body
brought into contaft with the pituitary membrane, fuch as
inftruments, and efpecially irritating powders, fuch as fnuff,
or even its own mucous fluids, under particular Rates, will
excite fneezing. As a direft communication exilts between
the eyes and the noftrils, into which the tears are conftantly
pafTing through the lacrymal dutts, a reverfe fympathy is
excited in many people by irritations of the eye, fo that the
membrane of the nofe is at the fame time titillated ; whence,
in fuch perfons, fneezing is immediately excited by ludden
cxpofure to a llrong light, as by pafling from a Ihade into a
blight fun-fliine, efpecially where that is ftrongly reflected
from fnow or a white pavement. Other fyrapathies have
been mentioned by medical authors, efpecially irritations m
the lung;, and alfo in the itomach and bowels, as the caufes
of fneezing. Thus it has been produced by carbonic acid
gas, by fermenting beer, by eating fliell-fi(h, by worms in
the alimentary canal, by a leaden ball remaining in the region
of the diaphragm, and even by more diftant irritations, as
by the diftention of the gravid uterus in pregnancy, difeafes
of the head, &c. See Richter's Bibliotheca, vi. 730. See
alfo Sauvages Nofol. Method, who makes feven fpecies of
Jlernutcitio from thefe various caufes.

It is only in thefe rare cafes in which fneezing, being con-
nefted with fome other difeafe, becomes the objeft of medi-
cal treatment ; and then of courfe it can only be remedied
by curing the difeafes, or removing the diftant irritations,
from which it originates. Like other fpafmodic affeftions,
however, it may be alleviated by opiates, with camphor and
ether, and fimilar antifpafmodics. It would be fruitlefs to
mention many of the inert remedies that have been pro-
pofed ; fuch as bags, filled with aromatic fubitances, fixed
to the vertex, rubbing the gums, &c.

The cuftom of llejfin^ perfons when they fneeze is derived
from very ancient times, and its origin has been varioufly
accounted for. Several writers affirm that it commenced in
the year 750, under pope Gregory the Great, when a pef-
tilence occurred, in which thofe who fneezed died ; whence
this pontiff appointed a form of prayer and a wifh to be
faid to perfons fneezing, for averting this fatality from them.
But the cuftom is of much more ancient date. It was ac-
counted very ancient in the time of Ariftotle, who in his
problems has ende.ivoured to account for it. It is alluded
to in the Greek Anthology in an epigram, in which the lalu-
tation oifalve Jupiter, 7,<\i auitrut, is given as a familiar phrafe
addreiied to fneezers. Pliny alfo queftions " cur Itcrnu-
tantes falulantur ?" (Nat. Hiil. fib. 28. cap. 2. Anthol.
Lipf. 1794. torn. iii. p. 95.): and Cxlius Rhodoginus has
an example of it among the Greeks in the time of Cyrus
the younger. In Alexander Rofs's appendix to Arcana
Microcofmi, p. 222, it is faid, " Prometheus was the firft
that wifhed well to the fneezer, when the man, which he
had made of clay, fell into a fit of fternutation, upon the
approach of that celeftial fire which he itole from the fun.
This gave original to that cuftom among the Gentiles, in
fainting the fneezer. They ufed alfo to worftiip the head
in fternutation, as being a divine part, and feat of the fenfes
and cogitation." For many other paflages relating to this
fnbjeft, fee Brand's Obfervations on Popular Antiquities,

edited by H. Ellis, vol. ii. p. 456, et feq. Thefe tellimonlfes
are fufBcient to fliew the antiquity of this cuitom, and the
obfcurity of its origin. It may be added, that fneezing has
been from ancient times alfo confidered as an omen ; reject-
ing which Pliny has fome obfervations in the chapter jull
quoted. It is noticed as fuch in the eighteenth Idyllium of
Theocritus ; and by Ariftotle, who has a problem, " why
fneezing from noon to midnight was good, but from night
to noon unluckv."

SNEGACIUS, Cyriacus, in Biography, in 1590 pub-
lifhed at Erford, a traft upon " Harmony, or the Ufe of
the Monochord, an Inftrument for meafuring and afcertain-
ing the Proportion of Sounds by a fingle String ;" of which
he afcribes the invention to the Arabians ; the only new idea
which we could find in the book, which is written in Latin,
and of which the original title is, " Nova et exquifita Mo-
nochordi dimenfio."

The fame author publiflied likewife, in 1590, an elemen-
tary traft, entitled " Ifagoges Muficx," in two books,
the chief merit of which leems to conlift in the definitions
of mufical terms, with (hort examples in notation.

SNEIRNE, in Geography, a town of Perfia, m the pro-
vince of Irac.

SNELL, RoDOLPH, in Biography, a refpeftable Dutch
philofopher, was born at Oudenwater in the year 1546.
After having occupied the ftation of profelfor of Hebrew
and mathematics at Leyden for fome time, he died in 1613,
at the age of 67 years. He was a writer of feveral works
on geometry, and various parts of philofophy.

Snell, Willebrord, the fon of the preceding profeflor,
and an excellent mathematician, was born at Leyden in the
year 1591, where he fucceeded his father in the proteflbrial
chair in 161 3, and where he died in 1626, at tlie premature
age of 35 years. He was the author of feveral valuable
works and difcoveries. To him we owe the firft difcovery
of the true law of the refraftion of the rays of light ; and
this difcovery was made, as Huygens allures us, before it
was announced by Des Cartes. Snelhus undertook alfo to
nieafure the earth ; and this operation he effected by obferv-
ing the interval between Alcmaer and Bergen-op-Zoom,
correfpondiiig to a difference of latitude of 1° 11' 30". He
alfo determined the diftance between Alcmaer and Leyden ;
and from a mean of thefe meafurements, he made a degree
to confift of 55,021 French toifes or fathoms. Thefe mea-
fures were afterwards repeated and corredled by Mufchen-
broeck, who then found the degree to contain 57,033 toiles.
His works were numerous, and the principal of them are
enumerated in Hutton's Diftionary.

SNELLINCKS, John, was born at Mechlin in 1544.
He painted in hiftory and ftill-life ; but he derives his
principal renown from his fliill in reprefenting battles,
particularly attacks of cavalry, which were regarded as pre-
eminent among works of that kind. He was honoured
by the patronage of the archduke and duchefs, and moit
of the nobility of his day in the Netherlands, and en-
joyed all the gratifications which employment and applaufe
are calculated to afford. His tafte in grouping is judicious,
and he knew how to take advantage of the circumlf ances of
a battle to difplay his knowledge of chiaro-fcuro with great
effect. Vandyck appears to have honoured him with his
approbation, and has painted his portrait among the dif-
tinguillied artifts of his day, and alfo etched a plate of it.
He died in 1638, aged 94.

SNET, among Sport/men, the fat of all kinds of deer.
Dia. Ruft.

SNEYDERS, or Snyders, Francis, in Biography.
This ingenious painter was born at Antwerp in 1579, and

was

S N 1

S N O

was a difciple of Henry van Balen. At the beginning of
his praftice he confined himfelf to fruits, flowers, and other
objefts of itill-Hfe ; but he foon advanced to the imitation
of animated nature, and in the reprefentation of animals in
all the vigour of life and aftion, in fccncs of huntings and
fightingjs, if he has had any rival, lie has not been furpalied
for freedom, truth, and energy.

Though Rubens was excellent in fubjefts of this nature
himfelf, yet he frequently employed Sneyders to introduce
animals into his piftures : and fuch was his excellence in
ilouring and execution, that in this dread competition he
- ife to a level with his great compeer; and produced an
union of fpirit and effcft, which has rarely occurred where
two artills have been engaged upon one canvas. Sometimes
Rubens, and Jordaens alfo, returned the compliment, and
painted figures in Sneyders' affemblages of beafts, dead
game, fifh, vegetables, &c. Of thefe combined labours,
we have many excellent examples in this country ; and
as Sneyders lived to the age of 78, and was an indullrious
man, they are not thinly fcattered on the continent. It is
impoiTible not to be ftruck with the allonilhing facility with
which his works are completed ; or with the delicacies of
drawing, the correftnefs and fulnefs of expreffion, he has
^iven to his animals, their ferocity or their alarm, even their
^tTeCiion for their young or their benefaftor. Vandyck
painted an excellent portrait of Sneyders, which was in the
Orleans coUeftion, and is engraved in the fet of his heads.
He himfelf handled the peint, and has left feveral etchings
of various animals. They are now become fcarce. He died
in 1657,

SNEYDSBOROUGH, in Geography, a town of Ame-
rica, in Amfon county, North Carolina, on the Great
Pedee ; 120 miles above George-Town. — Alfo, a pod-
town in Richmond county, North Carolina, 418 miles from
Walhington.

SNIADYN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Bi-zefc; 88 miles E. of Pinik.

SNIATYN, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia, on
the Pruth ; 96 miles N. of Lemberg. N. lat. 48° 33'. E.
lung. 25° 52'.

SNTD-S KARON, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Bothnia.
N. lat. 6,-^ 25'.

SNIEGULKA, in Natural Hiftory, the name given by
the common people of Poland to a bird of paffage, that
only comes to them in the colder months.

The name fignifies ihe fnoiv-blrd ; and Rzaczinflii, in his
Hillory of Poland, calls it nivalis avis. The people prc-
fage from its coming, the mildnefs or feverity of their
winter.

SNIGGLING, a method of fiHiing for eels, chiefly ufed
in the day-time, when they are found to abfcond themfelvcs
near weirs, mills, or flood-gates ; it is performed thus ;
take a Itrong line and hook, baited with a lob or garden-
worm, and obferving the holes where the eels lie hid, thrull
your bait into them by the help of a (tick, and if there be
any, you fhall be fure to have a bite ; and may, if your tack-
ling hold, get the largelt eels.

SNIPE, Gal/inago Minor, or Scolopax Gallinago of Lin-
naeus, in Ornithology, a bird well known among the fportf-
mcn, and which, though in general a bird of pallage, yet
fometimes remains with us the whole year, and builds and
breeds here. Its young are fo often found in England, that
Mr. Pennant doubts whether it ever entirely leaves this
idand. It lives in marfliy places, and builds among reeds in
winter, but in the fummer is found in our highell mountains
as well as low moors ; it lays four or five eggs at a time, of
a dirty olive colour, marked with duflty fpots.
I

When fm'pes are much dilturbed, particularly in the
breeding feafon, they foar to a great height, making a
peculiar bleating noife, and when they defcend, dart down
with great rapidity. The cock is obferved (while liis mate
fits on her eggs) to poife himfelf on his wings, making
fometimes a whittling and lometimes a drumming noife.
Their food is the fame with that of the woodcock, and they
are found in every quarter of the globe, and in all climates.
See Scolopax Gallmago.

Thefe birds are eafily taken, by means of lime-twigs in
this manner : take fifty or fixty birchen twigs, and lime
them all very well together ; take thefe out into places
where there are fnipes, and having found the places which
they moft frequent, which may be fecn by their dung, fet
the twigs in thefe places, at about a yard diftance one from
another. Other places are thofe where the water lies open
in hard froft and fnowy weather ; in thefe places alfo, and
wherever they are fufpefted to come to feed, let more lime
twigs be placed in the fame manner. The twigs are not to
be placed perpendicularly in the ground, but floping, fome
one way, fome another ; the fportfman is then to retire to a
diltance, and watch the coming of the birds to thefe places.
When they fly to them, they naturally take a fweep round
the earth, and by this means they will almoll always be
caught by one or other of the twigs. When the firft. fnipe
is taken, the fportfman is not to run to take it up, for it
will feed with the twig under its wings, and this will be a
means of bringing down more of them to the place. When
three or four are taken, they may be taken up, only leaving
one faft to entice others ; and thus the fport may be con-
tinued as long as there are any birds of this kind about the
place. It may be very proper, when the twigs are planted,
to go about, and beat all the open and watery places near,
that they may be raifed from thence, and fly to thofe places
where the twigs are placed to receive them. The fnipe, and
alfo the woodcock, are by a late aft compreheBded under the
clafs of Game.

Sn'ipe, Great, a fpecies very rarely found in England.
See Scolopax Major.

Snipe, Mire. See Bittern.

Snipe, Jack. See Jack Snipe, and Scolopax Galli-
nula.

SyiPK-Bi/ls, in Maritime Affairs, a kind of hooks for
faltening the axle-tree of chain-pumps to the bitts.

SNISNITZA, in Geography, a mountain of Bofnia ;
8 miles W. of Bofna.

SNIZORT, a town of the ifland of Skye. N. lat. 57^
27'. W. long. 6'' 20'.

SNORING, in Medicine, Jlcrtor, ronchus, a found pro-
duced by fleeping perfons in particular pofitions, apparently
occafioned by the vibrations of the palate in a ftate of re-
laxation, when the refpir.ition is performed by iiifpiring and
expiring the air through the mouth and the nofc .it the fame
time. The founder the deep, and the more completely
therefore the parts are relaxed, the louder and moreconllant
the fnoring. In the profound coma, which conftitutes the
fleep of apoplexy, fnoring is a charafteriftic fymptom ; but
the apoplectic llertor is alio commonly accompanied by an
additional noife, arifing from the faliva and mucus, which
are not fwallowed, being forced through the nollrils, and Hill
more impeding tlie refpiration. A iimilar ft:ertor likewife
occurs in the profound coma produced by an over-dofe of
opium, or of wine and fpirits, which indeed is not alwayi
eafily diltinguifhable from common apoplexy, except by the
knowledge oi the caufe.

This fnoring is very different from the noify refpiration,
or rattling in the throat, denominated ctrchnot or ccrchoti,

which

S N O

which is made in the larynx and windpipe, by the piiTing of
the air through an accumulating fluid, as in cafes of afthraa,
or in the laft ttruggles of exhaulled life ; of the termination
of which, in the latter mllance, this ratthng found is marked
by the attendants as an unerring fign.

SNORT, in the Manege, called in YTmc\i ebrouer, de-
notes a certain found which a horfe of fire makes by
breathing through his noftrils ; as if he had a mind to expel
fomething that was in his nofc;, and hindered him to take
breath.

This noife or found is performed by means of a cartilage
within the nollrils, called in French fouris. Horfes of
much metal fnort, when you offer to keep them in. See

SOURIS.

SNOTTER, in Rigging, a fhort rope fpliced together
at the ends, and ferved with fpun-yarn, or covered with
hide : it is feized to the fize of the maft, leaving a bight,
wherein is fitted tlie lower end of the fprit, which con-
fines it to the maft.

SNOV, in Gengraphy, a river of Ruflia, which runs into
the Defna, near Beriezin, in the government of Tchernigov.

SNOW, Valevtine, in Biography, an admirable per-
former on the trumpet, whofe exquifite tone and fine (hake
mutt be well remembered by many perfons now living, who
have heard him at Vauxhall, or in Handel's oratorios.

In 1753 he fucceeded Shore as lerjeant-trumpet, a place
of 500/. a-year ; after which promotion he ceafed to perform
in public, which was a ferious lofu to the frequenters of
Vauxhall, where his filver tones, having room to expand in
the open air, never arrived at the ears of the audience in a
manner too loud or piercing.

Snow, Nix, a meteor formed in the middle region of
the air, of vapour raifed by the aftion of the fun, or fub-
tenraneous fire ; there congealed, its parts conflipated, its
fpecific gravity increafed, and thus returned to the earth in
form of little white villi, or flakes.

The fnovv we receive, may properly enough be afcribed
to the coldnefs of the atmofphere through which it tall^.
When the atmofphere is warm enough to diffolve t'he fiiow
before it arrives at us, we call it rain ; if it prefervea itfelf
undiflblved, it makes what we call /now. See EvAPOR-l-
TION.

Dr. Grew, in a difcourfe of the nature of fnow, obferves,
that many parts of it are of a regular figure, for the moft
part fo many little rowels, or liars of fix points ; and are
perfeft and tranfparent ice, as we fee on a pond, &c. Upon
each of thefe points are thofe collateral points, fet at the
fame angles as the main points themfelves ; among which
there are divers other irregular ones, which are chiefly
broken points, and fragments of the regular ones : others,
alfo, by various winds, leem to have been thawed, and
frozen again into irregular clufters ; fo that it feems as if
the whole body of fnow were an infinite mafs of icicles ir-
regularly figured. A cloud of vapours being gathered into
drops, the faid drops forthwith defcend ; upon which de-
fcent, meeting with a freezing air as they pafs through a
colder region, each drop is immediately frozen into an icicle,
(hooting itfelf foi th into feveral points ; but thefe Hill con-
tinuing their defcent, and meeting with fome intermitting
gales of warmer air, or, in their continual waftage to and
fro, touching upon each other, fome of them are a little
thawed, blurted, and again frozen into clutters, or entangled,
fo as to fall down in what we call flakes.

Clouds of fnow, fignior Beccaria obferves, differ in no-
thing from clouds of rain, (fee Rain,) but in the circum-
ttance of cold, which freezes them. Both the regular dif-
fufion of fnow, and the regularity in the ftruAure of the

S N O

parts of which it confi^ts, (particularly fome figures of fnow
or hail, which he calls rofetts, and which fall about Turin,)
ftiew the clouds of fnow to be adluated by fome uniform
caufe, like electricity. He even endeavours, very particu-
larly, to {hew in what manner certain configurations of
fnow are made, by the uniform aftion of eleftricity. He
adds, that his apparatus never failed to be electrified by
fnow, as well as by rain ; and that a more intenfe eleftricity
unites the particles of hail {fee Hail) more clofely than
the more moderate eleftricity does thofe of fnow. Lett,
dell' Elletricifmo, p. 5.20, &c. Prieftley's Hitt. &c. of
Eleftricity, vol. i. p. 432.

The lightnefs of fnow, although it is firm ice, is owing
to the excefs oi its furface, in comparifon to the matter con-
tained under it ; as gold itfelf may be extended in furface
till it will ride upon the leail breath of air.

The ufes of fnow muit be very great, if all be true that
Barthollne has (aid in its behalf, in an exprefs treatife " De
Nivis Ufu Medico." He there fliews, that it fruftifics the
earth (which, indeed, is a very old and general opinion);
and that it preferves from the plague, cures fevers, colics,
tooth-aches, fore-eyes, and pleuniies, (for which laft ufe,
his countrymen of Denmark ufually keep fnow-water ga-
thered in March). He adds, that it contributes to the
prolongation of life ; giving inttances of people in the
Alpine mountains that live to great ages: and to the pre-
ferving of dead bodies ; inttances of which he gives m per-
fons buried under the fnow in pafTing the Alps, which have
been found uncorrupted in the fummer, when the (now is
melted.

He obferves, that, in Norway, fnow-water is not only
their fole drink in the winter ; but fnovv even ferves for
food ; people having been known to live feveral days with-
out any other fullenance.

Indeed, the generality of the medicinal effefls of fnow
are not to be afcribed to any fpecific virtue in fnow, but to
other caufes.

It fructifies the ground, for inftance, by guarding the
corn, or other vegetables, from the intenfer cold of the air,
efpecially from the cold piercing winds ; and it preferves
dead bodies, by conftipating and binding up the parts, and
thus preventing all fuch fermentations, or internal conflicts
of their particles, as would produce put refaction.

It has been a vulgar opinion, very generally received, that
fnow fertilizes the lands upon which it falls more than rain,
in confequence of the nitrous falts which it is fuppoled to ac-
quire by freezing. But it appears from the experiments of
Margraaf, in the year 1751, that the chemical difference
between rain and fnow-water is exceedingly fmall, and that
the latter, however, is fomewhat lefs nitrous, and contains
a fomewhat lefs proportion of earth than the former ; but
neither of them contain either earth or any kind of fait in any
quantity, which can be fenfibly efficacious in promoting ve-
getation. Allowing, therefore, that nitre is a fertilizer of
land, which many are, upon good grounds, difpofed utterly
to deny, yet fo very fmall is the quantity of it ccvitaincd in
fnow, that it cannot be fuppofed to promote the vegetation
of plants upon which the fnow has fallen.

The peculiar agency of fnow 3.i a fertilizer, in prer
ference to rain, may, without recurring to nitrous (alts,
erroneoufly fuppofed to be contained in it, be rationally
afcribed to its funiilhing a covering for the roots of ver
getables, by which they are guarded from the influence
of the atm/afpherical cold, and the internal h?at of the
earth is prevented from cfcaping. Snow maj' alfo ferti-
lize the earth, agreeably to the hypothefis of thofe who
make oil the food of plants, by means of the oily particles

which

S N O

S N O

which it contains : befides, fnow, in melting, moiftens and
pulverizes the foil whicli had been bound up by the frofl,
and thus fits it for the abforption of the vernal dews and
rain ; and as its water has a tendency to putrefadlion, it
feems, on many accounts, without admitting it to contain
any nitre, to be admirably adapted to promote vegetation.
Watfon's Chem. EfT. vol. ii. p. 77, &c.

It is fuppofed by Dr. Darwin, that it may be true, that
fnows of long duration in our winters may be lefs injurious
to vegetation than great rains and Ihorter froft. Firft, be-
caufe great rains carry down many thoufand pounds worth
of the beft manure into the fea ; wliereas fnow didolves gra-
dually, the upper furface, as it thaws, Hiding over the un-
der part, which remains frozen, and thence carries away lefs
from the land into the rivers ; whence a fnow flood may be
diltinguifhed from a rain flood by the tranfparency of the
water. Secondly, fnow protefta vegetables from the feve-
rity of the froft ; fince it is generally in a ftate of thaw
where it is in contadl with the earth ; as the earth's heat is
48°, and that of thawing fnow 32°. The plants between
them are generally kept in a degree of heat about 40°, by
which many of them are preferved. On this account, fome
plants from Siberia were faid to perifli by the frofts at Up-
fal ; becaufe the fnows did not commence at the fame time as
in the colder climate from which they were brought. And
thus, fays he, the lichen rangiferinus, coral mofs, vegetates
beneath the fnow in Siberia, where the degree of heat is
"■Kvays about 40°; that is, in the middle between the freezing
Hit and the common heat of the earth. And as this ve-
M-table is, for many months of the winter, the fole food of
the rein-deer, who digs furrows in the fnow to find it ; and
a i the milk and flefli of this animal are almoft the only fufte-
nancc which can be procured by the natives during the long
winters of thofe higher latitudes, this mofs may be faid to
liipport fome millions of mankind. And it is added, that
fnow protefts vegetables, that are covered by it, from cold,
both becaufe it is a bad conductor of heat itfelf, and con-
tains much air in its pores. When living animals are buried
in fnow, as flieep, or hares, the water which their warmtli
produces, becomes abforbed into the furrounding fnow by
capillary attradlion, and the creatures are not raoillened by
its dropping on them ; but the cavity enlarges, as the fnow
diflblvcs, affording them both a dry and a warm habitation.
If this was generally known, many cold and weary travel-
lers in fnowy nights might be laved by covering thcmfelvcs
with fnow, inftead of endeavouring to proceed. It fhould
he added, lie fays, that HaHenfiatz has endeavoured to (hew,
by ingenious chemical experiments, that rain-water and fnow
contain both of them a redundancy of oxygen, compared
u itli river-water, which they may have acquired in their de-
Iccnt through the atmofphere ; and that as oxygen is (hewn
by the experiments of Ingenhouz and Senebier, to promote
'' e growth of feeds and of plants, he concludes that rain-
ier and fnow promote vegetation in a much greater degree
than river-water and ice, which feems to accord with the po-
pular obfervations on this fubjeft.

Deep and drifting (hows are often very dangerous and
troublefomc on (hecp-farms, and the elevated trafts on which
they are kept during the winter feafon, fo as to require and
demand much attention in the (hepherd to prevent their fatal
c(Ie6ts and confcqucnces.

It is a popular error, that the firft fnow that falls in the
year has particular virtues. In Italy they cool their wines
all the fummer with fnow-water.

Snow may be preferved by ramming it down in a dry
place under ground, and covering it well with chaff. At
Leghorn they ufe barley chaff for this purpofe.
Vol. XXXIII.

Snow and ice are alfo preferved with ftraw or reed*.>
Mr. Boyle has defcribed the manner in his experimental hif-
tory of cold. See IcE and \ciL-Houfe.

It is ufual in hot countries to mix fnow andice with their
wine. Hence Pliny fays, " Hi nives, illi glaciem potant,
poenafque montium in voluptatem gulae vertunt."

Signior Sarotti, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, men-
tions a red, or bloody fnow, which fell on the mountains La
Langhc, near Genoa, on St. Jofeph's day. This fnow,
when fqueezed, yielded a liquor of the fame red colour.

Snow of a very bright red colour has fometimes been
found on the fummits of the higheft mountains. The mat-
ter vvliich colours it burns with a fmell fimilar to that of a
great many vegetable fubftances. Sauffure, who often col-
le6ted fuch fnow on the Alps, was induced by this property,
as well as by its being found in fummer, and in places where
many plants were in flower, to confider the colouring mat-
ter as the farina of fome plant. C. Ramond, who found
this duft on the fnow of the Pyrenees, remarked, that it is
heavier than water, and hence fulpefted it to be of mineral
origin ; and he, indeed, found that it arifes from the de-
compofition of certain micas. Tiiis decompofition requires,
without doubt, the conditions mentioned by Sauifure ; for
C. Ramond found, that they are neceffary on the Pyrenees,
as well as on the Alps.

Snow, in Sea Language, is generally the largell of all
two-mailed vedels employed by Europeans, and the mod
convenient for navigation. The (ails and rigging on the
main-maft and fore-maft of a fnow are exaftly iimilar to
thofe on the fame malts in a (hip, only that there is a fmall
malt behind the main-maft of the former, which carries a
fail nearly refembling the mizen of a (hip. The foot of
this maft is fixed in a block of wood on the quarter-deck,
abaft the main-maft, and the head of it is attached to the
after-part of the main-top. The fail, which is called the
try-fail, is extended from its maft towards the ftern of the
vellel. When (loops of war are rigged as fnows, they
are furnilhed with a horfe (fee Horse), which anfwers the
purpofe of the try-fail-maft, the fore-part of the fail being
attached by rings to the faid horfe, in different parts of
Its height. Falconer.

Snow-Ball Tree, in Botany, a fpecies of Fibumum ; which
fee.

S^ov!-Berry. See CillococCA.

Snow-Berry Btijlj, a fpecies of Lonicera ; which fee.
Snow-Bird, in Ornithology, the Emberiza Nivalis of
Linnxus ; whicli fee.

Tliefe birds arc called in Sco\.\7mA fnoivjlaies, becaufe
they appear in hard weather and in deep fnows. Some few
breed in the Highlands, on the fummits of the higheft hills,
but the greateli number migrate from the extreme north.
Their appearance is a certain forerunner of hard weather
and ftorms of fnow, being driven by the cold from their
common retreats. Their progrefs fouthvvard is probably
thus : Spitzbergen and Greenland, Hudlon's Bay, the
Lapland Alps, Scandinavia, Iceland, the Ferro iflcs, Shet-
land, Orknies, Scotland, and the Cheviot hilh. They
vifit, at that feafon, all parts of the norlhern hcmifph.-re,
PrulFia, Auftria, and Siberia. They arrive lean and return
fat. In their flight they keep chile to each other, and
fling themfelves coUediveiy into the form of a ball, at
which inftant the fowler makes great liavock among them.
Pennant.

Ssow-Drop, ill Botany. See Galantuus.
S!<owDrop, Great. Sec LEUCOitiM.
Ssow-Droj> Tree- See ClIlONANTllus.
Stiow-Maill, in Sieep Farming, a term ufually applied by
D d the

S N o

S N O

the farmers in the northern parts of the ifland, to the fum
of money paid to any perfon who may be in pofreflion of
low grounds, for permitting their fheep to feed thereon in
times of deep fnows.

Snow-Plough, in Rural Economy, a contrivance made ufe
of in Sweden, and other northern countries, for the pur-
pofe of clearing roads from fno<v ; and which might pro-
bably be employed here with advantage in the fame inten-
tion. It confifts of a fhaft, to which the horfes are yoked,
ufually two a-brealt, and one before. The fides are con-
ftrufted of three or four deals, well jointed and nailed toge-
ther, having more or lefs height, according as the fnow is
more or lefs deep, as from three to four feet. The length
is ufually about fifteen feet, and two iron bars are nailed to
the bottom, to make it Aide with greater facility. It has
alfo a box for the purpofe of being loaded, to keep it down.
It may have any breadth, from fifteen to twenty feet, ac-
cording as the fnow may want clearing. There is a repre-
fentationof an implement of this kind in the firft volume of
Communications to the Board of Agriculture.

SfiOW-Slone, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by fome to
a very beautiful Itone found in America ; of which the
Spaniards are very fond, making it into tables, and other
ornaments, in their houfes. Alonfo Barba, whj had feen
much of it, tells us, that it is found in the province of Ata-
cama, ufually in pieces of four feet long, and four or five
inches broad ; fo that they are forced to join them in the
working. Its general thicknefs is about two inches. It has
a great variety of colours, which form clouds and variega-
tions of a very beautiful kind. The principal colours are red,
yellow, green, black, and white. The white is generally
formed into fpots on the very blackell parts of the mafs, and
'/ is fo beautifully difpofed, that it reprefents fnow falling in
all its whitenefs upon a jetty furface.

Snow Mountains, in Geography, a range of lofty moun-
tains, which forms an extenfive dillrift in Southern Africa,
near the Cape of Gnod Hope. The whole range of hills
which is included under this name forms a large group, of
which the two great parallel chains from the weft, with an-
other not lefs extenfive chain from the north-eatt, and a
fmaller from the fouth, are all united. The name, in itfelf,
indicates a pretty coiifiderable height ; and, in faft, the
higheft point, called the " Compafs-Hill," is, according to
the calculations of colonel Gordon, about 300 feet higher
than the fummit of the " Kamberg," and, confequently,
6500 feet above the level of the lea. This hill is diftin-
guithed more particularly from all others in Southern Africa,
by being lefs infiilated ; or, in other words, it is furrounded
every way by hills of a conitantly decreafing elevation, till
they are loft at length in the plain. On all fides, the flopes
are gradual from the fummit, fo that the traveller may be
conftantly afcending for feveral days together, by tolerably
commodious paths, without encountering any dangerous
fteeps, any deep chafms, or rugged precipices. The
heights are all rounded like domes ; the valleys are Ipacious
and open ; and even confiderable plains ftretch in fome
places between one afcent and the next. The afpeft of the
whole mountuir. is rather naKed and uniform than wild and
majeftic : on account of the gentlcnefs of the acclivity, and
the level nature of the valleys, the water does not ru(h down
in torrents, or form deep channels, but rather finks into the
earth ; and to this circumftauce the fertihty of tliefe moun-
tains is to be principally afcribed. In its marlhy hollows,
the horned cattle find excellent pafture, and the ridges and
heights being fcattered over with Imall aromatic plants, the
fheep are furnifhed with an abundant fupply of the moft fa-
lutary nourilhment. The climate in the higher parts is cold

10 -

in winter, and deep fnows fall, which continue to lie upoir
the ground for many weeks. Neverthelefs, the greater part
of the country is habitable ; the inhabitants of the other
parts that are not fo, defcend into fome of the lower parts,
where they have a " legplaats," or winter habitation, during
the (hort period in which they are obhged to quit their more
elevated fituation. In this refpeft the Snow mountains have
a very decided preference over the Roggeveld ; and, be-
fides, the weather, in winter, though cold, is clear and
bright, whereas, in the Roggeveld, there are often thick
fogs, which are very injurious to the cattle.

Three confiderable rivers have their fources in the Snow
mountains, which are conftantly fupplied with water
through the whole year, from the melted fnows and the
rain-water. Towards the S. flows the Zondag's river ; to-
wards the E. feveral fmall ftreams, which at laft unite-to form
the great Filh river ; and at the foot of the mountains on
the N. fide, rifes the Sea-Cow river, which flows into the
Orange river, which latter, fubfequent to this union, con-
tinues its courfe for more than 100 miles, when it falls
into the fea on the weftern coaft. Both the other rivers run
in a foutherly direflion.

The upper ftratum of the Snow mountains confifts of a
large-grained fand-Rone, intermingled at intervals with
quartz. Lower down they confift of a fchift, varying in
different parts, both in thicknefs and colour ; but no granite
is found here. The foil throughout is a foft argile, which,
as well as the fand-ftone, is in many parts very much oxy-
dated. The ground is almoft every where llrewed with loofe
ftones, which very much contribute to keep it cool in fum-
mer, and alfo aflift in promoting the vegetation of the plants.
Here is no want of fpring?, and therefore the country is to- '
lerably populous ; it is very favourable to the breeding of
cattle, and moft of the inhabitants are in eafy circumftances.
But through the country the fprings, though conftantly ;
flowing, do not yield fuch an abundance of water as to allow I
of fufficiently watering the fields for agricultural purpofes. I
On thefe hills no tree grows ; and it is juftly obferved by
Mr. Barrow, that here are people, who in their whole lives
never faw a wood, or even a copfe. The vi-ant of wood pre-
vents a fupply of fuel, fo that people are obliged to burn
the dung of their cattle dried. The bleak wind of winter
is particularly adverfe to the cultivation of nut or fruit-trees,
and even the oak will not thrive. The locufts in this coun-
try are very numerous, and very deftruftive. Game is
abundant, but the Hons and leopards do great mifchief
among the flocks and herds. But of all the enemies which
this country has to dread, the Bosjefmans are the moft for-
midable, whofe maraudinc;s occafion annually a lofs of five
out of every hundred of the ftieep and oxen. The breeding
of fheep is the moft important occupation of the colonifts in
thefe parts. The ftieep of this country and of the Rogge-
veld are the moft weighty of any in the colony, and their
flefti is reckoned the beft flavoured. Some farmers have
flocks to the amount of 6000 or 7000, and few have lefs than
3000. The cattle are not lefs profitable. The cows give
rich milk in abundance, more fo than in other parts ; and
great quantities of butter are carried to Cape Town. Mr.
Barrow reckons that a herd of 50 cows will produce at leaft
100 pounds of butter in a week. The inhabitants of the
Snow mountains are a vigorous and cheerful race. Mr. Bar-
row, it is faid, affociated with fome of the moft worthy and
refpeftable people of the colony, and feems to have enter-
tained too favourable an opinion of their general charatler,
as others have found them lefs friendly and hofpitable. It it
obferved, that without fuch dogs as this country affords, it
would be abfolutely uninhabitable. By thefe the inhabitant*

are

S N O

S N U

are defended, not only from their four-footed enemies, but
alfo from the Bosjefmans. Nothing can be compared to their
watchfulnefs ; the leopard, the jackal, even the lion himfelf,
are terrified with the barking of the faithful troop, and
haften to retreat.

SNOW-BIRD Lake, a lake of North America, W.
of Hudfon's bay ; 12 miles wide from E. to W., but from
N. to S. much more extenfive.

SNOWDON Mountains, a duller or ridge of lofty
hills in the county of Caernarvon, North Wales, are
fituated to the S.E. of the county-town, ftretching to the
confines of Merionethfhire. They are called by the Welfh
the mountains of Eryri, and according to an ancient pro-
Terb, mentioned by Giraldus, were confidered to be fo ex-
tenfive and produiiive, as to be capable of affording fuffi-
cient pafture for all the herds in Wales, if coUefted toge-
ther. The fame author informs us, that there were two
lakes on the high part of thefe hills, one of which was re-
markable for a floating ifland, and theother for three kinds
of fifh, viz. eels, trout, and perch, which had " only one
eye, the left being wanting." The highefl fummit of this
ridge is called by the inhabitants Y Wyddfa, or the Confpi-
cuous, and by the Englifli, fpecially Snowdon. Though
confefFedly the highett mountain in Wales, being, according
to Pennant, 3567 feet above the level of the Tea, it is by
no means the mofl pifturefque in its form ; for Cadair Idris,
Moelwyn, and Arran, in North Wales, and the Cadair
Arthur, near Brecknock, in South Wales, prtfent a far
bolder outline. Camden remarks of thcle mountains, that
they may be very properly termed the Britifh Alps ; " for
befides that they are the liigheft of all the ifland, they are
alfo no lefs inacceflible by reafon of the fleepnefs of their
rocks than the Alps themfelves ; and they all encompafs one
hill, which far exceeding the reft in height, does fo towre its
head aloft, that it feems, 1 fhall not fay to threaten the
Iky, but to thruft its fummit into it. It harbours fnow
continually, being throughout the year covered with it,
or rather with a hardened cruft of fnow, and hence the
Britifh name of Craig Eryri, and the Englifh one of
Snowdon."

Snowdon was held as facred by the ancient Britons, as Par-
naffus was by the Greeks, and Ida by the Cretans. It is
ftill faid, " that whofoever flept upon Snowdon would wake
infpired, as much as if he had taken a nap on the hill of
Apollo." The Welfh alfo have always had the ftrongefl
attachment to the traft of Snowdon. It was, fay they,
the appurtenance of the principality of Wales, which the
prince and his predecellors held from the days of Brute.
One of the titles of the prince was that of lord of Snow-
don : and, indeed, fuch was the importance attached to this
ftrong region, that when Llewellyn was at his laft extre-
mity, he rejefted " the propofal of Edward, of a thoufand
a-year, and fome honourable county in England, to give it
up, well knowing that his principality mull terminate with
the ceffion." When the Englifh monarch afterwards effcft-
cd the complete conquell of Wales, he held a triumphal
fair upon this mountain, and adjourned to finifh the joy of
his viftory, by folemn tournaments on the plains of Nevin.
After this event the traft of Snowdon was annexed to the
crown of England, and continued to be a royal forell as late
as the reign of queen Elizabeth. Leland informs us, that in
his days ftags were found here in fuch numbers, as to de-
ftroy the little corn the farmers attempted to low ; but thefe,
Pennant tells us, were extirpated before the year 1626.
The fame a\ithor adds, " Snowdon being a royal foreft,
warrants were ifliicd for the killing of the deer. I have feen
one from tlic duke of Suffolk, dated April 30, 1552, and

another in the firlt year of queen Elizabeth, figned by Ro-
bert Tounefend ; and a third, in 156 1, by Henry Sydney.
The fecond was addrelTed to the mailer of the game, ranger,
and keeper of the queen's highnefs foreft of Snowdon, in
the county of Carnarvon. The laft extended the foreft into
the counties of Meirionydd and Anglefea, with the view of
gratifying the rapacity of the favourite, Dudley, earl of
Leicefter, who had by letters patent been appointed chief
ranger." Pennant's Tour in Wales, vol. ii. 410. The Iti-
nerary of Archbifhop Baldwin through Wales, A.D.
1 188, by Giraldus de Barri, tranflated by fir R. C. Hoare,
bart. 4to. 1806. Aikin's Tour in Wales, 8vo. Wynd-
ham's Tour in North Wales, 4to. Hutton's Remarks on
North Wales, being the Refult of Sixteen Tours, 8vo.
1803. Bingley's Tour round North Wales, 2 vols. Svo.
1 800. Caernarvonfhire, or fome Account of its Antiqui-
ties, Mountains, and Produflions, 8vo. 1792.

SNOW-HILL, a fea-port of Maryland, and capital of
Worcefter county, fituated on the S.E. fide of Pokomoke
river, containing about 60 houfes, a court -houfe and gaol ;
the inhabitants of which deal principally in lumber and corn ;
158 miles from Wafhington. N. lat. 38° 11'. W. long.

75° 3°'-

SNOWSWICK Pine-Apple Cheefe, in Rural Economy, a
particular fort of cheefe made about that place in Berkfhire,
which are of the pine-apple fhape and external appearance.
They are principally made upon the farm of a Mr. Pike, and
fome others, in the parifh of Bufcot, which are famous for
them. They fell confiderably higher than thofe cheefes
which are made in the common forms, and they are juftly
entitled to the diftinftion and increafe of price, in confe-
quence of their peculiar richnefs, and the delicacy of their
flavour. When kept to the proper age, they are, perhaps,
not inferior to any cheefe in the kingdom.

In regard to the method of making them, the firft part of
the procefs is exaftly the fame as for the common fort. The
curds are then well worked and broken down with the
hands, after which the whole is preffed into a wooden mould,
contrived in the fhape of a llower-pot, being afterwards
hung up and fufpended from beams, rafters, or pegs, in an
airy apartment, in a net, the mefhes of which mark and in-
dent the furface in the manner of the pine-apple. Salt is then
rubbed into and over them, or they are ilecped in a fuitable
brine made from that fubltance. On the above perfon'*
farm, the firft of thefe methods is thought to be the moft
proper and advifeable. No fort of continued preflure it
employed, and yet in firmnefs, it is faid, when dry, thefe
cheefes cannot be diftinguifhcd from thofe which have un-
dergone the force of preflure in chcefe-prefTes.

One of thefe pine-apple cheefes, for the moft part, weighs
about five pounds, and in good years, it is faid, that two
tons of them are made on the farm already noticed alone.
It is, indeed, fcarcely known that they are manufaAured
any where elfe.

Some cheefes are made in other parts of this diftrift, as
about Stanford, in the Vale, in the fanciful fhape of a hare
fitting in her form. Thefe arc likewife fometimcs coloured
with fage. See Cheese and Daikying.

SNUFF, a preparation of tobacco, made by reducingit
into a powder, fit to be taken in at the nofe, in order to
purge or clear the head of pituita.

Ordinarily, tobacco is the bafis of fnuff; other matters
being only added to give it a more agreeable fcent, &c.
The kinds of fnuff, and their fcveral names, arc infinite ;
and new ones are daily invented ; fo that it would be difficult,
not to fay impofliblo, to give a detail of them. \ye fnall
only fay, that there are three principal forts : the firft gra-
D d 2 nulated

S O A

nulated ; the fecond an impalpable powder ; and the third
the bran, or coarfe part remaining after fifting the lecond
fort.

The many mifchiefs attending the unnatural praftice of
taking this powder of tobacco at the nollrils, have been
defcribed by the writers in general on thefe fubjefts, fince
this pernicious cuitom has reigned in the world ; but one of
the moft remarkable accidents, occafioned by it, is related
in the Afta Eruditorum, which was the forming of a poly-
pus in the celophagus, that killed the patient, by Itarving
him, from an inabihty of fwallowing. Aft. Erudit. an.
1715, p. 475. See PrCA Nafi.

Snuff, or Snuffer, in the Manege. See SsoRT.

SNUG Bay, in Geography, a bay in the Straits of Ma-
gellan, N.N.W. of Cape Froward.

Snug Bay Point, a cape in the Straits of Magellan ; 8
miles N.N.W. of Cape Froward.

Snug Corner Cove, a bay of the North Pacific ocean, on
the E. fide of Prince William's found, on the W. coaft of
North America. N. lat. 60° 50'. W. long. 146° 30'.

SNYING, in Ship-Building, a term applied to thofe
planks, whofe edges curve or round upwards. The great
fny occafioned in full bows or buttocks is only to be pre-
vented by introducing fteelers. See Steelers.

SNYTE, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the Dean, in Nottinghamihire.

SOA, a town of the iiland of Cuba ; 60 miles N. of
St. Yago.

SoA, a fmall ifland of the Hebrides, or Weftern iflands
of Scotland, fituated near the celebrated ifle of St. Kilda.
It is about a mile in circumference.

SOACA, in Jlncient Geography, a town fituated in the
interior of Arabia Felix, according to Ptolemy.

SOAGGIO, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifli common
in the markets of Rome and of Venice, and of the turbot
kind. See L.VG-a-lea/.

SOAID, in Geography. See Saidou.

SOAK, or Sowiak, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Mafcat, on the E. coaft ; J miles N.W. of Burka.

SOAKAGE, in Agriculture, a term applied to the water
that drains through the banks or other parts, in fen and
other moift diftrifts. It is very coiifiderable and trouble-
fome in tome inftances, fo as to caufe much expence. See
Embankment.

SOAL, or Sole, in Ichthyology, the Enghfli name of the
fifh, called by the generality of authors the buglojfus, by
{ort\e folea, and the Pleuronectes So/ea of Linnxus, which
fee. Some authors call it the Unguacula.

The foal is found on all our coafts, but thofe on the weftern
(hores are much larger than thofe of the north. They are
ufually taken in a trawl-net ; they keep much at the bot-
tom, and feed on fmall ftiell-fi(h. The fmall foals are much
fuperior in goodnefs to the large ones.

Soals may be taken at any time of the year, but they
muft not be under feven inches from the eye to the end of
the tail, i & 2 Geo. I. cap. 18.

SoAL, Smooth, from its tranfparcncy called the lantirn-
fijh. See Pleuronectes y^rnoj/o^w.

SOALTERPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
20 miles E. of Rangamatty.

SOAMUS, [TJJjamou), in Ancient Geography, a river of
India, on this fide of the Ganges. Its fource was in mount
Emidus, S. of the Hydafpes, into which it difcharged it-
felf N.E. of Bucephala.

SOANA, a river of Afiatic Sarmatia, the mouth of
which is placed by Ptolemy on the weftern coalt of the
Cafpiau fea, above the town of Telcha. — Alfo, a river of

SOA

the ifland of Taprobana, fo called by Ptolemy, who
places its mouth on the weftern coaft, between the pro-
montory of Andrafimundum and the town Sindocand?.
— Alfo, a town of Italy, in Etruria, N.W. of the
Volfinii.

SoANA, in Geography, a town of Etruria, the fee of a
biftiop, fuffragan of Sic-nna ; 24 miles N.E. of Orbitello.

SoANA, a mountain of France ; 10 miles S. of Aofta.

SOANDA, or SoANDKS, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Cappadocia, between Therma and Sacaena, according
to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SOANE, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, which
rifes in the country of Allahabad, about 30 miles S.E.
from Sohagepour, and runs into the Ganges, near Patna.

SOANEN, John, in Biography, a French prelate, was
born at Rioms in 1647. His father was an attorney in the
prefidial court of that city ; his mother was niece of the
learned Jefuit Sirmond. In 1661 he entered the congre-
gation of the Oratory at Paris, where he took for his con-
feflbr the celebrated father Quefnel. After teaching the
languages and rhetoric in feveral of the feminaries of the
fociety, he devoted himfelf to pulpit fervices, and with fo
much fuccefs, that he became one of the four dillinguilhed
preachers of the congregation, who were popularly deno-
minated the four evangehfts. Fenelon joined him with
Mafiillon as models of pulpit eloquence. In 1695 he was
placed in the fee of Seneza, a bilhopric of fmall revenue,
but which, being in a retired fituation, required little of the
parade of office, and permitted him to expend the greateit
Ihare of his income in charity. To his various virtues as
a Chriftian paftor, he united a firmnefs which enabled him
to fuftain the part of a martyr to principle. On the pub-
lication of the bull Unigenitus, which contained a con-
demnation of Quefnel's opinions, he appealed againft it to
a future council, and pubhflied a paftoral letter, in which he
controverted its pofitions with great force of argument.
Cardinal Fleury, refolving to make an example of a dif-
obedient prelate, felefted Soanen for a vittim ; and in 1727,
aflembling the council of Embrun, procured a condemnation
of the licentious biftiop, who was fufpended from his prieftly
and epifcopal functions, and exiled. In his retreat he had
numerous vifitors, who paid him the refpcA due to his
virtue and integrity. He died in the year 1740, at the
age of 92, revered by the Janfenifts as a faint, and con-
demned by the Mohnifts as a rebel. He was author of
" Paftoral Inftrudions," " Charges," and " Letters,"
which were printed, with his " Life," in 2 vols. 4to. and
8 vols. T2mo.

SOANES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
the Colchide, being of the number of thofe who were in
the general aflembly of Diofcuria?, and who inhabited the
fummits of mount Caucafus, above the town of Diofcurias,
according to Strabo.

SOANGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 5omiles S. of Surat. N. lat. 21° 10'. E. long.

if 33'- ^ . , .,

SOANK, a town of Hindooftan, m Bahar ; 45 miles

S.S.E. of Bahar.— Alfo, a river of Hindooftan, which

rifes near Burwah, in Bahar, and runs into the Bramnee,

near Khoud, in Orifta.

SOAP, in Chemifiry, is a name for thofe bodies which
are compounds of the alkalies with fat and the fixed oilt.
The earths and the other metallic oxyds alfo combine with
fat and oils, forming neutral compound?. The former hare
been called earthy, and the latter metallic foaps.

The foaps formed by the alkalies have the diftinguilhing
character of being foluble in water and alcohol. The earthy

foaps-

SOAP.

.\-aps are perfeftly infoluble. And fince any of the earths
have a ftrongcr attraiftion for oil than the alkalies, the alka-
line foaps are always decompofed by the earths. This occa-
fions the curdy appearance when foap is ufed with water
containing any eartliy or metallic fait. It is from this qua-
lity that waters are faid to be hard.

The earthy foaps are of a greyilh-white colour, of a curdy
'.pcarance. The metallic foaps are of different colours,
•joth thefe and the earthy foaps are formed by adding a
folution of an alkaline foap to a folntion of an earthy or
metallic fait. A precipitate is formed, which is the foap to
be obtained. With a folution of iron containing the red
oxyd, the foap is of an orange-red colour. It has the con-
fiftency of a falve or plafter, but by expofure to the air it
becomes dry and friable, but may be foftened by heat.
When a fimilar folution of foap is added to a folution of ful-
phate of copper, a green foap is formed, which is a fluxible
mafs like wax. Corrofive fubhmate, treated in this manner,
gives a red foap. All the metallic oxyds mny be combined
with fat or oil in a fimilar way.

Soap, in the ManufaBures and Domejlic Economy. This is
confined to foaps made with the fixed alkalies, combined with
different kinds of fat and oil. Thefe, in the manufacture
of foap, are divided into two principal varieties, viz. hard
and foft.

I. Hard Soap. — The alkali employed for hard foap is
foda, generally obtained from the different fea vegetables,
and called by different names, according to the name of
the plant in different countries. Moft of the alg£, but
particularly the fucus and falfola, afford foda by burning.
The vegetables are iirit dried, and then burnt in pits formed
with loofe Clones. The earthy matter and the foda, with
fome neutral falts, fufe into a crude mafs, in which ftate it
is fold. This fubltance is furnifhed in great abundance from
the Highlands of Scotland, under the name oilelp, and from
Alicant in Spain, under the name of barilla. In France it is
known by the name of varec ; this being the name of the
plant from which it is generally produced there.

It is commonly, however, in this ftate that it comes to the
foap-makcr, varying frequently in its value, and often occa-
fioning much uncertainty in its employment. It fhould be
the firlt bufinefs, therefore, of the manufafturer, to affay the
fubftance from which he gets his alkali, even before he pur-
chafes it. For this purpofe a given quantity fhould be
dried and weighed. After reducing it to powder, it mull be
treated with hot rain-water, till the water coming from it
has no tafte, referving all the portions of water added from
time to time. Concentrate this liquid by evaporation, till
the quantity of liquid is not more than three times the weight
of the quantity taken to be allayed. Now weigh out a
quantity of fulphiiric acid, fay half the weight of the affay.
From this quantity take fmall portions at a time, and add
them to the folntion above-mentioned, flirring it at the fame
time with a wooden rod. When the cfcape of gas begins to
diminifh on the addition of frefh acid, let the additional por-
tions be very fmall. Now take bits of paper flained blue
with litmus : on dipping one into the liquid, if more acid is
wanting, the paper will not be changed, but the moment
the paper is turned red by the liquid, ceafe to add ful-
phuric acid. Let the remaining acid be now weighed, in
order to know what has been ufed, and note this down. Now
take pure fal foda (carbonate of foda) in well-formed cryf-
tals, exaitly of the fame weight with the firft allay, and dif-
fohe it in three times its weight of pure water. Weigh out
the fame quantity of fulphuric acid as before, and jull fol-
low the fame fleps as above direfted, till the litmus paper jult
turni red, tkeu weigh the remaining acid, to obtain the quan-

tity ufed, and note down as before. Then fay, as the acid
confumed by the fal foda is to that confumed by the affay,
fo is 100 to a number which will give the per centage of
carbonate of foda contained in the crude alkali. Thirty *<r
cent, of the carbonate of loda fo indicated will be real foda,
the only fubltance which combines with the fat to form foap.
When the exaft value of the alkali is known, it is then to be
treated as follows, to prepare it for mixing with the fat.

The kelp or barilla is firft to be pounded, and then mixed
with one-fifth its weight of quickhme, in a large vat. Thefe
vats are generally three or four in number to each boiler.
They are frequently made with brick-work, from four to
five-feet cubes, but fometimes of caft-iron. Befides thefe vats
for the infufion of crude alkali, each of thefe has a fimilar
cavity under it. The bottom of the vat is even with the
ground, the under vat being funk below, and is intended to
receive the liquor which runs from a plug-hole in the upper
vat, when the infufion has gone on to a certain extent. One
of thefe vats, with its under refervoir, is fuflicient for one
boihng, but they are generally all at work, in order to give
time for the folution of the alkali from the crude mafs.

In chara^ing a vat, the barilla, kelp, or potadi, and fome-
times mixtures of thefe, are firft coarfely powdered, and
mixed with quicklime alfo coarfely powdered ; fome water is
then thrown upon thefe to flake the lime. In the fide of the
vat fome ftraw is firft placed about the plug-hole, to prevent
bits from pafling through. The vat is now charged, and
water poured upon the materials till it ftands confiderably
above the folid mafs. After Handing feveral hours the plug
is withdrawn, to let out the folution into the lower refervoir.
The plug is now returned, and frefti water poured upon the
materials. Some or all the firft ley is now removed into one
of the other lower refervoirs before the fecond infufion is
drawn off. This is done, that the foap-boiler may always
have at command two leys of different degrees of ftrength,
as in the courfe of every boiling he finds it neceffary to ule
fometimes the weak and at other times the ftrong.

The number of waters to be added to the materials de-
pends upon the judgment of the workman, who by his
tafte can tell when the water has diflblved the whole of the
alkali. The times of charging the vats are irregular with
rcfpedl to the times of charging the boiler. Some one of
the vats is conftantly employed, in order to infure a con-
ftant fnpply of the ley.

The boilers are made to hold from about 20 to 25 cwt. of
foap ; they are made in two parts, the lower part being about
three feet in diameter, and the fame in length : under the
bottom of this the fire afts. The top part has a flange, to
which the upper part is fcrewed. The latter is nearly an
hemifphere, rifing above the floor juft fuflicient to allow the
workman to flir the foap when he ftands up.

The ley being ready to lade out of tlie refervoir, which
is near to the boiler, the tallow or oil firft weighed is put
in. When it is fufficiently melted, the workman begins by
adding the ley, and Itirring the mixture. The alkali and
the oil foon begin to unite, forming a milky fluid. As more
ley is added, and the ftirring continued, the liquid thickens.
This is continued generally for 30 hours, and frequently
more, till fmall portions of the foap, taken out from time
to time, affitme a proper confiflence, which the workman
by conftant experience undcrltands. He now adds a quan-
tity of common fait, which has the effeft of feparating the
watery part from the foap, which contains a portion of
neutral falts, that exifted in the crude alkali, and fometimes
alfo free alkali, cfpecially when more than enough has been
added. The fire is now to be withdrawn, and the mafs left
to ceol. The watery part will be found at the bottom, and

requires

SOAP.

requires to be pumped out by a pump, which is a fixture
on the fide of the boiler. When this has been removed
the fire is rekindled, and if the mafs does not melt freely,
a little water is added. As foon as the whole becomes
liquid, and is made uniform by agitation with wooden poles,
the fire is again withdrawn, and the mafs allowed to affume
a proper confiftence for lading. It is laded into fquare
moulds : thefe are compofed of a number of ftrata lying
one upon another, fo that when the foap has become folid,
each layer of frame-work can be removed, beginning at
the top, and the foap is cut into cakes - with a piece of
fmall brafs wire at every interval : thefe cakes are after-
wards cut into fquare prifmatic pieces, in which ftate they
are fold.

Some manufafturers proceed in a different manner in boil-
ing the foap. In tlie method above defcribed, and which is
praftifed by a judicious foap-boiler in Derby, the watery
part, or what is called the fpent ley, is not feparated till
all the ley is added. This method is called clofe working,
becaufe the liquid is of an uniform thicknefs all the time, till
the fait is added : it then affumes what is called the granular
form, in which the watery part is feparated from the foap,
like the whey and the curd in making cheefe. This arifes
from the foap being infoluble in falt-water. In this ftate
the foap is faid to be open, to diftinguilh it from the
ftate in which it exifts before the fait is added, and in
which the foap is faid to be clofed. In the open working
the common fait is added at feveral intervals, in order to
keep the foap feparated from the water. The fire is alfo
withdrawn feveral times, and as many times the fpent leys
are pumped off. After each time, except the laft, frefti
ley is added and the ftirring repeated. The proper ftate
for the foap is known by the appearance of the bubbles.
The very hard foap, or that which is made with all foda, is
not the moft convenient for praftice ; it is neither fo fit for
waffling the hands, nor fo eafily reducible to a pulpy ftate
for the different manufaftures in which it is employed.
The hard white foap, produced in the maiiufaftory above
alluded to, is in great repute from its whitenefs and its proper
confiftency. This foap is formed with tallow and a mix-
ture of foda and potafti. The boiler holds from about 25 to
27 cwt. of foap. The following are the average proportions
of the materials employed ; 13 cwt. 2 qr. 16 lbs. of tallow,
5 cwt. 3 qr. 12 lbs. barilla, 3 cwt. 2 qr. 6 lbs. American
potafti, 4 cwt. 2 qr. 7 lbs. quicklime, and 3 qr. 16 lbs.
common fait (muriate of foda.) Thefe materials produce
1 ton 4cwt. o qr. i lb. of white foap. The hme, the
barilla, and the potafti, are mixed together, and placed in
the vat already defcribed. In order to furnifti the ley
which is added to the melted tallow, the lime is em-
ployed merely to rob the potafti and foda of their carbonic
acid, and of courfe does not enter into the compofition of
the foap. The neutral falts, which both the barilla and
potafti contain, are pumped out with the fpent leys with a
portion of uncombined alkali : of this we fliall fay fome-
thing hereafter.

Hence it will appear, that the foap is a compound of
pure alkali, with the fat, and a portion of water.

In the making of foap, as in all other chemical combina-
tions, the proportions appear to be definite. Every foap-
boiler knows, that where too much ley is added to the fat,
the excefs will be found in the watery part under the foap ;
and that if the fat were in excefs, the foap would be greafy
to the feel, and would otherwife ftiew the prefence of un-
combined fat. Hence it will be found on analyfis, that the
proportions will be uniform, becaufe they are definite. The
quantity of foda which combines with olive-oil and tallow.

is about 30 of the former to 212 of the latter; and fmce
an atom of potafti is to that of foda as 29.25 to 44.5,
45 of potafti will combine with 212 of oil or tallow.

The following is an analyfis of foap by Darcet, Lelievre,
and Pelletier :

Oil

Soda
Water

60.94
8.56
30-5

100

If the alkali were potafti inftead of foda, then the pro-
portions would be.

Oil - - -

Potalh -

Water ...

100

In the firft of thefe analyfes, the foda is to the oil ai
85 to 609, or as 1 to 7.28 nearly. In the fecond, the potafti
is to tlie oil as 12.3 to 58.4, or as i to 4.6 nearly. The
fpecimen of foap before alluded to contains a mixture of
potafti and foda. The 3 cwt. 2qr. 6 lbs. of American
potafti, according to the average value of that article, ought
to give 2 cwt. 2 qr. of pure potafti. By the above ana-
lyfis, the I ton 4 cwt. oqr. lib. of foap ought to contain
7 cwt. I qr. 7 lbs. of water. There ought to be therefore
only 1 6 cwt. 3qr. 2 1 lbs. of the alkah and tallow. It
appears, that in forming this fpecimen of foap, loolbs. of
common fait were added, which gives to the foap 55.5 lbs. of
foda, and takes away from it 83.25 lbs. of potafti. Hence,
the alkali refulting from the potafti in this foap will be
I cwt. 3 qr., and 55.5 lbs. of foda derived from the common
fait, or 2qr. 4 lbs. nearly. In order to know what foda
is derived from the barilla, we muft fubtraft the tallow and
the alkali from the whole ; that is (i6cwt. aqr. 27lbs.)
I cwt. 3qr. of potafti, 2qr. of foda, and 13 cwt. 2 qr.
1 6 lbs. of tallow, will leave 3qr. 6 lbs. of foda derived
from the barilla.

The proportions of the foap in queftion will, therefore,
be, in 2689 lbs. of foap.

Tallow
Soda
Potafti
Water

1528
146
196
819

2689

100

This refult, although it contains a little too much of the
mixed alkali to correfpond with theory, is ftrikingly near
the truth. We may therefore conclude, that foap, in
general, contains from 8 to 1 2 per cent, of alkali, as more
or lefs of each prevails, and about 30 per cent, of water.
The hardeft white foap made with foda would contain
8 per cent. ; and the foft foap, in which potafti alone is ufed>
would be a little more than 1 2 per cent.

In the above fpecimen of hard foap, it will be feen that
39S lbs. of crude potafti furnifti 280 lbs. of real alkali,
which is feveu-tenths of the whole. With this were em-
ployed 656 lbs. of barilla, which furnifti 90 lbs. of real
alkali. Now 192 lbs. of American potafti will produce
135 lbs. of pure potafti, and this will difengage from
126 lbs. of muriate of foda, or common fait, 90 lbs. of
pure foda. Hence 192 lbs. of American potafti and 126 lbs.
of fait will produce as much foda as 656 lbs. of barilla.

This

SOAP.

This wMght of barilla, at the prefent price, cofts lol. ^s. :
192 lbs. of potaOi will now coft 61. \']s. ; and 126 lbs. of
common fait, i/. 17/. Thefe two fums are 8/. i+f. The
faving, therefore, in employing potalh and common fait, in
making even the beft hard white foap, inftead of barilla, u
nearly 5 per cent. But if the two alkalies ' are to be con-
tained in equal proportions, then about half the common
fait only need be ufed, and the faving will be very confider-
able. It will alfo appear evident, that foap may be made
of any degree of hardnefs, by ufing more or lefs of common
fait with the potafh ; and that if no fait at all be ufed, the
foap will be foft.

The difference of price between barilla and potafh is often
much more than at prefent in favour of ufing potafh : this
will make the faving above mentioned more confpicuous.

It mutt alfo be remembered, that fome fait is always ufed
for the purpofe of feparating the fpent leys from the foap.
This has been ftated at about three-quarters of a cwt. to
Z4 cwt. of foap. It feems that a folution of fait of this
flrength does not diffolve foap.

Hard Soap, TellvM. — This foap is formed of fimilar
proportion? of foda and tallow with the lall ; but it alfo
contains rofin, and fometimes palm oil.

The following are the average proportions of the ma-
terials for making yellow foap, which may be relied upon.

Tallow.

Rofin.

Palm Oil.

Barilla.

Potafh.

Lime.

Soap
produced.

Cwr.qr. lb.
13 0 II

3 2 18

I 0 0

6 2 14

I 0 16

509

26 I 21

The whole weight of the materials, exclufive of the lime,
and the refufe of the potafh and barilla, is equal to
24 cwt. o qr. I lb. ; the foap, independent of the water it
contains, is 18 cwt. o qr. 25 lbs.: this, taken from 24cwt.
oqr. I lb. leaves 5 cwt. 3qr. 4lbs. for the refufe of the tallow,
rofm, and palm oil. That the tallow mull make much wafte
will be eafily conceived, from the mod inferior kind being
ufed. The roGn and oil muft alfo yield much refufe. This
refufe is found all tojjether at the bottom of the pan after
boiling, and is known in the manufaftories under the name of
nigre.

In boihng the yellow foap, the rofin, oil, and tallow are put
into the boiler firit. The ley is prepared in a fimilar vat, and
managed in other refpefts in the fame mode as in forming
the white foap.

The manner too of adding the ley from time to time, and
the flirring, arc jnfl kept up in a fimilar way, till the fatty
matter is fully faturited. The time required for boiling the
quantity of foap ftated above, is fometimes as much as three
weeks, during which time it is kept in what is called the open
ftate, tiiat is, the watery part is completely feparated from
the foap. It would appear that this foap requires merely the
prefence of the neutral falls in ley to keep it in the open flate.
This arifes probably from this being a lefs perfeft foap, and
lefs foluble in water. The foap appears in fmall lumps,
perfeftly detached from the fluid. At the end of every
day the foap is allowed to cool, when the thin part finks
to the bottom : this is fpent ley, and is pumped oft every
morning. The fire is again raifed, and frefh leys ^dded :
the boiling and flirring go on again. This adlion is re-
peated till the fat is faid to be killed. This, as we have
obferved, takes fometimes fifteen or twenty days. When
this change is complete thi- fire is withdrawn, and the mafs
allowed to cool : the lafl ley is pumped out. The addition
of a little water, and the fire being raifed, allow the foap

to be difTolved, and the refufe, which is principally the fab-
fiance we have called nigre, is left at the bottom, perfeftly
diflinft from the foap. When the foap is of a proper con-
fiflence for caking, it is transferred to the moulds, where it
is treated in a manner fimilar to that already defcribed in the
white foap.

It is a queflion, whether making this inferior foap is fo pro-
fitable to the manufafturer as is fuppofed. It has appeared,
that in making the quantity of foap above flated, which is
26 cwt. o qr. 21 lbs., there are 5 cwt. 3 qr. 4 lbs. of refufe,
which is principally in the nigre. This refufe will be found
very trifling in the white foap ; we think not more than ^Vth
of the weight of the foap. It will be evident, that in making
the yellow foap, a great quantity of matter is ufed which
never combines. Would it not be more economical t»
purify thefe materials before hand?

Soft Soap- — This differs in its compofition from hard, in
containing no alkali, but potafh. We have feen that hard
foap may be made not only with pure foda, as is the cafe in
the manufaftories in the fouth of France, but that a tole-
rably hard foap, much better fitted for praftice, is made with
about equal portions of potafh and foda.

Soft foap made with colourlefs fat, fuch as tallow, is a
white undluous fubflance, about the confiftency of lard. If
the fat be coloured, the foap partakes of the fame. In
France and other parts of the continent, it is generally
coloured, fometimes with metallic oxyds. Thofe made with
yellow oil are fometimes coloured with indigo, which gives
them a green colour. The oils employed are feWom olive-
oil, but the cheaper oils, fuch as rape-oil, the oil of hemp-
feed, lint-feed, and others.

In Holland it was made with whale-oil. This oil was
forbidden on fome parts of the continent, on account of its
difagreeable fmell. In this country, however, all the foft
foaps are made with whale-oil, which gives a tranfparent
mafs of a yellow colour. In commerce, however, we do
not find it uniform in its colour. Befides the yellovr
part, it appears interfperfed with white fpots, giving the
whole a ftrong refemblance to the infide of a dried fig.

The proportions of potafh and oil, for forming foft foap,
will be eafily inferred from what has been obferved in the
proportions of the other foaps. The white fpccks are pro-
duced by adding a portion of tallow to the oil, when the
boiler is charged. This addition does not improve the foap,
but habit in commerce has rendered it indifpenfable. The
ley is prepared by adding to the potafh about three-fourths its
weight of quicklime, and the procefs is continued as direded
in making the hard foap, ufing the fame apparatus. The ley,
when prepared, is to be added to the oil and t allow in the boiler
at intervals, fimilar to thofe in making the hard foap, and the
flirring kept up in the fame way, till the mafs affunies a
proper confiftency. The experienced foap-maker will judge,
when the materials are in proper proportions, by the ap-
pearance of the foap when boiling ; hence he knows when
to ceafe to add more ley. Should a flranger to the- procefs
of making either kind of foap have to perform the tafk,
he would require to know the proportions in which the
alkali ought to bear to the oil. He would weigh his oil or
tallow when he put it into the boiler; he will affay his ley
by the method laid down in the commencement of this
article, and by that means know how much real alkali i»
contained in a given meafure of his ley. He will by this
means know nearly when he had added a fufficient quantity
of ley to faturatc the oil or fat. In the loa)i made with
foda, the real alkali muft be to the oil as i to 7.28, and that
with all potafli muft be as I to 5.1 nearly. This of courfe
will be the proportion for foft foap. When the foft foap is

of

SOAP.

of a proper confiftency for caking, it i« poured into barrels,
in which it is fold.

Soaps, particularly the hard, are frequently reduced in
their value, by the fraudulent praftice of keeping them
wet. The common or proper ftate is when they contain
about 30 per cent, of water ; but they may, by a nefa-
rious management, be made to contain 60 per cent, which
is a great impofition. This fraud, like many others, is
detefted when it is too late. It is found to lofe weight
rapidly by expofure to the air.

Before we clofe this article, we may point out fome
means of economizing the ufe of the alkali in foap-making,
which, in very extenfive manufaftories, is worth attending
to. In the firft place, it fliuuld be obferved, that the fpent
leys always contain tree alkali, and it is generally added a
fecond time, in order that as much as poflible of it may be
taken up. It is found, however, by experience, that fome
will ftill be found in folution, which the fat will never
take up. This is owing to the fame liquid containing
feveral neutral falls in folution. If this liquor be evapo-
rated to a certain extent, and fet to cool in Ihallow vefl'els,
the neutral falts will cryilallize and feparate from the liquid
to a certain extent. The liquid part may then be eva-
porated a fecond time, and again cryftaUized. The liquid,
after thefe falts have been feparated, may now be added to
the fat, and the alkali will combine with it. If barilla or
kelp is the alkali, then the liquid ought to have a little
lime added, which evaporating, ferves to take the carbonic
acid from the foda. Without this precaution the carbonate
of foda would cryftallize with the other falts. With potalh
this precaution is unneceflary.

The falts which are feparated from barilla and kelp are
chiefly muriate and fulphate of foda. The former may be
ufed as a fubftitute for fait in the laft part of the procefs
of boiling. The fulphate of foda may be fufed with faw-
duft or powdered coal in a reverberatory-furnace. The ful-
phuret of foda is produced, from which the alkaU may be
recovered. Perfumed foaps are eafily formed by adding
the different effential oils while the foap is in a liquid form,
but not while very hpt, becaufe the perfume would eva-
porate. The faponaceous liquid, called milk of rofes, is
formed by mixing the liquid obtained by expofing potaih to
the air with rofe- water, and then adding this to oil of almonds,
till the mixture becomes milky without being greafy.

Ball Soap, commonly ufed in the North, is made with
lees from aihes and tallow. The lees are put into the
copper, and boiled till the watery part is quite gone, and
there remains nothing in the copper but a fort of faline
matter (the very flrength or eflence of the ley) ; to this
the tallow is put, and the copper is kept boiling and ftirring
for above half an hour, in which time the foap is made ;
and then it is put out of the copper into tubs, or bafliets,
with fheets in them, and immediately (whilft foft) made
into balls. Note, it requires nearly twenty-four hours, in
this procefs, to boil away the watery part of the ley.

The fimpleft, and upon the whole the mod beautiful,
foap, is the fine white foap prepared from olive-oil and
foda, extrafted from the bed barilla, which is manufaftured
largely in the countries where the olive grows ; particularly
in the fouth of France, for which Marfeilles is the molt
celebrated, in fome parts of Italy, and in Tripoli. A
fimilar, but more expenfive foap, is made of foda and oil of
almonds for medicinal purpofes. (See Sapo Jmygdalinus.)
What is called in our country " Windfor foap" is of this
kind, prepared with either of the above-mentioned oils.
Common loap is manufaftured principally by our foap-
boilers frofti tallow or any other fat ; and the alkali em-
I

ployed is either barilla or pearl-afh, or a mixture of rfie twft,
according to the price and the praftice of the manufadurer.
But in order to obtain a ftiff fait, recourfe is had to the
action of common fait, as we have already mentioned. The
olive-oil, or Marfeilles and other foaps, are fometimes arti»
ficially " marbled," or ilreaked throughout their whole
fubftanoe with red or blue veins. This foap is harder
than the white foap of the fame materials, becaufe it re-
quires to be dried to a greater degree in order to take the
marbling. This is performed, by adding to the foap, a*
foon as it is completely made and feparated from the fpent
ley, a frefh quantity of ley, and immediately afterwards a
folution of fulphate of iron. A decompofition between
the two takes place, and a black oxyd of iron is feparated,
which is entangled within the liquid foap. The boiler i»
then cooled, and the ley which fettles is drawn off ; after
which the foap is again melted. A workman then ftands
over the boiler, and ilirs the foap with a wooden inftru-
ment, while another throws in at intervals a quantity of
colcothar, or brown-red oxyd of iron, ground up with water
into an uniform liquid. This diffufes both the oxyds
through the foap, which is then cooled and framed. This
procefs requires fome manual dexterity, fo that the ingre-
dients may be ftirred together, and the marbling fufficiently
diffufed through the whole mafs, without mixing it com-
pletely.

Soap is much ufed in wafhing and whitening linens, cleanf-
ing woollen cloths from oil, whitening filk, and freeing it
from the refinous varnifli with wh'ich it is naturally
covered ; and for various other purpofes, by the dyers,
perfumers, hatters, fullers, &c.

The alkaline lixiviums, being capable of diflblving oils
more effeftually than foap, might be employed for the
fame purpofes ; but when this aftivity is not mitigated by
oil, as it is in foap, they are capable of altering, and even
deftroying entirely, by their caufticity, moft fubftances,
efpecially animal matters, as filk, wool, and others ; whereas
foap cleanfes from oil almoft as effeftually as pure alkali,
without danger of altering or dellroying, which renders it
very ufeful.

The manufafture of foap in London, firft began in the
year 1 524 ; before which time this city was ferved with white
foap from foreign countries, and with grey foap, fpeckled
with white, from Briftol, and fold for a penny a pound,
and alfo black foap for a halfpenny the pound.

Soap, in the Materia Medica. Soaps, both hard and
foft, have been applied to medical ufe. Well made hard
foap, fit for medical ufe, has very httle odour, and a
naufeous alkalefcent tafte ; is white, and of a firm con-
fillence ; does not feel greafy, and is devoid of any faline
efflorefcence on the furface. With water it forms a milky
opaque folution ; and with alcohol a nearly tranfparent,
fomewhat gelatinous, folution. It is decompofed by all
the acids, and by many neutral falts, which combine with
the alkali and form new compounds ; hence hard water
which contains fulphate of lime does not properly diflblve '
foap. According to the experiments of Darcet, Lelievre,
and Pelletier, (Hated in the preceding article,) 100 parts of
newly made foap confift of 60.94 oil, 8.56 alkali, and 0. 503
water : but part of the water is loll: by keeping, and the
foap becomes lighter.

Hard foap, triturated with vegetable refins and thick
balfams, incorporates with them into a compound ; foluble,
like the foap itfelf, in watery hquors ; hence it proves an
ufeful ingredient in refinous pills, which of themfelves are
apt to pais entire through the inteilines, but by the admix-
ture of foap become diflbluble in the ilomach. It renders

undluous

SOAP.

unftuous and thick animal matters diffoluble in like manner
in aqueous fluids, and hence may be prcfumed to aft as a
inenltruum for thefe kinds of fubllances in the body, that
is, to attenuate vifcid juices and refolvc obilruftions : fuch,
in effect, are the virtues which it appears to exert in ca-
cheftic, hydropic, and ifteric cafes, in which lail, parti-
cularly, its aperient and refolvent powers have been often
experienced. Solutions of it have been likewife found to
diflfolve certain animal concretions of the harder kind, as
the filaments which are fometimcs feen floating in the
urine of rheumatic and arthritic perfons, the matter fecreted
in gouty joints, and the more compaft urinary calculus ; on
thefe fubilances (at lead in the latter), though foap of
jtfelf afts more languidly than lime-water, yet, when joined
to that menitruum, it remarkably increafes its aftivity ;
the diflblving power of a compofition of the two being,
according to Dr. Whytt's experiments, confiderably greater
than that of the foap and lime-water unmixed : of the
good effeft'o of thefe medicines in calculous cafes there are
feveral inftances ; but what their effefts may be in gouty
and rheumatic ones is not yet well known. See Lithon-
TRiPTics, Stephens'^ Medicine, &c. and Stone.

Soap is regarded, in the materia medica, as purgative
and lithontriptic ; externally applied it is ftimulant and
deterfive. For internal ufe the hard foap only is employed.
It is occafionally ordered in habitual coilivenefs, and in
jaundice, combined with rhubarb, or fome bitter extraft ;
but its power as a purgative is very limited, and it cannot
aft in any other way in relieving jaundice. It is more
ufeful in calculous habits, in which, however, its aftion is
altogether confined to the ftomach ; for as foap is decom-
pofed by the weakeft acids, its alkaline bafe correfts the
acidity fo prevalent in the ftomachs of calculous patints,
and thus at leaft affifts in checking the increafe of the difeafe.
Soap is alfo beneficial in decompofing metallic poifons
when taken into the ilomach ; and, as it is the antidote
which can moll readily be procured, fhould always be early
reforted to. It is neceflary in this latter cafe to give it in
folution ; of which a teacupful (hould be drunk at Ihort
intervals, till the effefts expefted from it be produced.
In other cafes it is preferable to give it in fubftance. The
dofe may be from grs. v to 3 fs, made into pills.

As an external remedy, foap is eflicacioudy ufed in fric-
tions to fpraiiis and bruifcs ; and much benefit has been
derived from rubbing the tumid bellies of children labouring
under mefentcric fever, with a flrong lather of foap every
morning and evening.

From the properties of foap we may know, that it mull
be a very ctTeftual and convenient anti-acid. It abforbs
icids as powerfully as pure alkalies and abforbcnt earths,
without liaving the cauilicity of the former, and without
opprcding the llomachby its weight, like the latter. Soap
i:, alfo one of the bell antidotes to Hop quickly, and with
the leall inconvenience, the bad effefts of acid corrofive
poifons, as aqua fortis, corrofive fublimate, &c.

Soap is employed externally for dilcuffing rheumatic
p:iins, arthritic tumours, the humours llagnating after
Iprains, &c. Some pretend that the indurated tophaceous
concretions in arthritic joints, have been refolved by the
external ufe of foapy cataplafms. Several compofitions for
external purpofes are prepared in the (hops.

The officinal preparations of foap are as follow : viz.
" Pills of foap with opium," of Lond. Ph. ; " Pills of
compound fquill ;" " Aloetic pills" of Ed. Ph. ; " Pills
of aloes and allafivtida." (Sec Pills.) " Pills of aloes
and ginger," of the Dub. Ph. are compounded of i oz.
of hepatic aloes, i dr. of cintrer-root in powder, i oz.

Vol. XXXIII ^ ^

of foap, and i dr. of efl'ential oil of peppermint : let the
aloes and ginger be rubbed together to a powder ; then
add the foap and the oil fo as to form a mafs. This is an
ufeful pill, and ufed with advantage for obviating the
habitual coftivenefs of the fedentary, and of Icucophlegmatic
habits. The dofe is from grs. x to grs. xv, or more :—
" Soap plafter." (See Emplastrum Saponis, and Soap
Plaster.) " Cerate of foap," of the Lond. Ph. is com.
pofed of 8 oz. of hard foap, lO oz. of yellow wax, i lb.
of femivitreous oxyd of lead powdered, a pint of olive-oil,
and a gallon of vinegar. Boil the vinegar on the oxyd of
lead over a (low fire, ilirring diligently till they incorporate ;
then add the foap, and boil again in a fimilar manner, until
the moillure be entirely evaporated ; and, lallly, mix with
the oil the wax previoufly melted. This cerate is occa-
fionally ufed as a cooling dreffing. For the " compound
foap liniment" of the Lond. Ph. fee Lini.ment. The
" Tinfture of foap," commonly called " Liniment of foap,"
of the Ed. Ph., is prepared by digefting 4 oz. of foap
fliced in 2 lbs. of alcohol for three days, and then adding
2 oz. of camphor, and i oz. of the volatile oil of rofemary,
frequently (liaking the mixture. Thefe preparations are
ftimulant and anodyne, and may be beneficially applied
againll local pains, and in bruifes, rubbed upon the parts.
" The tinfture of foap and opium" of Ed. Ph., commonly
called " Anodyne liniment," is made in the fame manner,
and from the fame ingredients as the other tinfture of foap,
only adding, at the beginning of the procefs, one ounce of
opium. The addition of the opium to the foap liniment
renders it, in many cafes of rheumatifm and local pains,
more ufeful than the fimple liniment.

The anodyne balfam, commonly called Bates's balfam,
is prepared by digefting two ounces of foap and half an
ounce of opium, in a gentle fand-heat, for three days, with
eighteen ounces of reftificd fpirit of wine, and then adding
fix drachms of camphor and one drachm of oil of rofemary
to the ftrained liquor. This compofition, with the addition
of opium, is fuppofed to be more effeftual for allaying
violent pains than the common opodeldoc : it is alfo given
internally in nervous colics, jaundices, &c.

Soft foap is confiderably more acrid than the hard foap,
and it is, therefore, employed only for fome external pur-
pofes : a mixture of equal parts of our common foft foap
and quicklime is ufed as a mild cauftic. Lewis's Mat.
Med. Thomfon's Lond. Difp.

Soap, Almond. See Sapo Amygdalinus, and Soap,
fupra.

Soap, Ammomacal, a white faponaceous compound,
readily made by fluking any oil with liquid ammonia,
which is much ufed medicinally as a ftimuiating application ;
but the union between thefe two is much weaker than be-
tween the fixed alkalies and oil, fo that this will not harden ;
and by keeping for fome time, the ingredients will partly
feparate. In order to cffcft a more intimate union be-
tween them, muriated ammonia muft be added to common
foap.

S()ap-/.i-«. Sec Lixivium Saponarium.

The term foap-hes is fometimes ufed technically to denote
the " Ipciit ley,''' uhich is pumped out of the vat or ciftcrn,
after the foap has feparated ; and which, being more or lefs
alkaline, is rcfervcd either to be ufed again, or to be eva-
poratcd, fo that the refidue may be calcined for extrafting
the alkali.

Soap, Slariefs, is a combination of fixed vcget.ible al-
kali with f lleutial oil of turpentine. It is fo called from it(
inventor, who combined fait of tartar (carbonate of pot.ifli)
with this oil, and obtained a laponaccout compound, to
E r whicfc

S O A

S O A

which many medicinal virtues have been afcribed. It enters
alfo into the compofition of pills, named alfo from Starkey-
As fixed alkalies are very difficultly made to unite with ef-
fential oils, Starkey found no other expedient for the prepara-
tion of his foap, than time and patience. His method confitts
in putting dry alkali into a matrafs, and pouring upon it
eflential oil of turpentine to a height equal to the breadth of
two or three fingers : in five or fix months part of the alkali
and oil will be thus combined together, and form a foap,
which muft be feparated from the mixture, and more of it
will be afterwards formed in the fame manner. The moll
commodious method, fays Dr. Lewis, of obtaining the com-
bination, is by throwing the fait, red-hot, into a heated
mortar, immediately reducing it to powder ; then pouring
on it, whillf hot, by little at a time, an equal quantity, or'
more, of the oil, and continuing to grind them together, fo
as to form a fmooth foft mafs. Stahl, Rouelle, Beaumc,
&c. have publithed proceil'es for this combination. Mr.
Beaum6 fays, that it may be made in a few hours by tri-
turating, during a long time, alkahne fait upon a porphyry,
and adding to this fait, during the trituration, oil of tur-
pentine. This medicine, which has an acrid alkaline talte,
and is vei-y apt to deliquiate on being expoled to air, was
formerly celebrated, under the denomination of foap of
tartar, univerfal correftor, &c. as a diuretic in nephritic
complaints, and as a correftor of certain vegetables, parti-
cularly of opium : its virtues have not been tuUy determined
by experience, nor does the prefent praftice pay any regard
to it.

Soap, Volatile, is of three kinds, -viz. one corapofed of
fixed alkalies and volatile oils ; another of volatile alkalies and
oils of the grofler or more fixed kind ; and the third, in
which both the alkali and the oil are volatile. Of the firil
kind is Starkey 's foap : thofe of the fecond fort are obtained
more readily. (See Linimentum Volatile, and Epithem
Volatile.) Combinations of the latter kind, in a liquid
form, have been defcribed under Salts ; and compofitions
of the fame kinds may be obtained in a folid fiate, by mixii.g
the fait with the oil, and fubliming them together.

Soap, Laivs relating to. By 17 Geo. III. c. 52. no
perfon, within the limits of the head office of excife i,i Lon-
don, fhall be permitted to make any foap, unlefs he occupy
a tenement of 10/. a year, and be aflelled to, and pay the
parifli rates ; or elfewiiere, unlefs he be adelled to, and pay
to church and poor. By 24 Geo. III. c. 41. and 43
Geo. III. c. 69. every foap-maker fhall annaally take cut
a licence, for which he (hall pay 2/. By 43 Geo. III.
e. 68. fched. (A), certain duties are laid on foap imported,
as therein ttated ; and upon the exportation of foap made
in Great Britain, and which hath paid the duties, the fanre
ftiall be drawn back, by 43 Geo. III. c. 69. lehed. (C):
but no drawback fhall be allowed on the exportation of
foreign foap imported. (27 Geo. II. c. 21.) By 43
Geo. III. c. 69. fched. (A), certain duties are impofed
on foap made in Great Britain ; and certain allowances fhall
be made for foap ufed in the manufadlures of Great Britain,
fched. (C). Places of making are to be entered on pain
of 200/. (10 Ann. c. 19. 47 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 30.) ;
and covers and locks to be provided under a forfeiture of
100/. (5 Geo. III. c. 43. ' 12 Geo. III. c. 40.) The
furnace-door of every utenfil ufed in the manufafture of
foap fnall be locked by the excife officer, as foon as the fiie
is damped or drawn out, and faftenings provided ; and
opening or damaging fuch fattening incurs a penalty of 10c/.
(17 Geo. III. c. 52. 24 Geo. III. c. 48. fell. 2.) Of-
ficers are required to enter and furvey at all times, Ijy day
or night, and the penalty of obftrufting is jo/. ; and they

may unlock and examine every copper, &c. between the
hours of five in the morning and eleven in the evening, and
the penalty of obflrufting is 100/. No foap-maker fhall
have any private pipe or conveyance, on pain of 200/. ; and
the penalty of obdrucling an officer who fearches for it is
loc/. No maker fhall have more than one moveable pump,
on penalty of 5C0/. Every maker of foap, before he be-
gins any making, if within the bills of mortality, fhall give
twelve hours, if elfewhere, twenty-four hours' notice, in
writing, to the officer, of the time when he uitends to begin,
on pain of 100/. No maker fliall remove any foap unlur-
veyed, on pain of 20/., without giving proper notice of his
intention. And if any maker fliall conceal any foap or ma-
terials, he fliall forfeit the fame, and alfo 500/. (i Geo. III.
ilat. 2. c. 36.) And the penalty of privately making foap
is forfeiture of the foap and materials, and loo/. (5Geo. III.
c. 43.) Perfons allilling in making foap privately fhall for-
feit, for the firll offence, 20/. ; for the fecond, 40/. or be
liable to four months' imprilonraent till it be paid.
(47 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 30.) Owners or renters of houfes
where foap fliall be privately made forfeit 200/. Every
barrel of foap fhall contain 256 lbs. avoirdupois, half-barrel
128 lbs., firkin 64 lbs., half-firkin 32 lbs., befides the
weight or tare of each caflc ; and all foap, excepting hard
cake foap and ball foap, fhall be put into fuch calks and no
other, on pain of forfeiture and 5/. (10 Ann. c. 19.
12 Ann. ft. 2. c. 9. ) The maker fhall weekly enter in
writing at the next office the foap made by him in each
week, with the weight and quantity at each boiling, on pain
of 5c/. ; and within one week after entry clear off the duties,
on pain of double duty. (17 Geo. III. c. 52.) Cockets
granted for fliipping foap to be conveyed to any other part
of the kingdom, fhall exprefs thi; quality, quantity, and
weight, the m.ark of the package, by whom made and fold,
and where configned, under penalty of forfeiture and feizure
of the fame and package. (23 Geo. II. c. 21,) No foap
fhall be imported, otherwife than in fomc package, con-
taining at leaft 224 pounds of hard foap, on pain of feizure
and forfeiture, and alfo package ; and the mafter of the
veilel fhall forfeit 50/. If any perfon (hall knowingly har-
bour or conceal any foap, unlawfully imported, or relanded
after fliipping for exportation upon debenture, he fhall
forfeit 50/. for every hundred weight, together with the
goods and package. The maker fhall keep jult fcales and
weights, where he makes his foap, and permit and aflill the
officer to ufe them, on pain of lo/. ( 10 Ann. c. 19.)
And by 10 Geo. III. c. 44. for infufficient fcales and
weights, he fhall forfeit 100/.

S)OAv-y}Jhes, in Agriculture, the refufe of foap-boilers,
fometimes termed foapers' afhes. See Ashes.

Soap Refufe, the compounds of oil, tallow, and other
fubftances, with lime and pot-afh, which are often met with
and ufed as manures. Moft forts of foapy mixtures are
found to have much effeft in promoting vegetation.

Soap-fuds, or the wafhings of this fort which are left
and thrown away from large mills and manufaftories, fuch
as thofe of the filk and other fimilar kinds, are found highly
beneficial as manures themfelves, or for being mixed and
blended up with other matters in this intention. The
farmers, in fome places, collect them by the hogfhead, at
the rate of from 6d. to is-, and mix them up with earthy
materials, fo as to form rich compofls, in confequence of
their containing portions of animal matter, gum, and alkali,
efpecially when taken from filk works. And the common
foap-fuds, which are generally wafted and thrown away, are
faid to have been found of great utility in cold moift mea-
dows ; and would probably be more fo, if employed in com-
bination

S O A

SOB

bination with rich earthy fubftances. All the various refufe
matters of this fort (hould be coUefted, as they are capable
of being ufed in this way with advantage to the farmer.
See Saline Manures.

SoAP-Sione, in Mineralogy, a variety of fteatite. (See
Steatite.) The name is derived from the colour, and the
peculiar unftuous feci, v.-hich refembles that of white foap.
It is fometimes itriped and mottled with veins and fpots of
a dull purple. When firft quarried it is very foft, and
yields to the nail ; but gradually grows harder by expofure
to the air, though it never lofes the foapy feel by which it
is charaAerized. The only part of England where foap-
flone is procured is at the promontory of the Lizard, in
Cornwall: it occurs in veins in ferpentine, to which rock
it fecms nearly allied. A large quantity of this Hone is
ufed in the china manufafture at Worcefter. Its value
arifes from its great infufibility, and its property of pre-
ferving its whitenefs in the furnace. The former it derives
from the abfence of lime, or the alkalies ; the latter from
the abfence of metallic matter, of which a very fmall por-
tion only can be traced by chemical analyfis. The frafture
of foap-ftone is uneven and fplintery ; it is tranflucent in
minute fragments ; it cracks and falls to powder in hot
water.

SoAv-Eart/}, Smyrna. See Flos yf/ia, Natron, and
Saponace.i Terra.

SOAPBERRY-Tri;e, in Botany. See Sapindu.s.

The flcin or pulp of the berries of the foapberry-tree is
ufed as foap : they are of the fize of a mufliet-ball, with
winged leaves, and are ufed in wafhing without any admix-
ture of fait or oil. They perform the office of foap very
well, as to the cleanfing of the linen, but being of a very
acid nature, they rot it in time.

The Negroes in general ufe them for their coarfe apparel,
which bears them much better than the finer linen worn by
the Europeans.

It is faid, that this fruit is a medicine of fingular and
fpecific virtue in chlorofes, and that a tinfture or extraft is
preferable to the berry in fubftance ; whence it may be pre-
fumed, that the foapy matter is didoluble in fpirit. Its
medicinal virtue was firlt publilhed by Marloe, in a letter
to Mr. Boyle ; but it is unknown in prafticc, and in the
(hops. Lewis.

SOAPERS' Waste, in Agriculture, the wafte materials
of foap manufaftories, and of other places where works of
this nature are carried on, which arc ufeful as manure.
Thefe wafte matters have been recommended in this inten-
tion, moltly on the fuppofition, that their effcfts principally
depended upon the different faline matters which they cou-
tained ; but it has been found, that the quantity of fuch
fubftances in them is very fmall indeed, and that it prin-
cipally confitts of mild lime and quicklime. It is faid that
lime, when made wet with falt-water, yields more of this
wallc than in other cafes, and is capable of being employed
as manure, in certain cafes, with greater benefit than that
of lime in its ordinary ftate. Thi'i is a material which -is
very cxtenfivtly made ufe of in fome diftrifts.

SOAPEY Rock, in Geography, a rock in the Englifh
Channel, clofe to the Cornifh coaft ; 4 miles N.W. of
Lizard Point.

SOAPWORT, in Botany, &c. See Sai'Onakia.

SOAR, or Sour, anciently Leire, in Geography, a river
of England, which rifes about five miles from Lutterworth,
pafTes by Leicefter, &c. and runs into the Trent on the
borders of Nottinghamfliirc, about three miles N.N.E, of
Kegworth,

Soar, a fort of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 23 miles N. of
Durbunga. N. lat. 26° 30'. E. long. 86^ 5'.

StOAU-Haivt. See Falcon.

SOAR A, in Ancient Geography, a river of India, on this
fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy.

SOASTUS, a river of India, which ran into the Cephas,
according to Arrian.

SOATRLS, a town of Lower Mccfia, upon the Euxine
fea, between Marcianopolis and Anchiale, according to the
Itinerary of Antouine.

SOATTO. See Soaggio.

SOAVE, Ital. was a muficalterm, formerly, for finging
or playing in a fweet and pleafing manner ; but dolce has
long fupplied its place ; which fee.

SOAVO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Vero-
nefe ; 10 miles E. of Verona.

SOAY, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Sutherlandfhire,
near the entrance of Loch Inver. It affords good pafturage
for fheep. N. lat. 56^ 29'. W. long. 6° 27'.

SOB, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Oby ; 32
miles S.W. of Obdoril<oi.

SOBALA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Caria. Steph. Byz.

SOBALASSARA, a town of India, on this fide of
the Ganges, which Ptolemy attributes to the Cafpiraei.

SOBANNUS, a river of India, on this fide of the
Ganges, the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy betweea
Pagrafa and Pithonobafte.

SOBATZ, in Geography, a town of Sclavonia, on the
river Save ; 30 miles W.S.W. of Belgrade.

SOBERNHEIM, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 10 miles W.S.W. of
Creutznach. N. lat. 49° 45'. E. long. 7° 45'.

SOBHA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a perfonification of
beauty, and the name of a nymph celebrated in the annals
of the Eaft for her amours with Krijhna ; which fee. See
alfo Radha, for the tranflation of a paiTage wherein fhe
is mentioned.

SOBIESKI's Shield, in Agronomy. See Scutum
Soiiefii.

SOBIESKY, in Biography. See John, king of Po-
land.

SOBIESLAU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Bcchin ; 10 miles E. of Bechin. N. lat.
49° 18'. E. long. 14° 34'.

SOBINKA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bo-
leflau ; 5 miles S.W. of Jung Buntzel.

SOBOTALE, in Ancie/it Geography, a town of Arabia
Felix, which, according to Pliny, was the capital of the
Atramites.

SOBOTKA, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflau ; 1 1 miles E.S.E. of Jung Buntzel. N.
lat. 50" 24'. E. long, ij^ii'.

SOBRADA, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 9 mile*
E.S.E. of Lugo.

SOBRADILLO, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; 24 miles N.N.W. of Civdad Rodrigo.

SOBRALIA, in Botany, a genus dedicated, in the
Flora Peruviana, p. 109, to the honour of Don Francis
Martin Sobral, a diftinguidied Spanilh botanift. Dt
Theis.

SOBRARVA, in Geography, a diftrift and principality
of Spain, included in Aragon, W. of Ribagorga, anciently
a fmall kingdom.

SOBRE BITENA, a name given by the Spaniard* in
America to a fpecies of vanilla, which i8 greatly fuperior
tP all the other kinds,

E e 2 The

s o c

The pods of this are of the fame (hape with thofe of the
common vaniUa, but are nearly twice as large. A bundle
of about fifty of thefe ufually weighs five ounces, and luch
a bundle of the fobre buena kind often weighs eight.
Thefe are full of a blackilh balfamic liquor, in which are
contained a number of fmall feeds

s o c

and that, in reference to its original, it ttill retains the name
of focage, or plough-fervice. But this by no means agrees
with what Littleton himfelf tells us, that to hold by fealty
only, without paying any rent, is tenure in focage ; for
here is plainly no commutation for plough-fervice. Befides,
even fervices, confeffedly of a military nature and original.

SOBREYRA, in Botany, a genus named in honour of the inllant they were reduced to a certainty, changed both
hn Sobreyra, a Spanilh monk and a naturahft. De their name and nature, and were called focage. It was the
nil oouicjin, u Y certainty, therefore, that denominated it a focage-tenure ;

John

SOC, SoK, or Soka, in Ltfui, denotes jurifdidion ; or
a power or privilege to adminifter juftice, and execute

laws.

The word is alfo ufed for the (hire, circuit, or territory,
in which fuch power is exercifed by him endued with futh
jurifdiftion.

Hence, alfo, the law Latin foca, ufed for a leignory or
lordfhip infraiichifed by the king, with liberty of holding a
court of \\K foe-men or focagen, that is, his tenants ; whofe
tenure is hence called yifaf^.

This kind of liberty ftill fubfifts in feveral parts of Eng-
land, under the name oi foke or foken. Skene defines /oc
to be, feaa de homlnlbus fuis in curia fecundum confuetudmem
regnl. Brady makes mention of thefe liberties: foc,fac, tol,
team, infangthef, and ulfangthef.

In the laws of Henry I. Joea is alfo ufed as fynonimous
with franchife, for a privileged place, refuge, afylum, or
fanftuary, &c. from the Saxon /ocn, ox focne.

SOCAGE, or SoccAGE, in its moft extenfive fignifica-
tion, feems to denote a tenure by any certain and deter-
minate fervice. And thus, our ancient writers conltantly
put it in oppofition to chivalry, or knight-fervice, where
the render was uncertain.

Thus Brafton, if a man holds by a rent in money, with-
out any efcuage or ferjeanty, id tenementum did potejl foca-
gium. Littleton alfo defines it to be, where the tenant

holds his tenement of the lord by any certain fervice in ■ , '. i, i .i j" f i, ij- <• i j

lieu of all other fervices, fo that they be not fervices of therefore, include all o her methods of holding free-lands
chivalry, or knight-fervice: therefore, he tells us, that
whatfoever is not tenure of chivalry is tenure in focage.
The fervice mull therefore be certain, in order to denomi-
nate it focage ; as to hold by fealty and 20x. rent ; or by
homage, fealty, and 20s. rent ; or by homage and fealty,
■without rent ; or by fealty and certain corporal fervices,
as ploughing the lord's land for three days ; or by feaUy
only, without any other fervice ; for all thefe are tenures
in focage.

Socage is of two forts ; -viz. free focage, where the fer-
vices are not only certain but honourable ; and villein focage,
■where the fervices, though certain, are of a bafer nature.

See ViLLENAGE.

Such as hold by the former tenure are called, in Glanvil,
and other fubfequent authors, by the name of Itberi foke-

certatnty, tlieretore, that denominated it a locage-
and nothing furely could be a greater liberty or privilege,
than to have the fervice afcertained, and not left to the
arbitrary calls of the lord, as in the tenure of chivalry.
Wherefore alfo Britton, who defcribes focage-tenure under
the name oi fraunke ferme, tells us, that they are lands and
tenements, of which the nature of the fee is changed by
feoffment out of chivalry for certain yearly fervices, and in
refpedf of which, neither homage, ward, marriage, nor re-
lief, can be demanded. Moreover, if focage-tenures were
of fuch bafe and fervile original, it is hard to account for
the very great immunities, which the tenants of them al-
ways enjoyed ; fo highly fuperior to thofe of the tenants
by chivalr)', that it was thought, in the reigns of both Ed-
ward I. and Charles II. a point of the utmoft importance
and value to the tenants, to reduce the tenants by knight-
fervice to fraunke ferme, or tenure by focage. It feems
probable, therefore, that the focage-tenures were the relics
of Saxon liberty, retained by fuch perfons as had neither
forfeited them to the king, nor been obliged to exchange
their tenure for the more honourable, as it was called, but
at the fame time more burthenfome tenure of knight-fervice.
This is pecuharly remarkable in the tenure called gavel-
kind, which is generally acknowledged to be a fpecies of
focage-tenure ; the prefervation of which inviolate from the
innovations of the Norman conqueror, is a faft univerfally
known. And thofe who thus preferred their liberties were
faid to hold in free and common focage. This tenure will.

or tenants in free focage. This, in the nature of foe-men

by certain and invariable rents and duties ; and, in parti-
cular, petit ferjeanty, tenure in burgage, and gavel-kind.
Blackft. Comm. book ii. cap. 6. Lord Littleton's Hill, of
Hen. II. vol. iii. p. 158. 8vo.

Skene defines focage, a tenure of lands, by which a man
is infeoffed freely, without wardfhip and marriage, paying
to his lord fome fmall rents, &c. which is calledyj-^^ focage,
&c. Several divifions of focage are met with in law-writers,
M focage in capite, &c. But by llat. 12 Car. II. it is or-
dained, that all tenures from and after the 24th of Fe-
bruary, 1645, lliall be adjudged and taken for ever, to be
turned into free and common focage.

Socage, Guardian in. See GuARDIAN.

SOCAGERS, in our Old Writers, fuch tenants as held
by the tenure called focage. They were otherwife called

its fervice, and the fruits and confequences appertaining to
it, was always much the moll free and independent fpecies
of any. On this account, the learned judge Blackllone
affents to Mr. Somner'S etymology of the word ; who de-
rives it from the Saxon appellation yoc, which fi^nxfies liberty
or privilege, and, being joined to a ufual termination, is
cAXeA focage, fignifying by it a free or privileged tenure.
This etymology, he fays, feems to be much more ju!t than
that of our common lawyers in general, who derive it from
foca, a plough ; becaufe in ancient time their focage-tenure
confifted in nothing elfe, but fervices of hufbandry, which
the tenant was bound to do to his lord, as to plough, fow,
or reap for him ; but that in procefs of time, this fervice
was changed into an annual reut by confent of all parties,

SOCANDAGO, in Geography. See Sagendago.

SOCCELLI, among the Romans, were fwaths or bands,
which covered the leg down to the foccus.

SOCCUS, Sock, in Antiquity, a kind of high fhoe,
reaching above the ankle, worn by the aftors in the an-
cient drama, in the reprefentation of comic characters.

The loccus was much lower than the cothurnus, and
was the diftinguifhing wear of the comedians ; as the co-
thurnus was of the tragedians; hence foccus is frequently
ufed for comedy itfclf. Comedy, fays M. Fenelon, mult
talk in a humbler llyle than tragedy ; the fock is lower
than the buflcin.

S0CCU6, in Botany. See Artocarfus.

SOCERGA,

s o c

s o c

SOCERGA, in Geography, a town of Iftria ; 7 miles
S.E. of Capo d'lftria.

SOCHAN. See Zachan.

SOCHATSCHOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
30 miles N. of Rava.

SOCHIAVO, a town of Italy, in the Bellunefe ; 5
miles W. of Belluno.

SOCHOS, in ylnclent Geography, a town of Afia, in
Syria, fituated on the bank of the river Singas, in the
fouthern part of the town of Samofata.

SOCIAL Wak. in Roman Hijiory, commenced A.U.C.
663, on the following occafion. M. Livius Drufus, tribune
of the people, influenced by a view to the public welfare,
formed a fcheme to reconcile all orders of men, and put an
end to all difcontents, which he forefaw would in procefs of
time, if not removed, produce a general infurreftion. With
this view he propofed a law for invefting the Italian allies
with all the privileges of Roman citizens. They remon-
ftrated that they paid confiderable taxes ; that, in time of
war, their countries raifed double the number of forces that
were raifed in Rome ; that the commonwealth owed greatly
t' ) their valour that prodigious power which flie had acquired ;
and that it was but jull they (hould (hare the honour of a
ftate, which they had , helped to aggrandize both with
their arms and treafures. But this law of Drufus in their
favour was oppofed with great violence, not only by the
fenators and knights, but even by the people, who could not
b^-ar the thoughts of making thofe their fellow-citizens,
whom they looked upon as their fubjefta. In the mean time
the Italian allies flocked to Rome from all parts to fupport
their protedlor, and determined to efi^ect by force what they
could not gain by favour. The death of Drufus, who was
balely aflailinated for attempting to procure for them the
right of citizenftiip, provoked the allies to fuch a degree,
that they recurred to arms, in order to do themlelvcs juf-
tice. The Marfi, Peligni, Samnites, Campanians, and Luca-
nians, and in Ihort all the provinces from the Liris to the
Adriatic, revolted at once. Rome had never engaged more
formidable enemies. As they had all ferved in the fame
armies of the republic, they were as well difciplined as
her legions, and their leaders had learned the art of war
under her molt famous commanders. It is faid of the Marfi
in particular, that Rome had never gained a viftory in which
they had not a great fliare. The firil llep they took in
their revolt, was to ereft themfelves into a republic in oppo-
fition to that of Rome. After many alternate fuccelfes and
defeats, the conful, Julius Caefar, defirous to put an end to
the war, drew up a law, which was confirmed by the fenate,
and enafted, that all the nations in Italy, whofe alliance with
Rome was indifputable, fliould enjoy the rights of Roman
citizens. This law, called the Julian law, much abated the
ardour of the enemy, and drew off fcveral nations from the
confederacy. The tribune, M. I'lautius Sylvanus, in con-
junftion with Caius Papirius Carbo, one of his colleagues,
put the laft hand to the Julian law in favour of the allies,
and got it confirmed by the people, and publiflied in the fol-
lowing words : all the citizens of the allied cities, who fiiall
be in Italy at the time of the promulgation of this law, Ihall
be deemed citizens of Rome, provjded they regifter their
names with one of the three prsetors within fixty days. This
brought the Italians to Rome in fuch numbers, that the new
citizens became more numerous than the old ; but, left this
fhould make itrangers matters of the elections, and confc-
quently of the republic, the cenlors did not incorporate them
in the thirty-five Roman tribes, but formed them into new
tribes, who were to vote lall. By this means all matters
were determined by a majority of voices, before the new

8

tribes gave their fuffrages. The allies were fenfible of this
artifice, but difl'embled their diffatisfaftien, being refolved,
when an opportunity offered, to put themfelves upon a
level with the old inhabitants of Rome. The tribune, Sul-
picius, propofed a law, that all the inhabitants of Italy, who
had lately obtained the right of citizenlhip, (hould be in-
corporated into thirty-five tribes, and confequently have
the fame right of voting, each in his tribe, as others had,
without any dillinftion, and got it pafled. But when
Sylla prevailed, all the laws of Sulpicius were declared void
and null.

SOCIETY, SociETAS, an aflTemblage or union of feveral
perfons in the fame place, for their mutual alfiftance, fecurity,
intcreit, or entertainment.

Societies of men united together to procure their mutual
lafety and advantage, by means of their union compofe na-
tions or dates. Men are led to aflociate for this purpofe by
the afFedlions and inltinfts implanted in their nature, and by
the wants and weaknefTes infeparable from the conltitution
of both their bodies and minds, and from the condition they
are appointed to occupy. They alfo poflefs the faculties
of reafon and of fpeech, which render them capable of
mutual intercourfe for their mutual advantage. Hence we
may deduce that natural fociety which is eftabliflied among
mankind ; and the general law of this fociety is, that each
(hould do for others whatever their neceflities require, and
they are capable of doing, without neglefting what they owe
to themfelves. This law ought to be obferved by all the indi-
viduals of the human race, in order to live agreeably to their
nature, and in conformity to the defign of their common
Creator : nor can it be neglefted or violated, confiftently
with a due regard to our own fafety and happinefs.

Thus we fee that the univerfal fociety of the human race
is an inititutian of nature, and that it necell'arily refults from
the nature of man : and, therefore, all men, whatfoever be
their (lation, are obliged to cultivate and difcharge its du-
ties. They cannot difpenfe with it by any convention or
private afTociation. When they unite in civil fociety, in order
to form a feparate ftate, or nation, they may juftly enter into
particular engagements, towards thofe with whom they
aftociate ; but they are ftill under the obligation of perform-
ing their duty to the reft of the human fpecies.

As the end of the natural fociety ettabliflicd between
all mankind is that of their affording afTiftance towards
their own perfeftion, as well as that of the ftate ; and as the
nations, confidered as fo many free perfons who live together
in a ftate of nature, are obhged to cultivate between each
other this intercourfe of humanity ; the end of the great
fociety citabliflied by nature between all nations is alio a
mutual cifhftance for the improvement of thcmlelves and their
ftate. Accordingly, the firft general law which the very
end of the fociety of nations dilcovers, is, that eacii nation
ought to contribute all in its power to the happinefs and
pertedtion of others : but the duties which we owe to our-
felves having a claim in our preference to thofe which arc
incumbent upon us with refpcft to others, a nation ought,
in the firft place, to do whatever it can to promote its own
happinefs and perfedtion. Moreover, as nations are free and
independent of each other, in the fame manner as men arc
naturally free and independent, the fecond gencr.l law of
their iociety is, that fncli nation ought to be left in the
peaceable enjoyment of that liberty which it has derived
from nature. From this liberty and independence it fol-
I0W.1, that every nation is to judge of what its confcience
demands, of what it can or cannot do, of what is proper or
improper to be done ; and, confequently, to examine and
determine whether it can perform any office for another,

without

SOCIETY.

without being wanting in what it owes to itfelf. Since men
are naturally equal, and their rights and obligations are the
fame, as equally proceeding from nature, nations compofed
of men confidered as fo many free perfons, living together
in a ftate of nature, are naturally equal, and receive from
nature the fame obligations and rights ; and hence we con-
clude, that what is permitted to one nation is permitted to
all, and what is not permitted to one is not permitted to any
other. The effeft of all this is the producing, at lead ex-
ternally, and among men, a perfetl equality of rights be-
tween nations, in the adminiftration of their affairs, and the
purfuit of their pretenfions, without regard to the intrinfic
juilice of their condudl, of which others have no right to
form a definitive judgment ; fo that what is permitted in
one is alfo permitted in the other ; and they ought to
be confidered in human fociety as having an equal right.
It is, therefore, neaeflary, on many occafions, that nations
fhould fuifer certain things to be done that are very unjuft
and blameable in their own nature, becaufe they cannot op-
pofe it by open force, without violating the liberty of fome
particular itate, and dellroying the foundation of natural
iociety. The rules that flow from this principle form what
Mr. Wolff calls " the voluntary law of nations." Hence
it follows, that all nations have a right to repel by force
whst openly violates the law of the fociety which nature has
ellablifhed among them, or that direftly attacks the welfare
and fafety of that fociety. At the fame time, care mull be
taken not to extend this law to the prejudice of the liberty
of nations. The general and common law of nations, with
refpeft to the conduft of all fovereign Itates, ought to be
meafured by the end of the aflociation that fubfifls between
them. The feveral engagements into which nations may
enter produce a new head of the law of nations, called " con-
ventional," or " of treaties." Befides, certain maxims, and
cuftoms confecrated by long ufe, and obferved by nations
between each other as a kind of law, form the " cuftomary
law of nations," or, " the cullom of nations." Thefe three
kinds of the law of nations, "voluntary," "conventional,"
and " cuitomary," together compofe the " pofitive law of
nations." For they all proceed from the vohtion of na-
tions ; the " voluntary law," from their prefumed confent ;
the " conventional law," from an exprefs covenant ; and the
" cuitomary law," from a tacit confent. See Law of Na-
tieus, State, and Government.

Of focieties we have a g-reat many kinds, dillinguifhed by
the different ends propofed by them : civi/ focieties, trading
focieties , religious focieties, literary focieties, &c.

Society, in Trade, is a contraft or agreement between
two or more perfons, by which they bind themfelves together
for a certain time, and agree to fhare equally in the profits
or lodes which fliall accrue in the affairs for which the fo-
ciety or copartnerfhip is contratted.

We have feveral very confiderable focieties of this kind ;
as the Merchant Adventurers, the Turkey, Eall India,
Mufcovy, Eaftland, Greenland, Spanifh, African, South
Sea, and Hudfon's Bay, companies : the in'titutions, po-
licies, &c. of whifh, fee under the article Company.

By the Roman law, the focial contraA needs no other
folemnity but the fole confent of parties, without any writing
at all ; but among us, articles of copartnerfhip are required.
There is no contratl in which probity is more required than
in fociety ; infomuch as the laws pronounce thofe nuU that
are made contrary to equity, and with defign to deceive.

The French diltinguifh three kinds of mercantile fociety ;
ordinary fociety, called alfo colleHive and general ; fociety in
commendam or coinmandity ; and anonymous fociety, called alfo
momentary and inconnue. 2

The fird is, where feveral merchants aft alike in the affairs
of the fociety, and do all under their coUeftive names, which
are public, and known to every body.

Society in commendam, &c. is that between two perfons,
one of whom only puts his money into flock, without doing
any other office of a copartner ; the other, who is called
the complementary of the fociety, difpatching all the bufinefs
under his own name.

Anonymous fociety, is that where all the membere are em-
ployed, each particularly in the common interefl, and each
is accountable for profits, &c. to the reil, but without the
public's being informed of them ; fo that the feller has only
an aftion againil the particular buyer, no other name ap-
pearing.

It is alfo called momentary, becaufe frequently made on
particular occafions, and ceafing with them : as in the
making a purchafe, felling any commodity, &c.

Of this they diftingiufh four kinds : fociety by participation,
which is ufually formed by letters from one city to another,
where a merchandize is to be bought or fold. The fecoiid
is, when two or three perfons go together to fairs to buy
goods. The third, when two or three perfons agree to buy
up the whole of fome commodity in any country to fell it
again at their own price. And the fourth is, when three or
four perfons make a journey together to buy and fell the
fame commodity. Befide merchants, people of quality, &c.
are admitted into thefe anonymous focieties.

Societies, Religious, are parties of perfons formed either
to live regularly together, or to promote the interefl of
religion, or to cultivate it in themfelves.

Of the firfl kind are all congregations of religious ; par-
ticularly the Jefuits (fee Jesuits;, who are called the fo-
ciety of Jefus ; though they more ufually call themfelves
the company of Jefus ; the fociety of the Sorbonne ; the
fociety of St. Thomas de Villencuve, inilituted in 1660, by
F. Ange le Prouft ; the fociety of St. Jofeph, inflituted m
1638 ; the fociety of Bretagne, a reform of Benediftines, in
1606; and the fociety of Jefus, a religious military order,
inflituted by Pius II. ; the fociety of the Cord. See CoRD.

Of the fecond kind are, the

Society' for the Reformation of Manners, and putting in
execution the laws againft immorality and prophanenefs. A
fociety of this kind was fet on foot about the time of the
Revolution, by five or fix private perfons in London, and
was afterwards exceedingly increafed by a number of mera.
bers of all denominations.

Societies for this purpofe have been occafionally eflablifil-
ed, not only in London, but in other principal towns, in a
later period.

Societies, Friendly. See Friendly Societies.

Societies, Friendly, in reference to Agriculture, fuch as
are eftablilhed for the purpofe of relieving the labouring
clafles during the periods of ficknefs, or when incapable of
working. Many focieties of this nature have been formed
in different parts of the kingdom within thefe few years,
with much fuccefs. And it has been remarked by Mr.
Curwen, that to encourage the people to provide means of
fupport for themfelves, in cafes of ficknefs and misfortune,
is highly defirable, both as to the cffetl it produces in
making them more refpeftable members of the community,
and in exempting parifhes from the molt enormous weio-ht of
poor rates.

On this fubjeft it has been fuggelted by a late writer,
after obferving that fuch ellabhlliments would certainly be
attended with very beneficial confequences, that it might be
highly proper to frame a law, whereby labourers of all de-
icriptions fhould be compelled to aflign a portion of the fruitt

of

SOCIETY.

of tlieir labour, during tlie time of their health and ftrength,
for the eftablifhing of a fund for their relief when overtaken
by misfortunes. The forming of provident focietics or clubs,
by which, during the time the members are in health and
the vigour of life, they may, by fmall conftant weekly pay-
ments, make a fuitable provifion, from the produce of their
own induftry, againll the period when ficknefs, misfortune,
old age, or infirmity may reach them, is, he thinks, a mea-
fiire which, the more it is known, the more it will meet
with the approbation of the public. And though, by fome,
fiich focieties may be thought very remotely, if at all, con-
nected witli the fubjeft of agriculture ; to the more intel-
ligent, the bell means of providing for the induftrious pea-
fantry, whofe ' rough laborious hand' allows the wealthy
to live in indolence and eafe, will always be an interelting
fubjeft. The more fo it mull prove, as the fuggefling of
proper meafures for that effetl, if attended to, will infallibly
remove, in a great degree, the load of poor rates, which
hangs like a mill-done about the neck of the Englifh farmer;
a load which, if effectual meafures be not in a (hort time
adopted to remove, mult neceffarily be attended with con-
fequences of the moll alarming nature, as its weight is in-
creafing with fuch rapidity, that in a few years it mull be-
come altogether infupportable.

And it has been well remarked by Dr. Anderfon, that
friendly focieties, voluntarily entered into by the induftrious
[loor, have relieved many a worthy charadter in the time of
t!i,-ir ficknefs, infirmities, misfortunes, and old age, in a
more umple and comfortable manner than they would have
been provided for by the parilh levies. Why, he alks, may
not all the poorer fort in tiieir youth be compelled to pro-
■- :.Ie, out of their induftry, for their old age and infirmities?
A\'hy may not the poor of every parifh be by law created
into friendly focieties ? Suppofe the mafler of every fervant
and labourer was obliged to retain, out of the wages of
each, three-pence a- week, and pay the fame in the refpec-
tive names of fuch fervants and labourers into the parifh
flock. When a fervant or labourer removes from one parilh
to another, he might be entitled to a certificate from the
parifli he leaves, where he has drawn no pay ot the amount
of the fum total he has contributed ; and when he has gained
a fettlement in another parifh, that parifh might be entitled
to draw on the firll for tlie money the pauper has paid ; fo
that every man may draw his fortune after him, which may
prevent many a litigation refpeciing the fettlement of the
poor, and be a great fpur to induflry.

In the rural economy of the well of England, it has been
ftated by Mr. Mariltall, that feveral of thefe valuable infli-
tutions have exifled in Devondiire for about thirty years ;
and that their good effects are fo evident, that the encou-
ragement of them ought to become a national objeCl of the
firll magnitude ; not more with a view to leflen the prefent
heavy burdens of tlie poor rates, than to inllil into the
lower clafles of fociety a principle of frugality, and a fenfe
of focial duties, which thefe meetings, under fuitable regu-
lations, cannot fail of producing.

The following is the plan laid down by Mr. Pew, who
has paid much attention to the fubject, and who ob-
ferves, that if the colleftion of a fmall but voluntary tax
upon the fober and indultrious citizen, for his own ufe wlicn
in dillrefs, be in fome degree benulicial, he conceives that
the colleftion of a ftill fmaller, though compulfory, tax
upon all ranks of men, the idle, the improvident, and the
irrcfolute, as well as the indullrious citizen, for the fame
purpofe, would be a meafurc as much more beneficial as it
is more extcnlive. This he conceives to be capable of
being effeCled iii this way. i. That a proper ofBccr be

appointed for fuch an extent of didrifl as he may be fup-
pofed conveniently to fuperintend, to take a lift of the
names and places of abode of all males and females above
the age of feventeen years, in the fame manner as the lift is
made out for the militia. 2. That every fuch male pay
two-pence per week, and every fuch female three farthings
or one penny per week, into the hands of the above officer,
for the purpofes hereafter to be fpecified. a. That the
above officer fhall be empowered to furnifh employment for
all fuch as are wilhng to work, and who cannot rind it for
themfelves. Whether this officer fhnuld be chofen annually
in rotation, after the maimer of an overfeer, or whether he
fhould be a permanent officer upon an adequate falary, will
be a matter of future confidcration ; but if the latter, he
fhould be paid by the community and not out of the fund.
4. That all the poor being thus fore of em.ployment, the
mailer or miflrefs for whom they work fhould be juflilied in
retaining thefe fums refpeftively out of their wages ; and
whether they do fo or not, they fhould (in default of the
individual) be anfwerable to the officer for its payment.
All mailers and miflrefl'cs of families fhould in like manner
be anfwerable for their fervants ; and all keepers of lodg-
ings,' &c. for their inmates. 5. That thefe fums fhould be
carried weekly to the general treafurer of the diviflon, who
fhould give fufficient fecurity for the fame. 6. That out
of this fund every male who is really incapable of labour,
Ihould {by virtue of a certificate from the above officer) have
a right to demand from the treafurer five fhillings per week
for the firfl fix months, fhould his illnefs lall fo long, and
four fhillings ^;r week after that period, until he again be-
come capable of labour. And that every female fhould
have a right to demand two fhillings and fix-pence /xr week
for the firll fix months, and afterwards two fhillings per
week, until (he be again able to work : Ihe fhould alfo be
entitled to four weeks full pay at every lying-in. Every
male above the age of fixty-rive years, whether capable of
labour or not, fhould be entitled to four fhillings ^rr week
during life. Every female, after the fame age, two fhil-
lings. 7. Any perfon having three children under nine
years of age, fhould be entitled to one fhilling and fix-pence
per week, until the cldefl fhould have attained the age of
nine years ; and if he has more than three under that age,
he fhould be entitled to one fhilling and fix-pence ^vr week
for each above tiiat number ; and if any one or more of his
children fhould happen to be idiotic, inlane, or othcrwife fo
far difabled, either in body or mind, as to be utterly in-
capable of labour, each of them fhould flill be confidercd
as under the age of nine years, and paid for accordingly.

If a mother fhould be left a widon-, with three children
under nine years of age, fhe fhould be entitled to receive
five fliilliiigs ; if with two children, three fhillings ; and if
with one child, one fhilling and fix-pence /i.-r week ; if with
more than three under that age, one lliilling per week for
each above that number ; it being admitted that all her time
is taken up bv three, and allowance made for it, but that
Ihe is capable of looking after, and taking care of, a greater
number. The wives of men ierving in the militia, and in
tlie army or navy, fhould, during tlie abfence of llieir huf-
bands, be confidered and provided for in all lefpeds as
widows.

If a child fllould be left an orphan, under nine years of
age, two fhillings per week fltould be allowed from the fund
for its maintenance ; if more than one of the fame family,
one fhilling and fix-pence per week for each above that
number. As there is probably no lefs frieiidlliip amongfl
tlie lower than amongfl the higher orders of lociety, it
would generally happen that fome friend or relation of the

dcceafed

SOCIETY.

deceaied would gladly take charge of the children, provided
they could do fo without effential loi's to themfelves. This
regulation would effeftually prevent that lofs ; and to com-
penfate in fome degree for the want of parental affeftion,
iix-pence per week more is allowed for the maintenance of
an orphan, or a family of orphans, than for a child, or a
family of children, who ftill retain their mother. If, how-
ever, any beings fhould be fo uncommonly unfortunate as
not to be thus adopted, the ofScer above-mentioned (hould
be obliged to provide a receptacle for them, which he will
always be able to do for the fum or fums above-mentioned.
8. All children above nine years of age, if in health, fhould,
if they have no parents, or their parents are not able to
provide for them, be put out after the manner of parifti ap-
prentices. 9. All perfons neglefting or refufmg to pay
their contribution, (hould be committed to the houfe of

correftion for the fpace of . 10. If the fund

fhould at any time fall fhort of the nccefiary demands upon
it, the deficiency fhould be made up by a parifh rate, col-
lefted in the fame manner as at prefent ; but without any
fenfe of obligation on the part of the multitude, (for there
would be no poor,) who fliould, in all cafes, receive their
relief in the nature of a demand. 11. If the fund (as mofl
probably would happen) fhould increafe beyond the necef-
fary demands upon it, the furplus (hould, on no occafion,
be diverted to any other purpofe than the benefit of the
fubfcribers ; but when the price of grain exceeded that
which brings it cafily within the reach of the multitude
(fuppofe fix fhillings or fix fhillings and fix-pence the Win-
cheiler bufhel), every perfon who had three children or more
under nine years of age, fhould have a right to demand fuch
a fum as, in proportion to the number of his family, would
reduce the various neceffary articles of life (taking wheat as
the ftandard) to a moderate price ; and, indeed, he thinks,
in all cafes, when the price of grain exceeds that propor-
tion at which the induftrious labourer can afford to come to
market, found policy, as well as common humanity, requires
that all large families (hould be entitled to receive fuch a fum
as above fpecified, although it fhould be neceffary to coUett
a rate for the purpofe.

He need not perhaps add, that every officer intrufted
with money (hould give ample fecurity for his integrity, and
the faithful difcharge of his duty ; that due checks (hould
be e(tabh(hed to prevent embezzlement ; and that all ac-
counts fliould be made up and balanced fo frequently as to
prevent the probability of miftakes. And ftill more effec-
tually to fecure the complete execution of the plan, it would
perhaps be necefiary to appoint a general infpeftor of the
funds, who, with the affiftance of a few fubordinate officers,
would probably be able to attend the whole kingdom.

And it is fuppofed by Mr. Donaldfon, that if this plan
was carried into execution by the legifiature, it muft in its
confequences promote eflentially the well-being of the great
body of the people, as well as the interells of thofe con-
cerned in the commerce, manufaftures, and agriculture of
the country. But though the eftablifhment of friendly or
provident focieties has, in numerous inftances, been found
produftive of the moft falutary effefts ; and would, if well
fupported and countenanced in every part of the kingdom
by the contributions of the rich proprietors, render com-
pulfory afts of parhament unnecedary ; yet as fuch a
mode, however defirable, could probably never be generally
adopted, it would certainly be the mofl efTeftual method to
have an act of parhament for the purpofe framed on the
above principles : without this or fome fimilar regulation,
fuch focieties will probably never, he thinks, become fuf-
ficiently general to fully anfwer the intention. The great

beneficial effefts that have refulted from thefe focieties, ii
thofe inflances in which they have been eftablifhed in parilhes,
have been fhewn in various flatements of them, and fhould
promote their adoption in others, which may eafily be done
by the principal proprietors in fuch places taking the lead
in forwarding fuch inflitutions. In the ufe of all fuch re-
gulations, or thofe of any other fimilar kinds, they fhould
conflantly be brought forward and well adapted to the
ftates, conditions, and circumflances of the fituations, places,
and times, in which, and at which, they are employed, in
order that the beft effefts may be produced from them.

Society for propagating the Go/pel in foreign Parts was
inflituted by king William III. in 1701, for fecuring a
maintenance for an orthodox clergy, and making other pro-
vifions for the propagation of the gofpel in the plantations,
colonies, faftories, &c. : to that end he incorporated the
archbifhops, feveral bi(hops, and others of the nobility,
gentry, and clergy, to the number of ninety, into a body,
with privilege to purchafe two thoufand pounds a-year in-
heritance, and eftates for lives or years, with other goods,
to any value.

They are direfted by their charter to meet yearly, on the
third Friday in February, to choofe a prefident, vice-prefi-
dent, and other officers ; and the third Friday in every
month, to tranfaft bufinefs, depute fit perfons to take fub-
fcriptions for the faid ufes, and of all monies fo received to
give account to the lord chancellor, &c. Of this fociety
there is a Handing committee at St. Paul's Chapter-houfe,
who prepare matters for the monthly meeting, which is held
at St. Martin's library. They are truflees of Codrington
college, in Barbadoes, fupported by plantations in that
ifland.

Society for promoting Chrijiian Knotuledge was begun in
1699, by fome perfons of worth, &c. Its original defign
was to propagate religion in the plantations, to fecure the
pious education of the poor at home, and to reclaim thofe
that err in the fundamentals of Chriflianity.

In the year 1 70 1 , they had procured confiderable chari-
ties, and had tranfmitted the fame to the plantations, in
libraries, bibles, catechifms, &c. with a voluntary main-
tenance for the feveral miniilers to be employed in the
plantations. But the fociety for propagating the gofpel in
foreign parts being then inftituted, they were incorporated,
by charter, into the fame : and thus difcharged, as a par-
ticular fociety, from the farther purfuit of that branch of
their original defign, which comprehended the appointment
and payment of miffionaries, as well as the diftribution of
books ; whereupon they wholly turned themfelves to the
other, and became very confiderable, by great acceflions
from among the clergy and laity.

The members of the fociety for promoting Chriflian
knowledge meet weekly, at the fociety's office in Bartlett's
Buildings, Holborn, to concert meafures for raifing charity
for the education of poor children, and fetting up fchools
for that purpofe ; as alfo for the more regular difpofal of
pious books and catechifms, for inftruftion of the ignorant,
erroneous, &c. By the affiftance of members of other re-
ligious focieties, they have procured fubfcriptions for the
education of above three thoufand children, who are placed
out in fchools about London, and taught reading, writing,
pfalmody, &c. They have difperfed great numbers of books
among the poor, in the fleet, army, &c. and have procured
feveral to be tranflated into Welfh, and other foreign lan-
guages, and difperfed accordingly. This fociety for pro-
moting Chriftian knowledge is fupported exclufively by
members of the church of England. They have three trea-

furerst

SOCIETY.

furers, a fecretary, an afliftant, a clerk and coUeftor, with
two afliltants.

SociETV, New England, was firft incorporated by an
ordinance of parliament in 1649, by the name of the " Prc-
fident and Society for the Propagation of the Gofpel in
New England ;" and empowered to receive and difpofe of
monies in fuch manner as fhould bed conduce to the preach-
ing and propagation of the gofpel among the natives, and
for the maintenance of fchools for the education of their
children ; for which purpofe a general coUeiftion was to be
made in all the counties, cities, towns, and pariflies of
England and Wales. With the fum of money thus col-
lc<Sed, the fociety was enabled to purchafe an eltate in land
of between 500/. and 600/. a year. But upon the relloration
of kmg Charles II. the charter became void, and colonel
Bedingfield, a papill, wlio had fold an ellate of ^22/. per
annum, which had been fettled for the ufes of this fociety,
repolieffed himfelf of it, and refufed to pay back tiie money
which he had received for it. However, the corporation
being revived, in 1661, by an exprefs charter, which or-
dained, that there be for ever within the kingdom of Eng-
land, a " Society or Company for the Propagation of the
Gofpel in New England and the Parts adjacent in America,"
the eftate which had been detained by Bedingfield was
reilored by the chancellor's decree. The members of this
fociety are not to exceed forty-five ; thefe and their fuccef-
fors, to be chofen by the fociety, are conftituted one body
corporate, with the powers and privileges ufual in fuch cafes :
and a power is likewife given them to appoint commiflioners
refiding in New England to tranfaft their bufinefs in thofe
parts. The honourable Mr. Boyle was appointed by char-
ter the firft governor of this company. See a copy of the
charter in the Appendix to Dr. Birch's Life of Mr.
Boyle.

Society 0/ the Sons of the Clergy, was incorporated by
king Charles II. in 1678, by the name of " The Governors
of the Charity for Relief of the poor Widows and Children
of Clergymen." This fociety is under tlie direftion and
management of a prefident and vice-prefident, three trea-
fvirers, and a court of afliltants compolcd of forty members.
Several hundreds of widows and cliildren of the clergy have
annually received confiderable relief from this ufeful charity.
See Corporation of the Sons of the Clergy.

SociEl'Y of Stewards and Suhfcribers for maintaining and
educating poor Orphans of Clergymen till of Age to be put
Apprentice, an eilablifhment formed in the year 1749, which
has attained a confiderable degree of profperity, and which
has received into its fchool more than 700 children of both
fexes, moft of whom have been apprenticed or otherwife
provided for. This fociety was incorporated by an adt of
parliament in the 48th year of Geo. III., and it is under
the management of a prefident, vice-prefident, treafurcr,
fecretary, and committee, elected annually, at a general
meeting in February. The committee confills of the prin-
cipal officer!, a fecretary, and of 20 other members, any
eight of whom (hall be deemed a board, who meet every
month. See Clergy.

SociETVyb;- the Sons of the Clergy of the ejlabli/hed Church
of Scotland, was inftituted at Edinburgh in February 1790,
and was conftituted a body corporate by his majefty's royal
charter in 1792. The views of this fociety have been li-
mited only to the fons of clergymen, conceiving that its
funds will be thus moft advantagcoufly employed, and pro-
pofing other plans of beneficence which fhall alfo compre-
hend the daughters of the clergy, as its funds increafe.

Society for promoting religious Knoiuledge among the Poor
commenced in the year I750, for the purpofe of giving

Vol. XXXIII.

bibles, teftaments, and other good books, to thofe who
moft needed them, and who were moft likely to improve
them. This fociety is fupported by an annual fubfcrip-
tion of the members, together with the donatioas and le-
gacies of other contributors ; and each fubfcriber is in-
titled to a nomination of books in turn, correfponding to
the amount of his fubfeiiption. The iociety meets every
month.

Society for promoting Chriflinn Knowledge in the High-
lands and Jflands \of Scotland, was firft begun by the aUb-
ciation of private contributors at Edinburgh, about the
year 1701 ; their defign was approved and encouraged by
q,ueen Anne, who, in 1708, iffued her royal proclamation
for this purpofe : and, in 1709, fhe granted a patent, con-
ftituting a certain number of the fubfcribers a fociety, or
body politic, with full powers to receive donations and pur-
chafe lands, &c. not exceeding 3000/. a year, and with the
profits of the fame to ereft and maintain fchools, &c. Ac-
cordingly the lords of leflion, under lier majefty's commif-
fion, nominated eighty-two fubfcribers to be tlie firft mem-
bers of this fociety, who chofe a prefident, treafurer, fecre-
tary, and other officers. They alfo chofe a committee of
fifteen, who were to meet every month, or oftener, as oc-
cafion required. There is a general meeting of the whole
fociety every three months, when they admit members, make
general regulations, give orders to the committee, and fettle
their accounts. In 17 10 the fociety began to fettle fchools.
In 1738 the king granted a new patent, to caufe fuch children
as were found proper to be inftrufted in hufbandry, houfe-
wifery, and manufaftures ; in purfuance of which the iociety
erefted feveral working fchools. The fociety's firft charter
extends to popifli and infidel countries beyond the fcas, and
four miftionaries have been maintained for converting the
native Indians in America to the Chriftian faith. The fo-
ciety has feveral correfponding members in London, who
meet every quarter, to receive fubfcriptions, donations,
&c. Thefe form the Correfponding Board, which was
eftablifhed in the year 1729; and which, after remaining
long inaflive, began, in 1773, to co-operate more cordially
with their brethren in Scotland. Since that period an an-
nual fermon has been preached in commendation of the cha-
rity ; and the preachers have been felefted from various reli-
gious denominations with advantage to the charity.

There is alfo a charitable fociety in London, corre-
fponding with the incorporated fociety in Dublin, for pro-
moting the Engliih Proteftant charterlchools in Ireland;
under the management of a treafurer, a ftanding committee
of fifteen, and fecretary, who meet once a month.

Sociv.T\ for promoting Chrijtianity among the Jews, Lon-
don, was inftituted in Auguft 1808, and it has been con-
dufted under the management of a committee, confifting of
eighteen members, befides the treafurcr and fecretary, five
of whom are a quorum ; who meet on the firft Friday in
every month at the Jews' chapel in .Spitalfields. The object
of this fociety being to relieve the temporal diftrefte"- ot the
Jews, as well as to promote their Ipinlual welfare, tlie com-
mittee are empowered, from time to time, to adopt fuch
meafuree for any fuch purpofca as the majority of the mem-
bers prcfent may approve. General meetings are held twice
in the year, for receiving the reports of the committee ; and
two coUeftion fermons are preached at each of the half-
yearly meetings, for the benefit of the fociety, one in the
eftabliflied church, and the other among tlie Diflenters. A
fermon is addrefted to the Jews every Lord's day evening, and
a regular courfc of ledlures is delivered every Wediiefday
evening. Divine fervicc is performed in the morning and
afternoon of every Sunday.

F f Society

SOCIETY.

Society for promoting the Difcovery of the interior Parts
of Africa. See African AJfociation and Africa.

Of the third kind are divers religious focieties, very pro-
perly fo called : thefe were firll fet on foot in London about
the year 1678, by a few young men, who agreed to meet
weekly, for prayer, pfalmody, and fpiritual conference.
Thefe afterwards increafed to forty diftinft bodies, who fet
up public prayers in many churches where they were not
before frequent, procured frequent adminiftrations of the
facrament, and maintained leftures on that fubjeft, in one
church or another, almolt on every Sunday evening.

Society, Marine, was founded, principally, by the late
Jonas Hanway, who convened a meeting of merchants and
owners of fhips, and propofed their forming themfelves into
a focicty for giving clothing to landfmen and boys for
the fea-fervice. A regular fociety was formed, and a pro-
per committee and other officers were appointed. By the
regifters of the fociety it appeared, that from the 24th of
July, 1756, the date of the commencement of this fociety,
to the ift of February, 1772, it had clothed and fitted out
5'45i men, and 6306 boys: and the total number to the
t5iit of December, 1808, amounted to 20,315 men, and
30,857 boys. By 12 Geo. III. c. 67, A.D. 1772, fifty-
two governors were incorporated, from which number arc
appointed a prefident, fix vice-prefidents, a treafurer, and
twenty-four (in 1808 the number was fixty) alTiftants,
veiled with full powers to carry the defigns of the fociety
into execution. Boys ferving out their apprenticefliips at
fea, not being for a lefs time than four years, are entitled to
the liberty of fetting up and exercifing trade or bufinefs in
any place in Great Britain or Ireland. No fuch apprentice
• is liable to be imprefled into the king's fervice till after the
age of eighteen years. Seven governors conftitute a gene-
ral court, which is held four times in every year. The firll
local refidence of this fociety was in an office over the Royal
Exchange ; but it has fincc erefled a convenient building in
Bifhopfgate-ftreet. Among the ornaments and decorations
of this building, we may reckon the maufoleum of the late
captain Thomas Hanway, prefented to the corporation by
his brother, Jonas Hanway, efq. on the ilt of September,
1774. An annual fubfcription of two guineas qualifies a
governor for that year ; two guineas per annum, paid during
eight years fuccefTively, or a donation of twelve guineas,
qualifies a governor for life.

Society of St. Patrick, Benevolent, was eltablifhed on
the 17th of March, 1784, by a confiderable number of no-
blemen and gentlemen, either natives of Ireland or varioufly
conneiJted with it, for the purpofe of imparting comfort to
perfons of that kingdom in diftrefs : one of their objefts
was the education of children born of Irifh parents, refiding
in or near London. The duke of Kent is patron of this
fociety. The union of this fociety with the Irilh charitable
fociety, inftituted in the year 1704, which continued its dif-
tributions till the year 1756, when it ceafed to meet, was
effefted by the marquis of Buckingham and a committee,
which fettled a plan for this purpofe. Twenty guineas
conflitute a governor for life, and three guuieas an annual
governor. The encouragement which this fociety has met
with has induced it to engage a piece of ground in St.
George's Fields, for the purpofe of erefting a fuitable
building by fubfcription, where the children may by degrees
be taken wholly under its own care. The fub-committee
meet every month, and the grand committee four times in
the year. Its officers are, a patron, prefident, feven vice-
prefidents, three auditors, &c. a treafurer, phyfician, fur-
geon, and fecretary.

SociETY, Philanthropic, commenced at a fmall houfe on

Cambridge-Heath, near Hackney ; but as it profpered,
buildings have been eredted in St. George's Fields, to which
a chapel has been lately added. The inflitution takes its
date in the year 1788, and was formed for the prevention
of crimes, and the reform of the criminal poor, by the
encouragement of induilry, and the culture of good mo-
rals among thofe children who were training in vicious
courfes, public plunder, infamy, and ruin. In Decem-
ber 1789, the number of wards for both fexes under the
fociety's care was fixty. The fund of the focietv is em-
ployed as a manufafturing capital, the inftruflion for which
will ferve at any future time to afford the children employ-
ment when they are capable of bemg journeymen. The age
of admiffion is limited to the ages of feven and fourteen,
and the children taken under the care of the fociety are
either the offspring of convifted felons, or fuch as have
themfelves been engaged in criminal praftices. Thofe of
the firft clafs are orphans ; and thofe of the fecond clafs are
fuch as in many cafes have been guilty of offences at an age
which faves them from legal punifhment. Obje£ls are ad-
mitted by the committee at its weekly meetings ; and they
are feldom taken younger than eight or nine, or older than
twelve. After admiffion, boys that have been delinquents
are fent in the firll inllance to the " Reform," a houfe at
Bermondfey fo called ; where the fyftem is framed with a
view to the amendment of the moral charafter by inflruftion :
out of fchool-hours they are fet to pick oakum, that by re-
maining unemployed they may not acquire habits of idlenefs.
When any of them appear, by the reports of the chaplain,
to be fufficiently reformed, they are transferred to the manu-
faftory in St. George's Fields, and placed on the fame foot-
ing with the reft of the boys in that fituation. The fons of
convifts, not having been themfelves criminal, are fent at
once to the manufaftory, which contains, befides accom-
modations for lodging about 100 boys, workfliops for car-
rying on the following trades, •jv'z. printing, copper-plate
printing, book-binding, flioe-making, tailor's work, rope-
making, and twine-fpinning. The profits of the trades are
carried to the account of the fociety, a portion being ap-
propriated, by way of reward, to fuch of the boys as are in-
duffrious, partly paid to them immediately, and partly re-
ferved for their ufe when they ceafe to belong to the fociety.
The girls are placed in a building contiguous to the manu-
faftory ; but all intercourfe between them and the boys is
eftedlually prevented by a wall of confiderable height. The
girls are brought up for menial fervants : they make their
own clothing, and Ihirts for the boys, and walh and mend
for the manufaftory : befides which, their earnings in plain
work are confiderable. When of proper age, they are
placed out, at low wages, in reputable families, and receive
rewards for good behaviour at the end of the firft and third
years of their fervice, ii;z. one guinea at each period. A
chapel has been eredfed for the convenience of their attend-
ing public worfhip.

Every general court muft confift of feven members at
leafl ; and the committee, which confiffs of twenty-four
members, together with the principal officers, vifitors, and
auditors, meet once a week, and three of them are competent
to proceed to bufinefs. They appoint fub-committees. A
number of boys having ferved a regular apprenticefhip in the
fociety's manufaftory, and received certificates of their
honelly and induilry during the latter part of their fervice,
are now employed in town as journeymen to refpeftable
maftcrs ; and many of the girls are in fervice, and have re-
ceived the pecuniary rewards affigned them. The prefent
officers are his royal highnefs the duke of York, prefident,
twelve vice-prefidents, a treafurer, four vifitors, three au-
ditors,

SOCIETY.

ditors, a chaplain, reader at the chapel and fecrctary, two
preachers, a phyfician, furgeon, apothecary, fuperintendant,
and fteward.

Society, Philological, comprehends a fchool for general
inftruction and clothing of the fons of poor clergymen, naval
and military officers, reduced tradcfmen, and mechanics.
It was initituted in the year 1792, under the patronage of
the duke of York, by Mr. Thomas Collingwood of Upper
Titchiield-llreet, Mary-le-bone. This fociety has adopted
u plan of education more liberal than is ufually provided for
in common fchools of charitable inltitutions. The fchool is
eftablilhed at Liilbn Green, Paddington. The committee,
confiiling of five members, meet every month, and a general
court 15 held once a year. The officers are his royal highnefs
the duke of York, a prefident, eleven vice-prefidcnts, three
truftees, a committee of twenty, a fecretary, feveral mafters,
a folicitor, phyfician, furgeon, apothecary, and colledlor.

Society, called the African Injlitutitn, was eftablifhed
for the important objeft of attempting the civilization of
Africa, and of educating Africans. See African Insti-
tution.

Society of Friends, for Amirican Indian CivilizatioK,
was inlhtuted by the Friends in the year 1795, and the ob-
jeft of it has been profecuted vs'ith their cultomary affiduity
and perfeverance, and with fuch fuccefs, that the northern
tribes of American Indians have been confiderably influenced
to adopt the arts of cultivation, as a prelude to their being
capable of receiving the truths and bleffings of religion.
The whole fraternity of Quakers interell themfelves in the
promotion of thefe objefts.

Society, Briti/h and Foreign Bible, This fociety, which
has been extremely fuccefsful in promoting the circulation
of the holy fcriptures, was eftablifhed in the year 1804;
and almoft as foon as it was embodied, lord Teignmoutli
became the prefident, and the bifhops of London, Durham,
Saliftjury, and St. David's, with feveral noblemen and
gentlemen of high refpeftability, accepted the office of vice-
prefidents. Thus conftituted and patronized, from the po-
pularity of Its plan, and the exertions of its coiiduftors, it
obtained a rapid eftablifhment in the world, and may be
confidered as pofleffing a larger and more efficient operation
than was ever acquired by an inftitution for charitable pur-
pofes to be met with on the page of hiilory. Upon its
appearance before the public, Wales and Scotland diftin-
guifhed themfelves by individual, congregational, and aftb-
ciated contributions to its funds ; and rivalled each other,
and their fellow-citizens in England, by the promptitude of
their fupport. Ireland alfo joined in the work. The con-
tinent of Europe felt the impulfe which London had excited,
and evinced the effefts of it in local ailociations for prole-
cuting the fame common purpofe. Afia difplayed a limilar
fpirit, and Calcutta became the feat of a correfponding com-
mittee, profeffing, in the name and chiefly by tlie funds of
the fociety in London, to aid and encourage tranflations of
the fcriptures into all the vernacular dialects of tlie Eaft.
In fome parts of America there was a fimilar union of
Chriftians upon kindred principles, and with the fame ob-
jeCi in view. Several of thefe adociations have been affilted
by voluntary donations from the Britifh and Foreign Bible
Society. " Thus," fays the hiftorian of this inilitution,
" the flame which was kindled in London has been propa-
gated generally over more tiian three-fourths of the world,
and is on its way for a Hill more extenfive and particular
diffufion."

The feat and centre of this inilitution is London : its
larger component parts are to be traced in auxiliary focieties,
formed under its encouragement, and contributory to its

objeft and operation, in feveral of the moft confiderablt
towns throughout the united kingdom, in all the villages
about the metropolis, and in confpicuous ftations through-
out the other portions of the world, already enumerated.
Its auxiliaries within the united kingdom are more than 150,
ar.d they comprehend fome of the moft important and com-
manding pofitions. On the continent it has three auxiliaries
of great aftivity, and afting under very refpcclable patron,
age, in Stockholm, Berlin, and Bafle. Thefe ftation.i,
from their local fituation, and tlie conveniencies with which
they abound, are peculiarly favourable to the objedl of fup-
plying the inhabitants of Europe with the fcriptures, in
their feveral languages. The Calcutta fociety, confifting
of Chriftians of different denominations, and patronized, in
a meafure, by the exifting government, will be able in time
to furnifli bibles to the native Chriftians, faid to amount to
a million in number, and to produce correft verfions of the
fcriptures in the various languages of the Eaft, and to open
channels for their circulation among millions of people who
have never yet heard of the divine miffion of Jefus Chrift.
In America the fociety is affifted in the profecution of its
objeft by the Bible Societies of Philadelphia, New York,
Connefticut, Maflachufetts, New Jerfey, &c. ; all produced
by the example of the London fociety, aided by its funds,
and afting in avowed communication and harmony with it.
" In addition to thefe regular and organized bodies, the
fociety has correfpondents of various defcriptions in dif-
ferent parts of the world, adlively engaged in promoting its
defigns, by difperfing, at its expence, the facred oracles of
divine truth to men of every nation under heaven."

In the firft fix years of the cxiftence of this fociety it had
iilued from its depofitory in London more than 325,000
copies of the fcriptures, independently of thofe whicli had
been printed under its aufpices, beyond the limits of the
united kingdom. In England it has printed the fcriptures,
at its ov.'n expence, in the Englifli, Welfli, Gaelic, French,
Spanifh, Portuguefe, Italian, Dutch, Danilh, Mohawk,
Efquimaux, Modern Greek, Manks, and native Irifh lan-
guages. On the continent it has largely aided the printing
of them in nearly twenty different languages. In Afia it
has promoted, by liberal contributions, the tranflation and
publication of them in a great variety of languages and
diaktts.

The objeft of this fociety, which has already expended
feveral hundred thoufand pounds, is diftinftly and cxclufively
to promote, in the largeft prafticable extent, the circulation
of the holy fcriptures, without note or con-.mcnt, both at
home and abroad. By a fundamental law and rei:;ulation of
the lociety, the copies circulated in the language of the
united kingdom are thofe of the authorized verfion only.
The conftitution of tlie fociety comprehends all denomina-
tions of Chriftians, who profefs to regard the holy fcriptures
as the proper ftaiuhird of religious truth. The members of
the fociety, be their fubfcriptions wijat they may, provided
they are not lefs than one guinea annually, are entitled to
purchafe bibles and teftament.s at reduced prices, to five
times the amount of tlieir annual fubfcription. For a far-
ther account of this fociety, we refer our readers to its
annual reports, which are now grown to the fize of a mo-
derate oftavo volume.

Ten guineas conltilute a member for life, and one guinea
an annual member, five guineas an annual governor, and
fifty pounds a governor for life. Its officers are a prefident,
treafurer, affiftant fecrctary, coUeftor, and bookfeller.

An auxiliary Bible Society was cftabliflKd for the county
of Surrey in 1S12. Its officers are a prefident, twelve vice-
prefidents, a treafurer, and two fccretaries.

Ff 2 SOCIKTV,

SOCIETY.

Society, Sunday School, was e(labli(hed, in 1796, for
promoting free and Sunday fchools in Wales, under the
patronage of the prince of Wales. Its officers are a
prefident, vice-prefident, treafurer and vxe-treafurer, and
fecretary.

Society for promoting Sunday fchools throughout the
Britilh dominions wa^ inftituted in 1785. See Schools.

Society for the SuppreJJion of Vice, was eftablilhed in
Eflex-itreet, in the Strand, m 1802. Its ofBcers are a pre-
fident, twelve vice-prcfidents, a treafurer, a fecretary, and
coUeftor.

Society, Natimial, for promoting the education of the
poor in the principles of the eilablifhed church, in England
and Wales, was inllituted in 181 1. The prince of Wales
is patron, and the archbirtiop of Canterbury prelldent : it
has a great number of vice-prefidents, includin;r all the
biihops, a treafurer, and fecretary.

Society, Naval and Military Bible, was initituted in
1780, for the purpofe of diitributing bibles among the
foldieis and failors of the army and navy. One guinea con-
ftitutes a governor, and ten guineas a governor for life.

Soci ETY or Fund for the Support of decayed Muficians
and their Families-, was eftablifhed m 1738, and incorporated
in 1790.

This inllitution had always been patronized by many of
the flrll families in the kingdom, as honorary fubfcribcrs ;
and the public in general eagerly attended the annual bene-
tits, which, with the fubfcriptions of the profefTional mem-
bers and gratuitous performance, produced a confiderable
fum. But the benevolent fpirit of the eftablilhment was
narrowed, and infufficient to furnifh means of comfort to
the claimants already on their lift, and confequently pre-
cluded the augmentation of their number, till after that
memorable event, the Commemoration of Handel in 1784,
by which 6000/. were added to their fund, enabled the
governors to enlarge and extend their bounty, by a more
confiderable allowance to the decayed claimants and their fa-
milies already on their lilt, and to be lefs fcrupulous in the
admiffion of new members.

Their majefties and the royal family having been gra-
cioufly pleafed to countenance this eitabhfhment, and honour
it with their prefence, not only at all the commemoration
performances, but at every fubfequent annual benefit for its
fupport, increafed its importance, and excited an ambition
in the members to be under the immediate proteftion of his
majeity ; which vvifh was moft gracioufly comphed with
in 1790, by a permillion to incorporate themfelves under
the title of the " Royal Society of Muficians," till which
period the inllitution went under the title of «' The Fund
for the Support of decayed Muficians and their FamiHes."

Society for bettering the Condition of the Poor, was
founded in 1796. Its objeft was r.o examine the caufe of
individual diftrefs, to remove difficulties in the way of pa-
rochial relief, to facilitate the dillribnlion of charitable bene-
faftors, to infpeft workhoufes and charitable inftitutions, in
order to fuggell improvements, and fo aid the important
caufe of religious inftruftion to the mature and to the young.
Society for aloliflnng the Method of fweeping Chimnies
ly climbing Boys, was inllituted in 1802. Ten guineas con-
ftitute a perpetual, and one guinea an annual governor.

Society /or the Difcharge and Relief of Perfons imprifoned
for fmall Debts, was inftituted in February, 1772. The
debts, or compofition for them, of the perfons that are re-
lieved mull not exceed 10/. ; and the aged and infirm are
preferred, as well as thofe that have the largell families, and
others who have loft their liberty by unavoidable misfor-
tunes, and not by fraud, vice, or extravagance. No debtor

can be relieved a fecoiid time. The annual fubfcriptions
are two guineas, and thofe for life are twenty guineas.
Similar in its objeft is the " Philanthropic Society" at
Mile-End ; the annual fubfcription being only twelve ftiiU
lings, and five guineas conllituting a life-governor.

Society' of Friends of Foreigners in Diftrefs, was infti.
tuted A.D. 1806, to relieve the deftitute in a ftrange land,
by pecuniary, medical, legal, and religious aid. One
guinea conllitutes an annual governor, and ten guineas a
governor for life.

Society, Hibernian, was inftituted A.D. 1806, for the
purpofe of providing every poor family in Ireland with a copy
of the holy fcriptnres, efpecially of the New Teftament, to
increafe the number of their Sunday fchools, to circulate
religious trafts, and to give encouragement to preachers of
approved charafters. One guinea conllitutes an annual
member, and ten guineas a member for life.

Society, Royal Humane, was eftablilhed A.D. 1774, by
Dr. Cogan and Dr. Havves, for the recovery of the appa-
rently dead by drowning, or by any other ca'.ifcs of fuffo-
cation. One guinea conllitutes an annual member, and ten
guineas a member for life. See Drowning.

Society' for teaching the indigent Blind. See Blindness.

Society for the Relief and InftruSion of the Deaf and
Dumb. See Deafness.

Society for the Eflablijlmunt of a literary Fund was infti-
tuted A.D. 1790, for the relief of authors in diftrefs, whofe
claims, Itated in writing to the committee, are duly con-
fidered by them, and admitted, if proper, at their difcre-
tion, Tvhilll the names of the applicants are not difclofed.
The annual fubfcription is one guinea, and that for life is
ten guineas. The fociety's houfe is in Gerard-ftreet,
Soho.

Society for the Relief of Widows and Orphans of Medical
ATen in London and its Vicinity, grants to a widow, provided
that her income does not exceed 30/., and if (he has children,
they have not more than 10/. per annum each, an annuity, and
a fum towards an apprentice fee when the children are four-
teen years of age. Any orphan whofe father was a member
of the fociety at his death, who has not more than i j/. per
annum, alfo receives an annuity ; and relief is granted to
medical men themfelves, rendered incapable of attending to
their buli;iefs. Twenty guineas conftitute a member for
life, and one guinea an annual fubfcriber ; and a fubfcriber
of two guineas for fifteen years becomes afterwards a
governor.

Society for Relief and Support of difabled Seamen, their
Widoius and Children, in the Merchant Seamen's Service, was
incorporated by ftatute 20 Geo. II. to provide relief by
penfions for feamen incapable of future fervice by ficknefs,
wounds, or old age, and for the widows and children of thofe
that have been killed or wounded, provided they be under
fifteen years of age, or, above that age, incapable of earning
a fubfiltence by fome infirmity. Relief is reftrifted to thofe
who have contributed Cd. per month out of his wages to
this fund. Fifty pounds conftitute a governor. The af-
fairs of the fociety are condufted at the merchant feamen's
office. Royal Exchange, London.

Society, Mijfxonary, was inllituted in the year 1795, for
the purpofe of Ipreading the gofpel in foreign parts.

Society for Mijftons to Africa and the Eafl, was efta-
bUftied by voluntary fubfcription in the year 1799, for the
converfion of the African and Eaftern tribes. The mif-
fionaries fixed their Itation at Sierra Leone, alfo on the
Rio Pongas and Baffia, where they have opened fchools, and
worfhip on the Lord's day ; and as the flave-trade declines,
or is abolilhed, they flatter themfelves with fuccef?. Many

Maroons

SOCIETY.

MarooiT! and others are faid to have been converted, children
baptized, and the civilization of the heathens, and their
converfion to ChriitianitVi which muft ever concur, are cf-
feftcd. The annual fubfcription is one guinea, and a lifc-
fubfcnption twenty guineas.

Society, Nava/ Charilai/e, was eftablifhed in 1791, for
tlie relief of indigent orphans, widows, and children of fca-
olFicers, and alfo fea-officers reduced by misfortunes to indi-
(Tcnce. A modus has been fettled tor the fubfcription ; -viz.
h\ admirals 3/. 3/., vice-admirals 2/. 2s., rear-admirals 1/. is.,
captains lox. 6(/., lieutenants 5^., phyficians 10s., furgeons 5.r.,
mailers ^s., purfers ^s. The fum given to each applicant
is limited to 20/. A fimilar charity was eitablifhed at the
Admiralty in 1792.

Society for the Converfion of Negroes, was inlUtuted by
the zeal of the late bifhop Porteus, and was chartered in
1795 for the converfion, inflruftion, and education of the
Negro flaves of the Britifh Weft India iflarids : for which
purpofe clergymen are employed as affiltants to the paro-
chial clergy there. The bifhop, highly to his honour, in-
dulged the confoling hope, " that the fame beneficent fpirit
which by degrees extinguiilied Pagan flavery, will alfo
gradually, and without injury to any one, relieve mankind
from the prellure cf this and every other fpecies of per-
fonal and perpetual flavery." The fubfequent jIboUtlon of
the Slave-trade (which fee) has verified this expeftation.
The funds arife from the rents of eftates vefted in the cor-
poration of London, under decree of the court of chancery,
upon the will of the honourable Robert Boyle.

Society, Religious Tra9, began to circulate its fmall
ufeful trails in the year 1799; and of thefe many have
been tranflated into the Danifh, Portuguefe, French, and
Spanifh languages, and have been difperfed amongll the
prifoners or war, and other foreigners in this country.
Auxiliary focieties have been founded in feveral other coun-
tries. A donation of ten guineas conftitutes a governor for
life, and of hdlf-a-guinea an annual governor.

Society, Endeavour, was inftituted in 1794, for pro-
moting the principles and duties of the eftablifhed church,
by forming a library of orthodox divinity, and the diftri-
bution of books ; the occafional relief of indigence, with
medical afliftance, including midwifery, and inoculation.
It is divided into two departments, mz. the eallern and
the wellern.

Society of Schoolmajlers was founded in 1798, in order
to eftablifh a fund for the benefit of their widows and
orphans, and for relief of fchoolmaders and ufliers become
necelTitous through age, infirmity, or misfortune. The
fund confifts of joint Hock, which conftitutes a benefit
fociety, and the charitable fund, which is fupported by
contributions of the members of five guineas entrance money,
and one guinea annually : benefaftions arc received from any
other perfon, 21/. for life. The joint ftock is fhared among
widows and children of decayed members in certain pro-
portions, and this is dllnofeable property : the charitable
fund is employed in relieving members and their widows,
educating their orphans, afiiiling decayed fchoolmafters in
general and their widows, and helping others who become
neccffitous.

Society called the Scats Corporation. See Scots Hos-
riTAi,.

Society for rewarding Servants, Britifh, commenced in
1792, with a view of offering a reward for meriiorioui
fervicc, either by a commutation of their probable future
advantages fur a prefcnt pecuniary confidcration, or by the
immediate poffefiion of half the contingjiit annuity. Sub-
fcribers of one guinea may nominate one male or fcmule
9

hired domeftic fervant, not exceeding fifty -years of age»
to be regiftered for fuch future rewards. Subfcribers of
fifteen guineas have the fame nomination. If fervants
have ferved any fubfcriber three years whiHl regiftered,
they will be entitled to 5/. per annum ; if more than three
years, 61., to be increafcd in proportion of 3/. for every
three years' faithful fervice to the fame fubfcriber during
the regiltry. In this manner debentures have been granted
to I 151 fervants.

Society of the Stock-Exchange Fund. See Stock-
Exchange.

Society of the Stranger'' s Friend was conllituted to relieve
diftrefs wherever it is found, and efpecially when out of
the reach of other afliftance, and to give fuch religious in-
ttruftion as may be fuitable to the perfons vifited at their
own habitations. For this purpofe the vifitors divide the
town into diftridls, and perfonally attend and relieve the
objedls of their compaffion.

Society, Unitarian, was inftituted in 1791 for pro-
moting Chriftian knowledge and the practice of virtue,
by diftributing books felefted and approved by its members.
The annual iubfcription is one guinea, and ten guineas
conltitute a governor for life, who is entitled to a propor-
tional allowance of books.

Society, ./American Philofophical, was eftablifhed at Phi-
ladelphia in the year 1769, by the union of two focieties
which had formerly fubfifted in that city, for promoting
ufeful knowledge, under the direftion of one patron, one
prefident, three vice-prefidents, one treafurer, four fecre-
taries, and three curators, who are annually chofen by ballot.
The ordinary meetings of this fociety are held on the firll
and third Fridays of every month, from Oftober to May
inclufive. The fociety was incorporated by charter 15th
March, 1780, and has publiftied feveral volumes of its
Tranfaftions, containing many ingenious papers on general
literature and the fciences, as well as refpetling thofe fub-
jedls that are peculiar to America.

A fociety of a fimilar kind, under the title of the
" Academy of Arts and Sciences, &c." has been alfo
eftablifhed at Bofton. See Academy.

A Royal Society of Sciences was inftituted at Upfal
about the year 1720: the meetings are monthly, and the
Tranfadlions are publifhed quarterly, in 410.

There is alfo another fociety at Gottenburg, called the
Royal Society of Sciences and Belles Lettres.

The Society of Natural Hiftorians at Berlin was
founded by Dr. Martini ; in which place there is alfo a
philoiophical fociety.

The Royal Society of Gottingen was inftituted by king
George II. in 1751.

In France there have been feveral inftitutions of this
kind for the improvement of fcience, recounted under
Academy ; fee alfo Institutk.

For other inltitutiond of a fimilar nature, and their lite-
rary produdlions, fee Academy, Jouh.nal, and Thansac-
tions.

Society, Edinburgh, Philofophical, a fociety which fuc-
ceeded the Medical Society, and formed upon the plan of
including all the different branches of natural knowledge
and the antiquities of Scotland. Its rile and progrefs to-
wards its prefcnt ftate arc as follow.

In the year 1718, a literary fociety was eftablifhed at
Ediiiburgli by the learned Riiddiman and others, which,
in 1731, was fucceeded by anotlu-r for the improvement of
medical knowledge. In the year 1739, the celebrated Mac-
lauriii conceived the idea of enlarging the plan of this
fociety, by extending it to fubjeCts of philofophy and lite-

ratiire.

SOCIETY.

rature. The inftitution was accordingly new-modelled by a
printed fet of laws and regulations, the number of members
was increafed, and they were dillinguifhed from that time by
the title of " The Society for improving Arts and Sciences,"
or more generally by the title of " The Philofophical Society
of Edinburgh." The meetings of this fociety, interrupted in
1745, were revived in 1752 ; and, in 1754, the firft volume of
their coUeftion was publiftied, under the title of " Effays or
Obfervations, Phyfical and Literary," which has been fuc-
ceeded by other volumes. This fociety, in confequence of
the fuggeftion of the profedors of the univerfity, and par-
ticularly of the principal, the Rev. Dr. Robertlon, and the
concurrence of the members of the fociety, was incorporated
by royal charter, on the 29th of March, 1783, under the
name of " The Royal Society of Edmburgh," inftituted
for the advancement of learning and ufeful knowledge.
The firft meetmg was held on the firll Monday of Auguft,
1783 ; when were chofen a prefident, two vice-prefidents,
a fecretary, treafurer, and a council of twelve perfons, who
are cholen by ballot annually on the lall Monday of No-
vember, and by whom the bufinefs of the fociety is con-
ducted. The fociety confills of ordinary and honorary
members, the latter being reftrifted to perfons refiding out
of Great Britain and Ireland. The eleftion of new members
is made at two ftated general meetings, held on the fourth
Monday of January, and the fourth Monday of June. A
candidate for the place of an ordinary member muft fignify,
by a letter addrefled to one of the members, his wi(h to be
received into the fociety ; and he muft then be publicly
propofed at leaft a month before the day of eleftion. If
the propofal be feconded by two of the members prefent,
his name is to be inferted in the lift of candidates, and hung
up in the ordinary place of meeting. The eleftion is made
by ballot, and is determined in favour of a candidate, if he
fliall have the votes of two-thirds of thofe prefent, in a
meeting confitting of at leaft twenty-one members.

The members are divided into two claffes, which meet
and deliberate feparately : one of thefe clalfes is denomi-
nated the " Phyfical clafs," and comprehends within its
department the fciences of mathematics, natural philofophy,
chemiftry, medicine, natural hiltory, and whatever relates
to the improvement of arts and manufaftures. The other,
denominated the " Literary clafs," has for its department
literature, philology, hiftorv, antiquities, and ipeculative
philofophy. Each of the claftes has four prefidents and
two fecretaries, who officiate by turns. At the meetings
of thefe claifes the written elTays and obfervations of the
members of the fociety, or their correfpondents, are read
publicly, and become the fubjefts of converfation. The
ordinary members, who ufually refide in the city of Edin-
burgh or its vicinity, are expefted to attend regularly the
monthly meetings, and are required to defray, by an annual
contribution, the current expences of the inftitution. Tiie
members who refide at fuch a diftance from Edinburgh,
that they cannot enjoy the advantages arifing from a re-
gular attendance on the meetings of the fociety, arc not
fubjefted to any contribution for defraying its expences,
but have a right to attend thofe meetings when they are
occafionally in Edinburgh, and to take part in all their
proceedings. This fociety has publifhcd feveral volumes
of its Tranfaftions, bearing ample teftimony to the learning
and ingenious refearchcs and obfervations of their various
authors.

Society, Royal. See Royal Society.

There isalfo an Experimental Society at Dublin, for pro-
moting natural knowledge, which was inftituted in 1777; the
Hjeipbers meet once every week, and diftribute three hono-

rary gold medals annually for the moft approved difcovery,
invention, or eftay, on any mathematical or philofophical
fubjeft. The fociety is under the direftion of a prefident,
two vice-prefidents, and a fecretary.

A Literary and Philofophical Society, of confiderable
reputation, has been lately eftabliftied at Manchefter, under
the direftion of two prefidents, four vice-prefidents, and
two fecretaries. The number of members is limited to
fifty ; befides whom there are feveral honorary members, all
of whom arc elefted by ballot ; and tiie officers are chofen
annually in April. Several valuable effays have been al-
ready read at the meetings of this fociety, and feveral volumes
have been publilhed.

Society of Antiquaries. See Antiquary.

Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufadures,
and Commerce, was inftituted in the year 1754, in purfuancc
of a plan formed in 1753, for the purpoie of exciting
emulation and induftry in the improvement of ingenious and
commercial arts, the various branches of agriculture, &c.
by honourable and pecuniary rewards. It was fet on foot
by lord Folkftone, lord Romney, Mr. Shipley, Dr. Hales,
and a few other gentlemen ; but its importance and utility
foon gained a very confiderable acceffion of members and
fubfcribers. This fociety, according to its prefent con-
ftitution, is under the direftion and management of one pre-
fident, fixteen vice-prefidents, the chairmen of the feveral
committees of accounts, correfpondence, pohte arts, agri-
culture, manufaftures, mechanics, chemiftry, colonies, and
trade ; in each of which department there are two, a prin-
cipal fecretary, an affiftanl fecretary, regifter, colleftor,
and meflenger. The office is in the Adelphi.

Every perfon, defiring to be a member, muft be propofed
by fome member at one meeting, and ballotted for at a
fucceeding meeting, and if he be chofen by two-thirds of
the members prefent, he is deemed a perpetual member on
payment of twenty guineas, or elfe a fubfcribing member
on payment of any yearly fum not lefs than two guineas.

The proceedings of the fociety are regulated by a body
of rules and orders eftabliftied for this purpofe ; all quef-
tions are determined by holding up of hands or ballot, and
no matter can be confirmed without the aftent of the ma-
jority at two meetings. They invite the public in general
to propofe fubjefts for encouragement, and whatever is
deemed deferving attention is referred to the confideration
of a committee, which makes a report to the whole locicty,
where it is approved, rejefted, or altered. Their premiums,
which have been very extenfively beftowed, are either fums
of money, or the fociety's medals in gold or filver.

Their meetings are every Wednefday evening, from the
fecond Wednefday in November to the end of May, and
at other times on the firft and third Wednefday in every
month.

In the Memoirs of Agriculture, and othtr economical
arts, by Mr. Dofiie, Bailey's machines of the Society of
Arts, and the Tranfaftions of the Society, of which they
have publiftied a great number of volumes, we may fee how
various, extenfive, and liberal the plan, which this fociety
has adopted and purfued.

Similar focietics, particularly with a view to the improve-
ment of agriculture, have been eftabliftied in different parts
of the kingdom.

The Society inftituted at Bath, in the year 1777, for the
encouragement of agriculture, arts, manufaftures, and com-
merce, deferves particular mention. The Tranfaftions pub-
liftied by this fociety contain many valuable experiments and
obfervations, particularly relating to agriculture, which
1 1 merit

SOCIETY.

merit the attention of all agriculturalifts and farmers in the
kingdom.

Society or Board of Agriculture, a fociety or board of
this kind, which %%'a8 eltablifhed at London, under the au-
thority of government, for the purpofe of promoting agri-
culture and the internal improvement of the country. It
was inllitutcd in or about the year 1793, and confills, ac-
cording to the charter of its incorporation, of a prefident,
(it fuch feveral members, by virtue of their different offices,
as are therein mentioned, and of thirty ordinary mem-
bers, moftly members of parliament : befides which, of fo
many honorary members as they may think proper, and of
fuch a number of correfponding members, natives or
toreignerSj as may be neceilary for the purpofes of the m-
ititution, the former of whom have the right of being pre-
fent at all deliberations of the fociety, but not the latter.
Neither of them, however, have the power of voting upon
any queltion.

The preiident, and a part of the ordinary members, to
the number of five, may and are capable of bein^ changed
ann\ially on the twenty-tifth day of March. The Tour vice-
prefidents may likewife be annually changed, and new ones
named and appointed at the iame time, as well as the trea-
furer, and fecretary. But the under fecretary, the clerk

clerks, with the furveyors, &c. are not fubjeft to an-

lal change.

It cannot be doubted or difputed, that the plans and ob-
jedts which this eftablilhment has in view, are extremely
important, diverfified, and comprehenfive, as they relate
not only to the improvement of the agriculture itfelf, but
to the whole of the internal economy and management of
the country. They will probably, however, be beft under-
Itood by confulting the fmall traft, which contain:; an ac-
count of the origin of the cllablifliment and its progrefs
for three years afterwards, publifnod in 1 796, by its firft
prefident, fir John Sinclair.

The confequence and utility of fuch an inititution as this,
when under judicious and able management, muft obvioufly
be very great, not only to this nation, and the community
at large, but alfo in its example to others, where no fimilar
ellablifhments have yet taken place.

Under fuch fort of regulation and management, it is un-
qucltionably capable of promoting improvements in many
different ways, and with many different dcfigns and inten-
tions, lo as to be of the utmoft beneficial confequence to
the general intereds of the country as a whole. Its means
are now likewife much more ample and fufficient for accom-
plifliing fuch purpofes, than they were on its firft found-
ation, as they have been, in fome meafure, incrcalcd fince
that period.

It may in (hort, by the combination of ingenuity and
talent which it affords, be the means of promoting and ex-
tending a better, more full, and wider cultivation of the
foil and territory of tiie country, fomewhat in proportion
to the increafing population, wealth, luxury, and wants of
the community ; of coUefting and embodying the numerous
ufcful fcattercd fafls and praftices on the fubjefl, which
have been fpread throughout the different diftrifts of the
kingdom ; and of providing and difpcrfing a more full and
corrc£t body of information on all parts of tlie fubjedt, lo
as to rcTider the nature of the land, the objedts of cultiva-
tion, and the modes of performing it, more clearly under-
ftood, and approach nearer to the Hate of pcrfedtion. In
thefe ways, it may alfo be the caufe of exciting and draw-
ing a greater and more careful attention to all matters of
the agricultural kmd, than has hitherto been the cafe, fn
all thofe who either poilefe rank, property, or talents, in

the different claffes of fociety, all through the country j
which, by operating upon the vaft mafs of knowledge that
has been drawn together, muft have the eft'cft of giving rife
to an almoil boundlefs variety of interefting improvements
in the profeffion, both as a Icience, and an ufeful praftical
art. Some, indeed, have been lo much perfuaded of this,
that they have indulged the notion and fuppofition of the
inftitution becoming of the greateft advantage and import-
ance to the country. Its utility and benefits mult, how-
ever, require fome length of time, before they can fully
difplay themfelves, as is the cafe in all fimilar eftablifh-
mcnts.

Societies, County /tgrkultural, the various focieties of
this nature, which are formed and eltablifhed in different
counties and parts of the country, for the purpofe of im-
proving and bettering the ftate of the agriculture and rural
management of them. Thefe kinds of focieties are now
inltituted in almoft every part of the kingdom, and mull
have confiderable effedl in rendering the local modes of
managing lands in fuch fituations more perfeft and bene-
ficial, as well as in fpreading and diffufing the knowledge
of the iinprovements, which arc progrefflvely made in the
art of cultivation, in a more full, complete, and extenfive
manner. Though fome, who arc by no means deficient in
intelligence or information, may have doubted of the utility
and advantage of thefe inftitutions, there can be no reafon,
on the whole, for fuppofing that they have not been bene-
ficial to the interefts of the nation. As there is probably
nothing which is more conducive to general improvement,
than a rational fpirit of inquiry, inveftigntion, and" experi-
ment, the eltablifhment of thefe kinds of focieties would
feem to have had a direft difpofition and tendency to excite
and bring forth fuch a fpirit, as well as to extend it, which
has been of the utmolt advantage in guiding and diredling
the attentions and exertions of praftical farmers to thofe
methods and objetts of management, which are the moll
fuitable and likely not only to be beneficial to themfelves,
but to the whole nation and community at large.

It is not improbable, however, but by having more re-
gard in refpecl to their regulations and the general objedls
of their confideration, as well as to the various local cir-
cumftances which are connedled with them, they may be
rendered a great deal more ufeful and efficient than they are
at prcfent, by producing a much greater competition among
the Imaller claffes of cultivators, and by contributing to a
far more exaft knowledge of the nature of foils, the dimcn-
fions of farms, and the real profits and benefits to be de-
rived from them.

In lliort, the utility and expediency of itiflitutions of
this fort mull always be, in fome meafure, in proportion to
the increafe of population, and the general wants of the
country, in fo far as food is required.

Moll of the focieties of this defcription, which have been
ellablifhed in this country, comprehend, befides tlie various
local regulations, which relate particularly to themfelves,
the whole or a great part of the plan and objefts which
are comprifed in the dill'ei'ent county reports on the if ate
of agriculture, which have been publilhed by the Board.
See Surveys of tiie Board of Agriculture.

Many of thele focieties exiltcd long before the Society
or Board of Agriculturi.- was eftablifhed.

Thefe focieties, befidts l)eing ufeful in promoting and
difleminating all fortu of valuable improvements in tlie local
rural managements and praftices of the particular dillrifts
to which they l)elong, fuch as in fencing, draining, tilling,
ploughing, fowing, harrowing, cutting, fecuring, watering,
pafluring, flocking, and feeding different kinds of land or

foil;

SOCIETY.

foil ; alfo in breeding, rearing, improving, and encouraging
the various forts of live-ftock, in furthering planting in dif-
ferent modes, in bettering the tools and machinery of the
art, in diftinguifhing and encouraging good labourers and
fervants, in regulating and fuiting leafes, in eftablifhing
neceffary and convenient fairs and markets, and in promot-
ing any other beneficial undertakings of the fame kind ;
may be highly important, and of great utihty, in circulating
and diffufing more extenfively the information and inilruc-
tion collefted and brought into order by the Society or
Board of Agriculture.

There are" many other ways in which fuch focieties may
alfo contribute in benefiting the agricultural interefts of the
nation.

Society, Horticultural, of London, wa? intlituted in
1804, under a prefident, a council, three treafurers, and
fecretary.

Society, Afiatk, an inftitution planned by the late il-
luftrious fir William Jones, and aftually formed at Calcutta,
on the 15th of January, 1784, for the purpofe of tracing
the hillory, antiquities, arts, fciences, and literature, of
the immenfe continent of Afia. As it was refolved to fol-
low as nearly as poffible the plan of the Royal Society of
London, of which the king is patron, the patronage of the
Afiatic Society was offered to the governor-general and
council, as the executive power in the territories of the
company. By their acceptance of this offer, Mr. Haftings,
as governor-general, appeared among the patrons of the
new fociety ; " but he feemed in his private ftation as the
firlt liberal promoter of ufeful knowledge in Bengal, and
efpecially as the great encourager of Perfian and Shanfcrit
literature, to deferve a particular mark of diftinftion ;" he
was requefted, therefore, to accept the honorary title of
prefident. This was handfomely declined in a letter from
Mr. Haflings, in which he requefled " to yield his preten-
fions to the gentleman whofe genius planned the inflitution,
and was moft; capable of conducting it to the attainment of
the great and fplendid purpnfes of its formation." On the
receipt of this letter, fir William Jones was nominated pre-
fident of the fociety ; and we cannot give the reader a view
of the objeft of the inftitution in clearer language than that
which he employed in his firtt difcourfe from the chair.

•' It is your defign, I conceive (faid the prefident), to
take an ample fpace for your learned invelligations, bound-
ing them only by the geographical limits of Afia ; fo that,
confidering Hindooftan as a centre, and turnina^ your eyes in
idea to the nortli, you have on your right many important
kingdoms in the Eaftern peninfula, the ancient and wonder-
ful empire of China, with all her Tartarian dependencies,
and that of Japan, with the clutter of precious iflands, in
which many fingular curiofities have too long been con-
cealed : before you lies that prodigious chain of mountains,
which formerly perhaps were a barrier againfl the violence
of the fea, and beyond them the very interefting country of
Tibet, and the valt regions of Tartary, from which, as
from the Trojan horfe of the poets, have ifTiied fo many
confummate warriors, whofe domain has extended at leail
from the banks of the Ilyffusto the mouths of the Ganges:
on your left are the beautiful and celebrated provinces of
Iran, or Perfia, the unmeafured, and perhaps unmeafurable
deferts of Arabia, and the once flourifhing kingdom of
Yemen, with the pleafant ifles that the Arabs have fubdued
or colonized ; and farther weflward, the Afiatic dominions
of the Turkifh fultans, whofe moon feems approaching
rapidly to its wane. By this great circumference the field
of your ufeful refearches will be enclofed ; but fince
£gypt had unquellionably an old connedion with this

country, if not with China, fince the language and litera-
ture of the Abyffinians bear a manifefl affinity to thofe of
Afia, fince the Arabian arms prevailed along the African
coafl of the Mediterranean, and even eredled a powerful dy-
nafly on the continent of Europe, you may not be dif-
pleafed occafionally to follow the Itreams of Afiatic learning
a little beyond its natural boundary ; and, if it be neceflary
or convenient that a Ihort name or epithet be given to our
fociety, in order to diftinguifh it in the world, that of
Afiatic appears both claffical and proper, whether we confi-
der the place or the object of the inftitution, and preferable
to Oriental, which is in truth a word merely relative, and
though commonly ufed in Europe, conveys no very diflinft
idea.

" If now it be afked. What are the intended objefts of
our inquiries within thefe tpacious limits? we anfwer, Man
and Nature ; whatever is performed by the one, or produced
by the other. Human knowledge has been elegantly ana-
lyfed according to the three great faculties of the mind,
memory, reafon, and imagination, which we conflantly find
employed in arranging and retaining, comparing and diftin-
guifhing, combining and diverfifying, the ideas which we
receive through our fentes, or acquire by reflection : hence
the three 'ain branches of learning are, hi/lory, fcience, and
art ; the iirft comprehends either an account of natural pro-
duftions, or the genuine records of empires and ftates ; the
fecund embraces the whole circle of pure and mixed mathe-
matics, togeti'^'r with ethics and law, as far as they de-
pend on the realoniiig faculty : and the third includes all
the beauries of magtry and the charms of invention, dif-
played in modaUted language, or reprefented by colour,
figure, or found.

" Agreeably to this analyfis, you will inveftigate what-
ever is rare in the ftupendous fabric of nature, will correft
the geography of Afia by new obfervations and difcoveries ;
will trace the annals and even traditions of thofe nations who
from time to time have peopled or defolated it ; and will
bring to light their various forms of government, with tfieir
intlitutions civil and religious ; you will examine their im-
provements and methods in arithmetic and geometry ; in tri-
gonometry, menfuration, mechanics, optics, aftronomy,
and general phyfics ; their fyflems of morality, grammar,
rhetoric, and dialeftic ; their fiiill in chirurgery and medi-
cine ; and their advancement, whatever it may be, in ana-
tomy and chemiftry. To this you will add refearches into
their agriculture, manufadures, and trade ; and whilll you
inquire with pleafure into their miific, architefture, painting,
and poetry, will not negleft thofe inferior arts by which the
comforts and even eleganciet of fecial life are fupplied or im-
proved. You may obferve that I have omitted their lan-
guages, the diverfity and difficulty of which are a fad ob-
ftacle to the progrefs of ufeful knowledge ; but I have ever
confidered languages as the mere inttruments of real learn-
ing, and think them improperly confounded with learning
itfelf : the attainment of them is, however, indifpenfably
neceffary ; and if to the Perfian, Armenian, Turkifh, and
Arabic, could be added not only the Shanfcrit, the trea-
fures of which we may now hope to fee unlocked, but even
the Chinefe, Tartarian, Japanefe, and the various infular dia-
lefts, an immenfe mine would then be open, in which we
might labour with equal delight and advantage."

Of this fociety eleven volumes of the TranfaCtions have
been publifhed, which are replete with information in a high
degree curious and important ; and we hope that the Euro- 1
pean world will foon be favoured with another. The |
much-to-be lamented death of the accomplifhed prefident
may indeed damp the fpirit of inveftigation among the mem-
bers;

SOCIETY.

bcrs ; for to conquer difficulties fo ^reat as they mull meet
with, a portion feems to be nccefTary of that enthufiafm
which accompanied all the purfuits of fir William Jones ;
but his fucceliors will, we trufl, ufe their utmoft. endeavours
to have the plan completed of which fir William gave the
outlines.

Society for tuorking Mines, an aflbciation not long ago
formed on the continent of Europe. This inftitution ori-
ginated at an accidental meeting of feveral mineralogifts at
Skleno, near Schemnitz, in Hungary, coUefted to examine
a new method of amalgamation. The objedt of the fociety
is phyfical geography ; mineralogy founded on chemidry ;
the management of ore in the different operations which it Un-
dergoes ; fubterraneous geometry ; the hitlory of mining ;
founderies, and the procefles for the extraction of the me-
tals from the ores, either by fufion or amalgamation, in every
inftance applied to praftice. The end of this inftitution is
to colled, in the moft extenfive fenfe, every thing that can
affiit the operations of the miner, and to communicate it to
the different members, that they may employ it for the pub-
lic good, in their refpeftive countries. Each member mull
confider himfelf as bound to fend to the fociety every thing
which will contribute to the end of its inftitution ; to point
out, with precifion, the feveral faAs and obfervations ; to
communicate every experiment which occurs, even the un-
fuccefsful ones, if the relation may feem to be advantageous
to the public ; to communicate to the fociety their examina-
tion of fchemes, and their opinions on queftions propofed by
it ; and to pay annually two ducats (about i8j. 6d.) to the
dircdtion every Eafter. The fociety, on the other hand, is
bound to publifli every novelty that fhall be communicated
to it ; to communicate to each member, at the member's
expence, the memoirs, defigns, models, produftions, and
every thing connefted with the inftitution ; to anfwer all the
Beceflary demands made, relating in any refpeft to minin^^^ ;
and to give its opinion on every plan or projeft communicated
through the medium of an honorary member.

The great centre of all inteUigence is to beat Zellerfield,
in Hartz, Brunfwick : but the fociety is not fixed to any
one fpot : for every particular ftate fome praftical mineralo-
gift is nominated as direftor. Among thefe are the names
of baron Born, M. Pallas, M. Charpentier, M. Prebra, and
M. Henkcl. Their office is to propofe the members ; to take
care that tlie views of the fociety are purfued in the different
countries where they rcfide ; to anfwer the requelts of the
members of their country who are qualified to make them ;
in cafe of the death of a direftor, to choofe another ; and
the majority is to determine where the archives and the flrong
box is to be placed.

All the eminent mineralogifts in Europe are members of
this fociety. It is ereded on fo liberal and fo extenfive a
plan, that we entertain the higheft hopes of its fuccefs ;
and have only to add, that we wifti much to fee the ftudy
of feveral other fciences purfued in the fame manner.

Society, Brili/hy for exlcnding the Fi/beries, and im-
proving ibe Sea-Conjlt of this Kingdom, was iiiltituted in
1786. Tlie end and defign of this fociety will bell appear
from their charter, of which we prefent an abftrad.

The preamble ilates, " the great want of improvement in
fifhcries, agriculture, and manufaiflures, in the Highlands
and iflands of North Britain ; the prevalence of emigration,
from the want of employment in thofe parts ; the profped
«f anew nurfery of feamen, by the cftablifhment of fifhing
towns and villages in that quarter. The ad therefore de-
clares, that the perfons therein named, and every other per-
fon or pcifims who (hall thereafter become proprietors
©f the joint ftock mentioned therein, fhall be a diftind and

Vol. XXXni.

feparate body politic and corporate, by the name of «' The
Britilh Society for extending the Fifheries and improving
the Sea-Coafts of this Kingdom :" — that the faid fociety may
raife a capital joint ftock, not exceeding 150,000/., to be
applied to purchafing, or otherwife acquiring, lands and te-
nements in perpetuity, for the building thereon, and on no
other land whatever, free towns, villages, and fifhing Ra-
tions : — that the joint ftock fliall be divided into ftiares of
40/. each : — that no one perfon fhall, in his or her name,
poflefs more than ten fhares, or 500/.: — that the fociety fhall
not borrow any fum or fums of money whatfoever : — that
the fums to be advanced for this undertaking, and the pro-
fits arifing therefrom, fhall be divided proportionably to the
fum fubfcribed ; and that no perfon fhall be liable for a larger
fum than he or flie fhall have refpedively fubfcribed : — that
one or two fhares fhall entitle to one vote and no more
in perfon or by proxy, at all meetings of proprietors ;
three or four fhares to two votes ; five, fix, or feven
fhares, to three votes ; eight or nine fiiares to four votes ;
and ten fhares to five votes, and no more : — that more
perfons than one inclining to hold in their joint names
one or more fhares, fhall be entitled to vote, by one of
fuch perfons, according to the priority of their names, or
by proxy : — that bodies corporate fhall vote by proxy under
their feal : — that all perfons holding proxies fliall be pro-
prietors, and that no one perfon fliall ^hold more than five
votes by proxy : — that the affairs of the fociety fhall be ma-
naged by a governor, deputy-governor, and thirteen other
diredors, to be eleded annually on the 25th of March,
from among the proprietors of the fociety, holding at
leaft one full fliare, by figned hfts of their names, to be
tranfmitted by tht proprietors to the fecretary of the fo-
ciety : — that five proprietors, not being governor, diredor,
or other officer, fliall be in hke manner annually eleded to
audit the accounts of the fociety : — that there fhall be one
general meeting of the proprietors annually, on the 25th of
March : — that occafional general meetings fliall be called, on
the requeft of nine or more proprietors : — that the general
meetings of the proprietors fliall make all bye-laws and con-
ftitutions for the government of the fociety, and for the
good and orderly carrying on of the bufinefs of the fame :
— that no transfer fhall be made of the ftock of the fociety
for three years from the loth of Auguft 1786 : — that the
cafli of the fociety fliall be lodged ia tlie bank of England,
bank of Scotland, or the royal bank of Scotland : — that
no diredor, proprietor, agent, or officer of the fociety, fliall
retain any fum or fums of money in his hands beyond the
fpacc of thirty days, on any account whatfoever : — that all
payments by the fociety fhiill be made by drafts on the faid
banks, under the hands of the governor or deputy-governor,
counterfigned by the fecretary or his deputy, and two or
more diredors : — and that the books in which the accounts
of the fociety fliall be kept fliall be open to all the pro-
prietors."

The inftitution of this public-fpirited fociety was in a
great meafure owing to the exertions of the patriotic John
Knox ; who, in the courfe of twenty-three years, traverfed
and explored the Highland: of Scotland no Icfs than fixtecn
times, and expended feveral thoufand pounds of his owu
fortune in purfuing his patriotic defigns.

Society, lini'ifh Wool. See Britifh Wool Society.

Society, Geological, was inftituted in 1811, under a pre-
fident, four vice-prefidents, treafurer, two lecretaries, and a
foreign fecretary.

Society, Alincralogical, was inftituted in 1799; '"** ''
is now incorporated with the former.

Society, Entomolegical, of London, inftituted in 1S06,
G g hw

SOCIETY.

has a prefident, vice-prefident, treafurer, and fecretary, fe-
deral fellows, and a printer.

Society, Liniutan,'-w3s founded in 1788, and incorpo-
rated in 1802. Its prefident is fir James Edward Smith ; it
has a council, a treafurer, fecretary, and librarian. Its
houfe is in Gerard-ltreet, Soho. It has already (1816)
publilhed eleven volumes of its TranfaAions.

Society, Mathematical, in Crifpin-itreet, Spitalfields,
was eftablifhed in 1 717. It is under the conduft of a prefi-
dent, treafurer, and fecretary.

Society for the Improvement of Naval yfrchiteBure, was
founded in 1791- The objeft of it is to encourage every
ufeful invention and difcovery relating to naval archi-
tedure, as far as (hall be in their power, both by honorary
and pecuniary rewards. They have in view particularly to
improve the theories of floating bodies, and of the refinance
of fluids ; to procure drafts and models of different velfels,
together with calculations of their capacity, centre of gra-
vity, tonnage, &c. ; to make obfervations and experiments
themfelves, and to point out fuch obfervations and experi-
ments as appear belt calculated to further their defigns, and
moll delerving thofe premiums which the fociety can bellow.
But though the improvement of naval architefture in all its
branches be certainly the principal objeft of this inllitution,
yet the fociety do not by any means intend to confine them-
felves merely to the form and ftrufture of veflels. Every
fubordinate and collateral purfuit will claim a (hare of the
attention of the fociety, in proportion to its merits ; and
whatever may have any tendency to render navigation
more fafe, falutary, and even pleafant, will not be ne-
glefted.

This inllitution owes its exiftence to the patriotic difpo-
fition and extraordinary attention of Mr. Sewell, a private
citizen of London, who (though engaged in a hue of bufi-
nefs totally oppofite to all concerns of this kind) has been
led, by mere accident, to take fuch ocular notice of, and
make fuch obfervations on, the aftual ftate of naval archi-
tecture in this country, as naturally occurred to a man of
plain underltanding, zealous for the honour and iatereil of
his country, and willing to beftovv a portion of that time for
the public good, which men of a different defcription would
rather have devoted to their own private advantage. His
attention was the more ferioufly excited, by finding that it
was the opinion of fome private (liip-builders, wlio, in a
debate on the failure of one of our naval engagements, pro-
nounced, that fuch " would ever be the cafe while that bu-
finefs (the conltruftion of our fiiips of war) was not iludied
as a fcience, but carried on merely by precedent ; that there
had not been one improvement in our navy that did not ori-
ginate with the French, who had naval fchools and femina-
ries for the fludy of it ; and that our fhips were not a
match for thofe of that nation, either finglv or in a fleet,
&c. &c."

In a (hort time the fociety were enabled to offer very con-
fiderable premiums for particular improvements in the con-
ttruftion of our (hipping. Sec. &c. and alfo to encourage
cur philofophers, mathematicians, and mechanics, to make
fatisfaftory experiments, tending to afcertain the laws of
refinance of water to folids of different forms, in all varieties
of circumllances. On this head the reward is not lefs than
100/. or a gold medal. Other premiums of 50, 30, asd
20 guineas, according to the importance or difficulty of the
particular fubjeft or point of invefligation, are likewife
offered, for different difcoveries, inventions, or improve-
ments. The terms of admiflion into the fociety are a
fubfcription of two guineas annually, or twenty guineas
for life.

Society of Civil Engineers. This fociety took its rife from
the following circumllances. Before or about the year
1760, a new era in all the arts and fciences commenced in
this country. Every thing which contributes to the com-
fort, the beauty, and the profperity of a country, moved
forward in improvement, fo rapidly and fo obvioufly, as to
mark that period with particular dillinftion. It was about
this time that manufaftures were extended on a new plan,
by the enterprize, the capital, and, above all, by the fcience
of the men of deep knowledge and perfevering induflry
engaged in them. It was feen that it would be better for
ellablifhments to be placed in new fituations, adapted to the
obtaining raw materials, and the labour of patient and re-
tired indullry, than to endure the vexations that perpetually
occur in corporate towns, and the wages of their extrava-
gant workmen. This produced a new demand, not thought
of till that period, in this country, — internal navigation. To
make communications from faftory to fatlory, and from
warehoufes to harbours, as well as to carry raw ma-
terials to and from fuch eftabliihments, became abfolutcly
neceflary. Hence arofe thofe works, not of pompous and
ufelefs magnificence, but 0/ real utility, which have been
carried on to a degree of extent and magnitude, to which as
yet there is no appearance of limitation.

The ancient harbours of this ifland, it may be faid, have
ever been an example in the hiltory of mankind. The fea-
ports were fuch as nature had formed, and were but little
better, notwithllandiiig fome jettees and piers of defence,
which had been made and altered, without knowledge or
judgment, at municipal expence. This general fituation of
things gave rife to a new prnfefiion and order of men, de-
nominated " civil engineers." In almoll all other polifhed
nations of Europe this was a profeffion encouraged or inlti-
tuted by the governments of thofe countries, of itlelf, and
by itfelf ; but in this country, the formation of a body of
fuch men was left to chance ; there was no public eftablifh-
ment, except common fchools, for rudimental knowledge
neceflary to all arts, naval, military, mechanical, and others.
Civil engineers, then, are a felf-created fet of men, whofe
profeffion owes its origin, not to power or influence, but
to the encouragement of a great and powerful nation : — a
nation become fo from the perfevering indullry of its manu-
fafturing workmen, and their fuperior knowledge in che-
millry, mechanics, and natural philofophy. The fame pe-
riod gave rife to an affociation of a few gentlemen, of whom
Mr. Smeaton was one, who propofed that they might form
themfelves into a fociety for the advancement of the fcience
of civil engineering, and in March 1 77 1 it was eltablifhed,
and the members met on Friday evenings, at the Queen's
Head tavern, Holborn. It did not increafe rapidly, for in
twenty years the numbers were lefs than feventy, and of
thefe, there were only about fifteen who were real engineers,
employed in public works, or private undertakings of great
magnitude. The other members were either amateurs, or
ingenious workmen and artificers connedfed with, and em-
ployed in, works of engineering. A regiller was kept of
the names of its members ; and a communication of ideas
and knowledge, in tlie particular walks of each member,
were, at the fame time, the amufcment and the bufinefs of
the meetings. In this manner the fociety proceeded till
1 792, when it cealed to enifl, by mutual confent of the prin-
cipal members. This diflolution was occafioned by the ill-
treatment which Mr. Smeaton experienced from one of the
members, who was under very particular obhgations to him,
but whofe name is not mentioned ia connedlion with the aft
of flagrant ingratitude. See Engineers.

An attempt was afterwards made to rebuild the fociety,
1 1 and

SOCIETY.

iiid to place it on a better and more refpeftable foundation ;
Mit before the plan could be matured, Mr. Smeaton was no
nore. In April 1793, the new fociety was, however,
ormed under the denomination of " The Society of Civil
Znt^ineers." It confided of three clafles : i. Of ordinary
members, to confift of real engineers, aftually employed as
fuch in public or in private fervice. 2. Honorary mem-
bers, to confift of men of fcience and gentlemen of rank and
fortune, who had applied themfelves to fubjefts of civil en-
)!;ineering ; and who might, for knowledge, have been real
engineers, had it not been their good fortune to have it in
their power to employ others in this profeflion ; and alfo of
thofe who are employed in other pubhc fervice, where fuch
and fimilar kinds of knowledge are necefTary. 3. Ho-
norary members, confifting of various artifts, whofe pro-
feflions and employments are neceflary, or extremely ufeful,
as well as connefted with civil engineering. The meetings
of this fociety are, we believe, ftill held every other Friday
during the fcllion of parliament. It may be mentioned, that
the fociety never meet without paying a juft and natural tri-
bute of refpedt to the memory of Mr. Smeaton, of whom
we have already given a biographical article, to which may
now be added the following anecdotes, communicated to the
public by his daughter Mrs. Mary Dixon.

It was a maxim of this excellent man, that " the abilities
of the individual are a debt due to the common ftock of
public happinels or accommodation." This appears to have
governed his aftions through life : he devoted his time to the
cultivation of talents by which he might benefit mankind.
The arrangement of his time was governed by a method as
invariable as inviolable ; for profeffional ftudies were never
broken in upon by any one ; and thefe, with the exception
of ftated altronomical obfervations, wholly engrofled the
forenoon. His afternoons were regularly occupied by prac-
tical experiments, or fome other branch of mechanics : and
he had fo complete a command over his thoughts, that his
mind was not more entirely devoted to his profeflion in one
- divifion of time, than abftrafted from it in another. " Him-
felf," fays his daughter, " devoted to his family with an af-
feftion fo lively, a manner at once fo cheerful and ferene,
that it is impoffible to fay whether the charm of converfa-
tion, the fimplicity of inilruclion, or the gentlcnefs with
which they were conveyed, molt endeared his home. A home,
in which from infancy we cannot recoUeft to have feen a
trace of diflatisfaftion, or a word of afperity to any. Yet
with all this he was abfolute ! and it is for cafuiftry in edu-
cation, or rule, to explain his authority ; it was an authority
as impoffible to difpute as to define."

At one period the princefs Aflcoff, after having in vain
ufed every perfuafion to induce Mr. Smeaton to accept a
tarts blanche from the emprcfs of Ruffia, as a recompence
for direfting the vaft projefts which her majelly had in
view, faid, " Sir, you are a great man, and I honour you !
■ You may have an equal in abilities, perhaps ; but in cha-
rader you ttand fingle. The Engliih minifter, fir Robert
Walpole, was miilaken, and my fovereign has the miffor-
turfe to know, there is one man, at leaft, who has not his
price."

Early in life Mr. Smeaton attrafted the notice of tlie
duke and duchefs of Queenlbury, from a ftrong refemblance
which Smeaton bore to their favourite Gay, the poet. The
commencement of this acquaintance was fingular, but the
continuance of their efteem and partiality lalted through
life. Their firft meeting was at Ranelagh, where, walking
with Mrs. Smeaton, he obferved an elderly lady and gentle-
man fix an evident and marked attention on him. After fome
turns they (lopped him, and the duchefs faid, " Sir, I do
not know you, but fo ftrongly do you refemblc my poor

dear Gay, we muft be acquai.ited ; you lliall go home and
fup with us ; and if the minds of the two men accord at
much as their countenances, you will find two cheerful old
folks, who can love you well, and I think you can as well
deferve it." The invitation was accepted, and as long ai
the duke and duchefs lived, the friendihip was uninterrupted.
In the courfe of this, he effected the abolition of that in-
confiderate indifcriminate play among people of fuperior
rank and fortune, which compels every one to join, and at
their own rifle. Mr. Smeaton detelled cards, and his atten-
tion never following the game, he played like a child. The
game was pope Joan, the general run of it was high, and
the ftake in pope had accidentally accumulated to a very fe-
rious fum. It was Smeaton's turn by deal to double it,
when, regardlefs of his cards, he bufily made fome minutes
on a fcrap of paper, and put it on the board. The duchefs
eagerly aiked what it was ; and he as coolly replied, " Your
grace will recolleft the field in which my houfe ftands may
be about 5 acres, 3 roods, and 7 perches, which, at 30 years'
purchaic, will be juft my Itake ; and if your grace will make
a duke of me, I prefume the winner will not diflike my
mortgage." The joke had the proper effeft, and they never
after played but for the merelt trifle. See Smeaton's Re-
ports, vol. i.

Society of Artifts of Great Britain, which confifts of
direftors and fellows, was incorporated by charter in 1765,
and empowered to purchafe and hold lands, not exceeding
1000/. a year. The directors of this fociety, annually
elected, are to confift of twenty-four perfons, including the
prefident, vicc-prefident, treafurer, and fecretary ; and it i»
required that they be either painters, fculptors, architects,
or engravers, by profeflion.

SociF.TV of Engravers was eftablifhed in 1802, under the
patronage of the prince of Wales, a prefident, vice-prefident,
treafurer, and honorary iecretary, &c.

Society of Painters in Oil and Water-Colours was efta-
blifhed in 1804, under a prefident, treafurer, fecretary, and
committee of management.

Society of Archite3s was inftituted in 1791 ; and the
Architectural Society was formed in 1806, under a prefident,
two vice-prefidents, a fecretary, and treafurer.

Society for Infurance, &c. See Assurance and In-
surance.

Society, Medical. To this clafs belong feveral focieties,
the principal of which in our own country are the follow-
ing ; viz. the Medical Society of London, inftituted in the
year 1752, on the plan recommended by lord Bacon (De
Augm. Scicnt. lib. iv. cap. 2.), to revive the Hippocratic
method of compofing narratives of particular cafes, in which
the nature of the difeafc, the manner of treating it, and the
confequences, are to be fpccificd ; to attempt the cure of
thofe difeafes, which, in his opinion, have been too boldly
pronounced incurable ; and, laftly, to extend their enquiries
after the powers of particular medicines in the cure of par-
ticular cafes. The colleftions of this fociety have been al-
ready publifhcd, under the title of " Medical Obfervations
and Inquiries," in feveral volumes : — Society of Phyficians in
London, inftituted about the year 1764, the members of
which, who muft be merely licentiates of the College of
Phyficians, are elected by ballot, and meet once a fortnight
on Wednelday evening, for the purpofe of converfing on
tlie prevailing dii'eafcs, &c. and dine together once in a quar-
ter:— the Medical Society in Crane-court, inftituted in 1773»
under the direction of a council, confifting of a prefident,
treafurer, librarian, three phyficians, three furgeons, three
apothecaries, and three fecretaries : the members meet once
a fortnight, on Tuefday evening, and their council is an-
nually eleftcd in January, when aa oration is delirered by
G g i on*

SOCIETY.

one of the members on Tome medical fubjeft : — Society for
the Improvement of Medical Knowledge in London, efta-
blilhed in 1782, for the purpofe of collefting ufeful eflays
and obfervations for publication : the meetings of this fo-
ciety are held once a fortnight, on Tuefday evening, and
the members dine together once a quarter ; on which occa-
fion candidates for admiffion are ballotted for : the fociety is
under the direftion of a prefident, treafurer, two fecretaries,
and a committee for reviCng and felefting papers for publi-
cation, who are elefted annually by ballot : — the Medical So-
ciety of Edinburgh, to which the public are indebted for
fix volumes of curious and ufeful effays, coUedled princi-
pally by the late Dr. Monro, from June 1 731 to June 1736 ;
but this fociety was afterwards united to another, called the
Philofophical Society : — the Medical Society of Edinburgh,
incorporated by royal charter in 1778, under this title : this
inftitution appears to have been coeval with the eftabliihraent
of a regular fchool of phyfic in the univerfity, though none
of its records of an earher date than 1737 are now pre-
ferved : the ordinary members of this fociety are elefted by
ballot, and three diflentients exclude a candidate ; an ordi-
nary member may alfo be elefted an honorary member, who
enjoys the privileges of the others, and receives a diploma,
but is freed the obligation of attendance, delivering papers
in rotation, &c. to which the ordinary members are fubjeft ;
but in this cafe the votes niuft be unanimous ; the meetings
of this fociety are held every Saturday evening, in their
own hall, during the winter feafon, when papers on medical
fubjefts are delivered by the feveral members in rotation ;
and four of thefe are annually elefted to fill the chair in ro-
tation, with the title of annual prefidents.

The Royal Medical Society of Paris was inftituted in
1776. The members are divided into alfociates ordinary,
limited to thirty, honorary to twelve, extraordinary to fixty,
and foreign to fixty, and correfpondents. This fociety has
publiflied feveral volumes of Memoirs in 4to.

The Medical and Chinirgical Society of London, in Ve-
rulam Buildings, Gray's-Inn, was eftabliftied in 1805. Its
council confifts of a prefident, and 15 vice-prefidents : it
has a treafurer, two fecretaries, and a foreign fecretary.

Society, Philofophical, defignated by the ftyle and title
of the " Royal Inftitution," was eftabhihed in the year
1799, and in its charter of incorporation, ftates that it is
formed with a view " of diffufing the knowledge and facih-
tating the general introduftion of ufeful mechanical improve-
ments ; and for teaching, by courfes of philofophical lec-
tures and experiments, the application of fcience to the
common purpofes of life." In the execution of this plan,
a fpacious and commodious houfe was purchafed in Albe-
marle-ftreet, where convenient rooms have been prepared
for the reception and public exhibition of all fuch new me-
chanical inventions and improvements as fhall be thought
worthy of public notice, and proper to be publicly ex-
hibited ; and, more efpecially, of all fuch contrivances as
tend to increafe the conveniencies and comforts of life, to
promote domeltic economy, to improve tafte, or to advance
ufeful induftry. Working models are provided and exhi-
bited, of fuch new mechanical inventions as are applicable
to the common purpofes of life. A lefture room is alfo
fitted up for philofophical leftures and experiments ; a com-
plete laboratory and philofophical apparatus, with the necef-
fary inftruments for making philofophical and chemical ex-
periments, are provided ; and men of the firft eminence, in
various branches of fcience, are engaged for carrying into
full effeft this important and ufeful part of the plan. A
library well furnifhed with books in various departments of
literature and fcience is alfo provided. Accefs to the library
and leftures may be had on certain conditions.

4

Societies of a fimilar kind, but in a lefs perfeft and
fplendid ftate, although in fome refpefts no lefa ufeful, are
the London, Surrey, and Ruflel inllitutions. See the article
London.

Society of London, Philofophical, which owed its rife and
prefent flourilhing ilate, in a very great degree, to the aftive
and perfevering exertions of the ingenious T. J. Pettigrew, ^
efq. was founded in Oftober 1810. The objeas of this f
fociety, ftated in its addrefs to the public, are to fofter
genius, to eradicate unphilofophical prejudice, to increafe
the knowledge of nature and of man, to dettroy, as much
as poflible, the falfe definition of words, which has been fo
juftly reprobated by Bacon and Locke, as the origin of fo-
phiftry and mifconception ; but, above all, to remove the
barrier erefted by pedantry againft univerfal knowledge,
and to fubdue an efprit de corps, which has been introduced
into philofophy, tending to confine it within the narrow
limits of fefts, and preventing its natural diffufion among
mankind. The means adopted to attain thefe objefts are,
firft, to promote a literary talle by the ereftion of a library-
common to all the members ; humbly to diffufe more widely
a familiarity with fcience by leftures in every department of
philofophy ; and thereby to cultivate a correft mode of rea-
foning, by fubjefting thofe leftures to a rigorous fubfequent
inveitigation, and by introducing difcuflions which corre-
fpond with the general objefts of the fociety. In this
fociety there are three clafies of members, ^';a. ordinary,
honorary, and correfponding. Every ordinary member
pays at his entrance the fum of two guineas, which fhall
be repeated annually ; he fhall alfo fubfcribe to the regula-
tions of the fociety ; and upon withdrawing hirafelf forfeit
all title to the property of the fociety. No perfon fhall be
deemed eligible as an honorary member, unlefs he be author
of fome fcientific work of celebrity, or profeflor of fome
branch of philofophy ; and the fame qualifications are re-
quired in a correfponding member, except in the cafe of fuch
ordinary members, removed from town, as the council may
think proper to admit. A perfon propofed for admifCon
muft be recommended by three members, whofe names, to-
gether with that of the perfon nominated, fhall be hung up
in the fociety's lefture-room fifteen days previous to his
being ballotted for by the council. In ballots, three black
balls fhall be confidered as a rejeftion. Each member fhall
be allowed to introduce three perfons at the ordinary meet-
ings of the fociety ; and he fhall alfo be permitted to borrow
books of the fociety. The fociety fhall meet on every
Thurfday, at eight o'clock in the evening, and a lefture
fhall be delivered at every alternate Thurfday, and the in-
termediate meetings fhall be occupied in difcuffing the pre- 1
ceding lefture, or in the difculfion of fome philofophical |
queftion, which may have been fubmitted to and approved of
by the council. The fociety fhall meet every alternate
Tuefday evening at the fame time, to converfe on philofo-
phical fubjefts, or for the reading of papers previoufly pre-
fented to and approved of by the council. In the difcuf-
fions and proceedings of the fociety, theological and political
fubjefts fhall not be admitted.

The bufinefs of the fociety is condufted by a prefident,
eight vice-prefidents, a treafurer and fecretary, two cura-
tors, a regiftrar and afliftant, and a council compofed of j
eighteen members ; all of thefe are elefted annually. The ;
patrons of the fociety are the dukes of Kent and Suffex.
The number of members already amounts to 200, and the
library confifts of about 500 volumes. In both thefe re- g
fpefts the fociety is receiving numerous acceflions. 1
Society Iflands, in Geography, a clufter of fix iflands \a |
the Pacific ocean, fo called by captain Cook in 1769, be- ,
caufe they be contiguous to each other, fo that he did not

think

s o c

ihiiik It proper to diftingui(h them by any other namea than
thole by which they were known to the natives ; viz.
Ulietea, Otaiia, Bolabola, Huaheine, Tubai, and Maurua.
See each refpeAively. They are fituated between S. lat.
16° 10' and 16" 55', and between W. long. 150" 57' and 152°.
Ulietea and Otaha lie within about two miles of each other,
and are both inclofed within one reef of coral rocks, fo that
there is no pafTage for (hipping between them. This reef
forms feveral excellent harbours ; and though the entrances
into them are narrow, yet a (hip within them is exempt from
all injury. The inhabitants, climate, and produce, are fimi-
lar, in many refpefts, to thofe of Otaheite, from which
ifland they are not above 50 leagues dillant towards the
N. W. Captain Cook fays, " while we were employed about
thefe iflands, we expended very little of the fliip's provifions,
and were very plentifully iupplied with hogs, fowls, plan-
tains, and yams, which we hoped would be of great ufe to
us in our courfc to the fouthward ; but the hogs would not
eat European grain of any kind, pulfe, or bread-duft, fo
that we could not preferve them alive ; and the fowls were
▼ery foon feized with a difeafe that affeftcd the head, fo that
they continued to hold it down between their legs till they
died : much dependence, therefore, mud not be placed in
live-llock taken on board at thefe places, at leall not till a
difcovery is made of fome food which the hogs will eat, and
fome remedy for the difeafe of the poultry."

SociETY-Land, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of
New Hamplhire and county of HiUlborough ; containing
199 inhabitants.

SOCII, Allies, among the Romans. See Alli.\nce
and Social IVar.

SOCINIANS, in Ecchftaftcal Hiftory, a feft of Anti-
trinitarians, who arc faid to have derived this denomination
from the illuflrious family of the Sozzini, which flourilhed
a long time at Sienna, in Tufcany, and produced feveral
great and eminent men ; and, among others, La;hu6 and
Faullus Socinus, who are commonly fuppofed to have been
the founders of this fedt. Lxlius was the fon of Marianus,
a famous lawyer, and diltinguifhed by his genius and learn-
ing, as well as by the luitre of an unblcmifhed and virtuous
conduct. Having conceived a diigull againft popery, and
difapproviag many doftrines of the church, he left his coun-
try in 1547 ; and having palled four years in vifiting France,
England, Holland, Germany, and Poland, he at lait fixed
his refidence at Zurich, in Switzerland, where he died in
1562, in the thirty-feventh year of his age. Although he
adopted the Helvetic confeffion of f'iitl)» and profelled him-
felf a member of the church of Switzerland, he entertained
doubts with refpedl to certain doftrines of religion, whicii
he communicated to fome learned men, whofe judgment he
refpefted, and in whofe friendftiip he could confide. How-
ever, liis icntiments were propagated in a more public man-
ner, after his death ; as Fauftus, his nephew and his heir,
w luppofed to have drawn from the papers he left behind
him, that religious fyllem, upon wiiich the feft of the So-
cinians was founded. This Faullus Socinus was born at
Sienna in 1539; and having continued many years in his
own country, twelve of which he fpent in the court of the
grand duke of Tufcany, lie determined, in the year 1574,
i and the thirty-fifth of his age, to withdraw from Italy into
Germany. During this period he had laboured under many
difadvantages in the purfuit of knowledge, and his iludies
had been chiefly confined to the rudiments of logic and ju-
rifprudence ; but at Bafil, where he firlt refidcd after his
voluntary exile, he devoted himfelf for three years to the
Ihidy of theology, under the direftion and aflillance of the
writings of his uncle Lxlius ; and in 1577 he began to pro-

s o c

pagate his religious opinions without referve or difguife. la
1578 he was invited by Blandrata, a perfon of eminence in
Tranfylvania, to compofe the commotions which were occa-
fioned by a party under the lead of Francis David, in the
Antitrinitarian churches of that country. But faihng of
fuccefs, he removed to Poland in 1579, zealoufly wilhing to
join himfelf to the Unitarian churches ; but here he fuffered
many vexations, and much oppofition, from a confiderable
number of perfons, who looked upon fome of his tenets as
highly erroneous. At length, however, he vanquilhed the
animofity of his enemies by his gentlenefs and firmnefs, by
his addrefs and eloquence, and the favour and proteftion of
the nobility, with which he was honoured, and lived to form
the Unitarians into one community, under his own fuperin-
teadency and direftion. Having retired to a village about
nine miles from Cracow, he there clofed his life, in the
year 1604 > ^^"^ ^^^ following epitaph was infcribed on his
tomb :

" Tota licet Babylon deftruxit tefta Lutherus,
Muros Calvinus, fed fundamenta Socinus :"

i. t. Luther deftroyed the houfes of Babylon, Calvin the
walls, but Socinus fubverted the foundations. The fenti-
ments of Socinus, with regard to the principal theological
fubjefts controverted among Chrillians, will appear in the
following abltraft of them from his own writings ; fome of
which were pubhlhed during his own life, and fome after
his death ; and the coUeftion of them, in two volumes,
folio, forms part of the " Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum."
With regard to the nature and charafter of Chrift, Socinus
maintained, that he was a man, conceived and formed in the
womb of the Virgin, without the intervention of a man, by
the power of the divine fpirit ; on this account he was, in
a pecuhar fenfe, God's own and only begotten fon, as no
other perfon ever was the fon of God in the fame way, by
the immediate origin of his being. Moreover, he was con-
llituted the fon of God by his refurreftion from the dead,
and was then begotten by God, when God raifed him from
the dead. As to thofe pafl'ages which have been fuppofed
to alfert Chrill's exillence in the heavenly world, previous
to iiis birth and appearance among men, he explains them,
by aUeging that Chrilt himfelf, after he was born, and be-
fore he entered on the office affigned him by his Father, was,
in confequence of the divine counfel and agency, in heaven,
and remained there for fome time ; that he might hear from
God, and being with him, ar- the Scripture fays, might fee
thofe things which he was to announce to the world, in the
name of God himfelf; though he explains John, iii. 13, as
figurative language. Accordingly, in explaining the firlt
words of St. .John's gofpel, In the beginning ivas the ivord,
&c. he obferves, that the terms, in the beginning, do not re-
late to eternity, but to the order of thofe things which
•John was about to write concerning .Tefus Chrill ; imitating
Mofes, who, in writing his hiftory, opens his introduftion
with this word beginning, in reference to the tranfaftions
which he was about to record. And Jcfus is called the
Word, he iuppofes, not on account of his nature or fub-
(lance, but btcaufe of the ofEce he difcharged when he re-
vealed to us the word of tiie gofpel from the Father. The
luard auas luith God, i. e. Jefus, as the word of God, before
he was pointed out by the preaching of the Baptilt, was
known to God alone. And the ivord ivas God: the term
God, fays this commentator, does not denote (ubllancc, but
autliority, power, and beneficence, whicii were derived from
the Father, and which entitled Chrift, according to the
opinion ol this writer, to adoration and worlhip. His ideas
of the cfikacy of our Lurd't death and mediation are utterly

rcpuguant

SOCINIANS.

repugnant to thofe that have been generally entertained by
pcrfons called Calvinifts. Nothing, he fays, can be more
incompatible with each other, than a free pardon and fatis-
faftion. He adds, no man of judgment and piety ought to
entertain the idea of a fatisfaftion for fin ; fince it plainly
does very much derogate from the power and authority, or
goodnefs and mercy of God ; and though a propitiation be
not the fame thing as a fatisfaftion, and though God never
refrained from the punifltment of fin, on account of any
real fatisfadlion given him, yet it is certain, that in remit-
ting the punifliment of our fins by Jefus Chrilt no propitia-
tion intervened ; but God hath, from his free will, exhibited
himfelf fo propitious to us in Chriit, as not to exaft the
punifhment of our fins, though he might julUy have done it.
However, he allows not only that the death of Chrill, and
the pouring out of his blood for us, was an offering and
facrilice to God, but that this facrifice may be faid to have
been offered up for our fins in order to their being forgiven ;
yet he apprehended, that this facrifice, as far as it was ex-
piatory, was offerod by Chrift, not on the crofs, but in
heaven itfelf, after his refurreftion. To which purpofe he
obferves, that Chrift did not obtain eternal redemption for
us before he entered into the holy place, and tliere affamed
the priefV.iood ; and without a prielthood no expiatory offer-
ing could be made.

Socini'.s does alfo exprefsly deny the diftinft perfonality
of the Holy Ghoft, underllanding by the Holy Spirit a
divine energy or influence.

With refpcA to the nature and ftate of man, Socinus
thought, that the progenitor of our race was mortal, i. e.
liable to death, by reafon of his frame, and incapable of
exemption, without an exertion of the divine favour and
influence, which was not granted to him at creation ; and,
therefore, when the apoftle afferts, that by fin death entered
into the world, he meant not natural mortality, but the ne-
ceflity of dying, or eternal death. To this purpofe he ex-
plains himfelf: Adam, if he had not finned, might have
been preferved from death by the kindnefs of God, though
naturally mortal; or, if he had died, have been rellored to
life, and made immortal. By his fin he did, as it were, re-
fufe to give himfelf and his pollerity this blefling ; and,
therefore, unlefs the favour of God be renewed to us, we
muft all die, and remain in the ffate of the dead. As to
the nature of the human foul, it feems to have been the
opinion of Socinus, that, after this life, it doth not fo fubfill
of itfelf, without the body, as to be capable of any reward
or punifhment, or any fenfations at all. To the queftion,
whether the firft man had any original righteoufnefs before
he finned \ Socinus replies, that if by original righteoufnefs
be meant fuch a condition that he could not fin, this cer-
tainly was not the ftate of Adam, as it is clear he did fin.
But if original righteoufnefs confilled in this, that his reafon
had the abfolute rule over his appetites and fenfes, and in-
variably directed them, then the opinion of thofe who afcribe
it to Adam is fupported by no argument : hence it fliould
feem from Adam's fall, tiiat there was no perfeft harmony
between them ; and that his appetites and fenfes had the
dominion over his reafon. If it be afked, fays Socinus,
whether there is original fin ? he anfwers, this is the fame as
the inquiry, whether men, when they are born, becanfe tney
derive their origin from Adam, have, on account of his fall,
contrafted any guilt or punifhment, or are obnoxious to
either ? Therefore, fince the confent of the will muft con-
ftitute guilt, and there can be no punifhment without ante-
cedent guilt, it feems not at all poffible that either of thefe
fhould pertain to a man when he is born, as he neither has,
nor could have before, any ufe of hie own will. If by ori-

ginal fin be underftood certain innate deCres, or evil oon-
cupifcence in man, and a pronenefs to fin, this opinion So-
cinus denies, and labours to refute ; concluding upon the
whole, that there is no fuch thing as original fin, i. e. a taint
or pravity in confequence of the fin of the firft roan, necef-
farily produced, or by any means inflifted on the human
race ; and that no other evil neceffarily flows to all his pof-
terity from that firft tfanfgreffion, than by fome means or
other the iieceffity of dying ; not indeed through the in-
fluence of that tranfgreflion, but becaufe man, being na-
turally mortal, was on that account left by God to his own
natural mortality, and what was natural became ncceflary
as a punifhment on the offender ; confequently, they who
were born of him muft be born in the fame circumftances,
for he was deprived of nothing he naturally had or could
have. From reafoning on this fubjeft, Socinus concludes^
that there is a freedom of will in man, and that the powers
of man are not fo few and feeble, but that he m2y, with the
afTiftancc of God, obey the divine law by the right ufe and
application of his powers. Divine affiftance he confiders as
external and internal ; and the latter, he fays, is twofold :
the one, when God bv fome means imprefleth on the heart
what he hath promiied to them that obey him ; and the
other, when he inftrufts and illuminates the mind rightly to
difcern his will, in thofe inftances which cannot be exprefsly
contained in his written word : however, this internal affift-
ance belongs onlv to thofe who have made good ufe of the
external. The doftrine of predellination Socinus abfolutely
denies, and he endeavours to account for the prefcience of
the Deity, without admitting that notion of his decrees,
which fome divines have adopted. On the head of juftifi-
cation, Socinus obferves, that God out of his mere mercy
juflifies us, i. e. pronounces us righteous, and grants us for-
givenefs of fins, and eternal life ; but he requireth from us,
before this be done, that we believe in Chrift, /'. e. confide
in and obey him ; and our good works, or the obedience we
render to Chrilt, though not the efficient or meritorious
caufe, are the fine qua non, or indifpenfable pre-requifite of
our juftification before God, and eternal falvation. But if
any Ihould deviate from this obedience, by falling into fin,
and continuing therein, they ceafe to be jutlified ; never-
thelefs, by repentance and amendment of life, they may be
juftified again : but this fecond repentance, he fays, is not
in our power, God granting an ability for it to whom he
pleafeth.

Socinus denied the perpetuity of baptifm, as an ordinance
in tiie church, alleging that it was not prefcribed for thofe
who in any other way have publicly given their names to
Chrift, or from their earlieft years have been educated in the
Chriltian difcipline ; or if it is to be retained in thefe days,
he apprehends it fhould be retained principally on account
of thofe who have been converted from other religions to the
Chriftian. He farther thought, that, in order to the right
adminiftration of baptifm, it is previoufly neceflary that the
baptized perfon fhould be a believer, and he, therefore,
reckoned the practice of infant baptifm unfcriptural and
erroneous.

After this compendious abftraft of the chief theological
' fentiments of Socinus, it is proper to obferve, that, accord-
ing to the ufual manner of fpeaking, all are denominated
Socinians, whofe opinions bear a certain affinity to the
fyftem of Socinus : but, in a ftrift and proper fenfe, they
only are deemed the members of this feft, who embrace
wholly, or with few exceptions, the form of theological
doftrine, which Socinus either drew up himfelf, or received
from his uncle, and delivered to the Unitarian brethren, or
Socinians, in Poland and Tranfylvania. Their fentiments

are

s o c

are explained at large in their Catechifm, printed feveral
times under the title of " Catechefis Ecclefiarum Poloni-
carum, unum Deum Patrem, ilhufque Filium unigonitum,
una cum Sanfto Spiritu, ex facra Scriptura cor.fitentium."
See Catechifm of Racow.

The Socinians, like other fefts diftinguifhed by one
o-eneral denomination, are divided into feveral parties.
Some differ from Socinus with regard to the worfhip of
Chrill ; fome deny the eternity of the future pur'fliiiient of
the wicked ; and fome apprehend it contradidory to main-
tain God's foreknowledge of future contingencies, &c. See
BuDN^ANS, Farnovians, and Semijudaizers.

The chief fchool of the Socinians was at Racow, where
they obtained the grant of a fettlement, and there all their
firll books were publiihed. But in the year 1638, in con-
fequence of the intemperate zeal of fome (tudents of the
Unitarian academy in this city againit Popery, a law was
enafted at Warfaw, by which it was decreed, that the aca-
demy of Racow fhould be dellroyed, its profeiTors baniihed,
the pnnting-houfe of the Socinians dellroyed, and their
churches fliut up. This law was immediately executed ;
and fimilar edicts were enaded in other parts of Poland.
In 1658 another fevere aft was publiflied by a diet held at
Warfaw, requiring all the Socinians to leave the kingdom
for ever, and denouncing capital punilhment againll all who
(hould profefs their opinions, or harbour their perfons.
This terrible edift was renewed in 1661 ; and in confequence
of thefe meafurcs, the Socinians fought an afylum among
their brethren in Tranfylvania : a confiderable number was
difperfed througrh the adjacent provinces of Silefia, Brandeii-
burgh, and Pruflia, where their pollerity Itill fubfill.
Others repaired to Holland and England. In Tranfylvania
they ftill continue numerous ; and are much at their eafe.
In Holland their number is not confiderable ; and all who
profefs themfelves fuch are by law excluded from the general
toleration which prevails in that kingdom. They are called
Collegians.

As to the prefent ftate of the Socinians in Poland, a late
writer obferves, that fince their fuppreffion they have had
churches, which have adembled in private houfes, woods,
or fields, as opportunity permitted ; and thefe alTemblies
have been condufted under the infpeftion of regular mi-
nilters, educated at Leyden and Amlterdam. Since the
edift of 1661, they have been included by the Romifh party
under the gencial name of Diffidents : however, in thofe
parts of Poland, which by the late partition fell to the lot
of Pruflia, Ruflia, or the emperor, tlicy have now their
liberty in common with their other diffident brethren, and
their public places of worfhip. The only fociety of Socinians
in England was that formed by Mr. John Biddle, under the
patronage of Mr. Thomas Firmin, and his adherents were
called Bidellians ; but this name was loll in the more com-
mon appellation of Socinians, or, what they preferred. Uni-
tarians. They differed from Socinus, and the foreign
Unitarians, in maintaining the perfoiiality of the Holy
Spirit. This fociety does not appear to have fubfiilcd after
the death of Biddle ; nor have the Socinians, though their
fentimtiits have been adopted by feveral, made any figure as
a community in England. The moil dilling-uiflied Socinian
writers, in Poland, were Crelliu.'., Smalcius, Volkelius,
Slichtingius, Wolzogenius, Przipcovius, and Staniflaiis
Lubiaiiicius : to this number fome have added Grotius ;
and in later times we might enumerate Ee Cltrc, Biddle,
Lardner, Lowman, Fleming, I^indfey, Priefiley, &c. Sec
on this fubjcft Socini Oper. torn. i. and ii. paffim. Mo-
ftitim's Eccl. Hill. vol. iv. p. 167, &c. 8vo. Toulmin's
Life of Socinus, paflim. See Unitaiuans.

s o c

SOCK. See Soccus.

Sock and Scythe-Land. See HusBAND-Lan^.

Sock, in Agriculture, provincially the fhare of a plough,
er that part that opens the land ; but properly the iron
part, or fock, which is put upon it. They are of different
kinds, as fharp-pointed and feathered on the edge, &c.

The iharp-pointed fock is the mofl proper and befl
adapted for all the rough ftoHy forts of land, being the leaft
in danger of being thrown out of work in them. They arCt
therefore, the moll commonly employed. The feather-
edged fock is the moll ufeful in all fuch foils as are in a
great meafure free from flones, though they may be rough
on the top. They are, however, occafionally made ufe of
in other circumllances and cafes. The feathers of them
vary confiderably in their nature and forms ; fome being
fmaU and flat, others large and upright, fo as to fuit dif-
ferent purpofes and intentions.

There is alfo a mixed kind of fock, which has net only a
pointed part, but a feathered one likewife. This is found
very ufeful in ploughing, in many cafes, where the lands are
of the lefs flony kinds.

All the different kinds of focks fhould be made in fuch a
manner as to fit the fheath, or fore-part of the head of the
plough in the mofl exaft manner, as much in the bufinefs
of ploughing depends upon this being nicely adjufled. See
Plough.

Sock, Paring, that fort of fock which is made ufe of oa
any common plough, for the purpofe of paring off the fur-
face of fward land. A fock of this kind may be feen at
fg. 9. Plate Paring Ploughs, which has an upright cut-
ting feather, with an outlide cutting wing, and a middle
hollow part to be put upon the fheath or head of any com-
mon plough. It is very convenient and ufeful on many
occafions, as it is capable of being employed upon any
plough which the farmer may chance to have by him.

SbCKE, the drainage of a farm-yard, or any other yard
where dung is iaid. See Y AKM-Tard.

SocKE-Pit, the receiver or receptacle of the farm-yard
drainage or liquids.

SOCKET. Ball and focket. See Ball.

SOCKETS, in a Ship, are the holes "vhich the pintles
of the murthering pieces go into.

SOCKIA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas ; 75 miles S. of Medina.

SOCKNA, a town of Africa, in Fezzan ; 150 miles
N.N.W. of Mourzouk.

SOCLE, or ZocLE, in ylrrbiltauie, a flat, fquare mem-
ber under the bales of pedcllals, of flatues, vafes, &c.
which it ferves as a foot, or lland.

The word is French, formed from the Italian ■x.tccoh, or
the Latin yorcwj, the fhoe of the ancient comic aftors. Vi-
truvius calls it quadra ; we frequently denominate it plinth.

Socle, Continued, is a kind of continued Hand, or pe-
deflal, without either bafe or corniche, ranging round the
whole building; called, by V'nr\i\\as, Jlereobata ; and, by
the French, fouhaj'cmtnt.

SOCLO, in Geography, a river on the coaft of the illand
of Muidoro, which runs into the fca, N. lat. 22° 56'. E.
long. 121° 15'.

SOCMEN, or SoKKMEN, Sccmanni, fuch tenants as
held their lands and tenements in focitge ; but the tenants in
ancient demefne fecm mofl properly to be called /m man/.
Sec Soc and Villenaok.

SOCNA, in our Old Writers, a privilege, liberty, or
franchife. The word is Saxon

SOCO, in Ornithology, the nnme of a Brafiliau bird of
the heron-kind, the ardca Brafiiienjit of Linnxus, icmark-

ablei

s o c

able, beyond all the reft of that genus, for the length of its
neck. It is very common in the Brafils ; it is fmaller than the
common heron ; its beak is ftrong, ilraight, and (harp ; its tail
fhort ; its head and neck brown, and variegated with black ;
and its body is of the fame colours in different variegations,
but its wings have a mixture of whitenefs. See Heron.

SOCOA, in Geography, a fea-port of France, in the
department of the Lower Pyrenees ; 8 miles S.S.W. of
Bayonne. N. lat. 43° 14'. W. long. 1" 36'.

SOCOCA, a town ef Peru, in the diocefe of La Paz ;
80 miles E.S.E. of Lipas.

SOCOH, Soco, Socho, or Shoco, in Ancieni Geography,
a city of Judah (Jofti. xv. 35; i Sam. xvii. i.), repaired
by Heber (i Chron. iv. 18.), and the place in which his
family refided ; and afterwards fortified by Rehoboam.
(2 Chron. xi. 7.) According to Eufebius, there were tsvo
cities named Socoh, the higher and the lower ; 9 miles from
Eleutheropolis towards Jerufalem.

SOCOME, in our Law-Bookt, &c. a cuftom of grind-
ing com at the lord's mill.

There is a bond-foconts, where the tenants are bound to it ;
and love-focome, where they do it freely, out of affeftion to
the lord. See Molt A.

SOCONUSCO, in Geography, a province of Mexico,
in the audience of Guatimala, bounded on the north by the
province of Chiapa, on the eaft by Vera Paz and Guatimala,
on the fouth by the Pacific ocean, and on the weft by the
Pacific ocean and Guaxaca. The climate is very hot, the
rainy feafon from April to September, and ftorms are very
frequent ; fo that the country is far from being either healthy
or pleafant ; nor does the foil produce much corn, but it
affords great quantities of indigo and cocoa-nuts, which are
exported by fea to all the other parts of New Spain. The
few Spaniards of this country are very opulent.

SocoNusco, or Gue-vetlan, a town of Mexico, capital of
a province of the fame name, fituated on a river near the
North Pacific ocean ; 460 miles S.E. of Mexico. N. lat.
15° 28'. W. long. 94° 36'.

SOCORRO, an ifland in the North Pacific ocean, about
20 miles in circumference, uninhabited, and barren ; about
200 miles W. froln the coaft of Mexico. N. lat. 18° 30'.
W. long. 120° 40'.

SOCOS, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, near the eoaft of
Africa. S. lat. 19° 45'.

SOCOTAI, a town of Upper Siam ; 30 miles S.W. of
Porfelouc. N. lat. 17° 30'. E. long. 117°.

SOCOTAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Arok-
hage ; 120 miles E. of Arokhage.

SOCOTORA, or SocoTnA, an ifland in the Arabian fea,
about 25 leagues from Cape Guardafu, in length about
24 leagues, and in breadth 16. Its fliore is bold, and af-
fords fafe anchorage and good ports : two of its harbours
and bays, viz. thofe of Benin and Cora, are particularly
diftinguifhed, on account of the fecurity they give to fliip-
ping againll every wind that blows. Of this ifland, though
much frequented by different trading nations, very various
and contradictory accounts have been given by different
authors. Some fay that it has only one town, called " Ta-
mart," or " Tamary ;" whilft others fay, that this is the
chief of three towns ; and others again ftate, that it has
neither town, village, nor houfe, and that the inhabitants
flicker themfelves from the heat of the fun in fubterraneous
dens and caveo. It is agreed, however, that the ifland is
populous and fertile, under the government of a prince, or
fultan, who was tributary to the fherifTs of Arabia. The
inhabitants are moitly Mahometans, who denominate them-
felves Arabs, and who referable them in their manners and

s o c

language. The whole ifland abounds in cattle and fruit,
with which, befides fome other commodities, they trade to
Goa, where they are more favourably received than the na.
tive Arabs, who are not allowed to enter that town without
paflports. The produce of the ifland confifts chiefly in
aloes, for which it is proverbially famous, frankincenfe, am-
bergris, dragon's blood, rice, dates, and coral, which pafs
from Goa to many parts of the Indies, and to all the king-
doms of Europe. The Eait India fhips formerly flopped
here, when difappointed of their paflage by the monfoons ;
but of late the periods of thefe winds have been fo well afcer-
tained, that this port is entirely neglefted. N. lat. 12° i ;'.
E. long. 54°.

SOCRATES, in Biography, an ancient moral philo-
fopher, eminently diftinguifhed by his principles and con-
duft, and proverbially recognized as one of the wifeft and
beft men, whofe name and character hiltory has recorded.
He was horn at Alopece, a vfllage near Athens, in the
fourth year of the 77th Olympiad, B.C. 469. His paren-
tage was obfcure ; his father, Sophronifcus, being a fta-
tuary, and his mother, Phxnareta, a midwife ; and at an
early age he was employed in his father's buiinefs, and it
faid to have executed ftatues of the habited Graces, which
were allowed a place in the citadel of Athens. His patri-
mony, upon the death of his father, was only the fmaU fum
of 80 minae, or about 300/. ; and this fum he loft by the
difhonefty of a relation, with whom his father had entrufted
it. Thus reduced to the necefTity of fupporting himfelf by
manual labour in the cxercife of his profeflion, as a ftatuary,
he could only command occafional intervals, which he de-
voted to the ftudy of philofophy. He foon, however, ob-
tained the patronage of Crito, a wealthy Athenian, who
engaged him in the office of inftrufting his children ; and in
this fituation he availed himlelf of the opportunities, which
were thus afforded him, of attending the public leftures of
the moft eminent philofophers. Ardently devoting himfelf
to his favourite purfuits, he chofe, for his firlt preceptor,
Anaxagoras ; and when he left Athens, he attached himfelf
to Archelaus. Prodicus, the fophift, was his preceptor in
eloquence, Evenus in poetry, Theodorus in geometry, and
Damo in mufic ; and he alfo derived confiderable aflillance
in his education from Afpafia, a woman highly celebrated
for her intelleftual as well as perional accomplifliments, to
whofe houfe perfons of the molt diftinguifhed charafter re-'
forted. So diligent and fo fuccefsful was Socrates in the
improvement of tliefe advantages, that his endowments, both
natural and acquired, attrafted attention ; and he appeared
at Athens, equally diftinguifhed as a true philofopher and a
good citizen. The mihtary valour ot Socrates was no lefs
confpicuous than the other quahties which were more
adapted to a retired life ; nor did he decline any fervice, how-
ever hazardous or difficult, which private friendfhip or the
public intereft demanded. On one occafion he preferved
the life and armS of Alcibiades, when he fell wounded in an
engagement, in which they were jointly concerned ; and in
order to encourage the rifing merit of this noble youth, he
declined the prize of valour, which was unqueftionably due
to himfelf, and gave his vote that it might be beftowed on
Alcibiades. On another occafion, he hazarded his own
life, in order to refcue Xenophon, who was left wounded
on the field of battle, and earned him on his (boulders till
he was out of re:ich of the enemy.

Socrates, dechning mihtary expeditions, fettled at Athens ;
and he was upwards of 60 years, before he undertook to
ferve his country in any civil office. Accordingly he was
chofen to reprefent his own diftrift in the fenate of 500 ;
and though he was firft treated contemptuoufly by liis col-
leagues.

i

SOCRATES.

leagues, on account of his inexperience, he foon convinced
them that ia wifdom and integrity he was much their fu-
perior. N-) confideration could ever induce him to give a
vote, or fanftion a nieafure, that appeared to iiim to be
contrary to juftice and the laws ; and in oppolition to the
thirty tyrants, whofe proceedings focmed to him to be cruel
and oppreflive, he expofed even Ins life to danger in fup-
porting-, with undaunted firmnefs, the rights of his fellow-
citizens ; and when they iflued an order to apprehend a
wealthy citizen of Salamis, which he difapproved, he refufed
to execute it, alleging that he would rather fuffer death
himfelf, than be inftrumental in inflifting it unjuftly upon
another. Thefe proofs of public virtue, both in a military
and civil capacity, fays one of his biographers, are fufficient
to entitle the name of Socrates to a diftinguifhed place in the
catalogue of good citizens. But his higheit honour and
praife are thofe which belong to him as a philofopher and
moral preceptor. Obferving with regret how the Athenian
youth were milled, and even corrupted in their principles
and tafte, by the mode of teaching that prevailed among
fpeculative philofophers and artful fophilts, he determined
to inftitute a new and more ufeful method of inftruftion.
He jultly conceived the true end of philnfophy to be, not
to make an oftentatious difplay of fuperior leaniing and
ability in fubtle difputations or ingenious conjeftures, but
to free mankind from the dominion of pernicious prejudices ;
to correA their vices ; to infpire them with the love of
virtue, and thus conduft them in the path of wifdom to
true felicity. He, therefore, allumed the charadter of a
moral philofopher ; and, looking upon the whole city of
Athens as his fchool, and all who were difpofed to lend him
their attention as his pupils, he feized every occafion of
communicating moral wifdom to his fellow-citizens. He
pafled his time chiefly in pubhc. It was his cuilom, in the
morning, to vifit the places made ufe of for walking and
public exercifes ; at noon, to appear among the crowds in
the markets or courts ; and to fpend the reft of the day in
thofe parts of the city which were moft frequented. Some-
times he coUefted an audience about him in the Lyceum,
(a pleafant meadow on the border of the river Ilyfl'us,)
where he delivered a difcourfe from the chair, whillt his
auditors were feated on benches around him. At other
times he converfed, in a lefs formal way, with any of his
fellow-citizens in places of common refort, or with hio
friends at meals, or in their hours of amnlcmcnt ; thus mak-
ing every place to which he came a fchool of virtue. Not
only did young men of rank and fortune attend upon his
leftures, but he fought for difciples even among mechanics
and labourers.

The method of inftruftion, which Socrates chiefly made
ufe of, was, to propofe a feries of queftions to the pcrfon
with whom he converfed, in order to lead him to fome un-
fcrefeen conclufion. He firlt gained the confent of his
refpondent to fome obrious truths, and then obliged him to
admit others, from their relation, or relcmblancc, to thofe
to which they had already affented. Without making ufe
of any dircft argument or perfuafion, he chofe to lead the
perfon he meant to inftrudt, to deduce the truths of w^hich
he wifhcd to convince him, as a neceflary confequence from
his own concedlons. He commonly condufted thefe con-
ferences with fuch addrt-fs, as to conceal his defign, till the
refpondent had advanced too far to recede. On fome occa-
fions, he made ufe of ironical language, that vain men
might be caught in their own replies, and be obliged to
confefs till ir ignorance. He never afl'umed the air of a
morofe and rigid preceptor, but communicated ufeful in-
VoL. XXXIII.

ftruftion with all the eafe and pleafantry of polite con-
verfation.

The modefty of Socrates was no lefs diftinguilhed than
his wifdom. He profefTed " to know only this, that he
knew nothing ;" meaning by this declaration, which he
often repeated, that he had no other intention than to con-
vince his hearers of the narrow limits of the human under-
ftanding. Far from encouraging univerfal fcepticifm, he
always ipoke confidently and decidedly on moral fubjefts ;
but at the fame time he wifhed to expofe to contempt the
arrogance of thofe pretenders to fcience, who would not
acknowledge themfelves to be ignorant of any thing. He
preferred moral to fpeculative wifdom ; and therefore con-
demned thofe whofe whole attention and time were occupied
about abftrufe refearches into nature, and who took no
pains to render themfelves ufeful to mankind. His favourite
maxim was, " whatever is above us, doth not concern us."
He eitimated the value of knowledge by its utility, and
recommended the ftudy of geometry, allronomy, and other
fciences, only fo far as they admit of a praftical application
to the purpofes of human life. His great objeft, in all
his conferences and difcourfes, was to lead men into an
acquaintance with themfelves ; to convince them of their
follies and vices ; to inlpire them with the love of virtue ;
and to furnifh them with ufeful moral inftruftions. Cicero
might, therefore, very juftly fay of Socrates, that he was
the firlt who called down philofophy from heaven to earth,
and introduced her into the public walks and domellic re-
tirements of men, that fhe might inltruft them concerning
life and manners.

The moral lefTons which Socrates taught, he himfelf
diligently praftifed ; whence he excelled other philofophers
in perfonal merit, no lefs than in his method of inftruftion.
His conduft was uniformly fuch as became a teacher of
moral wifdom. His mind, through the whole of his life,
was iupcrior to the attraftions of wealth and power. His
inftruftions were gratuitous, and he refufed rich prefents,
that were offered to him by Alcibiades and others, though
his wife earneltly importuned him to accept them. He
wanted little for his own perfonal accommodation. In his
clothing and food, he confulted only the demands of nature.
Although his fare was fimple, he was hofpitable ; and
fomctimes invited men of fuperior rank to partake of his
meals. On one of thefe occafions, his wife complained of
the incompetency of their piovifion for their guefts ; but to
thefe complaints he merely replied, that if his guefts were
wife men, they would be iatisfied with the provifions which
his table afforded ; if otherwife, they were unworthy of
notice. " Whillt others," fays he, " live to eat, wife men
eat to live." He knew, that temperance was conducive to
health, and he found by experience that this was the cafe ;
for he cicapcd infcftion in the midit of the plague which
proved in fatal to his fellow-citizens.

Although he admired a fair external form, as the index of
a mind poliellcd, or at Icaft capable, of moral beauty, and
converfed freely with young perfons of both fexes, in order
to afhil their progrefs in wifdom and virtue ; yet his enemies
have never been able to fix upon him the charge of in-
continence. " Modern calumnies," fays our biographer,
" which impute to this great man vices, with which he
was never charged by his contemporaries, ought to be
treated with univerlal contempt." In his domellic connec-
tion he was unfortunate, yet he converted this into an
occafion of exercifing his virtue. Xantippe, of whom
many tales, that are mere fabrications, are related, was
without doubt a woman of a high and unmanageable fpirit.
H h Socrates

SOCRATES.

Socrates himfelf, however, allows that fhe poffefTed many
domeftic virtues ; and towards the clofe of his life, and
during his imprifonment, (he exprefled great affeftion for
her huftjand ; and, indeed, after twenty years' experience,
it would have been Itrange, if it had been otherwife. On
all occailons, however, at home and abroad, he maintained
an unruffled equanimity of temper ; always exercifmg that
felf-command, which is founded on virtuous principles, and
ftrengthened by refleftion and habit. In this refpeft he
was the more praife-worthy, as he himfelf acknowledges,
that he was, in his natural difpofition, prone to vice, but
that he had fubdued his inclinations by the power of reafon
and philofophy. This divine power of reafon was pro-
bably the genius, or demon, which, from time to time,
gave him inftruftion. Without admitting every thing
which his difciples have faid on this fubjeft, it is poffible
that Socrates might, in fome degree, be influenced by fuper-
ititious creduhty, concerning this demon ; for Xenophon
exprefsly attefts, that he believed that the gods fometimes
communicate to men the knowledge of future events, and
that, on thi« principle, he encouraged the practice of divi-
nation.

It was one of the maxims of Socrates, " that a wife man
will worfhip the gods according to the inftitutions of the
Hate to which he belongs." He taught, however, a doc-
trine concerning religion much more pure and rational, than
that which was delivered to the people by the priefts, and
he reprobated the popular fables concerning the gods.
Convinced of the weaknefs of the human underltanding,
and perceiving that the pride of philofophy had led his
predecefTors into futile fpeculations on the nature and origin
of things, he judged it mod confident with true wifdom
to fpeak with caution and reverence concerning the divine
nature. Neverthelefs, there can be no doubt that, whilft
he did not deny the exiltence of inferior divinities, he ac-
knowledged the being and providence of one Supreme
Deity, and paid homage, with a pious mind, to the fovereign
power.

In fine, Socrates, both on account of his abilities as a
moral preceptor, and on account of his perfonal merit, un-
queftionably deferves to be ranked in the firll order of
human beings. " The man," fays Xenophon, " whofe me-
moirs I have written, was fo pious, that he undertook
nothing without a(king counfel of the gods ; fo juft, that
he never did the fmallelt injury to any one, but rendered
efiential fervices to many ; fo temperate, that he never pre-
ferred pleafure to virtue ; and fo wife, that he was able,
even in the moll difBciiIt cafes, without advice, to judge
what was expedient and right. He was eminently qualified
to affilt others by his counlel ; to penetrate into men's
charafters ; to reprehend them for their vices ; and to excite
them to the praftice of virtue. Having found all thefe
excellencies in Socrates, I have ever eileemed him the moll
virtuous and the happieft of men."

Socrates, notwithftanding the fuperiority of his talents,
the excellence of his charafter, and the number of his fol-
\ lowers, who venerated and eiteemed him, had many enemies.
They were chiefly intereited Sophifls (fee Sophist), whofe
influence and whofe emoluments were dimimflied in confe-
quence of the prevalence of his doftrines and precepts. In
order to degrade him in the eftimation of the Athenian
youth, and to reftrain his popularity, they engaged Arif-
tophanes, the firil buffoon of the age, to write a comedy,
in which Socrates (hould be the principal charafter. Arif-
tophanes, pleafed with fo promifing an occafion of dif-
claying his low and malignant wit, undertook the tafk,

and produced the comedy of " The Clouds," flill extant in
his works. In this piece Socrates is introduced hanging
in a ba(ket in the air, and thence pouring forth abfurdity
and profanenefs. The philofopher, though he feldom
vifitcd the theatre, except when the tragedies of Euri-
pides were performed, attended the reprefentation of this
play, at a time when the houfe was crowded with ftrangers,
who happened to be at Athens during the celebration of a
Bacchanalian feftival. When the performer, who repre-
fented Socrates, appeared upon the ftage, a general whifper
pafled along the benches on which the ftrangers fat, to
inquire who the perfon was whom the poet meant to fatirize.
Socrates, who had taken his ftation in one of the mo(t
public parts of the theatre, obferved this circumftance ; and
immediately, with great coolnefs, rofe up, to gratify the
curiofity of the audience, and continued ftanding during
the remainder of the reprefentation. One of the fpeftators,
allonilhed at the magnanimity which this aftion difcovered,
afl<ed him, whether he did not feel himfelf mucli chagrined,
to be thus held up to public derifion. " By no means,"
replied Socrates, " I am only a holt at a public feltiva!,
where I provide a large company with entertainment."

Thefe efforts of envy and malice, however, were not
of long duration. When Ariitophanes attempted, the year
following, to renew the piece with alterations and additions,
the reprefentation was fo much difcouraged, that he was
obliged to difcontinue it. The confequence was, that the
Sophifts, and other opponents of Socrates, who appear to
have made ufe of the expedient of the theatrical reprefenta-
tion, in order to found the inclinations of the public, chofe
to poftpone the farther profecution of their malignant in-
tention to a more favourable opportunity.

From this time, Socrates continued, for many years, to
profecute his laudable defign of inftrufting and reforming
his fellow-citizens. But as he pcrfevered in oppofing every
kind of political corruption and oppreflion, both under the
democracy and oligarchy, the number of his enemies in-
creafed, and a conipiracv, which had been long concerted
againit his life, was refumed. Clandeltine arts were ufed,
after the diffolution of the tyranny, to excite a general
prejudice againll him. The people were induftrioufly re-
minded, that Cntias, who had been one of the molt cruel
of the thirty tyrants, and Alcibiades, who had infulted
religion by defacing the public Itatues of Mercury, and
performing a mock reprefentation of the Eleufinian myf-
teries, had, in their youth, been difciples of Socrates.
The minds of the people being thus inflamed, a diredl accu-
fation was preferred againft Socrates before the fupreme
court of judicature. His accufers were Anytus, a leather-
dreffer, who had long entertained a perfonal enmity againft
Socrates, for reprehending his avarice, in depriving his fons
of the benefits of learning, that they might purfue the
gains of trade ; Melitus, a young rhetorician, who was
capable of undertaking any thing for the fake of gain ; and
Lycon, who was glad of an opportunity of difplaying his
talents. The accufation, which was delivered to the
fenate under the name of Melitus, was this : " Melittts,
fon of Melitus, of the tribe of Pythos, accufeth Socrates,
fon of Sophronifcus, of the tribe of Alopece. Socrates
violates the laws, in not acknowledging the gods which
the ftate acknowledges, and by introducing new divinities.
He alfo violates the laws by corrupting the youth. Be his
punifhment death."

This charge was delivered upon oath to the fenate, and
Crito, a friend of Socrates, became f^rety for his ap
pearance on the day of trial. Aaytus, foon afterwards,

ient

SOCRATES.

fent a private meffage to Socrates, afTuring him, that if he
would dehlt from cenfuring his conduft, he would with-
draw his accufation. But Socrates refufcd to comply
with fo degrading a condition, and, with his ufual fpirit,
replied, " Whilll I live I will never difguife the truth, nor
fpeak otherwife than my duty requires." The interval
between the accufation and the trial he fpent in philofo-
phical converfations with his friends, chufing to diicourfe
upon any other fubject, rather than his own fituation. Her-
mogenes, one of his friends, was much Itruck with this cir-
cumftance, and aflced him, why he did not employ his time
in preparing his defence : " Becaufe," replied Socrates, " I
have never in my life done any thing unjuft." The eminent
orator Lyfias compofed an apology, in the name of his
matter, which he requeued him to adopt ; but Socrates
excufed himfelf by faying, that though it was eloquently
written, it would not fuit his charafter.

When the day of trial arrived, his accufers appeared in
the fenate, and attempted to fupport their charge in three
diilindl Ipccches, which llrongly marked their refpeftive cha-
rafters. Plato, who was a young man, and a zealous follower
of Socrates, then rofe up to addrefs the judges in defence of
his mafter : but whilft he was attempting to apologize for
his youth, he was abruptly commanded by the court to
fit down. Socrates, however, needed no advocate. Af-
cending the chair with all the ferenity of confcious inno-
cence, and with all the dignity of fuperior merit, he deli-
vered, in a firm and manly tone, an unpremeditated defence
of himfelf, which iilenced his opponents, and ought to have
convinced his judges. After tracing the progrefs of the
confpiracy which had been raifed againlt him to its true
fource, the jealoufy and refentment of men whofe ignorance
he had expofed, and whofe vices he had ridiculed and re-
proved, he diltinftly replied to the feveral charges brought
againll him by Melitus. To prove that he had not been
guilty of impiety towards the gods of his country, he ap-
pealed to his frequent praflice of attending the public reli-
gious feltivals. The crime of introducing new divinities,
with which he was charged, chiefly, as it feems, on the
ground of the admonitions which he profefTed to have re-
ceived from an invifibie power, he difclaimed, by pleading,
that it was no new thing for men to confult the gods, and
receive inllruftions from them. To refute the charge of
his having been a corrupter of youth, he urged the example
which he had uniformly exhibited of julUce, moderation,
and temperance, the moral fpirit and tendency of his dif-
courfes, and the effect which had aftually been produced by
his dodtrine upon the manners of the young. Then, dif-
daining to folicit the mercy of his judges, he called upon
them for that juflice, which their ofhce and their oath
obliged them to adminilter, and profefTing his faith and
confidence in God, rcfigned himfelf to their plcafiire.

The judges, whofe prejudices would not fuffer them to
pay due attention to this apology, or to examine with im-
partiality the merits of the canl'e, immediately declared him
guilty of the crimes of which he flood accufed. Socrates,
in this ftage of the trial, had a right to enter his plea againft
the punifhment which the accufers demanded, and inflead
of the fentence of death, to propnfe forae pecuniary amerce-
ment. I5ut he, at firft, peremptorily refufcd to make any
[iropofal of this kind, imagining that it might be conflrued
itito aii acknowledgment of guilt ; and afferted, that his
conduft merited, from tlie Itate, reward rather than punifh-
ment. At length, however, he was prevailed upon by his
friends to offer, upon their credit, a fine of thirty mine.
The judges, notwithftanding, Hill remained inexorable : they
proceeded, without farther delay, to pronounce fentence

upon him ; and he was condemned to be put to death by
the poifon of hemlock. Socrates received the fentence
with perfeifl compofure, and by a fmile teftified his con-
tempt both for his accufers and his judges. Then, turning
to his friends, he expreffed his entire fatisfaftion in the
recoUeftion of his pad life, and declared himfelf f;rmly
perfuaded, that pofterity would do fo much juflicc to bis
memory as to believe, that he had never injured or cor-
rupted any one, but had fpent his days in ferving his fellow,
citizens, by communicating to them, without reward, the
precepts of wifdom. Converfing in this manner, he was
conducted from the court to the prifon, which he entered
with a ferene countenance and a lofty mind, amidft the
lamentations of his friends.

On the day of the condemnation, it happened that the
fliip, which was employed to carry a culfomary annual
offering to the ifiand of Delos, fet fail. It was contrary
to the law of Athens, that, during this voyage, any capital
punifhment (hould be infliCled within the city. Thi« cir-
cumflance delayed the execution of the fentence againfl
Socrates for thirty days. So long an interval of painful
expeftation, however, only ferved to aflord farther fcope
for the difplay of his conflaiicy. When his friends were
with him, he coiiverfed with his ufual cheerfulnefs. In
their abfence, he amufed himfelf witli writing verfes. He
compofed a hymn in honour of Apollo and Diana, and
verfitied a fable of iEfop. His friends, flill anxious to
fave fo valuable a life, urged him to attempt his efcape,
or at leait to permit them to convey him away ; and Crito
went fo far, as to affure him that, by his intereft with the
gaoler, it might be eafily accomplifhed, and to offer him
a retreat in Theffaly ; but Socrates rejefted the propofal,
as a criminal violation of the laws ; and aflced them, whether
there was any place out of Attica which death could not
reach.

News being, at length, brought of the return of the fhip
from Delos, the officers, to whofe care he was committed,
delivered to Socrates, early in the morning, the final order
for his execution, and immediately, according to the law,
fet him at liberty from his bonds. His friends, who came
thus early to the prifon that they might have an oppor-
tunity of converfing with their mailer through the day,
found his wife fitting by him with a child in her arms.
As foon as Xantippe faw them, fhe burll into tears, and
faid, " O Socrates, this is the laft time your friends will
ever fpeak to you, or you to them." Socrates, that the
tranquillity of his lafl moments might not be diilurbed by
her unavailing lamentations, requcftcd that file might be
conducted home. With the mod frantic expreffions of
grief, flw left the prifon. An interefling converfation then
paffed between Socrates and his friends, which chiefly turned
upon the immortality of the foul. In the courfe of thi«
converfation, Socrates exprefled his difapprobation of the
pradlice of fuicide, and aflured his friends, that his chief
fupport in his prefent fituation was an expeftation, though
not unmixed with doubts, of a happy exiftcnce after
death. " It would be incxcufeable in me," faid he, " to
defpife death, if I were not perfuaded that it will conduft
me into the prefence of the gods, who are the moil
righteous governors, and into the focicty of jufl and good
men : but I derive confidence from the hope, that fome-
tliing of man remains after death, and that the condition of
good men will tiien be much better than that of the bad."
Crito, afterwards aflcing him in what manner he wifhed to
bo buried, Socrates replied, with a fmile, " As you pleafe,
provided 1 do not efcape out of your hands." Then,
turning to the red of his friends, he faid, " Is it not (Irange,
Hh 2 after

s o c

s o c

after all that I have faid to convince you that I am going
to the fociety of the happy, that Crito ftill thinks this
body, which vifill foon be a hfelefs corpfe, to be Socrates ?
Let him difpofe of my body as he pleafes, but let him not,
at its interment, mourn over it, as If it vi'ere Socrates."

Towards the clofe of the day, Socrates retired into an
adjoining apartment to bathe ; his friends, in the mean time,
exprefling to one another their grief, at the profpeft of
lofing fo excellent a father, and being left to pafs the reft
of their days in the folitary ftate of orphans. After a (hort
interval, during which he gave fome necell'ary inftruftions
to his domeilics, and took his laft leave of his children, the
attendant of tiie prifon informed him, that the time for
drinking tlie poifon was come. The executioner, though
accuftomed to fuch fcenes, (hed tears, as he prefented the
fata! cup. Socrates received it without change of coun-
tenance, or the Icail appearance of perturbation: then,
oifering up a prayer to the gods, that they would grant
him a profperous pafTage into the invifible world, with
perfect cornpofure he fwallowed the poifonous draught.
His friends around him burfl into tears. Socrates alone
remained unmoved. He upbraided their pufiUanimity,
and entreated them to exercife a manly conftancy, worthy
of the friends of virtue. He continued walking, till
the chilling operation of the hemlock obliged him to
lie down upon iiis bed. After remaining, for a fhort
time, filent, he requefted Crito (probably in order to refute
a calumny which might prove injurious to his friends
after his deceafe), not to negleft the offering of a cock,
which he had vowed to Efculapius. Then covering himfelf
with his cloak, he expired Such was the fate of the vir-
tuous Socrates i a ftory, fays Cicero, which I never read
without tears.

The friends and difciples of this illuftrious teacher of
wifdom were deeply afflifted by his death, and attended
his funeral with every expreffion of grief. Apprehenfive,
however, for their own iafety, they, foon afterwards, pri-
vately withdrew from the city, and took up their refidence
in dillant places. Several of them vifited the philofopher
Euclid, of Megara, by whom they were kindly received.

No fooncr was the unjnft condemnation of Socrates
known througli Greece, than a general indignation was
kindled in the minds of good men, who univerfally regretted
that fo dillingnifhed an advocate for virtue fhould have
fallen a facrifice to jealoufy and envy. The Athenians
themfelves, fo remarkable for their caprice, who never
knew the value of their great men till after their death,
foon became fenfible of the folly, as well as criminality, of
putting to death the man who had been the chief ornament
of their city, and of the age, and turned their indignation
againft his accufers. Melitus was condemned to death,
and Anytus, to efcape a limilar fate, went into voluntary
<"xile. To give a farther proof of the fincerity of their
regret, the Athenians, for a while, interrupted public
bufinefs ; decreed a general mourning ; recalled the exiled
friends of Socrates ; and erefted a ftatue to his memory in
one of the moll frequented parts of the city. His death
happened in the firlt year of the ninety-fixth Olympiad,
and in the 70th year of his age. Brucker's Hilt. Phil, by
Enfield, vol. i.

Socrates, an ecclefiaftical hiftorian, was born and edu-
cated at Conftantinople ; and having ftudied under the
grammarians Helladius and Ammonius, he commenced
his career at the bar. But after fome time he relinquilhed
the profeflion of a law-pleader, and engaged in writing his
ecclefiaftical hiftorj', which comprehends, in feven books, the
interval of about 133 years, from the year 306, when Con-

ftantine was declared emperor, to the feventeenth confulfhip
of Theodofius, A.D. 439, in which year Cave reprefents him
as flourifhing. Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, may be
confidered as continuators of Eufebius of Caefarea ; and
thefe three writers, who lived in the time of Theodofius the
younger, whofe reign extended from the year 408 to 450,
publiftied their refpeftive hittones, which are valuable mo-
numents of antiquity, about the fame time, near the end
of this reign. Socrates feems to have been diftinguifhed by
his moderation and candour, which we may infer from the
freedom with which he cenfures the fquabbles and conten-
tions that fublifted amongft the Chriftian clergy in thofe
times, and condemns the perfecution that occurred in the
reign of Julian. From the candid manner in which he ex-
prefles his fentiments concerning the Novatian<, fome per-
fons have erroneoufly concluded that he was one of their
number.

As an hiftorian, Socrates has the merit of being judicious
in his obfervations upon men and things, and generally accu-
rate in his chronology. He fpeaks with great refpedt of the
fcriptures of the Old and New Teftaments ; and has ex-
prefsly quoted the Acls of the Apoftles, and tiie Epiftles to
the Romans, the Corinthians, the Galatians, the Coloflians,
and the Hebrews : he likewife takes notice of a various
reading in i John, iv. 3. The work of Socrates was tranflated
into Latin by thofe who made verfions of the other Greek
ecclefiaftical hiftorians, and is ufually printed with them.
Thebeft editions are thofe of Valefius, fol. Paris, 1668, and
of Reading, fol. Cant. 1720. Dupin. Lardner.

SOCRATIC Induction, in Rhetoric. See Induc-
tion.

SocRATic Philoftphy, the doftrines and opinions, with
regard to morality and religion, maintained and taught by
Socrates.

As Socrates left nothing in writing, we are indebted to
his illuftrious pupils, Xenophon and Plato, for what is known
both of his opinions and manner of teaching ; and more
efpecially to the former, whofe memoirs of Socrates contain
more accurate information than the dialogues of Plato, be-
caufe he intermixes his own conceptions and diftion with the
ideas and language of hismafter. Accordingly it is related,
that when Socrates heard Plato recite his Lyfis, he faid,
" How much does this young man make me fay, which I never
conceived !" The diftinguilhing charadler of Socrates was
that of a moral philofopher ; and to this purpofe Xenophon
denies that he ever taiijjht natural philofophy, or any mathe-
matical fcience, and charges with mifreprefentation and
falfehood thofe who had afcribed to him didertations of
this kind, probably in this charge referring to Plato, in
whofe works Socrates is introduced as difcourfing on thefe
fubjefts.

The doftrine of Socrates concerning God and religion is
rather practical than fpeculative. But he did not negleA
to build the ftrufture of religious faith upon the firm found-
ation of an appeal to natural appearances. He taught, that
the Supreme Being, though invifible, is clearly feen in his
works, which at once demonftrate his exiftence, and his wife
and benevolent providence. This point is eftablifhed, with
great perfpicuity and force of reafoning, in his conferences
with Ariftodemus, and with Euthydemus. " Refteft," fays
he, " that your own mind direfts your body by its volitions,
and you muft be convinced that the intelligencer of the uni-
verfe difpofes all things according to his pleafure. — Can you
imagine, that your eye i: capable of difcerning diftant ob-
jeAs, and that the eye of God cannot, at tlie fame inftant,
fee all things ; or that, whilft your mind contemplates the
affairs of different countriesj the underftanding of God can-
not

s o c

SOD

iiot attend, at once, to all the affairs of the univerfe ? Such
15 the nature of the Divinity, that he fees all things, hears all
things, is every where prefent, and conltantly fupcriiitends
all events." Again : " He who difpofes and directs the
univerfe, who is tlie fource of all that is fair and good, who,
annidd fucceffive changes, preferves the courfe of nature un-
impaired, and to whofe laws all beings are fubjeft, tliis Su-
preme Deity, though himfelf iavifible, is manifeiUy feen in
his magnificent operations. Learn, then, from the things
^vhich are produced, to infer the exiftence of an invifible
power, and to reverence the Divinity."

Befides the one Supreme Deity, Socrates admitted the
exigence of beings who pofiefs a middle ftation between God
and man, to whofe immediate agency he afcrlbed the ordi-
nary phenomena of nature, and whom he fuppofed to be par-
ticularly concerned in the management of human affairs.
f"lence, fpeaking of the gods, who take care of men, he fays,
" Let it fulfice you, whillt you obferve their works, to
revere and honour the gods : and be perfuaded, that this is
tlie way in which they makethemfelves known ; for, among
nil the gods, who beltow bleffings upon men, there are none
who, in the diltribution of their favours, make themfelves
vilible to mortals." Hence, he fpoke of thunder, wind, and
other agents in nature, as fervants of God, and encouraged
the praftice of divination, under the notion, that the gods
lometimes dilcover future events to good men.

Concerning the human foul, the opinion of Socrates, ac-
cording to Xenophon, was, that it i? allied to the divine
being, not by a participation of eflence, but by a fimilarity
of nature ; that man excels all other animals in the faculty
of reafon ; and that the exiftence of good men will be con-
tinued after death, in a ftate in which they will receive the
reward of their virtue. Although it appears that, on this
latter topic, Socrates was not wholly free from uncertainty,
the confolation which he profefledto derive from this fource
in the immediate profpcft of death, leaves little room to
doubt, that he entertained a real belief and expcftation of
immortality. The dodiine which Cicero afcribes to So-
crates, on this head, is, that the human foul is a divine prin-
ciple, which, when it paffes out of the body, returns to hea-
ven ; and that this pallage is moll eafy to thofe who have, in
tliis life, made the greateft progrefs in virtue.

The fyltem of morality which Socrates made it the bufi-
nefs of his life to teach, was raifed upon the firm bafis of
religion. The firft principles of virtuous conduft, which
arc common to all mankind, are, according to this excellent
inoraliit, laws of God : and the conclufive argument by
which he fupports this opinion is, that no man departs from
thefe principles with impunity. " It is frequently polTible,"
lays he, " for men to fcreen themfelves from the penalty of
human laws, but no man can be unjull, or ungrateful, with-
out fuft'eriiig for his crime : hence, I conclude, that thcfe
laws mull have proceeded from a more excellent legiflator
than man." Socrates taught, that true felicity is not to be
derived from external policinoiis, but from wifdom, which
confills in the knowled[re and prattice of virtue ; that the
cultivation of virtuous manners is necedarily attended with
plcafure, as well as profit ; that the honeft man alone
is happy ; and that it is abfurd to attempt to fcparate
things, which are in nature fo clofely united as virtue and
interell.

But it is impoflible, fays the author whom we are citing,
in detached fentences, to give the reader any tolerable idea
of the moral doftrines of Socrates. We mud tliereforc
refer him, on this head, to that valuable trcafurc of ancient
wifdom, the '-Memorabilia" of Socrates ; a work in which he
will find his original converfations on many iDtcrelking tofics,

related with that beautiful fimplicity, which dilkinguilhes the
writings of Xenophon.

The followers of Socrates may be divided into three clafles.
The firit clafs conlifts of fuch as were neither philofophervs
by profeflion, nor addided to the ftudy of philofophy, but
attended upon Socrates as a moral preceptor, for the pur-
pofe of corrcfting and improving their manners. Among
thefe were feveral young men of the firft rank in Athens,
particularly Alcibiades and Critias. In this clafs may alfo
be placed the poets Euenes and Euripides, and the orators
Lyfias and Ifocrates. The fccond clafs included all thofe
who, after his death, became founders of particular fefts,
and, though they diff^ered from each other greatly, were
united under the general appellation of Socratic philofophers.
Thefe were Ariftippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic left ;
Phsdo, of the Eliac ; Euclid, of the Megaric ; Plato, of
the Academic ; and Antifthenes, of the Cynic. The third
clafs comprehends thofe difciples of Socrates, who, though
their names are found in the catalogue of philofopher:;, did
not inlUtute any new fedt. The molt diftinguifhed difciples
of the Socratic fchool are Xenophon, ^Ichines, Simon, and
Cebes ; for an account of whom, fee their reipeftive arti-
cles. Brucker's Hill, of Phil, by Enfield, vol. i.

SOCRATIS Insula, in Ancient Geography^ an ifland of
the Arabic gulf, on the coaft of Arabia Fehx. Ptolemy.

SOCUNDA, a town of Hyrcania, according to Ammi-
anus Marcellinus, named Socanaa by Ptolemy, who places
it on the coaft of the Cafpian fea, between the mouths of the
rivers Maxera and Oxus.

SOD, in y^griculture, a portion of turf or fward, cut or
dug up. It alfo fignifies the foil or earth. The fquare
pieces of furface-turf and earth that are cut up in forming
embankments and earth-fences are likewife termed fods, and
require nice cutting, fo as to be exaftly. joined in perform-
ing the works. Sods are ufeful too in fome other opera-
tions of the rural kind.

Sim-Burning, the praftice of paring oft' the fward or
mofty furface of the land. It is obferved by Mr. Marftiall,
in the Rural Economy of Weft Devonlhire, that the molt
noticeable particular of management in the foil procefs of
that diftridl, is that of " burning beat," as it is provincially
termed ; anfwering to the paring and burning, or more
technically, fod-burning, of other diftrids ; and that this
operation in agriculture has been praftifed, in this weftern
part of the ifland, from time beyond which memory or tra-
dition reaches. It has, he conceives, probably been imported
from the oppofite (liore of the continent. And in an old traft,
which he faw fome years ago in the Bntifti Muieum, this
operation is termed Devonjhiring, and it is to this day called
Denfliiringi in different diftrifls of the kingdom. He alfo fur-
ther ftatcs, that there are at prefent three dillmft niethods of
fcparating the fward or fod, provincially the " fpine," from
the foil. The one is performed with a " beating- axe,'*
namely, a large adze, fome five or iix inches wide, and teu
or twelve inches long, crooked, ami foniewhat hollow, or
ilijling. With this, "which was probably the oriirinal iiiftru-
ment employed in the operation, large chips, (havings, or
fods, are llruek oft'. It is ftill uf-d in rough uneven grounds,
efpccially where furze, or the ilubs of bruftiwood abound.
In ufing it, the workman appears to the eye of a ftrauger,
at fome diftance, to be beating the furface as with a beetle,
rather than to be chipping oft the fward with an edged tool.
This operation is provincially termed " hand-beating."
The next iiiftrument in ufe is, he fays, the fpade, re-
fembling the paring fpade, or breall-plough ot other dii-
trifts ; with, liowevcr, in fome inllanccs at leaft, a notable
addition, namely, a mould-board, fixed in fuch a manner ae

to

SOD

SOD

to turn the fod or turf as a plough turns the furrow-dice,
thus becoming literally a breaft-plough ; a name which has
probably been given to the implement in this ftate, and con-
tinued to be applied to the fpade or (hare after the mould-
board WIS laid afide.

It is added, that in working this tool, the labourer pro-
ceeds without flopping to divide the fods into fhort lengths ;
this part being done by women and children, who follow to
break the turfs mto length-^, and fet the pieces on edge to
dry. The price for " fpading" is about three halfpence a
fquare perch, of eighteen feet, or i6s. or i']s. a itatnte acre.
Tormcrly, it is probable, this inllrument was much ufed,
but at prefent it appears to be chiefly in the hands of fmall
farmers.

It is dated, that the inilrument at prefent ufed for fepa-
rating the fpine or graify tiyf from the foil, by farmers in
general, is the common team-plough, with fome little alter-
ation in the fize and form of the fliare, according to the
fancy or judgment of the farmer or his ploughman, there
being two different ways of performing the operation. The
one is termed " veiling," the other " flvirtiiig," or " fkir-
winking." In that for veiling, the fliare is made wide, with
the angle or outer point of the wing or tin turned upward
to feparate the turf entirely from the foil. But in that for
Jhirting, the common one is ufed, hut made perhaps fome-
what wider than when it is ufed in the ordinary operation of
ploughing. And that in this mode of ufing the plough,
little more than half the fward is pared off, turning the part
raifed upon a line of unmoved turf; as in the operation of
ribbing, rice-balking, raftering, or half-ploughing. The
paring of turf in this cafe is from one to two inches thick
on the coulter margin, decreafing in thicknefs to a thin
feather edge, by which it adheres to the unmoved fward.
And after having lain fome time in this ftate to rot, or grow
tender, it is pulled to pieces with rough harrows drawn
acrofs the lines of turf ; and having lain in this rough Itate
until it be fufficiently dry, it is 'oruifed with a roller, and
immediately harrowed with light harrows, walking thehorfes
one way, and trotting them another, to fhake the earth out
more effeftually from among the roots of the grafs ; going
over the ground again, and perhaps again, according to the
leafon, and the judgment of the manager, until moft of the
earth be difengaged. The " beat" of fragments of turfs
being fufficiently dry, is gathered into heaps of five or fix
bufhels each ; either with the " drudge," firll into rows, and
then drawing it along the rows into heaps ; or is pulled to-
gether with long-toothed hand-rakes, adapted to the pur-
pofe. The former is more expeditious, and requires fewer
hands ; the latter gathers the beat cleaner, freer from earth,
which is liable to be drawn together by the drudge. The
" beat burrows" or heaps hexng rounded, and (hook up light
and hollow, a wifp of rough flraw, a large handful, is thrufl,
double, into the windward fide of each heap ; and a number of
heaps being thus primed, a match or flambeau is formed, with
" reed" or ftraight unthrafhed llraw, one end of which being
lighted, it is applied in fuccefTion to the loofe ragged ends of
the wifp of flraw, which readily communicate the fire to the
heaps. The centre of the heap being cowfumed, the out-
ikirts are thrown lightly into the dimples or hollows, and the
heaps rounded up, as at firft, continuing to right up the
burrows, until the wholeof the beat be confumcd, or changed,
by the aftion of the fire. And the produce of the firfl fkirting
being burnt and fpread over the furface, the operation is
fomctimes repeated by running the plough acrofs the Hues
of Uie firft fkirting ; thus paring off the principal part of
the fpine ; again dragging, rolling, harrowing, colledling,
and burning, as in the former operation. This is a procef$

of very great importance in the fyltem of Devonfhire huf-
bandry, and by which vaft advantages and improvements
have been effefted.

The praftice is not now, however, had fo much recourfe to
as formerly, probably on account of its having been carried
to too great a length in fome cafes, and improper modes of
cropping having been purfued after it in others ; but where
well Hiiderltood, it is flillan excellent method of preparation
in many inftances and lituations of land. The great advan-
tages of it feem to confift in the redudion and diminu-
tion, which it fo readily affords to the more fliff, adhefive,
tenacious, clayey forts of foils j and the quick, certain,
and effeftual manner in which it brings the inert and ufe-
lefs vegetable matters of them, into more proper ftates for
the purpofe of fupporting plants, in the way of manures,
as crops.

It is moft likely that this praclice will be the moft bene-
ficial in all fuch foils as contain an over-proportion of dead
fibrous vegetable matter, or which lofe from about one-
third to one-half of their weight by burning ; and in all
fuch as contain their earthy conftituent parts in a finely re-
duced ftate of divifion, fuch, for inftance, as ftrong clays,
marles, and fome other fimilar kinds : but that in light,
coarfe, fandy, and rich foils of other qualities, which con-
tain proper proportions of earthy matters in their compo-
fition ; and in every cafe where the ftrufture and qualities
of them are in their prefent flates properly loofe, and the
organizable matters in them properly and to a fufficient ex-
tent foluble, this praiSice cannot be employed with fuccefs,
though it is fometimes attempted upon them. The filice-
ous poor fandy foils muft always, it is fuppofed, be greatly
hurt by it, as is evident from the praAical refults upon fuch
lands.

It is not improbable, but that in numerous cafes it may
have failed, in confequence of over-burning the turf, or
fome other mifmanageraent in the praftice, as there may,
by fuch means, be too great a diflipation and wafte of fome
certain fubftances and matters, which are in their nature
and properties not only neceflary, but highly conducive to
the fertility and improvement of the foil or land. That
carbon, or the refufe of burnt vegetable matters, is of thi?
nature, there can now be no doubt, as the decompofition of
fuch fubftances has fully fhtwa it. This material may,
therefore, be too much carried off and deftroyed in burn-
ing the turf of lands, either by co'mbining too freely with
the oxygen of the furrounding atmofphere, in confequence
of too great a heat being kept up in the operation, and be
thereby loft in the form of carbonic acid gas ; or by com-
bining in too free a manner with certain proportions of hy-
drogen, fupplied by the vegetable matter in confequence of
the increafed heat, and by this means furnifhing a fort of
oleaginous fluid, which is dilfipated in large quantities witli
great rapidity, when a confiderable extent of furface is ex-
pofed to the air of the atmofphere, during the time of
burning the turf. It is therefore evident, on thefe as well
as other accounts, that a flow dull fmothering fire, and as
fmall an expofure to the open air as pofTible, are both cir-
cumftances particularly neceffary to the proper effeft and
fuccefs of this praAice in many cafes, if not in all ; as
when thcle and fuch hke circumflances are not well attended
to and properly regulated, the afhes and other matters
which are produced, will be, in a great meafure, deprived
and deftitute of thofe fertilizing and enriching qualities and
properties, which are fo receflary aad effential to fubftancei
of this kind. See Parixo and Burning.

Snn-Drain, that fort of drain which is formed and con-
ftrutted either wholly, or in the greateft part, of the fods

dug

SOD

Jug up from the land about them. Thefe forts of drains
were formerly much in ufe, and thought highly of in fome
diftrifls and places, mod likely on account of their cheap-
nefs ; but they are now fallen into negleft and difrepute,
probably in confequence of their want of fecurity and dura-
bility, efpecially in lands which are under the plough.
They are, however, ftill made ufe of occafionally on paf-
tiire and fward lands in fome fituations. The methods of
making them differ in different cafes and circumflanccs, ac-
cording to the nature and kinds of land, being in fume in-
ftances formed with much more folidity than in others, as
may be feen under the articles SuRFACE-Drains and Drain-
ing. They can perhaps, on the whole, be fcldom had re-
courfe to with propriety, except in cafes where other kinds
of more folid materials are procured with great difficulty.

SoD-Fence, any fort of fence which is conllruftcd of
materials of this nature, either for inclofing land or de-
fending it againft the waters of rivers or the fea. See
Fences.

Thefe kinds of fences, when made againft the fea or large
rivers, fhould have a good degree of flope, as two, three, or
four feet, to one in height, according as the cafe may be.
i They have in fome dillricls, as in Lancafhire, in many in-
ilances, a bafe of about forty feet, and flope upwards in
the direftion of the fea as well as that of the land. The
extent of bafe is, however, different in different places, as
well as that of the flope or flopes. Fences of this nature
againft the fea in the above county, coft about 3/. the rod
of eight yards in their conftruftion.

SoD-Kiln, any fort of kiln which is built or conftrufted
with fods, for the purpofe of burning lime or any other
material t)f that kind. They are very common in fome
places. See Kiln.

A very clofe fort of fmothering heat is produced in this
way, which readily conve'-ts any calcareous matters into
lime of a good quality for u'e on land.

Sou-Knife, Drainhig, an implement of the knife kind,
which ;.^ made ulc of with great advantage in fcoring and
cutting out the fwavJ or graffy furface in forming drains.
It is a verj ulcful tool, performing the work in a neat
manner.

SODA. See Sodium.

Soda, in the Materia Medica. Muriate of Soda. See
Muriate of Soda, Salt, and S-ivlts. It is obferved, (fee
Thornton's Chemillry, cited by Mr. A. T. Thomfon in the
London Difpenlatory,) that the common fait of commerce
contains fmall portions of muriate of magnefia, muriate of
lime, and lulphate of lime ; and for the feparation of thefe,
the fait is to be diffolved in tour times its weight of pure
water, and into the hltercd folution muft be dropped firft
muriate of barytes, and then fubcarbonate of foda, as long
as any precipitate falls. Then filter and evaporate the clear
fluid flowly till the fait cryftallizes, which is pure muriate
of foda. This pure muriate of foda is inodorous ; its tafte
it ItriAly fait ; and, when pure, perfeftly devoid of any
degree of bitternefs. It is in regular cubes, which are not
affedled by expofure to the atmofphcre. When it deli-
quefces, it contains muriate of magnefia. It'; cryftals de-
crepitate when heated ; and in a red heat melt, lofing about
tvio per cent, of their weight ; and in a ftill greater heat the
fait is volatilized, undecompofed, in white fumes. Its fpecilic
gravity is 2.126. It is equally foluble in cold and in iiot
water, nearly three parts of either being required to diliolve
one of fait. It confifts, according to Kirwan, of 38.88
of acid, 53.00 foda, and 8.12 water in 100 parts. It is
decompoicd by fulphuric acid and nitric acid.

As an article of the Materia Medica, this fait is tonic
and anthelmintic in moderate dofcs ; purgative in larger ;

SOD

and externally ftimulant. In the ordinary mode of ufing
it, the tonic power of fait operates in afiifting the procefs of
diijeftion ; and, confequently, taken more freely, it proves
ufeful in dyfpepfia, and in corretting the weakened ilate
of the inteftines, which favours the propagation of worms.
In large dofes it is faid to check vomiting of blood, and
may be ufcd as a purgative ; although it is feldom em-
ployed. But the purgative quality of fca-water does not
altogether depend on this fait, as it contains a much
larger proportion of muriate of magnefia, which is alio
purgative. Asa local llimulant, its folution in tepid water,
in the proportion of ^fs or 3] to qj of water, forms the
common domefUc enema. It is ufed alio as a fomentation
to fprains and bruifes ; and diffolved in a large proportion
of water, forms the belt ftimulant general bath, whether
ufed cold, or in a tepid, or a hot ftate.

With a view to the firft intentions, the dofe of muriate of
foda may be from grs. x to 3j ; but to operate by ftool
from Jfs to 7J is neceflary, largely diluted.

The officinal preparations of this fait are as follow ; viz.
" dried muriate of foda," which is prepared, according to the
Dub. Ph., by taking any quantity of muriate of foda,
and roafting it over the fire in an iron veffel, (lightly co-
vered, until it ceafe to decrepitate, occafionally agitating.
According to Kirwan, 100 parts of cryftallized munate
of foda contain 8.12 of water, which are nearly diflipated
by the heat, and the fait is thus rendered of a more uniform
ftrength. It is chiefly employed for the diftillation of Mu-
riatic ^dd, (fee that article,) which is obtained colourlefs
from the dried fait.

Muriatic acid of the Lond. Ph. is prepared by firft mixing
lilb. of fulphuric acid with half a pint of diftilled water in
a glafs retort, and when the mixture is cold, adding to it
2lbE. of muriate of foda dried : then pouring a pint of the
water into the receiver, and having fitted to it the retort
placed in a fand-bath, diilil over the muriatic acid into this
water, with a heat gradually raifcd, until the retort becomes
red-hot. The fpecific gravity of muriatic acid is to that of
diltillcd water as 1.170 to i.ooo. If apiece of limeftonebe
immerfed in a fluid-ounce of it, diluted with water, the
quantity diffolved ought to be half an ounce. The Edinb.
Ph. direfts the muriatic acid tv be prepared by firit expofing
2lbs. of muriate of foda in a pot to a red heat for a fhort
time, and when it is cold, putting it into a retort ; then
pouring 16 oz. of fulphuric acid, mixed with lib. of water,
and cooled, upon the muriate of foda ; and finally diflilling
from a fand-bath with a moderate fire, as long as any acid
comes over. The fpecific gravity of this acid is to that of
diftilled water as 1.170 to i.ooo. According to the Dubl.
Ph. 61bs. of fulphuric acid are diluted with the fame quan-
tity of water ; and after it is cold, it is added gradually to
61bs. of muriate of foda, dried and put into a glafs retort ;
and then the liquor is diftilled until the refiduum becomes
dry. The fpecific gravity of this acid is to that of diftilled
water as 1. 170 to i.ooo.

This acid, for a farther account of which fee Mi;ri.\tic
j^cid, is tonic and antilcptic. It has been ufcd with effeA
in typhus fevers, and in fome cutaneous eruption?. It is a
common and ufeful addition to gargles, in the proportion of
from fjfs to fjij in f^vj of any fluid, in ulcerated fore-
throats and cancrum oris ; and in a very highly diluted
ifatc, Itlviij in f_^iv of water, it has been recommended as an
injeftion in gonorrlura. It has alio been regarded as an
antidote in general lyphilitic aflertions ; but tliis opinion has
been fliewn by Mr. Pearfon to be erroneous: neverthelefs,
by its lalutary effed on the ftomach and general health, it is
cap.ible of ameliorating the appearance of venereal ulcers,
and of rcftraining for a time the progrcfs of the difeafe,

when

SODA.

wlien it ia dclirable to gain time previoiin)' to the commence-
ment of a mercurial courfe. The dofe is from 1t[x to TTlxx,
in a fufficient quantitv of water. Morveaa, in 1773, dif-
covered the important power of muriatic acid, in the ftate of
gas, for neutralizing putrid miafmata ; and tlAis it is ufed
as an agent for dcflroying infeftion in fick rooms and hof-
pitals, difengaged by pouring fulphuric acid on common
fait.

The officinal preparations of muriatic acid are as follow ;
" muriate of barytes" (fee Salts) : the " folution of mu-
riate of lime" (fee Lime and Muriate of Lime), which,
according to the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by mixinp- 16 oz. of
muriatic acid vvitii 8 oz. of water, and gradually adding
9 oz. of the harder variety of carbonate of lime {viz. white
marble) broken into fmall pieces : when the effervefcence is
finilhed, digeft for an hour ; then pour off the fluid, and re-
duce it by evaporation to drynefs : diflblve the retiduum in
its weight and a half of water, and filter the folution.
This " water of muriate of lime" is prepared, according to
the Dubl. Ph., by adding gradually 2 oz. of diluted mu-
riatic acid to I oz. of chalk reduced to a coarfe powder,
and when the effervefcence is finilhed, filtering the folution.
This folution is colourlefs, and has a difagreeable, bitter,
acrid tafte ; it is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric, phof-
phoric, fluoric, and boracic acids ; the neutral falls into
which thefe enter ; and the alkalies and alkaline carbonates
which precipitate the lime. In the folid Itate, 100 parts of
muriate of lime, after being expofed to a red heat, confifl
of 42 of acid, 50 of lime, and 8 of water. By mixing four
parts of it with an equal quantity of fnow, a degree of
cold is produced capable of finking the mercury in the ther-
mometer from 32" to 40° below 0° of Fahrenheit. Muriate
of lime is deobltruent and tonic. Fourcroy introduced it
into praclice, and it has been much recommended as a re-
medy in fcrophulous and glandular difeafes. Mr. T. Thom-
fon fays, that he has given it with evident advantage in
bronchocele, and that he has witnefled greater benefit re-
fulting from the continued ufe of it in the varied forms of
fcrophula, than from any other remedy with which he is ac-
quainted. Its operation is fimilar to that of muriate of ba-
rytes : but the danger of an over-dofe is lels to be dreaded,
and its good effefts are more uniform and certain. The dofe
of the folution is from ll^xx to f^j, in a fufficient quantity
of water, repeated twice or thrice a day.

Another preparation of muriate of foda is " muriate of
antimony." (See Anti.mony ) For an account of the
'" precipitated fubmuriate of mercury," and of the " ammo-
niated fubmuriate of mercury," fee Mercury.

The fub-borate of foda, (for the cliemical properties of
which fee Borax,) purified by folution and cryftalliza-
tion, is inodorous, and has a ftyptic, cool, and alkalef-
cent tafte ; and as an article of the materia medica, it is
refrigerant and detergent. It is not given internally : and
its chief application is in aphthous affeftions of the mouth,
and exceffive falivation. It is ufed either in the form of
powder mixed with f ugar, or diflolved in water, and united
■with honey as a lotion. See Honey.

The carbonate of foda is prepared, according to the
Lond. Ph., by adding 3 oz. of fubcarbonate of ammonia to
a folution of ilb. of fubcarbonate of foda, in a pint of dtf-
tilled water ; then expofing the mixture in a fand-bath to a
heat of 180° for three hours, or until the ammonia be ex-
pelled, and finally fetting it apart to cryftallize. The re-
fiduary hquor may be evaporated in the fame manner, and
fat apart again to cryftalhze. This fait does not appear to
pofTefs any advantages fuperior to thofe of the fubcarbonate
as a remedy, and may therefore be regarded as a redundant
preparation.

The fubcarbonate of foda of the Lond. Ph. is prepared by
boiling lib. of impure foda (barilla) powdered, in a gallon
of boiling diftilled water for half an hour, and filtering the fo-
lution ; then evaporating it to two pints, and f;;ttmg it apart
forcryftallization : the liquor that remains is thrown away.
The carbonate of foda of the Edinb. Ph., formerly " purified
fixed foflile alkah," is prepared by bruiting any quantity of |
impure carbonate of foda (fee Carbonate of Soda), and \
then boiling it in water until all the faline matter be dif-
folved ; then filtering the folution through paper, and eva-
porating it in an iron veffel, fo that after refrigeration cryf.
tals may be formed. The Dubl. Ph. direAs loibs. of pow-
dered barilla to be boiled in two gallons of water, in a co-
vered veffel, for two hours, with occafional ftirring ; filter-
ing the liquor ; then bruifing the barilla that remains with
an equal quantity of water, and again boilingit, which may be
repeated a third time. The leys being filtered and mixed,
evaporate them to drynefs in a wide iron veflel, taking care
that the faliae mafs which will remain be not again liquefied
by too great a heat ; ftir it with an iron fpatula till it becomes
white ; finally diffolve it in boiling water, and, after due
evaporation, fet it apart, that as it cools, cryflals may
form. Thefe will be purer if the barilla before each boiling
be expofed for fome time to the air. The cryflalhzation
fhould be effefted when the air is at the freezing temperature,
and in a liquor the fpecific gravity of which is, to that of
water, as 1220 to 1000. If the fait be not very pure, re-
peat the folution and cryftallization.

Barilla, befidcs the fubcarbonate of foda, contains ful-
phate and muriate of foda, charcoal, lime, magnefia, argil,
and filex, from which thefe proceffes are intended to fepa-
rate it. One pound of barilla yields from ^iij to t^\ of
the cryftallized fubcarbonate.

A very pure fubcarbonate of foda is now manufaftured,
on a great fcale, by the decompofition of fulphate of foda
and of muriate of foda, which will probably fuperfede alto-
gether the proceiies ordered in the pharmacopeias.

Subcarbonate of foda has a mild alkalefcent tafte, and
changes the vegetable blue and red colours to green. Its
cryftals are large tranfparent oftohedrons, truncated at the
fummits of the pyramids, which efflorefce when expofed to
a dry air, and crumble down into a white opaque powder.
It undergoes the watery fufion ; is foluble in two parts of
water at 60°, and in confiderably lefs than its weight of boil-
ing water, its abundant water of cryftallization alTifting the
folution of the fait at that temperature. Its conllituents,
according to the late analyfis of D'Arcet, arc, in 100
parts, 16.04 of 2cid, 20.85 of alkali, and 63.61 of water:
which correfponds with the ilatemcnt of Bergman.

This fait is antacid and deobltruent. It is lefs acrid than
the fubcarbonate of potafs ; and hence is in more general ufe
in dyfpepfia and acidities of the Itomach, and in fcrophulous
afFeftions. Its ufe has been lately ftrenuoufly recommended
in hooping-cough, the protraftion of which it is faid to
prevent. It is given, at firtt, after the ftomach and bowels
have been duly evacuated, in combination with ipecacuanha
and opium, and afterwards, when the violence of the cough
has abated, with myrrh. The dofe of this fait is from
grs. X to 5 fs, given twice or thrice a day, in conjun£tion with
bitters or rhubarb.

The officinal preparations are, " dried fubcarbonate of
foda" of the Lond. and " dried carbonate of foda" of the
Dub. Ph.; "carbonate of foda" of the Lond. Ph. ; " wa-
ter of the fupercarbonate of foda" of the Ed. Ph.; " phof-
phate of foda" of the Ed. and Dub. Ph.; " foda tar-
tarizata" of the Lond. Ed. and Dub. Ph.; " carbonate
of iron" of the Lond. Ed. and Dub. Ph.; " carbonate
of ammonia," and " water of carbonate of ammonia," of

1 1 the I

SODA.

the Dub. Ph. ; " precipitated chalk" of the Dub. Ph. ; and
« benzoic acid" of the Ed. Ph.

The " dried fubcarbonate of foda" of the Lend. Ph. is
prepared by expofing lib. of fubcarbonate of foda to a mo-
derate heat in a clean iron vefl'el, until it becomes perfeftly
dry, and at the fame time Itirring it diligently with an iron
fpatula, and finally rubbing it into a powder. The Dubl.
Ph. direAs the " dried carbonate of foda" to be prepared
by liquefying the cryftals of carbonate of foda in a filver
crucible over the fire ; then, in an augmented heat, ttirring
the dilTolvcd fait, until by the evaporation of the water it
becomes dry ; reducing it to a fine powder, and preferving
it in Hopped phials. The conftituents of loo parts, in this
ftate, according to the analyfis of Kirwan, are 40.14 of
acid, and 59.^6 of foda. Dr. Beddoes has extolled this
fait in form of pills, as a remedy in calculous affeftions ;
and, as Thomfon fays, it certainly affords decided relief
from the painful fymptoms attending calculus in the kid-
nies, and other urinary affeftions. Its eftefts, however, are
only palliative, and depend on its deftroying the prevalent
acid in the ilomach ; and hence it cannot, in ftrict language,
be regarded as a lithontriptic. The dofe is from grs. x
to grs. XV, given three times a day. Beddoes direfted it
to be combined with foap and aromatics.

The " water of fupercarbonate of foda" of the Ed. Ph.
is to be prepared from lolbs. of water, and 2 oz. of fub-
carbonate of foda, in the fame manner as the water of
fupercarbonate of potafs. This preparation is milder and
pleafanter than the water prepared with fubcarbonate of
potafs. It is manufaftured in large quantities, on a great
fcale, of a much fuperior quality to any which the apothe-
cary can prepare : and is in very general ufe as a cooling
beverage. Half a pint of it poured over two tabl^-fpoon-
fuls of lemon-juice, fweetened with a little fugar, forms an
excellent and very agreeable effervefcing draught.

The " phoi^phate of foda" is prepared, according to the
Ed. Ph., by mixing 10 lbs. of powdered bones, reduced to
whitcnefs, with 6 lbs. of fulphuric acid, in an earthen vefiel ;
then adding 9 lbs. of water, and again mixing ; keeping the
veffel in a vapour-bath for three days ; afterwards diluting
the matter with 9 lbs. more of boiling water, and llraining
through a flrong linen cloth, pouring boiling water gra-
dually over it, until the whole of the acid be waftied out.
Set the drained liquor apart, that the impurities may fub-
fide, from which pour it off, and evaporate it to 9 lbs. To
this liquor feparated from its impurities, and heated in an
earthen veflel, add a warm folution of carbonate of foda,
until the effervefcencc ccafe : then ftrain, and fet the liquor
alide that cryltals may form. Thefe being removed, add
to the liquor, if necefl'ary, a little carbonate of foda, that
the phofphoric acid may be accurately faturatfd ; and dif-
pofe it, by evaporation again, to yield cryltals, as long as
thefe fhall be produced. Finally, let the cryltals be pre-
ferved in a wellclofcd veflel.

The Dub. Ph. direfts to take of burnt bones, reduced
to powder, 5 lbs. ; fulphuric acid, 3^ lbs. Mix the
powder with the fulphuric acid in an earthen vcifel ; add,
gradually, five pints of water, and agitate tiie mixture.
Digelt for three days, adding from time to time more
water, left the materials fhould become dry, and continue
the agitation ; then pour over them five pints of boiling
water, and flrain through a Hnen rag, pouring on, at in-
tervals, boiling water, until all the acid be wafhed out.
Set the liquor apart, that the impurities may fubfide, from
wliich decant it, and evaporate it to one half; then add
3 lbs. 10 oz. of carbonate of foda, diflolved in a fufficient
quantity of warm water ; filter, and obtaiu cryftaU by rc-

VoL. XXXIII.

peated evaporation and cooling. The cryftals are to be
preferved in well-clofed vefFels;

If the fait be not fufficiently pure, repeat the folation
and cryflallization.

A cheaper mode of preparing this fait has been given by
M. Funcke, a German chemift. He adds to the matter of
calcined bones diffufed in water, juil enough dilute fulphuric
acid to faturate the fmall portion of carbonate of lime it al-
ways contains. Wiien the effervefcence ceafes, the whole is
diflolved in nitric acid, and as much fulphate of foda added
to the folution as of bone-aflies ufed. The whole is then
diftiUed, to recover the nitric acid ; and the phofphate of
foda is feparated from the refidue, which is a mixture of
fulphate of lime and phofphate of foda, by folution and
cryflallization.

This fait has a purely faline tafte, refembling very much
that of common fait. Its cryftals are large, regular, tranf-
parent, rhomboidal prifms, terminated by three-fided prifms,
having a fpecific gravity of 1.333, *^f"^ efflorefcing on ex-
pofure to the air. It is foluble m three parts of water at
60°, and in tvifo parts of boiling water ; and undergoes the
watery fufion when heated. Its conftituents, according to
Thenard, are, in 100 parts, 19 of foda, 15 of phofphoric
acid, and 66 of water. Muriate of barytes, lime, and mag-
nefia, decompofe this fait ; and by the ftrong acids it is con-
verted into fuperphofphate of foda.

Phofphate of foda is a mild cathartic, excellently adapted
for children, and others who have a fallidious tafte. It
may be given diflolved in gruel or broth, made without fait,
by which its tafte is very effeftually covered. The dofe is
from 3vj to Jij. It was introduced into praftice by Dr.
George Pearfon of London.

The " fulphate of foda" is for the moft part artificially
prepared, and chiefly in the large way, during the manu-
facture of fal ammoniac from fulphate of ammonia and com-
mon fait. The directions given for preparing it, in the
Lond. Ph., are as follow : Take of the fait which remains
after the diftillation of muriatic acid, 2 lbs. ; boiling water,
25 pints. Diflblve the fait in the water ; then add gra-
dually as much fubcarbonate of foda as will faturate the
acid. Boil the folution until a peUiclc appears ; and after
having filtered it, fet it apart to cryfiallize. Pour the
water from off the cryftals, and dry tliem on bibulous paper.
The " fulphate of foda" of llie Edinb. Ph., formerly
" Glauber falts," (fee Glauber Sti/t,) is formed by dil-
folving in water the acidulous filt, which remains after the
diftillation of muriatic acid, and having mixed witli it car.
bonate of lime (chslk) in powder, to remove the fuper-
fluous acid, fetting it apart until the impurities fubfide ;
tlien, having poured off the liquor, filterini; it through
paper, and reducing it by evaporation, that it may cryf-
tallize. The Dub. Ph. direfts to diffolve the fait, which
remains after the diftillation of mtiriatic acid, in a fufficient
quantity of boiling water ; then to evaporate the filtered
folution to a proper point, and fet it apart, that, as it llovvly
cools, cryftals may be formed. Tiie tallc of this fait is at
firfl fimply faline, but afterwards very difagrceably bitter.
Its cryltals are tranfparent, fix-lided, irregular, channelled
prifms, with dihedral lumniits ; elflorcfcent, and falling to
a white powder, when expofed to the air. It is folublo in
2.86 parts of water at 60^^, and 0.8 of boiling water j un-
dergoes the watery fufion when heated, and in a llrong heat
is partially decompofed. According to Kirwan, ico parts
contain 23.52 of acid, 18.48 of alkali, and 58.00 of water ;
and in the dried flate, ot 56 of acid, and 44 of water.
Tliis fait is a very common and ufeful purgative ; but, on
account of it> iiauleous tafte, is not very generally pre-
I i fcribcd

SOD

SOD

fcribed by the phyfician. The dofe is from ^fs to jij;
but in the efflorefcent ftate, half of thele quantities is
fufficient.

The " tartarized foda" (fee Carbonat of Soda and
Natron) is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph., by
dinblviiig 20 oz. of fubcarbonate of foda in lo pints of
boiling water, and adding gradually 2 lbs. of fupertartrate
of potafs in powder ; filtering the folution through paper ;
then boiling till a pellicle is formed on the furface, and fel-
ting it afide to cryftallize ; then pouring off the water from
the cryllals, and drying them on bibulous paper.

The " tartrite of potafs and foda," formerly Sal Ru-
PELLENSis (which fee), is prepared, according to the
Edinb. Ph., from carbonate of foda and fupertartrite of
potafs, in the fame manner as Tartrite of Potafs ; which
fee.

The "tartrate of foda and kali," of the Dub. Ph., is
formed by difiolving 20 oz. of carbonate of foda in 10 pints
of boiling water, and gradually adding 2 lbs. of cryftals of
tartar, reduced to a very fine powder ; filtering the folution
through paper, evaporating it, and fetting it afide, that,
as it flowly cools, cryltals may be formed. Mr. T. Thom-
fon obferves, that of the three appellations of this fait, that
of the Dublin college is the leaft exceptionable ; the London
name conveying an evidently erroneous notion of the prepa-
ration, and the Edinburgh college incorredly denominating
it a tartrite.

This fait has a bitter faline tafte. Its cryftals are large,
regular, tranfparent, hard, rhomboidal, fix-fided prifms ;
very (lightly efflorefcent, and foluble in five parts of water
at 60°. It is decompofed by the ftrong acids, muriate of
barytas, lime, and by a red heat. The conltituents of
too parts of this fak, according to Schulze, are 41.3 of
tartaric acid, 14.3 of potafs, 13.3 of foda, and 3 1. 1 of
water.

Tartrate of potafs and foda is a cooling and not very un-
palatable cathartic. It was introduced into praftice by M.
Seignette, an apothecary of Rochelle, and the preparation
kept a fecret until it was difcovered and pubhfhed by
Boulduc and Geoffrey in 1 73 1. It operates moderately,
and without exciting much irritation : hence it is well fuited
to nephritic and puerperal cafes. The dofe is from 5j to
Jjfs, diflblved in any convenient vehicle. Woodville.
Thomfon's Lond. Diip.

Soda, in Medicine, a word of Arabic origin, nearly
fynonimous with cardialgla, and heart-burn, fignifying any
fenfe of burning heat in the ftomach, arifing from acidity or
acrid humours. See Cardialgia and Indigestion.

The term foda has, liowever, been confidered by fome
writers as alfo fignifying heat and pain of the head.

Soda, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Nedsjed ; 180 miles E. of Medina.
Soda, in Natural Hiflory. See Kam.
Soda Subethka, a term uled to exprefs a heavy and dull
pain in the head.

SODADA, in Botany, from its Arabic name Sodud.
Forlk. iEgypt-Arab. 81. Jud. 243. — A genus of the na-
tural order of Capparides, which is undoubtedly diilindl,
and may perhaps be tolerated under the above appellation,
though of avowedly barbarous origin, like Aucuba, and one
or two fimilar names, of eafy pronunciation. We do not,
however, willi to fanftion any fuch, but leave them to
future opportunities of a thorough and authentic reform.
In the prefent inflance, at leaft, we attempt no amendment,
becaufe we have not materials to defcribe the genus under
confideration. Colonel Hardwicke has brought, from the
Eaft Indies, either Forfkall's identical plant, or another

fpecies of the fame genus. Forflcall defcribes his as
follows.

S. decidua. Calyx of four unequal leaves. Petals four,
unequal. Stamens inclining. CapfiJe (talked.

A d.\S\i{efbrub, with diftant, alternate, fpreading branches,
about two inches long, with a pair of Ihort awl-fliaped
fpmcs at each bud. Leaves feffile, oblong, deciduous, rarely
prefent. Flo-juerflalls between the fpines, fingle-flowered,
three together. Flowers red. Calyx coloured, deciduous ;
its upper fegment very large, gibbous, comprefled, often
fplit at the fide ; the reft equal, linear-lanceolate, fringed.
Two upper ^c/fl/r ovate, pointed, flat, at firlt hidden under
the upper leaf of the calyx ; two lower narrower, alternate
with its lower leaves, downy at the under fide and edges.
Stamens eight, unequal, thread-fliaped, longer than the
petals, brownilh-grecn. Germen globofe, with four fur-
rows on a ftalk as long as the ftamens. Style awl-fhaped.
Stigma acute. Fruit red, bigger than a hazel-nut, eatable
when drelled before it is ripe. This Ihrub is common
throughout the country of Yemen.

SODALES Augustales. See Augustales.

SODALITE, in Mineralogy, a ftone which derives its
name from the large portion of mineral alkali that enters
into its compofition. Its colour is a blueilh-green. It
occurs both cryftallized and maflive : the cryftals are dode-
cahedrons, with rhomboidal faces. The llrufture is la-
mellar, with joints in two directions. The frafture is
conchoidal : it has a (kining and refinous luftre, but the
luftre of the frefh frafture is vitreous ; it is tranflucent, and
yields with difficulty to the knife. The fpecific gravity
is 2.37. It is infufible by the blowpipe.

The conftituent pans of fodalite, as given by different
chemifts, vary.

Silex

-

3<5

to

38

Alumine

-

27

to

32

Soda

.

23

to

25

Oxyd of iron

-

1

4

to

I

Lime

-

0

to

2

Muriatic acid -

-

3

to

7

SODALITIUM, among the Anglo-Saxons, was the
name of a voluntary affociation, the objeft of which was
the perfonal fecurity of thofe who joined in it, and which
the feeblenefsof government at the time rendered neceflary.
Among other regulations, which are contained in one of
thefe ftill extant, the following deferves notice : If any af-
fociate (liall either eat or drink with a perfon who has killed
any member of the fodalitium, unlefs in the prefence of the
king, the bifhop, or the count, and unlefs he can prove
that he did not know the perfon, let him pay a great fine.
Hicks Dill. Epift. apud Thef. Ling. Septentr. vol. i.
p. 21.

SODBURY, Chipping, anciently Sopeberie, in Geo-
graphy, a fmall parifh, containing only 90 acres, and market-
town, in the lower divifion of the hundred of Grombald's-
Afh, in the county of Gloucefter, England, is fituated
12 miles N. from Briltol, 30 S. from Gloucefter, and 113
W. from London, at the foot of the Great Howby hill, a
continuation of that chain which extends from north to
fouth through the county. This, and the two adjoining
pariflies of the fame name, were fo called from the berie, or
camp, which is found on the fumm.it of Old Sodbury.
Cliipping diftinguifties it as a market-town, and was firtl
ufed when the market was ellablifhed, in the reign of
Henry III. The town confifts of one long ftreet, and is
the great thoroughfare between Briftol and the eaftern part
of the county. The church confifts of a nave and two aifles,

with

SOD

SOD

■with an embattled tower at the weft end. A weekly mar-
ket is held on Thurfdays, and two fairs yearly. By a
charter of incorporation, granted by king Charles II. in
1 68 1, the government of the borough was vefted in a
mayor, fix aldermen, and twelve burgeffes, with a high
ftcward, recorder, and town-clerk ; and at the fame time
was granted the privilege of holdin^^ pleas of all manner of
perfonal fiiits and debts under five pounds, arifing within
the borongh. But in 1688, at the requell of the inha-
bitants, from what caufe is not now remembered, the charter
was annulled by proclamation ; and from that period the
ancient government by a bailiff was revived, who is annually
chofen by the lord of the manor out of three pcrfons, re-
turned to him at the court-leet. Two eftates, called the
Stub-Ridings and Meadoiv-Ridings, were anciently granted
by two lords of the manor, in the reigns of Henry II. and
John, to the bailiffs and bailiff-burgeffcs, for the following
purpofes. The former, confining of about ico acres, is
granted for fummcr-paflure under certain regulations for
fixty-eight cow-beafts, to as many perfons as have been in-
habitants of the town for fourteen years. The latter is
divided into eighty-one lots, befides two others, called the
Bailiff's and Hayward's piece. Each of thefe, containing
rather more than a itatute acre, is held by a leffee for his
own life, and the life of his widow. Out of thefe eftates
the lord of the manor receives an annual payment of 5/.,
and the vicar of Old Sodbury i/. 13^. 4^. in lieu of tythes.
The bailiff is entitled to fifty (hillings yearly, for which, by
ancient cuftom, he provides an ox and two barrels of ale,
on St. Stephen's day, for the inhabitants.

A guild was founded in this borough, dedicated to St.
Mary, in the reign of Henry VI., of which John Glover
was the lalt incumbent. Tlie lands were granted, in 1558,
to the burghers of Sodbury, part for a town-hall, and part
for an alms-houfe. A free-fchool is fupported in this pariih,
by the profits of lands in different parilhes. In the popula-
tion returns to parliament in the year 181 1, the inhabitants
of this pariffi were ftated to be 123J, occupying 236 houfes.
In the fanguinary reign of Mary, John Pigott was burnt
here for his adherence to the Proteftant religion.

The manor was granted by the Conqueror to Odo, earl
of Champagne, whofe grandlon, William, granted the pri-
vilege of pafture-common in the Riding before mentioned,
the original of which is ftlll in exiftence. About the fame
time, William Green of Sodbury gave Gaunt's Fields to
the burgelies ; and Jurdan Bifhop, who was lord of the
manor of Little Sodbury, granted them common of pafture
for cattle in Dymerfhed and Norwood. The manor, which
by fucceffive marriages has been poffcffed by various fa-
milies, is now held by that of Hartley.

In the high lands, eaft of the town, are found a great
variety of belemnites, nautilites, of the ribbed fort ; and
welt of the town, fomc veins of fulphate of ftrontian have
been difcovercd.

Little Sodbury is a parifli adjoining Chipping Sodbury,
and confifts of about 900 acres of land, the greater p.art of
which is appropriated to the dairy fyrtem. On the edge of
a hill, in this parifh, is a large encampment of an oblong
form, comprifing an area of about 200 yards from eaft to
weft, and 300 from north to fouth. This was probably
formed by the Romans ; and according to Lcland, it was
occupied by I^dward IV. 's army, previous to the battle of
Tewkelbury.

Old Sodbury is another parifh adjoining the former, on
the north-eaft, and confills of 3000 acres of land, the
greater part of which is palhire.

JDodington, three miles fouth-eaft of Sodbury, is the

magnificent fe«t of Chriftopher Codrington, efq. who has
long been engaged in building a fpacious and fplendid
manfion here, from the defigns of the late James Wyatt,
efq. architeft. Rudge's Hiftory of the County of Glou-
cefter, 2 vols. 8vo. 1803.

SODDER, or SoDER. See Solder.

SODDERING. See Soldeking.

SODDING of Brick. See Brick.

SODDOMA, II,, in Biography, the cognomen of Gio-
vanni Antonio Razzi, a native of Vercelli, in Piedmont,
born about the year 1479. He was inftrufted in painting
by Giacomo dalle Fonte ; but his chief objeft of iludy was
the ftyle of L. da Vinci. He was employed by Julius II.
to paint the chambers of the Vatican ; but the charms of
Raphael's firft produftions in that palace were the fignal for
the obliteration of all other works there : among them II
Soddoma's. Other piftures, which he painted for Agoftino
Ghigi in the Farnefina, were more fortunate, and yet re-
main. Their fubjefts are taken from the hiltory of Alex-
ander the Great, and though inferior to the works of
Lionardo, yet they exhibit very coufiderable talent, many
beauties of perfpeAive, and much playful imagery.

After he left Rome, he had confiderable employment at
Sienna, and there his beil produftions arc to be found, ia
which he has combined the excellent qualities of the beft
artifts of his day. He died in 1554.

SODENKYLA, in Geography, a town of Swediih Lap-
land ; 1 10 miles N.N.E. of Tornea. N. lat. 67"^ 25'. E.
long. 2'6° 14'.

SODERALA, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland ;
3 miles S.W. of Soderhamn.

SODERBY, a town of Sweden, in Jamptland ; 60 miles
N. of Frofon. — Alfo, a town of Sweden, in Upland ; 49
miles N.N.E. of Stockholm.

SODERHAMN, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the
province of Heltingland, fituated at the mouth of a river,
near the gulf of Bothnia, firft built by gunfmiths and cop-
perfmiths, and erefted into a town in the year 1620. The
houfes are mean, but the church handforae. The trade of
this place is confiderable in arms, linen, butter, timber,
flax, &c. ; 20 miles N. of Gcffle.

SODERKIOPING, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Eaft Gothland. This is a ftaple town, fituated on a
navigable river, and one of tlie moft ancient cities in Goth-
land. It had formerly its own municipal laws, and was in
a much more flouriftiing condition than it is at prefent.
Two kings were crowned, and in 1595 a diet was held in
this town. It has at prefent but two churches; 10 milei
S.S.E. of Nordkioping. N. lat. 61^ 18'. E. long.
16° 54'.

SODERON, afmall ifland near the c^aft of Sweden,
in the Alands Haf. N. lat. 60° 15'. E. long. 8^ 14'.

SODERSKARBAK, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Fin-
land. N. lat. 60° 5'.

SODERTELGE, or So.ln-Telge, a town of Sweden,
in tlie province of Sudermanlaiid, fituated between the fea
and the Maeler lake. About two miles and a Ihilf diilant
from this town, at a place caljcd " Aegclftowyk," is a good
harbour. Sodertclge was formerly a ftaple town, and in a
flourifhing condition ; and there is ilill a manufafture oi
worfted and filk ftockings in this town. In the year 1719,
Sodertelge was burnt by the Ruffian army, but has fince
been reb\iilt ; 16 miles W.S.W. of Stotkhulm. N. lat.
59° 8'. E.long. 18° 28'.

SODE-SHOOTS, in Botany, a name given by fome to
the tree, whofc infpiffated juice is the gum tacamahacca of
the (hops.

li 2 SODFORS.

SOD

SODFORS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft
Bothnia; 1 8 miles N.W. of Umea.

SODIA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
70 miles S.S.E. of Mecca.— Alfo, a mountain of Arabia,
in the province of Hedsjas ; 60 miles S. of Mecca.

SODINUS, in Jncient Geography, a navigable river of
Afia, which runs into the Cophes, according to Pliny.

SODIUM, in Chemi/ln, a fimple body and a metal.
This was difcovered by fir Humphrey Davy in the year 1807.
He had a few days before found that potafli was a compound
of a peculiar metal combined with oxygen, and he now found
that foda confided of a metallic fubftance combined with
oxygen. He firll produced it by expofing foda to the aftion
of the Galvanic battery.

It is now obtained by fufiiig foda or muriate of foda with

potafiium. The potaffium combines with the oxygen in the

foda, and with the chlonne in the fait, leaving pure fodium.

This metal is white, refembling filver ; and having the

fame metallic lull re.

Its fpecific gravity is between 9 and 10, water being I.
In the common temperature it is malleable.

It allumes the liquid form at 200^ of Fahrenheit, and is
volatile at a red heat.

If expofed to the air it would foon lofe its luftre, by com-
bining with oxygen, and in a little time would be converted
into foda.

It is preferved in naphtha, like potaffium.
When heated in oxygen or chlorine, it burns with great
brilliancy.

When thrown upon water, it does not fink but runs along
the furface, the motion being occafioned by the rapid efcape
of hydrogen gas, from its decompofing the water with
great rapidity. The floating mafs is feen to diminifh as it
runs along, till it difappears, when, as may be expefted, the
water is found to contain a folution of foda.

Sodium, like other metals, is a conduftor of eleAricity.
Sodium combines with two dofes of oxygen. The one is
that which conftitutes foda ; the other is of an orange
colour, firft obferved by fir Humphrey Davy ; but for the
particulars of its nature we are indebted to M. M. Gay Luffac
and Thenard.

Soda, in its pure ftate, is a folid of a greyi(h-white co-
lour, very hard, and breaks with a fmooth fraAure. In
iliis ftate it requires a ftrong heat for its fufion. When
expofed a little to the air, it abforbs water, afl'umes a whiter
colour, and becomes much more fufible by heat. Its vo-
latility is alfo increafed at the fame time. In this ftate, as is
the cafe with lime, potafh, and many of the metallic oxyds,
it is called an hydrate.

The peroxyd of fodium is formed by burning fodium in
oxygen gas, an excefs of the gas being prefent.

It is of a deep orange colour, and fufes at a much lefs
heat than foda.

If thrown into water, one atom of oxygen efcapes in the
form of gas, leaving pure foda, which diftblves in the water.
This proves how clofely the excefs of oxygen is held. This,
however, is more confpicuoudy fiiewn in its aftion upon
combuftible bodies, with which it deflagrates.

The atom of fodium has been confidered 22 ; hydrogen
being 1, and oxygen 7.5 ; hence the protoxyd would be
29.5, and the peroxyd 37. But from the experiments of
Gay LufTac and Thenard, it appears that the oxygen in the
foda is to that in the peroxyd as i to 1 1, or as 2 to 3 ;
but as the exiitence of half atoms would be abfurd, the
atom of fodium muft be confidered as equal to 44 ; the prot-
oxyd will then be 51.5 ; the deutoxyd, which is foda, will

SOD

be 44 +' 2 X 7.5 = 59, and the peroxyd 44 -f- 3 x 7.5
= 81.5.

Soda combines with fulphur, and is called fulphuret of
foda. It poflefles properties differing but little from the
fulphuret of potafli. It is formed by fufing fulphate of
foda with common faw-duft. Like fulphuret of potalh, when
thrown into water, it firft diflblves, and decompofing that
fluid, the remaining fulphuret combines with the hydrogen
in its nafcent ftate to form hydrogen with fulphuret of
foda. This forms a greenifh-coloured fluid, having the
fmell of fulphuretted hydrogen. The phofphuret of
foda is alfo fimilar to the phofphuret of potafti. See
Potash.

Sodium alfo combines with fulphur and phofphorus.
When fodium and fulphur are heated together in a veflel
filled with vapour of naphtha, they unite with all the figns
of fplendid combuftion, the fulphur fupplying the place of
oxygen . The compound is of a grey colour, producing ful- \
phate of potafli by expofure to the air. Their proportions '
ought to be 44 fodium to 15 fulphur for the firft, and 44
to 30 for the fecond fulphuret.

Sodium has a fimilar effeft upon phofphorus, by which the
phofphuret of fodium is produced. It has no known aftion
upon carbon, azote, or hydrogen.

Sodium combines with many of the metals, forming pe-
culiar alloys. With potaffium, in a fmall proportion, it forms
an alloy, which, agreeably to other alloys, is more fufible than
either of the metats. The alloy is of lefs fpecific gravity than
either of the metals, a circumftance not common with other ,
metallic alloys. The latter faft goes to prove that there jj
is not a great affinity between the two metals.

One part of fodium renders 40 of mercury fohd, at the
common temperature. When they combine, heat is difen- j
gaged. It aJfo combines with tin, without changing its
colour. When thefe alloys are expofed to the air, the
fodium is gradually feparated, by combining with the oxygen
of the atmofphere.

Salts of Soda, or its Compounds tuith the yields. — Under this
head we ftiall comprife the muriate of foda, although, in
ftrift propriety, we might have been expefted to have treated
this compound under the aftion of fodium upon chlorine.

Sulphate of Soda. — This fait is found native in moft fea-
vegetables : it has been called Glauber fait. It may be
eafily formed by adding fulphuric acid to the cryftallized
carbonate of foda, till the effervefcence ceafes, and the folu-
tion is neither acid nor alkaline.

On evaporation and cooling, it eafily cryftallizes into fix-
fided prifms of a pearly appearance. Their tafte is cooling
and rather bitter. At the temperature of 60° it diflblves in
lefs than three times its own weight of water, and in much
lefs than its own weight of boiling water. When a folution
of this fait is concentrated till it has fomething lefs than half
its own weight of water, and carefully fet by to cool, it will
not cryftallize; but if a tremulous motion be given to the
veflel, or a cryttal of the fame fait dropped into it, the
whole fuddenly cryftalHzes, exhibiting a beautiful appear-
ance. When the cryftals are expofed to the air, they lofe
their water of cryftallization, and alfume the form of white
powder. In this change they lofe about 60 per cent, of
their weight, as will be feen in their analyfes.
According to Kirwan, it is compofed of

Sulphuric acid - - 23.52

Soda - - - - 18.48

Water - - - 58.

100

Accord-

SODIUM.

According to Bergman,
Acid
Soda
Water -

Wenzel's analyfis of the dry fait is,
Acid . . - -
Soda . . - -

Kirwan's analyfis of ditto.
Acid
Soda -

27
58

55-7
44-3

100

56

44

100

It appears that this fait confifts of two atoms of acid to
one of foda, and 20 atoms of water. This, if hydrogen
be I, will be 37.5 x 2 acid + 59 foda + 170 water —
304. Reduced to the hundred, it will be

Acid - - - - 19.4

Soda - . - - 24.6
Water . - . 56.

loo

Nitrate of Soda. — This fait has been called cuiU nitre, from
having the general properties of nitrate of potafli, but dif-
fering in the form of its cryltals, which are of a cubical, or
rather rhomboidal form.

It may be formed by faturating pure carbonate of foda
with nitric acid.

On evaporation and cooling, it forms rhomboidal cryftals,
the fpecific gravity of which is 2.0964, water being i.

Thefe cryltals diffolve in three times their weight of
water at 60°, and in lefs than their own weight of boiling
water.

With inflammable bodies and heat, it exhibits phenomena
fimilar to thofe of nitre : but it is inferior to that fubftance
in forming gunpowder with charcoal and fulphur.

Its proportions, according to Bergman, are

Nitric acid - - - 43
Soda - - - - 32
Water .... 25

Muriate of Soda. — This fait, which is the common culi-
nary fait in a ftate of purity, is a component part of almoft
all animal matter ; nor is there perhaps a vegetable that doe«
not yield fome portion of it.

It exifts ready formed in the fea, and forms entire moun-
tains in the fubttance of the globe. It is from the native
fait that all the muriatic acid is obtained. It is never formed
by art, but the pure fait may be obtained by adding car-
bonate of foda to the fait in folution ; then evaporate it to
obtain cryftals ; thefe are of a cubic form, and pure mu-
riate of foda.

According to the prevailing view now taken of this fait,
it is a conjpound of fodium and chlorine, or what was called
oxymuriatic acid. Hence it is not confidered as a fait,
thofe bodies being compounds of an acid and an oxyd. The
fubftance in queftion is believed to be a compound of fodium,
an inflammable body, combined with another body, having
more the properties of oxygen than any other body. Mu-
riate of foda is, therefore, confidered as being more allied to
an oxyd than a compound of two, the chlorine afting the
part of oxygen. It is called by fir Humphrey Davy fodane,
by Dr. Thomfon chloride of fodium, and by the French
chemifts chlortiret of fodium. Tlie tafte of this fait may
be called the ftandard of that fenfation we aWfalt, Its fpe-
cific gravity is 2.12 ; it is foluble in about three times its
weight of water at 60°, and nearly in the fame quantity of
boiling water.

It is unchanged by expofure to the air. The moift ftate
in which it is frequently found in commerce, arifes from the
prefence of a little muriate of lime, which the pureft native
fait always contains ; but it is more abundant in the fait ob-
tained from fea-water.

It is compofed, according to Bergman, of

According to Kirwan, in the dry ftate,

Nitric acid - - 57-55

Soda - - - 42.34

99.89

This fait appears to be compofed of one atom of acid
and one of foda, ni the dry ftate, or 50.5 acid and 44 foda
= 945. This will give

Nitric acid -

Soda ...

Muriatic acid -
Soda
Water -

52

42

6

According to Kirwan, when dried at 80°,

Acid

Soda ...

Water ...

100

Sir Humphrey Davy confiders it a compound of 2 atoms
of chlorine and i of fodium, or 2 x 33 chlorine -f- 44
fodium = 1 10. This will be

Chlorine
Sodium

60
40

100

See the article Salt.

Phofphate of Soda. — This fait has been longer known tliaji
phofphorus. It cxiftn ready formed in urine, from which
it was extraftcd, and called fal mirabile perlulum, or wonder-
ful perlated fait. It was fo called from its cryftals having
a pearly appearance. This fait, with excefs of acid, was
confidered by Prouft as a peculiar acid, which he called the
perlated acid. But it was ultimately found by Klaproth,
and afterwards by Schcele, to be a compound of foda with
the phofphoric acid.

Dr.

SODIUM.

Dr. Pcarfon firft prepared it artificially, and introduced
it into medicine as a purjrative. He dilFolved 1400 grains of
cryitallized carbonate of foda in 2100 grains of water, and
added gradually joo grains of phofphoric acid, of the fpeci-
fic gravity i . 85. Tliis folution he boiled for a few minutes,
and filtered it while hot. The folution was fet out in a cool
place to cryftallize.

This fait is often made by faturating foda with the fuper-
phofphate of lime obtained from bones by fulphuric acid,
and is never fufBciently free from lime.

The acid (hould be obtained by burning phofphorus, and
the foda ufed in the ftate of well-formed cryftals, when the
pure fait is required.

It cryftallizes in the form of rhomboidal prifms, termi-
nating with three-filled pyramids.

It efflorefces by expofure to the air.

Its taile is very like muriate of foda, but more mild and
agreeable.

It is foluble in four parts of cold, and in about three parts
of boiling water.

When expofed to heat it firft undergoes the watery fufion.
When heated to rednefs, it melts into a white enamel. From
this property it has been propofed as a fubftitute for borax,
in the foldering of metals : it alfo refembles the fame fub-
ftance in forming coloured glaffes with metallic oxyds.

It is partially decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric, and
muriatic acids, leaving it in a ftate containing double its ori-
ginal quantity of acid. This is called the fuperphofphate of
foda. It was this fait which Prouft took for a peculiar
acid. It is more foluble in water than the phofphate, and
does not eafily cryftallize.

Phofphate of foda has not been analyfed : fince, how-
ever, the weight of an atom of phofphorus is 13, and phof-
phoric acid 13 -t- 2 X 7.5 = 28, then phofphate of foda
will be 2 X 28 -f 59, or

Soda
Acid

51

49

100

Fluate of Soda. — This fait may be formed by adding
fluoric acid to carbonate of foda, till the effervelcence
ceafes.

On evaporation, it forms into cubic cryftals. Thcfe are
fparingly foluble in water, and have an aftringeiit bitter
tafte.

Borate of Soda. — This is a fait with half the quantity of
acid which the borate contains ; it is known in commerce
and in the arts by the name of borax. The latter fubftaiice
is extrafted from a fubftance called tincal : the true borate
is, therefore, not ufed, but the fub-borate or borax.

Suh-borate of fodaxi cryftalljzed in hexagonal prifms, with
two fides broader than the reft. It is femitranfparent.
Its fpecific gravity is 1.74. It is foluble in twelve parts
of cold water, and in fix of boiling water. It has a fweetifti
tafte, and rather alkaline. When expofed to the air, it is
foon reduced to a white powder, with much lofs of weight.
This arifes from the efcape of the water of cryftallization.
Artifts are apt to ufe it too plentifully in this ftate, and
fancy that its proper virtue is gone ; but the white powder
is equally valuable with the fait for all purpofes. When
the fame change is bro.ught about by heat, the borax is faid
to be calcined. If a ftrong heat be given to it in a cru-
cible, it melts into a tranfparent glafs. It is frequently
ufed in forming choice fpecimens of (ham cryftals, by fufion

with flint, lead, and manganefc. The compofition of borax,
according to Bergman, is,

I

Acid
Soda

Water

39
'7

44

The acid i^ obtained from this f:ilt by diflolving it in hot
water, and then adding fulphuric acid. As the liquid
cools, fmall fcaly cryftals are precipitated, which are the
pure boracic acid.

The bafe of this acid has been difcovered fince the com-
mencement of this work, and even fince this acid has been
treated of : we, therefore, feel it our duty to give fome ac-
count of it here.

When boracic acid, flightly moiftened, is expofed be-
tween two plates of platina, one being connefted with the
copper fide of a Galvanic battery, and the other with the
zinc fide, the oxygen of the acid is attrafted to the zinc
or pofitive fide, and the inflammable bafe to the copper or
negative fide. This is a dark coloured fubftance, which be-
comes detached from the reit of the mafs, and is the bafe in
qneftion. This experiment was firft made by fir Humphrey
Davy, in March 1808, about the time that he difcovered
potaflium and fodium. In the November following it ap-
pears that he, as well as Meftrs. Gay Luftac and Thenard,
obtained this bafe by heating boracic acid with potaflium.
The latter chemift alfo fucceeded in recompofing the acid.
This fubftance has been called boron by fir Humphrey
Davy, which name it itill retains.

Boron is an opaque fubftance of a dark olive colour.

It is not fufible or volatile at any known temperature.
When heated in the open air, it burns by abforbing oxygen,
and is converted into drj' boracic acid. In pure oxygen
gas it undergoes more vivid combuftion, giving out bright
fcintillations. The ma(s becomes coated with boracic acid,
and the remainder of the bafe is found unchanged in the
cruft.

It is a non-conduftor of eleftricity, a proof that it is not
of a metallic nature.

It is infoluble in water.

The proportion of oxygen in boracic acid is not yet
known. The cruft of boracic acid, which forms on boron
vvlieii it is burned, fecures the remainder from the oxygen,
fo as to render the refult ambiguous.

Sir Humphrey Davy judges, from the quantity of po-
taflium required for the decompofition of the acid, that it
contains two-thirds its weight of oxygen. Gay Luftac
and Thenard, from treating boron with nitric acid, make
it to contain one-third its weight of oxygen ; but this refult
ii not to be relied upon, fince boracic acid is volatile both
with water and the nitric acid.

Sir Humphrey Davy found that 90 parts of potafti were
required to neutrahze 160 of boracic acid. This will give
80 for the weight of the atom of boracic acid, potafti
being 45', and hydrogen I. If, according to fir Humphrey,
it contains two-thirds of oxygen, then the atom of boron
will be 27.

Dr. Thomfon, from the experiments of Berzelius, which
are in fome meafure corroborated by thofe of fir Humphrey
Davy, makes the atom of boron 5.5, hydrogen being i.
This is the weight of the atom of carbon, to which boron
feems in other refpeAs allied. If, like carbon, it combines
with two atoms of oxygen, then boracic acid will be

^5

SOD

SOD

f'S H 7'5 X 2 = 20. y. Sir Humphrey's atom, which is
80i is nearly a multiple of this number.

Carbonate of Soda. — This is the fait known by the name
of fal foda. It exifts ready formed in barilla and kelp, and
is eafily obtained by folution and evaporation, allowing it
to cryllallixe flowly. It cryftallizes in flat rhombciidal
prifms. It is foluble in two parts of cold water, and in
lefs than its own weight of boiling water. Like the ful-
phate of foda, it efflorefces in the air, and aflumes the form
of white powder.

When heated, it melts in its own water of cryftalli/ation.
This foon efcapes ; and if the heat be raifcd, one half of
the carbonic acid probably efcapes.

According to Bergman, its compofition is,

Soda
Acid
Water

According to Klaproth, it contains.

Soda . . . .
Acid . . . .
Water . . - .

According to Kiruan, in cryllals.

Soda
Acid
Water

In the dry fla'e,

Soda
Acid

20

\G
64

22
16
62

21. 5R
14.42
64

59.86
40.14.

This fait is compofed of 2 atoms of acid,
and 20 of water ; or 41 acid, 59 foda, and
This, in 100, will be,

Soda ... 21.8

Acid ... 1^.2

Water ... 63

I of foda,
170 water.

This fait, although called a carbonate, is evidently a bi-
carbonate of foda ; and the fait, which rcfnlts from heating
this, mult be confidered a carbonate.

There is another compound, with a (till greater propor-
tion of carbonic acid, which is either a tncarbonate or a
tetracarbonate of foda.

Arfemate of Soda. — This is a fatt little known, but be-
lieved to have the general properties of arfeniate of potafli.
See that fait under Salts.

Acetate of Soda. — This fait may be formed by faturating
carbonate of loda with acetic acid. It cryilallizes in prifms
refembling fulphate of foda. It is foluble in about three
parts of water at 60°. It docs not cryltallize but with
excefs of alkali.

The other falts of foda are too little known to be im-
portant.

SODMERE Point, in Geography, a cape on the S. coalt
of the Ifle of Wight. N. lat. 50° 38'. W. long. 1° 16'.

SODOM, in Ancient Geography, the chief city of the
Pentapolis, which comprehended the five cities called So-
dom, Gomorrah, Zeboim, Admah, and Zoar or Segor.
The four former were deftroyed on account of their wicked-
nefs by fire from heaven, A.M. 2107 or B.C. 1897 ; but
the latter, though fentenced to the fame fate, was fpared at
the interceflion of Lot. Sodom had been his dwelling-place,
and the plain on which Sodom and the other cities Itood was
plealant and fruitful, like an earthly paradife, but after their
deltruction it was overflowed by the waters of the river
Jordan, which thus formed the " Dead fea," or " lake of
Sodom," or the " Asi'HALTiTEZa;tc," which fee. A French
geographer, letting afide the miraculous part of this event,
afcribes it to a volcanic eruption, and he conceives the lake
to have been the crater of the volcano ; but it is fufficient
to obferve that this opinion contradifts the hillorical narra-
tion of this event.

In the time of Jofephus the ruins of thefe cities were ftill
in being. Strabo (Geog. 1. xv.) alfo fpeaks of the ruins of
Sodom, which were 60 furlongs in compafs, and were vifible
on the fhore of the Dead fea. The " Notitia" exprefsly
mentions Sodom as an cpifcopal city : and we find one Se-
verus, a bilhop of Sodom, among the bifhops of Arabia
who fubfcribed to the firft council of Nice. Reland, how-
ever, cannot allow that Sodom was ever rebuilt, and he
thinks that the word Sodom, among the fubfcriptions to the
council of Nice, to have been an error of the copiers.
Calmet is of a different opinion. The record, he fays, is
very circumilantial : it puts the epifcopal city of Sodom be-
tween Thamar and En-geddi. Stephanus, the geographer,
places En-geddi near Sodom. Hence Calmet concludes,
that the city of Sodom was rebuilt, either in or near its
former fituation ; for though it appears probable that it
was not covered by the waters of the Dead fea, and that it
ftood on the ihore of this fea, yet, fays Calmet, " I would
not ftrenuoufly oppofe the contrary opinion."

SODOMY, the unnatural crime of buggery ; thus called
from the city of Sodom, which was deitroyed by fire for
the fame. This is ufually, and very juiUy, denominated the
" crime againll nature," when committed with man or beaft:
— a crime, which ought to be ftrittly and impartially proved,
and then as Itriftly and impartially punifhed. The delicacy
of our Englilh law treats it, in its very indiftraents, as a
crime not fit to be named ; " peccatum illud horribile, inter
Chriftianos non nominandum." The edift of Conllantius
and Conilantine obfervcs a fimilar taciturnity ; " ubi fcelus
clt id, quod non proficit fcire, jubcmus infurgere leges, ar-
mari jura gladio ultore, ut cxquifitis poonis fubdentur in-
famcs, qwi funt, vel qui futuri lunt rei."

The Lcvitical laws adjudged tiiofe guilty of this execrable
evil to death, Lev. xviii. 22, 23. xx. 15, 16; and the civil
law afligns the fame punifliment to it. Our ancient law
commanded fuch mifcreants to be burnt to death (Brit. c. 9.),
though Fleta fays (1. i. c. 37.) they fliould be buried alive ;
either of which puniflnncnts was iiidilferently ufed for this
crime among the ancient (ioths. At prefent our laws make
it felony. (25 Hen. VI U. c. 6. jEliz. c. 17.) And the
rule of the law is, that if both arc arrived at years of dif-
cretion, " agentes et confenticntes pari poena pleiftantur."

3 I"'t- 59- .

SODRA Bakkkk, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Dalecarlia ; 40 miles S. of Eahliin.

SODRES, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, in
the number of thole who were lubdued by Alexander, ac-
cording to (^uinlub Curtius, 1. viii.

9 SODU-

S O E

S O F

SODUCENA, a country of Afia, in the Greater Ar-
menia, S. of Colthene, according to Ptolemy.

SODUS, Great, in Geography, a large townfliip of
America, in the N.E. corner of Ontario county, in the
ftate of New York, with a poft-office called " Troupville,"
bounded N. by lake Ontario, E. by Seneca county, S. by
Lyons, and W. by Williamfon and Palmyra ; about i8 miles
fquare, and including a great part of Sodus bay. The fur-
face is undulated with hillocks and vallies, in a N. and S.
direftion, and the foil is good and well watered. The
timber is luxuriant, and confifts of the fugar-maple, beech,
oak, hickory, elm, afh, linden or bafs-wood, cherry, tulip-
tree or poplar, butternut, &c. Crops of wheat, rye, maize,
hemp, flax, oats, and the common grafles, fucceed well, as
do alfo the conuiion fruits of the country. In the N.E-
corner of Sodus is Great Sodus bay, reckoned the bed har-
bour on the S. Ihore of the Ontario ; and on an elevated
point of land, projefting into the bay, the poll-village of
Troupville is very eligibly and handfomely fituated, 2I2
miles from Albany, and about 30 N.E. of Canandaigna.
Sodus has two grill-mills, five faw-mills, one fulling-mill, and
a confiderable number of the common mechanical branches
of manufafture for the convenience of the inhabitants. Here
are two meeting-houfes, one for Prefbyterians and one for
Baptifts, and feveral fchool-houfes. Iron ore has been found
here. The firfl. fcttlements in this town commenced in 1790,
by two German families from the Mohawk river ; and
though the progrefs of population was flow, it amounted,
by the cenfus of 1810, to 1957 perfons, and 343 families.
N. lat. 43° 10'. W. long. 77^ 5'.

Sodus, Little, a town of New York, in Albany, on the
S. fide of lake Ontario ; 12 miles E. of Great Sodus.

SOEBORG, a town of Denmark, in the ifle of Zealand,
feated on an ifland in a frefli-water lake. Near this town is
a triangular pillar, with Latin, Danifli, and German infcrip-
tions, erefted in the year 1738, in honour of Frederick IV.
and Chriftian VI., for having flopped the progrefs of flying
fand, which overwhelmed one traft of land and village after
another, and threatened the bell part of Zealand with defo-
lation. In the reigns of thefe two monarchs this evil was
reflrained under the infpeftion of the prefeft Frederick Von
Gram, by the addrefs of John Ubr. Rohl. This fandy
wafte is now covered with verdure, and appears like a fine
meadow ; 9 miles W.N.W. of Helfingoer.

SOELBO, a town of Norway, in the province of Dron-
theim ; 20 miles E. of Drontheim. — Alfo, a lake, 18 miles
S.E. of Drontheim.

SOELENGAT, a town of Norway, in the province
of Bergen ; 112 miles N. of Bergen.

SOEST, or ZoEST, Gerard, in Biography, was a native
of Weftphalia, born about the year 1637. He acquired the
art of painting in his own country, but praftifed principally in
this, whither lie came rather before the period of the rellora-
tion. His portraits have a confiderable portion of truth
and animation, wrought in a finifhed manner, and with great
warmth and glow of colour ; fo much fo as to clafs him
among the better rivals of fir Peter Lely. He was moft
fuccefsful in his portraits of men, among whom he had a
very confiderable (hare of employment ; but the more grace-
ful and engaging pencil of fir Peter fecured the charms of
the fofter fex to himfelf. Soeft died at the early age of 44.

SoEST, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the county
of Mark, formerly one of the Hanfe towns, enjoying im-
perial privileges and the right of coining money. Its ex-
tent is large, and contains feveral churches. \l was the
place in which feveral of the fucceffors of Charlemagne
refided; 22 miles E. of Dortmund. N. lat. 51° 33'. E.

long. 8" 1 1'. — Alfo, a river of Eaft Friefland, formed by
the union of the Soke and Vehne, which, after a llraight
courfe, runs into the Leer near Stikhufen.

SOETA, in /indent Geography, a town of Scythia,
beyond the Imaus. Ptolemy.

SOETERWEER, in Geography, a town of Holland;
S miles E. of the Hague.

SOFA, in the Eall, a kind of alcove raifed half a foot
above the floor of a chamber, or other apartment ; and
ufed as the place of ftate, where vifitors of dillindlion are
received.

Among the Turks, the whole floor of their ftate-room i«
covered with a kind of tapeftry, and on the window-fide is
raifed a fofa or fopha, laid with a kind of matrafs, covered
with a carpet much richer than the other. On this carpet
the Turks are feated, both men and women, like the tay-
lors in England, crofs-legged, leaning againd the wall, which
is bolltered with velvet, fattin, or other ftuff, fuitable to the
feafon. Here they eat their meals ; only laying a flcin over
the carpet, to ferve as a table-cloth, and a round wooden
board over all, covered with plates, &c.

The ambafladors of France flood out a long while, and
refufed to vifit the grand vizir, unlefs he would receive thetji
on the fofa : at length he granted them the fofa.

SOFALA, ZoFALA, or Quiteve, in Geography, a king-
dom of Africa, bounded on the N. and W. by the ftates of
Mocaranga, on the E. by the Mozambique channel, and on
the S. by Sabia, about 350 miles from E. to W. and 120
from N. to S., extending about 50 leagues along the coalt
and about 80 into the interior of the country. This coun-
try is faid to be fubjedl to a Mahometan prince, tributary
to the king of Portugal. Its capital, of the fame name, was,
at the arrival of the Portuguefe, an inconfiderable town,
without walls, and fenced only with a thorny hedge ; but it
has fince been fortified, and much improved, as well as the
fort, which they conftrufled for its defence. It was then
called " Cuama ;" but geographers and pilots retain its
ancient name of Sofala. It is conveniently fituated on a
fmall ifland, at the mouth of the river Cuama. On the
coall are alfo two other towns, w'z. Haulema and Dardema,
with feveral obfcure villages. The natives of Sofala are
generally black, with fhort curled hair ; in fliape taller and
more genteel than the negroes of Mozambique, Quiloa, &c.
Their common drefs is a piece of filk or cotton, wrapped
round the middle, covering them to the knees ; the reft of
the body being naked, except the head, as perfons of the
fupcrior clafs wear a kind of turban. All perfons adorn
their necks, arms, wrifts, legs, and ancles, with rings of
gold, filver, amber, or coloured beads, according to their
condition. The fluffs and trinkets ufed in their drefs are
chiefly imported from Bombay by the Portuguefe ; and
thofe of the better fort affecl to wear fwords with handles
of ivory. The inhabitants of the country and town of
Sofala are a mixture of Mahometan Arabs, idolatrous Caf-
fres, and Portuguefe Chriftians. Thofe who inhabit the
coaft fpeak the Arabic tongue, which is their native lan-
guage ; as they are not the original natives but the de-
fcendants of the Arabs, who, leaving their native country,
fettled more or lefs on this coaft. They cultivate rice and
millet for bread, and eat the flefli of elephants, large and
fmall cattle, and alfo fiih, with great variety of which the
fea and rivers abound. They likewife make beer both of
rice and millet, and fome other liquors from honey, palm,
and other fruits. Honey is abundant, and bees-wax ferves
them to exchange for painted cotton or filk, and other
cloths. Their principal commerce i^ carried on with the
inhabitants of Mozambique, Quiloa, Mombaja, and Me-

^ linda,

S O F

S O G

linda, who come hither in their " zambucks," or fmall
barges, which are freighted with a variety of the fore-men-
tioned cloths of all colours, exchanging them for gold,
ivory, wax, or ambergris, and alfo with the Portuguefe.
The Arabians exchange goods from the Eafl Indies and
the Red fea, to the amount of 140,000/. fterling annually
for ivory and gold. Befides the gold which is brought from
Mocaranga, Sofala has fome very confidcrable mines of that
metal, which, according to the reports of the Portuguefe
inhabitants, have yielded to the value of above two millions
of merigals yearly, each merigal being valued at about four-
teen French livres, amounting, according to Mr. Savary's
ftatement, to 1,166,666/. iterling. The fands alfo of the
river Sofala contain a very confidcrable mixture of gold-
dult. Some perfons have even affi^med that Solomon ob-
tained his gold, which is fo highly commended by the facred
hillorians, from this country, and that Sofala is the cele-
brated Ophir ; the gold being allowed to be the pureft and
fined in all Africa. (See Oi-hir.) The Mahometan religion
is faid by many writers to be that of the king and court,
and of a great part of the people ; but others think it more
probable, that the original natives are wholly deititute of
any religion ; and that the Arabians, who have fettled on
this coait, are the only Mahometans, except fome few pro-
lelytes, from the Negroes, who became fuch for the fake
of commerce ; as they obferve, that all the merchants who
came hither from Quiloa, Momba5a, and Melinda, are of
that religion. S. lat. 19° to 22°. E. long. 33° to 36°.

Sofala, a town of Africa, in the country of the fame
name. S. lat. 19° 22'. E. long. 36°. See the preceding
article. — Alfo, a river of Africa, which rifes in the county
of Mocaranga, and purfuing an eafterly courfe, runs into
the fea, S. lat. 19' 22'.

SOFEE. See SoPHi.

SOFFIETTA, in Ichthyology, the bellows-fifli, a name
by which fome have called the fcolopax, a fmall fea-fi(h,
common in the markets of Rome and Venice.

SOFFINGERBA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
Friuli ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Friuh.

SOFFITA, Soffit, or Soft, in ArchlteBure, any timber
ceiling, formed of crofs-beams, or flying corniches ; the
fquare compartiments or pannels of which are enriched
with fculpture, painting, or gilding.

The word is Italian, and fignifies the fame with the Latin
lacunar and laquear ; with this difference, that lacunar is uf?d
for any ceiling with fquare, hollow pannels, called lacus ;
and laquear for compartiments interlaced with plat-bands,
after the manner of knots or laquei.

Such are thofe we fee in the bafilics and palaces of
Italy, in the apartments of Luxembourg, at Paris, &c.

SoFFiTA, or Sojfflt, is alfo ufed for the under fide or
face of an architrave ; and more particularly for that of
the corona or larmier, which the ancients called lacunar, the
Yrench plafond, and we ufually the Jrip.

It is enriched with compartiments of rofes ; and in the
Doric order has eighteen drops, difpofcd in three ranks, fix
in each, placed to the right of the guttse, at the bottom
of the triglyphs.

SOFI, or SoPHi. See Sofhi.

SOFIA, in Geography. See Sophia.

SOFIANA, a town of Perfia, in Adirbeitzan ; 25 miles
S.W. of Tabris.

SOFIT, or Soffit, the internal fuperficies of an arch :
fometimes it fignifies the opening itfelf.

SOFR, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in tl»e pro-
vince of Hcdsjas ; 70 miles S.E. of Mecca.
Vol. XXXIII,

SOFRA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Neds-
jcd ; 50 miles N.E. of Kariatain.

SOFREGAM, a town wf the ifland of Ceylon ; 54
miles S. of Candi.

SOFROI, a town of Fez, in the province of Chaus,
trading principally in oil ; 12 miles E. of Fez.

SOFT Chalk, in ylgriculture, a fort of foflile marlc,
which readily moulders down and becomes blended with the
mould of the foil, on which account it forms an excellent
manure, free from the objeftion made to that of the hard
kind, which moltly requires to be reduced into lime. This
fort of fubltance is often met with at fome depth at the
bottoms of chalk hills, where fearch fliould be conllantly
made for it, as it may become of great value as manure.
All foft mouldering chalks are not only excellent fubllancei
for applying on lands that are of the ftifBfh kinds, but
they commonly form good foils, where they are the prin-
cipal material.

Soft Grafs, a troublefome fort of grafs among tnoilt
arable lands in fome places. See HoLCUS.

Soft Meadozu-Graf, the common name of a common
grafs in molt meadows, but which is of no great value for
the purpofes of the farmer. There is alfo a creeping foft
grafs often met with, which is faid to be ufeful on dry
fandy foils in producing a turf or fward. See HoLCUS.

Soft Pulf, Roe, and Soap. See the fubftantives.

SOFTENING, in Painting, the mixing and diluting of
colours with the brulh or pencil.

To foften defigns in black and white, made with the pen,
&c. fignifies to weaken the teint.

To foften a portrait, according to Felibien, is to change
fome of the Itrokes, and give a greater degree of fweetnefs
and foftncfs to the air of it, which before had fomettiing
rough and harfh in it.

SOGANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, in
the half tribe of Manafleh, on the other fide of Jordan.
It was fortified by Jofephus, when he was governor of
Galilee.

SOGANLIK, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the Black fea ; 8 mile* E. of
Varna.

SOGD, the moft celebrated and fertile diftriA of Great
Bucharia, being the ancient Sogdiana, which fee. See
BucHARiA. — Alfo, a river which pervades this diftrift,
and which, at the diilance of 100 miles from Samarcand,
fituated on its fouthern bank, after waftiing the walls of
Bokhara, paffes through a confiderable lake, and is fup-
pofed to join the Oxus or Amu.

SOGDI, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, qn
this fide of the Ganges, according to Quintus Curtius, who
places them on the left bank of the river Indus. The fame
hiltorian informs us that Alexander built a city in the coun-
try of thefe people, and called it Alexandria. He alfo relates,
that when fome of thefe people, who refided not far from the
country of Odin's Goths, were condemned to death by Alex-
ander on account of a revolt, they rejoiced greatly, and tclli-
fied their joy by finging vcrfcs and dancing. When the king
inquired the rcafon of their joy, they anfwercd, that " be-
ing foon to be rcllored to their auccltors by fo great a con-
queror, they could not help celebrating fo honourable %
death, which was the wifh of all brave men, in their own
accultomed fongs." Tiiis correfpondence of manners an(}
principles between the Scandinavians and the Sogdians fiir-
nilhes a (Iriking proof of Odin's migration from the E. to the
N. ; firll, in the fpontaneous cxcrcife of the poetical talent j
and, fccondly, in the opinion, that a glorious or warlike
death, which admitted them to the compiiny of their friend*
K k aod

S O H

SOI

and parents in another world, was to be embraced with the
mod eager alacrity, and the higheft fenfations of plcafure.
This is the doftrine of the " Edda." Warton's Hift. of
Enjr. Poetry, Diff. I.

SOGDIANA, a country of Afia, between the rivers
Jaxartes and Oxus, towards the N.E. of the territories
known to the ancients. See Bokhara, Buchari A, Mawar-
UL-NERE, and SoGD.

SoGDiANA Petra, a fortrefs of Afia, in Sogdiana,
fituated on a crapgy rock. Alexander beneged and toolt it,
and there found Roxana, the daughter of Oxiartes, accord-
ing to Arrian.

SOGERVI, in Geography, a town of Nubia, on the E.
fide of the Nile ; 20 miles W. of Ibrira.

SOGESTA, a town of Sweden, in Eall Gothland;
6 miles N.N.W. of Linkioping.

SOGGENDAAL, a town of Norway ; 32 miles S. of
Stavagner.

SOGGETTO, ltd.].,/uijea, an initial theme or text, in
Mujic, for a compofer to work into a movement for voices
or inllruments, without any limitation of parts in its accom-
paniment.

A fubjeft is frequently given by a mafter to a ftudent in
counterpoint, in the bafe, the tenor, or the treble, for him
to write upon, or find accompaniments to in every ftation,
alternately ; which, when happily achieved, becomes double
counterpoint. Writing upon canto fermo, as is conllantly
done by the fludents in the confervatorios at Naples, for
feveral years, before they are allowed to fet words or ex-
ercife their fancy in infirumental compofitions, is of this
kind. Candidates for organifts' places, and other profeflional
appointments and honours, have fubjefts of fugue frequently
given them at eleftions, to play upon extempore ; which,
if the judges are profound and fevere, is a trial of abilities
and courage, in which few are able to acquit themfelves to
their fatisfadion. See Fugue, Canto Fermo, Double
Counterpoint, and Roseingrave.

SOGLAH, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Caramania ; 42 miles S. of Cogni.

SOGLIO d't Bar'i, an ifland near the coaft of Naples,
in tlie gulf of Tarento ; 1 1 miles W. of Aleflano.

SOGNE, a town of Norway, in the province of Chrif-
tiania, near Chriftiania.

SoGNE Bay, a wide river of Norway, 40 miles long,
and about two broad, which runs into the North fea, N.
lat. 61° 2'. E. long, f 20'.

SOGNO, SoNGO, or Sonho, a province of Africa, in
the kingdom of Congo, on the S. fide of the Zaire, along
the coait of the Atlantic : its chief articles of trade are
flaves and elephants' teeth : the inhabitants generally pro-
fefs themfelves to be Chriftians. — Alfo, a tov/n of Africa,
the capital of the above-mentioned province. It is a large
ft''3g&'inR town, confining of about 400 houfes, fituated
on a creek or fmall river, about a mile from the Zaire.
The houfes are in general thatched, and the fides or walls,
(if they may be fo called,) compofed of palm-branches,
interwoven with leaves. The Englifh faftory, that for-
merly fubfifted in this place, has been long fince abandoned.
SOGOCARA, in yfncient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the Greater Armenia. Ptolemy.

SOGONI, in Geography, a town of Nubia, on the Nile ;
115 miles S. of Sycne.

SO'- ACZOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 38
miles £.1m.E. of Lancicz.

SOHAGEPOUR, a circar of Hindooltan, in Alla-
habad, bounded an the N. by Boggilcund and Chandail,
on the E. by Singrowla and Chohan, on the S. by Gurry

Mundella, and on the W. by Gurrah. — Alfo, a tow«

of Hindooftan, and capital of the above-named diftriftj
120 miles S. of Allahabad. N. lat. 2«° io'. E. lone.
81° 54'. ^ ^

SOHAIG, a town of Egypt, on the W. fide of the
Nile ; 3 miles N. of Achmim.

SOHAL, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman ;
72 miles S.W. of Mafcat.

SOHAM, formerly Seham, a town in the hundred of
Staplehoe, and county of Cambridge, England, is fituated
on the borders of that county, adjoining Suffolk, at the
dillance of 5 miles S.E. of Ely, and 7 N. of Newmarket.
Here was formerly a market on Thurfdays, but it has been
difcontinued about a century. Two annual fairs are, how-
ever, dill held here. 'During the Anglo-Saxon dynafty,
Soham appears to have been a place of fome confequence, and
according to Leland (" CoUeftanea," vol. ii. p. 247.) was the
feat of the Eaft Anglian bifhops. The fame author dates,
that Felix, the firll bilhop, was buried at this place, and that
his body was afterwards removed to Ramfey. The bilhop's
palace and the church were dellroyed by the Danes in 870.
Some remains of ancient buildings are now vifible. Part
of this pariih was formerly occupied by a large mere or
lake, which covered about 1369 acres, but the water has
been drained off, and the land appropriated to tillage. On
the divifion of the commons of Soham, in 1685, fir Tho-
mas Chicheley, then lord of the manor, and the other land-
holders, allotted 116 acres of moor or fen-land for the bene-
fit of the poor. A fchool was then founded, and a fchool-
mafter now receives 50/. a-year for fuperintending the poor
children of the pariih. Tliree alms-houfes were founded
here in 1502 by Richard Bond; and in 1581, nine others
for widows were founded by Thomas Pechey. Lyfons's
Magna Britannia, Cambridgefhire, vol. ii. part i. 4to.
1808.

SOHAR, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman,
formerly a place of great fplendour, but now of little or
no importance ; 44 miles N.W. of Mafcat. N. lat.

24° 17'-

SOHAUL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Boggilcund ; 30 miles W. of Rewah.

SOHAUN, one of the fmaller rivers of the Panjab,
in Hindooftan, which takes its courfe between the Behut
and Sinde, and runs into the latter about 60 miles S. of
Attock.

SOHDA, a town of Bengal; 35 miles S.E. of Doefa.

SOHLEN, a town of Wettphaha ; 6 miles S.S.W. of
Magdeburg.

SOHNER, a town of Norway, in the province of
Aggerhuus ; 25 miles S. of Chnlliania.

SOHO. See Birmingham.

SOHR, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz ; 6 miles S.E. of Arnau.

SOHRAU, or Zyory, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Ratibor ; 11 miles W.N.W. of Pies.

SOIATOI, a fmall ifland of Ruffia, in the Cafpian fea;
148 miles S.E. of Aftrachan. N. lat. 44° 40'. E. long.
50° 14'.

SOIGNIES, a town of France, in the department of
the Jemmape, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Mons, fituated on the Senne, near a foreft to which it gives
name; 6 miles N.N.E. of Mons. The place contain*
4247, and the canton 14,563 mhabitants, on a territory of
125 kiliometres, in 9 communes.

SOIL, in Agriculture, a general name apphed to the
furface mouldy parts of all forts of land, and in which the
fine powdery materials, which have been gradually formed

10 by

SOIL.

by time from the various earthy and other bodies in nature,
being ground down, and incorporated with each other in
different ftites and proportions, conllitute earthy layers,
which are ufually denominated foils, and which are deftined
to promote the growth and fupport oi various vegetable
crops : while the more folid and lefs reduced fubitances,
which have been excluded from the influence of the at-
mofphere, and other natural caufes, form the under llratum,
which is commonly known by the title of fub-foil. On
this account, it is evident that there mult be a great divcr-
fity in the foils of different diftritts. The more compadl
and hard fubftances of nature, the reduftion of which is
effected in a more flow and gradual manner, are generally
found more fparingly in the principles of foils, than thofe
of the more foft and eafily reducible kinds. But in the
natural Itate of foils, the clayey, loamy, and vegetable ma-
terials are generally found to enter in a pretty large pro-
portion, and to conilitute very eflential differences, according
to the quantities in which they are predominant in them.
And the earthy vegetable matter is, in many cafes, a prin-
cipal material in foils, conftituting a fort of fuperficial
layer or bed, in which the crops grow and are fupported ;
but which differs greatly according to the quantity, and
the itate of reduftion or decay to which it has advanced,
as well as many other circumttances. (See Vegetable
Earth.) Alfo, fubitances of the calcareous, fihceous, and
fandy kinds, are abundantly prevalent in fome trafts of
country, while in others they are met with only in a very
fparing manner, and thus of courfe afford much variety in
the nature and properties of the foils of fuch fituations.
Other caufes, which our limits will not allow us to mention
in this place, contribute to produce very great varieties and
diverfities in the natures and compofitions of foils.

It has been well obferved by profeilor Davy, in an excel-
lent paper on the Analyfis of Soils, that the fubftances
which are found in foils, are certani mixtures or combina-
tions of fome of the primitive earths, animal and vegetable
matter in a decompofing itate, certain faline compounds,
and the oxyd of iron. Thefe bodies always retain water,
and exiit in very different proportions in different lands,
and the end of analytical experiments is the deteftion of
their quantities and mode of union. Bnt that the earths
found in common foils are principally filex, or the earths of
flints, alumina, or the pure matter of clay, lime, or cal-
careous earth and magncfia. That filex, or filica, or the
earth of flints, when pcrfetlly pure, appears in the form of
a white powder, which is incombuftible, infufible, infoluble
in water, and not afted upon by common acids ; it is the
fubftance which conflitutes the principal part of rock cryf-
tal ; it compofes a confiderable part of hard gravelly foils,
of hard fandy foils, and of hard ftony lands.

That alumine, alumina, or pure clay, in its perfeft flate
i« white, like filex ; it adheres ftrongly to the tongue, is in-
combuitible, infoluble in water, but foluble in acids, and
in fixed alkaline menftrua. It abounds molt in clayey loils
and clayey loams ; but even in the fmalleft particles of thefe
foils, it is ufually united to filex and oxyd of iron.

That lime is the fubftance, which is well known in its
pure (late under the name of quicklime. It always cxifts
in foils in combination, and that principally with fixed air
or carbonic acid, when it is called carbonate of hmc ; a fub-
ftance which, in the moll compatt form, conllitiites marble,
and in its loofer form, chalk. Lime, when combined with
(ulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), produces fulphate of Hme
(gypfum), and with phofphoric acid, phofphate of Hme.
The carbonate of hme, mixed with other fubftances, com-

pofes chalky foils and marles, and is found in foft fandy
foils.

That magnefia, when pure, appears as white, and in a
lighter powder than any of the other earths ; it is foluble
in acid, but not in alkaHne menftrua ; it is rarely found in
foils ; when it does exift, it is either in combination with
carbonic acid, or with filex and alumine.

That animal decompofing matter exifts in very different
ftates, according as the fubftances from which it is produced
are different ; it contains much carbonaceous fubftance, and
may be principally refolved by heat into this fubftance,
volatile alkali, inflammable aeriform produAs, and carbonic
acid ; it is principally found in lands that have been lately
manured.

That vegetable decompofing matter is likewife very va-
rious ill its kind ; it contains ufually more carbonaceous fub-
ftance than animal matter, and differs from it in the refults
of its decompofition, principally in not producing volatile
alkali ; it forms a great proportion of all peats ; it abounds
in rich mould ; and is found in larger or fraaller quantities in
all lands.

That the faline compounds found in foils are very few,
and in quantities fo fmall that they are rarely to be difcovered.
They are principally muriate of foda (common fait), ful-
phate of magnefia (Epfora fait), and muriate and fulphate
of potafh, nitrate of lime, and the mild alkalies.

That the oxyd of iron is the fame with the ruft produced
by expofing iron to the aftion of air and water ; it is found
in all foils, but is more abundant in yellow and red clays,
and in yellow and red filiceous fands.

There is, befides thefe, fometimes sxyd of manganefum, or
manganefe, found in foils, which is compofed of this fub-
ftance and oxygen. It is known from other matters met
with in foils, by the property which it has of decompofing
muriatic acid, and converting it into another fubftance.

The filex, or filica, is for the moft part met with in foiU
in the ftate of combination with alumine, or alumina, and the
oxyd of iron, or with the former, lime, magncfia, and oxyd
of iron, conftituting fand and gravel of very different degree*
of finenefs, as well as varying much in colour. The carbo-
nate of lime is commonly found in an impalpable form ; but
occafionally in the ftate of calcareous fand. The magnefia,
when not combined with the gravel or fand of the foil, is in
general united in a fine powdery flate to carbonic acid. The
fine impalpable parts of foil, which are moft commonly de-
nominated clay or loam, confifl, as has been fcen, of filex
or filica, alumine or alumina, lime, and magnefia ; and arc
in reality, for the moft part, of the fame compofition as the
hard fand, but more finely divided in their particles. As to
the vegetable and animal matters of foils, the former of
which is by much the moft common, they exifl in many very
different ftates of redudljon and decompofition, as fometimes
in that of a quite fibrous one, and at other times they are
wholly broken down, and reduced fo as to be intimately
blended and incorporated with the earthy p.irts of the foils
or lands.

The matters therefore which conftitute foils are for the
moft part of a compound nature, and operate as fuch in the
formation of them. They have many of them, likewife,
fome other qualities and properties, but which need not be
noticed in this place.

It has alfo been flated by a late praftical writer, that there
are probably few, if any, fubftances in nature, which, after
they have been fufiiciently afted upon, and reduced by the
influence of the atmolphcre and other agents, that are not
capable of ailording lupport to feme kind of vegetable or
K k a other,

SOIL.

other, though there is eonfiderable difference in this refpeft
among different earthy matters, fome being liable to fuftain
a great number of different plants in a vigorous ftate of
growth, almoft immediately after they become mixed with
the foil, while others require to be applied and united for a
length of time before they afford fullenance to any kind of
vegetable whatever, and even then only yield a fcanty fupply
of nourifhment, and that for the fupportofa few particular
forts of plants. Where the former forts of materials are
abundant, the foils are generally fertile and produftive ;
but where the latter prevail, they are mollly iterile and un-
friendly to vegetation. Alfo that foils, befides poffeffing the
proper earthy matters, muft be embued with other princi-
ples, fuch as the aqueous and carbonaceous, and have fuch
a confiftence and texture as will properly fupport the plants,
as well as fuch proportions of the feveral materials as will
admit of their being retained, and applied in fuch quantities
as are fuitable for the purpofes of vegetation, according to
the differences of climate in refpeft to moifture, and the
varieties of fituation in regard to the lands, in order to be
rich, fruitful, and produftive, in the different kinds of vege-
table crops. It has been ftated likewife, that the bodies or
materials, fo far as they are yet known, that have a tendency
to leffen the fertility of foils, are the oxyds or calces of par-
ticular metals, fome coaly and pyritical matters, acids, and
certain heathy vegetable fubftances. But that fome of
thefe fubftances, though unfriendly to the growth of vege-
tables, when in thefe circumllances, on being blended and
united with other materials that enter into the compofition
of foils, operate upon them in fuch a manner as to render
them more fertile than 'hey would have been without them.
Mixtures and impregnations of this nature are conitantly
taking place in foils, which cnnnot be eafdy comprehended
or aicertaiiied, but which produce great and important ef-
fefts and changes in them. From this caufe, foils which are
apparently fimilar in every refpedl, on being brought into
cultivation, frequently turn out to be effentially different.
And It is well known to moft perfens converfant with
practical agriculture, that foils in which calcareous matter
is predommant, even when they are grown fo poor and ex-
haulted as to be almoft incapable of producing any of the
other crops commonly cultivated on them, will bear large
and repeated crops of one fort of vegetable, that of faint-
foin ; and that other foils which are capable of affording
the common crops in an abundant manner, cannot be made
to produce this. In the fam.e way, fuch calcareous foils as
have been cultivated for a great length of time, and are con-
fequently much impregnated with manure, afford plentiful
crops of barley ; while oat-crops, if attempted to be raifed
upon them in fuch a fituation, are weak, puny, and relatively
extremely fmall. And, on the contrary, fome primitive
foils, not originally containing any calcareous materials, and
which, not having been cultivated, cannot be impregnated
with manures on firft being broken up, often yield aftonlfh-
ing crops of oats, while barley can fcarcely be raifed at all
upon them. Thefe and many other fimilar fadts, noticed by
cultivators of the foil, fufficiently (hew the effects which
even trifling mixtures of certain matters have in altering
their qualities, and rendering them more or lefs fertile, as
well as more or lefs proper for the growth of particular
forts of crops without there being any external appearance
of fuch alteration. Further, foils are alfo found to differ
greatly from their depths, and the nature of the fub-foils
on which they reft. It is ftated as a faft well known by
praftical farmers, and which the experience of every day
confirms, that even the foils that are conftituted of the molt

fuitable fubftancf s for the purpofes of vegetation, when only
a few inches in depth, and depofited upon beds of cold wet
clay, rock, or chalk, are by no means fo fruitful and pro-
duftive as thofe which are thicker, though of inferior qua-
lity, but refting on a bottom which is more dry and gravelly.
The difference of weight and tenacity in the under ftrata of
foils, hkewife introduces great variety in regard to their
powers and capabilities of raifing and rearing vegetable pro-
duftions in the way of crops upon them.

The variations in the weights of foils are very material,
as they (hew in fome meafure the quantities of animal and
vegetable matters with which they are impregnated in dif-
ferent cafes, the hghter forts being in molt inftances the moft
abundant in fuch fubftances. The variations in their powers
and properties of diffipating or holding the moifture which
they contain are alio very material and important, as they
denote, in fome degree, the nature of their compofitions,
and their utihty for the growth of different forts of plants
as crops.

The nature and variations of foils, in fo far as they are
more or lefs capable of imbibing and retaining the principles
of heat, or more cold and raw, or warm in their qualities,
which are by no means abfurdities or prejudices, as fome have
fuppofed, are highly deferving of the attention of the philo-
fophical farmer, as fome foils are evidently much more heated
by the effefts of the fun than others, all other circumftances
being the fame, while foils brought to the fame ftate of heat
cool in different lengths of time, or fome much falter than
others. This property, which has hitherto been but little
attended to, is thought to be probably of eonfiderable im-
portance by the above writer on chemiftry. It is conceived,
that in general foils that confift principally of a ftiff white
clay are difficultly heated ; and that, being commonly very
moift, they retain their heat only for a very (hort time.
Chalky foils are fimilar in one particular, which is that of
their being heated with difficulty ; but being drier they
retain their heat longer, lefs being fuppofed to be confumed
in producing the evaporation of their moifture.

It has been found that a black foil, which contained much
foft vegetable matter, was moft heated by the fun and air ;
and that the coloured foils, and thofe containing a large
proportion of carbonaceous or ferruginous matter, when
expofed under equal circumftances to the fun, acquire a
much higher temperature than pale-coloured foils.

In all cafes, when foils are perfeftly dry, thofe that are the
moft readily heated by the power of the fun, cool likewife
in the moft ready manner ; but fir Humphrey Davy has ex-
perimentally afcertained, that the darkell coloured dry foil,
or that which contains abundance of animal and vegetable
matter ; fubftances which moft facilitate the diminution of
temperature, when heated to the fame extent, provided it
be within the common limits of the effefts of the fun's heat,
will cool more fiowly than a wet pale foil, wholly compofed
of earthy matter. He found that a rich black mould, which
contained nearly a fourth part of vegetable matter, had its
temperature increafed in the courfe of an hour from 65° to
88°, by expofure to the fun-fhine ; while a chalk foil was
heated only to 69° under the fame circumftances and length
of time. But the mould removed into the fhade where the
temperature was 62'^, loft, in half an hour, 15° ; while the
chalk, under the fame circumftances, had loft only 4°. Far-
ther, a brown fertile foil and a cold barren clay were each
artificially heated to SS*^, having been previoufly dried : they
were then expofed in a temperature of 57° ; in half an hour
the dark foil was found to have loft 9" of heat ; the cljy
had loft only 6°. An equal portion of the clay contamitig

moifture,

SOIL.

tnoillurt, after being heated to 88°, was expofed in a tem-
perature of 55° ; in iefs than a quarter of an hour it wai
found to have gained the temperature of the room. In all
thele trials the foils were put upon fmall trays made of
tin-plate two inches 'quare and half an inch in depth, the
temperature being afcertained by a thermometer of a very
delicate kind.

It is upon the whole fuppofed, that nothing can be more
evident, than that the genial heat of the foil, particularly in
the fpring feafon, mufl be of the greatelt and moil ma-
terial ufe and importance to the raifmg plants as crops. And
that when the leaves are fully and completely developed
or fpread out, the ground or land is confiderably (haded ;
and any injurious influence or confequence, which in the
fummer feafon might have been apprehended from too great
a heat, wholly prevented : fo that the temperature of the
furface, when bare and expofed to the efiefts of the fim,
affords at lead, it is fuppofed, one indication of the ftate of
its fertility ; and that the thermometer may therefore be, it is
believed, fometimes an ufeful inftrument to the purchafer as
well as improver of lands.

The moilture prefent in foils has likewife an effeft and
influence on their temperatures ; and the particular manner
or method in which it is diltributed through, or combined
with, the earthy, or perhaps other materials, is of great
confequence and importance, in fo far as it relates to the
nouriihment of the plants which grow upon them. The
above chemico-agricultural writer thinks, that where the
water is too ftrongly attrafted by the earths, it will not be
abforbed by the roots of the plants ; and that where it is in
too great quantity, or too loofely united to them, it will
tend to injure or dellroy the fibrous parts of the roots. In
his opinion there are two (fates in which water feems to exift
in the earths, and in animal and vegetable fubltances : in the
fird (late, it is conceived to be united by chemical, in the
other by cohefive attraftion. Tlie former of thefe is illuf-
trated by the pouring of pure folutions of ammonia or po-
tada into thofe of alum, when the alumine or alumina falls
down combined with water ; and the dry powder affording,
by didillation, more than half its weight of water. Alfo,
by the moilture which wood, mufcular libre, and gum,
that have been heated to 212', afford in the fame way at
a rrd beat, which is likewife water held m the fame
manner.

Thi. latter is (hewn, it is fuppofed, when dried pipe-clay,
at the temperature of the atmofphcre, is brought into con-
tact with water, as the laft is rapidly abforbed. In general
too, foils, as well as vegetable and animal fubltances that
have been dried at a heat below tliat of boiling water, in-
creafe in weight by expofure to the air, in confequence of
their abforbing water from it, which is in the (late of vapour,
on account of this fort of attradlion.

The water which is chemically combined among the prin-
cipal component parts of foils, unlcfs in the cafe of the de-
compofitiim of animal or vegetable fubltances, cannot, it is
fuppofed, be abforbed by the roots of plants ; but that
which adheres to the parts of the foil is in conilant ufe in
vegetation. Indeed, it ia believed that there are few earthy
mixtures met with in foils that contain any chemically com-
bined water ; water is expelled from the earths by moll lub-
ftances that combine with them. As for indance, when a
combination of lime and water is cxpof'd to carbonic acid,
that fluid fubdance takes the place of the water ; and com-
pounds of alumina and filica, or others of the earths, do not
chemically unite with water ; and foils, as has been feen,
are formed cither by earthy carbonates, or compounds of
pure earths and metallic oxyds.
8

However, when faline fubftancee exid in foils, they may,
it is faid, be united to water, both chemically and mechani-
cally ; but they are always, it is fuppofed, in too fmall a
proportion to materially influence the relations of the foils
to water.

The power or capability of the foil to abforb and receive
water, in confequence of this fort of attraction, depends
greatly upon the date of divifion of its parts ; as the finer
and more minute this is, the greater and more powerful is
the capacity for abforplion. The different conftituent parts
of foils feem likewife to operate, even by this kind of at-
traftion, with diflerent degrees of force and energy. In
this way vegetable fubflances feem, it is faid, to be more
abforbent than animal fubdances ; animal fubdances more
fo than compounds of alumina and filica ; and compounds of
alumina and filica more abforbent than carbonates of lime
and magnefia. Thefe difierences may, however, it is fug-
gefled, pofTibly depend upon the differences in their ilatej
of divifion, and on the furface which is expofed.

This power or capability of foils to abforb water from the
air is, it is fuppofed, much connefted with fertility. The
foils which are the moll efficient in fupplyiag plants with
water, by means of atmofpheric abforption, are, it is faidi
thofe in which there is a due and proper mixture of fand»
finely divided clay, and carbonate of lime, with fome animal
and vegetable matter ; and which are fo loofe and light as
to be freely and readily permeable to the atmofphere. In fo
far as regards this quality, carbonate of lime, and animal and
vegetable matter, are, it is faid, of great ufe in foils. They
give abforbent power to them, without at the fame time
giving tenacity : fand, too, condantly dellioys tenacity,
but, on the contrary, adords little power of abforption.
The above writer has compared the abforbent powers of
many foils, in fo far as it relates to atmofpheric moifture,
and has condantly found it to be the greated in the mofl
fertile of them ; fo that it is fuppofed to afford one mode of
judging of the produftivenefs of land.

Thus, the water, and the decompofing animal and vege-
table matter exifting in the foil, conflitute, it is fuppofed,
the true notirifhment of plants ; and that as the earthy parts
of the foil are ufeful in retaining water, fo as to fupply it in
the proper proportions to the roots of the vegetables, fo
they are likewife efficacious in producing the proper didri-
bution of the animal or vegetable matter. When equally
blended and intermixed with it, they alio prevent it from
decompofing in too rapid a manner ; and by their means the
folnble parts are fupplied in proper proportions or quantities.
But befides this agency, which may be confidered as me-
chanical, the writer conceives that there is another, between
foils and organizable matters, which may be regarded as
chemical in its nature. The earths, and even the earthy-
carbonates, have, it is faid, a certain degree of cliemical
attraftion for many of the principles of vegetable and animal
fubdances, as is readily exemplified in the cafe of alumina
and oil : for when an acid folution of alumina is mixed with
a folution of foap, which confid.^ of oily matter and potada,
the oil and the alumina will unite and form a white powder,
which will fink to the bottom of the fluid which holds it.
The extraft, too, from decompofing vegetable matter, when
boiled with pipe-clay or chalk, forms, it is faid, a combina-
tion by which the vegetable matter is rendered more difficult
of docompofition and folution. Pure filica and filiceous
fands have, it is remarked, little aftion of this kind ; and
the foil.j which contain the moll alumina and carbonate of
lime, are thofe which adl with the greateil chemical energy
in prcferving manures. Such foils are fuppofed to delerve
the appellation which is commonly given to them, of ricli

foils :

SOIL.

foils ; as the vegetable nourifliment is long preferved in
them, unlefs when taken up by the organs of plants. Sih-
ceous fands, on the contrary, are thought to merit the term
hungry, which is commonly applied to them ; as the vege-
table and animal matter they contain, not being attracted by
the earthy conftituent parts of the foil, are more hable to
be decompofed by the aftion of the atmofphere, or carried
off or away from them by water in different ways. In mod
of the black and brown rich vegetable moulds, the earths
feem, it is fuppofed, to be in combination with a pecuhar
extraftive matter, afforded during the decompofition of vege-
tables. This is flowly taken up, or attrafted, it is believed,
from the earths by water, and appears to conftitute a prime
caufe of the fertility of the foil. The (landard of fertility
of foils for different plants muft vary, it is fuppofed, with
the climate, and mult be particularly influenced by the
quantity of rain. The power of foils to abforb moifture
ought, it is faid, to be much greater in warm or dry coun-
ties than in cold and moift ones, and the quantity of clay
or vegetable or animal matter they contain greater. Such
foils as are on declivities, alfo, fhould be more abforbent
than thofe on plains, or in the bottoms of valhes. Their
produftivenefs is likewife influenced by the nature of the
fub-foil, or the ftratum on which they reft. When foils
are immediately fituated upon a bed of rock or ftone,
they are much fooner, it is faid, rendered dry by eva-
poration, than when the fub-foil is of clay or marie ; and
a principal caufe of the great fertility of the land in the
moilt climate of Ireland is, it is imagined, the proximity
of the rocky ftrata to the foil. A clayey fub-foil will fome-
tiraes, it is thought, be of material advantage to a fandy
foil ; and in this cafe it will retain moifture, in fuch a man-
ner as to be capable of fupplying that loft by the earth
above, in confequence of evaporation, or the confumption
of it by plants as crops. A fandy or gravelly fub-foil often
corrects the imperfeftions of too great a degree of abforbent
power in the true foil. In calcareous countries, where the
furface is a kind of marie, the foil is often found, it is ob-
ferved, only a few inches above the limeftone, yet its fer-
tility continues unimpaired by the proximity of the rock ;
though in a lefs abforbent foil, this fituation would occafion
barrennefs : and thus the fandftone and limeftone hilly foils,
in fome weftern diftrifts, may be readily diftinguiflied at a
diftance, in the fummer feafon, by the different tints or cafts
of colour in the vegetation. On the fandftone kind it will
commonly appear brown and burnt up ; while on the lime-
itone fort, it will be green and flourilhing in a confiderable
degree.

It not unfrequently happens that foils are met with in a
quite unaltered ftate, upon the rocks from which they were
produced. The manner in which they were formed may
eafily be conceived, it is fuppofed by fir Humphrey Davy,
by referring to the cafe of J'oft or porcelain granite, which
confiils of three ingredients, quartz, felfpar, and mica.
The quartz he confiders as almoft pure filiceous earth, in a
cryttalline form. The felfpar and mica are very compounded
fubftances : both contain filica, alumina, and oxyd of iron ;
in the former there is commonly lime and potafl'a ; in the
latter, lime and magnefia. Therefore, when a granite rock
of this fort has been long expofed to the influence of air and
water, he fuppofes the lime and potaffa, contained in its
conftituent parts, are afted upon by water or carbonic acid ;
and the oxyd of iron, which is moftly in the leaft oxyded
ilate, tends to combine with more oxygen ; in confequence
of which the felfpar decompofcs, as well as the mica, but
the firft in the moft rapid manner. The felfpar, which is
as it were the cement of the ftone, forms a fine clay ; the

partially decompofed mica blends and intermixes with it at
fand ; and the undecompofed quartz appears as gravel, or
fand of different degrees of finenefs. On the fmalleft layer
of earth being formed on the furface of the rock, the feeds
of moffes, and other imperfeft plants, which are moftly
floating in the furrounding atmofphere, and which have made
it their refting place, begin, it is faid, to vegetate ; and
their decay, death, and decompofition afterwards, afford a
certain quantity of organizable matter, which mixes with
the earthy materials of the rock. In this improved foil,
more perfeft plants are capable of fubfifting : thefe, in their
turn, abforb nourifliment from the water of the atmofphere ;
and, after perifliing, afford new materials to thofe already
provided. The decompofition of the rock ftill continues ;
and at length, by fuch flow and gradual proceffes, a foil is
formed, in which even foreft trees can, it is fuppofed, fix
their roots, and which is fitted to reward the labours of
thofe undertaking its cultivation.

It is likewife noticed, that where fucceflive generations
of vegetables have grown upon a foil, unlefs part of their
produce has been carried away by man, or confumed by
animals, the vegetable matter increafes in fuch proportion,
that the foil approaches to a peat m its nature ; and if it be
fo placed as that it becomes impregnated with water from a
higher fituation, it gets fpongy, and is gradually rendered
incapable of fupporting better plants. A great number of
peat moffes appear, however, it is faid, to have been formed
by the deftruftion of forefts, by the imprudent ufe of the
hatchet, at fome early former period. It is fuppofed, that
when the trees in the outer parts of the woods were cut
down, thofe in the interior were expofed to the influence of
the winds ; and, having been accuftomed to ftielter, became
unhealthy, and died in their new fituations ; the leaves and
branches of which, gradually decompofing, produced a
ftratum of vegetable matter. In feveral of the great peat
bogs in the north of this and the neighbouring country, the
larger trees met with on the outer parts of them, it is faid,
bear the marks of having been felled ; while in the interior,
few entire trees are found : and the caufe is, probably, it is
fuppofed, that they fell by gradual decay ; and that the
fermentation and decompofition of the vegetable matter
were moit rapid, where it was in the greateft quantity or
proportion.

Other lefs healthy forts of fpurious peat bogs are formed
in watery fituations, by the accumulation of the remains of
aquatic plants. There is here a fermentation of an appa-
rently different kind, and a much greater evolution of
gafeous matter.

It is found that the earthy matter of peats is invariably
analogous to that of the ftratum on which they repofe : the
plants which have formed them muft have derived the earths
that they contained from this ftratum. Thus, the above
writer obferves, that in the counties of Wilts and Berks,
where the ftratum below the peat is chalk, calcareous earth
abounds in the afties, and very little alumina and fihca.'
They likewife contain much oxyd of iron and gypfum, both
of which may be derived from the decompofition of pyrites,
which is fo abundant in chalk. The different fpecimens of
peat that have been burnt by this experimenter, from the
granitic and fchittofe foils of different parts of thefe iflands,
have conftantly given him aflies principally of a filiceous and
aluminous nature; but one from the county of Antrim, in
Ireland, yielded afties, which afforded very nearly the fame
conftituent parts as the great bafaltic ftratum of the
county.

It is fuggefted that poor and hungry foils, fuch as are
produced from the decompofition of granitic and fandftone

rocks,

SOIL.

rocks, remain very often for ages with only a thin covering
of vegetation ; but that foils from the decompofition of
limeftone, chalk, and bafaltes, are not unfrequently clothed
by nature with the perennial grades, and afford, when
ploughed up, a rich bed of vegetation for every fort of cul-
tivated plants.

From what has been faid on the formation of rocky foils,
it rnuft. be obvious that they are as various as the rocky
matters from which they are produced, and probably much
more fo, in confequence of the alterations which have taken
place in them, from the continued operation of water, and
different other caufes.

In fo far as the cropping of land is concerned, it mull be
evident that no general principle can be laid down for it,
unlefs the whole of the circumftances connefted with the
nature, compofition, and fituation of the foils, as well as
fubfoils, be fully underftood.

In like manner, in the above writer's opinion, the modes
of cultivation in different foils niuit be different ; as the
fame praftice that may be excellent in one cafe may be de-
ftruftive in others. Thuf, for inftance, deep ploughing
may be very advantageous and profitable in rich thick foils ;
but in fertile fhallow ones, upon cold clay or fandy fub-foils,
very injurious and hurtful. Sihceous fandy foils are much
more prodnftive in moiit wet climates, where the fall of rain
is great, fuch as thofe in the fouth-weft and north-weft of
this country, and in feme places in Ireland, than in dry
diRricls ; and in fuch fituations, wheat and beans will re-
quire lefs coherent and abforbent foils than in thofe which
are drier ; and bulbous-rooted plants will, it is faid, thrive
well in foils that have as many as fourteen parts out of fif-
teen of fand. The exhaufting powers of crops, too, it is
afi'erted, will be influenced by the fame circumftances ; as
where fufficient moilture cannot be abforbed by plants, they
muft necellarily take up more manure. In the fouth-weltern
and north-weilern parts of this ifland, as well as in Ireland,
corn will, it is faid, cxhauft lefs than in dry inland dillriAs ;
and oats are much more deteriorating, efpecially in dry cli-
mates, than in fuch as are moift. In many other inftances,
the fame is likewife the cafe.

In regard to the conftitution or compofition of fertile
foils, the firit effential requifite, according to Mr. Kirwan,
is, that it contain a fufficient quantity of the three or four
fimple earths above mentioned, and of the foluble carbona-
ceous principle ; and that the other requifites are, that the
proportion of each, and the general texture of the foil, be
fuch as to enable it to admit and retain as much water as is
neceflary to vegetation, and no more. Alfo, further, that
as it has been feen that the retentive powers of moifture are
very different in the fimple earths, the proportions in which
the fertility of a foil requires them to be mixed mult be dif-
ferent in climates and countries that differ confiderably in
moifture; in the drier, they muft be fuch as are molt re-
tentive ; in the m-'ijler, fucli as fuffer it to pafs or evaporate
more eafily. 'I'he lame remark alfo extends to fituation.
Lands on a plain Ihould be fo conflitnted, a» to be lefs re-
tentive of water than thofe fituated on a declivity ; as has
been feen, and is very evident : confeqiiently, lands that
have a retentive or impermeable fub-foil, Ihould be differently
conflituted from thofe tfiat have one lefs retentive, or more
permeable. And the time of the year in which rain moft
abundantly falls may alfo be worthy of notice, in adjulling
this bufinefs.

From a variety of fafts and obfervationt, which we can-
not minutely detail, it is inferred that in the drier countries,
where the fall of rain is but 20 inches, the foil, to be fer-
tile, muit be clofcr, and the quantity of calcareous earth

much increafed, and that of the filiceous earth much dimi-
nifhed. Thus, in the climate of Turin, where the fall of
rain exceeds 40 inches, the proportion of filiceous earth is
from 7710 80/frcwt., and that of calcareous from 9 to 14,
to fuffer this excefs of rain more eafily to evaporate. In
the chmate of Upfal, where the fall of rain is 24 inches, the
proportion of filex is only 56 per cwt., but that of calx
is 30 ; and in the climate of Paris, which is ftiil drier, the
proportion of filex is only from 46 to 51, and that of calx
37.5 per cwt. And hence we may perceive the iieceflity of
attending to the average quantity of rain, to judge of the
proper conftitution of fertile lands upon fixed principles.
The quantity of rain differs much, in different parts of the
fame kingdom ; but in general, in Ireland, Mr. Kirwan be-
heves it to be between 24 and 28 inches, on an average.
In the two laft mixtures, the proportions vary confiderably;
the firft may ferve, it is faid, as a model for the heavier
foils ; and the fecond for the lighter. In the following
experiments, the carbonic principle feems to have been
extradted from the furrounding garden-mould, with which
the pots communicated, by means of their perforation at
the bottom.

The author of a late work on " Agricultural Chemiitry"
ftates, that as plants have no locomotive powers, they can
only grow in places where they are fupplied with food ; and
that the foil is neceflary to their exifteiice, both as affording
them properly the means of nourifhment, and enabhng
them to fix themfelves in fuch a manner as to obey thofe
mechiinical laws, by which their radicles are kept below the
furface, and their leaves expoled to the free atmofphere.
That as the fyftems of roots, branches, and leaves, are very
different in different vegetables, fo they ffourifh molt per-
fedtly in different foils fuited to them : the plants that have
bulbous roots require a looler and a lighter foil than fuch as
have fibrous roots ; and the plants having only fhort fibrous
radicles fland in need of a firmer foil than fuch as have tap-
roots, or extenfive roots of the lateral kind.

He found a good turnip foil from Holkham, in the
county of Norfolk, to afford eight out of nine parts iiliceout
fand ; and the finely divided matter to confift of

Carbonate of lime

Sihca

Alumina . . -

Oxyd of iron

Vefjetable and fahne matter

Moifture - - .

63
15
II

3
5
3

A foil particularly fitted for raifing flourilhing oaks, to
be conftituted nearly as noticed :sfterwards, below.

An excellent wheat-foil from near Weft Drayton, in the
county of Middlefex, gave three parts in five of fihceous
fand ; and the finely divided matter confifted of

Carbonate of lime - - - - 28

Silica 3*

Alumina 29

Animal or vegetable matter and moifture 1 1

It is noticed, that of thefe foils, the firft was the leaft^
coherent in texture, and the laft by far the moft fo. In all
cafes, the conftituent parts of the foil which irivc tenacity
and coiierencc are, it is f.iid, the finely divided matters ;
and that they poffefs the power of giving tliofe qualities in
the liigheft degree, when they contain much alumina. A
fniall quantity of finely divided matter is fufEcient, it is faid,
to fit a foil for the produftion of turnips and barley ; and
the writer has feen a tolerable crop of tuniips on a foil con-
taining

SOIL.

taiiiing eleven parts out of twelve fand. Any much greater
proportion of fand, however, it is ftated, always produces
abfolute fterihty. The foil of Baglhot-Heath, which is
wholly devoid of vegetable covering, contains, it is faid,
lefs than one-twentieth of finely divided matter ; 400 parts
of it, which had been heated red, afforded the above writer
380 parts of coarfe fiHceous fand, 9 parts of fine fand of
the fame kind, and 1 1 parts of impalpable matter, which
was a mixture of ferruginous clay, with carbonate of lime.
Vegetable or animal matters, when finely divided, not only
give, it is faid, coherence, but likewife foftnefs and pene-
trabihty ; but neither they, nor any other part of the foil,
Hiuft be in too great proportion ; and a foil is unproduftive,
if it confifts entirely of impalpable matter. Pure alumina or
filica, pure carbonate of magnefia, are incapable of lup-
porting healthy vegetation. And no foil is fertile, it is
itated, that contains fo much as nineteen parts out of twenty
of any of the conftituent materials that have been mentioned
above.

In anfwer to the important queltion, whether the pure
earths in the foil only aft in a mere mechanical manner, or
as indireft chemical agents, or aftually furnilh the food of
the plants ? it is itated, that as their bafes have not yet
been decompofed, there is no reafon to fuppofe that they
are capable of being converted into the elements of or-

fanized compounds, as into carbon, hydrogen, and azote,
lants have been made to grow, it is faid, in given quantities
of earth, but they confume very fmall portions only ; and
what is loft may be accounted for, by the quantities found
in their alhes, that is to fay, it has not been converted into
any new produfts. The carbonic acid united to lime or
magnefia, if any ftronger acid happens to be formed in the
foil during the fermentation of vegetable matter, which will
difengage it from the earths, may, it is faid, be decom-
pofed ; but the earths themfelves cannot be fuppofed con-
vertible into other fubftances, by any procefs taking place
in the foil or land. In all cafes, the afhes of plants, it is
obferved, contain fome of the earths of the foil in which
they grow ; but thefe never equal more than one-fiftieth of
the weight of the plant which is confumed. On the whole,
it is concluded, that if they be confidered as neceffary to
the vegetable, it is as giving hardnefs and firmnefs to its or-
ganization. Thus wheat, oats, and many of the hollow
grafles, have, it is faid, an epidermis principally of filiceous
earth ; the ufe of which feems to be to ftrengthen them,
and defend them from the attacks of infefts and parafitical
plants.

It is ftated that, for the moft part, the foils, the con-
ftituent materials of which are the moft various and con-
trary to each other, are thofe of the alluvial kind, or which
have been formed in a gradual manner from the depofi-
tions of rivers, or other waters : they are, in many cafes,
extremely fertile. The writer juft mentioned has examined
fome produftive foils of this fort, which have been very
different in their compofition. A very productive foil from
the banks of the river Parrot, in the county of Somerfet,
afforded eight parts of finely divided earthy matter, and
one part of fiUceous fand : the analyfis of the former gave
thefe refults :

360 parts of carbonate of lime,
25 parts of alumina,
20 parts of filica,
8 parts of oxyd of iron,
19 parts of vegetable, animal, and faline matter.

A rich foil of this nature from near the Avon river, in
the valley of Evelham, in the county of Worcefter, gave

three-fifths of fine fand, and two-fifths of impalpable mat-
ter : the latter confilled of

35 Alumina,

41 SiHca,

14 Carbonate of lime,

3 Oxyd of iron,

7 Vegetable, animal, and faline matter.

From a fpecimen of good foil of Tiviotdale, five-fixths
of fine fihceous fand, and one-fixth of impalpable matter,
were afforded : the latter confifted of

41 Alumina,

42 Silica,

4 Carbonate of lime,

5 Oxyd of iron,

8 Vegetable, animal, and faline matter.

And a foil affording excellent pafture from the valley of
the Avon, near the town of Sahfbury, gave one-eleventh of
coarfe fihceous fand ; the finely divided matter of which
confifted of

7 Alumina,
14 Sihca,
63 Carbonate of lime,

2 Oxyd of iron,
14 Vegetable, animal, and faline matter.

It is ftated that, in all thefe cafes, the fertility feeraed to
depend upon the ftate of divifion and mixture of the earthy
materials and the vegetable and animal matters ; which may
be readily explained from what has been already advanced.

And profeffor Davy, in fpeaking of the improvement of
foils, as connefted with the principle of their compofition,
remarks in the paper noticed above, that when a barren
foil is examined with a view to its improvement, it ought,
in all cafes, if poflible, to be compared with an extremely
fertile foil in the fame neighbourhood, and in a fimilar fitua-
tion : the difference given by their analyfes would indicate
the methods of cultivation ; and thus the plan of improve-
ment would be founded upon accurate fcientific principles.
And that, if the fertile foil contained a large quantity of
fand, in proportion to the barren foil, the procefs of ame-
lioration would depend fimply upon a fupply of this fub-
ilance ; and the method would be equally fimple with re-
gard to foils deficient in clay or calcareous matter. But
that in the apphcation of clay, fand, loam, marie, or chalk
to lands, there are no particular chemical principles to be
obferved ; but when quicklime is ufed, great care muil be
taken that it is not obtained from the magnefian Umeftone ;
for in this cafe, as has been fhewn by Mr. Tennant, it is
exceedingly injurious to land. The magnefian hmeftone
may be diftinguifhed from the common limeftone by its
greater hardnefs, and by the length of time that it requires
for its folution in acids, and it may be analyfed by the pro-
cefs for carbonate of hme and magnefia. When the ana-
lytical comparifon indicates an excefs of vegetable matter
as the caufe of fterility, it may be deltroyed by much pul-
verization, and expofure to air, by paring and burning, or
the agency of lately made quickUme. And the defeft of
animal and vegetable matter mult be fupplicd by animal or
vegetable manure.

And it is further ftated, that fterile foils in different cli-
mates and fituations muft differ in compofition. The gene-
ral indications of fertility and barrennefs, as found by che-
mical experiments, muft iieceflarily differ in different cli-
mates, and under different circumftances. The power of
foils to abforb moiiture, a principle effential to their pro-

duAivenefs,

SOIL.

duAivenefs, ought, as has been feen, to be much greater in
warm and dry countries, than in cold and moilt ones ; and
the quantity of fine aluminous earth they contain larger.
Soils, likewife, as already feen, that are fituated on dechvities,
ought to be more abforbent than thofe in the fame climate,
on plains or in vallies. The produftivenefs of foils mud !ike-
wife be influenced by the nature of the fub-foil, or the earthy
or ilony ilrata on which they reft ; and this circumftance
ought to be particularly attended to in confidering their
chemical nature, and the fyflem of improvement. Thus, a
fandy foil may fometiraes owe its fertility to the power of
the fub-foil to retain water ; and an abforbent clayey foil
nay occafionally be prevented from being barren, in a moift
climate, by the influence of a fub-ftratum of fand or gravel.
In regard to the chemical compofition of fertile corn-
foils in this climate, thofe foils that are moft produftive of
corn, contain always certain proportions of aluminous and
calcareous earth, in a finely divided Itate, and a certain quan-
tity of vegetable or animal matter. The quantity of cal-
careous earth is however very various, and in fome cafes ex-
ceedingly fmall. A very fertile corn-foil from Ormifton, in
Eaft Lothian, afforded the writer, in an hundred parts, only
eleven parts of mild calcareous earth ; it contained twenty-
live parts of fihceous fand ; the finely divided clay amounted
to forty-five parts. It lolt nine in decompofed animal and
vegetable matter, and four in water ; and afforded indica-
tions of a fmall quantity of phofphate of lime. This foil
was of a very fine texture, and contained very few Itones or
vegetable fibres. It is not unhkely that its fertility was in
fome meafure connefted with the phofphate ; for this fub-
ftance is found in wheat, oats, and barley, and may be a part
of their food. A foil from the low lands of Somerfetfhire,
celebrated for producing excellent crops of wheat and beans
without manure, he found to confill of one-ninth of fand,
chiefly fihceous, and eight-ninths of calcareous marie tinged
with iron, and containing about five parts in the hundred of
vegetable matter. He could not deteft in it any phofphate
or fulphate of lime, fo that its fertility mull have depended
principally upon its power of attrafting principles of ve-
getable nourifhment from water and the atmofphere. And
Mr. Tillet found that a foil compofed of three-eighths of
clay, two-eighths of river-fand, and three-eighths of the
parings of limeftone, was very proper for wheat.

With refpeft to the compofition of foils proper for bul-
bous roots and for trees, it is obferved that, in general,
bulbous roots require a foil much more fandy, and lefs ab-
forbent, than the grafTes. A very good potatoc foil, from
Varfcl, in Cornwall, afforded him feven-eighths of filiceous
fand ; and its abforbent power was fo fmall, that one hun-
dred parts loft only two by drying at 400° Fahrenheit.
Plants and trees, the roots of which are fibrous and hard,
and capable of penetrating deep into the earth, will vegetate
to advantage in almoft all common foils which are mode-
rately dry, and which do not contain a very great cxcefs of
vegetable matter. He found the foil taken from a field at
Sheffield- Place, in Suffex, remarkable for producing flou-
rifhing oat^, to confift of fix parts of fand, and one part of
clay and finely divided matter. And one hundred parts of
the entire foil fubmitted to analyfis, produced

Subiiances,

Water

Silcx . - -

Alumine

Carbonate of lime
Oxyd of iron -
Decompofing vegetable matter
Lofs - - .

Vol. XXXIII.

3
54
28

3
5

4
3

And on the advantages of improvements made by chang-
ing the compofition of the earthy parts of foils, it is ob-
ferved that, from the great difference of the caufes that in-
fluence the produftivenefs of lands, it is obvious that, in the
prefent ftatc of fcience, no certain fyftem can be devifed for
their improvement, independent of experiment : but there
are few cafes in which the labour of analytic trials will not
be amply repaid by the certainty with which they denote the
belt methods of amehoration ; and this will particularly
happen, when the defcft of compofition is found in the pro-
portions of the primitive earths. In fupplying animal or
vegetable manure, a temporary food only is provided for
plants, which is in all cafes exhaufted by means of a certain
number of crops ; but when a foil is rendered of the beft
pofTible conflitution and texture, with regard to its earthy
parts, its fertility may be confidered as permanently efta-
bhfhed. It becomes capable of attrafting a very large pro-
portion of vegetable nourifhment from the atmofphere, and
of producing its crops with comparatively little labour and
expence.

There are different other cafes in which improvements
may be direfted in this way ; as where the falts of iron or
fome acid material is found to prevail in foils, they may be
altered and correfted by the ufe of lime in its moft aftive
ftate. In this manner very fterile foils, not deficient in tex-
ture, have been effeftually improved. When the quantity
of calcareous matter is too great, fand or clay is the obvious
remedy. If there be a deficiency of vegetable materials in
light fandy or gravelly foils, they may be permanently im-
proved by the ufe of peat earth upon them. The peat-
boggy and marfhy forts of foils, after proper draining, are
mollly made produftive, by laying upon them fandy, or
fliff earthy matters in due proportion, efpecially when the
former are of the black foft peaty quality. In cafes where
peaty foils are acid, or much impregnated with ferruginous
faline matters, the ufe of calcareous fubftances is eflentially
neceflary for bringing them into proper order.

It is conceived that the beft natural foils are thofe, the
materials of which have been produced from ftrata of dif-
ferent kinds, which have been the moft perfcftly divided in
their parts by the operation of air and water, and are the
moft intimately blended and incorporated together. In im-
proving foils artificially, it is in fhort fuppofed, that the
farmer cannot do better than imitate the procefles of nature.
The materials fuitablefor the purpofe are, it is faid, feldom
far diftant : coarfe fand is often found immediately upon
chalk ; and beds of fand and gravel are commonly below
clay.

The labour of amending and improving the texture and
conflitution of foils, is repaid, it is faid, by many great
permanent benefits ; a fmaller quantity of manure is re-
quired, and their fertility rendered fecure, &c.

In order to afcertain the properties and qualitiei of land,
the method of chemical analyfis lias been adopted. In this
cafe the following rules and dircftions, laid down by pro-
fedbr Davy in the p.iper befor alluded to, may be found ufe-
ful in guiding the inquirer. All the varieties of foils may-
be analyfed in this way.

I . Jnjlnimcnls required for the Analyjis of Soils — The really
important inftruments required for the analyfis of foils are,
in his opinion, few, and but little expcnfive. They arc, a
balance capable of containing a quarter of a pound of com-
mon foil, and capable of turning, when loaded, with a
grain ; a feries or let of weights, from a quarter of a pound
troy to a grain ; a wire ficve, fufhciently coarfe to admit a
pepper-corn through its apertures ; an Argand lamp and

L 1 ftud;

SOIL.

ftand ; fome glafs-bottles ; HefTian crucibles ; porcelain or
queen's ware evaporating bafons ; a Wedgewood pelUe and
mortar ; fome filters made of half a (heet of blotting-paper,
folded fo as to contaui a pint of liquid, and greafed at the
edges ; a bone-knife, and an apparatus for colleAing and
meafuring aeriform fluids. And the chemical fubllances or
re-agents required for feparating tiie conllituent parts of the
foil are, muriatic acid (fpirit oif fait), fulplmric acid, pure
volatile alkali diffolved in water, folution of prufiiat of
potafh and iron, fuccinate of ammonia, foap-ley, folutions
of carbonate of ammonia, of muriate of ammonia, folution
of neutral carbonate of potalh, and nitrate of ammonia.
An account of the nature of thefe bodies and their effefts
may be found in Dr. Thomfon's Syllem of Chemiftry, and
Henry's Epitome ; and the re-agents are fold together with
the inftruments mentioned above, by Mr. Knight, Foiler-
lane, Cheapfide, arranged in an appropriate cheil.

2. M»i]e of colUning Soils for ylnalyfis — In cafes where
the general nature of the foil of a field is to be afcertained,
fpecimens of it Ihould be taken from different places, two
or three inches below the furface, and examined as to the
fimilarity of their properties. It fometimes happens, that
upon plains, the whole of the upper ilratum of the land is
of the fame kind, and in this cafe one analyfis will be fufii-
•cient ; but in vallies, and near the beds of rivers, there are
Tery great differences, and it now and then occurs that one
part of a field is calcareous, and another part filiceous ; and
in this cafe, and in analogous cafes, the portions different
from each other fliould be feparately fubmitted to experi-
ment. Soils, when collefted, if they cannot be imme-
diately examined, fliould be preferved in phials quite filled
with them, and clofed with ground-glafs (toppers. The
quantity of foil moft convenient for a perfeA analyfis, is
from two to four hundred grains. It fliould becollefted in
dry weather, and expofed to the atmofphere till it becomes
dry to the touch. The fpecific gravity of a foil, or the re-
lation of its weight to that of water, may be afcertained by
introducing into a phial, which will contain a known quantity
of water, equal volumes of water and of foil, and this may
be eafily done by pouring in water till it is half full, and
then adding the foil till the fluid rifes to the mouth ; the
difference between the weight of the foil and that of the
water will give the refult. Thus, if the bottle contains
400 grains of water, and gains zoo grains when half filled
with water and half with foil, the fpecific gravity of the
foil will be 2 ; that is, it will be twice as heavy as water :
and if it gained 165 grains, its fpecific gravity would be
182 J, water being 1000. It is of importance that the fpe-
cific gravity of a foil fliould be known, as it affords an in-
dication of the quantity of animal and vegetable matter it
contains ; thefe fubllances being always moft abundant in
the lighter foils. The other phyfical properties of foils
fliould likewife be examined before the analyfis is made, as
they denote, to a certain extent, their compofition, and
ferve as guides in direfting the experiments. Thus, filiceous
foils are generally rough to the touch, and fcratch glafs
when rubbed upon it ; ferruginous foils are of a red or yel-
low colour ; aluminous foils adhere ftrongly to the tongue,
and emit a ilrong earthy fmell when breathed on ; and cal-
careous foils are foft, and much lefs adhefive than aluminous
foils.

3. Mode of afcerta'ining the Quantity of Water of Alforption
in Soils. — Soils, though as dry as they can be made by
continued expofure to air, in all cafes ftill contain a con-
fiderable quantity of water, which adheres with great
cbftinacy to the earths and animal and vegetable matter,
and can only be driven off from them by a confiderabk

degree of heat. The firft procefs of analyfis is, to free the
given weight of foil from as much of this water as poffible,
without, in other refpefts, affeAing its compofition ; and
this may be done by heating it for ten or twelve minutes
over an Argand's lamp, in a bafon of porcelain, to a tem-
perature equal to 300° Fahrenheit. In feveral experiments,
in wliich this procefs has been carried on by diltillation, he
has found the water that came over pure, and no fenfible
quantity of other volatile matter was produced. And in
cafe a thermometer is not ufed, the proper degree may be
eafily afcertained, by keeping a piece of wood in contaft
with the bottom of the difli ; as long as the colour of the
wood remains unaltered, the heat is not too high ; but
when the wood begins to be charred, the procefs muft be
flopped. A fmall quantity of water will perhaps remain
in the foil, even after this operation, but it always affords
ufeful comparative refults ; and if a higher temperature
were employed, the vegetable or animal matter would
undergo decompofition, and in confequence the experiment
be wholly unfatisfaftory. The lofs of weight in the procefj
fliould be carefully noted, and when in four hundred grains
of foil it reaches as high as fifty, the foil may be confidered
as in the greatelt degree abforbent, and retentive of water,
and will generally be found to contain a large proportion
of aluminous earth. When the lofs is only from twenty to
ten, the land may be confidered as only flightly abforbent
and retentive, and the filiceous earth as probably moft
abundant.

4. The Separation of Stones, Gravel, and vegetable Fibres from
Soils. — None of the loofe Hones, gravel, or large vegetable
fibres, fliould be divided from the pure foil, till after the
water is drawn off ; for thefe bodies are themfelves often
highly abforbent and retentive, and in confequence influence
the fertility of the land. The next procefs, however, after
that of heating, fliould be their feparation, which may be
eafily accomphflied by the fieve, after the foil has been
gently bruifed in a mortar. The weights of the vegetable
fibres of wood, and of the gravel and Itones, fliould be fepa-
rately noted down, and the nature of the laft afcertained ;
if calcareous, they will effervefce with acids ; if filiceous,
they will be fufficiently hard to fcratch glafs ; and if of the
common aluminous clafs of itones, they will be foft, eafily
fcratched with a knife, and incapable of effervefcing with
acids.

5 . Separation of the Sand and Clay, or Loam, from each other.
— The greater number of foils, befides gravel and ftones,
contain larger or fmaller proportions of fand of different
degrees of finenefs ; and it is a neceffary operation, the
next in the procefs of analyfis, to detach them from the
parts in a ftate of more minute divifion, fuch as clay, loam,
marie, and vegetable and animal matter, and the matter
foluble in water. This may be effefted in a way fufficiently
accurate, by boiling the foil in three or four times its
weight of water, and, when broken down and cool, by
agitating the parts of the foil in the water, and then letting
them relt. In this cafe, the coarfe fand will generally
feparate in a minute, and the finer in two or three minutes,
whilft the minutely divided earthy, animal, or vegetable
matter will remain in a flate of mechanical fufpenfion for a
much longer time ; fo that by pouring the water from the
bottom of the vefl'el, after one, two, or three minutes, the
fand will be principally feparated from the other fubltances,
which, with the water containing them, muft be poured
into a filter, and after the water has paffed through, col-
leAed, dried, and weighed. The fand muft likewife be
weighed, and their refpeftive quantities noted down.
The water pf lixiviation mult be preferved, as it will be

found

SOIL.

Fo-und to contain faline matter, and the foluble animal and
vegetable matters, if any exift in the foil.

6. Examination of the Sand. — By the procefs of wafhing
and filtration, the foil is feparated into two portions, the
mod important of which is generally the finely divided
matter. A minute analyfis of the fand is feldom or never
neccfTary, and its nature may be deteded in the fame manner
as that of the llonts or gravel. It is always either fihceous
fand, or calcareous fand, or a mixture of both. If it confilts
wholly of carbonate of lime, it will be rapidly foluble in
muriatic acid, with effervefcence ; but if it confilt partly of
this fubltaiice, and partly of filiceous matter, the refpeftive
quantities may be afcertained by weighing the reiiduum
after the aftion of the acid, which muft be applied till the
mixture has acquired a four tafte, and has ceafed to efTer-
vefce. This refiduum is the filiceous part : it muft be
waflied, dried, and heated ftrongly in a crucible ; the dif-
ference between the weight of it and the weight of the
whole, indicates the proportion of calcareous fand.

7 . Examination of the finely divided Matter of Soils, and
Mode of detcding mild Lime and Magnefta. — The finely divided
Blatter of the foil is ufually very compound in its nature ;
it fometimes contains all the four primitive earths of foils,
as well as animal and vegetable matter ; and to afcertain
the proportions of thefe with tolerable accuracy is the moft
difficult part of the fubjeA. The firft procefs to be per-
formed, in this part of the analyfis, is the expofure of the,
fine matter of the foil to the aftion of the muriatic acid.
This fubftance fiiould be poured upon the earthy matter
in an evaporating bafon, in a quantity equal to twice the
weight of the earthy matter ; but diluted with double its
Tolume of water. The mixture fliould be often ftirred, and
fuffered to remain for an hour, or an hour and a half,
before it is examined. If any carbonate of lime or mag-
nefia exilt in the foil, they will have been diilolved in this
time by the acid, which fometimes takes up likewife a little
oxyd of iron ; but very leldom any alumine.

The fluid fhould be pafledthrough a filter; the folid matter
coUefted, wafhed with rain-water, dried at a moderate heat,
and weighed. Its lofs will denote the quantity of folid
matter taken up. The wafhings muft be added to the
folution, which, if not four to the talte, muft be made fo by
the addition of frefli acid, when a little folution of common
prufiiat of potafh and iron muft be mixed with the whole.
If a blue precipitate occurs, it denotes the prefcnce of
oxyd of iron, and the folution of the prufliat mult be
dropped in till no farther effcdl is produced. To afcertain
the quantity, it muft be collefted in the fame manner as
other folid precipitates, and heated red ; the refult is oxyd
of iron, which may be mixed with a little oxyd of man-
ganefum. Into the fluid freed from oxyd of iron, a folution
of neutrahzed carbonate of potafli muft be poured till all
the effervefcence ceafes in it, and till its tafte and fmell indi-
cate a confiderable excefs of alkaline fait. The precipitate
that falls down is carbonate of lime ; it muft be collected
on the filter, and dried at a heat below that of rednefs.
The remaining fluid muft be boiled for a quarter of an
hour, when the magnefia, if any exift, will be precipitated
from it, combined with carbonic acid, and its quantity is
to be afcertained in the fame manner as that of the car-
bonate of lime. If any minute proportion of alumine
ihould, from peculiar circumftances, be diflolved by the
acid, it will be found in the precipitate with the carbonate
of lime, and it may be feparated from it by boihng it for
a few minutes with foap-ley, fufiicicnt to cover the folid
matter. This fubftance diftolvcs alumine, without afting
upon carbonate of lime. Should the finely divided foil be

fufficiently calcareous to effervefce very ftrongly with acids,
a very fimple method may be adopted for afcertaining the
quantity of carbonate of lime, and one fufficiently accurate
in all common cafes. Carbonate of lime, in all its ftates^
contains a determinate proportion of carbonic acid, i. e.
about 45 per cent., fo that when the quantity of this elaftic
fluid, given out by any foil during the folution of its cal-
careous matter in an acid, is known, either in weight or
meafure, the quantity of carbonate of lime may be eafily
difcovered. When the procefs by diminution of weight is
employed, two parts of the acid and one part of the matter
of the foil muft be weighed in two feparate bottles, and
very flowly mixed together, till the effervefcence ceafes ; the
difference between their weight, before and after the expe-
riment, denotes the quantity of carbonic acid loft ; for
every four grains and a half of which, ten grains of car-
bonate of lime muft be eftimated. The belt method of col-
lefting the carbonic acid, fo as to difcover its volume, is
by the pneumatic apparatus, the conftruftion and applica-
tion of which are defcribed below. The eftimation is, for
every ounce meafure of carbonic acid, two grains of car-
bonate of lime. The bulk may be meafured by the quan-
tity of water which is difplaced.

8. Mode of afcertaining the Quantity of infoluble finely divided
animal and vegetable Matter. — After the fine calcareous
matter of the foil has been afted upon by muriatic acid,
the next procefs is to afcertain the quantity of finely
divided infoluble animal and vegetable matter that it con-
tains. This may be done with fufficient precifion, by
heating it to ftrong ignition in a crucible over a commoii
fire, till no blacknefs remains in the mafs. It fhould be
often ftirred with a metallic wire, fo as to expofe new fur-
faces continually to the air : the lofs of weight that it
undergoes denotes the quantity of the fubftance that it con-
tains deftruftible by fire and air. It is not poflible, without
nice and difficult trials, to afcertain whether this fubftance
is wholly animal or vegetable matter, or a mixture of both.
When the fmell emitted during the incineration is fimilar
to that of burnt feathers, it is a certain indication of fome
animal matter, or that which is analogous to it ; and a
copious blue flame at the time of ignition, almoft always
denotes a confiderable proportion of vegetable matter. In
cafi's when the experiment is needed to be very quickly
performed, the deftruftion of the decompofible fubftances
may be affifted by the agency of nitrate of ammonia, which
at the time of ignition may be thrown gradually upon the
heated mafs in a quantity of twenty grains for every hun-
dred of refidual foil. It promotes the diflipation, or affords
the principle neccflary to the combuftion of the animal and
vegetable matter, which it caufes to be converted into
elaftic fluids ; and it is itfelf at the fame time decompofcd
and loft.

y. Mode ef feparating aluminous and fdiceous Matter and
Oxyd of Iron. — The fubftances remaining after the decom-
pofition and deftruftion of the vegetable and animal matter,
are generally minute particles of earthy matter, containing
ufually alumine and filex, with combined oxyd of iron, or
of manganefe. To feparate thefe from each other, the
folid matter (liould be boiled for two or three hours with
fnlphuric acid, diluted with four times its weight of water ;
t!ie quantity of the acid fliould be regulated by the quan-
tity of folid refiduum to be adted upon, allowing for every
hundred grains two draciim.;, or one hundred and twenty-
grain'; of acid. The fubftance remaining rftcr the aftion oi
the acid may be confidored as filiceous ; and it muft be
feparated, and its weight afcertained, after wafhing and
dryinr in the ufual manner.

LI 2 The

SOIL.

The alumine and the oxyd of iron and manganefe, if they
exift, are all diflblved by the fulphuric acid ; they may
be feparated by carbonate of ammonia, wliich, added to
excefs, throws down the alumine, and leaves the oxyd of
iron in foliition, and this fubllance may be feparated from
the litjuor by boiling, by fuccinate of ammonia ufed to
excefs, which precipitates the oxyd of iron, and by foap-
ley, which diffolves the alumina, but not the oxyd of man-
ganefum : the weights of the oxyds afcertained after they
have been heated to rednefs, will denote their quantities.
Should any magnefia and lime have efcaped folution in the
muriatic acid, they vi'ill be found in the fulphuric acid ; this,
however, is fcarcely ever the cafe ; but the procefs for
detefting them, and afcertaining their quantities, is the
fame in both inftances. The method of analyfis by ful-
phuric acid, is fufRciently precife for all ufual experiments ;
but if very great accuracy be an objeft, dry carbonate of
potafh mull be employed as the agent, and the refiduum of
the incineration mull be heated red for half an hour, with
four times its weight of this fubllance, in a crucible of
iilvcr, or of well-baked porcelain. The mafs obtained mull
be diflblved in muriatic acid, and the folution evaporated
till it is nearly folid ; diftiUed water muft then be added, by
which the oxyd of iron and all the earths, except filex,
will be diflblved in combination as muriates. The filex,
after the ufual procefs of lixiviation, mull be heated red ;
the other fubltances may be feparated in the fame manner
as from the muriatic and fulphuric folutions. This procefs
is the one ufually employed by chemical philofophers for
the analyfis of Hones.

10. Mode of dif covering foluble, animal, and vegetable
Matter, and/aline Matter. — If any faline matter, or foluble,
vegetable, or animal matter, is fufpefted in the foil, it will
be found in the water of lixiviation ufed for feparating the
fand. This water muft be evaporated to drynefs in an
appropriate dilh, at a heat below its boiling point. If
the folid matter obtained is of a brown colour, and in-
flammable, it may be confidered as partly vegetable ex-
traft. If its fmell, when expofed to heat, be ftrong and
fetid, like burnt feathers, it contains animal, mucilagi-
nous, or gelatinous fubftance ; if it be white and tranf-
parent, and not deftruftible by heat, it may be con-
fidered as principally fahne matter, the nature of which
may be known by the proper tefts. Nitrate of potalh
(nitre) or nitrate of lime, is indicated in this faline matter,
by its fcintillating with burning coal. Sulphate of mag-
nefia may be detefted by its bitter tafte ; and fulphate of
potafh produces no alteration in folution of carbonate of
ammonia, but precipitates folution of muriate of barytes.

11. Mode of deteSing Sulphate of Lime (Gypfum) and
Phofphate of Lime in Soils. — Should fulphate or phofphate
of lime be fufpetled in the entire foil, the deteftion of them
requires a particular procefs upon it. A given weight of
it, 400 grains for inftance, muft be heated red for half an
hour in a crucible, mixed with one-third of powdered char-
coal. The mixture muft be boiled for a quarter of an hour,
in half a pint of water, and the fluid collefted through the
filter, and expofed for fome days to the atmofphere in an
open veil'el. If any foluble quantity of fulphate of lime
(gypfum) exifted in the foil, a white precipitate will gra-
dually form in the fluid, and the weiglit of it will indicate
the proportion. Phofphate of lime, if any exift, may be
feparated from the foil after the procefs for gypfum. Mu-
riatic acid mull be digefted upon the foil, in quantity more
than fufRcient to faturate the foluble earths, the folution muft
be evaporated, and water poured upon the fohd matter.
This fluid will diflblve the compounds of earths with the

muriatic acid, and leave the phofphate of lime untouched.
It would not, the writer fays, fall within his hmits to detail
any procelfes for the detcilion of fubftances which may be
accidentally mixed with the matters of foils. Metallic
oxyds and earths of other kinds are, now and then, found in
them, but thefe in too minute quantities to bear any relation
to fertility or barrennefs, and the fearch for them would
make the analyfis much more complicated without rendering
it more ufeful.

1 3. Statement of Refults and ProduSs. — When the examina-
tion of a foil is completed, the produdls fliould be clafled,
and their quantities added together ; and if they nearly
equal the original quantity of foil, the analyfis may be con-
fidered as accurate. It muft, however, be noticed, that
when phofphate or fulphate of lime are difcovered by the
independent procefs juft ftated, a correftion muft be made
for the general procefs, by fubtrafting a fum equal to their
weight from the quantity of carbonate of lime obtained
by precipitation from the muriatic acid. In arranging the
produds, the form fliould be in the order of the experiments
by which they were obtained. Thus, 400 grains of a good
filiceous fandy foil may be fuppofed to contain, and have
been aftually found to contain as follows :

Grains.
Of water of abforption - - 18 to 19

Of loofe ftones and gravel, principally filiceous, 42 53
Of undecompounded vegetable fibres - 10 14

Of fine filiceous fand - - - 200 212

270 298

Of minutely divided matter feparated by filtration, and
confifting of

Grains.

Carbonate of lime - - - 19 to 25

Carbonate of magnefia . - - 34

Matter deftruftible by heat, principally vegetable, 15 10

Silex - - - - - 2 1 40

Alumine - - - - 1332

Oxyd of iron - - - . 54

Soluble matter, principally fulphate of potafli, 7 -

common fait, and vegetable e.xtraft, - J

Gypfum . . - . 23

Phofphate of lime ... 02

81 125

298 270

Amount of all the produfts in the different cafes 379 395
Lofs ----- 21 5

In one of thefe inftances the lofs is fuppofed fmall ; but in
general, in aftual experiments, it will be found much greater,
as feen in the other, in confequence of the difficulty of col-
lefting the whole quantities of the different precipitates, and
the prefence of more moifture than is accounted for in the
water of abforption, and the lofs of it in the different pro-
ceffes. But when it is within thirty for four hundred grains,
there is no reafon to fufpeft any want of due precifion in the
procefles.

13. This general Method of Analyfis may in many Cafes be
muchftmplified. — When the experimenter is become acquaint-
ed with the ufe of the different inftruments, the properties
of the re-agents, and the relation between the external and
chemical qualities of foils, he will feldom find it neceffary
to perform, in any one cafe, all the procefles that have been
defcribed. When his foil, for inftance, contains no notable

proper-

SOIL.

proportion oF calcareous matter, the aftion of the muriatic
acid, 7, may be omitted. In examining peat foils, he will
principally have to attend to the operation by fire and air, 8 ;
and in the analyfis of chalks and loams, he will often be able
to admit the experiment by fulphuric acid, g. In the firft
trials that are made by perfons unacquainted with chemiftry,
they mull not expeft much precifion of refult. Many dif-
liculties will be met with : but in overcoming them, the mod
ufeful kind of praftical knowledge will be obtained, and
nothing is fo inftruftive in experimental fcience as the detec-
tion of miltakes. The correft analyft ought to be well
grounded in chemical information ; but perhaps there is no
better mode of gaininec it than that of attempting original
inveftigations. In purfuing his experiments, he will be con-
tinually obliged to learn from books the hiltory of the fub-
ftances he is employing or afting upon ; and his theoretical
ideas will be more valuable, in being connefted with pradlical
operations, and acquired for the purpofe of difcovery.

apparatus for the Analyfis of Soils. — The iicceliary appa-
ratus and other conveniences for effefting the above purpofes
are different : the firll confillsof a retort inconneftion with
other veflels, fo as to form a peculiar pneumatic apparatus,
by which the quantity of elaltic fluid that is given out during
the aiSion of an acid on calcareous foils may be collefted
and meafured, the bulk of it being afcertained by the
amount of the water that is difplaced. The different parts
of the apparatus are thefe. A bottle or retort for receiving
and containing the foil ; another containing the acid, furnifh-
ed with a ftop-cock ; ?. tube connefted with a flaccid blad-
der ; a bottle for containing the bladder ; and a graduated
meafure. When this contrivance is ufeJ, a given quantity
of foil is introduced into the firlt bottle ; the fecond is filled
with muriatic acid, diluted with an equal quantity of water,
and the llop-cock being clofed, is connefted with the upper
orifice of the firll bottle, wfiich is ground to receive it.
The tube connefted with the flaccid bladder is introduced
into the lower orifice of the fame bottle, and the bladder,
in its flaccid ftatc, placed into the bottle for containing it,
which is filled with water. The graduated meafure is put
under the tube of the bottle for containing the bladder.
When the ftop-cock of the feccnd bottle is turned, the
acid flows into the firlt, and afts upon the foil ; the elallic
fluid which is generated paffes through the tube connefted
with the flaccid bladder into the bladder, and difplaces a
quantity of water in the bottle for containing the bladder
equal to it in bulk j and this water flows through the tube
of the lall bottle into the graduated meafure ; and gives by
its volume the indication of the proportion of carbonic acid
difengaged from the foil ; for every ounce meafure of which
two grains of carbonate of lime may be eftimated or allow-
ed, as already fuggelled.

The other things arc, an Argand's lamp and fland ; fun-
nels for the purpofe of filtering ; and bottles for containing
the different re-agents, asprevioufly noticed.

Another method of deciding in regard to the nature,
properties, and qualities of foils, but which is far inferior
to that of chemical analyfis, though moll frequently had
recourfe to in purchafing of land, is that of attending to
the growth and colour of the vegetables which grow upon or
cover it ; but it requires a found judgment, mucli experience,
and a correft eye in the execution.

It is cuflomary, alfo, for farmers to have recourfe to other
marks in forming their judgments of foils, fuch as their ap-
pearances or colours, and their adhefion, tenacity, or loofe-
nefs and friability. Thus, the ha/.el-browii Ihews a valu-
able fort of loamy foil, and tiie reddifli faiidy mould a good
one of the lighter kind. The wetnels of lands fliould lake-

wife be well confidered, fo far as it is connefted with the na-
ture of the foil. From the full confideration of all thefe
different circumftances, with a competent experience, a to-
lerably correft decifion may in general be formed in refpeft
to the nature of land. See Farm.

Sir Humphrey Davy, in his " Elements of Agricultural
Chemillry," confiders it as a vain labour to attempt to clafs
foils with fcientific accuracy. He thinks, too, that the dif-
tiiiftions at prefent adopted by farmers are quite fufhcient
for the purpofes of agriculture ; efpecially if fome degree
of precifion be had recourfe to in the application of the
terms. The term fandy, he thus conceives, fliould never
be applied to any foil that docs not contain at leall feven-
eighths of fand ; fandy foils that effervefce with acids, fhould
be diilinguifhed by the name of calcareous fandy foil, to dif-
tinguifh them from thofe that are filiceous. The term clayey
foil fhould not be made ufe of to any land which contains
lefs than one-fixth of impalpable earthy matter, not confi-
derably effervefcing with acids : the word loam fhould be
limited to foils containing at leaft one-third of impalpable
earthy matter, copioufly effervefcing with acids. A foil to
be confidered as peaty, fhould contain at lead one-half of
vegetable earthy matter. And that, in cafes when the
earthy part of a foil obvioufly confifts of the decompofed
matter of one particular fort of rock, a name derived from
the rock may with propriety, it is fuppofed, be given to it.
In this way it is imagined, that if a fine red earth be found im-
mediately above decompofing bafalt, it may be denominated
bafaltic foil. If fragments of quartz and mica be found
abundant in the materials of the foil, as is often the cafe, it
may be called granitic foil ; and the fame thing may be done
in a great number of other fimilar cafes.

It is evident, that the greater precifion and correftnefs
there are in this bufinefs, the greater will be the advantages
of the cultivators of the land or foil.

Dlv'i/ion of Soils.

Kinds.

1. Clayey,

2. Loamy,

3. Chalky,

4. Gravelly,

5. Sandy,

6. Peaty or mofly,

7. Boggy and heathy, or

8. Moory,

However, thefe fcveral divifions mull evidently be capa-
ble of being fubdivided under various other heads, according
to the differences in the conftituent ingredients.

Clayey Soils. — It may be remarked, that as clay is feldom
found in any thing near a flate of purity in foils, it is plain
that there mufl be much difference in the foils in which it is
the chief conftituent principle, according to the proportion
and nature of the admixture that has taken place. Thefe
fiiils are moflly found to contain an intermixture of different
earthy materials, with various animal, vegetable, and mi-
neral fubllances, and often blended with confiderable quan-
tities of filiceous and fandy matters. It has been obierved,
in a late praftical work, on the authority of Dr. Anderfon,
that It is upon this account that the clayey foils of fome dif-
trifts are fo abundantly fruitful and pioduftive, while thofe
of others are infuperably llerile and refraftory. Farmers, or
thofe engaged in cultivating land, for the moll part being
only acquainted or converfant with earth or mould, as it
offers itfelf to their attention in the grofs or whole, have
not, lie thinks, been led to remark tiie aflonifhing diverfity
that takes place in refpeft to the properties of clays and

other

SOIL.

other bodies that are united with tliem as primitive and con-
ftitiient parts of foils, in their original and native Hates ;
but having found that they all agreed in poflefling the pro-
perty of imbibing and retaining moifture, and thereby of
becoming foft and duftile, have, probably too haftily, con-
cluded them to have in fomemeafuie a fimilarity in their other
qualities. In this way erroneous notions have frequently,
he fuppufes, been engendered refpedling foils in which thefe
fubftances abound. For it is well afcertained, from the ufe
of clays in itates of greater purity, that there are eflential
differences in their qualities. There are fome forts, as that
which is denominated fuUer's-earlh, and feveral of the foft
boles that have the cohefive property in but a very flight de-
gree ; while others, (uch as thofe which are termed tills, are fo
extremely tenacious and vifcid, as to becapableof beingdrawn
out into threads : and there are ftill others, which, from their
foftnefs, and property of imbibing water readily, are capa-
ble of being cut with great facility by any (harp inftru-
ment ; while fome other forts are fo firm, hard, and compaft,
as fcarcely to admit of being foftened by means of water.
The clays which are employed for making the finell porce-
lain, and thofe ufed in the compofition of the more coarfe
wares, are only to be met with in particular fituations and
dillriits. This fully (hews that much diverfity muft exilt in
the nature of foils of this defcription, and which are per-
haps far from being yet fully iinderftood or afcertained. But,
befides foils of this fort differing in thefe refpefts, they have
an equal diverfity in their appearances or colours, and their
textures ; being found in the ftate of nature of very dif-
ferent colours, as red, white, blue, and yellow, and of very
different degrees of compaftnefs or denfity ; in fome cafes
readily admitting the intermixture of other matters to im-
prove them ; while in others they are highly refraftory in
•this refpeft, being with very great difficulty made to unite
with them. It is plain, therefore, that in the firlt of thefe
varieties of clayey foils, the proportion of filiceous or fandy
material mull be confiderably larger than in the latter, in re-
lation to that of the clayey part. But notwithftanding the
above, all thefe defcriptions of foils are found to polTefs
fome degree or other of the ftiff or heavy quality, accord-
ing to which, with proper attention to their other circum-
flances, their cultivation and improvement mull be conduft-
ed and carried on.

The chemical analyfis of different forts of clays, executed
by the late ingenious Mr. Somerville, and detailed in his
valu-ible Survey of Ea(l Lothian, ferves to place the nature
of fuch foils in a clear point of view.

The intelligent writer concludes, that the experiments
which he has defcribed feem to prove, that the principal
conftituent parts of fertile clays are alkaline falts, calcareous
earth, and oil, together with a very fmall proportion of
iron. In the ilronged and moil retentive clays, the pro-
portion of oil is greater, and that of alkaline fait and cal-
careous earth lefs, than in fuch as approach nearer to
the nature of loam ; except in the experiments, when the
clay was taken from the top of a lime-rock, in which it was
found to contain lefs oil than any of the others, and more
calcareous earth than either loam or any of the other clays :
it differs further in containing no iron. And it is fuppoled
that tills (j. e. a name given in Eaft Lothian to fuch of the
thin clays as are blue, yellow, and red coloured, and, at the
fame time, barren) contain the fame principles as other
clays, with the exception of calcareous earth, ef which they
appear to be entirely dettitute ; in place of which, they
contain a very great proportion of iron, which feems to be
the principal caufe of their barrennefs ; and, according as
they contain more or lefs cf it, they are more or lefs fterile.

But in whatever manner thefe foils may be condituted,
they invariably require greater power, labour, and atten- >
tion, to bring them into a condition proper for the purpofes
of the farmer, than thofe of moll other forts. They are,
in fa£l, naturally llerile, from their adhering together in
maffes ; uiilefs where the fummer is fo divided between rain
and fun-(hine, that they are kept in a medium between
drought and wetnefs, a circumllance that rarely happens in
this uncertain climate. Where the feafons are wet, the
plants growing on fuch foils are inundated ; the clofenefs of
the clay not admitting the water to foak into the ground ;
and in a dry feafon the ground becomes fo folid, that the
roots of plants cannot penetrate or fpread themfelves in it.
A tolerably accurate idea of the fertility or barrennefs of
clayey foils may be obtained, by regarding the appearance
of the different plants, as they vegetate : if they appear
lively and vigorous, a favourable opinion may be drawn ;
the reverfe, of courfe, follows, if they appear languid, un-
healthy, and (tinted in their growth.

However, the clayey foils are thought to contain more
of the food of plants than almoll any other ; as, -.vithout
much alteration, fuch lands will produce good crops of
grafs, provided care be taken not to feed them too clofely,
nor to admit cattle into them in the fpring. In order, how-
ever, to bring them into tillage, it is neceffary thai fuch
foils (hould be altered by the admixture of fuch fubllances
as tend to open the foil, and to break the cohefion of its
particles, and which fupply vegetable matter in many cafes.
When once thefe objefts are accomplifhed, the land will be-
come highly valuable, retaining manure excellently, and
never returning to its former ftate of barrennefs. Thefe
forts of foils are confequently capable of much improve-
ment, by the judicious application of fubllances and manures
of fuitable kinds, and a proper courfe of tillage hufbandry.
And in regard to the former, pounded limeltone, gravely
fand, and calcareous marie, are the moll ufeful articles in
the view of altering the texture ; and the bell feafon for
laying them on is in the beginning of the year, as it is only
during winter, while the furface is frozen, that teams can
ftir upon them. Where thofe fofTile fubftances cannot be
procured, and the vegetable principle is deficient, a mixture
of dung and fand, efpecially that from the fea-(hores, will
contribute greatly to fertihze the ground. But the appli-
cation of lime alone has, in many inltances, been attended
with great advantage ; though fome farmers difapprove of
it, on account of its being apt to cake, and not mixing in-
timately with the foil. However, a variety of other fub-
ftances may likewife be employed, in cafes where a deficiency
of thofe fofTils exift, fuch as comports of chalk and dung,
tanners' bark, fea-mud, and other materials that promote a
ftrong fermentation : and it has been found by experience,
that chalk and thefe together not only enrich the foil, but
alfo make it produce earlier crops than it did before. The
chalk, indeed, thus laid upon the land at length fubfides,
fettles as deep as the plough goes, and is then of no further
value in opening the land ; but it mav be recovered and
brought up again to the furface, by ploughing fomewhat
deeper than ordinary, after which it will produce its former
good effefts. Gravel from neighbouring foils may alfo be
carted upon clayey foils, to which may be added fea or pit-
coal afhes, duft from faw-pits, chips, and rubbilh from the
back yards of houfes, draw, and ftubble, rotten wood,
burnt clay, peat a(hes, and perhaps gypfum, or plalter of
Paris in fome cafes. This lall fubftance, as well as thofe
of lime and other calcareous matters, may alfo be found
ufeful in fuch foils of this fort as have a four tendency, by
neutralizing and correfting fuch acidity, by which they

may

SOIL.

may be rendered more proper for the growth of crops of
both the grain and grafs kind.

And it has been obferved in the third volume of the
Farmer's Magazine, that the thinner kinds of thefe lands
are almoll univerfally poor : the colder and more unkindly
bottoms fuch foils are found upon muft naturally render
them fo. And that fuch land ir. badly adapted to bear much
fatigue of the plough, either in winter or fummer : that
being the cafe, neither autumn nor late fpring ploughing
can be depended on by the farmers ; the land being fo deli-
cate of itfelf, it cannot refill the alternate froft and rain in
winter ; and if it happen to be a wet feafon before feed-
time, the profpeft of a crop mult be very unpromifing ; and
by the latter, if drought come on, it cannot fail of pene-
trating to the bottom of the furrow ; in which cafe, the
grain caft upon it muft remain delfitute of nouridiment :
therefore, the moll proper feafon for ploughing fuch land is
February, and the beginning of March, when the weather
is dry. And further, that the ftronger forts baffle the
operation of the plough more than any other it encounters.
The only friend that co-operates with it, in fubduing fuch
foils, is ftrong liming : without doubt, winter froft is alfo
of much benefit ; on which account, the farmer is often in-
duced to plough fuch land early. But it ought to be re-
membered, that although falutary effefts may be produced
by early ploughing, when there happens to be much froft ;
yet very pernicious efFefls muft follow, when the winter
turns out to be very wet : for it is generally underftood that
clayey foils, for the moft part, lie upon a retentive bottom
of the fame nature ; therefore, all the water that falls upon
them muft eafily penetrate to the bottom, through the
feams between the furrows : and as the fubfoil, or bottom
of the furrow, will be left with a fmall bank on the land-fide
of the coulter cut together, with the under arafe of the
back part of the furrow refting upon it, the water muft be
prevented from running to the drain-furrow, which will
prove very pernicious and hurtful to the foil, being too
cold at the bottom, in its bell ftate. It may perhaps be
faid, that the fame danger will be incurred, at whatever
period the ploughing is performed ; but there is a material
differeiice*between water llagnatinej in the bottom of the
furrows for four or five months, and when it only does fo
for as many weeks : therefore, wherever autumn or early
winter ploughing is praftifed on fuch foils, that of fummer
fallow will alfo, he thinks, be often neceflary.

It may be noticed, that the moft proper forts of crops,
in the firlt fort, are peafe and oats ; and where compofts
can be had, and af>plied to the fward, fummer fallow will
be beneficial ; followed by wheat and artificial gralles : and
in the latter, cabbages, wheat, beans, peafe, and grafs-feeds
for both hay and pafturc. See Clayey Land.

Almoft every one of the above modes of improving and
bettering the qualities of clayey foils are praftifed with
much advantage and fuccefs, in one or other of the different
places throughout the country where they are met with.
In the northern parts, however, where the ufe of lime on
thefe forts of foils, efpecially the better cultivated kinds of
them, is more had rccourfe to than in the fouthern, they
not uncommonly apply farm-yard manure the fame feafon
in which the land is limed, though not, by any means, in
combination with it ; as by this practice the lime is believed
to aft more powerfully, as well as more cffeftually, and
with far greater expedition, than when it is employed in the
manner of compoft, or mixture with earthy matters. It
has been fully fhewn that lime, in its aftive ilato, has great
power in promoting the folution and decay of all ve»fetable
matters in foils, and, of courfe, of greatly incrcafing the

proportion of that fort of material in them. In this way
its readinefs in producing this fort of matter in a large
quantity, when applied to foils which contain a confidcrable
portion of vegetable materials, is eafily explained. And
the powers of improving diflerent kinds of clayey foils, in
thefe methods, may be very much aided and affifted by well
direfted modes of (lirring and tilling fuch lands ; as where
the ploughings, harrowings, and other proccffes on them,
efpecially in the more ftiff^ and retentive kinds, are frequent,
and made at feafons of the year in which they are neither too
dry and cloddy, nor too wet and poachy, fo that they may
be well broken down and reduced in their parts, and fully
expofed to the influence of the atmofphere. In thefe
ways they are enabled to acquire a high degree of pulveriza-
tion and finenefs in their particles, by which the growth of
plants upon them is greatly forwarded, and rendered more
perfeft. The feed is here to be covered in, tor the moft
part, in a complete manner ; the previous ploughings hav-
ing been made to fuitable depths, as the circumftances of
the lands may direft. On the thinner forts, where fprings
are apt to rife, they fhould have lefs depth than in other
cafes. The tools and teams employed in working them
(hould be ftrong, and fo attached as to do as little injury
by poaching as poflible ; fuch feafons as are neither too
moilt nor too dry being, in all cafes, chofen for the purpofe.

Soils of this nature prevail very greatly in many dillrifts
of the kingdom ; and though they are improved, and
brought into proper order for cultivation, with great diffi-
culty, labour, and expence, they commonly anfwer very
well in the end, by affording a long continued and very
abundant produce.

2. Loamy Soils. — It is evident that loam, in its natural
ftate, is a fort of earthy material, more compaft than chalk,
but lefs cohefive than clay. In thefe foils there is likewife
much variety ; fome being ftiff and compaft ; while others
are more open, loofe, and porous : hence we have heavy,
ftiff', and light loams. The materials of which thefe foils
are chiefly compofed are thofe of the clayey, chalky, fandy,
and gravelly kinds ; on which account writers on hufbandry
have denominated them clayey loams, chalky loams, fandy
loams, and gravelly loams ; and fometimes, where a fmall
portion of the oxyd or calx of iron is found mixed with the
loamy material, they are termed lilly loams. The firll, ac-
cording to Kirwan, denotes a compound foil, moderately
cohefive, in which the argillaceous ingredient predominates.
Its cohefion is, then, greater than that of any other loam, but
lefs than that of pure clay. The other ingredient is a coarfe
fand, with or without a fmall mixture of the calcareous in-
gredient. It is this which farmers generally call ftrong,
ftiff, cold, and heavy loam, in proportion as the clay
abounds with it. And the fecond indicates a loam formed
of clay, coarfe fand, and chalk ; in which, however, the
calcareous ingredient or chalk much predominates. It is
lefs cohefive than clayey loams.

The third fort denotes a loam iu which fand predomi-
nates : it is lefs coherent than either of the above-mentioned.
Sand, partly coarfe and partly fine, forms from 80 to 90
per cent, of this compound. The fourth differs from the
above only in containing a larger mixture of coarfe fand, or
pebbles. This and the two laft are generally called by
farmers light or hungry foils ; particularly when they liave
but little depth. The fifth is generally of a dark brown
or reddifii colour, and much harder than any of the pre-
ceding : it confifts of clay and the calces of iron, more or
lefs intimately mixed. It may be diftinguifhed not only by
its colour, but alio by its fuperior weight ; it fometimes
eflervcfces with acids, and femctimes not ; when it docs,

murb

SOIL.

much of the irony part may be feparated, by pouring it,
when well dried, into fpirit of fait ; from which the iron
may afterwards be feparated by alkalies or chalk. And
akin to this are certain vitriolic foils, which, when fteeped in
water, impart to it the power of reddening fyrup of
violets. Thefe are generally of a blue colour, but redden
when heated.

Further, it has been remarked by a late writer, that in
proportion as the clayey principle difappears, they recede
from foils of that kind, and that of courfc the nearer the
quahty of the clayey matter comes to that of the others,
the itronger and heavier the loamy foils mull be. And that
the differences in the lightnefs and friability of the foils of
this clafs, in a great meafure, depend on the relative propor-
tions of the other ingredients. Where the calcareous in-
gredient greatly exceeds thofe of the fandy or gravelly kinds,
they are neither fo light nor fo pulverizable as where they
are nearly equal, or where the fandy or gravelly matters con-
fiderably predominate over it. In the latter cale, indeed,
fuch foils are formed as have been denominated by pr. lical
farmers light and hungry, efpecially where the arthy b.d or
ftratum thus produced is but of little depth, 'nd relts on
a gravelly or flinty bottom or fub-foil. It is alfo added, that
the variety in the colours of foils of the loamy kind, feems,
in fome inftances, to be produced bv the union or mixture of
metallic fubftances in greater or lefs proportions, and in
more clofe or more lax itates of combination with them ; in
others, by the prevalence of acid impregnations. The co-
lour in the firft cafe is for the moll part reddiih, approach-
ing to brown ; in the latter it is commonly blueifli, changing
by heat to a flight red. But thefe are not, he fuppofes, the
only caufes that influence the colour of thefe foils ; they are
much altered in their appearances, as well as other qualities,
by the different proportions of vegetable or animal matter
which they contain, and the different ftates of decorapofltion
and decay to which they have been carried by lenc^th of time,
cultivation, and other means. In fituations, it is faid,
where this fort of foil has been but little dilturbed, and
confequently little changed by the artificial additions of
either animal or vegetable fubllances, and thofe which it
naturally contained not having advanced to the itage of
perfeft folution and decay, it is generally found of a light
brown or hazel colour ; but where much culture has been
employed for a length of time, and large applications of
animal and vegetable matters frequently made, the natural
and artificial materials of thefe kinds, having proceeded
more nearly to the llate of perfeft diflblution and deitruc-
tion, it has an appearance that approaches to that of black.
And it is added, that from thefe various circumllances, the
properties of the foils are likewife confiderably altered and
afFeAed. Such foils of this kind as are met with in extenfive
trafts on the borders of the fea, and of large rivers com-
municating with it, are generally rich and fertile, being
moftly compofed of a fine fort of fand, calcareous matter
in a high ftate of tenuity from the attrition or rubbing down
of ditfereiit kinds of (hells and other marine produftions, and
a rich matter proceeding from the difiolution of various
luxuriant fea plants, and innumerable forts of animal exuvise.
Thefe alluvial materials being all gradually depofited and
incorporated with the natural loamy earth of the fituations
in which they are found.

There are foils of this fort, in particular fituations near
the fea-coafts, which are extremely rich, being a great deal
conllituted or compofed of layers of oyfter and cockle-fliells,
in combination with their earthy matters, and much impreg-
nated with marine fait from the overflowings of the fea,
v/hich feems to have been highly beneficial to them, when

afted upon, for fome length of time, by the air of the aU

raofphere, in the produftion of grain as well as other crops.
In thefe cafes, this faline quality would appear to be en-
tangled in a peculiar fort of loamy Inhftance, very different
from any which are met with in upland fi: nations. The
richefl; loamy foils in fuch places are moftly comp-v(ed, in a
great meafure, of fand in mixture with a portion of clay, i
and are, from this quantity of fand, very friable in their \
nature. But with the foils in thefe particular cafes, it is
very different ; as whatever degree of friability they may
pofTefs, feems to arife from the fermentative power, which
is caufed by the aftion of th; atmofphere on fubftances that
abound with mucilaginous matters. They fail, it is faid,
when expofed to the changes of the weather, into dies, and
are more like the cryftallized forms of mud drying in the
fun, than the crumbling loofenefs of common loams. There
is very httle a; nearance of any fand in them ; the particles
of which they .ire compofed are fo very fine, that it would
be readily iiv.agined, they would eafily become an impalpable
powder ; but, on the contrary, they are capable of fuch
adhefion, that a clod will often become very hard. Confe-
quently they appear to be compofed of clay, very fine fand,
a mucilaginous principle which ferments with rain and
warmth, and the faline quality which is derived from their
origin and peculiarity of fituation. When crumbled in the
hand, they yield a Itrong fcent, fo that the volatile alkali
would probably be difcovered by chemical trials, it is
thought, in them. Soils of this loamy kind are met with
in Foulnefs ifland, in Effex, and fome other fimilar fituations.
Their natural fertility is often fo very great, that the farmers
are but little attentive to manure ; nor is it commonly
ventured for any fort of grain, as it throws up too much
ftraw, without increafing the quantity of corn. It might,
however, probably be applied for beans, or cabbages, where
they were the previous crops, with much advantage.

This fort of excellent loam is fuppofed utterly incapable
of being formed or attained by any kind of artificial means :
the great elaboratory of nature in this, as in fo many other
cafes, leaves, it is thought, the utmoft Ikill of the chemical
farmer at a vaft diftance.

The chemical analyfis of this fort of foil, as given in the
work already mentioned, by Mr. Somerville, may (hew ItiU
more fully the properties which are poiieffed by this kind of
land.

From the experiments of this ingenious writer it would
appear, that the principal conftituent parts of the different
kinds ef loam, upon which they were tried, are vegetable
and calcareous earths, oil, alkaline falts, and an inconfider-
able quantity of iron. The deep black loams feem to con-
tain confiderably more oil than any of the other two, but
lefs alkali and calcareous earth ; which, in fome meafure,
accounts for the inadlive nature of fome foils of that de-
fcription, which, by no means, yield crops equal to what
might be expefted from their appearance. The hazel-
coloured loam contains lefs oil than the black, but a greater
proportion of alkaline falts and calcareous earth ; owing to
which, all the loams of that defcription in Eaft Lothian are
more aftive, and produce better crops than the former. The
light loams, from the circumftance of their containing lefs
oily and more alkaline and calcareous matter, are the moft
aftive, and are commonly termed /harp lands, by the farmers
in that diilrift.

Further, thefe foils being, in general, lefs tenacious or
more friable and mellow than clays, are capable of being
more eafily improved with lefs expence and labour of team,
and alfo at any feafon of the year. The manure proper for
fuch foils varies according to their relative degree of fer-

tibty,

SOIL.

tility, and the greater or lefs proportion of acidity and of
argillaceous and calcareous matter they contain. Thofe
loams which are contiguous to the banks of rivers, or the
fea-coall, are generally admitted, as has been feen, to be fo
fertile, as to require little additional aid from manure ; but
for the more heavy and adhefive kinds, a compoft of effete
lime and dung, or lime in combination with pulverized or
ground bones and blood, or other animal recrements, and
Inch terrene fubftances as contain large quantities of fand,
may be beneficially applied in fuch quantities as the tenacity
or poverty of the land may require. Where the argilkceoua
principle abounds, lime alone may be fpread on the foil, in
order to counteraft the acidity prevalent in fuch foils ; in
the contrary cafe, or where there is an abundance of fand,
gravelly, or chalky particles duly mixed with the loams,
well rotted dung, vegetable manures of different kinds, and
the mud or depofition procured from ftagnant waters, may
be fpread to the greatell advantage ; and in cafe the loam
be too friable or light, a quantity of clayey loam may be car-
ried on the land, fufficient to impart a proper degree of
cohefion or tenacity.

In the county of Oxford they find lime ufeful on the
yellow loams which are wet and iland in need of draining.
They are rarely foils of much natural fertility ; but lime
makes them very produftive in oats, and prepares them for
future wheat crops ; when employed in the quantity of from
twenty to thirty quarters ^cr acre. It anfwers greatly, like-
wife, on the red loamy fand lands in the proportion of from
fifteen to twenty-five quarters on the acre.

In Suflex, wherever the land or foil tends to a reddifh
loam, or inclines to be fandy, they have recourfe to marie,
which is of a foapy nature, with great fuccefs. They em-
ploy it in the quantity of from ten to twenty waggon-loads
on the acre, which is from eight hundred to fixteen hundred
bulhels ; applying it in the autumnal or winter feafons.

Where a foil deficient in calcareous matter contains much
foluble vegetable manure, as is the cafe in fome foils of this
kind, the apphcation of quicklime to them fliould always,
according to the writer of the work on Agricultural Chemif-
try, be avoided, as it either tends to decompofe the foluble
matters by uniting to their carbon and oxygen, fo as to be-
come mild lime, or it combines with the foluble matters
themfelves, and forms compounds having lefs attraftion for
water than the pure vegetable fubftance. And the cafe is
the fame in regard to mod animal manures, when in fuch
foils ; but the operation of the lime is different in different
cafes, and depends upon the nature of the animal matter.
With oily matters lime forms a kind of infoluble foap, and
then gradually decompofcs them by feparating from them
oxygen and carbon. It combines likcwife with the animal
acids, and probably, it is faid, affills their dccompofition
by abflraAing carbonaceous matter from them combined
with oxygen ; and confequently it mud render them lefs
nutritive. It tends alfo to diminifh the nutritive powers of
albumen from the fame caufes ; and always deftroys, to a
certain extent, the efficacy of animal manures, either by
combining with certain of their elements, or by giving them
new arrangements. Lime (hould, of conrfc, never be ap-
plied with animal manures to foils, unlefs they are too rich,
or for the purpofc of preventing noxious effluvia. It is
injurious when applied in mixture with any common dung
to foils, and tends to render the extraftive matter of the
dung infoluble. But lime is conltantly efficacious in all
thofe cafes in which fermentation is ufeful to produce nutri-
ment from vegetable fubilances in foils.

All the foils of this nature are capable of affording alraoft
Vol.. XXXIII.

all forts of crops, both thofe of the grain and root kind, k
well as thofe of the pulfe, hemp, and flax fort, as may be
feen under thefe different kinds of crops.

The modes of cropping in fome diftriAs follow, in fome
meafuie, the qualities of the loams, whether they be ftrong,
fertile, impalpable, fandy, or of any other kinds or defcrip-
tions. The medium fertile loams are probably, however,
on the whole, the moft fuited to every fort of farming
purpofe.

3. Chalky Soils. — All thefe are foils, which are found to
occupy very extenfive trafts in many of the fouthern dif-
tridts of the kingdom, as well as in fome of the more
northern ; and, like thofe which have been already noticed,
differ very materially both from the diverfity of the calcare-
ous material which they contain, its proportion, and the
other matters that are intermixed and blended with it, ai
well as the thicknefs of the earthy bed on which it reds,
and the nature of the inferior ftratuin on which the whole
is depofited. It has been dated by an ufeful praftical wri-
ter, that matter of the calcareous kind is contained in many
different dony fubdances, befides that of chalk, as marble,
limedone, coral, and (hells of different kinds ; and in date*
of union with other materials, fuch as fand, the different
fimple earthy bodies, in different proportions, and in fome
indances with iron and magnefia. Its capability or power
of imbibing and retaining moidure is confiderable, though
not fo great as that of clay. It birrns to lime by proper
degrees of heat, and abforbs carbonic acid gas or fixed air
in different proportions from the atmofphere, and returns
again to the date of chalk or effete calcareous matter. It
is found of very different degrees of hardnefs and friability,
as well as of different dates of finenefs or pulverization, in
different foils of the clafs to which it belongs. It varies
alfo greatly in its effefts in refpeft to vegetation ; from the
different matters that may happen to be combined with it
in its primitive or original ifate. And it is further dated,
that it has long been known to the pradlical farmer, that
fome forts of lime or calcareous matter may be employed
in large proportions ; while others cannot be ufed, except
in very imall quantities, without doing very confiderable in-
jury to the foil with which they are incorporated. But
that the long unexplored caufe of this diverfity of effeft in
different limes, or calcareous matters, frems lately to have
been placed in a more clear and fatisfattory point of view,
by the experimental attempts of an ingenious philofophcr,
Mr. Tennant, who has found by repeated experiments, that
that fort of lime which is the mod friendly to vegetation,
confids entirely of calcareous earth, and quickly abforbs a
large portion of carbonic acid gas or fixed air from the
atmofphere ; while that which is injurious and unfriendly to
the growth of plants, contains only throe parts of pure cal-
careous earth, the other two confiding of magnefia ; and
that it abforbs comparatively but an extremely fmall portion
of carbonic acid gas or fixed air from the furrounding at-
mofphere. It was alfo found, that this kind of mixture of
calcareous matter was very (low i.i acquiring the power of
fupporting vegetation, even after it had been converted into
lime, and remained for a confiderable length of time in the
date of mortar. And that the limedone in which there
is a mixture of magnefia, is much harder, and diffolveo con-
fidtrably more flowly in acids, than that which is purely
calcareous. It is likewiie fuppofed, that the cryllallized
drutture commonly obfcrved in the magnelian limedone in-
dicates, that it has not been formed by the accidental con-
junftion of the two eaiths, but conll:' utcd by their shemi-
cal union. The difficulty with which it is dilfolved by
M m meant

SOIL.

means of acids, may alfo, it is conceived, in fome meafiire,
depend on the attraftion of its different component particles
to each other. It is a fort of limeftone, which is found to
extend itfelf over very large diflridts in the midland parts
of the ifland, as well as in the more northern counties, as
is obvious from the praftical diftindtions of mild and hot Lmes,
which are in common ufe, as noticed by doftor Fenwick,
in his excellent Eifay on Calcareous Manures.

It has indeed been fuggefted, that thefe interefting fafts
not only (hew, that whatever famenefs there may be m the
nature of calcareous matter, when in its pure and unadul-
terated ftate, but that, as met with in foils, and different fub-
ftances of the calcareous kinds, it has confiderable diverfity,
and when in union with magnefia, it is in a high degree pre-
judicial to the growth of vegetables. Later trials have,
however, rendered this laft fuppofition fomewhat doubtful ;
therefore, until further experiments have more completely
cleared up the matter, the farmer Ihould proceed with cau-
tion in the ufe of fuch materials. But though magnefian
lime or earth in its cauftic ftate may be injurious to vegeta-
tion, fuch lime, in ordinary circumlfances, is not unfre-
quently made ufe of in moderate quantities upon foils of
the fertile kind, in the counties of Leicefter, Derby, and
York, with good efteft, and is capable of being employed
in larger portions on foils containing more full fupplies of
vegetable matter. Magnefia, when combined with carbonic
acid gas, feems not, it is faid, to be hurtful to the growth
of plants, and in foils rich in manure, it is foon fupplied
with this principle, from the decompofition of that fub-
ffance.

In explanation of the above, fir H. Davy has ftated, that
magnefia has a much weaker attraftion for carbonic acid
than lime, and will remain in the ftate of cauftic or calcined
magnefia for many months, though expofed to the air ; and
that as long as any cauftic lime remains, the magnefia can-
not be combined with carbonic acid, for lime inftantly at-
trafts carbonic acid from it. When a magnefian limeftone
is burnt, the magnefia is deprived of carbonic acid much
fooner than the lime ; and if there be not much vegetable
or animal matter in the foil to fupply by its decompofition
carbonic acid, the magnefia will remain for a long while in
the cauftic ftate ; and in fuch, afts as a poifon to certain
yegetables. And «hat more magnefian lime may be ufed
upon rich foils, than thofe of other kinds, feems to be
owing to the circumftance, that the decompofition of the
manure in them fupplies carbonic acid. And magnefia,
when mild or fully combined with carbonic acid, feems to
be conftantly an ufeful conftituent part of foils. Carbonate
of magnefia, produced by boiling the folution of magnefia
in fupercarbonate of potafla, has been thrown over grafs,
and upon growing wheat and barley, fo as to render the
furface white, without injuring the vegetation in the fmalleit
degree, by the fame experimenter. Some moft fertile dif-
trifts are alfo faid to contain mild magnefian earth, as the
Lizard, in Cornwall.

This explanation has been fomewhat confirmed by mix-
ing and ufing four portions of the fame fort of foil in this
manner : with one-twentieth of its weight of cauftic mag-
nefia, with another the fame quantity of magnefia and a pro-
portion of fat decompofing peat, one-fourth of the weight
of the foil ; one portion was left in its natural ftate, and
one mixed with peat without magnefia. They were made
towards the end of the year, and fown in the early fpring
the next, all of thenrwith barley ; which grew very well, it
is faid, in the pure foil ; but better in the foil containing the
peat and magnefia ; and nearly a$ well in the foil with the

peat alone ; but in the loil mixed with magnefia alone, »t
rofe very feebly, and looked yellow and fickly. The repe-
tition of this trial was attended with fimilar refults ; and it
was found, that the magnefia in the foil mixed with peal
became ftrongly eftervcfcent, while the portion in the an-
mixed foil gave carbonic acid in much fmaller quantities.
In the one cafe, it is fuppofed, the magnefia had allifted in
the formation of manure, and had become mild ; in the
other cafe it had afted as a poifon on the plants.

It has alfo been found, that matter of the calcareous kind,
whether effete or in the ilate of carbonate, or in the more
aftive one of caufticity, as quickhme, feems ultimately to
promote the refolution and deftruAion of all vegetable and
animal fubftances ; but that in the latter ftate, it afts with
much greater violence on thefe materials, dellroying tl}eir
organization, and diflipating their principles more quickly,
as well as robbing them more completely of the carbonic
acid gas or fixed air, which is fo efiential ; while in the
former it operates with great mildnefs, and only aids the
refolution of thofe fubftances, by gently promoting the
procefs of putrcfaftion or decay.

It muft be obviou";, that in them the proportions of
clayey, loamy, and gravelly ingredients, in combination
with the calcareous matters of thefe foils, are materially dif-
ferent m different diflrifts : where the clayey and loamy are
comparatively in large quantities, the heavier kinds of
chalky foils are met with ; but where the fandy or
gravelly are prevalent, the lighter ones. Material differ-
ences alfo arife from the earthy matter with which the cal-
careous fubitance is blended in the ftate of foil, as where
the quantity of this is fmall, and not reduced into any per-
feft ftate of mould, the foil is poor and thin ; but where
the thicknefs of this fuperficial bed or layer is confider-
able, and the animal, vegetable, or other fubftances of
which it is conftitutcd, have proceeded to a more complete
ftage of decompofition, the foils are more rich and heavy.
Where the ftate of the fub-foil is of a compaft nature, and
much blended with filiceous or flinty matter, or hat a mor-
tary hardnefs, it is lefs favourable than where it is of a more
open, brittle, or mellow powdery nature. From the cal-
careous material being abundant in thefe cafes, the principal
intention is the changing of their textures, and the fupply-
ing of vegetable matter to them.

And it is found, that in the thinner or lighter calcareous
foils, clay, or clayey marie, and the vegetable recrements
depofited and obtained in wet or fwampy fituations, may
be beneficially applied. In thofe of a contrary or heavier
nature, the fpreading of fandy or clayey loams, as circum-
ftances may require, on them, will be attended with advan-
tage, as altering their texture ; and to thefe may be added
compofts of various vegetable and animal fubftances, farm-
yard manure and afhes ; befides which great attention is re-
quifite in breaking up thefe foils at the proper feaion, as, if
this operation be deferred till a dry feafon, they become fo
bound or hard, that it will be impoffible to work them,
until they are foftened by rain, without very great expence
both of teams and of labour in other ways. Near London,
the ufe of foot and malt-duft has alfo been found highly
beneficial in many cafes of thefe kinds of foils.

Soils of this nature work, and are capable of being im-
proved very differently, according as they are more or lefs
heavy. The light and mouldering chalky lands readily ad-
mit of thefe means of amelioration, while thofe which are
of a more heavy and folid quality, allow of them with con-
fiderable difficulty and trouble. Some forts of crops are
in a great meafure peculiar to thefe forts of foils, as thofe

of

{

SOIL.

«J laintfoin, and fome others, but they are capable of bear-
ing moll kinds in their different qualities and ftates. See
Stonebrash Land.

Soils of this kind, though they have a barren and un-
.promifing appearance, are fometimes very produftive.

4. Gravelly Soils. — It may be noticed, that in the gravelly
materials, which conititute loils of this defcription, there is
much difference in the fize of the (tony particles, from
that of the fmalleil pea, to that of the egg of a pullet.
But when they become of ftill larger dimenlions, they are
denominated llony or rocky foils, according as they arc in
detached or conneftcd maffes. But the gravelly beds, of
whatever kind, confril in general of filiceous or flinty, or
thofe of the calcareous or chalky kinds, while the rocky
and llony fubllances are of feveral different qualities. Vari-
ous other matters are mixed with thefe, fo as to conftitute
foils of this kind, which have much diverlity in different
rcfpefls. Thefe are principally matters of the loamy or
earthy kind, arifing from the putrefaftion and decay of dif-
ferent animal and vegetable materials. It is alfo remarked,
that the gravelly mixture is fometimes found to appro.ich
nearly to the furface, while at others it recedes confiderably
from it. In Middlefex, Mr. Middleton found, that when
the llratum was very near the top, a full crop of yellow
bloffomed broom covered the ground ; if in a itate of grafs,
and when ploughed, an equally full crop of forrel. This
was feen in the old inclofures. In fome inllances fprings
arilc immediately underneath ; in others they are at a great
depth. The bottom or fub-foil is likewife various ; in
fome cafes it is llony and rocky, in others it is clayey, or
a rocky gravel, and fometimes fand, &c. And it is added,
that the open porous nature of gravelly foils difpofes them
to admit moilture very readily, as well as to part with it
with equal facility ; from the latter of which circuraftances
they arc fubjeft to burn, as it is termed, in dry feafons,
which is not the cafe in the heavier or more retentive fort
of foils.

It is evident that the differences of thefe foils mull be
remedied according to their nature, by the ufe of different
forts of matters of the marie kind. In cafes where the
gravel is of the calcareous kind, clay, or clayey loam, may be
properly employed ; and a mixture of the carbonate of lime,
or lime in its effete Hate, and clay, may be found beneficial ;
alfo chalk, as being of the fame nature, may be made ufe
of in the fame way. For thefe kinds of gravel, which, from
their contiguity to fprings, are apt to lie wet in the winter,
there is no manure more properly adapted than chalk ;
which, although it does not abound with vegetable matters
in any large proportion, like yard-dung, and fome other
dreffingi, is, however, an excellent preparation for them,
and will, iw fome meafure, fupply the place of fuch fub-
llances. It is found, from its abforbent nature, to have a
good effetl, not only in counteraAing the fuperabundant
moillure of fuch foils, but in leffening their heat ; by which
means the difpofition to burn in the fummer, fo inimical to
the growth of various crops, and to which all gravels are in
fome degree liable, is prevented : and in tliis lall view,
chalk, though particularly adapted to thofe of the wet and
fpringy kind, may be applied with fuccefs on gravels of
almolt every denomination, with the profpetl of advantage.
Where there exills any deficiency in the vegetable and animal
earthy materials, it may be properly fupplicd by dung of
the farm-yard kind in its more reduced Itate, and various
other animal excrementitious matters, which may probably
ke employed with the greatcll benefit in the torm of com-
pollfl, with good loamy mould, afhes, the mucilaginous
^nJ clayey di-pofitions of rivers and ponds, and other lub«

ftances of a fimilar kind. Several of thefe materials, and
fome others of the animal clafs, are, however, often ufed
feparately to the furface of foils of tliis fort, with the moft
evident advantage.

Alfo much benefit ni:y be derived to fuch lands by a
proper alteration of green vegetables, and other crops that
arc ufually grown upon them ; as by fuch means the moif-
ture is more preferved, and the foils more guarded againtt
injury. In the Agricultural Survey of Hertfordfhire, Mr.
Young fpeaks of a poor fort of gravelly loil, the charafter-
iftics of which are wetnefs, or fpewinefs, as the farmer terras
it, from many fprings ; moll of which are fulphury, and
extremely unfriendly to vegetation, abounding more or left
with fmooth blue pebbles, which, at various depths, are
conglomerated by fulphury clay into plum-pudding Hones ;
in fome places fo near the furface as to impede the plough,
if fet but for an inch or two at a greater depth than the old
fcratchings of bad ploughmen : it is lliff, without a matrix
for the roots of plants ; and (harp and burning even in the
immediate vicinity of fprings : it has much llicky clay in the
compofition, but of a mod llerile nature. He hollow-
drained many acres ; but as he was obhged to employ the
pick-axe, the expence was too great ; and he found that the
ploughing it into high ridges was confiderably the bell way
of draining it. When it has been drained, manures have
then a great effeft for a time ; but fuch was the voracity of
the foil, that the benefit of manuring was foon loll, even
when it had been laid down for pallure lome years, as a
preparation for corn ; the beft improvement that can, he
fuppofes, be made on it, when cultivated for fuch a pur-
pofe. But it is fuggelled by Mr. Walker, that this foil is
beft adapted to wood ; for he was furprifed to fee the
hedges thriving with great luxuriance on land not worth
cultivation.

Lime, in mixture with good mould, has been found ufe-
ful in Oxfordlhire, on hot gravelly land. It does very well
alone, but not equal to where it is employed in combination
with fome fort of earthy reaterial. In the lighter kinds of
gravels, the clayey marlcs are alfo frequently of very great
utihty ; and in thofe of the heavier defcription, the cal-
careous fort may often be employed with equal benefit.
When well mixed up, and blended with different earthy ma-
terials, they may both be laid upon gravelly foils with the
bell effefts, in many cafes.

By thefe different means of improving the textures and
qualities of tlicfe kinds of foils, they have been fo much al-
tered and amended in the nature and arrangement of their
parts, as to be capable of affording good crops of many
different lorts, as well as of enduring the fummer lieats,
without being fubjeft to become too dry or burnt up by
them.

5. Sandy Soils. — It is ftated that thefe arc a drfcription
of foils, which feem to have been formed gradually by the
reduftion of different forts of hard bodies in nature, parti-
cularly thofe of the calcareous, filiceous, and llony forts, the
particles being brought into different Hates of finenifs, being
in fome cafes extremely minute. Tin y vary equally iu their
colours in different inilances, being fometimes pcrfeftly
white, browiulh, yellow, and red. The differences in the
quantities in which other forts of matter enter into their
compofitions, allord confiderable variety in their weights,
tenacity, and different other properties. In fome dillridls,
foils ot tliis fort cxill of different kinds, from the lightell
fpecies of loam to the naked fand compofed entirely of fmall
flints, and in all of them there is a mixture of earth; ac-
cording to the proportion of whuh, liny are more or lefs
favourable to vegetation.

Mm r And

SOIL.

And it has been remarked by the late Mr. Somerville,
that, in Eaft Lothian, the whole of the fandy foil is evi-
dently fuperinduced, or placed upon the land ; the bottom
upon which it is laid being uniformly of the fame quality
with the circumjacent grounds. The origin of this fand,
which is accumulated upon feveral pai'ts of the coaft, is
owing, it is fuppofed, to two caufcs : the firft, and that
•which no doubt has produced the greateft part of it, has
been the wafhing away of many points of land by the fea,
by which the coatt, formerly very much indented, is now
rendered pretty uniform, and brought nearer to a regular
figure : the fecond caufe of its formation has arifen from
the wafting of the foil in the interior, during heavy falls of
rain, by which great quantities have been brought from the
higher grounds, and either depofited in places where the
current has been lefs rapid, or carried along with the flream
to the fea. The lafl;, however, is a rare occurrence, unlefs
in fituations where the land declines very rapidly towards
the fhore. In that county, however, it is evident that the
whole of the land upon the coalt has arifen from the waiting
and wafhing away of different points of land, while that in
the interior has been produced by the wafhing of the rivers.
It is remarked by a writer mentioned above, that in cafes
where the proportions of clayey, loamy, or other earthy
fubftances with which they are mixed, approach nearly to
that of the fand, the heavier forts of fandy foils are formed ;
but that where thefe enter only in very fmall quantities, the
light fandy foils are formed ; and where they are hardly met
with at all, tii ' foil is a loofe blowing fand, mod commonly
of a white or brownifh appearance. And it is added, that
the portions of vegetable matters, that are intermixed with
different foils of the fandy kind, are not lets various than
thofe of the clayey and loamy, from which confiderable dif-
ferences of quality are produced. Thefe differences in their
textures and compofitions alfo introduce others, which
refpeft their powers of admitting and retaining heat and
moilture. The opennefs and want of adherence in fuch
foils, while they allow of the admiflion of heat and water
more readily, permit them to be carried off with greater eafe
and expedition : they are, therefore, lefs permanently bene-
fited by their influence than many of the clofer and more
adhefive foils.

But as thefe forts of foils are chiefly deficient in the cal-
careous, clayey, loamy, and vegetable materials, the aim of
the farmer mull be the augmentation of their cohefive pro-
perty, and the fupplying the calcareous and decayed animal
and vegetable materials. They cannot, of courfe, be cul-
tivated with advantage, without the aid of other foffile ma-
nures to counteraft their poverty, and prevent the continual
evaporation of moillure. For this purpofe, clay and loam
may be beneficially fpread on fandy foils, which may like-
wife be improved by the ufe of compofts of animal and ve-
getable manure : though, where thefe cannot be obtained,
good mould or earth may be employed with advantage, as
alfo may peaty earth, either alone, or in combination with
other matters. It has been obferved by Dr. Fordyce, that
a lefs quantity of clay is required in the improvement of
light fandy foils, than of fand in the clayey ones ; but
whether this be a praftical rule or not, the thinner and
poorer forts of fandy foils moftly ftand in need of a large
quantity of clayey matter. And when the calcareous pro-
perty prevails, clayey marles and clayey loams are moft
proper ; but in cafes of its being deficient, calcareous marie
and loams may be ufed with more advantage. This has
been fufficiently proved by their apphcation in different dif-
trifts. A degree of tenacity or firmnefs may alfo be im-
parted to fandy foils, by the treading of (heep, folded upon

them ; while they receive much benefit from the dung and

urine depofited by thofe animals.

And it may be noticed, that thefe different materials are
proper for being laid on either alone, or in the itate of com-
pofts ; but marles and clayey fubftances are moftly applied
in the ftates in which they are found in nature ; but the
farm-yard dung, and peaty fubftances, in mixture with
other matters.

Further, it has alfo been ftated by the author of " Prac-
tical Agriculture," that the light, open, and porous texture
of fandy foils renders them much more eafily cultivated, and
kept in order, than thofe of the ftrong and clofe kinds ;
and, confequently, the farms where they prevail are gene-
rally large : but that, when properly prepared, they are
better adapted for the growth of many forts of crops, fuch
as thofe of the bulbous and tap-rooted forts. And they
have alfo another advantage, which is that of pufhing for-
ward the crops with more expedition. Whatever incon-
veniencies attend them are moftly fuch as proceed from the
want of a fufficient degree of cohefion among their contti-
tuent particles, and folidity of texture. On thefe accounts,
they often counteraft the beft and moft judicious manage-
ment. The roots of the crops are liable to become naked
and expofed, from itorms and various other caufes ; and if
grain, to fall down and be lodged fo early in the feafon as
to render them of little value.

It has likewife been remarked by the writer of the Eaft
Lothian Agricultural Report, that there, within thefe fewr
years, confiderable trafts of this kind of foil, formerly of
little value, have been brought under the plough, and made
to produce excellent crops of turnips, clover, barley, rye,
&c. as may be feen in different parts of the Survey ; but
the moil valuable improvement upon this defcription of foil
has been made by laying it into grafs, and treating it with
top-drefTings of different kinds of foils, which, when libe-
rally apphed, have, in not a few inftancef, changed the ap-
pearance, and fo much altered its nature, as to render it
capable of bearing a fucceffion of valuable crops of grain.

Some think lime the beft of all drefiings for fandy lands.
This is the cafe, in particular inftances, in the county of
Oxford. On the fine red fandy foils there, fome lay from
ten to twenty quarters on the acre ; the former quantity
very common in mixture with earth and fome dung. The
benefit thus produced is generally great, latting many
years.

Befides thefe, vaft improvements have been made in a
variety of other cafes on thefe foils, by the ufe of the above
methods. Their textures, compofitions, and properties,
have been fo amended and improved, as to make them ca-
pable of producing crops of moft forts with advantage.

6. Peaty or Mojfy Soils. — Thefe kinds of foils are more
common in the northern diftrifts and in Ireland, than in
the fouthern parts of the kingdom, though in thefe latter
they occur in a fmall extent. And they, like other forts
of foils, var\' from the nature and proportions of the ingre-
dients of which they are compofed. It has been obferved,
that where the vegetable or peaty material predominates
but little over the other fubftances with which it is mixed
and incorporated, the lighter forts of peaty or moffy foils
are formed ; but where the other matters bear only a
flight proportion to it, the deep and heavy peaty or moffy
foils prefent themfelves. In different diftrifts the peaty
matter is found of different depths, and of various degrees of
denfity or clofenefs of texture, probably proceeding from
fome original differences in the vegetable fubftances from
which it was formed, or the greater advances which it has
made to the ftate of perfect decompofition. The fub-foil

SOIL.

in moft of the deep moffy diftri<fts is of the clayey kind,
more or leCs ftiff and heavy, over which the peaty or moffy
material is depofited generally in a fort of Itratified order ;
the firft layer of which, being commonly not more than ten or
twelve inches in thicknefs, exhibits the appearance of a richifh
brown earth, arifing, in all probability, fronti the incorpo-
ration of the loamy or clayey matters with the peat or
vegetable earth lying immediately upon them, and confti-
tuting originally, perhaps, the furface of the ground.
The layer that fucceeds to this is moitly of a dark colour,
and of confiderable thicknefs, apparently formed of a great
variety of vegetable and other materials in the more perfeft
ftages of refolution or decay, united together by time and
other circumftances, with more or lels degrees of com-
paftnefs and folidity. The uppermolt llratum, or that
which is placed upon this denfe peaty matter, is, in general,
of a very pale colour, and very light fpongy texture, arifing
poflibly from the graffes, leaves, and other vegetable fub-
ftances of which it is formed, not having attained that Itate
of decay which conftitutes the darker forts of peaty earth.
However, in the more fuperficial peaty foils, little or no-
thing of tiiis ftratified appearance is met with. A coat of
peaty earth, differing greatly in thicknefs, according to the
peculiarity of the fituations, and other circumftances, is
formed by a great length of time from the deftruftion and
decay of fuccedive crops of graffes, leaves, and other fub-
llances of different kinds, and depofited upon, and inter-
mixed with, the various harder materials of the foils which
happened to be underneath them. It is obferved, that by
thefe means much variety is produced in the foils. Where
the under ftrata of earthy matter are tolerably good, and
the crops of vegetables large and luxuriant, the better forts
of light peaty foils feem to be predominant ; but where
the quahty of the under ftrata is indifferent, and the
vegetable produfts fcanty, as well as feeble in their growth,
the poorer forts of thefe foils are formed. And in many
diftrifts, tliis, as well as the fandy foil, being depofited or fu-
pcrinduced, the bottom being uniformly the fame as that of
the adjoining grounds, in the low flat parts, owes its
origin evidently to the ftagnation of water ; in thefe places
the mols confifts of the roots and decayed leaves of aquatic
plants, which are found in diftindl ftrata, and of different
kinds, according to their depth. But in fituations more
elevated, and upon the tops of the higheft hill<!, the mofs has
been formed in fome cafes merely by the decay of the plants,
which, fallingdownyearly without beingentirelyrotted, have,
in proccfs of time, accumulated and formed the mofs there
met with ; but in the hollows, its formation is owit'g to the
fame dcpofition, with the addition of a great proportion of
earth, waftied from the fides of the hills during tiie floods.
In fome parts of the county of Eaft Lotliian, this foil has
made confiderable progref, towards decay, and nearly re-
femblca black rich loam ; but in by far tiie grcatelt part,
the roots and leaves of the different plants concerned in its
formation arc in a tolerably perfeft ilatc, and whcji freed
from moifture, prefent little elfe than a colleftion of thefe.

Mr. Somerville concludes, from his experiments made
upon mofs in all the different ftages of decay, that tiic pre-
dominant principle in the whole is an acid ; and, accmding
as the mofs is more or lefs decayed, the prevalence of this
principle is more or lefs obfervable. In the experiments
upon mofs not much decayed, the quantity of acid was
greater, and that of the oil and the alkali lefs, than in any
of the other trials; on the contrary, where it was moft de-
cayed, it was found to contain the leaft acid and the greateft
proportion of oil and alkaline falts. A knowledge of thefe
circumftances ie of confiderable importance in agriculture.

for, by obferving the progrefs that mofs has made towards
decay, a tolerable idea can be formed of the trouble and
expence that will be neceffary either to bring it into culti-
vation, or render it ufeful as a manure.

And it is fuggefted, that from the fame experiments it
would appear, that the conftituent parts of mofs are, i, an
acid ; 2, an alkah ; 3, oil ; 4, vegetable earth ; 5, iron.
The iron was met with in one inllance only, and in that
the quantity of acid was greater than in any of the other
trials ; the nature of the acid was alfo different, being evi-
dently vitriohc, a thing feldom met with, unlefs in cafes
where the mofs contains iron, which is certainly the worlt
of all its principles, and the moft difficult to correct. And
it is added, that upon comparing the conftituent parts of
mofs with thofe of the bett foils, they are found nearly the
lame, with the exception of the acid, but in fome different
proportions. The alkaline principle in fome kinds of mofs
is fcarcely equal to what is met with in good loam or clay,
while the oil and vegetable earth are much greater ; a
great proportion of other foils confifts of fand, gravel, earth,
&c. ; but the earthy part of mofs confifts entirely of a mould
formed by the earthy part of decayed vegetables, together
with the fediment of water.

From their compofition, thefe foils muft of courfe be ex-
tremely retentive of moifture. It has, indeed, been remarked
by the earl of Dundonald, that from the rays of the fun
and drying winds being exerted during the fummer feafon
in carrying off, by means of evaporation, the fuperabundant
moifture in fuch cafes ; and heat being known to be ab-
ttrafted from bodies, and cold generated thereby, effefts
muft be produced highly injurious not only to climate but to
vegetation in general, and more particularly to fuch plants
as ftand in need of a higher degree of heat, and more
nouriftiment than fuch foils are capable of fupplying. And
further, that there can be very little doubt but that thefe
prejudicial tffe6ts on the growth of vegetables extend
themfelves to the more dry lands adjoining fuch fens or
deep molles. It has alfo been found, that the furface-
ftratum of peaty foils, from its being more expofed to the
influence and aftion of the pure air of the atmofphere, is
much lefs foluble than the under ftrata, confequently in
its fimple or unmixed ftate lefs proper for the purpofes
of agriculture. From the fame caufe, too, it becomes lefs
capable of fupporting flame, and is therefore improper for
the purpofes of fuel, in the way of turf or peat.

The different manners in which molly or peaty foils are
formed, have been feeii and explained, in fome meafure,
above, and in fpeaking of tlie nature and means of culti-
vating mody lands. See Mossy Land.

Very cxtenfive improvements, in foils of this kind, have
lately been made in Lancaftiire and different counties in the
northern parts of the kingdom, as wl-11 as in feveral diltrids
in Ireland. See Turfy Land.

It may be remarked, that tlicfe forts of foils ftand in need
of different methods of management in bringing tliem
to the condition of producing crops. In thofe of the
deeper kinds, the firft thing to be done is to draw off, as
much as poffible, tlie fuperabundant moifture, by the cut-
ting of proper drains, and Inch other means as the nature of
the fituation, and other circumftances, will admit of. It has
been noticed, that in places where water in fufficient quantity
can be conveniently made to pals through fuch moffes, and
where the foil underneath is good, inucii may be effected oy
floating away the principal part of the mnlly lubftance ;
but where the molles are not deep, or the loils under tiiim
ot a good quality, after the making of proper drains, the
beft way ie, probably, to ridge theni in fuch directions id

mode*

SOIL.

n\ode9 as are the moil effeftual in promoting the exit or
padage of the (lagnant water which they contain. Different
materials may then be applied with the intention of im-
proving their textures, and promoting the diflblution of the
undecaycd parts of the vegetable matters that are contained
m them. The firll may be accomplifhed by the application
of various gravelly fubftances, fand and coarfe earth ; and the
latter, elpecially where there is a large growth of coarfe
plants, by the ufe of lime in its caultic ilate ; but where
fuch plants do not fo much abound, alkahne fubftances,
chalk, calcareous marie, the flielly kinds of fea-fand, and
the carbonate of lime, may be more advantageoufly made
ufe of. And as fhell-marle, chalky fubftances, rich clays,
and hmeftone gravels, are frequently met with under deep
peat modes, they (hould be tried for by boring in various
parts. Paring and burning is alfo ufeful where the quan-
tity of vegetable matters on the furface is confiderable, and
of the coarfe kind ; but the method of applying good earthy
matter is to be preferred where it can be procured in an
eafy and cheap manner. And advantages may be gained in
promotmg the fertility of thefe foils by cropping with par-
ticular forts of vegetables, as fuch as have large branching
ftems, and cover the furface of the ground very much, fo as
to exclude the aftion of the air in a great meafure upon it.

It is probable, too, that the hot limes, as they are called
by farmers, may be laid upon thefe foils in full proportions
with very great advantage in fome cafes ; and that where
lands of any kind have been hurt by the too great ufe and
abundance of them, peat will prove a good meant of re-
ttoring them.

In thefe different ways very great improvements have
been made in peaty and mofly foils, efpecially where the
drains have been formed fufficiently near to each other, and
to proper depths for taking away the water in an efFeAual
manner. Great advantage has alfo been derived by laying
the furfaces of fuch lands over with any fort of heavy
earthy matters to the thicknefs of three or four inches,
fuch, for inftance, as the heavy forts of marie, the fcrapings
of roads, the heavy mud of rivers and ponds, &c. By
thefe means, where they are intended for grafs, a finer kind
of herbage is brought up, and where for the purpofes of
tillage, the furface is well confolidated, and rendered more
fuitable to the growth of crops of that fort.

7. Boggy Soils. — Thefe are alfo foils that have much of
the nature ef the preceding, but which differ in fome
refpefts from them, being chiefly in low confined fituations,
and of lefs depth than the heavier moffy foils, and of more
than thofe of the lighter defcription of that fort of foil.
There are foils of this defcription frequently met with in Ire-
land, and occafionally in low meadows and near large ponds or
lakes in this country. Thefe foils are gradually formed by the
depofition and decay of the different vegetables that grow
in fuch fituations as thofe of the luxuriant aquatic kinds ;
and the ftagnation of much moiiture upon them, by which
the roots alfo become deftroyed and reduced to the ftate
of earth. They have of courfe different appearances or
colours, according to the ftate' of putrefaftion and decay to
which the different parts have advanced, and the nature of
the other earthy materials with which they are blended ; in
fome cafes being of a lightifh brown afpeA, as where the
fibrous and ligneous matters have only undergone a flight
change ; but where this has been carried to a confiderable
extent, they are of a dark colour, approaching to black,
or of a deep dulky hue. See Peaty and Mossy Land.

As the great defefis in foils of this nature are chiefly
thofe of their being too much charged with moiiture, and of
too open and porous a texture, the means of bringing them

into a proper condition are obvious. In deep boggy foila,
the bufinefs of draining (hould firft, when prafticable, be
reforted to, in order to draw off the exceffive moifture.
After which, various hard dry earths will be found of great
ufe in improving bogs, fuch as gravel, chalk, ftony matters,
fand, fhell-marle, &c. as thefe fubftances contribute to bind,
ameliorate, and warm the foil, while they prevent fprings
from oozing out and overflowing the furface. Where they
are over-run with rufhes and fimilar coarfe vegetables, quick-
lime may be beneficially applied, and paring and burning
may be employed, fometimes with advantage. And another
ufeful mode of reclaiming fuch foils is, by planting on them
thofe vegetables whofe Ipreading roots ferve to bind the
earth together, and at the fame time, in a great meafure, ex-
clude the aflion of the atmofphcre upon it. The practice
of flooding, alfo, where a command of water can be ob-
tained, has proved a cheap and efficacious mode of reclaim-
ing them in fome inftances. Some cafes, at leaft, have
occurred where fuch foils have been brought into a ftate
of cultivation for meadoius, with the happiell fuccefs, by it,
which had failed under contrary methods of riianagement.

In mofl of thefe cafes, the firft means which are
neceffary, after well ditching and draining the foils or lands,
and levelling the imperfections and inequalities on their fur-
faces, is to apply earthy matters over them. For this
purpofe, the lumpy earthy parts, or elevations on them, are
to be pared off and intimately blended up with lime into
compolts, which, with other heavy materials of proper
earthy kinds, are to be placed and fprcad out on the land*
or foils in an even manner. And afterwards, when the
ground or foil becomes firm and folid, with much coarfe
plants and herbage rifing upon it, eating it conftantly clofe
down with light neat cattle and fheep, will be very bene-
ficial, efpecially where fuch foils or grounds are defigned
for paftures. When for tillage, there are various other
means which may be had recourfe to in different circum-
ftances, for rendering them more firm and dry, with great
fuccefs. See Swampy Land.

The management of fuch foils, in all thefe different
methods, has been productive of great benefit in different
inftanccs, and the land, when improved, is commonly of the
moft valuable kind. See Bog, and SPRlXG-Z)ra;n/n^.

8. Heathy or Mocry Soi/s. — Thefe form a clafs of foils
that occupy very extenfive trafts in different diftrifts of the
kingdom, and which have confiderable relation to thofe of
the peaty fort, though they differ in many particulars. In
the fouthern part of the country they are moftly known
under the titles of healhy or moory foils, but in Scotland
they liave the name of muir foils.

It is remarked by Mr. Somerville, in the agricultural Sur-
vey ju ft noticed, that thefe foils, like thofe of the moffy kinds,
owe their origin evidently to the fame caufe, namely, the
decay of the plants that formerly occupied the furface.
This muir foil is of two kinds, one of which is black, foft,
and porous, and admits moifture in a greater degree than
any other foil ; it is at the fame time covered with ftone* of
a white colour ; evidently whinftone bleached with an acid :
the parts, when examined, exhibit the appearance commonly
met in turning over the afhes formed by the burning of vege-
tables, where the fkeletons of the plants and roots are feen
naked, faplefs, and deftitute of any of the ufeful properties
they once contained. It is difficult to form an opinion of
the caufe of thefe appearances, or to conceive how lands
that had once been covered with plants fo ftrong and nume-
rous as to form a thick fod, fhould become fo barren as to
be totally unfit for vegetation, as the greateft parts of thefe
muirs are. Were a judgment to be formed from appearances,

fire

SOIL.

fire might be fuppofed to have been the caufe j but as the
confumption of vegetables by that element, however great
the waiie may be of a part of their ufeful principles, is always
produftive of more or lefs fertility, the appearances above-
mentioned muft be owiHg to caufes of which no correft
opinion feems to be at prefent entertained. This defcription
of muir is the mall barren, and its improvement the molt
hopelefs, of any foil known there, and no attempts hitherto
made have cither rewarded the enterprize of the undertakers,
or held out inducements to others to follow their example.
But there is another fpeciesof muir foil, which confilts, like
that already defcribed, of a ftratum of vegetable fubllances
upon the top, not of a black or burnt appearance, but re-
fembling the plants in a dry Hate intermixed with earth,
without having been adled upon by any thing but the wea-
ther. Thefe, when examined, are found to contain a con-
liderable proportion of the properties common to all vege-
tables, and when properly treated, are capable of being con-
verted into a foil friendly to vegetation. The Hones upon this
kind of muir are of the fame colour with thofe met with
upon the belt foils. There are confiderable trafts of this
foil, which, by good management, might be confiderably
improved : indeed a great part has been much ameliorated
of late years, in many diftritls, and is in a progreiTive ftate
of improvement.

And in the analyfis of the fame writer of the turf of thefe
foils in the dillrift noticed above, he dilcovered nearly the
fame principles as are found in thofe of the moify kind.

No gyplum was obtamed from this turf, nor did the
trial by the magnet difcover any iron. Many other trials
were made with different kinds of turf, taken principally from
muiri(h foils, the refult of which ieems to ellablifh the con-
ftituent parts of the turf to be, i, an acid ; 2, an alkali ;
7,, oil ; and 4, vegetable earth, in a confiderable quantity.
In cafes where the turf is pared very thin, it is found to con-
tain lefs acid and more alkaline falts and vegetable earth
than where it is deep cut, and much of the foil taken along
with it.

In the improvement of thefe kinds of foils different me-
thods mull be purfned, according as they poflefs more or
lefs of the vegetable principle, and as they are of the deeper
or thinner kinds. Where there is much heath, the great
objeft will however be that of dcftroying it as quickly as
pofliblc, in which view paring and burning may be had re-
courfe to with valt advantage and fuccefs. The application
of caullic lime has likewife been found highly beneficial in
the fame intention.

The ufe of different fubllances of the animal and ve-
getable kinds, as dung and the mud of ponds, in the form of
earthy compoils, may likewife be found advantageous on
foils of this nature, with judicious modes of cropping with
plants of the grain and green kind ; the latter being fed off
as much as poifible upon the land by (heep.

Some think the bell means of improving all forts of foil of
this nature, is, after the heath has been, in fome meafure, re-
moved, where it is long, by the application of lime or marie
over the furface, allowing it to continue in tliat Hate for the
fpace of two or three years, when tliefe foils are to be broken
up and fown with proper forts of crops in alternation with
turnips and potatoes, the ground being laid down again to
grafs when it has been brought into proper condition for it.
The turnips, where it is pratlicable, fiiould always be eaten
off upon the ground. Where the heath is of the long llrong
kind, it may be dellroyed either by burning, pulling it up
by the roots, or by fuffering the grafs to rife and choak it
up. See WASTE-LanJ.

All thefe and fome other modes may be pradifcd in

improving heathy foils with much fuccefs in different
cafes.

It therefore appears, from the whole of what has been
faid upon foils, that great care and attention are always requi-
fite in improving the nature and qualities of them, and that
the firmer fliould conffantly be properly on his guard in
undertaking fuch forts of work.

Soil, in Gardening, the fine furface-mould or earthy ma-
terials, in which plants and trees grow and afford their pro-
duce. Different forts or qualities of foils are neceiiary, in
this point of view, for different ufes and applications ; but
for the more general purpofes of culinary gardening, thofe
of the more light and dry loamy kinds, which are readily
broken down and reduced in their particles, are probably
the moft extenfively ufeful and beneficial, particularly when
they have been well impregnated and enriched with proper
forts of manure, or other fimilar matters. See Co.mpost
and Manure.

Some, however, think that the bell general foil in this in-
tention, is that middling kind of loam, which, in fome parts,
is capable of being made of very different degrees of light-
iiefs and friability, fo as to fuit and be proper for different
forts of vegetable crops, by the fimple addition of fand or
fandy matters, in due proportions ; and in other parts, of
different degrees of ftiffnefs, tenacity, and cohcfion, by the
fuitable addition of clays or clayey materials, in the necef-
fary quantities. There are others who prefer foils of very
different natures and qualities, or which are very differently
conllituted, for the ule of raifing the many different forts
of garden vegetables, and think it incapable of being ac-
compliffied in the beil and mott perfeft manner, wliere this
is not the cafe. It is therefore probable, that confiderably
more latitude in refpeft to the nature of foils is neccffary
in the garden cultivation of plants, than in that of the field.

In general, the depth of a garden-foil, where the bottom
or fub-foil is perfeftly open and dry, fhould be confiderable,
as not lefs than three feet, or more, in any cafe where fuch
a depth is to be procured ; but where there is a bottom or
fub-foil of rather moid clay, or any other impervious ma-
terial of that nature, a lefs depth may fometimes be more
fuitable and proper, and particularly where fuch bottom or
fub-foil has been well drained and freed from too much wet-
ncfs : however, in all or moft inftances where this is inca-
pable of being properly eftefted, or the trouble and ex-
pence of getting and providing a ftratum or layer of gravel,
or other fimilar fubftance, to be placed over it, are too great
to be incurred, the depth of the foil (hould not by any
means be lefs than four feet, as when it is of lefs thicknefs,
there may be danger of the roots of herbaceous vegetables,
and of fruit and other trees, reaching and ftriking into it, and
being thereby greatly injured or dellroyed. And for fome
purpofes, as thofe of growing particular kinds of truit-
trces, fuch a foil would be quite ruinous and wholly im-
proper, unlefs fome fort of impediment was given to the
roots linking downwards, by forming a kind of pavement
with Hones, bricks, or tiles, about two and a half or three
feet under the furface of the ground, jull .ibove tlie clayey
bed. The depth of good garden foils fhould, of courfe, in
common, be from two to three feet, and in particular cafes
four feet or more. The nature of the particular foils, and
the fub-foils or bottoms on which they rell, mutt, however,
in a great meafure, regulate their depths.

In cales where the natural foils of gardens are to be re-
moved, and thofe of new and better kinds formed and pro-
vided, much regard is iieceffary to be had, in the introduc-
tion of the different kinds of earthy materials of which they
are to be compofed. The foili of'^all the different parts are
4 t»

SOIL.

modes as are the mod effectual in promoting the exit or
panagc of the llagnant water which they contain. Different
materials may then be applied with the intention of im-
proving their textures, and promoting the diflblution of the
undecaycd parts of the vegetable matters that are contained
in them. The firll may be accompHfhed by the application
of various gravelly fubftances, fand and coarfe earth ; and the
latter, etpecially where there is a large growth of coarfe
plants, by the ufc of lime in its caullic Itate ; but where
fuch plants do not fo much abound, alkaline fubftances,
chalk, calcareous marie, the (helly kinds of fea-fand, and
the carbonate of lime, may be more advantageoudy made
ufe of. And as (hell-marle, chalky fubftances, rich clays,
and limeftone gravels, are frequently met with under deep
peat modes, they (hould be tried for by boring in various
parts. Paring and burning is alfo ufeful where the quan-
tity of vegetable matters on the furface is confiderable, and
of the coarfe kind ; but the method of applying good earthy
matter is to be preferred where it can be procured in an
eafy and cheap manner. And advantages may be gained in
promoting the fertility of thefe foils by cropping with par-
ticular forts of vegetables, as fuch as have large branching
ftems, and cover the furface of the ground very much, fo as
to exclude the aftion of the air in a great meafure upon it.

It is probable, too, that the hot limes, as they are called
by farmers, may be laid upon thefe foils in full proportions
with very great advantage in fome cafes ; and that where
lands of any kind have been hurt by the too great ufe and
abundance of them, peat will prove a good meant of re-
ttoring them.

In thefe different ways very great improvements have
been made in peaty and moffy foils, efpecially where the
drains have been formed fufBciently near to each other, and
to proper depths for taking away the water in an effeftual
manner. Great advantage has alfo been derived by laying
the furfaces of fuch lands over with any fort of heavy
earthy matters to the thicknefs of three or four inches,
fuch, for inftance, as the heavy forts of marie, the fcrapings
of roads, the heavy mud of rivers and ponds, &c. By
thefe means, where they are intended for grafs, a finer kind
of herbage is brought up, and where for the purpofes of
tillage, the furface is well confolidated, and rendered more
fuitable to the growth of crops of that fort.

7. Boggy Soils. — Thefe are alfo foils that have much of
the nature of the preceding, but which differ in fome
refpeiSs from them, being chiefly in low confined fituations,
and of lefs depth than the heavier moffy foils, and of more
than thofe of the lighter defcription of that fort of foil.
There are foils of this defcription frequently met with in Ire-
land, and occafionally in low meadows and near large ponds or
lakes in this country. Thefe foils are gradually formed by the
dcpofition and decay of the different vegetables that grow
in fuch fituations as thofe of the luxuriant aquatic kinds ;
and the ftagnation of much moiilure upon them, by which
the roots alfo become deftroyed and reduced to the itate
of earth. They have of courfe different appearances or
colours, according to the ftate' of putrefaftion and decay to
which the different parts have advanced, and the nature of
the other earthy materials with which they are blended ; in
fome cafes being of a lightifti brown afpett, as where the
fibrous and ligneous matters have only undergone a flight
change ; but where this has been carried to a confiderable
extent, they are of a dark colour, approaching to black,
or of a deep dulky hue. See Peaty and Mossv Land-
As the great defeds in foils of this nature are chiefly
thofe of their being too much charged with moilture, and of
too open and porous a texture, the means of brmging them

into a proper condition are obN'ious. In deep boggy foib,
the bufinefs of draining (hould firft, when prafticable, be
reforted to, in order to draw off the exceflive moifture.
After which, various hard dry earths will be found of great
ufe in improving bogs, fuch as gravel, chalk, ftony matters,
iand, Ihell-marle, &c. as thefe fubftances contribute to bind,
ameliorate, and warm the foil, while they prevent fprings
from oozing out and overflowing the furface. Where they
are over-run with rufties and fimilar coarfe vegetables, quick-
lime may be beneficially applied, and paring and burning
may be employed, fometimes with advantage. And another
ufeful mode of reclaiming fuch foils is, by planting on them
thofe vegetables whofe Ipreading roots ferve to bind the
earth together, and at the fame time, in a great meafure, ex-
clude the adlion of the atmofphcre upon it. The praftice
of flooding, alfo, where a command of water can be ob-
tained, has proved a cheap and efficacious mode of reclaim-
ing them in fome inltances. Some cafes, at leaft, have
occurred where fuch foils have been brought into a ftate
of cultivation for meado'ws, with the happielt fuccefs, by it,
which had failed under contrary methods of rtianagement.

In moft of thefe cafes, the firft means which are
neceffary, after well ditching and draining the foils or lands,
and levelling the imperfedlions and inequalities on their fur-
faces, is to apply earthy matters over them. For this
purpofe, the lumpy earthy parts, or elevations on them, are
to be pared off and intimately blended up with lime into
comports, which, with other heavy materials of proper
earthy kinds, are to be placed and fpread out on the lands
or foils in an even manner. And afterwards, when the
ground or foil becomes firm and folid, with much coarfe ■
plants and herbage rifing upon it, eating it conftantly clofe I
down with light neat cattle and Iheep, will be very bene-
ficial, efpecially where fuch foils or grounds are defigned
for paJtures. When for tillage, there are various other
means which may be had recourfe to in different circum-
ftances, for rendering them more firm and dry, with great
fuccefs. See Swampy Land.

The management of fuch foils, in all thefe different
methods, has been produftive of great benefit in different
inftances, and the land, when improved, is commonly of the
moft valuable kind. See Bog, and SpRiNG-Z)rj/nin^.

8. Heathy or Moory Soils. — Thefe form a clafs of foils
that occupy very extenfive trafts m different diftrifts of the
kingdom, and which have conilderable relation to thofe of
the peaty fort, though they differ in many particulars. In
the fouthern part of the country they are moftly known
under the titles of heathy or moory loils, but in Scotland
they have the name of muir foils.

It is remarked by Mr. Somerville, in the agricultural Sur-
vey juft noticed, that thefe foils, like thofe of the moffy kinds,
owe their origin evidently to the fame caufe, namely, the
decay of the plants that formerly occupied the furface.
This muir foil is of two kinds, one of which is black, foft,
and porous, and admits moifture in a greater degree than
any other foil ; it is at the fame time covered with ftone« of
a white colour ; evidently whinftone bleached with an acid :
the parts, when examined, exhibit the appearance commonly
met in turning over the aflies formed by the burning of vegc-
tables, where the flceletons of the plants and roots are feen
naked, faplefs, and dellitute of any of the ufeful properties
they once contained. It is difficult to form an opinion of
the caufe of thefe appearances, or to conceive how lands
that had once been covered with plants fo ftrong and nume-
rous as to form a thick fod, ihould become fo barren as to
be totally unfit for vegetation, as the greateft parts of thefe
muirs are. Were a judgment to be formed from appearances,

fire

SOIL.

Bre might be fuppofed to have been the caufe ; but as the
confumption of vegetables by that element, however great
the walte may be of a part of their ufeful principles, is always
produftive of more or lefs fertility, the appearances above-
mentioned muft be owing to caufes of which no corredl
opinion feems to be at prefent entertained. Tliis defcription
of muir is the mail barren, and its improvement the molt
hopelefs, of any foil known there, and no attempts hitherto
made have either rewarded the enterprize of the undertakers,
or held out inducements to others to follow their example.
But there is another fpeciesof muir foil, which confiits, like
that already defcribed, of a ilratum of vegetable fubllances
upon the top, not of a black or burnt appearance, but re-
fembling the plants in a dry Hate intermixed with earth,
without having been afted upon by any thing but the wea-
ther. Thefe, when examined, are found to contain a con-
fiderable proportion of the properties common to all vege-
tables, and when properly treated, are capable of being con-
verted into a foil friendly to vegetation. The (tones upon this
kind of muir are of the fame colour with thofe met with
upon the bell foils. There are confiderable trails of this
foil, which, by good management, might be conliderably
improved : indeed a great part has been much ameliorated
of late years, in many diftricts, and is in a progreflive (late
of improvement.

And in the analyfis of the fame writer of the turf of thefe
foils in the diltrift noticed above, he difcovered nearly the
fame principles as are found in thofe of the mody kind.
No gyplum was obtained from this turf, nor did the
! trial by the magnet difcover any iron. Many other trials
I were made with dilferent kinds of turf, taken principally from
muirifh foils, the refult of which feems to eltablifh the con-
ftitaent parts of the turf to be, i, an acid ; 2, an alkah ;
3, oil ; and 4, vegetable earth, in a conliderable quantity.
In cafes where the turf is pared very thin, it is found to con-
tain lefs acid and more alkaline falls and vegetable earth
than where it is deep cut, and much of the foil taken along
with it.

In the improvement of thefe kinds of foils different me-
thods mull be purfued, according as they poflefs more or
lefs of the vegetable principle, and as they are of the deeper
or thinner kinds. Where there is much heath, the great
objeft will however be that of dcftroying it as quickly as
poffible, in which view paring and burning may be had re-
courfe to with vail advantage and fuccefs. The application
of caudic lime has likewife been found highly beneficial in
the fame intention.

The ufe of different fubdances of the animal and ve-
getable kinds, as dung and the mud of ponds, in the form of
earthy comports, may likewife be found advantageous on
foils of this nature, with judicious modes of cropping with
plants of the grain and green kind ; the latter being fed off
aB much as polTible upon the land by (heep.

Some think the belt means of improving all forts of foil of
this nature, is, after the heath has been, in fome mcafure, re-
moved, where it is long, by the application of lime or marie
over the furface, allowing it to continue in that Hate for the
fpace of two or three years, when thefe foils arc to be broken
up and fown with projier forts of crops in alternation with
turnips and potatoes, the ground being laid down again to
grafs when it has been brought into proper condition for it.
The turnips, where it is pradlicable, fhould always be eaten
off upon the ground. Where the Iieath is of the long llrong
kind, it may be dellroyed either by burning, pulling it up
by the roots, or by fuffering the grafs to rife and choak it
up. See WASTE-Zanr/.
All thefe and fome other modes may be praAifcd in

improving heathy foils with much luccefs in different
cafes.

It therefore appears, from the whole of what has been
faid upon foils, that great care and attention are always requi-
fite in improving the nature and qualities of them, and that
the farmer (liould conllantly be properly on his guard in
undertaking fuch forts of work.

Soil, in Gardening, the fine furface-mould or earthy ma-
terials, in which plants and trees grow and afford their pro-
duce. Different forts or qualities of foils are neceflary, in
this point of view, for different ufes and applications ; but
for the more general purpofes of culinary gardening, thole
of the more light and dry loamy kinds, which are readily
broken down and reduced in their particles, are probably
the mofl extenfively ufeful and beneficial, particularly when
they have been well impregnated and enriched with proper
forts of manure, or other fimilar matters. See Compost
and Manure.

Some, however, think that the belt general foil in this in-
tention, is that middhng kind of loam, which, in fome parts,
is capable of being made of very different degrees of light-
nefs and friability, fo as to fuit and be proper for different
forts of vegetable crops, by the fimple addition of fand or
fandy matters, in due proportions ; and in other parts, of
different degrees of ftiffnefs, tenacity, and cohefion, by the
fuitable addition of clays or clayey materials, in the necef-
fary quantities. There are others who prefer foils of very
different natures and qualities, or which are very differently
condituted, for the ule of raifing the many different forts
of garden vegetables, and think it incapable of being ac-
complifhed in the belt and moll perfedl manner, where this
is not the cafe. It is therefore probable, that confiderably
more latitude in refpedl to the nature of foils is necelfary
in the garden cultivation of plants, than in that of the field.

In general, the depth of a garden-foil, where the bottom
or fub-foil is perfeAly open and dry, (hould be confiderable,
as not lefs than three feet, or more, in any cafe where fuch
a depth is to be procured ; but where there is a bottom or
fub-foil of rather moid clay, or any other impervious ma-
terial of that nature, a lefs depth may fometimes be more
fuitable and proper, and particularly where fuch bottom or
fub-foil has been well drained and freed from too much wet-
nefs : however, in all or mod indances where this is inca-
pable of being properly efteiled, or the trouble and ex-
pence of getting and providing a dratum or layer of gravel,
or other fimilar fubdance, to be placed over it, are too great
to be incurred, the depth of the foil ffiould not by any
means be lefs than four feet, as when it is of lefs thickncfs,
there may be danger of the roots of herbaceous vegetables,
and of fruit and other trees, reaching and driking into it, and
being thereby greatly injured or dellroyed. And for fome
purpofes, as thofe of growing particular kinds of fruit-
trees, fuch a foil would be quite ruinous and wholly im-
proper, unlefs fome fort of impedinicnt was given to the
roots driking downwards, by forming a kind of pavement
with dones, bricks, or tiles, about two and a half or three
feet under the furface of the ground, jud above the clayey
bed. The depth of good garden foils fhould, of courfe, in
common, be from two to three feet, and in particular cafes
four feet or more. The nature of the particular foils, and
the (ub-foils or bottoms on which they red, mud, however,
in a great meafurc, regulate their depths.

In cafes where the natural foils of gardens are to be re-
moved, and thofe of new and better kinds formed and pro-
vided, much regard is neceffary to be had, in the introduc-
tion of the different kinds of earthy materials of which they
are to be compofed. The foils of'^all the different parts arc
4 »•

SOIL.

to be formed and prepared witli great attention to their
feveral ufes and intentions ; and where fruit-trees are to be
grown, particular care fhould be taken, that the borders
for fnch purpofes be fonned and made up to proper depths,
with fuitable materials, and upon proper kinds of fubllrata.
By fufficiently regarding thefe points, garden foils of proper
qualities, and fit for every purpofe, may moftly be provided
without much difficulty.

The work of forming and compofing garden foils is by
far the moft cheaply, properly, and eafily performed at firlt
when the garden is laid out ; as, when done at an after pe-
riod, great injury and deftruftion are caufed in different
finilhed parts, and in various other places, by defacing and
cutting them up in the labour, and rendering their appear-
ance difgutting to the eye, though the bufinefs is ftill ca-
pable of being accompliflied without any very great difR-
culty or expence. In all cafes of this fort, whatever depth
of natural foil may be wanting to form the foils to the
proper depths or thickneffes, as fuggefted above, mnft be
fupplied, by conveying it into the garden from the neigh-
bouring lands or other fituations, where the proper kind is
to be met with in fufRcient quantity ; as it is rarely, or
never ad\gfeable to raife and mix up any great quantity of
the fub-foil, or bottom part, whatever its nature, texture, or
properties may be, with it. For, in many cafes, the foils of
gardens are greatly injured, or nearly ruined, by the improper
mixing of the fub-foil with the furface-mould. Level fpots
are feldom fo proper for gardens as others, as the foils of them
have rarely a dry bottom, and the draining of them, when ne-
ceflary, is a great deal more difficult, than where there is
fome degree of declivity. Where there is from a foot in
twelve, to that of a foot in thirty or forty feet, it vrill com-
monly fucceed pretty well ; but when about one foot in
twenty-five, it has the moft happy effeft in freeing the foil and
fub-foil from too much wetnefs.

It is remarked by the " Scotch Forcing and Kitchen
Gardener," as a fortunate and defirable circumftance, that
in many inftances the different forts of foil are met with in
the fame acre or portion of ground, and that they (hould
never be wanting in the fame garden, but that where they
are naturally deficient, in this refpeft, in fuch fituations, re-
courfe mull be had to artificial means, in the manner that
has been already fuggefted, for providing and producing
them ; for the variety of vegetables which are to be culti-
vated in gardens require a variety of foils in them for their
produftion. It would, however, be perfeftly abfurd, it is
fuppofed, to conceive, that for every particular fort of ve-
getable there ftiould be a particular kind of foil formed and
prepared. The varieties of foil which are abfolutely ne-
ceffary in almoft any garden, may, it is thought, be con-
fined with propriety to the following, — ft rong clayey loam,
— light fandy loam, a compofition of one-fourth ftrong,
with three-fourths light loam, half ftrong and half light, and
one-fourth light and three-fourths ftrong ; the two firft
being obvioufly the grand or principal forts, and made to
form and compofe the whole of the others. Thefe, with the
proper and fuitable applications of manures to them, may,
it is believed, be rendered capable of producing any of the
known and commonly cultivated garden vegetables, in the
higheft ftate of perfeifion.

This is probably, however, limiting them too much or
too narrowly, as though the principal forts of cuhnary
vegetables may be raifed upon them in an eafy and perfeift
manner, there are feveral kinds of plants grown in fuch fitu-
ations that require foils of other qualities to produce them
in perfeftion, and fome that cannot be grown at all without
thofe of quite a different nature.

Garden foils, in many cafes, may be greatly and cheaplj
improved by very fimple means^ as by the properly drawing
awaj' and difcharging any over-degree of moifture, where
the bottom is wet, and the fub-foil of a cankering oclirey
quality ; and by fupplying and intimately mcorporating with
the foil, where it is of a very ftiff^ obitinate nature, fub-
ftances of the fmall gravel, pebbly, and (helly fea-fand, coal-
afh, lime-gravel, reduced brick-bat, biick-kiln a(h, moul-
deringchalk, and different other fimilar kinds. In cafes
where the foil is of a poor fandy, gravelly, or other quality
of fomewhat the lame defcription, the improvement is to be
effefted by fupplymg and intermixing clay, ftrong clayey
loam, fcourings of ditches found on clayey fub-foils, muddy
depofitions of fimilar fituations, fcrapings of muddy roads,
and other matters of the fame kind with them, in fuitable
proportions and an even manner.

Where foils of the pure fandy, fea-fandy, or peat-earthy
kinds, are wanted, they are to be formed by the fupply of
thefe different forts of materials in the proper and neceflfary
proportions to fome part of the common foil of the garden,
as the cafe may be, without their being blended or united
with it. In all other cafes the bufinefs is to be accomplilhed
in fomewhat fimilar ways.

It is a very common opinion among gardeners, that culi-
nary vegetables may be raifed and grown to the beft ad-
vantage, and in the fuUeft perfeftion, on what is denominated
netv, or rather frefti lands oV foil, and this is evidently proved
to be the cafe in a great number of inftances. The foil or
ground, in confequence of its benig exhaufted, or tuorn out,
as it is termed, is found incapable of producing certain kinds
of vegetables of the above nature ; not becaufe it is of x
poor or hungry nature or quality, or that it is wholly un-
fuitable for the production of them, having probably, at a
former period, produced them in an abundant manner, but on
account of, or from the furface foil having been fo long under
fuch crops without any fufficient or fuitable change. This
is, however, much lefs the cafe, in open field garden grounds,
than fuch as are inclofed for the purpofe of producing the
finer forts of fruit and vegetables.

The inconvenience in thefe cafes is fuppofed to be capable
of being wholly removed, or greatly relieved, by trenching
the foil in a peculiar manner at proper periods, fo as to have
conftantly a new or frefh foil for the growth of fuch vege-
tables and fruits. See Rotation of Crops, and Trench-
ing.

The foils of gardens in all cafes, except where they are
too light and friable, are capable of receiving much improve-
ment, by being fully laid up in fuch a manner as to expofe
the largeft poffible furface to the operation of the weather,
whenever they are unoccupied by crops, and efpecially during
the frofty periods of winter. On all ftiff, heavy, clayey,
loamy, and cankering gravelly foils, the improvement by
this means is very great, and ought never to be negledled.
On very light foils of the fandy fort, it (hould, however, be
very cautioufly employed. See Ridging up.

The moft fuitable kinds of foil for the growth of different
forts of fruit-trees in gardens, are verv various according to
their nature and habits, but they all require that they ftiould
be of a fomewhat dry quality, as will be feen under their dif-
ferent proper heads. Where fruit-trees of the apple kind
are grown in fuch fituations, which (hould as rarely as pofli-
ble be the cafe, they fucceed in the beft manner, are the
moft healthy, and of the greateft durability in foils of the
brown loamy kind, which have a middling degree of con-
fiitence, and a depth of a foot and a half or more, refting
on a dry, fandy, or foft clayey bottom : they will, how-
ever, anfwer tolerably on any of the loamy forts of foil

which

SOJL.

which lie upon dry fubilrata. In all foils which have wet
retentive bottoms, they are foon deftroyed. Tlie pear ftands
in need of a ftronger and more clayey foil than the above,
which has much greater depth, but which reils on the fame
forts of fubltrata. Similar forts of foil are alfo the moft
adapted to the growth of the cherry and the plum. And
the fmall fruit-trees, in fuch cafes, may be well grown in
any foil which is not of the ochrey or wet ftifl clayey kind.
See Small Fruits, and Standard Fniil-trees.

Soils for the purpofe of ornamental gardening are not only
of great utility in growing and rearing the different plants
and trees which are neceflary for it, but have been employed
j in the way of contraft, and for relieving them. Formerly,
j much advantage was taken in this manner, by the introduc-
tion of different coloured earths or foils, but they have fince,
probably with juilice, been reprobated as too trifling and in-
tignificant by lord Bacon : the natural foil throughout is al-
ways, Mr. Loudon thinks, preferable ; and when tattefuUy
varied by the green of vegetation, will have a very harmo-
nious effeft in fuch cafes.

The quality of the foil for the growth of moit forts of
ornamental plants and fhrubs, fhould, it is faid, be rather
poor ; for moft of thofe of the wild or botanical kind, va-
rious, though principally dry palture loam of a virgin na-
ture ; but for the ericas or heath forts, and mofl of the
American and Cape plants, as well as fome others, mofiy
or peaty, and rather moilt.

The foil, in its different kinds, has much effeft in im-
proving, or breaking, as it is termed by the fforifts, fome
forts of fine flowering plants, as feveral of the bulbous-
rooted and more tender herbaceous kinds, fuch as tulips,
pinks, carnations, and many others. The common plants
of the latter defcription will, it is believed, grow in almoft
any fort of foil.

The particular fort of foil in which molt of the mofs-
plants and fhrubs commonly grow to the belt advantage, is,
it is fuppofed, that of a fandy mois or peat of a moderate
degree of moifture. The foils for wild plants are almoft, it
is remarked, as various as their names, but, in common,
fuch as are mentioned below, will grow nioft of them when
cultivated in a garden : — dry virgin mountain earth or foil ;
molly earth or foil in a damp fituation ; half of each of the
above in a moift fituation ; half of each in a dry pofition ;
moilt clay and mofs or peat well blended ; dry gravel and
fand incorporated well together ; a clear fandy or gravelly
bottom foil, where there is a flight trickling of water ; a
muddy bottom foil, in a low ftagnant pond or other water ;
rock-work, differently conltruftcd, forms a foil for certain
plants, as fome moffes, ferns, and others of the fame fort ;
living full-grown trees, as well as fuch as are decayed, pro-
vide a foil for the growth of particular moffes and fungufcs ;
the foil of the fea-fhorc is proper for the growth of fea-
plants ; and the differently formed foils in heated houfes
and other places, are fuited to the growth of moit forts
ef exotic plants. The two firtl forts, with thofe of the
trickling and fea-fhorc kinds, will, however, it is fuppofed,
nearly ferve the purpofes of all the others, when properly
managed.

For the purpofe of raifnig different forts of foreft-trees,
and forming ornamental plantations, great variety of foils is
nccellary ; fuch as thofe of the more light fandy and gravelly
kinds, which reft upon free, open, porous under foils or bot-
toms ; fandy and gravelly loams on the fame forts of bottoms ;
the fame and perfeftly loamy foils, on bottoms which are of a
more retentive or wet nature ; chalky or calcareous loams, and
gravelly mouldering chalks on open bottoms ; loamy clays and
clayey loams, on fimilar bottoms ; ftrong foils of both thcfc
Vol. XXXllI.

forts on more retentive and moift under foils ; thin, peaty,
heathy, and moory foils, which lie on gravelly and other forts
of open dry bottoms ; and fimilar foils, reiling on more ItifT
and retentive fubftrata, or fuch as are of a moilter quality.

Other variations in the nature of garden-foils may bkewife
be occafionally neceflary for particular purpofes, as well as
in thofe of grounds which are intended to be laid out and
ornamented.

Soil, Night, in Agriculture, the excrementitious matter
which is taken from privies or other places in which it is de-
polited. Sir Humphrey Davy has remarked, that it is a well-
known very powerful manure, which is extremely liable to
decompofe. That it differs in compofition, but ccnflantly
abounds in fubftances conltituted of carbon, hydrogen,
azote, and oxygen. And that from the analyfis of Berze-
lius, it appears that a portion of it is always foluble in wa-
ter ; and in whatever ftate it is employed, whether recent or
fermented, it fupplies abundance of food to plants, either
as crops, or in other ways.

It is fuggefted, that its difagreeable fmell may be correfted
and deftroyed by mixing quicklime with it ; and that, if ex-
pofed to the atmofphere in thin layers, ftrewed over with
quicklime in fine weather, it fpeedily becomes dry, is eafily
reduced into powder, and in this Itate may be made ufe of in
the fame way as rape-cake and other fimilar manures, being
delivered into the drill-furrows at the fame time with the
feed.

The refufe of charcoal warehoufes, and the powdery
matter of that fubltance, might alio probably be intermixed
with the calcareous and excrementitious materials in the
above compofition with great advantage.

It is ftated that the Chinefe, who have more prad'tical
knowledge of the ufe and application of manures than any
other people exilting, mix their foil of this fort with one-
third its weight of a fat marie, make it into cakes, and
dry it by expofure to the fun. Thcfe cakes, as has been
faid by the French mifTionaries, have no difagreeable fmell,
but form a common article of commerce in the empire. It
is fuppofed that the earth, by its abforbent properties,
probably prevents, to a certain extent, the aftion of moif-
ture upon the excrement, and likcwife defends it from the
effefts of the air.

The Japanefe, and fome other of the eaflcrn nations, are
likewife very careful in preparing and preferving this fort of
manure ; and different methods of coUefting, increafing, and
fecuring it in this country have been noticed in fpeaking of
manure. See Manure.

It is fuppofed by fome to have a great fupcriority over all
other forts of manure, even that of the rotten horfe-dung
kind, being coniidered nearly five times as valuable as
this laft fort. There is confequently believed to be a great
faving in the purchafe of this manure, by thofe who have
the carting of their dung feven or eight miles, as their teams
would bring as much of it in one, as would be equal to
what is ufually brought of the other by them in five days ;
that they would have as much as is equivalent in value for
one guinea, to what formerly colt them five. And though
the price of it may be on the incrcale, that lliould not, it is
thought, deter them from the purchafe of it, as the faving
in carriage i^, it is faid, amply fulhcient to repay every ad-
vance in the firfl colt of the material.

Others, however, fuppofe that this fort of fubllancc in
manuring land will not go farther than three times that of
common dung, in giving fertility. It is ufually fold at y.
the load. It lias lately, in fome places, been the praflice
to mix and work up this fort of foil or excrement with
mould or other earthy matters in a regular manner, to con-
N n fiderabic

SOIL.

(idL-rable extent. This is largely done, it is faid, in the
neighbourhood of the metropolis.

Upon the whole, confidering the fmallnefs of the quantity
which is necelTary, this may be allowed to be the moft
powerful and effeftual manure of any which is now in ufe
for improving land.

In the county of Effex, about Hornchurch, Mr. New-
man has found that, for palture, this fort of manure is, of
all others, the moll capital ; two waggon-loads on the acre,
which coft "js. befides carriage, are, it is faid, beyond every
thing, and fecure a carpet of fine herbage. On corn-land,
however, it is thought that it forces ftraw too much.
Others have alfo found this to be the cafe, but when well
mixed with good earthy fubftances, in fufficiently full pro-
portion?, there can be no doubt of its being equally faitable
for raifing good grain crops.

On account of the increafing fcarcity of manure, this
fart of material fhould be every where more attended to and
preferved than has hitherto been the cafe ; and it may be
largely increafed as a manure by the addition of fuitable
quantities of earthy or other proper matters, according to
circumftances, and the purpoies for which it is to be em-
ployed, as well as be rendered more fit and convenient for
carriage and application.

Soil, Preparation and after-cultivation of, for and in
planting, in Agriculture and Gardening, the manner of ren-
dering it fuitable and proper for the reception of the trees,
and of keeping and prefcrving it in order afterwards.

The nature, fituation, and Itate of the foil, muft unquef-
tionably have much influence in determining and diredling
the degrees of preparation that may be requifite in the dif-
ferent cafes ; and though there may be fome foils which re-
quire very little, this can but feldom be the cafe, as good
foils ftiould never be planted, except for ornamental pur-
pofes, and then as little as poffible. It confequently ap-
pears proper, that fome degree of preparation of the foil
Ihould conftantly take place in almolt all cafes, however the
miftaken notion in regard to the expence attending it may
have hitherto prevented the general adoption of the praftice.
The expence of the proper preparation of the foil, before
the work of planting commences, in many cafes, is not by
any means great, when properly managed ; and in no few
inftances, may be more than repaid by the kinds of crops
that are afterwards grown for two or three years, and fome-
times longer : nay, even where fuch crops cannot be raifed
and produced, the faving in plants and planting, which
would otherwife be required, will often wholly or nearly
defray the charges of the preparation. Thus, it is faid by
Mr. Loudon, that, independently of timber produce, it
would feem that the extra charges of preparing the foil may
commonly be provided for in the immediately fucceeding
years to the work's being finifhed, either pofitively by the
growth of proper crops, or negatively by obviating the in-
curring of additional expences. And that, when the dif-
ference in the returns of timber produce are taken into the
account, it may appear alloniihmg that the cultivators in
this way fhould difregard their own advantage fo much as to
negleft and omit the proper preparation of the foil. . For
if it fhould be fuppofed that, during the firll ten years, trees
grow only twice as fall where the foil is properly prepared,
as where it is not, then even a plantation worth loo/. in fifty
years, had the foil been well prepared, would have been
worth zool. in the fame length of time. But it muft be
allowed that many kinds of deciduous trees will grow three,
four, and even ten times falter in prepared than in unpre-
pared ground, and, of courfe, the return of profits be in
ihe fame proportion.

Thefe ftatements can furely leave no doubt of the pro
priety of preparing th^e foil with a view to thefe forts of
undertakings.

The preparation of the foil will vary according to its na-
ture, and the circumftances of it ; after the ftagnant wet-
nefs, where prefent, has been properly removed, and the
furface impediments cleared away as much as may be found
neceffary. In all itiff foils the land muft be more wrought
and expofed than in the contrary forts, which often require
but little flirring or expofure. In extenfive trafts, the
ground or foil, when poflible, (hould be prepared by means
of the plough, by turning it up and expofing it to tlie ope-
ration of the atmofphere and frods in the fummer, autum-
nal, and winter months, when of the more rough and obfti-
nate kind, repeating the ploughings, and making harrow-
ings as there may be occafion. In extremely rough moory,
and fome other coarfe forts of foil, this may be neceffary for
more than one feafon. After this, trench-ploughing may be
had recourfe to wherever it is wanted, and is capable of being
pradifed. By the ufe of the plough in thefe ways, tlie
organic matter becomes more decompofed, and the particles
of the foil more fully and completely broken down and re-
duced, than by performing the work with the fpade, while
the coft is not more than one-third.

In places where the plough cannot be admitted, other
methods mult be had recourfe to, as thofe of the fpade,
the broad-mouthed mattock, and the fharp-pointed ttrong
hoe. The fpade muft be employed in all cafes where
digging and trenching can be pradtifed, where the plough
cannot work, and in forming pits, flits, and other modes of
putting in the plants. Where the fpade cannot be made to
perform the bufinefs, the mattock not unfrequently docs
the work in a ready and effeftual manner. And where
the mattock cannot be brought into ufe, the hoe often
completes the work without difficulty. The two laft me-
thods may be ufeful in fteep banks and fpots filled with
ftones and other obitruftions to the fpade. The foil in all
thefe cafes is to be properly reduced and rendered fufficient-
ly fine for the reception of the tree-plants, by being ftirred,
incorporated, and mixed together in a fuitable manner.

Particular fituations may require particular modes of pre-
paring the foil and putting in the plants : thus, where there
is danger of loofe foil beini^ carried away by winter rains,
the land fhould be prepared in the previous fummer feafon,
by making holes or openings, the earth of one of which is
thrown into another with the turf or fward-fide downwards,
which, when opened again for planting, is become rotten, and
intermixed with the reft of the foil in putting in the plant.
In other fituations, where the wind and rain are liable to
carry ofTthe foil, the only fafe mode of preparing the foil is in
pits, holes, and flits, and placing the plants in them. And
in ftill more difficult places, little or no preparation is necef-
fary, only putting in the plants in openings or flits, or fowing
the feeds, which will often grow in rocky crevices, where
little or no earthy matter is to be feen or met with. The na-
ture of growth i,i the plants or feeds points out in fome cafes
the modes of prep vat ion of the foil for them ; thus, in the
very young plants, and in feeds of the oak-kind, where they
are only ufed, the placing them in holes or pits, prepared in
a proper manner, is all that is necefl'ary, as they receive the
chief of their fupport from their tap-root, which runs di-
reftly downwards.

In regard to the cultivation of the foil, after the work of
planting the young trees has been performed, it muft ob-
vioufly be of great ufe and importance to keep the furface
loofe, clean, and free from the produftion of all forts of
improper plants of the weed kind, as the health, growth,

and

SOILING.

and fuccefs of fuch tree-plants will very much depend upon it ;
and, befides, it may be advantageous in other ways. In cafes
where tliis is negleded, or improperly managed, there is
often much injury fullained by the young tree-plants, as they
are not unfrequently liable to be more choaked up and incon-
venienced in their growth by the rifing of coarfe grafles and
other produftions, than if the foil had not been prepared
previoufly to the trees being put into it. Thecaufe of this
n thought, by Mr. Loudon, to be extremely plain ; as, if
the foil, by preparation, be better fuited to the growth of
trees which are foreign to it, it mull be much better adapted
to the growth of the plants which it naturally produces in
abundance. Confequeutly, to check and remove theie, fo
that the roots of the young tree-plants may range, and ex-
tend themfelves in a free manner, fo as to require and enjoy
the full ftrength and fupport of the foil, muft be of very
material benefit in raifuig plantations of the tree-kind.

The nature of the cultivation which is to be purfued muil
be varied fo as to fuit the particular quality of the foil, the
fituation, and the kind of plantation for which it is employ-
ed ; but tlie great objcft, in all fuch cafes, fhould con-
llantly be, to have in view utility, with as much immediate
profit as pofTible, without the rifle of injury to the young
tree-crops. Confcquently, wherever the ground or foil is
capable of admitting and producing any fort of proper ufe-
ful vegetable, and the roots of the trees do not mterfere by
approaching too nearly to each other from the different
rows, fome of them fhould be planted, or the feeds of them
luwn in a regular manner, all along the centre parts of the
intervals between fuch rows, for fome length of time, as a
year or two, and more in fome inllances, after the planting
has been performed. The moft ufcful and valuable vegeta-
ble crops to be grown in this way, are thofeof the potatoe,
turnip, cabbage, dwarf bean, and fome other fimilar ones of
the green kind. The introduftion of fuch crops neceflarily
fuppofes that the whole of fuch planted grounds are to be
wrought over, and kept in a clean order by fome proper
means, daring the k-ngths of time that have been flated ;
after which they need only be hoed over two or three times
in the courfe of the year, until the furfaces of them be co-
vered and concealed by the trees, which they will moltly be
jbout the fourth or fifth year from the period of planting;
All the work of the above kmd, where the fcale of plant-
ing isextenlive, may be executed by means of the plough
and horfe-hoe ; except occalionally, perhaps, fome little
hand-hoeing about the bottom items of the tree-plants,
where there might be danger in letting the other tools work
too near them. Where, from different circumllances, it
may be impoflible to introduce the plough, the fpade and
hand-hoc muil, of courfe, be had recourfe to in working
the foil. But wherever the foil is incapable of admitting
and producing ufefnl vegetables, or where it may bethought
not advifeable to grow and cultivate them, the ground or
foil may perhaps be the moll properly and advantageoufly
prcferved in clean order, fimply by hoeing over the furface ;
or fometimcs probably by light ploughing or working with
the fpade, for a year or two at lirll, and then to depend on
hoeing. The chief point in all cafes is the promoting the
progrt-fs of the young trees, and the preventing them from
being injured by the Itiflnefs, rawncfs, and want of cleannefs
in the foil.

Whenever the furface of the ground or foil is covered by
the young trees, there is no longer any necellity for cultiva-
tion, it being from that time prcferved in a Uiflieienl loofe
and open Hate, and the furface properly free from weedy
matters, by the clofenefs and fliade of the trees, and the
annual falling of the leaves j and particularly where the

planting confiileof reiinous trees. It is noticed, tdo, by the
above writer, that it is the peculiar property of deciduous
plantations, that the furface among them is covered with
herbage of the paiture kind, the feeds of which ihould be
fown when the trees are about nine inches or a foot in dia-
meter, they having been well prcferved from weeds pre-
vioufly to the period of fowing. See Plantation and
Planting.

It is not improbable, but that when the bufinefs of pre-
paring and cultivating the foil for plantations becomes better
underflood, and its ufes and advantages more fully appre-
ciated, more fuitable implements, tools, and contrivances
may be provided for accomplifhing the work in a more eafy,
ready, cheap, and convenient manner, than has yet been
employed.

Soils, Culling Surface of, the opening and breaking the
furfaces of them in different intentions ; as for the purpofe
of rendering them more dry and firm, of producing a more
mellow, mouldy, or powdery ftate in them, and for im-
proving the nature of their fwards and grally herbage in
thofe of the moffy, rough, mowing, and pallure kind«.
It may likewife be ufeful to them for fome other purpofes
in hufbandry. It is performed in different manners, and by
different means, according to the circumllances of the dif-
ferent cafes, and the ufes which it is defigned to fcrve. See
Spike Roller, and Sward Culler and Drefir.

Soil, in Zoolooy, is ufed in fome parts of England as the
name for the phoca, or fea-calf.

This creature, in Cornwall, they frequently find fleeping
on the fhore, and kill him, fometimes by fhooting, and fome-
times by itriking him over the head with long poles. He de-
fends himfelf, when on fliore, by throwing ilones backwards
with great violence.

SOILING, in /Igrtculture, the praftice of fupporting
animals of different kinds, in the lummer feafon, with green
food of various forts, cut daily, and given to them in racks
in the houfes, flails, or yards. A vail number of different
plants and grafl'es may be had recourfe to in this intention,
as almoll all thofe which have a quick and luxuriant growth ;
as lucern, tares, clover, faintfoin, chicory, &c. And it
has been fuggefted, that by having recourfe to foiling, a
greater variety of plants may be confumed, and confcquently
prevented from running to walle. Alfo, that if the con-
fumption of plants be an objedl principally r-garded, it is
obvious that the benefits thence derived will be very great, as
experience has clearly proved that cattle will eat with avidity
many plants, if cut and given to them in the houfe, which
they never will touch while growing in the field ; fuch are
the dock, cow-parfley, thillles, nettles, and numerous other
plants, But to whatever circumftance this may be attri-
buted, the fart if, that the animals will eat thcin without
exhibiting any marks of diflike or reluAance, even when
they are not preffed by hunger, and they often greedily de-
vour fuch planf;, as loon as they are brought in from the
field, and before they can hare poflibly had time to become
hungry. There are even vegetables, which, in a green
flate, are poifonous to cattle ; but which, when cut and
dried into hay or fodder, may not only be given with im-
punity, but are alfo catin with avidity. Such as the water-
crowfoot, with which, Ur. Pulteney fays, the cottagers in
the vicinity of Ringwood, on the banks of the Avon, almoft
entirely fupport their cattle ; and fo eagirly do ihefe ani-
mals conlume it, that they deem it unlafe to allow thcra
more than a certain quantity. Cows indeed arc aliertcd to
be fo peculiarly fond of this vegetable (which keeps them
in good milking condition), that, exclulivc of the fcanty
pittance which they obtained on an adjacent hcath.^rr cowt
N a i »nd

SOILING.

and one horfe did not coiifume more than half a ton of hay
in the courfe of a year. Thus it is evident, that fewer
plants will either be rejefted, or fuffered to run up to waile.
And that it is further well known that many of the belt and
fineft grafles, which, when young, form a moft palatable
food to cattle, are, if once fuffered to get into ear, fo much
difliked by them, that the beafts will never talle them unlefs
compelled by extreme hunger. And, as in moft paftures
many of thefe graffes get into ear from various caufes, their
produce is of courfe inevitably loft to the farmer ; whereas,
;f cut down by the fcythe in proper time, not one plant will
be fuffered to get into that naufeating ftate, and conle-
quently no wafte be fuftained on this account. Alfo, that,
in addition, thofe few plants which are totally difregarded
by one clafs of animals, fo as to be rejeded by them even in
the houfe, will not, on that account, become lefs acceptable
to others, but greatly the reverfe. Thus grafs, or other
food that has been blonvn or breathed upsn by any animal for
a confiderable time, becomes unpleafant to other beafts of
the fame fpecies, but not fo to ftock of another clafs or va-
riety, as for them it appears to acquire a higher relifli. Even
greater defilement by one animal feems to render food more
acceptable to others ; for llraw, which in a clean ftate has
been refufed by cattle, if employed as a litter for horfes, ac-
quires for the former fuch a relifh, that they feek for it with
avidity. Hence it happens, that the fweepings of the italls
from one animal fupply a pleafing repaft for thofe of another
kind, which can be ealily removed from one to the other, if
the plants are confumed in the houfe, but which muft other-
wife have been loft in the field.

This is a praftice which is alfo recommended by the food
being confumed witii much lefs wafte, confequently going
much further than when fed upon the land ; by the great in-
creafe of good manure that is produced ; and by that of the
ftock feeding with Irfs interruption and inconvenience, from
their being more effefhually Ihaded from the exceflive heat of
the fun, and better proteded from the attacks of flies and
other infeifts. In all thefe refpefts it would feem to have
a great fuperiority over that of letting the animals range
over the paftures or other grafs land?. One great and princi-
pal objection that has been oppoled to this plan of feeding,
is that of the expcnce of condufting the bufinefs being too
confiderable. But the extenfive trials of Mr. Mure and
Young, and other cultivators and promoters of the prac-
tice, fully fhew that it may be executed at an expence that
can never form any real objection to it. It has likewife been
contended, in oppofition to this prattice, that fuch parts of
the live-ftock as are in milk do not afford it fo abundantly
as when fed in the paftures, but which is probably a mere
fuppofition, as it has been almoll invariably found that moft
of the green crops that are cut and employed m this manner
have greater effeCl in exciting that fecretion than the com-
mon pailure-grafs. But as particular forts of vegetables, as
well as other fubftances, aA more powerfully on fome of the
glandular organs than others, it is probable that fome kinds
of plants may have a greater tendency to promote this kind
of fecretion than others, and on this account, cows fed on
one fort of food in this praftice may afford lefs milk than
on others.

Farther, it is a procefs of feeding that has alfo been op-
pofed, on the idea that animals do not thrive fo well as
when grazed in the paftures. It is, however, well re-
marked, that the more quiet and free from difturbance
cattle are kept, the better they thrive and improve in their
flefh. It is not probable that green food, when properly
confumed in the fheds of a farm-yard, will be lefs advan-
tageous m promoting the growth and fattening of ftock,

than when eaten in the field, when expofed to the great
heat and conitant attacks of flies, and of courfe kept
in a continual ftate of reftlellhefs and inquietude. Befides,
in experiments to which we might refer, the cattle were found
to go on better than ftock of the fame kind, fed in the
paftures in the moft favourable feafons for the purpofe.
And this is further fupported by trials carefully made,
and detailed in the Annals of Agriculture. This notion does
not, therefore, appear well fupported by fafts, or to have
had any foundation in the experience of farmers in general.

But its fuperiority in refpeft to the economical confump-
tion of the food cannot be difputed. In numerouj experi-
ments made in proof of the great iaving in this way, it has
been found to go from twice to four or five times as far as
when fed on the land ; and in fome trials, much more. Mr.
Clofe found that with grafs, clover, lucern, and tares, three
times as many cattle were capable of being fupported io
better condition than in the pafture mode of feeding ; and
with other experimenters it has been found equal to five or
fix times as many. The author of a late work has re-
marked, that in the field it is obvious that great waile mufl
be committed by the grafs being trampled down, dunged
upon, and in many other ways, efpecially where a great
number of cattle are pathired together, moit of which are
avoided in the ftall method.

It has been, however, flated, that it is an error to fup-
pofe that all the wafte is in feeding in the field, and none in
the ftall : there i?, on the contrary, a wafte in foiling ; as
in cafes where the tares become podded, from the butt ends
of the plants being coarfe, and in a ilate of decay by lying
on the ground, and, of courfe, rejefted by the animals.
The fame thing alfo occurs with lucern, when in full bloffom.
Alfo, in the heating of the food, by its remaining heaped
together, lofs may likewife be fuftained in fome inttances ;
but it fhould moftly be confumed quite frefh in this prac-
tice, and no more cut tlian is neceffary for the day.

However, whatever the wafte in thefe different ways may
be, various trials detailed in the Annals of Agriculture
clearly prove, that a greatly increaied ftock may be kept
upon the fame extent of land in the foiling method, over
that of the grazing of the cattle in the fields where the
plants grow.

But the moft interefting circumftance in which tliis prac-
tice excels that of pafture feeding is, however, in the im-
menfe quantity of excellent manure that is raifed and
provided for the produAion of increafed crops of various
kinds, and the additional improvement of the lands. It has
been well remarked, that this is a method admirably cal-
culated for producing an abundance of manure ; as from the
great increafe in the urinary difcharges, in the confumption
of green food in this way, and the heat of the feafon, the
littering material, whatever it may be, is fpeedily converted
into manure ; by which means, with proper attention, vaft
ftores may confequently be r.-iifed, where there would other-
wife be none ; vi-hich is a circumftance of the greateft im-
portance, and which abundantly Ihews the great utility and
fuperiority of the practice. By thefe means, the fummer
produce in manure may probably be made to exceed that of
the winter, and at the fame time be fuperior in quality ; as
there is reafon to fuppofe that the manure produced by any
kind of cattle fed in the fame way, when not in a ftate of
fattening, is much better in the fummer than in the winter
feafon. The proportion of valuable manure that the careful
farmer may be capable of providing, by this fyflem of ma-
nagement, is fcarcely to be conceived, except by thofe who
have been in the aftual praftice of it. In this view, it is of
much importance to have refervoirs for the reception of the •

urine,

SOILING.

urine, in order that it may be occafionally thrown up over
the litter, and thereby promote its fpeedy converfion into
manure. The manure afforded by fattening animals, fuch
as hogs and neat cattle, is in all feafons of a rich and valuable
quahty.

But in order to enfure the fuUelt benefit and advan-
tage from this fyttem of management, the moft llrift atten-
tion is neceflary to different circumftances : fuch as thofe of
having convenient fheds and yards for the purpofe ; pro-
viding fuitable crops in proper fucceffion, to the proportion
of ftock to be kept ; the feeding and managing the animals
in a proper manner ; and the making a full provifion of the
materials, for the purpofe of littering down the ftalls
or farm-yards. And further, in this fyflem of manage-
ment, much depends on the convenience of the yards and
fheds, in refpeft to the economy of labour in feeding the
cattle, as well as making of manure : it is, of courfe, ne-
ceffary to have them upon fuch plans as may afford the
greateft advantage in thele ways. It has been fuggelled by
fome, in order to fave the labour and expence of cleaning
and feeding in this fyltem, to have the cattle left loofe in
the yards, fo as to confume the food from racks or cribs ;
the bottoms of the yards being prepared by marie, or other
fimilar materials, and a coat of litter appUed, fo as that the
urine may be ablorbed, retained, and contribute to the con-
verfion of them into manure. But a fuperior plan is pro-
bably that of having them tied up in ftalls, in (heds for the
purpofe ; as, although fomething may be gained in the
former mode in the labour of cleaning, the latter has con-
iiderable advantage in the goodnefs of the manure, and in
the animals being kept more quiet, and leis expofed to dif-
turbance from infefts of different kinds. In the former of
thefe modes, the llock fliould be forted, and thofe of the
fame age or fize fed together.

In the experience of Mr. Clofe, it was found advan-
tageous to foil horfes in cheap thatched flieds, in which they
have room to walk and roll ; and with bullocks and covvi:,
in i^alls feven feet wide, each Hall holding two fattened by
the necks to the fides, by which they are prevented from in-
conveniencing each other vihile feeding.

In this method of management, it is not unlikely that
great benefit might be produced by having low flieds fixed
up round the yards, or other places, with fuitable con-
trivances for the cattle receiving the food from, fo as to
caufe the lealt poffible lofs ; and by having the ftock in all
cafes properly forted, in regard to fize, kind, and Itrength.
Such (heds might, in fome inllances too, be provided, with
very great utility and convenience, near to the grounds
whence the food is railed and procured. In this way, a
great faving of labour and expence would neceiiarily be made
in different fituations.

In all the cafes where low ffieds are made ufe of in tiiis
intention, there ought to be proper drains formed for con-
veying the urine and other fluid matters into the littered
yards, and other places defigned for forming manure, fo
that they may have a conllant operation in the preparation
of it.

It may alfo be neceffary and beneficial, in this praftice,
fometimes to have different fets and forts of animals, in order
that the refufe of the food left by one fet may be eaten by
another, and no kind of lofs fullained.

But in order that this bufincfs may be condufted in the
moft beneficial manner, it is neceffary the farmer fhould
carefully attend to the culture of fuch green crops as have
been mentioned above, and which can be beft applied in this
way, on a fcale fully fuilicient for this purpofe. In the

view of early application, a full proportion of lucern ftiould
be raifed on the moft deep and fertile foils ; and on the better
forts of land, that may be in the condition of fallow, clover
and tare crops may be grown. Thefe mull be .'own fo as
to come into ufe at different times ; the firlt crop of winter
tares fucceeding to the early cut lucern ; the later put in
winter tares following, after which the clover will moll
probably be ready, to which the third crop of tares and the
fecond cut of lucern may fucceed ; at a fUU later period the
fpring tares may be employed ; and in fucceffion to this,
the third cutting of lucern will in general be ready. But
there are many other plants that may perhaps be made ufe
of in this way, as chicory, which may be had recourfe to
with advantage in this management ; as in foils that are
tolerably fertile, it will admit of repeated cutting. With
thefe different crops there will probably be feldom any ne-
ceflity for the ufe of common cut grafs ; though this may
be employed, if there fhould be occafion. The proper
foddering of the animals in this praftice is a matter of great
confequence. It is obferved in the Annals of Agriculture,
that one great objeft is never to fuffer them to have too
much at once ; as when this is the cafe, from the heat of
the feafon, it quickly takes on a degree of fermentation,
and is rejefted or only picked among by the cattle, in con-
fequence of which much wafte may be committed, which
would otherwife be avoided ; and in addition, it is not im-
probable but that the ftock may thrive better by having
their food more frequently, and of courfe in a more frefh
ftate. But it fhould never, on any account, be left packed
in the carts for any length of time. The beft mode feems
to be that of adapting the fize of the cart to the exaft. con-
fumption of the ftock ; as in this way, the whole may be
conveniently diftributed in the cribs or racks at once, the
moment it is wanted, before it becomes unpalatable by fer-
mentation, and the leaft poffible lofs may be incurred. It
is conftantly neceffary to watch the conduft of labourers
in this particular, as they are in general much difpofed to
over-feed. And there is another matter which fliould not be
difregarded, which is that of not fuffcring the crops that are
ufed in foiling to advance to too great a head ; as by atten-
tion in this refpeft, the food may be more cleanly eaten up
and confumed.

However, it muft be obferved, a late writer fays, that in
this fyftem litter becomes an objeft of the greateft import-
ance, as the large quantity of urine that is made by cattle,
wlien foiled on thefe luxuriant forts of green food, is ca-
pable, by its moiltening property, of aiding in the hot fea-
fon, the more quick fermentation of fuch materials, and of
reducing a very large proportion into the ftate of manure.
In this view, the attentive farmer fhould, therefore, make
an abundant provifion, in the winter time, of other forts of
materials, where a proper fupply of ftraw cannot be re-
fervcd for the purpofe. There are various matters that may
be made ufe of in this intention, Inch as llubble, fern, rufhcs,
and other aquatic plants, which may be cut and raked to-
gether in the places in which they arc moft abundantly
produced, in order to he ftackcd up for future ufe. Leaves
might alfo, in woody fituations, be ufeful for the fame
purpofe. And in addition to tiiefe vegetable matters, there
are other fubllanccs that are capable of being employed
with utility, fuch as peat or bog earth, frelh vegetable
mould, fand, and the fcrapings of roads ; as during the dc-
compofition of the various vegetable materials made ufe of
in this praftice, not only much hydrogen and carbonic gas
are fet at liberty, but ammonia is formed in large quantities,
in the manner that has already been explained, which, from

ita

SOILING.

its aftion upon fuch earthy material'!, is highly ufeful in
bringing them into the ftate of manure for the improvement
of lands. See Manure.

Some other forts of matters might likewife, in different
fituations, be employed in this manner with confiderable
benefit; fuch as iaw-dufl, when to be procured in large
quantities ; and the refufe materials of different manufac-
tories, as the weld of the callico-printer, the bark of the
tanner, &c. Many of thcfe kinds of fubftances are excel-
lent for the purpofe of manure.

And in fupport of the advantages of this management,
various fafts have been flated by writers on farming. It is
remarked by the Rev. Mr. Duncan, in the fourth volume
of Communications, that he always keeps his work-horfes
on red clover through the fummer ; and they are as healthy
and fit for labour as any of his neighbours', that are turned
out into the paflure. Lall year he cut the clover three
times, and thirty falls or perches yielded as much as one
horfe was able to confume. He has frequently intended to
try a crop of goofe-grafs for hay, upon feme piece of
ground which was not to remain in paflure ; but he has al-
ways met with fome avocation, at the time when the feed
of this grafs could be procured. He is furprifed that
goofe-grafs has been fo long neglefted, nay defpifed. It is
confidered as a weed among rye-graf?, though he has ob-
ferved that the horfes are not of the fame opinion. Its hay
is mofl fubflantiai, and were it allowed to come to maturity,
its feed would, he fuppofes, be little inferior in weight to
oats, and wonld probably be an excellent fubflitute for
them in the food of horfes. And it is added, that he who
can procure 200 carts of dung, from the fame extent of
ground where 100 only were formerly produced, certainly
poiieffes a double power of improving it. A great referve
of ttraw is necelfary for litter to horfes, when living on red
clover. When the llraw fails, fome bed their horfes with
dried rufhes ; but rufhcs contribute very little to the manu-
fafture of dung. When fern, or, as it is fometimes called,
the " braken," can be gotten, he would recommend it as
next to draw for littering of horfes or black cattle, and as
the befl of all land vegetables for the dunghill.

Mr. Rawfon in the fame work alfo higlily approves of,
and has long praftifed, the feeding of horfes and fpring
cattle in fummer upon clover ; he has found that an acre
of clover, cut and carried to the cattle and horfes in their
hovels and flails, will maintain double the quantity of flock
to an acre paflured ; befides the very great quantity of
manure produced by this mode of feeding, which fecures
almofl to a certainty the turnip crop.

Alfo in a trial made by Mr. Mnre in foiling bullocks with
winter tares, as Hated in the Annals of Agriculture, the
advantages of this praftice over that of feeding in the paf-
tures is very fully fhewn. The fame fyflem of foiling has
been praflifed with advantage by many others, as Mr. J.
Wright, &c.

Tlie fame fyflem has been carried to a far more confider-
able extent, and with a new and quite different objedl, at the
callico-printing works at Banniller Hall, near Preflon, in
the fame county, under the direftion and management of
Charles Swainfon, efq. Here the foiling with tares and
clover is praftifed with a view of procuring the pure dun'j-
of the cattle which is fo ufeful and neceffary in this fort oi
printing bufinefs, as well as for the common purpofes, and
producing a large fupply of milk. Tfie fyflem is praftifed
to the extent of twenty-live cows and fix horfes, by which
a prodigious faving of expence in the raifing and providing
C'.f .4.""g is made, as well as in the procuring of bay ; while

the appearance and condition of th? cattle are far better th^i
in the ufual methods of managing them.

The horfes are fome of them foiled upon and confume th«
refufe food from the cow?, fo that nothing is walled or loll.
The team-horfes are kept in the liable, the others in a fmall
enclofuie, eating their food out of racks. The litter em-
ployed is the weld which has been ufed in dyeing, but very
little of it is ufed, as the pure dung of the neat cattle is
a material objedl. ■

The cows are bound up in fhcds or cow-houfes, and kept I
properly fupplied with thefe forts of green food, in confc-
quence of which they give large quantities of excellent milk.
They are kept conllantly foiled in this way during the fum-
mer, except while they are confuming the after-grafs of the
meadows. And it is only the trouble and attention which
are required in raifing and providing other kinds cf green
food for winter ufe, which is wholly incompatible with large
works, that have prevented the fame praftice in feeding from
being followed during the winter feafoii, as the great fu-
periority and advantage of green food over that of dry in
the milking fyflem, as well as the railing of pure dung, are
well underilood.

The cows, though confined to the houfe during the whole
of the day, are let out once or twice in that time for the
purpofe of exercife and water, but drink little under the
foiling praftice. There is often much advantage in varying
their food, in the quantity of milk which is afforded. Cows,
when tired of clover, will greedily devour tares, and thefe
lall when podded are found to be mofl excellent food in the
view of producing milk. The fame variety may likewife be
equally beneficial in the ufe of other forts of crops.

It is confidered as of material importance in thi>; pradlice
with milch cows, that they are kept cool and in the
fhade.

Sir Humphrey Davy thinks, that in feeding cattle with
green food, there are many advantages in the pradlice of
foiling, or fupplying them with food, where their manure is
prefervcd, out of the field ; the plants, it is conceived, are
lefs injured when cut, than when torn or jagged by the teeth
of the cattle, and no food is wafted by being trodden down.
The cattle are hkewife obliged to feed without making any
feleflion ; and in confequence the whole food is confumed :
the attachment or diflike to a particular kind of food ex-
hibited by animal>, affords, it is fuppofed, no proof of its
nutritive properties or powers, as cattle at firll refufe lin-
feed cake, one of the moll nutritive fubftances upon which
they can be fed. See Stock, Choke of Food in.

Many llatements, which the nature of our work does not
allow our inferting, fufficiently prove the great benefits
which may be derived from a more general introduftion of
this practice in all cafes where it can be had recourfe to,
which are probably much more numerous than are commonly
fuppofed ; as in all places where there are lands proper for
the purpofe of raifing the neceffary forts of green crops, it
may be reforted to in the moft fuccefjful manner. The
great caufes which have retarded and prevented the fpread-
ing of the foiling fyftem of management would feem to be
the fear of the great expence of labour that attends it, and
the taking of farmers out of their ufual methods of cattle
feeding. The former has, however, been ftiewn to be a
mere nothing when compared with the number of animals ;
and the latter obvioufly deferves no attention whatever. It
is not improbable but that great benefit might alfo arife in
many inftanccs from foiling other forts of animals in this
way ; fuch as (beep, hogs, deer, &c. as vaft quantities of
manure would be produced, ai-d at the fame time the ani-
mals

S O I

vpih be kept in better order, and afford greater improve-
ment and profit.

This is a method of praftice that lias been found, by the
moil exaft trials, to anfvver perfectly both with horfes, neat
cattle, and fwine ; and with cows it has been found very
beneficial in the trials of Mr. Curwen and feveral others, as
well as in other inltances. See Swine and Team.

The writer of the corredled account of the ftate of agri-
culture in the county of Middlefex has, howerer, obferved,
in oppofition to this fyltem of management, that though
" it has lately been fuggelled by feveral writers, that carry-
ing grafs into the yards, and giving it to cattle there, is
more advifeable than permitting them to coUeft their own
food : where the party can manure half his land annually,
or the whole every fecond year, it may, it is fuppofed, be
expedled to fupport fuch a high degree of exhauftion ; but
'•1 other cafes, the pallure would loon be fo much impove-
riihed, as to produce nothing for the owner of it to mow.
Meadows which can be flooded by art at any period of fum-
mer, would probably, too, it is thought, admit of having
their produce continually carried off : in all other cafes, fuch
a fyltem would, in the opinion of the writer, in a fhort time
ruin the land."

But furely no rational or confiftent praftical agriculturalift
ever inculcated the neceflity or utihty of the praftice of
mowing and carrying the grafs of pafture or hay-lands to
be confumed in the farm-yards by cattle. The fyftem of
ufeful foiling, fo far as it is known to us, has been ufually
confined to luxuriant crops of the artificial grafs kind, raifed
by means of tillage, and provided for by the increafed quan-
tity of manure which is produced and preferved in the pro-
cefs or praftice.

" The increafed labour and expence of fuch a praftice
would alfo, it is faid, render it unprofitable ; one man em-
ployed in that manner, with a horfe and cart, could not
attend tlie cattle, and bring in the produce of many acres,
though it would coll a grazier in this county, annually, it
is fuppofed, one hundi-ed and thirteen pounds ; to which
ought to be added, that the manure would be walled in
fuch a manner, as to lofe a large moiety of it ; in all which
ways one hundred and twenty pounds would be expended,
which is a greater fum than this praftice is calculated to
repay."

It is evident, however, from what has been feen above,
that one man can not only attend to the cattle, but convey
the produce of many acres to the places where it is to be
eaten, befides doing much other work ; and as to the horfes
and carts which are neceffary, as thofe of the fmall kind are
commonly the mod fuitable, they will be found on almoll
all farms where fuch a method of cattle management can be
had rccourfe to with any benefit. Such an imaginary charge,
therefore, feems to be founded on no jud grounds. And
that there would be any great deal more wade of manure in
this than in other ways, is probably a mere fuppofition, as
under good management, evaporation in hot feafons would
be guarded againit, and the accumulation of it in the prac-
tice is univerfally allowed to be extremely great. There is
confcquently no well-founded reafon for concluding that
the praftice will not amply repay every expence attending it
when properly carried on.

" The only advantage which it promifes is, it is faid, to
avoid the damage done by the treading of cattle : it mull
be admitted, that in wet feafons and deep grafs this is con-
fiderable: hut a /eiv Mhlitioiui/ ticrcs would, it is believed, fup-
ply a fimilar quantity of herbage at a lefs expence ; where
that cannot be obtained, reducing the number of cattle
would, it is laid, have the fame cffeft, and might be done

I

S O K

witho-ut incurring fo great a diminution of profit as the fore-
going one hundred and twenty pounds would certainly be.

" It is obvious, (the writer fays, after dating other ob-
jections,) that this is one of the clofet fydems of fupport-
ing cattle, which cannot be reduced to praftice beyond the
extent of a very few acres, and only then, when it can be
done without any additional men or horfes. If the expence
of the men and teams is to be brouuht into the account, it will,
it is faid, be altogether unprofitable. Such an expence would,
in this county, amount, it is fuppoled, in fifteen weeks, to
thirty-four pounds ten (hillings ; which, divided by the num-
ber of acres (ten), proves the charge to be, on each acre,
three pounds nine ftiillings ; or divided by the number of
oxen (fix), it would be, on each, five pounds fifteen fhillings :
add this extra expence, it is faid, to a long lid of ufual and
unavoidable charges, and it will fwell the account to fuch a
fum, as would exceed the value of the improvement of any
cattle whatever."

The fydem of foiling animals can clearly be extended to
more than a few acres, and even where additional men and
horfes are required, though there will be feldom any occa-
fion for them in the praftice. Nor is the expence of the
men or teams employed about it any real objeftion, when
judly and fairly calculated, or even that of the cattle /^r
head of any account, fo as to make it more than equal to
their advancement in condition. Where no fufficient data
are given, from aftual trials, it is eafy to arrive at con-
clufions ; but the praftice and experience of farmers in the
bed cultivated didrifts, fet all fuch opinions and conclufions
at naught.

SOINI, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
ment of Wafa ; 70 miles E. of Wafa.

SOINIDRO, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; 75 miles
E.S.E. of Havanna.

SOJOURNERS, among the yft/jenians, were permitted
to dwell in the city, and follow their own bufinefs, without
didurbance, provided they obferved all the laws and cudoms
of the country ; but were allowed no diarc in the govern-
ment. However, they were not allowed to aft any thing,
or manage any bufinef? in their own names, but were
obliged to choofe out of the citizens one, to whofe care
and proteftion they would commit themfelves, whofa duty
it was to defend them from all violence and oppreflion.
He was caWeA projlates.

SOJOWIZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflau ; 4 miles S. of Benatek.

SOISSONS, a town of France, and principal place of
a didrift, in the department of the Ailne, feated on the
Aifne. Before the revolution it was the fee of a bilhop,
luffragan of Rheims, and the capital of a didrift, called
" Soillonnois." In the time of Cxfar this town was con-
fiderable, and called " Noviodnnum." It afterwards took
its name from the Sueflloncs, who were among the lad that
remained fubjeft to the Romans. At the death of Clovis I.
his fon Clothairc made it the place of his rcfidcnce, 65
pods N.W. of Rheims. The place contains 8i8y, and the
canton 14,839 inhabitants, on a territory of 125 kilio-
mctres, in 20 communes. N. lat. 49° 23'. E. long. 3° 20'.

ROVr fait il comme ilrfire, be it done as it is defircd ; a
form ufed when the king gives the royal affent to a private
bill preferred in parliament.

SOITA, in /Incitut Giogniphy, a town of Afia, in the
Greater Armenia. Ptolemy.

SOITO i/e Rchonluiiu, in Geography, a town of Portugal,
in the province of Entre Duero e Minho ; 6 miles N. of
Barcelos.

SOK, Soke, Soc, in the /indent Cujlomi, Sec Soc.

The

SOL

The word is fometimes alfo ufed for the privilege of
tenants excufed from cuftomary impofitioHs.

Alfo for a quit-rent, or payment made to the lord by
his tenant, for afting in quality of foe-man, or freeholder.

See Socage. r r, n- t ■

SOKALLEN, in Geography, a town of Ruiliaii 1.1-

thuania ; 9 miles S. of Ragnit.

SOKASPOGE, a town of the ftate of Georgia ; 4 miles

N.E. ofOakfuftee.

SOKE, in Rural Economy, an ancient term, ufed to
fignify the privilege of mills, &c. By it the lord, in certain
cafes, was enabled to raife a confiderable rent.

SoKE-Mi//, that kind of mill which belongs to the lord
or fuperior of the manor, and at which all the tenants, and
fometimes the whole parilh, are bound to grind their grain.
Mills of this nature were once very common, and they exill
(till in a few places.

SOKELY, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Bergen ; 24 miles S.W. of Romfdal.

SOKEMANS. See Socmen.

SOKER, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Red fea ;
3 miles E. of Dsjabbel.

SOKE-REEVE, in our Old Writers, the lord's rent-
gatherer in the fake, or foien.

SOKHIO, in the Materia Medica, a name ufed by fome
authors for a peculiar fpecies, if it may be fo called, of the
lignum aloes.

It is of a greyifh colour, and feems to have been the blea,
or outer part of the wood next the bark.

SOKO, in Geography, a diilrift of Africa, on the Gold
Coaft, extending about a league along the fea-coaft, on the
borders of the river Volta. The land is fertile, but the
inhabitants are poor, and employ themfelves chiefly in
filhing.

SOKOLMA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 12
miles N. of Luckow.

SOKOLOW, a town of Poland, in PodoHa ; 54 miles
N.W. of Kaminiec.

SOKOLOWKA, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Ga-
licia ; 20 miles S. of Lemberg.

SOKOLVOD, or Knezdo, a mountain of Croatia ; 32
miles E. of Bihacs.

SOKOR ZOK, a town of Armenia, fituated on a fmall
hill, equally diftant from Betlis and Diarbekir, governed by
a powerful, independent, and hereditary prince, who has
under his orders many different tribes of Kurds, Yezedis,
and Turkomans, of a martial and barbarous difpofition,
and who, it is faid, can bring an army of 20,000 men into
the iield. The climate of this place is lefs fevere than that
of BetHs ; the di(tri<?ts are extenfive, and covered with
villages, but the population of the town does not exceed
6000 fouls. South of Zok is the town of Sahert, or
Serud ; which fee.

SOKOTKA, a town of Lithuania; 15 miles S.W. of
Grodno.

SOL, a fyllable in the firll elements of vocal mufic,
which, in major keys, always implies the 5th above the
key-note : as, do re mi fa fol ; or do—fol.

Sol, or Sou, Shilling, in Commerce, a French coin, ac-
cording to the old lyftem, which prevailed before the
revolution, of billon, i. e. of copper with a little filver
mixed, equal to twelve deniers, or Frencli pence, or four
liards ; and the twentieth part of the livre Tournois, or
pound. See Shilling.

The word is formed from the Latin, foTidu:, a (hilling.
Bodin is miltaken when he derives it a fole, by reafon of the
fun (truck on it.

10

SOL

The fol was firft ftruck on the foot of twelve deniers Tour,
nois, whence it was alfo called douzain, a name it after-
wards retained, though its ancient value was changed ; the
fol having been fince augmented by three deniers, and
ftruck with a puncheon of a fleur-de-lis, to make it current
for fifteen deniers. Soon after the old fols were coined
over again, and both old and new were indiflTerently made
current for fifteen deniers. In 1709, the value of the fame
fols was raifed to eighteen deniers. Towards the latter end
of the reign of Louis XIV. the fols of eighteen deniers
were again lowered to fifteen. The fol of fifteen deniers
was called fol Parifis. According to the old fyftem, the
filver coins in France were the ecu, or crown of fix livres ;
the petit ecu, or half-crown (alfo called ecu) of three
livres : pieces of twenty-four, twelve, and fix fous ; alfo
pieces of two fous and fix liards, or one and a half fou,
containing five parts of filver to nineteen of copper ; and
pieces (entirely copper) of one fou, two liards, and one
liard, or twelve, fix, and three deniers. The piece of
twenty-four fous, compared in finenefs witii the Englifh
ftandard of 1 1 oz. 2 dwts., is W. o dr. 7 dwt., its weight
3 dr. 20 gr., its content in pure filver is 83.4 gr., and its
value in iterling is i i\d. The pieces of twelve and fix
fous are in proportion. The piece of thirty fous of 1791
is W. 3 oz. 8 dwt., its weight 6 dwt. 12 gr., its contents in
pure filver 100.2 gr., and its value in fterling \s. 2d. The
piece of fifteen fous is in proportion.

In old authors we read of gold fols, which were different
at different times. In the time of the Salic law, the gold
fol was forty deniers ; and thus it continued till the time
of king Pepin, when it was reduced to twelve. Some
have alfo imagined, that the French had anciently filver
fols.

The Dutch have alfo two kinds of fols : the one of filver,
called fols de gros, and likewife fchelUng ; the other of
copper, called alfo \.\ie Jluyver. See Coin.

The fol, or fou, is alfo a money of account and copper
coin in Switzerland.

Sol, in AJlrology, isfc. fignifies the fun. Sol in Aries,
8tc. See Sun.

Sol, Sun, in Chemiftry, is gold ; thus called from an
opinion that this metal is, in a particular manner, under the
influence of that luminary.

What (hould have been the principal inducement of tor-
turing this metal, with fo much violence, to obtain from
it fome medicinal virtues. Dr. Quincy obferves, is not eafy
to be gueffcd.

Molt, indeed, acknowledge, that gold in fubftance, or
reduced into the fmalleft particles by the hammer, as in the
leaf-gold, is not digeftible in the ftomach, fo as to be
tranfmitted into the blood, and be of any efficacy there.
But there are neverthelefs many, who are confident of its
doing extraordinary matters, if reduced into a powder, by
amalgamation with mercury, and by evaporating the mer-
cury afterwards.

Zacutus Lufitanus is one of the fmarteil pleaders on this
fide the controverfy, againll Mufa, Picus Mirandola, and
Platerus ; who, beiides many inltances of its efficacy, urges
the authority of Avicen, Serapion, Geber, and many of the
Arabian phyficians, with thofe of other countries, and of
later date. Quercetan, Schroder, Zwelfer, and EtmuUer,
with many other more modern pra£tical phyficians, have
fallen into the fame opinion. But which iide foever is
right, the prefent praAice rejefts all pretcnfions to medicines
from it. See Gold, in Medicine and Chemiftry.

Sol, in the Hermetical Philofophy, fignifies fulphur.

Sol,

SOL

SOL

Sol, in Heraldry, denotes or, the golden colour in the
arms of fovereign princes.

Sol Galk%k, in Geography, a town of Rullia, in tiie go-
vernment of Koftrom ; 96 miles N-N.E. of Kollrom. N.
lat. 59°. E. long. 42° 24'.

Sol Vitchegodjh, a town of Ruflia, on the river Vitciiega ;
36 miles N. of Uftiug. N. lat. 61° 30'. E. long. 46° 14'.

SOLA, a fmall ifland in the Caribbean fea ; 30 miles
E. of Margarita. — Alfo, a fmall ifland among the Philippines,
near the S. coad of the ifland of Lu?on. N. lat. 13° 22'.
E. long. 12° 46'.

Sola, La, Pyljlart's IJlands, fo called by Maurelle. See
Pylstart.

SOL./EUS, in Anatomy. See SoLEUS.

SOLAGNA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Trevifan ; 5 miles S. of Cifme.

SOLAGUR, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles W.N.W. of
Silhet.

SOLAKI, a town of Dageftan ; 60 miles N.N.W. of
Derbend.

SOLAN, a town of Africa, in Caftina. N. lat. 1 6° 30'.
E. long. 10°.

SOLANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Serica. Ptolemy.

SOLAND, or SoLAN-Goo/i, in Ornithology. See Pele-
CANUS Bajfanus.

SOLANDER's Island, in Geography, an ifland in the
South Pacific ocean, near the S. coaft of New Zealand,
difcovered by captain Cook in March 1770 ; and fo named
after Dr. Solander. It is merely a barren rock, about a mile
in circuit, remarkably high, and lying full five leagues diilant
from the main. The ftiore of the main lies nearcil E. by
S. and W. by N., and forms a large open bay, in which
there is no appearance of any harbour or flielter for (hipping
againft S.W. and foutherly winds : the furface of the country
is broken into craggy hills of a great height, on the fummits
of which were feveral patches of fnow ; it is not, however,
wholly barren, for wood was feen not only in the vallies,
but upon the higheft ground ; but it exhibited no figns of
being inhabited. S. lat. 46° 31'. W. long. 192'^ 49'.
Hawkefworth's Voy. vol. iii. — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the
Mergui Archipelago. N. lat. 10° 39'.

SOLANDERS, in Farriery. Sec Malanders.

SOLANDRA.in Botany, was originally defUned by the
younger Linnaeus, to preferve the memory of his friend
Dr. Daniel Charles Solander, F.R.S., fo well known in
England as the companion of fir Jofeph Banks, in his
voyage round the world, and afterwards one of the libra-
rians of the Britifh Mufeum. He was intimately con-
nefted with the moft eminent cultivators of natural fcience
here in England, efpecially Ellis (fee that article) ; being
no lefs efteemed for his polite and agreeable manners, than
his extenfive knowledge. He died of an apoplexy, in
1782, aged 46. His learned botanical manufcripts remain
in the Bankfian library ; his premature deceafe having pre-
vented his finifhing, for publication, any confiderable work,
though his information enriched every thing that appeared
in this country during his refidence here. The great Lin-
nius, who jullly confidered Solander as one of his ablell
pupils, had named a Solandra in the 6th edition of Gen. PL
but this was fubfequently referred to Hydrocotyh. The
genus we are now to deCcribe, mull be confidered as
firll publilhed, by being reprefented on the honorary
medal ftruck in Sweden foon after Dr. Solandcr's death ;
and thus it takes place of the lefs certain and ornamental
Solandra of Murray, in Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 623, not
publithed till 1784 — Swartz in Stock. Tranf. for 1784.

Vol. XXXIII.

!;oo. t. II. Ind. Occ. T. I. 386. Schreb. 793. Willd,
Sp. PI. V. I. 936. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Saliflj. Tr.-
of L. Soc. V. 6. 99. t. 6. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 388. —
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Lurida,
Linn. Solaneis affine, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
angular, with from three to five lanceolate, ereft teeth, fub-
fequently more deeply feparated, permanent. Cor. of one
petal, thrice the length of the calyx, funnel-fliaped ; tube
inflated and bell-fliaped in the upper part, five-ribbed ;
limb in five roundifli, fpreading, reflexed, wavy, partly
doubly crenate, lobes. Stam. Filaments five, thread-fliaped,
declining, the length of the tube, inferted into its middle
part ; anthers terminal, verfatile, fomewhat pyramidal, of
two cells. Pift. Germen fupcrior, oval ; ityle thread-
fliaped, declining, longer than the llamens ; ftigma obtufe,
comprefl'ed, flightly two-lobed. Peric. Berry oval, pointed,
fmooth, of four cells. Seeds very numerous, kidney-fliaped,
imbedded in pulp, inferted into a four-branched receptacle.

Eir. Ch. Calyx tubular, fplitting. Corolla funnel-
fliaped, inflated, irregular ; limb in five rounded, reflexed,
unequal fegments. Berry of four cells, with many feeds.

I. S. grandiflora. Great-flowered Solandra. Willd. n. I.
Ait. n. I. Jacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. i. 21. t. 45. — Native
of Jamaica, where, according to Swartz, it occupies the
clefts of rocks, and the trunks of the largelt trees, climbing,
by roots thrown out of the ilem, to their very fummits,
from whence its long, fpreading, leafy, dependent branches
hang down very far, flowering in January and February,
and ripening fruit in Augufl;. The plant was introduced
at Kew by Mr. Malfon, in 1 78 1, and long known by the
extemporaneous name of Portlandioides, given by its finder ;
for being treated with the ufual fupplies of water, and a
rich foil, it grew every year luxuriantly, but never flowered,
till accidentally fet afide and neglefted, in the dry ftove.
By fuch management it has often flowered fince, and
Jacquin fays it ripens fruit and feed at Schonbrun. The
•wood is Ipongy. Stem and branches round. Leaves fcat-
tered, moll crowded about the ends of the branches, re-
flexed, ftalked, obovate, or elliptic-oblong, acute, entire,
fomewhat undulated, fingle-ribbed, flightly fucculent, more
or lefs downy, from four to fix inches long ; paler beneath.
Footjlalls an inch long, round, downy. Flo'wers ufually
folitary, terminal, nearly feflile, very large, a fpan long,
magnificent in appearance, and delicioufly fragrant. The
corolla is cream-coloured, with a tinge of yellow ; the out-
fide often purphfli, and flightly downy ; the fegments of
the limb flaccid, partly entire, partly crenate, and waved,
in an elegant manner. Fruit fometimes as big as a hen's
egg, white, red within, of a fweet fiibacid lalte. — The in-
habitants of Jamaica know this plant by tlie name of the
Peach-coloured Trumpet-flower. Plumier is faid to have
left a flietch of it, among his drawings, by the name of
Stramonium fcandens,Jlore luteo.

SOLANEiE, the 4 1 11 natural order in Juffieu's fyttem,
the 8th of his 8th clafs. It is thus named from the
Nightfliade, (fee Solanum,) which is one of the tribe, and
the order is nearly equivalent to the Linnzan LuRlDiT;, fee
that article. We refer the reader to GENTiANyi: for the
charader of Juflieu's 8th clafs ; and to Lysimachi.t;, Pldi-
cuLAREs, Sapot«, and Scroi'Hulaui/TC, for fome orders
belonging to it. — The Solane^e are thus defined.

Caly.v generally in five fegments, more or lefs deeply fe-
parated, for the moll part permanent. Corolla generally regu-
lar, and five-cleft. Stamens mollly five, ulually inferted into
the lower part of the corolla. Style folitary. Stigma fimplc,
or rarely cloven. Fruit molUy of two cells, with many
O o ftcds ;

SOL

feeds ; foinetimes capfular, of two valves, with a partition
parallel thereto, as in the Scrophulariit ; or more frequently
pulpy, with central receptacles for the feeds attached to the
middle of the partition, at each fide, and ufually prominent,
fo as to feparate each principal cell of the berry internally
into two parts, or, by a ftill further imperfeft fubdivifion,
into more. Corculum of the feed curved, lodged in a fari-
naceous albumen. Stem herbaceous or fhrubby. Leaves al-
ternate ; in fome inftances there are two floral ones from the
fame point. Flowers varioufly difpofed, often extra-axil-
lary, that is, placed near the fide of the infertion of the
leaves, not fpringing from their bofoms.

The firft feftion, with a capfular or dry fruit, confilts of
Celfia, Verbafcum, Hyafeyamus, Nicotlana, and Datura.

The fecond, with a berry, of Trlguera of Cavanilles,
which we have recently difcovered to be the very identical
Verbafcum OJbeckit of Linnxus, a plant that no fubfequent
botanifl could ever make out ; (fee Verbascum and Tri-
GUERA ;) Jaborofa of Juflieu ; Mandragora of Tournefort ;
Atropa ; Nicaiulra of Adanfon, which is Atropa phyfalcides
of Linnscus ; Phyfalls ; Witheringia of I'Heritier ; Aquartia ;
Solarium ; Capjicum ; Lyc'ium ; and Ceflrum.

Settion third contains three genera, reckoned akin to the
former ; thefe are Bont'ia, Brunfeljia, and Crcfcentia. With
thefe laft the true Solandra is, as JufTieu fufpefted, to be
aflociated. See Solandka.

SOLANILLOS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
New Callile ; 23 miles E. of Guadalaxara.

SOLANO, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Peru. S. lat.
12° 20'. — Alfo, a river of Mexico, which runs into the
Pacific ocean, N. lat. 10° 18'.

SOLANOIDES, in Botany, a name given by Tourne-
fort to the Rivlna of Linnaus, on account of its refemblance
to SoLANUM ; which fee. See alfo Rivina.

SOLANOS, in Meteorology, a name jriven to winds,
which, blowing over an extenfive traft of highly heated land,
become fo very drying, fcorching, and fuffocating, as to
produce dreadful effefts, and are often felt in the deferts of
Arabia, in the vicinity of the Perfian gulf, in the interior of
Africa, and in fome other places.

SOLANTA, in Geography, a town on the N. coaft of
the ifland of Sicily, which gives name to a cape and bay :
8 miles E. of Palermo. N. lat. 38° 9'. E. long. 13° 36'.

SOLANUM, in Botany, an ample genus, comprifing
various kinds of Nightftiade, and other deadly plants, along
with the efculent Tomato, Egg-plant, and even the valu-
able Potatoe, owes its name, according to fome authors, to
its comforting quality, fuch authors fuppofing the word to
have originated hom/olamen. This indeed might apply to
the potatoe, could that poflibly have been in the contempla-
tion of thofe who gave the name. The common derivation
a/ole, from the fun, carries no more conviftion along with
it ; nor can we for a moment admit the true orthography to
be Siilanum, from Sus, becaufe the plant is ufeful to fwine."
It is far more prudent to leave Solanum among the few
ancient names whofe fource cannot be traced. — Linn. Gen.
loo. Schreb. 134. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. io2j. Mart. Mill.
Dift. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 256. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
T. I. 154. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 396. Brown Prodr.
Nov. Holl. V. 1.444. Purfh v. I. 156. Juff. 126. Tourn.
t. 62. Lamarck Illullr. t. 115. Gasrtn. t. 131. (Lyco-
perficon; Tourn. t. 63. Melongena ; ib. t. 6^.) — Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Lurhla, Linn.
Selanea, JulT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cut half
way down into five, ereft, acute, permanent fegments. Cor.
of one petal, wheel-fhaped ; tube very fhort ; limb large,

II

SOL

plaited, fpreading, fomewhat reflexed, cut half way down
into five acute fegnnents. Stam. Filaments five, awl-lhaped,
very fmall ; anthers large, ereft, oblong, converging,
(lightly conneifted, of two cells, opening each by 3 terminal
pore. Pi/l. Germen fuperior, roundiih ; ftyle thread-fhaped,
longer than the ftamens ; Itigma obtufe. Peric. Berry
roundifh, fmooth, marked with a dot-like fear at the fura-
mit, of two cells, divided by a flelhy receptacle, which ig
convex at each fide. Seeds numerous, roundilh, lodged in
foft pulp.

Efi'. Ch. Corolla wheel-fhaped. Anthers (lightly con-
nedled, opening by two terminal pores. Berry foperior, of
two cells.

Notwithllanding the rude and irregular habit of this
genus, the flowers are often fo handfome as to attrafl much,
notice, and the fruit is, in fome cafes, very ftriking and
ornamental. The ftem is branched, herbaceous or fhrubby,
fmooth, haiiy or prickly. Leaves alternate, fimple or com-
pound, lobed, cut or entire ; fometimes prickly. Inflo-
refcence often lateral, and extra-axillary. Corolla blue,
purple, white, or yellow. Fruit yellow or red, rarely
black or white. The herbage is foetid, narcotic, and dan-
gerous. Flowers without fcent. Fruit often very naufeouB,
and in no inftance eatable without drefling.

The fpecies are difpofed in tliree fedlions. The fourteenth
edition of Linn. Syit. Veg. contains forty-fix ; Willdenow
has eighty-three. Some new ones are added by Brown,
Purfh, Aiton, &c. We feled the following, adding feveral
unknown to the author whofe arrangement we adopt.

Seftion i. iVithout prickles. Forty-four fpecies in Will-
denow ; two Britifh.

S. taurifoUum. Laurel-leaved Nightfliade. Linn. Suppl.
148. Willd. n. I. — Stem arboreous, unarmed. Leaves
ftalked, ovate-oblong ; downy beneath. Panicle terminal,
repeatedly forked, divaricated. Calyx briftly on the inner
fide. — Native of the vaft forelU of Surinam ; unknown in
the European gardens ; nor has a figure of this fpecies
appeared. The branches are woody, round and fmooth.
Leaves near a fpan in length, entire, pointed, veiny ;
fhining, and flightly downy, above ; clothed with foft de-
preffed hairs, fpreading from all the finefl veins, beneath.
Footjialis an inch long, rather filky. Panicle repeatedly
forked and racemofe, widely fpreading, compofed of innu-
merable jloiuers, of which the calyx only remains on our
fpecimens, which is fmall, witii five acute fpreading fegments,
moft hairy or briilly within. Berries black, the fize of a
Black Currant.

S. verha/cifolium. Mullein-leaved Nightfhade. Linn. Sp.
PI. 263. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 1. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. i. 5.
t. 13. (S raaxime tomentofum, fpiiii' carens, virginianum ;
Pluk. Almag. 351. Phyt. t. 316. f. i.) — Stem fhrubby,
unarmed. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate, denfely downy,
entire. Corymbs termin.^1, divided. Calyx with five fhort
teeth. — Native of the W^eft Indies, from whence Catefby
communicated it to Miller. The plant is preferved in fome
curious floves, and flowers in fummer. The branches, Jlalhs,
calyx, and both fides of the leaves, are hoary, denfely
clothed with clofe itarry down. Flowers white, with yellow
anthers, far inferior in fize and beauty to the Potatoe-
bloffom. The fhallow divifions of the calyx, and the clofe,
not fhaggy, hairs of the flalks and branches, dilUnguifh it
from the auriculatum hereafter defcribed.

S. inifquale. Unequal-leaved Woolly Nii^fhtfhade. — Stem
flirubby, unarmed. Leaves in pairs, ftalked, ovate, entire,
denfely downy j unequal at the bafe. Clufters lateral, di-
vided. Calyx of the fruit in five deep fegments. — Gathered
in New Granada by Mutis. The younger Linnieus con-
founded

SOLANUM.

founded the fpecimen with S. verhafdfolium, from which it
eflentially differs in the inequality of the two fides of each
haf, at the bafe, and efpecially in the infiorefcence. The
twin rzcemoicjloiver-jlnlks fpring laterally from the inter-
mediate fpaccs of the branches, between the leaves, and two
of the latter always grow together, nearly from the fame
point. Whether the calyx of ihefowcr be deeply divided,
we cannot, becaufe of its woolHnels, determme ; but that
of they>-?v;V is feparated into five lanceolate fegments, to the
very bafe. Berry the fize of a red currant, befprinkled with
ftarry hairs.

S. auriculalum. Ear-leaved Nightihade. Ait. ed. i.
V. I. 246. ed. 2. n. 2. Willd. n. 3. (S. mauritianum ;
Scop. Del. Infubr. v. 3. 16. t. 8.) — Stem fhrubby, un-
armed. Leaves ftalked, ovate, pointed, entire ; very foft
above ; acute at the bafe. Stipulas heart-fliaped. Corymbs
terminal, divided. Calyx cloven half way down. — Native
of Madagafcar, the Mauritius, and the Eaft Indies. A
ti!l\Jhrub, with the habit of S. ■verbafcifolittm, but larger ;
the pubefcence of the Jlalks ufually more (haggy ; the
greener upper furface of the leaves remarkable for a velvet-
like foftnefs ; the under white and woolly. Calyx feparated
half way down into five broad fegments, which are not
deeper in the fruit than in thejlower. The Jllpulas are often
Wanting, but the fpecies is fufRciently diftinft.

S. PJeudoca^tcum. Shrubby Winter-cherry Nightfhade.
X.inn. Sp. PI. 263. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 3. (Amomum
Plinii ; Lob. Ic. 265, Ger. Em. 361. Pfeudocapficum ;
Dod. Pempt. 718. Strychnodendron ; Befl. Hort. Eyft.
nsftiv. arb. t. 14. f. i.) — Stem fhrubby, unarmed. Leaves
lanceolate, wavy, fmooth. Umbels lateral, feflile. — Native
of Madeira. One of our popular hardy greenhoufe plants
from Gerarde's time to this day. The_/?fm is buthy, a yard
high. Leaves ftalked, ever-green, about two inches long.
Flotuers few together, drooping, white, with orange anthers.
Ji'ruit fcarlet, globofe, the fize of a fmall cherry.

S. diphyllum. Tvv'o-leaved Nightfhade, Linn. Sp. PI. 264.
Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 4. .Tacq. Ic. Rar. t. 322. Coll.
V. 2. 331. (S. americanum, ftrychnodendro accedens, fruftu
medio, ante maturitatem, quafi fiflo ; Pluk. Phyt. t. iii.
f. 4.) — Stem fhrubby, unarmed. Leaves in pairs, elliptic-
oblong, fmooth ; one fmaller than the other. Flowers
cymofe, oppofite to the leaves. — Native of the Weft Indies,
from whence it was brought early to this country ; but is
only occafionally kept in lloves, rather for curiofity's fake
than otherwife, being lefs ornamental than the laft, with
imsWn floiuers and fruit, and much more tender.

S. Dulcamara. Woody Nightfhade, or Bitter-fweet,
Linn. Sp. PI. 264. Willd. n. 15. FL Brit. n. i. Engl.
Bot. t. ^6^. Curt. Lond. fafc. I. t. 14. Woodv. Med.
Bot. t. 33. Fl. Dan. t. 607. (Amara dulcis ; Ger Em.
350.) — Stem fhrubby, twining, unarmed. Upper leaves
haftate. Clufters cymofe, drooping, oppofite to the leaves.
Fruit elliptical. — Native of moilt: bufhy places throughout
Europe, from Norway to Greece, flowering in fummer.
The branching zigzag ^^fmj climb upon other fhrubs, and
difplay their elegant bunches of violet -coloured^oTwrj, each
of whofe fegments has two green dots at the bafe, in an
elegant manner. The fcarlet pellucid berries are alfo beau-
tiful, though of a bitter and dangerous quality, Tlic leaves
are ovate, acute, ufually fmooth, on long ftalks, (omc
fimple, others haltate, rarely diltinftly auricled. The bark
and roots are faid to be bitter, with a fublequent fwrctnefs.
The young fhoots have been recommended, in dccoftion,
for rheumatic and fcorbutic difeafcs. We have fometiracs
doubted whether this might not be the Kt/xXa/jivj; ili^a of
Diofcorides, a much difputed plant : but the flowera are

neither white, nor fragrant, as he defcribes them. We
readily concur with Willdenow in believing the Linnaean |S,
figured in Dill. Elth. t. 273. f. 352, to be a diftinft fpecies,
nor do we doubt its bemg the quadrangulare, hereafter
mentioned.

S. Seaforthianum. Lord Seaforth's Nightfhade. Andr.
Repof. t. 504. Ait. Epit. 374. — Stem fhrubby, twining,
unarmed. Leaves fimple or ternate, ovate, pointed, fmooth.
Panicles lateral, drooping, compound. Corolla without
dots. — Native of the Weft Indies, from whence it was
brought by the late earl of Seaforth. This beautiful fpecies
is faid to fucceed beft in a confervatory. Its general ap-
pearance refembles the laft, but the large pendulous panicles
of numerous pale-purple Jloiuers, deftitute of green dots,
are very different, and extremely ornamental on a trellis.
The infiorefcence often feems terminal, but is properly lateral.
Of the berries we have no information.

S. fcander.s. Chmbing Surinam Nightfhade. Linn.
Suppl. 147. Amoen. Acad. v. 8. 253. Willd. n. 17. —
Stem twining, unarmed. Leaves ovate ; heart-fhaped at
the bafe ; downy beneath. Panicle terminal, cymofe. Ca-
lyx fmooth on the infide. — Native of Surinam. The leaves
betray a confiderable affinity to our firlt fpecies, laurifolium,
but the downinefs of their under furface confills of little,
forked or ftarry, fcattered hairs, not of fimple ones pro-
ceeding in double rows from each vein. The branches more-
over are long and flaccid, apparently herbaceous ; and the
calyx is not briflly within, but nearly fmooth on both fides.
Corolla downy, divided almoft to the bottom. Lower half
of the Jlyle hairy. Berries the fize of a cherry.

S. quercifnlium: Oak-leaved Nightftiade. Linn. Sp. PI.
264. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n. 6. ( S. fohis quernis ; Feuill.
Peruv. 722. t. 15.) — Stem fomewhat herbaceous, angular,
zig-zag, rough-edged, ereft, unarmed. Leaves pinnatifid.
Clufters cymofe.— Gathered by Feuill6, on the mountains
of Valparaifo, in Chili. Linnaeus railed the plant at Up-
fal, from feeds fent by JufTieu, but it has only lately found
its way to the Englifh gardens. The root is thick, fleftiy,
and perennial. Stem four or five feet high, branched, leafy,
with feveral unequal angles, that are rough, with minute
fharp tubercles. Leaves regularly pinnatifid, of five or
feven bluntilh, entire, rather diftant lobes, nearly fmooth ;
their long footflalks /lightly winged. Flowers drooping,
violet, with yellow anthers ; their corolla broader than that
of .?. Dulcamara. Berries red, ovate.

S. radicans. Rooting Nightfiiade. Linn. Sp. PL 264.
Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 8. Liim. fil. Dec. i. 19. t. 10. —
Stem fomewhat herbaceous, unarmed, roundifh, proftrate,
nearly fmooth, taking root. Leaves pinnatifid. Clufters
cymofe.— Native of Peru. Very nearly related to the laft,
but diff'cring in its proftrate creeping^cm, whofe angles are
lefs marked, and almoR fmooth. Tlie fegments of the
leaves are never more than five. Clujlers fimple. Flowers
fewer and fmaller, while ; purplilh beneath. Berriet yel-
low, globofe or two-lobed.

S. lariniatum. Cut-Uaved Niglitfliade. Ait. ed. i. v. i.
247. ed. 2. n. 7. Willd. n. 21. Br. n. 4. Curt. Mag.
t. 349. (S. aviculare; Forft. Prodr. 18. PI. Efcul. 42.)
— Stem fomewhat flirubby, unarmed, fmooth. Leaves
linear-lanceolate, undivided or pinnatifid, entire, fmooth.
Clufters lateral, corymbofe. Calyx cloven half way down.
Segments of the eorolla emarginatc. Stamens fpreading.
Berry oval. — Native of New Zccland, New South Wales, and
Van Dicnien's land. A greenhoufe fhrub, introduced by
fir J. Banks in 1772. The leaves are dark green, nearly
fcffile ; fomttimcs quite undivided, fometimes deeply pinna-
tifid, on the fame or a diilcrtnt plant ; their length from
O o 2 four

SOLANUM.

Tour to eight inches. Flowers purple, large and handfome,
with rounded notched fegments. jintbcn yellow, foon
widely fpreading from each other. Fruit yellow, the fize
of a large plum, acid, fweetifh, but with a difagreeable
flavour. Fortter fays the inhabitants, as well as the fmall
birds, of New Zeeland, greedily devour this fruit, nor did
the European voyagers entirely rejeft it.

S. corymbofum. Corymbofe Peruvian Nightfhade. Alt.
ed. I. V. f. 248. ed. 2. n. 11. Willd. n. 26. Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t. 40. Coll. v. I. 78. Retz. Obf. fafc. 5. 22.— Stem un-
armed, fomewhat (hrubby, fmooth. Leaves ovato-lanceo-
late, entire; tapering at the bale. Flower-ftalks lateral,
branched, corymbofe. — Found by Dombey at Lima,
growing near waters. M. Thouin fent feeds to Kew in 1786,
when we faw the plant flowering in the ftoves at Paris, in
Auguft. Its beauty fcarcely exceeds our wild S. nigrum.
The foivers are copious, fmall, purplifh. Clujlers feveral
together, on a common corymbofe ftalk, oppofite to each
leaf. BerriiS fcarlet, the fize of a fmall pea.

S. quadrangulare. Quadrangular African Night(hade.
Linn. Suppl. 147. Willd. n. 27. Thunb. Prodr. 36.
(S. Dulcamara ^; Linn. Sp. PI. 264. S. craflifoUum ;
Lamarck Dift. v. 4. 284. S. dulcamarum africanum, fo-
liis crafGs hirfutis ; Dill. Elth. 365. t. 273. t. 352.)— Stem
flirubby, unarmed, angular, rough. Leaves ovate ; undi-
vided, or with angular lobes. Panicles terminal, cymofe.
— Found by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good Hope. Cul-
tivated by Sherard at Eltham, and therefore entitled to a
place in Mr. Alton's work. The figure of Dillenius is very
charaAeriilic, z% to the foliage zni foivers, but does not ex-
prefs the remarkably angular Jiem, except towards the top
of the fpecimen. Hence it has been overlooked with re-
gard to this plant. The branches in Thunberg's two fpcci-
mens before us are irregularly quadrangular, very rough,
with callous points and briftly hairs. Leaves italked, flefliy,
fmooth, except at the edges, an inch or inch and half long,
obtufe, ovate ; either quite entire, or on luxuriant flioots,
furnifhed with one or two large, prominent, tooth-like lobes
at each fide. Flowers larger, paler, and lefs expanded than
in our Dulcamara ; the points of the corolla hairy.

S. bonarienfe. Tree Nightfhade. Linn. Sp. PI. 264.
Mant. 205. Willd. n. 29. Ait. n. iz. (S. bonarienfe
arborefcens, papas floribus ; Dill. Elth. 364. t. 272. f. 351.)
— Stem fhrubby, nearly unarmed. Leaves ovate-obiong,
waved and finuated, rough. Fruit half the diameter of the
flowers. — Native of Buenos Ayres. Railed from feed by
Sherard in 1726, or thereabouts, and now a frequent
greenhoufe plant, of a tall bufhy habit, efteemed for its
copious large white Jloivers, with orange anthers. The
leaves are from three to fix inches long, befprinkled with
little ftarry rigid hairs. Flower-JluHs corymbofe, oppofite
to the leaves. Berries yellow, fcarcely half an inch broad.
The youn^ Jlems are prickly in the lower part, and indeed
not unfrequently in the upper, fo that this fpecies would
Hand better in the lecond feftion.

8. macrocarpon. Large-fruited Nightfliade. Linn. Mant.
205. Willd. n. 30. Ait. n. 13. (S. caule inermi futfruti-
cofo, foliis oblongo-ovatis finuatis utrinque glabris, flori-
bus alaribus ; Mill. Ic. v. 2. 196. t. 294. Lycoperficum
arborefcens, foliis angulatis, frutlu aureo ; Plum. Ic. 219.
t. 224. f. 2.) — Stem Ihrubby, unarmed. Leaves wedge-
fhaped, waved and finuated, fmooth. Fruit thrice the
diameter of the flowers — Native of Peru. A ftove-plant,
cultivated by Miller, and flowering in fummer. This is of
a larger fize, and ftouter habit, than the laft, with which
Linnxus long confounded it. Thu Jlewers are blue ; their
forolla fmaller, with more pointed fegments, and the corymbs
12

lefs compound, than in S. bonarienfe, but the fruit it ten
times as large, fupported by a fhort thick llalk.

S. tuberofum. Common Potatoe. Linn. Sp. PI. 265.
Willd. n. 31. Ait. n. 14. (S. tuberofum efculentum j
Bauh. Prodr. 89. Battata virginiana ; Ger. Em. 927.
Papas Peruanorum ; Befl. Hort. Eyfl;. autumn, t. 27. f. i.)
— Stem unarmed, herbaceous. Leaves interruptedly pin-
nate, entire. Flower-ftalks fubdivided — Native of Peru.
Gerarde fays he received roots from Virginia, which fuc-
ceeded well in his garden. No fimilar acquifition was ever
more important to this country. The herbage is annual, im-
patient of cold, bufliy, with copious roughifh leaves, pin-
nate in a lyrate form, with very fmall intermediate leaflets.
Flowers panicled, large, purplifli or white, drooping, very
handfome. Fruit globofe, purplifli. — For the different va-
rieties, ufes, and cultivation of this valuable plant, fee
Potatoe.

S. Lycoperficum. Tomato, or Love-apple. Linn. Sp.
PI. 265. Willd. n. 33. Ait. n. 15. (Poma amoris ;
Camer. Epit. 821. Ger. Em. 346. Befl. Hort. Eyft.
autumn, t. i, 2.) — Stem unarmed, herbaceous. Leaves
interruptedly pinnate, cut. Cluftcrs deeply divided, leaf-
lefs. Fruit fmooth. — Native of South America. A ten-
der annual, cultivated in England ever fince Gerarde's time,
for the fake of its large, varioudy-fhaped, fcarlet or orange
fruit, which many people efteem a great luxury, either in
foups ; or broiled with pepper and fait, as an addition to
roail-meat, or game. In the hotter parts of Europe, the
Tomato has more acidity and briflcnefs of flavour, and is
therefore the more welcome in fuch climates. It has alfo
the reputation of being Itimulant, or aphrodifiacal. The
root is fibrous. Herb of rank growth, weak and decumbent,
foetid, glutinous, downy. Leaflets acute, coarfely cut and
toothed, with a double feries of fmall ftalked intermediate
ones. Flowers yellow, in large divided bunches. Fruit
fhining, pendulous, very ornamental. — Whether Jacquin'«
Pfeudo-lycoperftcum, with its fimple clujlers, and fmall globu-
lar yrw;V, be a diftinft fpecies, we greatly doubt ; fee his
Hort. Vind. V. i.t. 11. Linnxus did not diltinguifli it.
Nor have we abfolute confidence even in 5. peruvianum, Linn.
Sp. PI. 265. Willd. n. 35. Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 284. Ic.
Rar. t. 327, diftinguiflied by its brafteated or hiiy clisfierj,
and fomewhat downy fruit. Its root indeed is perennial,
and the herbage more compaft, neat, and hoary, than the
common Love-apple.

S. multifidum. Ragwort-leaved Nightfhade. Lamarck
Dift. v. 4. 287. lUuftr. t. 1 15. f. 3, not 2. — Stem herba-
ceous, unarmed, winged. Leaves doubly pinnatifid, ob-
tufe. Panicle cymofe. — Gathered by Dombey, in fandy
ground at Lima. The root is fibrous, apparently annual.
Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, branched, fpreading,
leafy, bordered at each fide with an entire, uninterrupted
wing. Leaves fucculent, rather downy, elegantly fubdi-
vided, decurrent ; all their lobes obtufe. Flowers white,
or purphfli, feveral together, in long-ftalked, terminal,
cymofe or ior^ieA panicles. Corolla but (lightly divided.

S. nigrum. Common or Garden Nightfhade. Linn. Sp.
PI. 266. Willd. n. 39. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 566.
Fl. Dan. t. 460. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 14. Woodv.
Med. Bot. t. 226. (S. hortenfe ; Ger. Em. 339. Camer.
Epit. 812. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 415.) — Stem herbaceous,
unarmed, ereft. Leaves ovate, with tooth-hke angles.
Umbels lateral, drooping. — Native of cultivated and wafte
ground in all parts of the world. Root annual. Stem
bufliy, more or lefs angular. Leaves fcattered, ftalked,
ovate, nightly downy ; elongated at the bafe ; either entire,
wavy, or coarfely toothed, at the margin. Umbels lateral,

not

SOLANUM.

aot quite oppofite to the leaves, folitary, ftalked, compofed
of numerous fmall white jlo'uiers, witli yellow anthers.
Berries the fize of currants, ufually black, but occafionally
yellow, even in England, according to Hudfoii. Authors
enumerate feveral varieties of this fpecies, differing in the
more or lefs angular, and fomewhat crifped or toothed,
jtem, and more hairy or fmoother herbage. Willdcnow fays
thefe are permanent, but we can fcarcely define the diftinc-
tive marks of each. Several of them are exhibited in Dill.
Elth. t. 274 and 275.

S. angujlifollum. Narrow-leaved Nightfhade. Lamarck
Dift. V. 4. 291. — Stem unarmed, fomewhat herbaceous.
Leaves ftalked, linear-lanceolate, obtufe, entire, fmooth. Cluf-
ters lateral, divided. — Gathered by Cemmerfon at Buenos
Ayres. "Thejlem is branched, leafy, fomewhat angular, xig-
zag, or perhaps rather twining. Leaves alternate, uniform,
about two inches long, and a quarter or half an inch broad,
with one rib, and a few lateral connefted veins. Flowers,
in our folitary fpecimen, certainly not terminal, but oppo-
fite to a leaf, in a divided clujier, not numerous, on long par-
tial ftalks. Calyx hemifpherical, nearly or quite fmooth,
with very unequal broad fegments. Corolla blue, half an
inch wide, finely downy at the outfide.

S. betaceum. Beet-leaved Nightfhade. Cavan. Ic. v. 6.
I J. t. 524. Ait. n. 18. Aiidr. Repof. t. 511. — Stem
fhrubby, round, unarmed. Leaves ovate, pointed, flefhy,
fmooth ; heart-fhaped at the bafe ; wavy at the edges. Cluf-
ters lateral, ftalked, divided, pendulous. — Probably a na-
tive of South America. Seed;', were fent, in 1803, by Ca-
vanilles, from the Madrid garden to the writer of this ar-
ticle. The plant is gigantic, twelve feet high or more,
flefhy, very foetid when touched or bruifed, growing luxu-
riantly if turned out againft a fouth wall in fummer, but not
of lufficient beauty to excite general notice. Some leaves
meafure twenty inches in length, and fifteen in breadth. The
Jloiuers are fmall in proportion, not quite fo big as a potatoe-
bloffom, but more deeply divided, light purple with yellow
iinlhers.

S. Melongena. Egg-plant Nightfhade. Linn. Sp. PI.
266. Willd. n. 41. Ait. n. 19. (Melongena; Camer.
Epit. 820. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 424. Mala infana ; Ger.
Em. 345. Fuchf Hift. 533. Mclauzana fruftu pallido ;
Befl. Hort. Eyit. autumn, t. 3.) — Stem herbaceous, un-
armed. Leaves ovate, wavy, clothed with Harry down.
Flower-ftalks deflexed, fwelhng. Calyx moftly unarmed.
Fruit ovate, fmooth and even. Native of tropical climates ;
cultivated in various parts of the world by means of hot -beds
or iloves, for the fake of its fruit, which relembles a large
egg, and is ufually of a pure polifhed white, though fome-
times tinged with violet. It is eaten in Italy, Spain, and
other warm countries, like the Tomato. We have under
the article Melongena, traced the origin of that word,
and ventured to derive from thence the frightful appellation
of Main infana. Mad-apples, given to the fruit in queftion,
which it appears not particularly to defervc. The herbage is
branched, clothed with ftarry, not very denfe, pubefccnce.
Flowers purplifh, large, drooping, lateral or axillary, not
many together. Segments of the calyx lanceolate, or nearly
linear ; fometimes prickly. — Gerarde fays of thefe apples,
" the people of Toledo eat them with great devotion, being
boiled with fat flcfh, putting to it lome fcraped cheele,
which" (the apples) " they do keep iu vinegar, honey, or
fait pickle, to procure lull."

Sedlion 2. Prickly. Thirty-eight fpecies in Willdenow ;
none Britiih.

S. infmum. Pricklv Mad-apples. Linn. Mant. 46.
Willd. n, 45. (S. pomiferum, magno fruftu tx albo ct

atropurpureo nitente, foliis et calyce fpinofis ; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 226. f. 3. S. pomiferum, fruftu nigro fpinofo ; Morif.
feft. 13. t. 2. f. 2.) — Stem prickly, herbaceous. Leaves
ovate, finuated, denfely downy. Flower-ftalks deflexed,
fwelhng. Calyx armed with ftrong prickles. Fruit ob-
long, fmooth, furrowed. — Native of tropical climates.
Linnaeus originally confounded this plant with 5 Melongena^
of which it may, after all, be only a thorny variety. Tron-
gum hortenfe, Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 238. t. 85, feems
rather to belong to the Melongena.

S. mammofum. Nipple Nightlhide or Bachelor's Pear.
Linn. Sp. PI. 267. Willd.' n. 51. Ait. n. 24. Purfli
n. 3. (S. barbadenfe fpinofum, foliis villcfis, fruftu aureo
rotundiore, pyri parvi inverfi forma et magnitudine ; Pluk.
Phyt. t. 226. f. I. Pomum SodomsE ; Merian. Surin. 27.
t. 27.) — Stem hair^', prickly, herbaceous. Leaves heart-
fhaped, lobed and angular ; prickly and hairy on both fides.
Fruit pointed. — Native of the Weft Indies. An annual
ftove-plant, which may perhaps have been frequently intro-
duced, and foon again loft. The whole of the herbage is
very villous, the footflalks, and ribs of the leaves, more
efpecially, armed with formidable ftraight yellow thorns.
Flowers pals blue, in fmall lateral clutters, with a hairy
calyx, and large anthers. Fruit folitary, yellow, about two
inches long, ovate with a point. Merian fays it is very
poifonous to men and bealls. Mr. Purlh found this fpecies
on the fea-coafts of Virginia and Carolina, its feeds, as we
(hould fuppofe, having floated thither.

S. virginianum. Virginian Nightfliade. Linn. Sp. PI.
267. Willd. n. 55. Ait. n. 25. Purfti n. 4. (S. ame-
ricanum laciniatum fpinofiilimum ; Dill. Elth. 360. t. 267.
S. annuum nigricans virginianum fpinofiffimum late fe fpar-
gens, flore casruleo, glabrum ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 62. f. 3.) —
Leaves pinnatifid, with finuated obtufe fegments, cihated,
very prickly on both fides, as well as the herbaceous up-
right ftem, the ftalks, and the calyx. Fruit globofe. —
On road-fides, and in fandy fields, from Virginia to Caro-
lina, flowering in .July. Purfli. A tender biennial with
us. The root is fibrous. Stem branched, ereft, fpreading.
Leaves three or four inches long, deeply finuated and cut,
minutely fringed, but otherwife the whole plant is deltitutc
of pubefcencc, though every where copioufly armed with
awl-fliaped pale-ycUowifti thorns, fometimes near an inch
long. Flowers lateral, diftant from the leaves, fimply
racemofe, blue. Fruit fmall, globofe, variegated with
green and white.

S. Jacquini. Jacquin's Nightfliade. Willd. n. 56.
Ait. n. 26. (S. virginianum; Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 2S5. Ic.
Rar. t. 332.) — Leaves pinnatifid, with finuated obtufe feg-
ments, fmooth, very prickly on both fides, as well as the
decumbent, fpreading, herbaceous ftem, the ftalks, and the
calyx. Fruit globofe. — Native of the Eaft Indies, ifle de
Bourbon, &c. Sent to Ktw by fir Jofeph Banks about
1804. A tender annual, flowering in September and Oc-
tober. Very nearly akin to the laft, but the decumbent
Jlem, and fmooth edges of the leaves, are, in confidcration
of its oriental origin, luppofed to indicate a ipecific dif-
ference. Some ftarry hairs occur on the young leaves, and
extremities of the branches. The fruit h the fize of a goofe-
beri y, variegated with light and dark green. .S. xanlho-
carpum-: Sclirad. Sert. llannov. t. 2, is too nearly related
to tliis to be confidered as more th:in a variety.

S. fodomcum. Dark-thoriicd Nighllhadi-. Linn. Sp.
PI. 268. Willd. n. (^l. Ait. n.'29. Sm. Fl. Grxc.
Sibth. t. 235, uiipubhfhed. (8. pomiterum tnitefcens
afncanum fpinofum r.igricaiia, borragiiiis flore, foliis pro-
fundc laciniatis } Herm. Lugd. Bat. 573. t. 575. Tourn.

liill

SOLANUM.

Inft. 149. S. pomiferum, foliis quercus utrinque fpinofis,
flore borraginis ; Morif. fed. 13. t. I. f. 15.) — Stem
fhrubby, round, prickly. Leaves deeply pinnatifid, roundly
lobed, roughifh, with fcattered thorns. Calyx prickly,
much (liorter than the fruit. — Native of Africa, and the
fouth of Europe. A greenhoufe (hrub, flowering in June
and July. The Jlem is ereft, branched, brown or purplilh,
more or lefs roughifh, like the relt of the herbage, with
fomewhat ftarry hairs, and bearing, like the ribs of the
leavis above and below, and all the Jalh, copious, ftrong,
brownifh, fcarcely black, ftraight thorns, broad at the
bafc. The leaves are green, very deeply, often doubly,
pinnatifid, with wide iinufes, and blunt rounded lobes, like
thofe of fome American oaks. Chijlers lateral, fimple.
Flowers targe and handfome, purple, with fhortifh yellow
anthers, Ciilyx very thorny. Fruit yellow, globofe, pen-
dulous, an inch or two in diameter.

S. Fyracamha. Orange-thorned Nightlhade. Lamarck
Did. V. 4. 299. Ait. n. 30. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 9.
t. 64. — Stem (hrubby, very thorny, as well as the foliage
and calyx. Leaves oblong, acute, pinnatifid, denfely
downy. Clufters lateral, woolly. — Native of Madagafcar.
Sent by M. Thouin, in 1789, to Mr. Alton. It flowers
in the itove in Auguft and September, but, according to
Mr. Lambert, fucceeds well during autumn, if turned out
under a fouth wall. The whole plant is rendered very bril-
liant by the copious, large, bright-orange thorns, and tlie
downy ribs of the leaves are of the fame rich hue. Each
leaf'K often a foot long, with fpreading, parallel, acute,
lanceolate, angular lobes, clothed^on both fides vpith denfe,
white, Harry pubefcence. Branches and Jlalks woolly.
Clujlers fimple. Calyx woolly, thorny at the bafe only ; its
fegments linear-lanceol,;te. Corolla violet, with green
branching veins. Anthers yellow, equal. Stigma fimple.
Berry globofe, reddiih.

S. fifymbrifolium. Rocket-leaved Nightfhade. Lamarck
Dift. v. 4. 307. — Stem (hrubby, thorny, as well as the
foliage and calyx. Leaves doubly pmnatifid, acutely
notched, hairy. Clufters lateral, with hairy Italks. Stigma
two-lobed. — Gathered at Buenos Ayres, by Commerfon,
whofe fpecimen is before us. The leaves are not half fo
long as the laft, but broader in proportion, and green, not
white or hoary, their pubefcence, and that of the whole
herbage, being fimply hairy, apparently vifcid, not at all
llellated. The thorns are flender, of a tawny or orange hue,
and are extremely abundant about the bafe of the cdyx.
Clujlers longer than the leaves, fimple, of a few large, white,
orblufh-coloured.^o^Kfrj, whofe ^/Vmrj is capitate, of two
downy lobes.

S. argentatum. Silvery-coated Nightlhade. — Stem
flirubby, prickly, as well as the foliage and calyx. Leaves
oblong, obtufe, bluntly finuated, clothed, like the ftalks,
calyx, and back of the corolla, with depreflcd, ftarry fcales.
— Native of Buenos Ayres. We prcfume this may be the
fuppofcd variety, mentioned by M. Poiret in Lamarck,
with fimply pinnatifid leaves. Probably that able botanill
viewed it but flightly, for nothing can be more diftinft than
our plant, gathered by Commerfon, nor are many of its
genus more elegant. The leaves, on long fpinous/a/^^/, are
pretty exaftly of the fize and figure of our Common Oak,
but thickly clothed on both fides with curious ftarry fcales,
rather than hairs, more denfe and hoary on the under fur-
face, and more filvery on the fower-JlaHs, calyx, and even
the back of the corolla itfelf. The thorns of the whole
plant are flender, and orange-coloured. The calyx is bell-
ftiaped, angular, with (hort (lender teeth ; its bafe prickly.

S. cornutum. Horn-flowered Nightfiiade. Lamarck

Dia. V. 4. 308. " Juir. Annal. du Muf. d'Hitt. Nat.
V. 3. 120. t. 9;" Purjh. — Stem herbaceous, thorny, a»
well as the foliage and calyx. Leaves doubly pinnatifid,
lyrate, nearly fmooth. Anthers declining ; the lower one
much the largeft. — Native of Vera Cruz, from whence
Thierry de Menonville brought feeds to the Paris garden.
We know not whether the root or J) em be perennial or
no, but the plant leems of luxuriant growth, with co-
pious, long, (lender, pale-yellow thorns. The leaves are
green, not hairy, but roughilh with minute points, at leaft
in a dry flate ; the whole leaf, as well as each divifion, par-
ticularly the terminal one, elegantly lyrate ; the ribs befet
with fine briftly thorns. Clujlers lateral, denfe, with flightly
downy ftalks. Flunvers large, yellow, remarkable for the
great fize 01 their lowcrmoll anther.

S. hclcrandrum. North American Horned Nightfliade.
Pur(h n. 6. — Stem herbaceous, thorny, as well as the fo-
liage and calyx. Lesves doubly pinnatifid, hairy and
dow.iy on both fides ; their fegments obtufe. Anthers
fpreading ; the lower one as long as the corolla. Berry en-
clofed in the armed calyx. — Found by Mr. Nuttall, on the
banks of the Miflburi, flowering in July. Annual, with
large y eWow Jlowers. Nearly allied to the laft. PurJh.

S. capenfe. Tnorny Cape Nightshade. Linn. Suppl. 147.
Wiild. n. 64. Thunb. Prodr. 37. — Stem (hrubby, round,
thorny, as well at the foliage and calyx. Prickles crowded,
ftraight. Leaves bluntly pinnatifid, rough with ftarry
hairs. Fruit-ftalks lateral, in pairs, unarmed, recurved.^
Brought by Thunberg from the Cape of Good Hope. The
Jlem is woody, very much branched, knotty, rigid, appa-
rently of humble ftature, armed with plentiful, ftiarp,
ftraight, tawny prickles, from a quarter to half an inch
long ; the young branches, and Jlalhs, clothed with lax
ftarry hair.-. The leaves are ftalked, barely an inch long,
finuated like an oak-leaf, with two rounded lobes at each
fide, bearing a few large prickles, and clothed all over with
the fame (tarry pubefcence as the (talks, though defcribed
by the younger Lmnxus and Thunberg as naked. The
Jloiuers we know nothing of. Berries globofe, orange-
coloured, polilhed, naked, the fize of Black Currants, two
or three together, on ftrong recurved Jlalks, (horter than
the leaves, and almoft entirely deftitute of prickles, though
the deeply-divided calyx bears feveral large ones. N»
figure, nor, till now, any full defcription, of this fpecies
has been publiflied.

S. marginatum. White-margined Nightlhade. Linn.
Suppl. 147. Willd. n. 65. Ait. n. 31. Jacq. Coll.
V. I. 50. Ic. Rar. t. 45. — Stem (hrubby, wooUy, prickly,
as well as the fohage and italks. Leaves heart-lhaped,
waved or finuated, white-edged ; denfely woolly beneath —
Said to have been brought by Mr. Bruce, the celebrated
traveller, from Abyfiinia, or at leaft from Africa, and in-
troduced at Kew in 1775. Jacquin gives Paleftine as its
native country. Tliis is a handfome greenhoufe Jhrubt
flowering moft part of the fummer, and diitinguifhed by
the pure-white margin of its rather large leaves, on the
upper fide, efpecially when young. The fnowy, granu-
lated, minutely (tarry pubefcence of the whole plant, very
denfe on the backs of the leaves, is alfo ftriking. The
prickles are fmall and few. Flowers the fize of a potatoe-
blolTom, cymofe, with purple ribs. Calyx woolly, un-
armed, fplitting unequally. Fruit ovate, of a dirty yellow.

S. VeJpertiliB. Bat-flowered, or Canary, Nightlhade.
Ait. ed. I. V. I. 252. ed. 2. n. 33. Willd. n. 67. Wendl.
Hort. Hcrrenh. fafc. 4. 5. t. 21. (Nyfterium cordifolium ;
Venten.Malmaif. t. 85.) — Stem flirubby, prickly. Prickles
conical. Leaves heart-fhaped, undivided ; woolly beneath.

Corolla

SOLANUM.

Corolla irregular. Lower anther greatly elongated —
Brought by Mr. Maflbn, from the Canary iflands, in 1779.
A greenhoul'e fhrub, flowering in March and April. The
upright branching _^fOT is armed with abundance of {hort,
ftraight, conical, brov/nilh prickles. Leaves the Ihape and
Cze of thofe of the Catalpa; green, befprinkled with mi-
nute ftarry hairs, above ; denfely downy, and hoary, be-
neath. Floiuers about the fize of the lait, and in like man-
ner lateral and cymofe, often, if not always, four-cleft and
tetrandrous, their Jialks, unarmed calyx, and back of the
purple irregular corolla, covered with Itarry down. Lower-
molt anther declining, ending in a long recurved beak, as in
5. cornutam and heterandrum, already defcribed, upon which
charafter principally Ventenat founds his genus oi NySlerium,
fo called from vi/tli^i;, a bat. Such a genus would diifer
from Solanum nearly as Celfia does from Verbafcum, and if
feveral more fpecies (hould occur, it might, for convenience
at leaft, be adopted.

S. tomentofum. Woolly Nightfhade. Linn. Sp. PI. 269.
Willd. n. 70. Ait. n. 34. Thunb. Prodr. 36. (S. coc-
cineura ; Jacq. Mifc. v. 2. 329. Ic. Rar. t. 43. S. fpi-
nofum, maxime tomentofum; Bocc. Sic. 8. t. 5. f. i.) —
Stem ftirubby, with a few briftly prickles. Leaves heart-
fhaped, unarmed, wavy, clothed with denfe ftarry wool on
both fides. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope ; introduced
into the European greenhoufes about the middle of the
17th century. A pretty fpecies, with a zig-zag _/?ifm of no
great elevation, its branches and whole herbage remarkably
woolly and white, with a few fcattered, minute, needle-like
prickles, efpecially on ihc jlo-wer-ftalks. The pubefcence
of the young budding leaves is ufually tinged with violet.
Calyx bell-(haped, cloven half way down, unarmed. Corolla
purple or lilac, woolly at the outfide. Fruit globofe, of a
beautiful fcarlet, varying in fize from that of a pea to a
fmall goofeberry.

S. giganteum. Tall Snowy-leaved Nightfhade. Jacq.
Coll. V.' 4. 125. Ic. Rar. t. 328. Willd n. 74. Ait.
n. 36. (S. niveum ; Thunb. Prodr. 36. Vahl. Symb.
V. 2. 41.) — Stem fiirubby, armed with downy conical
prickles. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute, unarmed ;
imooth above; fnow-white and downy beneath. Clufters
terminal, forked, cymofe. Fruit ereft. — Native of the
Cape of Good Hope. Introduced by Mr. Maflon, in
1792. A greenhoufe (hrub, flowering in .lune and July,
of a tall and ftriking habit, like that of fome Echlum or
Tournefortla. The branches are thick and round. PrlciLs
copious, (hort. Leaves numerous about the tops of the
brandies, from three to five inches long, llalked, recurved ;
dark green above ; peculiarly white and foft beneath.
Flowers numerous, purple, rather fmall, drooping, on co-
rymbofe ilalks, which become entirely erefl as the fruit
advances.

S. rublglnofum. Rufty Nightfhade. — Stem fhrubby,
armi;d, like the footftalks and ribs of the leaven, with
hooked prickles. Leaves elliptical, acute ; nearly naked
above ; downy and rufty beneath. Clufters terminal,

forked, cymofe. Corolla downy Gathered in Cayenne

by Mr. Von Rohr, who fent it to fir Jofeph Banks as the
S. rublglnofum of Richard. But we find no fuch name in
the catalogue of Cayenne plants by this botanifl, in the
Aftesdela Soc. d'Hill. Nat. de P.iris, v. i. 105. Aublet
appears by his herbarium to have lalled this fpecies rham-
tioldes, but it does not occur in his book. The dried fpeei-
mcn is diftinguifhed by a peculiarly ftriking rufly tint,
which may polTibly not be fo (Irong in the living plant.
The branches are round, covered with brown, minutely
itarry, clofe down, and armed with numerous, fmall,

fmooth, very fliarp, ftrongly hooked prickle*. Footfialis
an inch long, angular, fimilarly clothed and armed. Leaver
three or four inches in length, and an inch and a half in
breadth, entire, with one rib, prickly in the lower part,
and many interbranching veins ; their upper furface green,
(hining, fmooth and naked, except a few fcattered, rigid,
ftarry hairs, which caufe a roughnefs to the touch ; under
furface marked with prominent veins, and denfely covered
with clofe, fhining, rufty or whitifh, foft, ftarry down.
Injlorcfcence fimilar to the laft, to which this fine fpecies
feems moft akin, but X.\\e flalts, calyx, and under fide of
the corolla, are clothed with rufty ftarry pubefcence. The
branch is fubfequently contiiuied beyond \.\\e flowers.

8. polyacanthos. Many-thorned Nightfhade. Lamarck
Tajil. Encycl. v. 2. 23. n. 2377. Diil. v. 4. 304 Willd.
n. 79. (S. ])aiviflorum; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 19. t. 236.
Pfiytnbcra fiitefccns fpinofifTima, foliis anguftis et crifpis ;
Plum. Ic. 218. t. 224. f. I.) — Stem fhiubby, very prickly
as well as the foliage. Prickles long, ftraight, and flen-
der. Leaves linear-lanceolate, obtufe, flightly waved,
ne." ly feffil-. hairy. Stalks axillary, fingle-flowered. —
N.itivc of Hifpaniola, where our fpecimen was gathered by
T.' i.trry. The whole herbage is exceflively prickly, with
yellnw needle-like thorns, green, rough with ftarry hairs,
not hoary. Leaves copious, an inch and a half long, rather
convex, all fimple and undivided. Flowers very fmall, foli-
tary, drooying, white. Berry globofe, hardly bigger than
a mullard-feed. Calyx unarmed.

5. igneum. Red-fpined Nightfhade. Linn. Sp. PI.
270. Willd. n. 80. Ait. n. 37. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
V. I. ^. t. 14. (S. fpiniferum frutefcens, fpinis igneis,
americanum ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 225. f. y) — Stem fhrubby,
prickly, as well as the footftalks and foliage. Prickles
fcattered, fomewhat conical, fliining. Leaves lanceolate,
entire, flightly downy on both fides. — Native of South
America. Cultivated for more than 100 years paft in the
ftoves of this country, where it is moft confpicuous for the
little fliining flame-coloured thorns, fometimes making the
fhrub look as if on fire. The branches are round. Leaves
ftalked, green, three or four inches long. Flowers white»
often only four-cleft, in (lender, fimple, lateral clufters.

6. flelllgerum. Starry Nightfliade. Sm. Exot. Bot.
V. 2. 57. t. 88. Brown, n. 8. — Stem fhrubby, prickly,
with taper thorns. Leaves lanceolate, entire, unarmed ;
fmooth above ; denfely woolly and veiny beneath. Wool
ftarry. Corymbs lateral. — Native of New South Wales,
a', well as of the tropical part of New Holland, in which
laft-mcntioned country the prickles were ohferved by Mr.
Brown to be more pcrfeilly ftraight. This pretty fpecies
has not yet appeared in any garden. TUeJlem is biilhy,
from three to five feet high, with round, downy, leafy,
prickly br inches, but every other part is unarmed. Leaves
about three inches long, on woMy JIj lis ; their upper lidc
green, fliining, quite fmooth except ilie rib j under covered
with ilenfc- white wool, compofed of ftarry hairs, elevated
on ftalks. Flowers numerous, three-quarters of an inch
broad, hght blue, with orange anthers, each of whole ter-
minal pores is clofed by a fepnrate lid. Berries fcarlet, creft,
the fize of a currant, not longer than the lanceolate fcg-
ments of their un;;rmcd ca/y.\.

S. Mtllerl. Miller's Niifhtfliadc. Jacq. Coll. v. 4.
209. Ic. Rar. t. 330. Willd. n. 81. Ait. Epit. 374.
(S. trilubatum, fionbus parvis albis ; Linn. Sp. PI. 270.

S. Schiru fchuna; Mill. Diet. ed. 8,

;2.) — Stem

fhrubby, armed with hooked coraprcflcd prickles. Leaves
finuatcd or pinnatifid, obtufe, flightly j)rickly, fmooth.
Stalks moftly in pairs, finglc-flowercd. — Native of the Capo

of

SOLANUM.

of Good Hope. Cultivated by Miller in 1762, but we
know not whether it exifts at prefent in any garden. The
brunches are irregular and fpreadine, bearing copious tawny
prickles, (haped like tliofc of a wild briar. Leaves ftalked,
an inch or inch and half long, green, finuated bke
thofe of an oak. Flowers fmall, white, not unhke thofe
of S. nigrum, but their calyx is thorny. Berries black, re-
lembling the fruit of that fpecies.

S. trilobatum. Three-lobed Nightfliade. Linn. Sp. PI.
270. Willd. n. 82. Ait. n. 38. Burm. Ind. 57. t. 22.
f. 2. — Stem (hrubby, armed with hooked comprefled
prickles. Leaves angular, fomewhat three-lobed, obtufe,
unarmed, fmooth. Flowers racemofe. — Native of the Eaft
Indies. Cultivated by Miller in 1759. A ftove-plant,
flowering in Auguft. More flender than the laft, with
more diffant, and lefs finuated leaves, on longerjlalis. But
the much larger purple Jlozvers, in double-branched lateral
'lujiers, efTentially diilinguifh the prefent plant, whofe
branches and leaves, the prickles excepted, might be thought
to belong to fome fpecies of Boerhavia. Plukenet's t. 316.
f. 5, is rather more like S. Milleri, but cannot be precifely
determined, for want of the inflorefcence.

Sedtion 3. Branches ending in thorns. One fpecies.

S. lycioides. Box -thorn Night(hade. Linn. Mant. 46.
Willd. n. 83. Ait. n. 39. Jacq. Coll. v. i. 96. Ic.
Rar. t. 46. — Stem fhrubby; branches with terminal thorns.
Leaves elHptical. Flowers fohtary. — Suppofed to be a
native of Peru. A ftove-plant in England, flowering in
May and June. Its habit is correftly compared by Lin-
naeus to that of a Lycium. The Jlem is woody, with many
long, trailing, flender, angular, fmooth, leafy branches,
finally becoming fpinous at the extremity. Leaves (talked,
about an inch long, fmooth, entire. Flowers elegant,
folitary, on lateral flender ftalks, an inch in length.
Segments of the calyx narrow, fmooth. Corolla light-
blue. Anthers fliort, orange. Berry fcarlet, the fize of a
currant.

Notwithftanding our having here added twelve fpecies to
Willdenow's lift, we are confcious that many ftill remain un-
fettled, of which we have only imperfeft or uncertain fpeci-
mens. The tropical regions of Africa probably poflefs
feveral more. Befides thofe we have noticed, Mr. Brown
defines fourteen new fpecies in his Prodromus of the Flora
of New Holland, under the following names. S. tetran-
drum, viride, and liflorum, without prickles. 5. difcolor,
violaceum, furfuraceum, parvifolium, elUpticum, armatum, Hyf-
trix, cinereum, pungetium, campanulatum, and echinatum, with
prickles on the ftem, ftalks, leaves or calyx. Among thefe
the Hyfirix is moft remarkable for having prickles on the
corolla itfelf.

SoLANUM, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba-
ceous, ftirubby, and tuberous-rooted, efculent kinds, of
which the fpecies cultivated are : the love-apple, or tomato
(S. lycoperficum) ; the Ethiopian nightlhade (S. xthio-
picum) ; the large-fruited nightlhade, or egg-plant (S.me-
longena) ; the woody nightfliade, or bitter-fweet (S. dulca-
mara) ; the mullein-leaved nightfliade (S. verbafcifolium) ;
the flirubby nightfliade, or winter cherry (S. pfeudo-
capficum) ; the oak-leaved nightfliade (S. quercifolium) ;
the dug-fruited nightfliade (S. mammofum) ; the Indian
nightfliade (S. indicum) j the Carolina nightfliade (S. caro-
linenfe) ; the black-fpined nightfliade (S. fodomeum) ; the
Paleftine nightfliade (S. fanftum) ; and the tuberous-rooted
nightfliade, or common potatoe (S. tuberofum).

In the firft fort the fruit is fmooth, but varies in form,
fize, and colour, from which Miller has formed two varie-
ties; the firft of which is commonly cultivated in the

fouth of Europe to put into foups and fauces, to which it
imparts an agreeable acid flavour : the fruit is very large,
comprefled both at top and bottom, and deeply furrowed
all over the fides, and of a red-yellow or yellowifti colour.
The latter is round, about the fize of a large cherry, either
yellow or red. It is a native of South America, flowering
from July to September.

And in the third fort there are varieties with oblong
violet-coloured fruit, with an oblong, white, large fruit,
with a globular violet-coloured fruit, and with a globular
white or variegated fruit. Some make other varieties, as
red-fruited, yellow-fruited, prickly-fruited, &c.

Alfo in the fourth fort there are varieties with flelh-
coloured, with white flowers, and with variegated leaves.
Some have likewife gold ftriped-leaved, African thick-
leaved, &c.

The fixth fort has alfo varieties with red and with yel-
lowifti fruit.

In the laft fort, which is probably a native of Peru, or
fome part of that traft of continent, the principal varieties
may be diftinguiflied into two kinds, as the red-rooted and
white-rooted forts ; the fub-varieties of which are extremely
numerous ; but for garden purpofes, the following are the
moft ufeful kinds that are generally employed.

The early dwarf-red, the round-red, the oblong-red, the
pale-red, the blood-red, the Irifli red or painted lord, old
winter-red, rough-red, and fmooth-red.

Early forcing potatoe, the early dwarf-white, browa
early, Cumberland early, early Scot, golden dun, early
champion, white bloflbm. Manly white, kidney-white and
red, red-nofed, true white, flat white, and fuperfine white
early.

Many other kinds or varieties are made ufe of in gardens
for raifing the late as well as the early crops of this moft ufe-
ful root. In Lancaftiire, for the very early crops, they have
principally recourfe to the early kings, and foxes feedlings.

They tjfo cultivate a fmall everlafting potatoe, as it is
called, in the fame fituations, covering the beds with draw
or fome other material in the winter feafon, when neceftary.
A ready fupply of the root may, it is faid, be provided in
this way by this fort of potatoe.

In the firft volume of the Tranfaftions of the Horticul-
tural Society of London, fir Jofeph Banks has given the
following curious and interefting account of the introduftion
of this fpecies of folanum, or the common potatoe, into this
country and Europe. The notes from which this account
has been principally taken, have, it is faid, been fome o£
them coUefted from authorities of difficult accefs by the
learned and very intelligent Mr. Dryander.

It is ftated, that the potatoe now in ufe was brought to
England by the colonilts fent out by fir Walter Raleigh,
under the authority of his patent, granted by queen Eliza-
beth " for difcovering and planting new countries, not pof-
fefled by Chriftians," which pafled the great feal in 1584.
Some of fir Walter's fliips failed in the fame year, others,
on board of one of which was Thomas Herriot, afterwards
known as a mathematician, in 1585 ; the whole of them,
however, returned, and probably brought with them the
potatoe, on the 27th of July, 1586.

The faid Thomas Herriot, who was probably fent out,
as it is faid, to examine the country, and report to thofe
who employed him the nature and produce of the foil,
wrote an account of them, which is printed in the firft
volume of De Bry's Collection of Voyages. In this ac-
count, under the article of roots, in p. 17, he dafcribes a
plant which is called Opanawk. " Thefe roots are," he
fays, " round, fome as large as a walnut, others much

larger ;

SOLANUM.

lafger ; they grow in damp foil, many hanging together, as
if fixed on ropes : they are good food either boiled or
roafted."

Gerarde in his Herbal, pubhflied in the year 1597, gives
a figure of the potatoe, under the name of the potatoe of
Virginia, and aflerts, that he received the roots from Vir-
ginia, which are otherwife denominated Norembega.

The manufcript minutes of the Royal Society, 13th of
December, 1693, afTure us, that fir Robert Southwell,
then prefident, informed the fellows, at a meeting, that his
grandfather brought potatoes into Ireland, who firft had
them of fir Waiter Raleigh.

This evidence, it is fuppofed by fir Jofeph, proves, in no
fatisfaftory manner, that the potatoe was firft brought into
England, either in the year Ij86, or very foon after that
period, and fent from thence to Ireland without delay, by
fir Robert Southwell's anceftor, where it was cherifhed and
cultivated for food before the good people of England
knew its value ; for Gerarde, who had this plant in his gar-
den in 1597, recommends the roots to be eaten as a delicate
diih, not as common food.

It appears, however, he fays, that it firft came into
Europe at an earlier period, and by a different channel ;
for Clufius, who at that time refided at Vienna, firft re-
ceived the potatoe, in 1598, from the governor of Mons,
in Hainault, who had procured it the year before from
one of the attendants of the pope's legate, under the name
of Taratonfli ; and learned from him, that in Italy, where
it was then in ufe, no one certainly knew whether it ori-
ginally came from Spain, or from America.

Peter Cicca, in his Chronicle, which was printed in 1553,
tells us, it is faid, in chap. xl. p. 49, that the inhabitants
of Quito, and its vicinity, have, befides mays, a tuberous
root, which they eat, and call papas ; this Clufius gueffes
to be the fame fort of plant he received from Flanders, and
this conjefture has, it is faid, been confirmed by the ac-
counts of travellers, who have fince that period vifited the
country.

It is concluded that, from thefe details, it may fairly be
inferred, that potatoes were brought into Europe from the
mountainous parts of South America, in the neighbour-
hood of Quito ; and that, ae the Spaniards were the fole
pofled'ors of that country, there can be little doubt of their
having been carried firft into Spain, but that as it would take
fome time to introduce them into ufe in that country, and
afterwards to make the ItaHans fo well acquainted with
them as to give them a name, there is every reafon to be-
lieve, that they had been feveral years in Europe before
they were fent to Clufius.

As the name of the root in South America is papas, and
in Virginia that of opanawk ; the name of potatoe was, it
is faid, evidently applied to it on account of its fimilarity
in appearance to the battata, or fweet potatoe ; and our
potatoe appears to have been diftinguifhed from that root,
by the appellation of potatoe of Virginia, until the year
1640, if not longer.

It is added, that feme authors have afierted, that pota-
toes were firft difcovered by fir Francis Drake in the
South feas, and others, that they were introduced into
England by fir John Hawkins ; but in both inftances, the
plant alluded to is, it is faid, clearly the fweet potatoe,
ivhich was ufed in England, as a delicacy, long before the
introduction of our potatoes ; it was imported, it is faid,
in confiderable quantities, from Spain and the Canaries, and
was fuppofed to poficfs the power of reftoring decayed
vigour. The killing comfits of Falflaff, and other con-
feftions of fimilar imaginary qualities, with which our an-

VoL. XXXIII.

ceftors were duped, were, it is faid, principally compofed
of thefe, and eringo roots.

It is alfo further noticed, that the potatoes themfelves
were fold by itinerant dealers, chiefly in the neighbourhood
of the Royal Exchange, and purchafed, at no inconfider-
able coft, by thofe who had faith in their alleged proper-
ties. The allufions to this opinion are, it is obferved, very
frequent in the plays of that age.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants, from the great differ-
ences in their natures, habits of growth, and other quali-
ties, muft evidently require different modes of cultivation
and management.

Culture in the Annual Kind. — The three firft fpecies,
which are of this fort, may be raifed from feed, which
fhould be fown in the early fpring on hot-beds, moulded
over to the depth of fix or feven inches with light rich
mould, in drills or pots plunged into the beds. When the
plants come up, they fhould be properly thinned, have a
pretty free admiflion of air, and occafional waterings ; and
the love-apple kinds, when they have attained fome growth,
as five or fix inches, and the weather becomes fettled warm,
fhould be removed into the open ground, planting them in
a warm flieltered border, and placing them at a confiderable
diftance. Some may be trained againft a foulh fence, to have
the advantage of the full fun : they fhould always be fup-
ported by fome means or other to (hew themfelves, and
ripen their fruit. But the egg-plants Ihould be pricked
out, when a few inches in height, into another hot-bed pre-
pared for the purpofe, at the diftance of four or five inches ;
and fome may be put in feparate pots, and plunged in the
bed, giving water and ftiade till they are frefh rooted ; the
waterings fhould be duly repeated, and frefh air freely ad-
mitted, when the weather is fine : it may alfo be requifite
to remove them with balls about their roots to a third
hot-bed, in order to have them very fine and ftrong : the
frame fhould be raifed as they advance in growth, and when
the weather becomes fine and Iiot, they (hould be gradually
hardened, and finally fet out in the pots, &c. where they
are wanted.

Culture in the Hardy Shrubby Kind. — The fourth fort,
which is of this nature, may be increafcd by layers and
cuttings, which may be laid down or planted out in the
autumn or fpring, where they will be well rooted by the
following autumn, when they may be taken off and re-
moved into nurfery.rows, or where they are to grow for
good.

Culture in the Shrubby Greenhou/e Kind. — Likcwife all
the eight following forts, which are of this defcription, may
be increafed by feeds, wiiich (hould be fown thinly in rich
light earth in the early fpring in fmall pots, plunging them
in the hotbed under frames and glailes, watering them
frequently, when the plants will foon come up, admitting
frefh air daily ; and when the plants arc about two inches
high, they (hould be pricked out upon another hot-bed,
giving water and fliade, till they are frefh rooted ; and fome
may be put into pots, plunging them in the bed. As the
warm weather advances, they fliould be gradually hardened
to the open air, fo as to be let out into it about the middle
of the fummer, when the weather is mild and fine.

And they (hould afterwards be managed as other (hrubby
exotic grecnhoufe plants.

There are alfo many of the tender (lirubby hot-houfe or
ftove kinds, that are highly deferving of cultivation, lucli
as the fiery-thorned American, Guinea, tomcntofe trilo-
bate, and feveral other fpecies.

Thefe may all be increafed by fowing the feeds of them,

in the fpring, in pots of light eartli, to be plunged into n

P p hot-bsd;

SOLAN UM.

Kot-bed ; when the plants are come up two or three inches
in height, they fho,uld be pricked out feparately into fmall
pots, which are alfo to be plunged into the hot-bed or
bark-bed of the ftove, afterwards managing them as other
Ihrubby exotics of the Itove kind. The propagation and
increafe of them may hkewife be tried, in fome cafes, by
cuttings, which are to be fet or planted in pots, and
the whole plunged into the bark-bed, covermg them clofe
down by means of a hand-glafs.

All thefe plants muft be cor.itantly kept in pots filled
with light rich earth, and be retained, the mod part of the
year, in the ftove, among coUeftions of that fort, except for
juft a month or two in the height of the fummer, when
the heat is confiderable. In this way they not unfrequently
fucceed very well.

Thefe plants, in all the forts, are very ornamental among
other potted plants ; and the firil is cultivated hkewife for
the fruit as a pickle : the fourth is alfo ornamental in the
borders, &c. of gardens and fmall pleafure-grounds.

Culture in the Potatoe Kind. — This laft fort is highly valu-
able for its tuberous efculent root, which is well known
under the title of potatoe. Thefe roots may be obtained
for ufe plentifully almoft the year round : the early forts,
being planted forward in the fpring, often afford tolerable
crops fit to take up in the begmning of June and in July
following, efpecially in rich warm grounds ; but the main
crops are permitted to continue growing till autumn, as
about the latter end of October or beginning of November,
when the ftalks or haulm begin to decay, at which time the
roots will be arrived to full maturity : and being then taken
out of the ground, and houfed in fome clofe dry apartment,
keep in good perfeftion for eating all winter and fpring, until
the arrival of the new crops in the following fummer.

With regard to the properties of the different forts or
varieties of this root, fo far as they relate to their ufefulnefs
as food, or their nourifhing qualities, there is probably no
very material difference ; but infomuch as their agreeable-
nefs for the purpofe of eating by man is concerned, there
is confiderable diverfity, fome forts being naturally fari-
naceous and mealy, while other kinds are heavy and clayey,
or waxy, the former of which are, for the moft part, highly
defirable and greatly reliftied, while the latter are difagree-
able to and difrelifhed by many. The red forts were formerly
held in great elteem, and fuppofed the beft ; and though
they are moll probably in no refpeft inferior to thofe of
the white kinds, thefe have of late, in general, been much
preferred, efpecially the round, the oblong-white or whitifh
red, and the kidney forts, as being more produdlive, more
faleable in the markets, and the molt defirable for eating.

This has caufed the culture of the large red fort to be
in a great degree overlooked and neglefted, though fome
think that the potatoes of this kind are fuperior to thofe of
the white fort in the richnefs of their flavour and fome other
qualities.

As both forts, however, pofl'efs good quahties in different
ways, the beft and moft ufefnl varieties, in each kind, fhould
be cultivated in fufRcient and fuitable proportions. The
early forts are, however, the moft proper and fuitable for
being cultivated in gardens in moft cafes.

It is of importance in the garden, as well as the field, to
have good-fized potatoes for fets, or for taking the fets
from, whatever the fort may be, as the very fmall potatoes,
or chats, as they are called, never anfwer well in this inten-
tion. And it is equally important to have a frequent change
of the feed or fets which are employed for raifing the crops,
as every two or three years, new, or fuch potatoes as are
frefh from other grounds, being found highly ufeful in pre-

venting degeneracy and promoting the goodnefs 4nd abun-
dance of the crops, as well as in obviating their tendency
to the curl, which is fo greatly injurious to them.

The potatoe is an annual plant, which leaves offsets,
tubers, or roots, for its future propagation and increafe.

All the varieties may be cultivated with fuccefs in asy
open fituation. They delight in a moderately light rather
dry foil and open fituation, which fhould be rendered light
with dung. The plants are increafed by the root, either
whole or cut in pieces, each cutting forming a proper fet
or plant. This is their general method of cultivation ; but
they may likewife be railed from feed to gain new varieties.

In moft places the general feafon for planting this root is
from about the middle or the latter end of February to the
middle of April ; the early forts, for forward crops, being
planted in the latter end of Februai-y or early in March ;
but for the general crops, March, and the firft fortnight in
April, is the moft proper planting ieafon, efpecially in moift
land ; as, if planted earlier, and much wet Ihould fucceed,
it would rot the fets, more particularly if cuttings ; though
in cafes of necellity, where the ground is not ready before,
they may be planted any lime in April, or even in May, and
yield tolerable crops by October. And the ground for this
purpofe fhould always be dug over for the reception of the
plants to one full fpade deep.

But as to the planting, it may be performed by means of
a dibble, by holeing in with a fpade, or drilling in with a
hoe, bedding in, &c. in rows at two feet afunder, eight,
twelve, or fifteen inches diftant in each row, and not more
than four or five inches deep at the moll.

Dibble-planting. — This is performed either with a common
large garden dibble, blunted at the bottom, making holes
four or five inches deep, at the diftance before mentioned,
dropping one fet into each hole as you go on, and llriking
the earth in over them, or raking it afterwards, which is a
better method.

The furface of the ground fhould, fome time afterwards,
be further raked, and left perfectly even and level.

Drill-planting. — In this mode the drills may be formed
either with a large hoe, two feet afunder, and four or five
inches deep, in which drop the fets a foot afunder, and
cover them in with the earth equally the depth of the drill ;
or the drills may be made with a fpade, and the fets covered
in by means of a rake, the ground being left quite even on
the furface.

Furrow-planting. — This is performed by the fpade, by
turning over or taking out a fpit of earth all along, putting
in the dung, and then dropping the fets in the furrow imme-
diately upon it, and with the next fpit turning the earth in
upon the fets of the firft ; and in another furrow, two feet
from this, putting in the dung and dropping another row of
fets, which are covered in as above, and fo on till the whole
is finifhed.

Holeing-in planting. — This is performed with a fpade. A
man havmg a light handy fpade, and beginning at one end
of the line, takes out a fpit of earth, forms a fmall aper.
ture four or five inches deep, another perfon direftly fol-
lowing after drops a fet in the hole, the earth of the
next Ipit immediately covers it up, and fo on to the end of
the work.

Trenching-in planting This is fometimes praftifed in light

ground, and is efFefted as the perfon proceeds in digging or
trenching the ground, being trenched in the common way,
each trench two fpades wide, and one fpade deep, placing
one row of potatoes in each trench : beginning at one end
of the ground, opening a trench the proper width and depth,
as above, then paring in the top of the nest trench deeply,

putting

SOL A NUM.

putting it with fome good dung in the bottom of the firft,
levelling it evenly, then digging along about half the width
of the next or fecond trench, turning the earth into the firft
upon the dung, only two or three inches in depth, and upon
which lay the potatoe-fets in a row along the middle eight
or ten inches or a foot or more afunder ; then digging along
the relt or whole width of the faid fecond trench a moderate
fpade deep, turning the earth of it into the firit trench, over
the fets, three or four inches deep ; this done, dung the
bottom of the open trench, and proceed with the digging
and planting as before ; and continue trench and trench to
the end of the work.

Bedding-ln planting. — This is fometimes done in low wet-
tifh land, for the fake of raifing the beds, and finking the
alleys deep enough to drain off the too copious moilture,
and is thus performed : — the ground is divided into four,
five, or fix-feet wide beds, with alleys two or three feet
wide between bed and bed ; and the beds being dug, the
potatoe-fets are placed upon a little littery dung on the fur-
face in rows lengthwife ; and then the alleys dug out a
fpade deep, cafting the earth over the fets about three or
four inches thick ; or the alleys may be firll dug out to
raife the beds, and the fets then planted with a dibble in the
common method : thus, by either of thefe methods, in wet
ground, the alleys being funk, and the beds raifed, the
alleys drain off the redundant moifture, which might rot the
fets before they begin to fprout out and grow.

And this method of planting is fometimes performed on
grafs or fward-land, marking out beds as above, with alleys
between of proportionable width ; then, without digging
the beds, the potatoe-fets are placed immediately upon the
fward at proper diftances ; the alleys being then dug and
the fpits turned grafs-fide downward upon the beds over the
fets, covering them the proper depth as above, in which, if
any additional depth is wanted, it may be fupplied from the
imder earth of the alleys ; and thus the fets being between
two fwards, grow, and often are produftive of very good
crops, if permitted to have full growth. This is a fort of
lazy-bed mode of planting, that is not to be much praftifed
in gardens.

In the after-management of the crops, where weeds begin
to over-run the ground, two or three hoeings fhould be
given to kill them and loofen the furface of the foil ; and
when the plants have fome growth, fome hoe up a ridge of
earth clofe to each fide of every row of plants in the firlt
or fecond hocmg, to itrengthen their growth more effec-
tually, and render them more prolific, as the bottom of the
ftalks fo landed up generally emits roots in the earth that
become produftive of potatoes the fame as the principal
roots.

In Oftober, when the potatoes are full grown, they
fhould in the general crops be wholly taken up before they
are attacked by froft, and depofited in fome dry apartment
for keeping : lome may however be taken up before for
occafional ufe : this bufinefs is ufually performed by a three-
pronged fork, the ends of the prongs being a little blunted.
The early crops are to be taken up as they are wanted for
nfe, as feen below.

Before the potatoes are begun to be dug up, whether in
the early or late crops, the haulm fliould be cut clofe to the
ground and cleared away, in the former only to the extent
of what is to be taken up at the time, but in the latter for
the whole fpace which is to be dug up in the day, or other
length of time, or for the quantity there may be. It is to
be turned off in heaps on to the dug land, that the furface
of the ground to be dug for potatoes may be rendered per-
Icftly ckar and convenient for the work. Thi» ii ufually

done as the workman proceeds. In forking the crop up,
the labour then goes on, by firft opening a trench along one
end of the ground to the depth and width of a good fpit,
proceeding in the fame way with the reft, throwing the
whole of the potatoes, as they are dug up, into large baf-
kets placed for the purpofe, carefully digging over all the
land in a regular manner fpit by fpit, turning each clean
upfide down into the previous open trench. In this manner
the whole is to be completed.

The early crops are beft taken up as they are wanted, as
they do not keep fo good when dug up in large quantities.

The haulm is fometimes burnt, in the heaps as they lie
upon the ground, but it is probably better to make ufe of
it as litter, or to employ it for fome garden purpofes, which
it may be made to anfwer.

When become perfeftly dry and well freed from dirt and
other matters, the potatoes may be put up and fecured in
the houfe, when for keeping, all the cut and bruifed ones,
as well as the chats or very fmall ones, being previoully forted
out and taken away. Towards the fpring they may like-
wife be rubbed over to take off the fprouts and make them
keep better.

When it is intended to raife new varieties from feed, feme
of the firll flowering plants fhould be marked, the feed
fhould be gathered in autumn when full ripe, and in the
March or April following fown in fome light foil, in an
open Ctuation, in fhallew drills a foot afunder ; and when
the plants come up, they fhould be kept clear from weed*
till autumn, when, about the end of Oftobcr or beginning
of November, the roots may be taken up, felefting the
fineft and largelt, which prefcrve in fand till fpring ; then
plant them in the common way, and by the autumn follow-
ing they will have made proper increafe, and attain full per-
feftion ; when their properties muft be determined.

It is not improbable, from what has been written on the
fubjcft in the Tranfaftions of the Horticultural Society of
London, that much utility and advantage may be derived in
the cultivation of the early or proper garden potatoe, from
making ufe of new and more early varieties than fuch at
have been ufually employed. Formerly, the early varieties
of this root were folely gained by accident from the feeds
of the late forts, and confequcntly not often produced ; at
the early forts or varieties of this plant were well known to
feldom or never afford either bloffoms or feeds in the com-
mon methods of culture, they being only capable of being
increafed by portions of their tubers or roots. But by
having recourle to fuch methods of management with them,
as tend to prevent the preternaturally early forming of their
tubers or roots, it has been found that feeds may be readily-
procured from the mofl early of the beft early forts, the
feeds of which may, it is fuggcfted, in fucccflive crops, at
lafl afford ttill more early and better varictiet^, than any
which have hitherto been produced. This would be a great
and important acquifition, cfpecially in the garden culture of
the potatoe. See Pot.vtoe.

The manner of the cultivation of the potatoe in the pre-
ceding year, and the Hate which it is in from it, would
feem alfo to have much influence on the produce of the fuc-
ceeding year, as great benefit has, it is faid, arifen from
planting fuch potatoes as had grown late and not been fully
maturated in the preceding year. And in the early forts it
has been found, tliat the earlinefs likewile of the crops, to
fome extent, are dependent upon the Itate of tiie varieties ;
fo that tlie fuccefa uf the cultivator in railing an early crop
of this kind, maybe good or bad, according to the mode
or manner of the culture, in the preceding year, of the
tuber* or plaoti. Such varittieti as h<ivc the appearance of
P p 2 being

SOL

beiDg expended, worn out, and wortWefs, may alfo be re-
ftored, in fome inflances at leaft, to their original or primary
vigour and importance by attention in this way.

Thus, by preparing proper tubers in the preceding year
for planting out crops in the fucceeding one, great utility
may be produced in the garden cuhivation of this root, as
well as in the field.

In the fame TranfaAions, in fpeaking of the preventmg
of the curl, the able prefident remarks, that the rough and
uneven furface of the leaf in this plant, which, in excefs,
indicates, and indeed conftitutes, the difeafed ilate known
by the above name, feems to exift in, and to form an ef-
fential charafteriftic, of every good variety of the potatoe ;
as he has never met with a fingle variety of the perfeflly
fmooth polifhed-leaved kind that poffeffed any degree of ex-
cellence. And it is endeavoured to be proved, that this
rough and crumpled flate of the leaf probably originates in
the preternaturally infpiffated or thickened ftate of the fluid,
in the firm and farinaceous potatoe. Such varieties, how-
ever, as have fmooth and polifhed leaves, are, it is faid, in
general, the moil produftive, and grow in the moft luxuriant
manner, which, it is thought, partly fliews, that the fmooth
leaf is a more perfeft and efficient organ than the rough one ;
the latter indicating, it is fuppofed, fome degree of approxi-
mation to difeafe.

It is dated, that by planting potatoes of an early variety
in the fame foil from which a crop of the fame variety had
been taken in the month of July, a fecond crop was pro-
cured. But the tubers produced by thofe laft planted, were
found to be much more foft and watery, when boiled, than
others of the fame variety, and confequently greatly inferior
in value for all cuhnary purpofes ; they were on that account
kept for future planting. It was inferred, on the principles
that had been laid down, that the organizable matter thefe
contained, being in a lefs firm and concrete ftate, it would
prove more difpofeable, and that in the fucceeding feafon,
plants of ftronger growth, and more fmooth and perfeft
foliage, might confequently be expefted. The refult proved
the inference to be every way true : the plants prefented
the appearance of a different variety, and afforded a more
abundant crop and larger tubers than had ever before been
obtained from the fame variety. This trial was, it is faid,
confined to a fingle very early kind, which had previoufly
produced partially curled leaves ; but, it is fuppofed, the
fame method of management will prove equally advantageous
with other varieties, which fhew fimilar indications of in-
cipient difeafe.

If this reafoning and mode of culture fhould turn out
to be correft and well founded, they may be of great ufe
in bettering and promoting the growth of this fort of valu-
able root.

By other -writers this difeafe in the potatoe plant has,
however, been fuppofed to arife in other ways, and to be of
a very different kind ; and it is ftated, that Mr. Dickfon,
in the Tranfaftions of the Caledonian Horticultural Society,
conceives it to originate in debility, arifing from the too
great ripenefs of the tubers, and in the parent plant having
too much expended itfelf in affording blofToms and feeds,
as well as tubers. In proof of which, the very curious faft
is related, that a cutting taken from the extremity, which
is moft firm and farinaceous, of a long or kidney-fhaped
potatoe, will afford difeafed plants, while another cutting
taken from the oppofite end of the fame potatoe, will pro-
duce perfeftly healthy plants.

But it is thought by Mr. Knight, that this opinion can-
not be acceded to, as it is not to be fuppofed, that a plant
which is a native of fuch a climate as the potatoe, can evsr

SOL

be over-ripened in fo northern a fituation ; befides, thofe
varieties which never afforded either blofToms or feeds, have
in his garden been quite as fubjecl to the difeafe as others.
Nor is it believed that the buds of the firm farinaceous ex-
tremity have greater maturity than thofe at the contrary
end, as thofe nearefl the parent plant are in reality the
oldeft, the tuber being formed by a branch, which has
expanded itfelf in a lateral manner, inftead of having ex-
tended itfelf in a longitudinal direftion. Confequently the
buds of it are arranged as they would have been upon the
elongated branch ; and every tuber, in its incipient ftate of
formation, will extend itfelf into a branch, provided the
plant, to which it belong;!, be cut off clofe to the ground,
and the current of afcending fap be in confequence diverted
into, and through the tubers.

It is however found, by both the above inquirers, that a
tuber, or part of one, which is foft and aqueous, affords a
better plant than one which is firm and farinaceous, or in the
mealy ftate.

It is faid, in the correfted Agricultural Survey of Corn-
wall, that a gardener of Penzance, in that diftrift, can
afcertaiii when a potatoe chofen for a fet will produce the
curl ; as a healthy potatoe will always, in his opinion, be
largelt, and rounded at its nofe-end, while a difeafed potatoe
runs fmaller at its nofe-end than at the tail-end, and will pro-
duce the curl, if planted. It is noticed, that the form of
the difeafed potatoe here defcribed is very eafily diftinguifh-
able in the kidney fort, or in any long-lhaped potatoe, but
not fo readily, or with fuch facility, in the round kind ; yet
it is fuppofed to be capable of being diftinguifhed by atten-
tion, and a little practice, in all.

In regard to fets, as whole potatoes do not always anfwer
well for the purpofe, and as thofe of certain large fizes are
better than fmall ones ; the beft mode of forming them is
fuppofed to be that of taking off the fprout or nofe-end,
and the umbiHcal or tail-end of the potatoe, leaving the
middle part entirely for the fet. The worft mode of cut-
ting the potatoe, in this intention, is, it is faid, that of di-
viding it down the middle, from the nofe to the tail, though
a method much too commonly praftifed.

The preparing the fets beforehand, as in the preceding
winter, from the fairefl and beft potatoes, and placing them
in fuch dry fituations, as that they may become incrufted
with their juice, and thereby bleed lefs before fprouting,
than if frefh cut in the fpring at the time of planting, is a
practice adopted in Ireland with advantage. The fet is, of
courfe, ftronger, and it puts forth a more vigorous fhoot
foon after being planted. The planting of fmall whole
potatoes, or fets having more than two ftrong eyes or buds,
is with reafon commonly avoided ; and thofe potatoes with
a number of eyes, on what is termed the crown of the
potatoe, are invariably rejefted, with the fmall potatoes,"
both being found to produce languid fhoots, and a number
of fmall bad potatoes of no value. In all thefe ftates they
are thought to be improper for planting as fets.

Thefe hints, ftateraents, and conclufions, may ferve to
extend and improve our knowledge of the nature of a dif-
eafe which has long been fo injurious to potatoe crops. See
Curl.

SoLANUM Dulcamara, in the McUena Medka. See
Woody Nightshade.

SoLANUM Nigrum. See Garden NIGHTSHADE.

SoLANUM Pomiferum, jlpple-bearing Nightfliadc, in Bo-
tany, a name given by writers to the night/hades, and
plants of feveral genera allied to thofe, and bearing large
fruits. See Melongen.\ and Lycopersicon.

SoLANUM Somniferum, Sleepy Night/hade, a name given

by

SOL

SOL

by Cafpar Bauhin, and fome others, to a fpecies of win-
ter-cherry, the whorled alkekeiigi with fmall fruit.

SOLAR, fomething belonging to the fun.

Thus, we fay folar fire in contradiftindlion to culinary
fire.

SoL.'Vll Cmil Month. See MoNTM.

Solar Cycle. See Cycle.

Solar Comet. See Discus.

Solar Eclipfe, is a privation of the light of the fun, by
the interpofition of the opaque body of the moon. See
Eclip.se.

Solar Month, Rifing, Spots. See the fubftantives.

Solar Syftem, the order and difpofition of the feveral
heavenly bodies, which revolve round the fun as the centre
of their motion ; vi-z.. the planets, primary and fecondary,
and the comets. For a fcheme of the folar fyftem, fee
System.

Solar Year. See Year.

SOLARl, Andrea, in Biography, a native of Milan,
called alfo del Gobbo. Vafari fays he flourifhcd in the time
of Correggio ; and praifes him as a pleafing colourilt, and
a graceful defigner. He is one of thofe artiils whofe figures
of the Virgin, &c. are conilantly fold as Lionardo da Vinci's
produftions. He died about 1530.

SOLAROSA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Sardinia; 9 miles N.E. of Oriftagni.

SOLARS, three fmall iflands in the Eaft Indian fea, fub-
jeft to the Dutch, furnifhed with every kind of provifions :
the middlemoft is faid to have a good harbour for fhipping,
fituated to the E. of Ende ifland.

SOLATRUM, in Botany. See Nightshade.

SOLCI, in Ancient Geography, a port on the fouthern
coalt of the ifle of Sardinia, between Cherfonnefus and Po-
pulum. Ptol.

SOLCK, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
16 miles W.N.W. of Oberwoltz.

SOLDAN. See Sultan.

SOLDANELLA, in Botany, from folidus, a piece of
money, a name given to the Sea Bindweed, (fee Convol-
vulus,) and to the plant of which we are about to fpeak,
becaufe of the thick orbicular form of their leaves. In like
manner Nummularia was named, from nummus, in allufion to
its round flat yellow flowers. (See Lysimachia.) — Linn.
Gen. 81. Schreb. 106. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 808. Mart.
Mill. Didt. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 310. Juif. 97.
Tourn. t. 16. Lamarck lllultr. t. 99. — Clafs and order,
Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Precix, Linn. Z.v^-
mach'tie, Jull. Prhnulacee, Ventenat, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep,
eredt, lanceolate, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal,
bell-rtiaped, gradually dilated upwards, divided into nume-
rous, linear, ilraight fegments. Slam. Filaments five, thread-
(haped, very fliort ; anthers fimple, arrow-fhaped, pointed,
converging, (hortcr than the corolla. Pijl- Germen fupe-
rior, roundifli ; Uyle thread-fliaped, about the length of the
corolla, permanent ; lligma obtufe, notched, downy. Perk.
Capfule nearly cylindrical, flightly curved, obliquely
ftriated, of one cell, opening with five abrupt notched teeth
at the fummit. Seeds nuinerous, minute, pointed, attached
to a central, columnar, unconncfted receptacle.

Eil. Ch. Corolla bell-fliaped, in many linear fegments.
Anthers beaked. Capfule cylindrical, of one cell, with
feveral teeth at the fummit.

I. S. alpina. Al()ine Soldanella. Linn. Sp. PI. 206.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Curt. Mag. t. 49. Jacq. Auflr.
t. 13. Camcr. Epit. 254. (S. alpina, major ct minor;
Cluf. Hift. V. I. 308, 309. Ger. Era. 838, 839.)— Na-

tive of the alps of Auftria and Switzerland, and the Pyre-
nean mountains, flowering in fpring. With us it is ufually
reckoned a hardy perennial, but fucceeds belt in a pot, (heU
tered in a frame in winter. Few, even of its alpine compa-
nions, are more Angularly elegant. The root is fibrous.
Stem none. Leaves feveral, flalked, fpreading, round,
fmooth, convex, nearly or quite entire ; fome what heart-
fhaped at the bafe ; paler underneath. Flonuer-Jlalhs feveral,
radical, eredl, four or five inches high, fmooth, each bear-
ing one, two, or three drooping _^(/«»frj, of a delicate pur-
plifh blue, occafionally white, with a x^A calyx, and two or
three lanceolate hraSeas at the bafe of the partial ftalks.
Capfule near an inch long. Style various in length.

Soldanella, in Gardening, contains a plant of the low,
herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is
the alpine foldanella (S. alpina).

In this fort there is a variety which has all the part*
fmaller ; the petiole is ftiorter and more flender, and the
leaves are not fo much rounded, but gradually widen from
the petiole.

Method of Culture. — This is increafed by parting the
roots in autumn, about September, planting them in pots,
or in a cool (hady fituation, where the foil is of a moift
loamy kind, being frequently watered when the feafon is
dry, and kept from the fun.

The feeds, foon after they become ripe, may alfo be fown
in pots or boxes, filled with the above fort of mould, being
placed in the fhade, and frequently watered. The plants
rife in the fpring, and in the autumn following fliould be
removed into feparate pots, to have the proteftion of a frame
in winter. They fucceed belt in a aorthern afpeA.

Thefe plants afford variety among other potted plants, in
different fituations about the houfe.

SOLDAU, or Dziadorf, in Geography, a town of
Pruffia, in the province of Oberland ; 100 miles S. of Ko-
nigfberg. N. lat. 53° 2'. E. long. 20^' 4'.

SOLDER, Sodder, or 6'o(Ar, Termed from the French
foudure, of the Latin folidare, to flrengthen : is a metallic
compofition, ufed in foldering or joining together other
metals.

For this purpofe, it is required tliat folders melt fooner
than the metal to be foldered, that they adhere firmly to its
furface, and that they approach as near as may be to the
metal foldered in hardnels and colour.

The different folders are made of gold, filver, copper, tin,
bifmuth, and lead ; ufually obferving, that in the compofi-
tion there be fome of the metal to be foldered mixed with
fome higher and finer metals.

The lolder for gold is compofcd of fine gold, with one-
fourth or one-half its weight of fine filver, accurately mixed
together by fufion, and afterwards beat out into leaves,
fomewhat thinner than card-paper, and rendered as foft as
poffible by annealing. For the method of applying it, fee
Soldering.

Goldfmiths are faid to make four kinds of folder ; viz.
folder of eight, where, to fevcn parts of filver, there is one
of brafs or copper ; folder of fix, where only a fixth part is
copper; folder of four, and folder of three. It is the mix-
ture of copper in the folder that makes raifed plate always
come cheaper than flat.

As mixtures of gold with a little copper are found to melt
with lefs heat than pure gold itfrlf, tiiefe mixtures lervc as
folders for gold ; two pieces of fine gold are foldered by
gold that has a fmall .idmixture of copper ; and gold
alloyed with copper is foldered by fuch as is allowed with
more copper : the workmen add a little filver as well as cop-
per, and vary the proportions of the two to one another, fo

U

SOL

as to make the colour of the folder correfpond, as nearly as
may be, to that of the piece. A mixture of gold and cop-
per is alfo a folder for fine copper as well as for fine gold.

Gold being particularly difpofed to unite with iron, this
metal, with a high alloy of copper, proves an excellent fol-
der for the finer itinds of fteel inftruments.

For larger works in iron and fteel, copper, or an alloy
compofed of equal parts of tin and iron, is employed.

The folder ufed by plumbers ia made of two pounds of
le»d to one of block-tin. Its goodnefs is tried by melting
it, and pouring the bignefs of a crown-piece on a table ;
for, if good, there will arife little, bright, (hining ftars
in it.

For filver, two kinds of folder, viz. the hard and foft, are
ufed and applied like the gold folder. The hard folder is
compofed of equal parts of filver and fine braf'i, and the
foft is prepared by fufing the hard folder with -r^th its
weight of pure zinc. Another folder for filver may be
formed of two parts of fine filver and one part of brafs,
taking care that thefe are not long kept in fufion, leil the
brafs fly ofi" in fumes. For coarfer filver, a folder is pre-
pared by melting four parts of fine filver and three of brafs,
throwing in a little borax, and pouring it out as foon as it is
melted.

The folder for copper is made like that of the plumbers ;
only with copper and tin ; and for very nice works, inftead
of tin, they fometimes ufe a quantity of filver.

For copper, brafs, and the hard alloys of copper, the
beft hard folder, fays Aikin (Dift.), is compofed of brafs
and zinc, in the proportion of from eight to fixteen of the
former to one of the latter, accordingto the required hardnefs.
The foft folder is compofed of three parts of zinc and one
of lead, and is applied by means of a common foldering
iron, made red-hot.

Solder for tin is made of two-thirds of tin and one of
lead, or of equal parts of each ; but where the work is any
thing delicate, as in organ-pipes, where the junfture is
fcarcely difcernible, it is made of one part of bifmuth, and
three parts of pewter.

The pewterers ufe a kind of folder made with two parts
of tin and one of bifmuth : this compofition melts with the
leaft: heat of any of the folders.

The folder for tin, pewter, and lead (or the plumber's fol-
der), fays Aikin (ubi fupra), is of two kinds : the leaft
fufible is compofed of equal parts of tin and lead ; the more
fufible contains, befides, bifmuth in various proportions. A
very good foft folder is prepared by melting together fixteen
parts of tin, eight of lead, and four of bifmuth.

Spelter folder is made of one part of brafs and two of
fpelter, and is ufed by the braziers and copper-fmiths for
foldering brafs, copper, andiron. This folder is improved
by adding to each ounce of it one pennyweight of filver.
But as this folder does not melt without a confiderable de-
gree of heat, it cannot be ufed when it is inconvenient to
heat the work red-hot ; and therefore, in this cafe, copper
and brafs are foldered with filver.

Though fpelter folder be much cheaper than filver folder,
yet workmen in many cafes prefer the latter. And Mr.
Boyle informs us, that he has found it run with fo moderate
a heat, as not much to endanger the melting of the dehcate
parts of the work to be foldered ; and if well made, this
filver folder will lie even upon the ordinary kind itfelf ; and
fo fill up thofe little cavities that may chance to be left in
the firft operation, which is not eafily done without a folder
more eafily fufible than the firft made ufe of. Works
Abridged, vol. i. p. ijj.

As to iron, it is fufficient that it be heated red-hot, and

SOL

the two extremities, in this ftate, be hammered together.
By this means they become incorporated one with the other :
when it is foldered it is ufually done with brafs ; good
tough brafs, with borax applied, mixed with water to the
confiftence of parte.

The duke of Florence's nail, anciently fo much admired,
as being half iron and half gold, whereas thofe two metals
were deemed irreconcileable, wasjoined by a kind of folder
made by Turneifler, an ingenious chemift of Venice ; the
fecret of which was never difcovered till publilhed by Tache-
nius. This folder is nothing but a little copper, or cypru»
vitriol, put between the gold and the iron. For, naturally,
the great acidity of the gold reduces the iron into a fcoria or
ruft, when the two are applied over one another ; but this
inconvenience is removed, by the interpofition of a little
copper, be it in the fmalleft quantity imaginable. See the
next article.

SOLDERING, orSoDOERlNO, among Mechanics, the
joining and faftening together of two pieces of the fame
metal, or of two different metals, by the fufion and appli-
cation of fome metallic compofition on the extremities of
the metals to be joined.

In foldering, fome artifice is necelTary to make the folder
and metals adhere. All the metals, except filver and gold,
upon melting, or before, are covered with drofs : and all the
folders have fome of thefe metals in them : this drofs hinder*
the folder and metal from uniting, and it is neceflary to re-
move it. This is not performed in every kind of foldering
by the fame materials. The plumbers effeft this by greafing
the lead, laying on the folder, and melting it with a hot
iron, and thus the drofs, generated in fufion, unites with
the greafe, and flows away from the melted metal. The
glaziers and tin-men ufe rofin in powder for the fame pur-
poie ; for all inflammable fiibftances that will melt are
equally conducive to this ufe. When copper and brafs are
foldered with pewter, the work is firrt waftied with a folu-
tion of fal ammoniac in water," then heated jull hot enough
to melt the pewter, and the pewter applied to the joint to
be foldered. In foldering that requires a greater heat,
borax is ufed.

Thus, in foldering gold, and alfo filver, take a piece of
folder of the proper fize and fiiape, and lay it on the part
to be cemented, and fprinkle it over with pulverized borax ;
then apply the flame of a blow-pipe, which will caufe both
the borax and folder to fufe, the latter incorporating with,
and adhering firmly to, the gold. When the juncture is
complete, the piece is left to cool, and the borax is removed
by boiling water, or, what is ftill better, a little dilute ful-
phuric or muriatic acid. It is obferved, that the folder
will, in this cafe, appear confiderably paler than the other
part, both on account of the filver with which it is alloyed,
and of the borax, which always lowers the colour of the
gold. This defeft, however, may be remedied by melting
on the furface of the folder a mixture of two parts of nitre
and one of burnt alum, and afterwards wafliing it off" with a
foft brufh and hot water ; by which the natural colour of
the gold will be reltored, and even heightened. Other*
direft this operation to be performed by joining together
the pieces propofed to be united with fine foft iron wire,
and touching the joint to be foldered with a camel's hair
pencil, dipped in borax finely powdered, and well moiftened
with water ; and then placing a little folder upon the joint,
and applying upon it a large piece of charcoal, and, with a
blow-pipe and lamp, blowin'.r upon it through the flame,
until it melts the folder ; and thus the work is finiftied. In
order to cleanfe filver or gold, after it is foldered, make it
juft red-hot, an4 let it cool; then boil it in alum-water, in

an

SOL

. earthen veffel, and it will be as clean as when new. If

be gold, boil it in urine and fal ammoniac.

For a method of foldering, particularly ufeful to optical
and mathematical inftrument-makers, lee Grinding of Me-
tallic Specula.

SOLDIDO, a name given to the tamoata.

SOLDIER, a military man, lilted to ferve a prince or
ttate, in confideration of a certain daily pay.

The word is formed from the Italian, foldato, and that
from the Latin, filida, or folldata, of folidus, the folde or
pay ; though Pafquier choofes to derive it from the old
Gaulilh foldoyer, a foldier ; and Nicod from foldurius.

The ioldier is a perfon who takes pay ; the vallal is one
who is obliged to ferve at his own expence : the volunteer
ferves at his own expence, and of his own accord.

Du-Cange obferves, that the ancient foldiers were not to
be fhort of five feet and a half; and that this meafure was
called incoma or incojnma.

Every member of a fociety, capable of bearing arms, is
obliged to ferve and defend the Itate ; and, therefore, fhould
be difpofed to take them up, at the firft order of him who
has the power of making war. In England this is the pre-
rogative of the king, for to him belongs the right of grant-
ing commiffions for raifnig droops ; but he cannot compel
any perfon to cnlift, nor, without the concurrence of the
parliament, keep an army on foot. In ancient times, efpe-
cially in fmall Hates, every member, on a declaration of
war, was a foldier : the whole community took up arms,
and followed to the war. Soon after a choice was made,
and armies formed of felcft men, whilft the reft of the people
purfued their common occupations. Ac prefent the ufe of
regular troops is almolt every where adopted, efpecially in
powerful itates. The public authority raifes foldiers, dif-
tributes them into different bodies, under the command of
generals and other officers, and keeps them on foot as long
as it thinks neceflary. As every citizen or fubjeA is
obliged to ferve the Itate, the fovereign has a right, in cafe
of neceffity, to enlift whom he pleafes ; but he fhould choofe
only fuch as are proper for the occupation of war : and it is
highly proper to take, as far as poffible, only volunteers,
who enlift chearfully without compulfion. See Enlisting,
Impressing, and Volunteers.

No perfon is naturally exempt from taking up arms in
defence of the itate ; the obhgation of every member of the
fociety being the fame. Thofe only are excepted, who
are incapable of handling arms, and fupporting the fatigues
of war. This is the reafon why old men, children, and
women, are excepted. Neverthelefs, unlefs government is
compelled by neceffity, it (hould exempt from military lervice
all who are employed in llations ufeful or neceffary to fo-
ciety. Magiltrates are, therefore, ufually excepted ; their
whole time not being too much for the adminiftration of
jultice, .ind the maintenance of order. The clergy, fays
Vattel, cannot naturally, and by any right, arrogate to
themfelves a particular exemption. To defend one's country
is an aftion not unworthy of the molt facred hands. How-
ever, the reafons alleged in favour of magiftrates may be
urged alfo in behalf ot that part of the clergy who are truly
ufeful; fuch as teach religion, govern the church, and cele-
brate the public worftiip. But as for thofe imnienfe multi-
tudes of ufelefs religious, who, under pretence of dedicating
themfelves to God, in efl'cft fpend their lives in an effeminate
idlenefs, they have no right to claim a privilege that is per-
nicious to the Hate ; and whilft the prince exempts them from
military fervicc, he injures the other members of the com-
munity, by throwing on them the whole burden. " I do
not pretend," /ays Vattel, " to advifc a prince to fill his

SOL

armies with monks, but gradually to diminifh a ufeleft claf*
of men, by taking from it injurious and ill-grounded privi-
leges." There is another clafs of idle perfon?, the exemp-
tion of whom is ftill more culpable ; that ufelefs clafs of
footmen, who fill the houfes of the great and wealthy : a
clafs who by their calling corrupt themfelves, by difplaying
the luxury of their mafter.

Among the Romans, while all the people ferved alter-
nately in war, their fervice was gratuitous ; but when a
choice is made, and ftanding armies are formed, the itate is
to pay them ; no man owing more than his quota of the
public fervice : and if the ordinary revenues are not fuffi-
cient, it muft be provided for by impoits. It is juft that
they who do not ferve fhould pay their defenders. When
the foldier is not in the field, there is a neceffity of quar-
tering him ; and this burden naturally falls on houfekeepers :
but as it is attended with many inconveniencies to the people,
it becomes a good prince, or a wife and equitable govern-
ment, to eafe them of it as far as poffible. Moreover, the
afylums prepared for foldiers and reduced officers, who are
grown old in the fervice, or whom fatigues or the enemy
have rendered incapable of providing fubfiftence for them-
felves, may be confidered as part of the military pay. The
eafe of thefe unfortunate victims of war is the indifpenfible
duty of every ftate, in proportion to its ability. It is con-
trary, not only to humanity, but to the ftriftelt juitice,
that generous citizens, heroes who have fhed their blood
for the fafety of their country, ffiould be left to perilh with
want, or unworthily forced to beg for fubfiftence.

Mercenary foldiers are foreigners voluntarily engaging to
ferve the Hate for money, or a ftipulated pay. As they
owe no fervice to a fovereign, whofe fubjefts they are not,
the profpeft of advantage is their fole motive. It has been
a queltion, however, whether the profeffion of a mercenary
foldier be lawful, or not ? or whether individuals may for
money, or any other reward, engage to ferve a foreign
prince in his wars ? This queftion, fays Vattel, does not
to me appear very difficult to be folved. They who enter
into fuch engagements, veithout the exprefs or tacit confent
of their fovereigns, offend againlt their duty as fubjefts.
But if their fovereign leaves them at liberty to follow their
inclination for a military life, they are abfolutely free.
Now, every free man may join himfelf to whatever fociety
he pleafes, and which to him appears molt advantageous.
He may make its caufe his own, and cfpoufe its quarrels.
He becomes in fome meafure, at lealt for a time, a member
of the ftate in the fervice of which he engages : and as an
officer is commonly at liberty to quit the fervice when he
thinks proper, and the foldier at the term of his engage-
ment ; if, therefore, this Itate embark in a war, manifeltly
unjult, the foreigners may quit its fervice. And this mer-
cenary foldier having now learnt the art of war, has rendered
himfelf capable of lerving his country, whenever it requires
his ailiftance. The lalt confideration will furnilh us with an
anlwer to a queftion propofed on this head : whether the
fovereign may, with equity and decency, permit his fubjedts
to ferve foreign powers indifcriminatcly for money ? He
may, becaufe his fubjedts will by this means learn an art,
the thorough knowledge of which is both ufeful and necef-
fary. The tranquillity, the profound peace, which Swit-
zerland has fo long enjoyed, in the midtl of all the com-
motions and wars whicli have agitated Europe ; this long
repofe, it is faid, would foon become fatal to it, did not the
citizens, by fervin;;; foreign princes, qualify themfelves for
the operations of war, and lupport their martial Ipirit.

Mercenary foldiers engage themlelvcs, and enlift volun-
tarily. The fovereign has iio right to compel foreigners ;
4 he

SOL

he is not even to make ufe of artifice or furprife, for in-
ducing them to engage in a contraft, which, hke all others,
fliould be founded on candour and probity. '

As the right of levying foldiers belongs folely to the
nation, fo no perfon is to enlift foldiers in a foreign country,
without the permiffion of the fovereign ; and even with this
permiffion, none but volunteers are to be enliited : for the
fervice of their country is out of the queftion here, and no
fovereign has a right to give or fell his fubjeds to another.
They who undertake to enlift foldiers in a foreign country,
without the fovereign's permiffion ; and, in general, who-
ever ahenates the fubjefts of another, violates one of the
moft facred rights both of the prince and the ftate. It is
the crime diltinguiftied by the name of plagiat, or man-
ftealing, and accordingly is puniflied with the utmoft feverity
in every policied itate.

All foldiers, natives or foreigners, are to take an oath to
aft faithfully, and not defert the fervice. This is no more
than what they are already obliged to, the one as fubjeds,
the other by their engagement ; but their fidelity is of fo
great importance to the ftate, that too many precautions
cannot be taken for rendering it fecure. Deferters (hould
be feverely punifhed, and the fovereign, where he judges it
tieceffary, may inflift capital punifhment on them. The
emiffaries, who folicit them to defert, are far more guilty
than the recruiters above mentioned.

Good order and fubordination, fo ufeful in all places, are
no where fo neceflary as in an army. The fovereign (liould
Madly fpecify and determine the funftions, duties, and
rights of military perfons, as foldiers, officers, commanders
of parties, and generals. He (hould regulate and fix the
authority of commanders of all degrees, the punifhments to
be inflidled on offences, the form of trials, &c. The laws
and orders relative to thefe feveral particulars form the mili-
tary code.

Thefe regulations, the particular end of which is to main-
tain order in the troops, and to render them capable of
performing the beft fervice, conftitute what is called mili-
tary difcipline.

Judge Blackftone obferves, that in a land of liberty it is
extremely dangerous to make a diftinft order of the pro-
feffion of arms. In ab folate monarchies this is neceffary for
the fafety of the prince, and arifes from the main principle
of their conftitution, which is that of governing by fear ;
but in free dates, the profeffion of a foldier, taken fingly
and merely as a profeffion, is juftly an objeft of jealoufy.
In thefe no man (hould take up arms but with a view to
defend his country and its laws : he puts not off the citizen
when he enters the camp ; but it is becaufe he is a citizen,
and would wi(h to continue fo, that he makes himfelf for a
while a foldier. The laws, therefore, and conftitution of
thefe kingdoms, know no fuch ftate as that of a perpetual
ftanding foldier, bred up to no other profeffion than that of
war ; and it was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the
kings of England had fo much as a guard about their perfons.

The prefent regulations concerning the regular military
force of our country, as contradiftinguifhed from the mi-
litia, &c. and for regulating the royal marine forces when
on (hore, are chiefly contained in the yearly afts againft
mutiny and defertion. Thefe comprehend the articles of
war, enlifting of foldiers, including foreign foldiers, the
number of whom allowed to be at one time in the united
kingdom is extended by 46 Geo. III. c. 23. to 16,000,
mufter, the provifion of carriages, billeting of foldiers, or
quartering them by conftables or other magiftrates of cities,
towns, villages, &c. in livery (tables, ale-houfes, viftualling
houfes, the hoi^fes of fellers of wine by retail, and all houfes

6

SOL

of perfons felling brandy, ftrong waters, cyder, or methe-
glin, by retail ; but in no private houfes whatfoever ; apd
the rates of fubfiftence to be paid to innkeepers, &c. for
foldiers' quarters ; the removal of foldiers in times of elec-
tion of members of parliament ; the mode of apprehending
and punifhing of deferters ; maintenance and fetting up
trades after their difcharge ; the probate of their wills,
&c. &c. Moft of thefe particulars occur under their re-
fpeftive heads ; and for others our limits require us to refer
to the afts themfelves.

As foldiers, by the annual aft of mutiny, are put in a
worfe condition than any other fubjefts, fo, by the hu-
manity of our ftanding laws, they are in fome cafes put in a
much better. By flat. 43 Eliz. cap. 3. a weekly allowance
is to be raifed in every county for the relief of foldiers that
are fick, hurt, and maimed ; and befides, the royal hofpital
at Chelfea is eftablilhed for fuch as are worn out in their
duty. Moreover, officers and foldiers, that have been in
the king's fervice, are by feveral ftatutes, enafted at the
clofe of feveral wars, at liberty to ufe any trade or occupa<
tion they are fit for in any town in the kingdom, (except
the two univerfities,) notwithftanding any ttatute, cuftom,
or charter to the contrary. And foldiers in aftual military
fervice, may make noncupative wills, and difpofe of their
goods, wages, and other perfonal chattels, without thofe
forms, folemnities, and expences, which the law requires in
other cafes. Blackft. Comm. book i. cap. 13.

The profits attending the profeffion of a foldier, among
the Romans, were very confiderable. I. Booty and plun-
der, with which they frequently returned home loaded,
efpecially after taking any cities or towns ; for thefe were
generally given up to be plundered. 2. The fubdued
countries, which were often divided among the foldiers.
3. Their pay. 4. Clothes. 5. Provifions. 6. Farms and
houfes in provinces were alio given them. 7. Many privi-
leges and immunities, as that none could touch his goods
in his abfence in the camp. 8. Legacies, which the em-
perors left to be dillributed among them. 9. Donatives.
10. Promotions to military honours lay open to every brave
man, though of the meaneft birth.

Not only humanity but intereft require that great care
ffiould be taken of the health of foldiers. Much inftruftion
may be drawn for this purpofe from Dr. Pringle's excellent
treatife, called " Obfervations on the Difeafes of the
Army." He there remarks, that the circumltances of fol-
diers in time of war differ from thofe of other people, in
that they are more expofed to the injuries of the weather,
and always crowded together, whether in camp, barracks,
or hofpitals : wherefore the molt general divifion of thefe
diftempers may be into fuch as arife from the intemperature
of the weather, and thofe from infeftion.

Military difeafes depending on the weather, are reducible
to two forts, viz. to thofe of fummer, and to thofe of
winter. However, as expofitions to cold are unavoidable
upon the firft encampment, as alfo for fome time before the
army ufually goes into winter-quarters, the winter diforders,
beginning about the end of autumn, will not entirely ceafe
before the fummer is well advanced ; and, on the other hand,
as the heats of fummer and damps of autumn difpofe the
body to ficknefs, the camp-diftempers are never quite over
with the campaign, but continue forae time after the troops
retire into winter-quarters.

The fummer difeafes are all of a bihous or putrid nature,
as thofe of winter are inflammatory. See Fever, and the
articles referred to under that fubjeft.

Soldiers, Exercife of. See Exercise.

Soldiers, L'tfling or Enlifting of. See Listing.

S0LDIERS3

SOL

SdLDIERS, Puu'i/hment of. Sec Military EXECUTION'. •

For other particulars relating to foldiers, fee De-seuteR,
Royal Hospital, Camp Hospitals, Covv.]:- Martial,
Martial Laiv, Mutiny, &c.

Soldiers, Band of. See Band.

Soldiers, Frefli-vjater, in Botany, a name given in feveral
parts of England to the llratiotes, a dillinft genus of plants,
called by Boerhaave aloides.

SoLDit^R- IVood. See Mimosa.

Soldier's Gut, in Geography, a cove on the north-eaft
coall of the ifland of St. Chridopher.

SOLDIN, a town of Brandenburg, the capital of a
circle, and formerly the capital of the New Mark, fituated
on a lake of the fame name, about fix miles long, noted for
its lampreys. The town contains about 200 houfes, and
two churches, and has feme manufaftures of cloth ; 32 miles
N. of Francfort on the Oder. N. lat. 53° 2'. E. long.

14° 59'-

SOLDO, in Commerce, a money of account and copper

coin in Italy. Ferrara keeps accounts in lire of 20 foldi,
or 240 denari correnti. The lira alfo contains 2 giuli or
paoli ; and the foldo, 6 qnattrini. The fcudo di Cambio
IS reckoned at 4. lire, or 80 foldi. At Florence, accounts
are kept in fcudo d'oro, ducati, or lire ; each of thefe is
divided into 20 foldi, or 240 denari, and diltinguifhed by
the names of foldi d'oro, foldi di ducato, foldi di lira ; alfo
in paoli of 133- foldi di lira. Accounts of certain fales of
goods are likewife kept in Pezze da otto reali, or livornine
of 5f lire, which are likewife divided into 20 foldi, or
240 denari di Pezza. The copper coins at Florence are
foldi, dueti or pieces of quattrini, fingle quattrini, and de-
nari or piccioli. At Bologna, accounts are kept in lire of
20 foldi ; the foldo, alfo called Bajocco or Bolognino, is
divided into 12 denari, or 5 quattrini. At Rome, the
fcudo di (lampa d'oro is divided into 20 foldi, or 240 de-
nari. The coins at Bologna are of the fame denomination,
weight, and value, as thofe at Rome. The bolognini in
filver is a fingle foldi ; the copper foldi is its half, and
quattrini the fifth part of a foldo. Kelly's Camhift.

SOLDURH, in Antiquity, a kind of military clients, or
retainers to the great men in Gaul, particularly in Aqui-
tania, mentioned by Csfar.

-The foldurii were people that ftiared all the good and ill
fortune of their patrons ; to whom, if any difafter happened,
they either underwent the very fame, or killed themfelves :
and Casfar afTures us, that no one had ever been known to
refufe the alternative. Lib. iii. de Bell. Gall.

Vigenere takes them to have been more than common
foldiers ; and even gentlemen in penfion, or appointment.
Athenoens calls them <ri/»»~o6»ii(rK<-vTii, q. d. dying together,
or with their mailers.

SOLE, in Geography, a town of Norway ; 6 miles S.
of Stavanger.

Sole, in Ship- Building, a fort of lining, to prevent wearing
or tearing away the main part to which it may be attached ;
as to the rudder, bilgeways, &c.

Sole is alfo a name fometimes given to the lower fide
of a gun-port, which, however, is more properly called the
port-fill.

Sole of a Horfe, that plate of horn which, encompaffing
the tlefliy fole, covers the whole bottom of the foot. The
fole ought to be thick and Itrong, and the (hoe of a horfc
I'o fet upon the hoof as not to bear upon it, for otherwife
the fole would be hurt, and not only make tlie horle lame,
but deltroy the flefli that feparates it from the coffin-bone.
It has been an abfurd pradlice with fome to take out the

Vol. XXXin.

SOL

fole. It is done without touching the outfide of the hoof,
as taking off the crulf makes a hcofcnfi. And a horfe thai
has been unfoled, it is faid, will recover in a few weeks.
But this cullom of draining horfes' foles, in order to
relieve the inflammation of the part, and to promote a
free perfpiration, is not in the leaft beneficial, as it leaves
luch a weaknefs and tendernefs behind, that the poor crea-
tures molUy ever afterwards labour under an incurable larae-
ncfs. And La FofTe, though he has recommended the prac-
tice, has not produced a fingle inllance of its fuccels. In
lieu, tlierefore, of tearing the fole up by the roots, Mr.
Wood advifes the foUowiHg method ; in the firft place, to
take off from the tenfion of the veffels and leffen the inflam-
mation, to draw away blood at the toe and above the hoof ;
after which, a poultice, compofed as below, may be applied.
This confifls of linieed boiled m water to a pulp, then add-
ing guofe-greafe, tar, and cow-dung to it ; boihng them all
together to the proper coiifillence.

The compofition may be put to the foot, and all round
tlie hoof ; and a cold charge applied above the coronet.
Where there is no great inflammation, the addition of a little
foap to the poultice, may affill much in removing any co-
agulation of blood in that quarter.

When the foot is fliaped like the back part of an oyfter-
fhell, and the fole higher than the hoof, fo that the whole
foot is quite filled up on the lower part, it is called a
crowned fole.

Sole Corporation. See Corporation.
SOLEA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of Panaro ; 8 miles N. of Modena.

Solea, or Soli, a town of the ifland of Cyprus, for-
merly the fee of a bifliop, and in more ancient times called
" Epea ;" 30 miles N.N.E. of Baffa.

Solea, in Ichthyology, the folefifh, a well-known fiflj, and
much eileemed at table. See Soal.

SOLE-ffi, among the Romans, were a kindof fandals or
flippers, which covered only the fole of the feet, and were
bound on with thongs of leather ; inftead of which the wo-
men, and effeminate perfons of the other fex, tied them on
with purple-coloured ribbands, or fuch as were varioufly
adorned with gold and filver.

SOLE BAY, in Geography. See South WOLD.
SOLEBURY, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Bucks, containing 1669 inhabitants ; 30 miles N. of Phi-
ladelphia.

SOLECISM, Soloecismus, in Grammar, a grofs impro-
priety in fpeech, contrary to the ufe of language, and the
rules of grammar, either in refpeft of declenfion, conjugation,
or fyntax. See Purity.

The word is Greek, o-f/Xoiman'S^, derived from the Soli, a
people of Attica, who, being tranfplanted to Ciiicia, loft
the purity of their ancient tongue, and became ridiculout
to the Athenians for their improprieties in it.

An adlor on the Roman theatre having made a falfe gcf-
ture, the audience immediately cried out, he had committed
a folecifm with his hand.

Cicero, ad Hcrcnn. lib. iv. cap. 12. diftinj^uiflies in the
following manner between barbarifm and folecifm. " La-
tinitas clt qux fennonem purum confcrvat, ab omni vilio
rcmotum. V^itia in lerinone, quominus is latinus fit, duo
pollunt efl'e ; folctifnuis et barbarifmus. Solecifmus eft,
cum verbis pluriniis confequens vtrbum fuperiori non ac-
comniodatur. Barbarifmus eft, cum vcrbum aliquod vitiofe
eflertur."

Solecifm is accounted by grammarians a much greater

fault than barbarifm, (fee Purity,) as it difplays a greater

Q q ignorance

SOL

ignorance of the fundamental rules of the language. How-
ever, when folecifms are not very glaring, where they do not
darken the fenfe, or fugged fome ridiculous idea, the rhe-
torician regards them as much more excufable than bar-
barifms ; becaufe the fermer is accounted folely the efFeft
of negligence, the latter of affedation. Negligence in ex-
preffion, often the confequence of a noble ardour in regard to
the fentiments, is, at the worlt, a venial trefpafs ; fometimes
it is not even witliout energy ; afteftation is always a deadly
fin againll the laws of rhetoric. It ought alfo to be ob-
ferved, that in the article of folecifms, much greater indul-
gence is given to the fpeaker than to the writer ; and to the
writer, who propofes to perfuade or move, greater allow-
ances are made, than to him who propofes barely to initruftor
pleafe. The more vehemence is required by the nature of
the fubjeft, the lefs correftnefs is exaAed in the manner of
treating it. Nay, a remarkable deficiency in this refpeft is
not nearly fo prejudicial to the fcope of the orator, as a fcru-
pulous accuracy, which bears in it the fymptoms of itudy
and art. jEfchines is faid to have remarked, that the ora-
tions of his rival and antagonift, Demofthcne'^, fmelled of
the lamp, thereby intimating that their ityle and compo-
fition were too elaborate. If this remark be jull, it con-
veys the greatelt ceiifure that was ever palled on that emi-
nent orator. But, as the intermediate degrees between the
two extremes are innumerable, both doubtlefs ought to be
avoided. Grammatical inaccuracies ought to be avoided
by a writer, for two reafons ; one is, that a reader will much
fooner difcover them than a hearer, however attentive he
may be ; the other is, as writing implies more leifure and
greater coolnefs than is implied in fpeaking, defeats of this
kind, when difcovered in the former, will be lefs excufcd
than they would be in the latter. To enumerate all the
kinds of folecifm to which writers and fpeakers are fubjeft,
would be both an ufelefs and endlefs talk. The tranfgref-
fion of any of the rules of fyntax is a folecifm ; and al-
moft every rule may be tranfgrefled in a variety of ways.
Some of the more flagrant folecifms are thofe which betray
an ignorance of the rudiments of ths tongue ; and others,
which are more the effefts of inattention, may be diliin-
guilhed by the fofter name of inaccuracies. For examples
of both kinds we refer to Lowth, Prieftley, Murray, and
other grammarians. See alfo Campbell's Philofophy of
Rhetoric, vol. t. b. 2. ch. 3.

SOLEDA, in Geography, a town of the illand of Cuba ;
56 miles S.S.E. of Havanna.

SOLEFTA, a town of Sweden, in Angermanland ; 40
miles N.N.W. of Hernnfiind.

SOLEIL. Ombre de Soleil. See Ombre.

SoLElL de Mer, in Ichthyology, a name given by the French
writers, and by Rondcletius, to a peculiar fpecies of Itar-
filh, of a fmall fize, the legs of which refemble very much the
tails of lizards, and are very brittle.

Gefner defcribes alfo a fpecie« under the name of the fea-
moon, luna marina, which, he fays, is remarkably fragile,
and which, from what elfe he has faid of it in its defcription,
appears alfo to be the fame creature. The great cha-
raiter, however, of the creature's legs refembling, both
in colour and figure, the end of the common brown land-
newt's tail, is fo expreffive, that it cannot but be always
known by it.

Thefe rays are fo extremely friable, that it is fcarcely
poflible to touch them without their breaking, and they are
not befet with points in the manner of the common rays of
the creatures of this kind.

The other rays of ftar-fifhes being furnifhed with many
hundred legs, and thef« wanting theai entirely, it follows.

SOL

that in this fpeeies the rays themfelves muft fupply the place
of legs, and affilt the creature in walking ; and thence its
manner of walking muft neceflarily be different from that of
any other kind. Thefe rays are five in number, and are in-
ferted very near the mouth of the creature, which is always
placed in the centre of the ftar : the part where this aper-
ture is fituated, and which may be called the body of the
animal, is of a roundifh figure ; the diameter of it is about
a thn-d part of the length of the rays ; its under furface
is flat, and its upper convex ; and it is covered, both above
and below, with fcales, but they are arranged in different
manners.

The common habitations of the fea-ftars, on the rough
Ihores of the fea, is no place for thefe tender creatures, every
dafh of a wave againll a ftone, if they were in the way, would
break off their limbs ; they have the caution, therefore, to
fix their refidence only in calm places, and where the (hore
is covered entirely with a deep fmooth fand. When the
water has forfiken them, they are often feen walking flowly
on the fhore ; and in this cafe they ufe their rays as To many
legs. As they divide the body of the fi(h into two equal
parts, there is no ray before or behind any where, fo that
the creature goes with equal eafe to any fide that it likes.
The beft motion they are able to make is, however, very
flow, and the ground on which they march ought to be
very even ; for if they attempt to haften their pace, or if
they find any thing uneven iu their pafTage, one or more of
their legs ufually breaks ; and this is the reafon why this
fpecies is feldom found with its rays perfeft. They never
bury themfelves deep in the fand, but juft get under it, fo
as to be covered ; and this they d'l by advancing two of the
rays together, and burrowmg carefully with them, and then
following them with the reft of the rays and the body.
Mem. Acad. Par. 17 12.

SOLEISSEL, Jamfs de, in Biography, a celebrated
mailer of horfemanfhip, was born in 161 7, in the province
of Forez. He was educated among the Jefuits, but fol-
lowed, during his ftudies, a propenfity which he had felt
when very young, of attending to the manege, with which,
when he arrived at man's eftate, he joined the lludy of the
difeafes of horfes. When he had made himfelf tolerably per-
fei£l in both branches of the fcience, he commenced teacher of
horfemanfhip to the young noblelTe of his province. The
reputation which he foon acquired caufed him to be invited
to aflill in the academy for the manege in Paris, where he
pubhihed a work, entitled " Le Parfait Marechal," which
became very popular, and was tranflated into feveral lan-
guages. He was likewife author of a treatife entitled " Le
Marechal methodique," and of a Diftionary of the terms of
horfemanfhip. He was a man of a very refpeflable private
charafter, and pofTeffed all the accomplifhments that were
neceffary to his profeflion. He died in 1680.

SOLEK, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Poland, in
the palatinate of Sandomirs ; 30 miles N. of Sandomirs.

SOLEMCO, a town of Hungary ; 13 miles E.N.E. of
Gros Wardein.

SOLEMN, SoLENNis, fomething performed with much
pomp, ceremony, and expence. Thus we fay, folemn feafts,
folemn funerals, folemn games, &c.

Solemn, in Laiu, fignifies fomething authentic, or that
is clothed in all its formalities.

Solemn Acceptance. See Acceptance.

Solemn Tejlament, in the Cmil Laiu, is to be attefted by
feven perfons, and fealed with their feals.

Solemn Marriage, is that performed in one's own parifh-
church, after publication of the banns, and in prefence of
witneli'es.

o SOLEN,

SOLEN.

SOLEN, or Razor-Sheath, in Natural Hi/lory, a ge-
nus of the Vermes Teltacea clafs and order, of which the
generic charafter is as follows. The animal is an afcidia ; its
(hield is bivalve, oblong and open at both ends ; the hinge
has a fubulate reflefted tooth ; it is often double, and not
inferted in the oppofitc valve. It had its name, fokn, from
the Greek, in which language that word exprefles a pipe
or tube ; this fi(h, when the fhells are clofed, very aptly
refembling a tube. The Latin writers have called it
unguis, from its refemblance in colour and confidence to the
human nail. The common people in many parts of France
call it coutelicr, and in Italy it is commonly called cannolichio.
(See Shells.) There are twenty-three fpecies enumerated
by Gmelin, which are as follow.

Species.

•Vagina. The fpecific character of this is, that the
fliell is linear, ftraight, roundilh, one end emarginated ;
the hinge is marked with a Tingle oppofite tooth in each
valve. There is a variety that inhabits the European and
Indian feas : it is fix or feven inches broad, and only one
inch long. The fhell is yellowirti, divided diagonally into
two triangles, one of which is Itriate longitudinally, tiie
other tranfverfely, and marked with curved bands. This
fpecies, and all the others that are found in this genus be-
longing to this country, are figured by Barbut> Lilter,
Donovan, and other naturalilts.

*SiLiQUA. The (licll of this fpecies is linear, and
ftraight ; it has one hinge, which is two-toothed. There
is a variety with rofy lunules. The former is found in
moft European feas, and on our own coafts. The latter
is to be met with in the Indian feas. It is leven or eight
inches broad, and not more than one and a half inch long.
The (hell is equally broad and comprefled, with a double
tooth at the hinge, receiving another oppofite, and on one
fide there is another (harp tooth direfted downwards : the
colour is of an olive-brown, with a limpid afh-coloured mark
dividing the {hells diagonally : one part is ftriate longi-
tudinally, the other tranfverfely.

• Exsis. Shell linear, a little bowed, like a fcymitar :
it has one hinge, which is two-toothed. It inhabits Eu-
ropean feas. The (hell is coloured, and marked like that
of the filiqua ; it is rounded at both ends ; the two teeth
of oue valve are inferted into a triangular hollow of the
other.

* Pkllucidus. Shell fnb-arched, fub-oval, pellucid ;
one hinge two-toothed. This is found on the (bores of
Anglefea ; the (hell is thin and pellucid, about an inch
broad, with a double (harp tooth in one valve, receiving a
fingle one from the oppofite, with a procefs in each (hell
pointing towards the cartilage of the hinge.

• Legl'Men. Shell linear, oval, ftraight ; hinges placed
in the middle, and two-toothed ; one of them bifid. It is
found in the European and the Atlantic feas ; is two
inches and a half broad. The (hell is fub-pellucid, radiate,
from the hinge to the margin ; it is rounded at both ends

* CuLTELLUS. The (hell of this fpecies is (haped fome-
thing like a kidney, with a fingle tooth in one valve and
two in the other. It inhabits European and Indian feas,
and is more than two inches broad. The (hell is fragile,
covered with a rough cuticle, under which it is dirty-white,
with tawny mark'i ; both ends arc rounded.

Radiatus. Shell oval, ftraight and fmooth, with a
tranfverfe deprelfed rib growing on one fide. This is
found in India, and is very thin and brittle. The (hell is of
a violet colour, with four tranfverfe white rays, growing
larger towards the thinner margin ; th« deprellcd rib run-

ning nearly the length of the (hell ; the hinge ie callous o«
each fide ; both valves are two-toothed.

Strigtlatus. Shell oral, obliquely ftriate. There it
a variety which inhabits the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and
Indian feas. The (hell is rofy, with two white rays,
ftrong and ventricofe ; the hinge ii a little prominent at
the margin, with a thin reflefted tooth.

Anatinus. The (hell of this is ovate, membranaceous,
and hairy, with a falcate rib at the hinge. It inhabits the
Indian ocean, on a fandy bottom. The (hell ia pellucid,
white, thin, like paper ; one end ronnded and clofed, the
other gaping, like the beak of a bird : there is a tooth in
each valve refembling an ear-picker.

Macha. Shell oval, oblong, truncate before ; one
hinge is two-toothed. It is found in the Pacific ocean.
It is about fix or feven inches long ; in colour it is brown,
varied with blue ; it produces pearl.

BuLLATUS. Shell roundilh, inflated, fub-ftriate ; the
fore-part is gaping, in confequence of its cronatures. This
is found in the American and Indian feas ; brittle, white
fpotted or clouded with purple, longitudinally ftriate, fub-
pellucid ; hinge with a Gngle tooth, marginal ones remote,
compreffed, and inferted in a hollow of the other valve.

MiNUTUs. Shell oval, angles of the valves ferrate. It
is found in the northern parts of Europe, among zoophytes ;
is the fize of a cucumber-feed ; longitudinally ftriate, trun-
cate at the top, with acute ferrate ridges, diverging from
the hinge towards the top.

ViRENs. The (hell of this is ovate-oblong, with tumid
bofl'es. It inhabits Java ; is very brittle, diaphanous, white,
outwardly greeni(h, valves unequal, refembling in its (hape
the Mya pidlorum ; the tip and bafe hardly clofed, with
two approximate teeth in one hinge, and none in the
oppofite.

DiPHOs. Shell oval, ftraight, fmooth, with prominent
membranes. It inhabits the Indian ocean, and refembles
the S. radiatus. It is two inches and a half long, and five
broad ; covered with a greenilh cuticle, under which it
is violet, with numerous rays ; two of thefe are more
diftinft. The hinge has two teeth in one valve, and one in
another.

Minimus. Shell linear-oval, ftraight ; the hinges are
lateral and two-toothed ; one of them is bifid. It inhabits
Tranquebar ; refembles the S. legumen, but is much lefs ;
the cuticle is yellowifti, under which it is clear white ; the
inner rib runs down the whole (hell.

Maximus. Shell linear, oval, ftraight, with arched
ftrias ; hinges lateral, two-toothed. It inhibit* the ftiores
of Nicobar ; it is a very rare fpecies. The (hell is tliin
and pellucid, white, covered with a ycllowi(h cuticle ; it is
four inches broad, one and a half long, gaping at both ends ;
the teeth of the hinge not receiving one another.

CoARCTATWs. The (hell of this is tranfverfely wrinkled,
contraAed in the middle, rounded at both ends ; hinge in
the middle, with fomctimes one, and fomctimes two teeth
in either valve. This is found on the (bores of Nicobar, is
about three-fourths of an inch long, and two and ahalfbroad.
The (hell is of a dirty white, and gaping at both ends.

RosEUs. Shell rofy, equivaUe ; the tooth of the hinge
is fub-bifid, and inferted in a hollow of the oppofite valve.
It inhabits the Red fea, refembles the Tclina radiata, but \\
open at both ends.

Sanguinolentus. Shell oval, quite fmooth ; the hinge
is callous, and two-toothed. It inhabits Jamaica ; the
beaks are rofy without and within.

Stkiatus. Shell equivalve, tranfverfely ftriate ; hinge

with a fingle tooth. It is alfo found near the (hores o(

Q q 2 Nicobar,

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Nicobar, and is middle-fized. ' The (hell is thin, fofy, with
white rays.

OcciDEKS. The fhell of this fpecies is tranfverfely Itriate,
fmooth at the protuberant parts, radiate with white and
reddifh ; both the hinges are two-toothed, with a hollow in
the middle. Its refidence is not known. The (hell is
marked with white and reddifh fpots fcattered about ; is
more than four inches broad, and two long ; both ends are
gaping ; the hinge is lateral.

* Crispus. The (hell, in this fpecies, is partly fmooth,
partly rough with undulate crimped hues ; the hinge has a
long narrow tooth. It is found iti the river Tees, and
refembles the S. anatinus, though it is thought by fome
raturalifts not to be a diftinft fpecies.

Spengi.kri. Protuberances or beaks of the (hell two-
parted ; primary tooth of the hinge rounded, acceflbi-y
ones long and narrow ; one of them is curved. The fhell
is hardly an inch long, but two and a half broad ; it is
rounded at both ends.

Rondeletius obferves, that there are, among the folens
of the fame fpecies, males and females, which are eafily
diftinguifhable from one another ; and that the females are
larger, have no variegations on the fliells, and are much
better tafted than the males. Rumphius has defcribed a
very remarkable fpecies of folen, which always remains
buried in fand, and which is not properly a bivalve, confin-
ing only of one piece, though of the fhape of the folen ;
he calls thkfokn arenarius. Lifter has called the crooked
{fecxesfolenes curvi, and fome call them the fcymltar folens.

We have feveral fpecies of the ilraight folens, though
but few of the crooked ones.

Of the crooked iolens, two are the only known fpecies.
I. The fcymitar folen. 2. The fokn arenarius, always
found in fand.

The fhell of this fifh is compofed of two pieces, which
are the two halves of a hollowed cylinder, with an ellip-
tic bafe, divided in a longitudinal direftion. Thcfe two
pieces arc fattened together near one end by a ligament,
like that which joins the (hells of the mufcle or the oyiter.
From the place where thi<! ligament is fixed, quite to the
other end of the fhell, there is a membrane fallened to each
edge of the fhell, and this increafes in breadth in proportion
to its diltance from the place of its origin ; fo that, viewed
externally, it form? a fort of ifofceles triangle, the bafe of
which was abovit two lines in breadth. The colour and
confluence of this membrane give it very mucli the ap-
pearance of a piece of parchment ; it has a confiderable
fpring in it, and ferves on occafion to open, or draw toge-
ther, the two fides of the fhell.

There is another membrane, of the fame kind with this,
fattened to the other fide of the fifli, there adhering to each
fhell, but this is of an equal breadth all the way down :
this ferves alfo to (hut or open the edges of the (hell.
When the folen (huts its (hell, it folds itfelf into feveral
longitudinal wrinkles, which open again when the fides of
the (hells feparate.

Hence it is to be obferved, that though this (hell has a
power of opening and (hutting, yet the body of the fifh
is always fecured, and i? no more expofed to fight at one
time than at another, and there is no part where the fifh
can be fcen but at the ends.

This fifh lives in the fand on the fea-fhore, where it
buries itfelf often a foot and a half, or two feet deep ; the
length of the (hell is, at this time, nearly in a vertical
pofition, and the fifh has a power of raifing itfelf at plea-
fure up to the furface, and finking down again, while the
fhell remains all the time buried iu its place. Almoft all

I

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other animals have a horizontal motion, and the (helf-fifh
of the fea crawl along upon its bottom imder water, as the
common land animals do on dry ground ; but this creature's
progreflive motion is only vertical, and that confined to a
very fmall compafs ; all that it is able to do for itfelf
being only to raife itfelf higher or lower, and fink deeper
or rife higher in the fand, within the narrow compafs of
about two feet at the utmoll, as the going beyond that
mull occafion its deltrudion. Where thefe fhell-fifh are
buried in the fand, there is a hole reaching from every one
of them to the furface, by means of which they have a free
communication with the water : thefe holes generally are
placed in great numbers near one another, and are eafily
diltinguifhcd at a time when the tide has left the (hore
uncovered. They are not round, but oblong, and fome-
what refemble the key-hole of a lock, but that they have a
roundnefs at each end, whereas that ufually is rounded
only at one.

When it has occafion to afcend out of its hole, nothing
more is required than the putting out the end of the leg,
fwelling it, and thus thrulling itfelf up to the length of
that leg ; then retracing it into the (hell again, and thrult-
ing out and inflating its end for a fecond movement of the
fame kind. Thefe motions may be all perceived in the
creature when out of the land, particularly that by which
it buriej itfelf; for if held up in the fingers, it thrufts out
the leg, and performs all the motions as if in the fand,
making a fruitlefs attempt to fave itfelf in its old way.
Mem. Acad. Par. 17 12.

Klein, and fome others, have given the name folen to the
feveral fpecies of tubuH marini.

SoLEN, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia ; 6 miles
S.S.W. of Magdeburg.

SOLENA, in Botany, fo called by Willdenow, from
GAr,\; a tube, or pipe, in allufion to the long tube of the
flower. For the fame reafon, Schreber had named this
fame genus Cyrtanthus, but the litter appellation is now
beflowed on a very different one. (See Cvrt.a.nthl's.)
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 961. (Cyrtanthus; Schreb. Gen. 122.
Pofoqueria ; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 133. Jiifi. 201. La-
marck Illultr. t. 163.) — Clafs and order, Pentandr'ia Mono-
gyma. Nat. Ord. Rul'taces, Jufi.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, turbi-
nate, in five acute, ereS, permanent fegments. Cor. of
one petal ; tube very long, cylindrical, recurved, dilated at
the fummit, its orifice fringed with hairs ; limb in five deep,
oblong, obtufe, reflexed fegment?. Stam. Filaments five,
capillary, very fhort, incurved, fomewhat unequal, inferted
into the mouth of the tube, between the legments of the
Umb ; anthers oblong, acute at each end, attached by their
bafe. Pijl. Germen inferior, elliptical ; flyle capillary, as
long as the tube ; ftigma minute, three-cleft. Pertc.
Berry elliptical, large, of one cell, full of pulp, and
crowned with the calyx. Seeds about twelve, angular, im-
bedded in the pulp.

Efr. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, fuperior, permanent. Co-
rolla falver-fhaped, with a very long, incurved tube, hairy
at the mouth. Stamens inferted into the rim of the tube.
Style thread-fhaped. Stigma three-cleft. Berry of one
cell, with many angular feeds.

I. S. longiflora. Guiana Pipe-flower. Willd. n. 1. —
(Pofoqueria longiflora; Aubl. Guian. v. i. 134. t. 51.)
— Found by Aublet, on the banks of the great rivers of
Guiana, flowering in November, and bearing fruit in
January. The Galibis call it Aymara-pofoqueri, becaufe a
fifh named aymara feeds on the berries. 'V^ejlem is fhrubby,
five or fix feet high, with a hard white wood, and flender,

knotty.

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knotty, fmooth, oppofite branches. Leaves oppofite,
Italked, elliptical, pointed, entire, veiny, fmooth, about
foBr inches long, each pair crofling the next. Stipulas in
pairs between the footllalks, broad at the bafe, taper-
pointed. Floiucrs about fix, in a terminal corymb, white,
drooping, (lender, the tube of each about four inches long.
Fruit yellow, fucculent, fweet, and plcafant, the fize of a
guinea-hen's egg ; the pulp red.

SoLENA is alfo the name of a genus, of the order of
Cucurbitacea, in Loureiro's Fl. Cochinch. 514, which he
thus denominates on account of the filaments forming a fort
of fiieath. The only fpecies is S. hclerophylla, a native of
woods in China and Cochinchina, with which we are un-
acquainted, but which feems nearly related to Bryonia ; only
the Jlnmcns are monadelphous, and in the fame flower with
the pyiil. The for/i-j are fcarlet. iJoo/ tuberous, of many
white, oblong, farinaceous knobs, eatable, and, according
to the author we follow, ufeful in confumptions and dyfen-
terie-:, as well as the feeds.

SOLENANDRIA, fo called by Ventenat, in his Jardin
de la Malmailon, from (7iiAr:i, a tube, becaufe of the union
of the Itamens. See Galas.

SOLENHOFEN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Anfpach; 29 miles S. of Anfpach.

SOLENIA, in Botany, a third generic name, (fee So-
tENA and SoLENANDRiA,) derived from auiXm, a tube, or
pipe, is ufed in Hoffmann's Flora Germanica, v. 2. t. 8, for
a minute genus of Fungi, whofe tubular form it exprelles.
The fpecies compofing this fuppofed genus are, however,
funk in Pezi%a, by Perfoon in his Synnpfis Fungorum, 675,
of which they conllitute the feventh ledlion, being in all
four fpecies. See Peziza.

SOLENOE, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Kolivan ; 104 miles S. of Kolivan. N. lat.
52° 45'. E. long. 80° 54'.

SOLENOV, a lake of Ruffia, 60 miles long and 20
broad, with two iflands, between lake Aral and the Caf-
pian fea. N. lat. 43° 50' to 44° 50'. E. long. 56° 14'.

SOLES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Cilicia, on the fea-coaft, afterwards called Pompeiopolis.
— Alio, a town of the ifland of Cyprus, in which was a
temple of Venus. See Soi.ot.

SOLESMES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of tiie North, and chief place of a canton, in
the dillridt of Cambray ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Cambray.
The town contains 3849, and the canton 16,419 inhabitants,
on a territory of 140 kilioinetres, in 17 communes. — AHo,
a town of France, in tlie department of the Sarte ; ^ miles
N. of Sable.

SOLE-TENANT, in Laiv, he or fhe who holds lands
only in his or her own right, without any other perfon
joined.

E. gr. If a man and his wife hold lands for their lives,
the remainder to tjieir fon : here, the man dying, the lord
fhall not have heriof, becaufe he dies not Ible-tcnant.

SOLEURE, in Geography, a canton of Switzerland,
holding the eleventh rank in the Helvetic confederacy,
ftretchfs partly througli tiie plain, and partly along the
chains of the Jura, and contains about i;o,000 fouls, in-
cluding the inliabitants of the capital. The foil is, for the
molt part, fertile in corn ; and thofe dillrifts which lie
witliin tlie Jura abound in excellent pal'tures. The trade
both of the town and canton is of httlc value, altliough the
fituation is commodious for an extenfive commerce. It is
divided into eleven dillrifts or baiUiages, called interior and
exterior ; the former are governed by bailifs, who are leiia-
tors, and remain in the towns ; the latter by baihfs leleftcd

from the members of the great council, who refide in their
baiUiages. The inhabitants of the canton are Catholics,
excepting thofe in the baiUiage of Buckegberg, who pro-
fefs the reformed religion. In fpiritual offices, the Catholics
depend on three biihops ; but neither of thefe bifhops can
iflue any ordinance, or even vifit their diocefes, without
the approbation of the fenate. In this canton are two
chapters ; alfo an abbey of Benediftines, four convents,
and three nunneries. Its principal charitable inftitutions
are, an hofpital at Soleure, and another at Olten, for the
reception of burghers, fubjefts, and foreigners ; the found-
ation of Thurigan, for old perfons of both fexes belong.
ing to the burgherdup ; a foundling hofpital for orphans,
and for children of poor burghers ; and the hofpital of
St. Catharine, for the infane and incurables. In ecclefiaf-
tical affairs, the inhabitants of Buckegberg, who profefs
the reformed religion, though fubjeft to Soleure, are under
the proteftion of Bern : and though formerly this compli-
cation of political and religious interefts created frequent
mifunderltandings between the two cantons, yet matters
were amicably and finally adjufted on the i8th of Novem-
ber, 161 8, at the treaty of Winingen. The inhabitants
take the oath of fidelity, every third year, to the govern-
ment of Soleure ; but if aggrieved in their religious elt^-
blifhment, can have recourfe to Bern. The fenate of Bern
nominates to the vacant benefices, but the priefts are under
the neceility of obtaining the confirmation of the chapter
of Soleure. Bern alfo pofTelies fupreme jurifdidlion in cri-
minal affairs. Soleure enjoys all the other rights of fove-
reignty ; fuch as the power of levying taxes, appeals in the
laft refort, and the decifion of all matrimonial and ecclefiafti-
cal concerns, with this provilo, that the decifion fhall be
regulated according to the articles of the treaty of Winin-
gen. With refpect to the militia, all the males, from the
age of 15 to 60, are formed into fix regiments, confilfing
of about 8000 men, exclufive of 240 dragoons, and the
corps of artillery, amounting to 600. The colonel of each
regiment is always a fenator, and the major a member, of
the great council. The fovereign power refides in the
great council, confilling of 102 members, chofen by the
fenate, in equal proportion, from the eleven tribes or
companies into which the ancient burghers are diftributed.
The prerogatives of the great council are to enadt and
abrogate laws ; to explain oblcure parts of the conftitution,
and make alterations in the form of government ; to levy
taxes, declare war, and conclude peace ; to contract alli-
ances, receive appeals in criminal cafes from the burghers of
the capital, and in civil procellcs above the ium of two
Swifs livres, or 61. ^s. ; to confer the new burgherfhip,
eleft the treafurer, or fourth chief of the republic, from
the ancient eleven fcnators, nominate to the feveii exterior
baiUiages, &c. &c. To be qualified for admiflion into the
great council, the candidate mufl be twenty years of age,
an ancient burgher, and a member of the fame tribe in
which the vacancy happens. The great council affemblcs
ordinarily once every month ; and extraordinarily, when
convened by the fenate.

The fenate, or little council, a conftitucnt part of the great
council, is compofed of the two advoyers or chiefs of the
public, who annually alternate ; the chancellor, or fecretary
of flatc, who has no vote; and 33 fenators, drawn from the
remaining 61 members of the great council, divided into 1 1
feniors and 22 juniors. Tiie fenate examines and digefls all
affairs, before they are fubmitted to the great council; isen-
trulled with the executive power, and care of the police ; re-
ceives all appeals in the firfl inltance from the inferior courts
of juilice ; gives judgment in all civil proccdes, not exceeding

the

SOL

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the value of lOO Swifs livres ; and poflefTes fupreme and
final jurifdiftion in criminal caufes, except thofe in which
a burgher of the capital is concerned, who may appeal to
the great council. The fenate alfo nominates, direAly or
indirectly, to moft of the important charges of the re-
public ; and confers the principal ecclefiaftical benefices ;
it adembles retjularly three times a week, and is convoked on
extraordinary occafions by the reigning advoyer. A fenator
muft be 24 years of age, a member of the great council,
and drawn from the fame company to which the lalt fenator
belonged.

Government draws its principal revenues, which do not
exceed 12.500/. per annum, from the following fources :
•v\%. a tax, called the tax for fortifications, laid on the
funds of the tribes and monafteries in the town, and on
thofe of pari(hes in the bailliages ; tythes and " rentes fon-
cieres" belonging to the itate ; tolls ; excife on wine ; in-
terelt of money placed out in the canton and in foreign
countries; monopoly of fait ; revenues from the bailliages.;
fubfidy from France, about nc8/. ; and fundry fmall
fources, a?; demefnes, eftates, falaries of vacant benefices, &c.
The principal departments of government are the tribunals,
comprifing the inferior courts of juftice, and the fecret
council of feven members; the boards of war; of rights,
called " droits regalicns ;" of finances, agriculture, and
public buildings ; of the police ; and of ecclefiaftical affairs,
charitable inftitutions, and fchool?. The burghers are di-
vided into ancient and new, the origin of the diftinftion
being dated from 1681. About eighty-five families pollefs
the right of burgher(hip, and of thefe about thirty-four
of the moft illuftrious fupply the members of the great coun-
cil, and fill the various departments of government. The
burghers, both ancient and new, are diftributed into ele»»n
tribes or companies, each of which furnifhes three fenators
and fix members of the great council. The general aflem-
bly of ancient and new burghers, called '* Rofengarten," or
garden of rofes, is held in the church of the Cordeliers on
the day of St. John the Baptift, for the purpofe of elefting
or confirming the charges of advoyer, baimeret, and grand
fautier ; and the bufinefs of this meeting is condufted with
great pomp and ceremony. From the manner of its pro-
ceeding, we may juftly infer, that the government of So-
leurc is a moft complete ariftocracy. The government,
however, is faid to be mild and equitable ; and the people
are tranquil and contented. When Switzerland felt the
effeft of the French revolution, Soleiu-e was one of the
eighteen Swifs departments or cantons acceding to the
divifion of 1 798, and it formed one of the feventeen depart-
ments or cantons, acceding to the conftitution of the
29th of May, 1801, and the number of its reprefentatives
was three. Soleure contains 288 fquare miles : its popula-
tion, before the revolution, was 45,000 ; its contingent
600 ; and the era of its reception into the Helvetic con-
federacy A.D. 1481.

Soleure, the capital of the above-defcribed canton,
is pleafantly fituated upon the Aar, which here expands its
banks, and opens into a fine level river. This is a very an-
cient town ; and though we rejeA the fabulous tradition of
its having been built by the patriarch Abraham, it may be
allowed that it was one of the twelve towns which were de-
ftroyedupon the emigration of the original inhabitants into
Gaul. From a number of infcriptions, medals, and other
ancient remains, found in its neighbourhood, it appears pro-
bable, that it was repeopled by a Roman colony ; and it was
certainly a Roman ftation, as its ancient appellation, " Caf-
trum Solodurenfe," imphe.s. During the period of barbarifm
that fuccecded the downfall of the Roman empire, it was

facked and deftroyed by thofe northern nations which over-
ran the greateft part of Europe. From the time of its
re-eftabli(hment to that of its admiflion into the Helvetic
confederacy in 1481, its ftate refembled that of many other
imperial towns, which acquired a gradual acceflion of ter-
ritory, and, after various ftruggles, finally fccured inde-
pendence.

Soleure is a fmall but very neat town, furrounded by re-
gular ftone fortifications, erctied in the beginning of tlie laft
century ; the walls enclofe fcarcely more than fifty fquare
acres, and, including the fubiirbs, contain about 4-00 fouls.
The new church, begun in 1762, and finifhed in 1772, is 3
noble edifice of whiti(h-grey Itone, drawn from the neigh-
bouring quarries, which is a fpecics of marble, and admits a
good polifti. The lower part of the building is of the Co-
rinthian, the upper of the Compofite order ; the facade,
which confilU of a portico, furrounded by an elegant tower,
prefents itfelf finely at the extremity of the principal itreet.
Pizoni was the architcft, and the expence amounted at leail
to 80,000/. Amongll the paintings in the interior, which
is fimple but elegant, the moll elleemed is the Laft Supper,
by Corvi, a Roman artift. The town-heufe, though not
worthy of any particular notice, is the place of meeting for
the great council and fenate. The public prifon is a Tolid
edifice of ftone, well adapted to the purpofe : the prifoners
being confined in feparatc cells. The public library is of
recent origin, and was formed by the Abbe Herman, canon
of the cathedral ; by whofe alliduity and zeal it now con-
tains more than 1 1,000 volumes. The circumjacent country
is pleafing and diverfified, and exhibits feveral points of view,
which are as agreeable as wild, and as beautiful as romantic.
N. ht. 47' 14'. E. long. 7^ 19'. Coxe's Travels in Swit-
zerland, vol. i.

Soleure, a town of France, in the department of the
Forelts ; 4milesN.E. of Longwy.

SOLEUS, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the calf of the leg.
See Gastrocnemius.

SOLEUTINAN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the lake
of Nicaragua, near the fouth coaft, with a town. N. lat.
11^23'. W. long. 85' 36.

SOLFACH, or Solv.\, a fmall fea-port town in the
cwmwd of Mynyw, cantref of Pybidiog, (now called the
hundred of Dewifland,) county of Pembroke, South
Wales, is feated on the bank, and clofe to the mouth, of
the river Solfach, at the diftance of ^\ miles from the city
of St. David's. " Theeftuary," fays Mr. Fenton, " forms
a curious inlet between two high hills, where a clear trout
ftream difcharges itfelf, that has its fource in Gwayn y
Barry, and running by Lanrithan, receives a tributary ftream
near Llechmeylir, and fo by Kerbyd and Carvoriog ; then
turning fouthward, after a courfe of fix or feven miles, dif-
charges itfelf here." The harbour at this place, forming
part of St. Bride's bay, is fafe and commodious ; but the
entrance to it is rendered dangerous by a large mafs of rock
in the midft of the channel. About 30 velTels of different
defcriptions belong to this port, from 20 to 250 tons.

Solfach may be faid to be divided into an upper and lower
town, both of which have progreffively augmented in houfes
and inhabitants within the laft four years. Hiftorical Tour
through Pembrokefhire, by Richard Fenton, efq. F.S.A.
4to. 1 81 1.

SOL-FA-ING, in Mujic, the naming and pronouncing
of the feveral notes of a fong, by the fyllablesyb/, fa, la,
&c. in learning to fing it.

For a view of the origin of thefe fyllables, fee Harmo-
nical H.\ND.

Though this fyftem of folmifation does not appear to

have

SOL

SOL

tjave been wholly developed in the writings of Guide, to
whom the inveijtion of the gammut and harmonlcal hand
has been commonly afcribed ; yet Dr. Burney obferves, that
writers very near the period in which he lived give him the
honour of its difcovery ; and particularly Sigebert, a monk
of Gemblours, in the diocefe of Namur, in Brabant, in his
Chronicle under the year 1028. John Cotton alfo, who
lived about a century after Guido, fays that folmifation by
the fix fyllables, ut, re, mi, fa, &c. was praftifed by the
Enghrti, French, and Germans ; but the Italians, he adds,
made ufe of other fyllables ; and by a paffage from the
Chronicle of Tours, under the year 1033, cited by Carpen-
tier, in his Supplement to the I^atin Gloffary of Du-Cange,
art. Gamma, Guido is put in full poilcflion of the fcale and
folmifation. About the end of the 17th century, the addi-
tional fyllable^ was univcrfally received in France for the
feventh of the key of C. Theearlielt Englilh writer, men-
tioned by Dr. Burnev, who takes notice of the omiflion
of ut and re in folmifation, is Mr. Cliarles Butler, in his
Principles of Mufic, publifhed in 1636, and after his time the
ut and n were rejefted by all the Englifli finging-mafters ;
Dr. Holder, Dr. Wallis, and every writer on mufic in this
kingdom, were unanimous in excommunicating thefe two
fyllables, till Dr. Pepufch endeavoured, and not unfuccefs-
fuUy, to have them again reilored.

An ingenious member of the Academy of Arcadia, in
Rome, publifhed a pamphlet in 1746, recommending a new
method of folmifation by twelve fyllables, formed into
twelve ideal words, viz. utpare, bomifa, tufolde, lanosi, and
comprehending the whole fcale of femitones, from C to c
exclufive. This method is approved by the celebrated com-
pofer Hade, and by fignor Giambatilta Mancini, finging-
mafter to the imperial family at Vienna. Signer Serra, in
a treatife publiflied at Rome in 1775, propofes to name the
notes in finging by the feven firll letters of the alphabet,
dillinguifhing the flat, natural, and fharp notes by the ad-
dition of the three firft vowels to the feven letters, as ca,
c flat, ce, c natural, and ci, for c fliarp, by which means
the ftudent is difembarrafled from all the mutations, and
every found in the fcale has a fpecific and invariable name
appropriated to it. This metliod has been approved by fe-
veral of the bell mailers in Rome.

Of the feven notes in the fcale, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, ft,
only four are in ufe among us, •y/'z. fa, fol, la, mi. Their
office is principally in finging, that by applying them to
every note in the fcale, it may not only be pronounced more
eafily, but chiefly that, by them, the tones and femitones
of the natural fcale may be better marked out and diilin-
gniflied.

The defign is obtained by the four fyllables, fa, fol, la,
mi : thus, from fa to fol is a tone ; as alfo from fol to la,
and from la to mi, without dillinguifhing the greater or lefs
tone ; but from la to fa, alfo from mi lofa, is a femitone.

If then thefe be applied in this order, fa, fol, la, fa, fol,
la, mi, fa, &c. they exprcfs the natural feries from c ; and
if that be to be repeated to a fecondor third oftave, we fee
by them how to exprels all the different orders of tones and
femitones in the diatonic fcale ; »nd Hill above mi will Hand
fa, fol, la; and below it, the fame reverfed, la, fol, fa; and
one mi is always dillant from another by an odtave ; which
cannot be fiid of any of the rell, bccaufe after mi afcending,
comes always _/(/, y©/, la, fa, fol, la, which are repeated in-
vertedly, defcendiiig.

To conceive the ufe of this : it is to be remembered, thit
the firit thing in teachinjT to fing, is to make one raile a fcale
of notes by tones and femitones to an oAave, and defcend
again by the fame notes, and then to rife and fall by greater

intervals, at a leap, as a third, fourth, fifth, &c. and to
do all this by beginning at notes of different pitch. Then
thefe notes are reprcfented by lines and tpaces, to which
thofe fyllables are applied ; and the learner is taught to
name each line and fpace by its refpeftlve fyllable, which
makes what we call fol-fa-ing ; the ufe of which is, that
wliile they are learning to tune the degrees and intervals of
found, exprcffed by notes fet on lines and fpaces, or learning
a fong to which 110 words are applied, they may do it the
better by means of an articulate found ; but chiefly, that
by knowing t!ie degrees and intervals exprelled by thefe
fyllables, they may more readily know the truedillance of
notes.

Mr. Malcolm obferves, that the praftice of fol-fa-ing,
common as it is, is very ufelefs and inlignificant, either as to
the underllanding or pradlifing of mufic, yet exceedingly
perplexing ; the various applications of the feveral names,
according to the various figiiatures of the clef, are enough
to perplex any learner ; there being no lefs than feventy-two
different ways of applying the names, fol, fa, &c. to the
lines and fpaces of a particular fyllem.

SOLFATARA, in Geography, a volcanic mountain,
ftyled by the ancients the " Court of Vulcan," fituated to
the S. of the city of Naples. Its form is circular, and it
is environed by hills of moderate elevation ; and notwith-
ftanding the vicinity of the fire, vines and fruit-trees grow
very well on the outer declivity. The floor of the crater
is white as chalk, compofed of various materials, which,
from the fteam that rifes, have been converted into a marly
clay ; or, perhaps, this was their original Hate, before tliey
were afted upon by fire. Tiles placed over vent-holes, and
ferving as retorts, coUeft condenfed alum, fal ammoniac, and
fulphur : the air is very hot, and difcolours paper and
metals. Mr. Swinburne fays, that the ground quaked and
refounded under his feet ; and others conjefture that the
hollow beneath is conneded with mount Vefuvius : by
laying his ear clofe to the ground, he could dillinguifh the
bubbling and hifTing of boiling water ; and yet upon part
of this emit or floor, chefnut-trees flourifli in perfed vi-
gour, and a variety of fhrubs fhoot up along the banks,
where they find level ground into which to tlrike root, and
are out of the blalling fmoke. Thefe hidden waters have
their iffue on the N. fide of the mountain, where, in a dark
valley, a foetid burning (Iream breaks out, and purfues its
courfe among rocks and bufhes, to the lake of Agnano.
The Solfatara has not emitted flames within the memory of
man, fo that it is a kind of half extinft volcano ; but wet
weather increafes the quantity of its fmoke. Here arc
manufaftures of fulphur, alum, and vitriol.

Solfatara, or Lago di Bagni, a lake of Italy, in the
Campagna di Roma, containing feveral moveable illands of
matted fedge and herbage, which may be pulhed about by
poles. The water is chalky and fulphureous ; towards the
furface hardly lukewarm, but at a greater depth, hut and
continually boiling. Bathing in this water is recommended
for cutaneous difeafes : from the lake a river iflues, which
runn into the Tiber, i i miles S.E. of Rome.

SOLFEGGIAMENTO, in the Italian Mufic, compo-
fitions, of which the fyllables, ut, or do, re, mi, fa, &C.
are the fnbjeft. See the next article.

SOLFEGGIARE, Ital. Soljier, Fr. is what the vul-
gar in England caW fol fj-ing. All thefe expielTions imply
the fame tiling, — naming the intervals in the fii It lelions of
fin<'-iiig ; tor which, among regular bred mulicians, the
propel' term in Englifh li: folmifation ; wliicli fee.

The folfeggios, or exerciles for the voice, compofed by
Leo for the vocal lludcntu ia the conlervatorios of Naples,

were

SOL

were ufed, during the chief part of the iaft century, by all
finging-mafters unable to write to the wants and abilities of
their fcholars. But the pafTages in thefe, though excellent
in their day, being now worn out and comnnon, are gene-
rally fuperfeded by the folfeggii of Aprile.

SOLFERINA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
duchy of Mantua ; 17 miles N.W. of Mantua.

SOLFWITZBURG, Solvesborg, or Syhi/borg, a fea-
port town of Sweden, in the province of Blckingen. This
town, formerly more flourifliing than it is at prefent, is
almoft lurroundedby the Baltic fea. It has a harbour, and
a caftle in a ruined itate. It is faid to be the place where
the Lombards aflembled when they left their country, and
migrated in fearch of new habitations; 35 miles W.S.W.
of Carlfcrona. N.lat. 56° 9'. E. long. 14° 26'.

SOLI, or AJhaja Tujla, a town of Bofnia ; 20 miles
W. N.W. of Zwornick.

Soli, or Jokari Tujla, a town of Bofnia ; 16 miles
W.N.W. of Zwornick.

SOLIANOl, a fortrefs of Ruflia, in the government
of Kolivan, on the Irtifch. N. lat. j4° 20'. E. long.
75° 14' — Alfo, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkutfl< ; 20 miles N.N.W. of Selenginfl<.

SOLIANSKOI Stanitz, a town of Ruflia, in the
government of Irkutfk, os the Lena; 16 miles N.E. of
Olekniinflc.

SOLICITATION of Gravity. See Paracentric.

SOLICITOR, or SOLLICITOR, SoUcitator, a perfon
employed to follow, and take care of, other perfons' fuits
depending in courts of law or equity ; formerly allowed
only to nobility, vvhofe menial fervants they were ; but now
regularly admitted to pradife in the court of chancery. See
Attorney.

The king has a folicitor-general, who holds his oflice by
patent, during the king's pleafure. The attorney -general
and he had anciently a right to their writs of ium'mons, to
fit in the lords houfe on fpecial occalions, till the 13 Car. II.
fince which time, they have almoft conftantly been chofen
members of the houfe of commons.

The folicitor-general has the care and concern of ma-
naging the king's affairs, and hath fees for pleading, befides
other fees arifing by patents, &c. He hath his attendance
on the privy-council ; and the attorney-general and he were
anciently reckoned among the officers of the exchequer :
they have audience, and come within the bar in all other
courts.

To the queen's houfehold there belongs alfo an officer
with this appellation. See Pkeci:dence."

SOLID, in Phyfus, a body wliofe minute parts are con-
nefted together, fo as not to give way or flip from each
other, upon the fmalleft impreffion.

The word is ufed in this fenfe, in contradiftinclion to
jlmd.

Solid Bodies, Atmofphere of. See Atmosphere.

For tlie laws of gravitation of fohds, immerged in fluid-
fpecifically, either lighter or heavier than the folids, fee
Gravity and Fluid.

To find the fpecific gravity of folids, and its ratio to that
of fluids, fee Specific Gravity.

For the laws of the refillance of folids moving in fluids,
fee Resistance.

Solid, in Geometry, is a magnitude endued with three
dimenfions, or extended in length, breadth, and depth.
Hence, as all bodies have thefe 'three dimenfions, and no-
thing but bodies, folid and body are frequently ufed in-
difcriminately.

A folid is terminated, or contained, under one or more

SOL

planes or furfaces, as a furface is under one or more line*.
From the circumllances of the terminating lines, folids be-
come divided into regular and irregular.

Solids, Regular, are thofe terminated by regular and
equal planes.

Under thisclafs come the tetraedron, hexaedron or cube,
oftaedron, dodecaedron, and icolaedron. See Tetrak-
DRON, Cube, &c.; and for the meafure of thefe bodies,
fee Mexsi/ration.

Solids, Irregular, are all fuch at do not come under the
definition of regular ones. Such are the fphere, cylinder,
cone, parallelogram, prifm, pyramid, parallelepiped, &c.

For the ratio of geometrical folids, all pnfms, parallelepi-
peds, cylinders, pyramids, and cones, are in a compound
ratio of their bafes and altitudes ; fo that if the bafes be
equal, they are in the fimple ratio of the altitudes ; or, if
the altitudes be equal, tliey are as their bafos : and as the
bafes of cylinders and cones are circle*, and circles are in
the duplicate ratio of their diameters, it follows that all
cones and cylinders are in a ratio compounded of the diredl
ratio of their altitudes, and the duplicate ratio of their
diameters.

The genefes, properties, ratios, conftruftions, dimenfions,
&c. of the feveral folids, regular and irregular, fpherical,
elliptical, conical, &c. fee under each refpeftire article. See
alfo Me.nsuration.

Solid, Meafure of a. See Measure.

Solid, Cubature or Cubing of a. See Cubature and
Solidity.

Solids, To find the Surfaces of. See Area, Sui'ERFIcies,
and Mensuration.

Solid of the leajl Refjlance. See Resistance and Iso-
perimetry.

Solid Angle, is that formed by three or more plain an-
gles meeting in a point. (See Angle.) Or, more itriftly,
a folid angle, as B (Pto XIV. Geometry, Jig. i.), is the
inclination of more than two lines, A B, B C, B F, which
concur in the fame point B, and are in the fame planes.

Hence, for folid angles to be equal, it is neceilary they
be contained under an equal number of equal planes, dif-
pofed in the fame manner.

And as folid angles are only dillinguifliable by the planes
under which they are contained, and as planes thus equal
are only diftinguifliable by comprefence, they are fimilar ;
and confequently fimilar folid angles are equal, and vice
verfd.

The fum of all the plane angles conftituting a folid angle,
is always lefs than 360' ; otherwife they would conllitute
the plane of a circle, and not a folid.

The theory of folid angles is, perhaps, rather a fubjeft of
curiofity than utility ; yet as it has given rife to much dif-
cuffion amongft mathematicians, it may not be amils to be-
llow a few lines in explanation of what we coiifider to be
the moft fcientific method of confidering this fubjetl.

Euclid defines a folid angle to be that which is made by
the meeting of more than two plane angles, which are not
in the fame plane, in one point ; but a more general defini-
tion is, that " a folid angle is the angular fpace included be-
tween feveral plane furfaces, or one or more curve furfaces,
meeting in the point which forms the fummit of the angle."

According to this definition, fohd angles bear juft the
fame relation to the furfaces which comprife them, as plane
angles do to the lines by which they are included ; fo th.it,
as in the latter, it is not the magnitude of the lines, but their
mutual inclination, which determines the angle ; ju(t fo, in
the former, it is not the magnitude of the planes, but their
mutual inclinations which determines the angles. And

henc.

SOLID ANGLE.

hence, all thofe geometers, from the time of Euclid, who
have confined their attention principally to the magnitude of
the plane angles, inftead of their relative pofitions, have
never been able to develope the properties of this clafs of
geometrical quantities ; but have affirmed, that no fohd angle
can be faid to be half or double of another ; and have fpoken
of the bifedtion, trifedtion, &c. of fqlid angles, even in the
fimpleft cafes, as impoffible problems. But all this fuppofed
difficulty vaniflies, and the doftrine of folid angles becomes
fimple and univerfal in its application, by zilumingjp/ierical
furjfaces for their meafure, jull as circular arcs are alfumed
for the meafure of plane angles. This idea feems to
have firft occurred to Albert Girard, and publifhed by
him in his " Inventions Nouvelles en I'Algebra," an account
of which is given at p. 7, vol. iii. Montucla's Hiftory of
Mathematics. The principle of this method, however,
feems to have efcaped the attention of geometers, till it was
recently brought forward again in vol. iii. of Hutton's Courfe
of Mathematics, the writer of which, it fliould be obferved,
was not aware of the fubjedl having been previoufly treated
on the fame principles by Girard. We fliall, in what fol-
lows, avail ourfelves of the latter article.

Imagine, then, that from the fummit of a fohd angle,
(formed by the meeting of three planes,) as a centre, any
fphere be defcribed, and that thofe planes are produced till
they cut the furface of the fphere ; then will the furface of
the fpherical triangle, included between thofe planes, be a
proper meafure of the folid angle, made by the planes at
their common point of meeting, for no change can be con-
ceived in the relative pofition of thofe planes, without a
correfponding and proportional mutation in the furface of
the fpherical triangle. If, in like manner, the three or
more furfaces, which by their meeting conftitute another
folid angle, be produced till they cut the furface of the
fame, or an equal fphere, whofe centre coincides with the
fummit of the angle ; the furface of the fpheric triangle, or
polygon, included between the planes which determme the
angle, will be a correft meafure of that angle. And the
ratio wtiich fubfitls between the areas of the fpheric trian-
gles, polygons, or other furfaces thus formed, will be ac-
curately the ratio that fubfifts between the fohd angles,
conftituted by the meeting of the feveral planes or fur-
faces at the centre of the fphere.

Hence the comparifon of folid angles becomes a matter of
great eafe and fimplicity ; for, fince the areas of fpherical
triangles are meafured by the excefs of the fums of their
angles, each above two right angles, and the areas of fphe-
rical polygons, of n fides, by the excefs of the fum of their
angles above (2 n — 4) right angles, it follows, that the
magnitude of a trilateral folid angle will be meafured by
the excefs of the fum of the three angles, made refpeftively
by its bounding planes above two right angles ; and the
magnitude of fohd angles, formed by « bounding planes,
by the excefs of the fum of the angles of inclination of the
feveral planes above (2 « — 4) right angles.

Ai to folid angles, limited by curve furfaces, fucli as the
angles at the vertex of cones ; they will manifeitly be mea-
fured by the fpheric furface, in the fame manner as angfes
determined by plane furfaces, are meafured by the triangles or
polygons they mark out upon the fame, or an equal fphere.
In all cafes, the maximum limit of folid angles will be the
plane towards which various planes determining fuch angles
approach, as they diverge fartiier from each other about the
fame fummit ; the fame as a right line is the maximum limit
of plane angles, being formed by the two bounding.lines,
vfhen they make an angle of 180°. The maximum limit of
fohd angles is meafured by the furface of the hemifphcrc, in

Vol. XXXIII.

like manner as the maximum limit of platie angles is meafured
by the arc of a femicircle. The folid right angle (the angle,
for example, of a cube) is 4: = (5)' of the maximum fohd
angle ; while the plane right angle is half the maximum
plane angle.

The analogy between plane and folid angles being thu»
traced, we may proceed to exempHfy this theory by a few
inilances ; affuming 1000 as the numeral meafure of the
maximum folid angle = 4 times 90^ folid = 360° folid.

I. The folid angles of right prifms are compared with
great facility. For of the three angles made by the
three planes, which by their meeting conftitute every fuch
fohd angle, two are right angles, and the third is the fame
as the correfponding plane angle of the polygonal bafe ; on
which, therefore, the meafure of the folid angle depends.
Thus, with refpeft to the riglit prifm with an equilateral
triangular bafe, each fohd angle is formed by planes, which
relpeftively make angles of 90°, 90', and 60^^. Confe-
quently, 90"^ + 90° + 60° — 180° = 60°, is the meafure
of fuch angle, compared with 360°, the maximum angle,
and is therefore one-fixth of the maximum angle.

A right prifm, with a fquare bafe, has, in like manner,
each folid angle = 90° + 90° + 90° — 180° = 90°, which
is one-fourth of the maximum angle ; and thus it may be
found that each folid angle of a right prifm, with an equi-
lateral

igle =

triangular bafe

=

^ max. an

fquare bafe

=:

pentagonal bafe

=

3 _
TV

hexagonal

=

I _
T

heptagonal

=

5

oftagonal

=

1

nonagonal

^

A

decagonal

=

.J.

undecagonal

=

tV

duodecagonal

=

5

w-crnnal

W — 2

1

T

.1000

I

.1000

3

TD"

.1000

I
"3

.1009

TT

.1000

>
-9

.1000

-h

.1000

s

.1000

•A

.1000

5

-TT

.1000

m —

2

2 m

Hence it may be (hewn, that each folid angle of a re.
gular prifm with triangular bafe, is ha/f each folid angle
of a prifm of an hexagonal bafe. Each with regular

fquare bafe = I of each with regular ofkagonal bafe.
pentagonal =4 ... decagonal,

hexagonal = -J ... duodecagonal.

4 m-gonal = ... nt-gonal.

in — 2

Hence, again, we may infer, that the fum of all the
folid angles of any prifm of triangular bafe, whether that
bafe be regular or irregular, is half the lum of the folid
angles of a prifm of quadrangular bafe, regular or irregular ;
and the fum of the fohd angles of any prifm of

tetragonal bafe = I fum of angles of pentagonal bafe.
pentagonal bafe = 4 - - . hexagonal,
hexagonal bafe =: ^ • - - heptagonal.
m — 2

»(-gonal bafe ;=

m — I

(m + i)-gonal.

2. Let us now compare the folid angles of the five regular
bodies. In thcfe bodies, if m be the number of fide;; of
each face ; n the number of planes wliich meet at eacli

R r fohd

SOL

SOL

folid angle ; ^ = -i- circumference, or 1 80° ; and A the
plane angle made by two adjacent faces; then we have

cof. ■

fm,

|A

Cn.

This theorem gives for the plane angle formed by every
two contiguous faces of the tetraedron, 70° 31' 42"; of
the hexaedron, 90° ; of the oftaedron, 109° 28' 18" ; of the
dodecaedron, ii6'33' 54"; of the icofaedron, 138° 11' 23".
But in thefe polyedras, the number of faces meeting about
each folid angle are 3, 3, 4, 3, 5, refpeftively. Confe-
queiitly the fohd angles will be determined by the fubjoined
proportions.

-3( 7o°3i'4z")-i8o'

3(90°) -180^

360°: 1000:: <! 4(i09°28'i8")-i8o=

3(ii6°33'54")
.5(i38°n'23")

: 87.736 tetrae.

; 250 hexae.
216.351 oftae.
180° : 47 1.395 dodecac.
180°: 419.301 icofae.

3. Solid angles at the vertices of cones, will be deter-
mined by means of the fpheric fegments cut off at the
bafes of thofe cones ; that is, if right cones, inftead of
having plane bafes, had bafes formed of the fegments of
equal fpheres, whofe centres were the vertices of cones, the
furface of thofe fegments would be the meafures of the
folid angles at the refpeftive vertices. Now the furface of
fpheric fegments, is to the furface of the hemifphere, as
the altitudes to the radius of the fphere ; and, therefore,
the folid angle at the vertices of right cones, will be to
the maximum fohd angle, as the excefs of the flant fide
above the axis of the cone, to the flant fide of the cone.
Thus, if we wifh to afcertain the folid angles at the ver-
tices of the equilateral and right-angled cones ; the axis of
the former is ^ y 3, and of the latter 4 ^ 2, the flant fide
of each being unity. H«nce,

3 :: 1000 : 133-97 angleatvertexequilateralcone.

■ Y A'

I :

1:1 — 4^/2:: 1000 : 292.98 - - right-angled..

4. From what has been faid, the mode of determining
the folid angles at the vertices of pyramids will be fuffi-
ciently obvious. If the pyramids be regular ones, and N
reprefent the number of faces meeting about the vertical
angle in one, and A the angle of inclination of each two
of its plane faces ; alfo n the number of planes meeting
about the vertex of another, and a the angle of inclination
of each two of its faces ; then will the vertical angle of
the former, be to the vertical angle of the latter, as

NA — (N - 2) 180°, to na — (n — 2) 180°.

If a cube be cut by diagonal planes into fix equal pyra-
mids, with fquare bafes, their vertices all meeting in the
centre of the circumfcribing fphere ; then each of the folid
angles made by the four planes meeting at each vertex, will
be 4d of the maximum fohd angle ; and each of the folid
angles at the bafes of the pyramids will be -rVth of the maxi-
mum folid angle. Therefore, each folid angle at the bafe
of fuch pyramid is ^th of the fohd angle at its vertex, and
if the angle at the vertex be bifefted, either of the folid
angles arifing from the bifeftion will be double of either
folid angle at the bafe ; hence alfo each folid angle of a
prifm with equilateral triangular bafe, will be half each ver-
tical angle of thefe pyramids, and double each folid angle
at their bafe.

Solid Figures, Like. See Like.

Solid Bajlhn. See Bastion.

Solid Place. See Locus.

Solid Foot. See Foot.

Solid Numbers, are thofe which arife from the multipli-
cation of a plain number, by any other whatfoever.

Thus, 18 is a folid number made of 6 (which is plain)
multiplied by 3 ; or of 9 multiplied by 2.

Solid Problem, in MathemaUcs, is one which cannot be
geometrically folved, but by the interfeAion of a circle and
a conic feftion ; or by the interfeftion of two other conic
feftions belides the circle.

Thus, to defcribe an ifofceles triangle on a given right
line, whofe angle at the bafe ihall be triple to that at the
vertex, is a folid problem, refolved by the interfedtion of a
parabola and a circle.

Solid Root, among Botanijls, exprefl'es the whole root
to be one uniform lump of matter.

Solid Square, in Military Language, a body of foot
where both ranks and files are equal.

Solid Theorem. See Theorem.

Solid Celery, in Gardening, that fort which is of a firm
crifp nature, without any kind of opening or hoUownefs
in the middle part of the Hems. There is a fort of this
kind, which has a very flight reddifh tinge, that is greatly
cfteemed in fome places. Solid celery commonly eats in a
more crifp and agreeable manner than the hollow fort, and
on that account is, for the moll part, cultivated in the gar-
dens of thoffi who do not raife the plant for fale ; but in
the market-gardens, where fale is the great objeft, the com-
mon hollow kind is the fort that is the moil in cultivation,
as it grows much more quickly, and of courfe becomes
fooner ready to be difpofed of in the market, nor does the
folid fort Hand the frolt fo well in the winter. Celery be-
ing ready at an early penod is a matter of very great im-
portance and confideration in thefe fituations, in coniequence
of the difference in price being often fo great, as that which
is early will not unfrequently fetch double the price, and
more, of that which is late. See Apium.

Neither this folid fort, nor the tall or giant celery, as it is
called, are commonly thought fo fit for winter crops. This
folid kind was not known until long after the hollow fort
had been in ufe, and the above variety is but lately known
and cultivated.

SOLIDAGO, in Botany, from folido, to make firm,
and, particularly, to heal a wound ; an old name, fynoni-
mous with the Englidi word Confound, and intended to ex-
prefs the reputed vulnerary powers of the plants which
bore it. — Linn. Gen. 425. Schreb. 556. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 3. 2053. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 5. 64. Sm. Fl. Brit. 889. Prodr. Fl. Grasc. Sibth.
V. 2. 179. Purfh 535. Jufl. 181. Lamarck Illullr.
t. 680. Gsertn. t. 170. (Virga aurea ; Tourn. t. 275.)
Clafs and order, Syngenejia P olygamia-fuperfiua. Nat. Ord.
Compofita difcoidex, Linn. Corymbifera, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx oblong, imbricated, with ob-
long, narrow, pointed, ftraight, converging fcales. Cor.
compound, radiated. Florets of the diflc numerous, per-
feft, tubular, funnel-fhaped, with a five-cleft fpreading
limb ; thofe of the radius fewer than ten, ufually five,
ligulate, lanceolate, three-toothed, female. Stam. in the
perfeft florets. Filaments five, capillary, very ftiort ; an-
thers united into a cylindrical tube. Pifi. in the fame
florets, Germen oblong ; ftyle thread-fliaped, the length of
the fl;amens ; ftigma cloven, fpreading : in the female orves,
Germen and fl;yle as in the former ; Itigmas two, revolute.
Perle. none, the calyx remaining fcarcely changed. Seeds
iolitary to each floret of the dilk, obovate-oblong. Down
4 capillary.

SOLIDAGO.

I capillary. Thofe of the radius mueh the fame. Recept.
flattifh, dotted, naked.

EfT. Ch. Receptacle dotted, naked. Down fimple.
Calyx imbricated, with converging fcales. Florets of the
radius about five.

The fpecies of this genus, almolt entirely American, vie
with thofe of ^Jler in difficulty of determination. They
are all perennial, moftly herbaceous, with fimple undivided
leaves, and panicled or fpiked, aimed always yellow, fmall
flowers, and are known by the name of Golden Rods.
Several are cultivated for ornament, more for curiofity.
The Hortus Ketvenfis, enriched from Dr. Solander's manu-
fcripts, has thrown great light on the prefent genus, as well
as on jljter. Linnaeus in Syih Veg. ed. 14, has only four-
teen fpecies of SoMago ; Willdenow, profiting by Mr.
Aiton's work, enumerates forty. Mr. Pur(h reckons up
fifty-one North American fpecies alone. One only, fubjedl
to many varieties, is found in Britain.

So great a number of fpecies now require to be added to
Willdenow's catalogue, that it is neceflary to take a compen-
dious view of the whole, efpecially as we are furnilhed
with more authentic fpecimens than mod writers have had
at their command.

SeiSlion I. Arborefcent.

1. S. fpur'ia. Ballard Tree Goldcn-rod. « Forft.
Comm. Gott. V. 9. 68." Willd. n. i. (Conyzarugofa ;
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 30.) — Stem arboreous. Panicle
corymbofe. Leaves oblong, wedge-fhaped, ferrated. — Na-
tive of St. Helena. Brought by fir Jofeph Banks, in
1772, to Kew garden, where it flowers in the greenhoufe
in November. A fpreading irregular fmall tree, with thick
rugged branches, leafy at the ends. Leaves ftalked, rugofe,
bright green, from a fpan to a foot long. Panicles large,
level-topped. Flowers white, half an inch in diameter,
with ten florets in the radius. Forjler.

2. S. Leucadendron. White Tree Golden-rod. " Forll.
ibid. 69." Willd. n. 2. — " Stem arborefcent. Cymes
level-topped. Leaves oblong-obovate, crenate, nearly
feflile."^Native of woods in St. Helena. A tree, two or
three fathoms in height. Branches dark brown, tuber-
culated, rather level-topped ; leafy at the fummit. Leaves
fmooth, fpreading, three inches long, tapering at the
bafe. — Floiuer-Jlalks cymofe, fmooth and flender. Flowers
in every part like the precednig. Forjler.

3. S. arhorejcens. New Zeeland Tree Goldcn-rod.
Forlt. Prodr. 56. Willd. n. 3. — " Stem arboreous. Pa-
nicles corymbofe, clofe, terminal. Leaves roundifh-ovate,
acute, wavy, italked." — Native of New Zeeland. Young
branches downy. Leaves bluntly and dillantly toothed ;
downy beneath. Willd.

Seftion 2. Herbaceous. Flowers unilateral. Lecrves with
three combined ribs.

4. S. canadenjis. Canadian Golden-rod. Linn. Sp. PI.
1233. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. I. Purfli n. i. (Virga
aurea angullifolia, panicula fpeciof.i, canadenfis ; Pluk.
Almag. 389. t. 236. f. I.) — Stem downy. Le.ives lan-
ceolate, ferrated, triple-ribbed, rough. Chillers copious,
panicled, unilateral, recurved. Radius hardly exceeding
the diflv. — In hedges, old fields, and along fences, from
Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering from .July to Septem-
ber. From eighteen niches to five feet high. Purjl}.
Thc^em is angular, terminated by an ample downy panicle,
of innumerable very fmall yellow flowers. Leaves feflile,
three inches long, fometimes nearly entn-e, and occafionally
downy. Purfli and, of courfc, Willdenow, copy tlie erro-
neous reference to Plukenet ; a pradlice which overturns
all confidence in the fynonyms of authors who ufe it, as
they cannot have judged of the defcription or figure cited.

5. S. proc(ra. Great Golden-rod. Ait. n. 2. Willd.
n. 5. Purfh n. 2. — " Stem villous, ereft. Leaves lan-
ceolate, ferrated, triple-ribbed, rough ; villous beneath,
Clulters fpiked, ereft, drooping before flowering. Raduis
fliort." — In fwamps, hedges, and about fences, from Ca-
nada to Virginia, flowering from July to September. From
four to feven feet high. Ptir/h.

6. S. ferotina. Upright Smooth Golden-rod. Ait.
n. 3. Willd. n. 6. Purfti n. 3. — Stem ereft, round, very
fmooth. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth, triple-ribbed,
ferrated, rough-edged. Clullers panicled, unilateral. Stalks
downy. — In woods and hedges, from New England to
Pennfylvania, flowering in September and Oftober. Young
leaves edged with copious httle white rigid hairs.

7. S. gigantea. Gigantic Golden-rod. Ait. n. 4. Willd.
n. 7. Purfli n. 4 Stem ereft, fmooth. Leaves lanceo-
late, fmooth, ferrated, rough-edged, obfcurely triple-ribbed.
Clufters paniculated, unilateral. Stalks hairy. Radius

fliort In open low places, on the fides of fertile hills, from

New England to Virginia, flowering from Anguft to Oc-
tober. From four to feven feet high. Purjli.

?i. S. ciliaris. Fringed Golden-rod. Willd. n. 8. Purfh
n. 5. — Stem ereft, fmooth. Leaves lanceolate, fomewhat
triple-ribbed, fmooth, rough-edged, (lightly ferrated. Cluf-
ters panicled, unilateral. Stalks fmooth. Brafteas fringed.
Radius fliort. — Sent from Pennfylvania, by the late Rev.
Dr. Muhlenberg. The flem is angular. Radical /eaves
ftalked, elliptical, pointed, veiny, ferrated, rough, near a
foot long. Branches of the panicle fpreading. BraScat
minute. Willd.

9. S. reflexa- Hanging-leaved Golden-rod. Ait. n. 5.
Willd. n.9. Purfli n. 6. — Stem ereft, villous. Leaves
lanceolate, fomewhat ferrated, triple-ribbed, rough, re-
flexed. Clufters panicled, lliglitly unilateral. — In pine
woods and old fields, from New Jerfey to Carolina, flower-
ing in Anguft and September.

10. S. laleriflora. Lateral-flowered Golden-rod. Ait.
n. 6. Willd. n. 10. Purfli n. 7. ..inn. Sp. PI. 1234?

Stem ereft, rather hairy. Leaves lanceolate, obfcurely

triple-ribbed, fmooth, rough-edged ; the lower ones flightly
ferrated. Clufters panicled, unilateral, fomewhat recurved.

In old fields and dry woods, from Canada to Carolina,

flowering from Auguft to Oftober. TIie7?cm is from two
to three feet high, ftriated, often purplifli, furniflicd with
numerous lateral flowering branches, as well as a principal
terminal one. Leaves very fmooth in the difl<. Radius
much longer than the calyx. This is probably the Linnaean
plant, but fome obfcurity attends that queftion.

Seftion 3. Clujlers unilateral. Leaves veiny.

11. S. afpera. Rough-leaved Golden-rod. Ait. n. 7.
Willd. n. II. Purfti n. 8. (Virga anrca americana af-
pera, fohis brevibus ferratis ; Dill. Ehh. 411. 1.305.)—
Stem ereft, round, hairy. Leaves ovate, rather elliptical,
very rough, rugged, ferrated, without lateral ribs. Clufters
panicled," unilateral. — In barren dry fields and woods, from
New York to Carolina, flowering from September to No-
vember. Purjlj. About a yard high. Leaves from one
to two inches long, acute- Clufters denfe, in fome degree
conical. Flowers fmall, yellow, the radius twice as long as
the calvx. '

\2. '^. alti//!ma. Tall Variable Golden-rod. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1233. ■(Villd. n. 12. Ait. n. 8. Purfli n. 9. (Virga
.nurea altiflima ferotina, pnnic\ila fpeciofa patula ; Mart.
Cent. 14. t. 14; and probably V. aurea marilandica, fpicis
flonmi raeemofi-;, foliis intogris fcabris ; ibid. 13. t. 13.) —
Stem ereft, hairy. Leaves lanceolate; the lower ones
deeply ferrated, very rough, rugofe. Panicles unilateral. —
R r 2 I"

SOLIDAGO.

In hedges and fields of North America, common, flowering
from Auguft to Oftober. A very variable fpecies, fcarcely
two individuals look alike. Purp. The numerous panicled
chjiers fpread horizontally, in a graceful manner, and all
the foiuers are turned upward. They are twice the fize of
S. canadenfis, with a promioent radhts, half as long agam
as the calyx.

13. S. rugofa. Wrinkle-leaved Golden-rod. Mill. Did.
ed. 8. n. 25. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 9. Purfh n. 10.
(Virga aurea nova: anglis, rugofis foliis crenatis ; Dill.
Elth. 416. t. 308.) — Stem ereft, hairy. Leaves ovato-
lanceolate ; the lower ones clofely ferrated, rugged, ver)'
rough. Cluilers panicled, compound, widely fprcading,
unilateral. — In a dry barren foil, from Canada to Virginia,
flowering from Auguit to Oftober. Purjh. The leaves
are fhorter and broader than in the foregoing. Floiuirs
rather fmaller.

14. S. liillofa. Soft-leaved Golden-rod. Purfh n. 11.
(S. aItiflima/3; Ait. ed. i. v. 3. 212. ed. 2. n. 8. Willd.
n. 12. S. pilofa ; Mill. Dift. ed. 8. u. 9-)—" Stem ereft,
villous. Leaves lanceolate, rather foft, ferrated, without
lateral ribs. Cluilers panicled, unilateral." — In fields and
woods of North America frequent, flowering from Auguft
to Odober. From eighteen inches to three feet high.
PurJh.

15. S: fcabra. Harfh-leaved Golden-rod. Willd. n. 14.

Purfh n. 12 "Stem ereft, hairy. Leaves oblong,

pointed ; fmooth above ; rugged and rough beneath. Cluf-
ters unilateral." — In old fields and about fences, from
Pennfylvania to Virginia, flowering from Auguft to Oc-
tober. Purfh. Stem furrowed. Leaves tapering at each
end, pointed, with equal, fliort, clofe-prefled ferratures
about the middle.

16. S. pyramidata. Pyramidal Golden-rod. Purfh
B. 13.— " Stem ereft, round, hairy. Leaves oblong, acute,
feflile, fomewhat clafping the ftem, fmooth, rough-edged,
fparingly and llightly toothed. Panicle naked, unilateral,
pyramidal; its branches reflexed. Flower-ftalks fmooth." —
Gathered by Mr. Enflen, in the " pine-barrens" of Georgia,
flowering in Auguft and September. About two feet high.
The leaves decreafe toward the beginning of the panicle,
which confifts of lively yellow very ImAXJloiuers. PurJh.

17. S. nemoralis. Woolly-ftalked Golden-rod. Ait.
ed. 1. v. 3. 213. ed. 2. n. 10. Willd. n. 15. Purfh
n. 14. — "Stem ereft, downy. Stem-leaves lanceolate,
hifpid, entire ; radical ones fomewhat wedge-fhaped, fer-
rated. Clutters panicled, unilateral." — In fandy and barren
fields common, from Canada to Carolina, flowering from
Auguft to Oftober. The whole plant has a grey afpeft,
and is about a foot, or fometimes two, high. PurJh.

18. S. patula. Short-fpreading-branched Golden-rod.
Willd. n. 16. Purfh n. 15. — Stem ereft, fmooth, angular.
Leaves elliptical, ferrated, fmooth ; the r.adical ones oblong-
fpatulate. Clufters panicled, unilateral, fpreading. Flower-
italks downy. — In fhady woods, on a fertile foil, from New
York to Virginia, flowering in September and Oftober.
Our fpecimen was fent by the difcoverer of this fpecies, the
Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, from Lancafter, Pennfylvania. Its

ftems are uprTght and wand-hke, two feet high, angular and
Itriated. Stem-leaves fefTile, an inch long, pointed ; the
♦adical ones are faid by Willdenow to referable exaftly thofe
of Chryfanthemum Leucanthemum. The jlotvers are larger
than moit of the foregoing, but each clujler is hardly above
an inch in length.

19. S.ulmifolia. Elm-leaved Golden-rod. Willd. n. 17.
Purfli n. 16. — " Stem ereft, flriated, fmooth. Leaves
elliptical, pointed, deeply ferrated ; villous beneath : radical
sties obovatc. Clufters panicled, unilateral. Flower-ltalks

villous. Rays (hort." — In fwamps and fhady woods, from
New York to Virginia, flowering from Auguft to Oftober.
PurJh. Radical leaves almoft the fame as the laft, but more
deeply ferrated, covered with hairs on both fides ; the reft
elliptical or ovate-oblong ; fmooth above ; villous about
the vems beneath. Flo-werjlalks villous ; the partial
ones clothed with fcattered hairs, and accompanied by
braSeas.

20. S.arguta. Sharp-notched Golden-rod. Ait. ed. i.

V. 3. 213. ed. 2. n. II. Willd. n. 18. Purfh n. 17

" Stem ereft, fmooth. Leaves fmooth, fharply and un-
equally ferrated ; thofe of the flem elliptical ; radical ones
ovate-oblong. Clufters panicled, unilateral. Rays elon-
gated."— In woods and meadows, from Canada to Vir-
ginia, flowering from September to November. PurJh.

21. S-juncea. Rufhy-ftalked Golden-rod. Ait. ed. 1.
v. 3. 213. ed. 2. n. 12. Willd. n. 19. Purfli n. 18. —
Stem ereft, fmooth. Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, rough-
edged ; the lower ones ferrated. Clufters panicled, uni-
lateral.— In fandy fields and woods, from New Jerfey to
Carolina, flowering from Auguft to Oftober. The Jlem is
brownifh, fomewhat angular and ftriated, leafy, copioufly
panicled at the top, with fpreading, recurved, denfe, ob»
long, compound clujlers, a finger's length or more, whofe
partial ftalks are roughifti, bearing many fmall, lanceolate,
obtufe hraSeas. Florets of the radius twice as long as the
calyx.

22. S. eUtpt'ica. Oval-leaved Golden-rod. Ait. ed. i.
v. 3. 214. ed. 2. n. 13. Willd. n. 20. Purfh n. 19.
(S. latifTimifolia ; Mill. Dift. ed. S. n. 14. Virga aurea
canadenfis, latiflimo folio glabro ; Tourn. Inft. 485.) —
Stem ereft, fmooth. Leaves elliptical, fmooth, ferrated.
Clufters panicled, unilateral. Rays of a middling length. —
In fhady woods among rocks, from New York to Virginia,
flowering from Auguft to Oftober. PurJh.

23. S. dubia. Lanceolate-leaved Golden-rod. Scopoli
Del. Tnfubr. v. 2. 19. t. 10. — Stem ereft, ftriated, flightly
hairy. Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, diltantly toothed. Cluf-
ters panicled, unilateral, rather hairy ; the lower ones axil-
lary. Brafteas lanceolate, fmooth — Cultivated in the bo-
tanic garden of Pavia, from whence we obtained a fpecimen
in June, 1787. The plant was fuppofed by profeffor Sco-
poli to be a native of North America, but we cannot refer
it to any delcnbed fpecies. The late Mr. Dryander, at
that time intent on preparing the Hortus Kenvenjis for the
prefs, confidered our fpecimen as coming neareft to S.
elliptica, but its leaves are narrower, and bradeas much lefs.
Mofl of the clujlers are axillary, compofing a leafy panicle,
and about as long as their correfpondiiig leaves. Florets of
the radius rather numerous. The foliage is rigid, entirely
fmooth, finely toothed, not ferrated, fomewhat triple-
ribbed; indeed more fo than in laterijlora, n. 10, next to
which fpecies, in the firft feftion, we iliould have placed the
prefent, but for its alleged affinity to elliptica.

24. S. afperata. File-leaved Golden-rod. " Bankf.
MSS." Purfh n. 20. — "Stem panicled, corymbofe.
Clufters nearly ereft. Flowers afcending. Leaves lanceo-
late, ferrated, rough." — In Canada, according to the
Baakfian herbarium. PurJh-

25. S. recurvata. Recurved Golden-rod. Willd. Enum.
889. Purfh n. 21. — Stem ereft, downy. Leaves lanceo-
late, ferrated, rough-edged. Clufters elongated, unilateral,
recurved, panicled. In fliady woods, from Pennfylvania to
Virginia, flowering from September to November. Purfh.
Leaves lanceolate, pointed, deeply ferrated, nearly fmooth,
except at the edges. Willdenoiu.

26. S. fempervirens. Narrow-leaved Evergreen Golden-
rod. Linn. Sp. PI. 1232. Willd. n. ji. Ait. n. 14.

Puril*

SOLIDAGO.

S*orfh n. 22. (S. maxima americana ; Cornut. Canad. 168.
t. 169. Virga aurea, five Solidago procerior americana,
caule mtiltiplici ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 235. f. 5.)— Stem ereft,
fmooth. Leaves linear-lanceolate, rather flefhy, fmooth,
entire, rough-edged. Clutters panicled, unihteral. Flower-
ftf.lks roughifh. — In fvvamps, and on the banks of rivers,
from Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering from September to
November. Purjh. A tall, fmooth, purplifh and fome-
what glaucous fpecies, with copious, long, narrow leaves,
and denfe oblong panicles, of unilateral clufters. Radiant
florets long, narrow, rather numerous.

27. S. virgata. Slender Wand-like Golden-rod. Mi-
chaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 117. Purfli n. 23. — " Stem
fmooth, quite fimple. Leaves lanceolate, fomewhat wedge-
fhaped, obtnfe, entire, very fmooth, clofe-prefled ; the
upper ones gradually fmaller. Branches of the panicle
elongated, with terminal cluiters. Flower-ftalks fmooth,
unilateral." — In ftiady wet woods of Lower Carolina and
Georgia, flowering from Auguft to October. About two
feet high, extremely fmooth and flender. PurJh.

28. S. odora. Swcet-fcented Golden-rod. Ait. ed. I.
V. 3. 214. ed. 2. n. ij. Willd. n. 22. Purfh n. 24.
(Virga aurca americana, tarraconis facie et fapore, panicula
fpeciofifllma ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 116. f. 6.) — Stem ereft,
downy, ftriated. Loaves linear-lanceolate, entire, fmooth,
rough-edged. Cluiters panicled, unilateral, nearly iimplc.
— In dry funny fituations, on fertile woodlands, from Ca-
nada to Carolma, principally throughout the Allegany
mountains, flowering from Auguft to Oftober. This is
moll generally and principally known among the inhabitants
by the name of Golden-rod, and ufed as a wholefome tea.
The flowers, gathered when fully expanded, and carefully
dried, afford a moft agreeable fubftitute for tea, which for
feme time has been an article of exportation to China, where
it fetches a high price. Purjlj. The upper part of the

Jlem is regularly furrowed. Clujlers two or three inches
long, fpreading horizontally, each moftly accompanied by
a leaf; theiv Jlalis angular and rough. Brafleas oblong,
fmooth.

29. S. retrorfa. Reflexed Golden-rod. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. V. 2. 117. Purfh n. 25. — <' Stem ere£t, round,
rough. Leaves clofely fcflile, reflexed, linear-lanceolate,
pointed, rough-edged ; fomewhat keeled beneath. Clufters
of the panicle recurved." — In open fwamps of Virginia and
Carolina, flowering in Auguft and September. PurJh.
Said by Michaux to be akin to the laft. We have had no
opportunity of comparing them.

Section 3. Chijlers ereS.

30. S. pauciflofculofa. Starved-flowered Golden-rod.
Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 116. Purfh n. 26. —
«' Smooth, fomewhat fhrubby. Leaves lanceolate, obtufe,
without rib<;. Panicle compound, many-flowered ; tufts of
flowers eredt. Calyx narrow-oblong, with five florets in
the difk, and one in the radius." — In the " fand-barrcns"
of Virginia and Carohna, flowering from Auguft to Oc-
tober. Puijh.

31. ^.hicolor. Two-coloured Golden-rod. Linn. Mant.
114. Willd. n. 23. Ait. n. 16. Pnrfii n. 27. (Virga
aurea, florc albo fpicato ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 114. f. 8, not 5,
as Willdenow and Purfh have it.) — Stem hairy. Leaves
elliptical, hairy ; the lower ones fcrrated ; thofe on the
flower-branches entire, niunerous, and fmall. Clufters
ereft. Scales of the calyx obtufe. — In woods and on dry
hills, from Canada to Carolina, flowering from Auguft to
Oftober. Diftinguiflied by its fhort cloie clujlers, and white
rays, which arc not long, but rather numerous. Tht:J!orels
of the difl< arc alfo plentiful.

^z. S. petiolaris. Late-flowcred Golden-rod. Ait. ed. i.

*. 3. 216. ed. 2. n. 17. Willd. n. 24. Purfh n. 28.— Stem
eredt, villous. Leaves eUiptical, roughifh, ftalked. Clufters
ereft. Rays twice the length of the calyx. — In dry fandy
foil, from New Jerfey to Carolina, flowering from Septem-
ber to November. — The_fiem is branched, round, hoary like
the leaves, efpecially their ribs. The larger leaves are rather
above an inch in length ; thole which plentifully clothe the
flower-branches are much fmaller ; all are nearly entire.
Clujlers numerous, eredt, fliort, of few, but rather large,
Jloiuers, with a confpicuous yellow radius.

33. S.Jriaa. Willow-leaved Golden-rod. Ait. ed. i.

V. 3. 216. ed. 2. n. 18. Willd. n. 25. Purftj n. 29 "Stem

eredt, Imooth. Stem-leaves lanceolate, entire, fmootli,
rough-edged ; radical ones ferrated. Clutters panicled,
erect. Flower-ftalks fmooth. "^In fandy woods, from New
Jerfey to Carolina, flowering from Auguft to November.
— About two feet high, very fmooth. PurJh. Panicle wilh
eredt, fimple, clofe branches. IVi/ld.

34. S. lanceolala. Grafs-leaved Golden-rod. Linn. Mant.
114. Willd. n. 26. Ait. n. 19. Purfti n. 30. (Chryfo.
coma graminifolia ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1178.) — Stem fmnothifh,
furrowed, much branched. Leaves almolt linear, entire,
roughidi, nearly eredt, with three or five rough ribs. Co-
rymbs terminal, level-topped. Flowers capitate. Rays not
longer than the diflc. — In fields and meadows, by the fides
of woods and rivers, from Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering
from September to November. Tliis plant has been found
in Scotland, on the banks of the Eflc, a mile above Muffel-
burgh, among willows, alders, &c. by Mr. E. J. Maughan
of Edinburgh, in September 1809. Still we have not ven-
tured to admit into the Britifh lift, a plant often met with
in gardens, and very rapid in propagation, though many
have been admitted on far lefs fufRcient grounds. '\^h.ejlems
are four or five feet high, branched in a corymbofe manner,
leafy, angular or furrowed, flightly rough, or quite fmooth.
Leaves feffile, grafs-green, two inches or more in length,
a quarter of an inch in breadth, roughifti, efpecially at the
edges and ribs. Flowers numerous, rather fmall, denfely
corymbofe, yellow. Calyx ovate, fmooth, fhining, with
tumid green-tipped fcales.

35. S. tenuifoUa. Narrow-leaved Golden-rod. Purfh
n. 31. (S. lanceolata [i, minor; Michaux Boreal-Amer.
V. 2. 1 16.) — " Stem rough, angular, branched, corymbofe.
Leaves fpreading, linear, very narrow, flightly three-ribbed,
rough, with axillary tufts of fmaller ones. Corymbs ter-
minal, level-topped. Flowers capitate. Rays fcarcely ex-
ceeding the diflc." — In " pine-barrens," from New .lerfey
to Carolina, flowering in September and Odtober. Nut
above a foot high. Leaves very fmall and narrow. Purji,

36. S. Sarothra. Clofo-leaved Dwarf Golden-rod. Purfli
n. 32. — " Stem angular, rough ; naked in the lower part ;
corymbofe above. Branches with a few terminal flowers.
Leaves linear, clofe-prefled, obfcurely thrcc-ribbed, rougU
on both fides, without axillary tufts. Rays twice the length
of the difk." — Gathered by governor Lewis, on the plains
of the Miflburi, flowering in September. — About a ipan
high, Tc{cTVih\mg iUo Sarothra geniiatioides oi Linnieus, Hy-
pericum Sarothra of Purfh, vi-ry much in general habit. This
and tiie two preceding have a great aflinity to one another,
but Mr. Purfh confiders them good and permanent fpecies,
as there arc no intermediate varieties, which might lead to a
fufpicion that all belong to one genuine fpecies. We have
feen neither of the two laft.

37. S. citfta. Maryland Goldcn-rod. Linn. Sp. PI. 1234.
Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 20. Purfli n. 53. (Virga aurca
marilandica cxfia glabra; Dill. Eltli. 414. t. 307. f. 395.)
— Stem ncirly crett, very fmooth and even. Leaves lanceo-
late, Iraootb, with roughifli edges and ribs. Clufters crcd.

Kayt

SOLIDAGO.

Rays rather longer than the difli.— In woods and low fields,
from New England to Carolina, flowering from Auguft to
Oftober. Purfi. Thejli;m is upright, but fomewhat zig-
zag, branched, leafy, deftitute of any furrows or other in-
equalities. Leaves about two inches long, pointed, nearly
or quite entire, rather glaucous; paler beneath. Cliifters
numerous, fliort, with rough ilalks, and fmall, fmooth,
awl-fhaped hraSeas.

38. S. limda. Livid Golden-rod. Willd. Enum. 891.
Purfh n. 34. — " Stem fmooth, panicled. Leaves lanceo-
late, ferrated, fmooth, rough-edged. Branches racemofe
at the extremity. Rays elongated." — In iandy fields *id
woods, from New York to Virginia, flowering in Septem-
ber and Oftober. Purjh. Stem branched, dark purple,
fmooth. Leaves tapering at each end. Akin to S- c^Jia in
the colour of the Jlem, but different in having a panicled
Jlem, whofe branches are racemofe at the fummit. IVilldenoiv.
We are unacquainted with any thing aniwering to this
defcription.

^g. S. hi/plda. Hifpid Golden-rod. Willd. n. z8. Purfh
n. 35. — " Stem ereft, rough with briflles. Leaves lanceo-
late, rough, entire ; the radical ones ferrated. Clutters
eredl. Rays of a middling length." — In graffy fields and
woods, from New Jerfey to Virgmia, flowering in October
and November. — Refembles S. Cizfia. PurJJj.

40. S. hirta. Hairy Golden-rod. Willd. Enum. 891.
Purfh n. 36. — " Stem panicled, hairy. Leaves lanceolate,
rough on both fides ; thofe of the ftem ferrated ; of the
branches entire. Clufters ereft. Rays elongated." — Na-
tive of North America, according to Willdenow, on whofe
authority alone it finds a place in the work of Mr. Purfli.
It is faid to be fufficiently diilinguifhed by the hairy_/?cm,
and rough leaves, of which fuch as grow on the pri[icipal
ftem are deeply and fharply ferrated.

41. S. lithofpermifoita. Gromwell-leaved Golden-rod.
Willd. Enum. 892. Purfh n. 37. — " Stem branched,
downy. Leaves lanceolate, rough on both fides, tapering,

three-ribbed, entire. Clufters ereft. Rays elongated In

fandy barren woods, from New Jerfey to Carolina, flowering
from Auguil to Oftober. Purfi. Willdenow fays the leaves
are much like Luhofpermum officinale.

42. S. laevigata. Flelhy-leaved Golden-rod. Ait. ed. i.
V. 3. 215. ed. 2. n. 21. Willd. n. 29. Purfli n. 38. — Stem
ereft, fmooth. Leaves lanceolate, flefhy, entire, fmooth in
every part. Clufters panicled, ereft. Flower-flalks fcaly,

hairy. Radius twice the length of the calyx In fah-

marfhes, from Canada to Virginia, flowering from Septem-
ber to November. — A tall robufl fpecies, refembling the
following one very much, and probably nothing more than
a variety. Purjlo. This opinion feems to us very correft,
there being really no difference between the two plants, ex-
cept the hairinefs of \.\\e Jlower-Jlalks in the prefent, and its
flowering about three months later than S- mexlcana.

43. S. mesicana. Mexican Golden-rod. Linn. Sp. PI.
1234. Willd. n. 30. Ait. n. 22. Purfh n. 39. (Virga
aurca mexicana ; Bauh. Pin. 517. V. aurea mexicana, li-
monii folio ; Dodart. Mem. ed. Amfl. 629. t. 36.) — Stem
oblique, fmooth. Leaves lanceolate, fomewhat flefhy, en-
tire, fmooth in every part. Clufters panicled, ereft. Flower-
ftalks fcaly, fmooth. Rays longer than the calyx. — On the
banks of rivers and ditches in North America, near falt-
water, flowering from July to September. — Tall ; floiuers
large. PurJh. This is fmooth and even in every part, and
of a rather flefhy, fomewhat glaucous habit, approaching
to our /{/ler TripoUum, whofe place it occupies in America.
The radical leaves are large, obovate, on long Ilalks. Brae-
teas numerous, lanceolate, keeled, recurved, of a thin, fcaly,
or fquarrofe, afpeft, fmoot^i, exaftly Lke the lalt, but the

jtoiuer-Jlalks are equally fmooth, which in that .ve very
rough with fhort hairs. Floiuers rather large.

44. S. viminea. Twiggy Golden-rod. Ait. ed. I. v. 3.
215. ed. 2. n. 23. Willd. n. 31. Purfh n. 40. (S. inte-
gerrima ; Mill. Dift. ed. 8. n. 24.) — Stem ereft, llightly
downy. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth, rough-edged ;
tapering at the bafe : the lower ones fomewhat ferrated.
Cluflers ereft. Rays elongated. — On the banks of rivers
and ditches, from Canada to Virginia, flowering from Ah-
guft to Oftober. PurJh. — Akin to the two fall, but the
leaves are thin or membranous, not fucculent ; their margin
furniflied with little inflexcd rigid briiUes. Floiver-Jlalh
and branches angular and very rough. Braileas lanceolate,
recurved, fmooth. Flo'wers numerous, the fize of the
preceding.

45. S. ereaa. Ereft Golden-rod. " Bankf. MSS."
Purfh n. 41. — " Stem rather villous. Leaves lanceolate,
veiny, fmooth, entire, fomewhat ftalked." — Native of North
America. Herb. Banks. PurJh.

46. S. macrophylla. Long-leaved Golden-rod. " Bankf.
MSS." Purfh n. 42. — " Lower leaves orate, pointed,
tapering, unequally and fharply ferrated, fmooth ; thofe of
the ftem lanceolate, tapering at each end, ferrated, nearly
feffile. Clufters axillary, ftalked, leafy, the length of the
leaves. Calyx oblong, turgid, many-flowered. Rays fome-
what elongated." — In Canada. About three feet high. In-
termediate between this genus and yljler. PurJh.

47. S. glomerata. Round-headed Golden-rod. Michaux
Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 117. Purfh n. 43. — " Stem low, quite
fiinple. Leaves fmooth, oblong-lanceolate, ferrated. Clufter
fimple, formed of roimd axillary heads ; the uppermoll
crowded. Calyx turgid, many-flowered." — Found by Mi-
chaux on the mountains of Carolina. No other botanift
feems acquainted with this fpecies, nor is it eafy to under-
fland his definition of the leaves ; {'^ foliis lon^e latequt
lanceolatis ." )

48. Si.JlexkauHs. Crookcd-ftalked Golden-rod. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1234. Willd. n. 32, a. Ait. n. 24, a. Purfh
n. 44, X. (Virga aurca montana, fcrophularix folio ; Pluk.
Phyt. t. 235. f. 3.) — Stem zig-zag, roundifh, fmooth.
Leaves lanceolate, pointed, ferrated, fmooth, nearly feflile.
Clufters axillary, ere6t. — In woods and fields, from Canada
to Carolina, flowering from Auguft to Ocxober. PurJh.
The Jlem is flender, zig-zag, purplifh, fmooth and even ;
moftly round ; occafionally fomewhat angular. Leaves nu-
merous, alternate, on very fhort broad Jlalhs, lanceolate,
from one and a half to two inciies long, half an inch wide,
ferrated, rough-edged, very fmooth on both fides ; paler
beneath, fomewhat oontrafted and entire in their lower
half ; the upper ones fometimes nearly entire. Clujlers much
fhorter than the leaves, oblong, with hwvjlalts, and ovate,
fmooth, veiny hra^eas ; the upper ones very fhort, and
nearly capitate. Radius pale yellow, half as Jong again as
the calyx.

49. S. latifolia. Broad-leaved Axillary Golden-rod. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1234. (S.flexicaulis;S; Willd. n. 32. Ait. n. 24.
Purfh n. 44. Virga aurea canadenfis afterifci folio ; Herm.
Parad. 244. t. 244.) — Stem fomewhat zig-zag, angular,
fmooth. Leaves ovate, pointed, llrongly ferrated, fmooth;
tapering into a winged footitalk. Cluliers axillary, ereft.
— In woods and fields from Canada to Carolin.T, flowering
from Auguft to Oftober. Purjli. Very different in ap-
pearance from the laft, to which it is united by various
authors, on the authority of the Hortus Kewenjis. But we
fufpeft the rei\J!:.ricaulis is not much underftood in Eng-
land, what we have under that name from Kew garden, as
well as the Bankfian herbarium, being really the latifolia,
which latter fpecies was not known, as fuch, to the botanills

here,

SOLIDAGO.

here, till the Linnaean herbarium came among them. How
far it may be Ipecifically dilUnft, we cannot be certain. We
have fpecimens of both from the late Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg,
whofe leaves differ greatly. Thofe of latifoHii are two inches
broad, with very copious, deep, acute lerratures, and con-
traft at the bafe, more or lefs fuddeiily, into a winged_/oo/-
Jialk, near an inch long. Their rib, and under f:de, are
fometimes hairy. Nothing like this is feen mJlcxicatiUs. We
fufpeft Plukeiiet's t. 235. f. 4, as well as f. 3, may belong
to this lall ; fee the following. Hermann's plate is cer-
tainly lattfolia. Mr. Purfli fpeaks of thefc fpecies collec-
tively, as the moll common Solidago in North Ame-
rica. We know not to which of the two this is mod
applicable.

^o.S. ambigua. Angular-ftalked Golden-rod. Ait. ed. I.
V. 3. ZI7. ed. 2. n. 2J. Willd. n. 33. (Virga aurea latiffimo
folio, canadenfis, glabra ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 235. f. 4 ?)— Stem
(lightly zig-zag, fmooth, angular, branched. Leaves ovato-
lanceolate, pointed, denfely ferrated, rather hairy beneath ;
tapering into a winged footftalk ; upper ones entire. Cluf-
ters axillary, ere<ft ; the upper ones much longer than the
leaves. — Cultivated by Miller, and communicated from Kew
garden to the younger JLinnoeus. It is faid to flower in
July and Auguit, but its native country is unknown, nor
has Mr. Purlh met with this plant in America. It may be
a variety of lalifoUa, from v/hich it differs in having fome-
what narrower leaves, and in the much greater length of
the upper cluiters oi Jloiuers, which combine to form a
clofe panicle. Plukenet's figure, cited here with doubt,
does not quite enough exprefs this, nor are fo many of the
leaves entire, though feveral of the upper ones are fo in our
fpecimen.

51. S. alpejlris. Alpine Golden-rod. « Waldlt. and
Kitaib. Hung." Willd. n. 34. — " Stem ereft, fmooth.
Leaves elliptic-lanceolate ; the lower ones ferrated. Clufters
ereft, clofe, (hortcr than the leaves. Rays elongated." —
Native of the Carpathian, Aullrian, and Bohemian alps.
Very like the following, but the Jlem-leaves are elliptic-
lanceolate, nearly entire, and thejlem is fmooth. It varies
greatly by culture, becoming two feet, inftcad of one, in
height, and branched, inftcad of quite fimple. The leaves
of the wild plant meafnre from half an inch to an inch and
a half, (we prefume in length) ; thofe of the garden one from
one and a half to three inches. The upper clujlers of the
former are crowded into a fort of fpike ; thofe of the latter
are axillary, and compofed of {ewjloivers. IVilhlenow.

52. S. Virgaiirea. Common Golden-rod. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1235. Willd. n. 35. Ait. n. 26. Purlh n. 46. Fl.
Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 301. Fl. Dan. t. 663. (S.
n. 69 ; Hall. Hill. v. i. 29. Virga aurea; Ger. Em.
430. Camcr. Epit. 748, 749. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 354.)

/3. Virga aurea, longo, niolli, et lanceolato folio, alpina ;
Bocc. Muf. 34. t. 30.

y. Virga aurea montana minor; Bocc. Muf. 169. t. 118.
Barrel. let. 783.

I. Solidago cambrica ; Hudf. 367. Ait. n. 27. Willd.
n. 36. (Virga aurea cambrica, lloribus conglobatis ; Dill.
Ekh. 413. t.306. f. 393.)

t. S. minuta ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1235. Willd. n. 38. Ait.
n. 29. (Virga aurea omnium minima, floribus maximis ;
Hcrm. Parad. 245. t. 245. V. aurea montana biuncialis
pumila, foliis acuminatis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 235. f. 7 ; and
foliorum apicibus obtufis ; f. 8.)

Stem fomewhat zig-zag, angular, hairy. Leaves more or
lefs ferrated, roughifh ; tapering at the bafe. Cluilcrs
panicled, erect, clofe. Rays twice the length of the calyx.
— Native of bulhy, heathy, mountainous, and alpine fitu-

ations throughout Europe, as well as at Labrador, and even
China, flowering in the latter part of fummer. The root
is perennial, confifting of long fimple fibres. Stem very
variable in height and luxuriance, molUy from one to three
feet high, and branched in a panicled manner, more or lefs
zig-zag, never quite ftraight, leafy, angular, covered more or
lefs with ftiort hairs, efpecially the upper part ; rounder, and
frequently purplifh, at the bafe. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
or nearly ovate, roughifh, firm and rather rigid ; the lower
ones Italked ; the relt varioufly elongated at the bafe ; all
extremely variable in fizc, and efpecially in tlieir ferratures,
which, though commonly clofe and fliallow, are fometimes
very coarfe and tooth-like, fometimes nearly wanting ; the
margin is always rough with minute briilly hairs ; the furface
fmooth or rough ; the under fide rather paler ; fometimes
the upper leaves are recurved, or drooping, and the upper-
mod ot all gradually diminifli into hraSeas. Panicle ter-
minal, many. flowered, attended by fmall leaves ; its lower
branches often axillary ; all downy, racemofe, or corym-
bofe ; now and then fimple and fingle-flowered. Scales of
the calyx at length fpreading, but all fliraight, imbricated,
lanceolate, fringed, membranous at the edges ; fometimes
rough at the back. Florets of the radius from five to nine
or ten, of a golden yellow, fpreading, elliptic-oblong,

toothed at the end, their limb the length of the calyx.

We fcarcely know a plant more difficult to define or to
underftand than this, nor can we limit even the varieties fo
as to make them intelligible ; much lefs elevate them to the
rank of fpecies. /9, fent from Italy by Arduino to Linnaeus,
is more downy, with more pliant leaves, than our common
kind, with numerous axillary clujlers, and a more leafy pa-
nicle. TheJIoiuers are confiderably larger than ufual.

7 has equally large Jloivers, but much fewer, fo that the
pancicle is nearly fimply racemofe, and the leaves are coarfely
ferrated. We have Swifs fpecimens of Haller's n. 69, which
combine thefe two varieties, and whofe herbage connedls thera
with the common flate of the fpecies.

I is equally fimple in its panicle, and its growth is more
humble, but the moll authentic fpecimens prove it a mere
variety. It is impoflible to fay what Willdenow had for
5. cambrica, which he afl'erts to remain unchanged by cul-
ture ; but his authority falls to the ground, fince he per-
filts in quoting Petiver's t. 16. f. 11, which we have pointed
out in Fl. Brit, as a copy of Camerarius, t. 748, done forthe
common Virgaurea!

I is the moil puy.zling of all. Thejloiuers in Hermann's
plate nearly equal thofe of our /3 ; while in the Linna;an
fpecimen, evidently, as Linnxus judged it, a variety of Vir^
gaurea, they are but half as large, and panicled. This fpe-
cimen was fent by Arduino for Boccone's t. i iS, (fee va-
riety ■),) which it very little refembles. Plukenet's figures
have the chiefly axillary inflorcfcence of our /9, only each
ftalk is fimple, not racemofe. — If any of thefe varieties are
to be eitablidied as fpecies, it muft be from far better ma-
terials than have fallen in our way, ai.d by widely different
charadters than have as yet been given. We mull obferve
that Grew's t. 59, cited by Haller, is evidently one of the
garden American fpecies, totally unlike Virgaurea.

53. S. multiradiala. Labrador Golden-rod. Ait. ed. I.
v. 3. 218. ed. 2. n. 28. Willd. n. 37. Pnrfhn.47. — "Stem
rather villous. Leaves leflile, lanceolate, fmooth, fringed ;
the lower ones ferrated at the end. Clullcr terminal, ereft.
Rays numerous, elongated." — Found .it Labrador and
Hudfon's Bay, flowering from Augull to OAober. — Purfb,
— Stem a fpan high, downy, ereCt, quite limple. Leaves
narrow, nearly eiiiirc. Cltjler dciife. Radius narrow, co-
pious. IVilldcnow.

54. S.

SOL

c±. S. humilis. Humble Golden-rod. Purth n. 48.—
«< Stem fimple, ereft, fmooth. Leaves Unceolate, ft^fated,
fmooth ; tapering and elongated at the bafe. Clufler ered.
—Native of North Anierica, according to the iJankliaii

herbarium. PurJIi. ,. 0.. _

cc. S. elata. Lofty Golden-rod. Purfh n. 49.—" Stem
hairy, round. Leaves lanceolate; rather hairy beneath.
Clulters ereft. Rays elongated."-Native of North Ame-
rica, according to tlie fame authority. Purfi.

c6 S rislda. Hard-leaved Golden-rod. Linn. bp. i'i.
12,/. Willd.n.39. Ait. n. 30. Purftin. 50. (Virga
aure^ Novae Anglige, lato rigido folio ; Herm. Parad. 243.
t 243 )— Leaves ovate-oblong, rough, hke the corymbole
ileni, with minute rigid hairs ; thelowermoft ferrated ; upper
entire. Cluilers compaa. Rays twice the length ot the
obtufe calyx.— In the traft of mountains from New Jerfey
to Carolina, flowering from Auguft to Oftober. Purfo.
Thcjlcm is four or five feet high, round, ftriated, leafy,
rough with copious rigid pubefcence, and branched copi-
oufly, in a corymbofe manner, at the top. Leaves rough
liice a file, fomewhat hoary ; the radical ones ftalked, a foot
long, broad, pointed, ribbed, more or lefs ferrated ; the reft
from one to four inches long, either obtufe or fomewhat
pointed, entire, or occafionally crenatc ; thofe on the flower-
ing branches numerous, fmall, and entire. Floivers rather
large, but various in fize. Scales of the calyx blunt, or
rounded at the end, ribbed, membranous at the edge, vari-
able in breadth.— A Pennfylvanian fpecimen, fent by the
late Dr. Muhlenberg, has crenate, exaftly ovate, leaiits on
tlic ftem, TcaAJin'ujers about half the ufual fize ; but we dare
not make it a diftinft fpecies.

57. S. noveboiacenjis. New York Golden-rod. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1235. WiUd. n. 40. Purfli n. 51. — Radical
leaves eUiptic-oblong, ftalked, rough. Stem almoft naked,
branched, furrowed, level-topped. Rays twice as long
as the taper-pointed calyx. — In fandy fields and woods
of North America, flowering in September and OAober.
Purjfj. The root is thick and fomewhat woody. Stem one
afld a half or two feet high, flout, rough, round, plentifully
furrowed, quite ereft, bearing two or three oblong-lanceo-
late leaves at the origin of the flovi'ering branches, but
otherwife naked. Leaves chiefly radical, on long, ereft
ftalks, elliptical, tapering at each end, three inches long,
rough like a file with minute tubercles, the margin fur-
iiiftied with fliallow ferratures. Flowers large, not numerous,
on corymbofe hairy ttalks, with a few rough lanceolate
braBeas. Calyx-fcaks narrow, purplifli, downy, with long
tapering points. The radiant )?o«/x appear to be fometimes
more than ten. They^'^^^ are hairy ; their down long, very
{lender, minutely rough. This fpecies appears to be a
ftranger in our gardens. Its habit is that of an AJler.

SoLiDAGO, in Gardening, contains plants of the tall, her-
baceous, flowering, perennial kind, of which the fpecies culti-
vated are ; the common golden-rod ( S. virgaurea) ; the Ca-
nadian golden-rod (S. canadenfis) ; the tall golden-rod (S.
altifiima) ; the Mexican golden-rod (S. mexicana) ; the
twiggy golden-rod (S. viminea) ; the two-coloured golden-
rod (S. bicolor) ; the hard-leaved golden-rod (S. rigida) ;
the Maryland golden-rod (S. cxfia) ; the crooked-llalked
golden-rod (S. flexicaulis) ; and the narrow-leaved ever-
green golden-rod (S. fempervirens).

The firft fort has fometimes tlie names of Wound-wort
and Aaron's rod. There are feveral varieties of it, as the
purple-ftalked broad-leaved, which has the ft'alks ftiff', pur-
plifh-brown, two feet high : the panicles axillary and ter-
minating ; each flower on a long flender footftalk, pale
yellow, appearing at the beginning of Auguft ; th« leaves

SOL

lanceolate, almoll four inches long, and a quarter of an inch
broad, deeply ferrate, pale green beneath.

The common golden-rod, which has the lower leaves
ovate-lanceolate, two inches long and an inch broad, flightly
ferrate, on pretty long footftalks ; the ttems flender, a foot
and a half high ; with fmall, narrow, entire, feflile leaves ;
the flowers in panicled bunches, cluftered together, forming
a thick ereft fpike, appearing in Auguft and September.
The narrow4eaved, which has the ftalk round, fmooth, a
foot and a half high ; the leaves narrow-lanceolate, an inch
and a quarter long, and an eighth of an inch broad, almoft
entire, felTile ; the flowers in fmall cluftered bunches from
the axils, to which they fit very clofe ; and the ftalk is ter-
minated by a roundifli bunch. The dwarf golden-rod, which
has the lower leaves indented ; the ftalk feldom more than
a foot high, branching out almoft from the bottom ; the
branches terminated by fliort, cluftered, ereft fpikes j the
leaves on the ftem and branches very narrow, acute-pointed,
and entire. The Welfti golden-rod, which has the Iswer
leaves narrow-lanceolate, an inch and half l«ng, and a quarter
of an inch broad, fmooth, flightly ferrate, a little hoary oM
the under fide ; the ftalk about fix inches high, with the
fame fort of leaves on it, only fmaller ; the flowers in round-
ifli cluftered terminating fpikes, much larger than thofe of
the common fort, and appearing five or fix weeks earlier in
the feafon.

In the third fort there are feveral varieties ; as the talleft
golden-rod, the hairy golden-rod, the recurved golden-rod,
the Virginia golden-rod.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are all readily increafed
by flipping or parting the roots, and planting them out in
the autumn or winter foon after their ftems decay, or very
early in the fpring before they begin to flioot, but the
former is the better feafon, in the places where they are to
grow ; they fucceed in almoft any foil or fituation, and
afterwards require only to be kept clean from weeds, and to
have the decayed ftems cut down when they begin to decay
in the antumn. When they have increafed confiderably in
the roots, they fliould always be flipped as above.

Thefe plants are very hardy and durable in their roots, by
which moft of them foon become large, the fmall flips not
unfrequently growing into large bunches in one feafon,
many of them, of courfe, require to be well cut in with a
fliarp fpade all round about their roots annually, or nearly
fo, to prevent their fpreading too greatly and having an
improper appearance, as well as being injurious to other
neighbouring plants of fmall growth.

In planting out they require much room, as they fpread
confiderably. But they afford confiderable variety and
ornament in larger borders and clifmps, on all pleafure-
grounds towards the autumnal feafon.

SoLiDAGo, in the Materia Medica. The flowers and
the leaves of the common golden-rod, or virga aurea,
have a flightly aromatic odour, and a fubaftringent fome-
what aromatic tafte. Boihng water extrafts the aftive
matter. The infnfion changes flightly to green fyrup of
violets, and precipitates fulphate of iron black. Golden-
rod is aitringent, and has been regarded as lithontriptic.
It may be, fays Thomfon (Difp."l, of fome ufe in a weakened
ftate of the vifcera, and, hke other tonics, beneficial in cal-
culous habits, but it is not entitled to much notice. The
dofe of the powdered leaves and flowers may be from
grs, X to 3j or more.

SOLID A R, in Gesgraphy, a town of Bengal ; 26 miles
S.S.W. of Rogonatpour.

SOLIDITY, in Phy/ics, a property of matter or body,

6 by

SOLIDITY.

by which it excludes every other body from that place which
itfelf pofTeffes.

Solidity, in this fenfe, is a property common to all bodies,
whether fohd or fluid. It is ufually called impenetrability ;
but folidity exprefles it belt, as carrying fomewhat more of
pofitive with it than the other, which is a negative idea.

The idea of folidity, Mr. Locke obferves, arifes from the
refiftance we find one body make to the entrance of another
into its own place. Solidity, he adds, feems the moft ex-
tenfive property of body, as being that by which we con-
ceive it to till fpace ; it is didinguiihed from mere /pace, by
this latter not being capable of refiftance or motion.

It is diftinguifhed from hardneft, which is only a firm
cohefion of the folid parts, fo as they may not eafily change
their fituation.

The difficulty of changing fituation gives no more foli-
dity to the hardeft body than to the fofteft ; nor is a diamond
properly a jot more folid than water.' By this we diltinguidi
the idea of the extenfion of body from that of the exten-
fion of fpace : that of body is the continuity or cohefion
of fohd, feparable, moveable parts ; that of fpace, the con-
tinuity of unfohd, infeparable, immoveable parts.

The Cartefians, however, will, by all means, deduce foli-
dity, or, as they call it, impenetrability, from the nature of
extenfion ; they contend that the idea of the former is con-
tained in that of the latter ; and hence they argue againft a
vacuum. Thus, fay they, one cubic foot of extenfion can-
not be added to another, without having two cubic feet of
extenfion ; for each has in itfelf all that is required to con-
Ititute that magnitude. And hence they conclude, that
every part of fpace is folid, or impenetrable, inafmuch as
of its own nature it excludes all others. But the conclufion
is falfe, and the inftance they give follows from this, that
the parts of fpace are immoveable, not from their being im-
penetrable or folid.

For an account of a late controverfy concerning the foli-
dity of matter, fee Matter.

Solidity, in Geometry, the quantity of fpace contained
in a folid body ; called alfo the folid content, and the cube
of it.

The folidity of a cube, prifm, cylinder, or parallelepiped,
is had by multiplying its bafis into its height.

The folidity of a pyramid or cone is had by multiplying
either the whole bafe into a third part of the height, or the
whole height into a third part of the bafe.

Solidity of any irregular Body, To find the. Put the
body in a hollow parallelepiped, and pour water or fand
upon it, and note the height of the water or fand A B
(Plate XIV. Geometry, fig. 2.) ; then taking out the body,
obferve at what height the water (or fand, when levelled)
ftands, as AC. SubtraA A C from A B, the remainder
will be B C. Thus is the irregular body reduced to a pa-
rallelepiped, whole bafe is FCGE, audits altitude BC.
To find the folidity of which, fee Parallelepiped.

Suppofe, e. gr. A B to be 8, and A C, j ; then will
B C be 3 : fuppofe, again, D B, 12, D E, 4 ; then will the
folidity of the irregular body be found 144.

If the body be fuch as that it cannot be well laid in
fuch a kind of channel, e. gr. if it be required to meafure
the folidity of a llatuc, as it ftands; a quadrangular prifm
or parallelepiped is to be framed over it ; the rell as before.

Solidity of ahollorv Body, To find the. If the body be
not comprifed in the number of regular bodies, its fohdity
is found as in the preceding problem. If it be a parallel-
epiped, prifm, cylinder, fphere, pyramid, or cone, the
folidity firll of the whole body, including the cavity, then
that of the cavity, which is fuppofedto have the fame figure

Vol. XXXIIL

with the body itfelf, is to be found, according to the re-
fpeftive methods delivered under Pakallelepiped, Prism,
&c. For the latter being fubtrafted out of the former, the
remainder is the folidity of the hollow body required.

For the centrobaryc metliod of meafuring the folidity ot
bodies, fee Centrobaryc Method.

To find the Solidity of Bodies by the Method of Fluxions.
Let ABC {Plate XIY. ylnalyfts,fig. I.) reprefcnt any
folid conceived to be generated by a plane P Q, pafling
over it with a parallel motion : let H /', perpendicular to
PQ, be taken to exprefs the fluxion of A H (x), or the
velocity with which the generating plane is carried : alfo
let the area of the part E m F n be denoted by A :
then it follows, from the definition of a fluxion, that the
fluxion of the folid A E F will be exprefled by A x.
Whence, by expounding A in terms of x (according to
the nature of the figure), and then taking the fluent, the
contents of the fohd, which we may reprefeiit by s, will be
given. But, when the propofed folid is that arifing from
the revolution of any given curve A E B about A H D,

as an axis, the fluxion (j) of the folidity may be exhibited
in a manner more convenient for praftice ; for, putting
the area (3.141592, &c.) of the circle, whoie radius is
unity, = p, and the ordinate 'E.H =■ y, it will be i ^ : ^■'
'•'• P '• Py^' ^'1^ *''^3 °f •^'"^ circle EoiFn, which being
fubftituted for A, we have s = py^ x.

Ex. I. To find the Content of a Cone ABC {fg. 2.)
Let the given altitude A D be = a, and the femidiameter
of its bafe B D = ^, and the dillance A F of the circle
E G from the vertex A, = .r ; then we fhall have, by

bx •
fimilar triangle.<i, a : ^ :: .x : EF (y) = — . Whence

(=/^'.v) =

pb'

vcrfe method of fluxions, t =

and, confequently, by the in-
pb' .

( = AD), gives

pb^

= P

3^"
X BD'

which, when sc = j

A D for the

content of the whole cone ABC; which appears, from
hence, to be juft ;,d of a cylinder of the fame bafe and alti-
tude. See Cone.

Ex. 2. To find the Content of a Spheroid A F B H
{fig. 3.) and alfo of a Sphere. Let the axis A B, about
which the folid is generated, be = a, and the other axis
F H of the generating ellipfe = i ; it follows, from the
property of the ellipfe, that a- : 6' :: x (a — x) (AD

X B D) : ji' (D E") = — (ax - x.v) : vrhence we ha»e

J. LI

s =z {pyx =)^ - {a XX — x"a), and

— ^:cs) = the fegment A I £.
pb'-

a'
Which, when A D (x)

{\aKm

pb'

a O

= AB (a), becomes^ (-i a' — ^ a^) —

■i pab' = the content of the whole fphcroid. Where, if S
(F H) be taken — a {A B), we fhall obtain ipa^ for the
true content of a fpheic whofc diameter is a. Hence, a
fphere, or a fpheroid, is jds of its circumfcribing cylinder ;

pb'
for the area of the circle FH being expreffed by — , the

4

content of the cylinder, whofe diameter is F H, and alti-
S f tudc

SOL

rtde AB, will, therefore, be •? — '-, of which I pub'- is

4
fvidently two third parts. See Sphere and Spheroid.

Ex.3. To find the Content of a parabohc Conoid. From
the equation a"' - " -i'' = y" of the generating curve, we

obtain jr = a~^ X .r^, and s { = py'.r) —pa
X xx^- ; and, therefore, s = pa m

a m— » 1 X ft

X

2n

— + 1
m

pa

: m— 2 n rtl X m

X

py--

2 n + m
m X

= pa'

2 n ■}- m
the content of the fohd ; which,

2 B + m

therefore, is \o py'^ x, the content of the circiimfcribing
cylinder, as wj to 2 n -|- m. Whence the fohd generated
by the conical parabola (in which m = 2, and ?i =: 1)
appears to be juft half of its circumfcribing cylinder. See
Parabolic Conoid.

Ex. 4. Tojindthe Content of an hyperbolic Conoid. From

the equation y^ =^ — {ax ■\- .v x) of the generating hyper-
bola, we have s ipy' x) = ^-^ {axx + x' x), and con-
fequently t =: ^—j- (-ia.-c' + ^ .\-^) = the content of the

conoid ; which, therefore, is to (^—^ [ax -\- .v') .t J t!)at of

a cylinder of the fame bafe and altitude, as i a + -\ x to
« + K. This ratio, if .v be very fmall, will become as
I to 2 very nearly : whence it may be inferred, that the con-
tent of a very fmall part of any folid generated by a cHrve,
whofe radius of curvature at the vertex is a finite quantity,
is half that of a cylinder of the fame bafe and altitude very
nearly ; becaufe any fuch curve, for a fmall dillancc, will
differ infenfibly from an hyperbola, whofe radius of cur-
vature, at the vertex, is the fame.

Ex'. 5. To Jind the Content of a parabolic Spindle, gene-
rated by the Rotation of a given Parabola A C B [fg. 4. )
about its Ordinate A B. Put C M, tlie abfcifTe of the given
parabola, — a, and the femi-ordinate A M (or B M) = i ;
and fuppofing E N F to be any feftion of the fohd parallel
to D C, let its dillancc M N or E P from D C be denoted
by iu : then, by the property of the curve, we (hall have

AM' [b^) : EP' {iv'-) ■.■.CM(a):C^ = ~: thtK.

fore E N (= C M - C P) = a - f-^' = ^SLtJ^I,

and confequently /. x E N' = '--^ [b* - zFm' + tu')
= the area of the feftion E F : which, multiplied by w,
the fluxion of M N, gives ^~ (b>-z'u - zb^w'-il +

w'ti«) for the fluxion of the folidity, whofe fluent •^—

b*
(i*w — ib'w^ + t':"'"). when w becomes = b, is
Apa-b\
( ~Ye~) "^"^ '^^ content of the folid, See Pvra.midoid,

8 0 L

For other examples of a fimilar kind, fee Simpfon's
Fluxions, vol. i. fett. 9, and other elementary treatifes on
that fubjeft.

Solidity, in ArchiteSure, is applied both to the con-
fidence of the ground on whicli the foundation of a building
is laid, and to a mafs of mafonry of extraordinary thicknefs,
without any cavity within. The folidity of the Egyptian
pyramids is inconceivable.

SOLIDS, in Anatomy, &c. denote all the continuous and
continent parts of the body ; thus called, in oppofition to
the fluids, or parts contained in them.

Of the folid kind, are the bones, cartilages, ligaments,
membranes, fibres, mulcles, tendons, arteries, veins, nerves,
gland'!, lymphedufts, and lafteals.

SO\AY!>\JQ,m Ancient Coinage. (SeeAiRELs.) Ac-
cording to Phny's account, gold was coined at Rome fixty-
two years after filver, i. e. 547 U. C. or B. C. 204; and
then the fcruple pafled, as he informs us, for 20 fellerces.
It was afterwards thought proper to coin 40 pieces out of
the pound of gold ; and, as he fays, our princes have, by
degrees, diminillied their vveiglit to 45 in the pound. The
pieces that now remain confirm Pliny's account. In the
firil coinage, the aurei were 4S in the pound ; afterward',
as Pliny fays, there were ,\o in the pound, and the aurens
was raifed from 106 grains, the woiglit of tlie didrachm of
this coinage, to 126 grains. From Pliny and the coins it
appears, that in the firll coinage, the fcruple of gold palled
for 20 lellerces ; the drachm of three fcruples was 60 fef-
tertii, or ij filver denarii ; and the didrachm, or aureus,
the common Roman gold coin, was worth 30 filver denarii,
.equal to j/. Iterling ; gold being ts filver as lyf to i.
The aureus feems to have continued at 30 filver denarii
till Sylla's time ; but about the year of Rome 675, B. C. 77,
the aureus fell to the rate of 40 in the pound, as Pliny
informs us, and being reduced near the fcale of the Greek m
X^^^oii pafled for 20 denarii, as the later for 20 drachmas, I
being in currency 13J. 4^/. Englifli. This is the more
probable, becaufe we know from Suetonius, that the great
Cxfar brought fo much gold from Gaul, that it fold at
3000 nummi a pound, that is, nine times its weight iu
filver ; but the Gallic gold wa» of a very bafe fort. How.
ever, in the reign of Claudius, the aureus pafled for too
fellertii, or 25 filver denarii ; at which rate it remained.
This was 16/. ?id. Englilh in currency ; but valuing gold
at 4/. an ounce, the intrinfic value of the aureus is about
i/. The aureus fell by degrees, as Pliny fays, to 45 in the
pound. From the coins it is clear, that it was in the time
of the civil wars of Otho and Vitellius, tliat the aureus fell
from 40 in the pound, or about 125 troy grains at a
medium, to 45 iu the pound, or about 1 10 grains of medial
weight each. It continued of this llandard till the time
of Elagabalus, when it fell to about 92 grafus at an aver-
age, or near 55 in the pound. That the aureus paffed for
25 filver denarii down to Alexander Sevcrus, is clear ; and
fuppofing that (tandard to remain, as we have no authority
for a change till the time of Conltantine I., the double
aureus will have borne 50 filver denarii, and the aureus 25.
The " triens" mull have had eight filver denarii, and two
denarii aurei ; and the double triens, 16 filver denarii or
argentei, and four denarii aurei. The denarius was not then
worth above 14^. EngUfli. The only change Aurelian
made in the money, was probably reilrifted to the gold ;
for it is certain that under him, and his fucceffor Probus,
the common gold piece, or aureus, is of 1 00 grains, a
fize confined to thele two emperors. There are alio halves
of .about 50 grains ; and double aurei, commonly of very
fine workmaiifiiip, of upward of 200 grains. Down to

Conllantine

SOL

SOL

Conftanlinc I., the aureus Hands at between So and 70
grains. This prince, who feems not to have altered the
fize of the coin, inftead of the " aureus," gave the
" fohdus" of fix in the ounce of gold, and caufed it to
pafii for 14 of his new fdver coins, called " Milliarenfes,"
and 25 denarii, as befoi-e ; gold being to filver as about
14 to I. Tlie folidus, or chief gold coin, continued of the
fame Itandard to the very clofe of the Byzantine empire ;
for gold was common in Conllantinople, while filver be-
came more and more icarce. The folidus was worth 12s.
ilerling. In the days of the firll emperors the aureus was
worth 25 denarii, and gold to fdver about 134 to i. The
medial aureus was no grains, the denarius 60. That
ftandard remained the fame till the time of Alexander
Severus, after which we have no data ; but it is probable
that Conftantine took the value as he found it, and that
from Alexander Severus to Conitantine, if we except the
fhort interval of the end of Aureiian's reign, and beginning
of that of Probus, gold was rifing in value till it exceeded
14 to I. The gold coins, called " Bezants" in Europe,
becaufe they were fent from Byzantium, or Conltantinople,
were folidi of the old fcale, lisjto the ounce. In Byzantine
writers, the folidus is alfo called " Nomifma," or the coin j
" Crylmos," becaufe of gold ; " Hyperperos," from its
being refined with fire, or from its being of bright gold
flammg like fire. The folidi alfo, like the aurei formerly,
received names from the princes whofe portraits they bore ;
as " Michelati," " Manuelati." Solidus is a term ufed for
the aureus by Apuleius (Met. lib. 10.) who lived in the
time of Antoninus the philofopher ; nay, fo early as in the
Pra;torian edifls of the time of Trajan ; bting thus diftin-
guilhed from the femiHis or half. In the time of Valerian,
when aurti of di.fcrent fizes had been introduced, it be-
came necelTary to diilinguidi the particular aurei that were
meant.

In the firft gold coinage at Rome, the aureus v.-as divided
into four inferior parts : the femifiis, or half, of 60 feftertii ;
the tremiflis, or third, of 40 ; the fourth, the name of which
is not known, of 30 ; and the fixth, or fcrupulum, of 20.
But foon afterwards all thefe were dropped, except the
femiffis or half, which occurs in the times of the confuls,
and of fome emperors, but is extremely fcarce, fo that few
mufl have been itruck. This gold femifiis, or half aureus,
is termed " quinarius" by medallifts with great propriety,
and is vt-ry uncommon in all the confular and imperial times ;
but continued the only divifion of the aureus till the time of
Alexander Severus. This prince, as Lampridiu;; informs
us, coined lemifTes and trcmiiies of gold ; but none have yet
been found. It is likely they were all recoined by his im-
mediate fuccelfors, who again railed the tributes. He alfo
propoled to iiine quartarii, but did not live to accomplilh
his purpofe. Triente-;, or tremill'es, of gold are, however,
mentioned in refcripts of Valerian I., and aftually exiil, both
of him ^nd of his Ion Gallienus, weighing about 30 grains.
The gold tremidi- was the pattern of the early French and
Spanilh gold coins ; as the filver denarius, in its diminiflied
Hate, was that of the Gothic and Saxon penny. Pinker-
ton's Medals, vol. i.

SOLIEK Ei.sEiD, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on
the left bank of the Nile ; 10 miles S. of Girgc.

SOLIFO, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto ;
9 miles E. of Nardo.

SOLIGNAC-y»r-/,wVc-, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton,
m the diftria of Le Puy ; 13 miles S. of Le Puy. Tlie
town contains SiJo, and the canton 4455 inhabitants, on a
territory of 150 kiliometrcs, in 6 commuaes.

SOLIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Orne ; 6 miles N. of Mortagnc.

SOLIGO, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan ; 6 miles
S.W. of Trevigio.

SOLIHULL, commonly pronounced 5;7/j;7/, is fituated
in the divifion of the fame name, in the hundred of Hem-
lingford, and county of Warwick, England. It is con-
fidered as a market-town, but the market is now in abfolute
difufe. Itsdiltance from Birmingham is 7 miles, and from
London 108 miles. Dugdale conjeftures that the chief
parts of the dillrift, now included in the parifh of Solihull,
were known by the name of Ulvcrlei, at the time of the
Norman furvey. Here was formerly the principal feat of
the barony of Limefie ; and the refidence of the barons he
fuppofes to have occupied a fpot at prefent called Olton, a
fmall village about two miles north-well from Solihull.
From the ruins of this baronial refidence, and its dependent
habitations, the town of Solihull is conjeftured to have
arifen. Grants for an annual fair and a weekly market
were fpeedily procured ; but the town does not appear to
have obtained much diftinftion at any period. It bears the
tranquil appearance of a large village, and contains little to
attrad. tlie notice of travellers, except the church, which is
a fpacious edifice of the cruciform defcription. In the po-
pulation return of the year 18 11, the parifli is Hated to
contain 528 houfes, occupied by 2581 perlons.

On an elevated fcite in the vicinity of Solihull, furrounded
by fpacious grounds, is Malvern-Hall, the manfion of
Henry Grcfwold Lewis, efq. Dugdale's Antiquities of
Warwicklhire. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv,
Warwickthire, by ,T. N. Brewer.

SOLIKAMSK, a town of RufTia, in the government
of Perm, on the Kama, famous for its falt-w orks ; 112
miles N. of Perm. N. lat. 59' 36'. E. long. 56' 13'.

SOLILOQUY, SoLiLOQUiu.M, a reafoning, or dif-
courfe, which a man holds with himfelf.

Papias fays, that foliloquy is properly a difcourfe by way
of anfwer to a queftion that a man has propofed to himfelf.

Soliloquies are become very common things on the mo-
dern ftage ; yet can nothing be more inartificial, or more
unnatural, than an aftor's making long fpeeches to himfelf,
to convey iiis intentions, &c. to the audience.

Where fnch difcoveries are neceflary to be made, the poet
fliould rather take care to give the dramatic perfons fuch
confidants, as may neceffarily (hare their inmoll thoughts ;
by which means, they will be more naturally conveyed to the
audience. Yet is even this a Ihift an accurate poet would
not be found to have occafion for.

The ufe and abufe of foliloquies is well delivered by the
duke of Buckingham, in the following lines :

" Soliloquies had need be very few.

Extremely fliort, and fpoke in paffion too.
Our lovers talking to themfelves, for want
Of others, make the pit their confidant;
Nor is the matter mended yet, if thus
They truft a friend, only to tell it us."

SOLIMAGUE, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the
well coail of Lu^on. N. lat. 18^ 3'. E. long. 120' 36'.

SOLIMAN, a country of Africa, near the fonrce of
the Gambia. — Alfo, a town of Tunis, the environs of
which are inhabited by the defcendants of the Moors, driven
out of Spain, who preferve their ancient manners and lan-
guage, and are more honeil than other Africans ; 20 milci
E.S.E. of Tunis.

Soi.iM.w, Bay of, a bay on the well coall of Africa, in
the Itrait of Babcl-Mandcb. N- lat. i2^ 3'.

Sf I . SOLIMENE,

SOL

SOLIMENE, Fkancesco, called alfo U Abate Clccio,
in Biography, was born at Nocera de Pagani, near Naples,
is 1637. He was the fon of a painter, Angelo Solimene,
who at firft educated him in literary purfuits, in which he
was exceedingly affiduous, and made confiderable progrefs ;
whilit at the fame time he indulged himfelf in cultivatmg
an inherent talte for defign. By the advice of cardinal
Orfmi, Francefco was permitted by his father to change the
objeft of his principal purfuit, and, inltead of the law, to
adopt the pencil, as the ground-work of his future fame.
He became the difciple of Francefco Maria, and afterwards
of Giacomo del Po ; but foon left Naples, to go to Rome,
where the freedom and brilliancy of Pietro da Cortona's
execution and defign attrafted his admiration, and fixed his
attention. To what he acquired of Cortona, he attempted
to add the fweetnefs of Guido Rheni ; and thus framed for
himfelf a ftyle remarkable for its eafe and fuavity, more than
for its grace or truth. A very beautiful produftion of his
is at Hampton Court, of the pool of Bethefda ; but his
mott celebrated works are the facriity of S. Paulo Mag-
giore, and the Lalt Supper, in the refeftory of the con-
\entuali at Aflifi. Solimene podefied a vivid invention, and
confequently a ready pencil ; fo much fo, that his execution
is always fpirited and mafterly, equally adapted to almoll
all kinds of fubjedls ; and his colouring unites brilliancy
and force. He died at Naples in 1 747, aged 90.

SOLINGEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Berg, on the Wipper ; 12 miles £.S.£. of Duil'eldorf.
N. lat. 5i°8'. E. long. 7° 2'.

SOLINUS, Caius Julius, in Biography, a Latin
grammarian, but of what particular period is not known,
though he is generally referred to the third century. He
appears to have refidcd chiefly at Rome, but is known only
as the author of a work, which he firft entitled " Collec-
tanea llerum Memorabihum," afterwards " Polyhillor."
This is a colleftion of the remarkable things in different
countries, partly tranfcribed, without acknowledgment,
from Pliny's Natural Hillory ; whence the author has been
called the ape of Pliny. The- work, however, of Solinus
contains fome things not to be found in Pliny, and it con-
tains likewife an elucidation of fome difficulties in the
original ; and on thefe accounts it has been deemed worthy
of tiie notice of critics. Salmafius publifhed an edition of
it in two vols, folio, in which, however, the original is al-
moll buried in the learning of the commentator. Solinus
was author likewife of a poem, entitled " Ponticon," of
which only a few verfes remain. There have been many
editions of the " Polyhiitor," which were adapted to the
tafte of ages fond of wonders. The belt modern ones are
faid to be the oftavo of Salmafius, 2 vols. 1689; and
Gefner's, printed at Leipfic in 1777.

SOL 10, in Geography, a river of Calabria, which runs
into the Mediterranean, N. lat. 39° 40'. E. long. 16° 6'.

SOLIPUGA, or SoLiFUOA, in Natural Hijlory, the
name given by the Romans to a fmall venomous infeft of the
fpider-kind, called by the Greeks heliocentros ; both words
fignifying an animal which llings moft in the country, and
feafons, where the fun is moit hot.

Solinus makes this creature peculiar to Sardinia ; but this
19 contrary to all the accounts given us by the ancients.
It is common in Africa, and fome parts of Europe.

Almoft all the hot countries produce this venomous little
creature. It lies under the fand, to feize other infefts as
they go by ; and it it can meet with any uncovered part of
a man, will bite him, and the wound will prove very painful
and envenomed. It is faid that the bite is abfolutely mortal,
but probably this is not true. Solinus writes the word foli.

SOL

fuga, and fo do many others, erroneoufly deriving the name
from its flying from the fun's rays, and burying itfelf ia
the fand.

SOLIS, Antonio de, in Biography, a celebrated Spanifh
hiftorian and poet, was born at Alcala de Henares. While
he was very young, and a ftudent, he wrote a comedy,
which was extremely well received. It was followed by
others, as well as by poems on different fubjefts, by which
he raifed a very high reputation. He was employed in the
fecretary of Rate's office, and the king, Philip IV., made
him his own private fecretary. In 1661 the queen no-
minated him hitloriographer for the Indies; and it was in
this quality that he compofed his " Hillory of the Conquefl.
of Mexico," a work which placed him among the moft ap-
proved of the Spanifli profe writers, and was greatly
applauded both at home and abroad. De Solis took
prielts' orders when he was in the 57th year of his age,
after which he renounced all connection with the theatre,
and adopted a regularity of life conformable to his charafter
as a prieft. He died in the year 16S6. The comedies of
De Soli.', which were printed coUeftively in 4to. Madrid,
in 1 66 1, are faid by critics to be perplexed in their ftory,
and rather romantic than comic ; but they have afforded
the foundation of many French plays. His poems are faid
to difplay more imagination than correft tafte. His hiftorj
is written with fpirit and elegance, but there are occafional
difplays of the bombaft and falfe tafte, and frequently are
to be met with great deviations from the truth. The ob-
jeft of De Solis is to make a perfeft hero of Cortes, and
on this account the hiftory terminates with the conqueft of
Mexico, and does not touch upon fubfequent cruelties. It
has been tranflated into the French and Englifti lan-
guages.

Solis, Aqu<t, in Ancient Geography, a town of Albion-,
in the 14th route of Antonine's Itinerary, between Ifca
or Caerleon and Calleva or Silchefter. Aquae Solis was un-
queftionably Bath, which was much frequented by the
Romans for its warm and medicinal iprings.

Solis Via. See Via.

SOLISTEN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Angermanland ; 42 miles N.W. of Hernofand.

SOLITAIRE Island, a fmall illand in the South
Pacific ocean; 25 miles S. of Kerguelen's land. S. lat.
49° 49'. E. long. 68° 6'.

SOLITARI.^ Gl.\ndul.s:, in Anatomy, thofe mucou.1
glands of the inteltines, which are arranged fingly. See
Intestine.

SOLITARY, SoLiTARius, fomething retired, or in
private ; remote from the company or commerce of others
of the fame fpecies. See Hekmit.

SoLiTAiiiEs, a denomination of the nuns of St. Peter of
Alcantara, inltituied in 1676, by cardinal Barberrni, when
abbot of Notre Dame de Farfa, in that city.

The defign of their inftitute is to imitate the fevere, peni-
tent life of St. Peter of Alcantara ; to keep a continual
filence ; never open their mouths to any body but them-
felves ; employ their time wholly in fpiritual exercifes ; and
leave the temporal concerns to a number of maids, who have
a particular fuperior in a feparate part of the monaltery.
They always go bare-footed, without fandals, gird them-
felves with a thick cord, and %%-ear no linen.

Solitary Column, is a column that ftands alone in any
public place ; as the Trajan column.

Solitary Worm, Solium tania, or Lumbricui latus, is
a worm fometimes found in the inteftines, and which is al-
ways the only one of the kind there ; as commencing from
the pylorus, and extending thence the whole length of the

inteftines j

SOL

SOL

inteftines ; fo that there is no room for another. See
TAENIA and Worm.

Solitary IJlaml, in Geography, an ifland in the South
Pacific ocean, dilcovefed by Mendana in the year 1595.
It is low, round, and planted with trees ; and the coaft is
furrounded with rocks. S. lat. 10° 4'. W. long. 178° 20'.

SoLiTAnv Iflandsy a cluiler of fmall iflands near the eaft
coaft of New Holland. S. lat. 30° 8'.

SOLITAURILIA, in Jntiqulty. See SuovETAU-

HILIA.

SOLIVA, in Botimy, a genus in the Flora Peruviana,
page 102, dedicated to Salvator Soliva, a Spaniih phyfician
and botanift. De Theis.

SOLIVE, Fr., among Carpenters, a joift, rafter, or
piece of wood, either flit or fawed, with which the builders
lay their cielings.

SOLJURA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 28 miles
S.S.E. of Curruckpour.

SOLKIEV, or Zolkikv, a town of Auftrian Poland,
in Galicia ; 10 miles N. of Lemberg.

SOLLAM Moss. See Solway Mofs.

SOLLAPOUR, a circar of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour,
between the rivers Killnah and Beema, near their junftion.
— Alfo, a town of Hindooltan, and capital of the fore-
mentioned circar, on tlie Killnah ; 120 miles S.E. of Vifia-
pour. N. lat. 16^22'. E. long. 77° 10'.

SOLLECITO, in Italian Miijlc. This word has two
acceptations : the one implies that a movement is to be per-
formed with a mournful and forrowing expreflion ; the
other means carefully, and with accuracy.

SOLLERGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Oude ; 9 miles E. of Lucknow.

SOLLERO, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia, on an
ifland in lake Siljan ; 48 miles N.W. of Fahlun.

SOLLIES LE PONT, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Var ; 13 miles S. of Brignole.

SOLMISATION, or naming the notes in the fcale
according to the hexachord of Guido. See Mut.itions
and Sekra.

SoJLMisATiON of the Greeks. The ancient Greeks had
their folmifation in vocal mufic, as well as the moderns ;
having for that purpofe ufed four monofyllables, ending
with different vowels, for the exercife of the voice in fing-
ing ; like our ml, fa, Jol, la. Thefe were, for the firil note
of each tetrachord, tx ; for the fecond, rr, ; for the third,
^il ; and for the fourth, if it did not ferve as the firft of the
adjoining and relative tetrachord, ts ; but if it began a new
tetrachord, it was called by the firit name, ra.

The repetition of thefe monofyllables is a further proof
that the fourth, in the ancient mufic, ferved as a boundary
to a fyftem of four founds, in the fame manner as a hexa-
chord did in the Guido fcale, and as an oftave does for
eight founds in the more modern praftice.

SOLMIZARE, in the Italian Mujic. See Solfeg-
gi ark.

SOLMS, in Giography, a principahty of Germany,
fituated in the Wetterau. The counts of Solms are fup-
pofed to be defccnded from the houfe of Nallau, and are
divided into feveral branches, ikz. Solms Braunfels, Solms
Hohen- Solms, Solms Laubdch, Solms Rodelheim, and
Solms Lich.

SoL.Ms, Hohen. See Hohen-solms.
Solms, or Burg Solms, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Solms Braunfels, having formerly a callle, which
gave name to the county ; i mile. E. of Braunfels.

SOLMSBACH, a river of Germany, which runs into
the Lahn, 2 miles N.£. of Braunfels.

SOLNAN, a river of France, which joins the Seille at
Louhans, in the department of the Saone and Loire.

SOLNIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz ; 15 miles E. of Konigingratz.

SOLO, a mountain of Naples, in Lavora ; 10 mile*
S.W. of Ponte Corvo. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
Mewah ; 30 miles N. of Dig. — Alfo, a town of South
America, in the province of Cordova ; too miles N.W. of
Cordova.

Solo, in Italian Mufic, ufed fubltantively, implies a
compofition for a fingle inftrument, with a quiet and fub-
dued accompaniment, to difplay the talents of a great per-
former ; as a folo for a viohn, German flute, or violoncello.
In full pieces, concertate, each part is informed when it be.
comes principal, by the word folo ; and when fubordinate,
by iuttl, which implies the chorus, or full band.

In the concertos of Corelli, Geminiani, and Handel,
chiefly compofed a due corl, or two orcheftras, the principal
parts are faid to belong to the concertlnl, or folo parts ; ag
vlollno prima concertino, vlollno fecondo del concertino, &c. :
and the inferior part.s, that only play in the full chorus, arc
called rlplenl ; as vlollno prlmo rlpleno, vlollno fecondo rlpieno,
or del concerto groffo, or the great and full concert.

Solos, which ufed to aff^ord the moft exquifite delight to
perfons of refined taite, when compofed and performed by
great matters, are now wholly laid afide ; and whoever at-
tempts to perform one, is fubjedted to a penalty inftead of
a reward ; a law inltituted at the concert of ancient mufic,
where a compofition was never thought complete by the
late earl of Sandwich, without a kettle-drum, nor with, un-
lefs he beat it himfelf. And at the Commemoration of
Handel, the double drums, double cartels, tromboni, &c.
augmented his lordftiip's pleafure, in proportion to the din
and ftenterophonic fcreams ot thefe truly favage inftruments ;
which, in fo wide a building as Weftminfter Abbey, and
foftened by fo powerful a chorus of voices and inftruments
as were aflembled at the Commemoration, had, occafionally,
a fine effeft ; but in a more confined fpace, the almoft in-
ceflant ufe of the tromboni, and perpetual roll of the
double drum?, annihilate all the pleafiiig effefts of melli-
fluous tones.

SOLOAYS, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania ;
24 miles N. of Eafton.

SOLOE, in jinclent Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cyprus, built, according to Strabo, by Acamas and Pha-
lerus, both Athenians, but, as Plutarch fays, by Demophon,
on the banks of the river Clarius. It was fituated on an
eminence in a barren territory, and caHed " TEpira," denoting
high, on account of its elevated pofition. Many ages after-
wards, when Solon came to Cyprus and formed a league of
friendfliip with Phylocyptus, one of tlie kings of the ifland,
he adviffd him to remove the town to a neighbouring plain,
on the banks of a river with a port over-againft Cilicia.
Tliis new city was called ioAoi, and in Latin Solae or
Soli, from the name of Solon. It i« now " Solin." An-
other town of the fame name in Cilicia, is called by Phny
" Soloe Cilicii," by way of diftindion from the other. This
was afterwards called " Pompeiopolis."

Solok, a cape of Africa, on the Atlantic ocean, which
the Periplus of Hannon places at the diftance of three days'
journey fouth of the promontory " Hcrmeum." Hannon
built on the fummit an altar conUcrated to Neptune, and it
was in procefs of time adorned witli bas-relief works of art,
which rendered it the molt celebrated place on the coaft.

SOLOE IS, a promontory of Libya, at the extremity
of mount Atlas, now called Cape Cantin. It is mentioned
by Herodotus.

SOLOEN.

SOL

SOLOENTIA, a promontory of interior Libya, be-
tween the mouth of the river Nunius and that of the river
Malla, according to Ptolemy.

SOLOFRA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Ultra ; i8 miles S. of Benevento.

SOLOGNE, a dilh-id of the government of Orleannois,
in France, before the revolution, about 60 miles in length,
and iR in breadth, of which Romorantin was the capital.

SOLOK, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Troki, on a lake ; 40 mile^ NN.E. of Zytomiers.

SOLOMBO, Great, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea. S. lat. f 36', E. long. 114'" 45'.

SoLO.MBO, Link, a fmall ifland, a little N.E. of Great
Solombo.

SOLOMBOL, an ifland of Ruflia, in the government
of Archangel, fituated on the river Dwina ; which has a
dock-yard for building fhip?, with a fort and garrifon ; 5
verfts above Archangel.

SOLOMIAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers ; 14 miles S.E. of Leftoure.

SOLOMON, in Biography, a king of the Jews, emi-
nently dilliiiguidied by his wifdom, wealth, and extent of
territory, was the fon of David by Bathfheba, formerly the
wife of Uriah, and born in the year B.C. 1033. By the
influence of Bathflieba, and the recommendation of Nathan,
Zadok, and other friends, who thought it neceflary to coun-
teraft the views and meafures of Adonijah, David's eldefl;
fon, he was proclaimed the deltined fucceflbr of his father
before his death. When this event took place, B.C. 1015,
he afcendtd the throne of all Ifrael, not only without oppo-
fition, but amidll the acclamations of the people. For his
greater fecurity, he ordered Adonijah, .^nd Joab, who was
attached to his intereft, to be put to death. As foon as he
was confirmed in his kingdom, he contrafted an alliance with
Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and married his daughter, whom
he brought to Jerufalem, and for whom he afterwards built
a fumptuous palace ; receiving for her dowry the city of
Gezer, which had been taken from the Canaanites. It was
on occafion of this marriage, as fome have thought, that he
compofed the Canticles, as a kind of epithalamium ; and the
45th Pfalm has been alfo referred to the fame event. About
this time he led his troops, and all Ifrael, to Gibeon,
where he oft'ered a thoufand burnt-oflerings upon the brazen
altar. In the following night he is faid to have been fa-
voured with a vifion, in which God promifed to grant him
whatloever he defired : and as the chjeifl of his prayer was
wifdom for difcharging the duties of his high office, his re-
queft was fully granted. Upon his return to Jerufalem, he
offered a great number of facrifices on the altar, before the
ark of the Lord, and made a great feaft for his fervants. As
an inllance of his wifdom, he decided a difpute between two

mothers, who claimed the fame child, (i Kings, iii. 16 zS.)

In token of the acceptablencfs of his petition, he alfo ob-
tained, more than he aiked for, a gratuitous donation, on
the part of God, of riches and honour : which were amply
difplaycd in the magnificence of his court, the amount of
his revenues, the multitude of his fubjects, the number of
his civil and military eltablifliments, and a variety of other
circumllances, which rendered him one of the moll cele-
brated monarchs of the EalL His reign was peaceful and
profperous. Judah and Ifrael were united and fecure, and
his neighbours'eithcr formed an alliance with him, or paid
him tribute. His dominions extended from the Euphrates
to the Nile ; and his reputation for wiidom was fpread
through all nations.

As foon as Hiram, king of Tyre, heard of his acceffion
to the throne of Ifrael, he deputed ambafladors to cono-ra-

S O L

tulate him ; and with the acknowledgment of this meflage,
he requeiled to be fupplied with wood, and able artificers to
aflilt in conllrufting the temple at Jerufalem, which, in
deference to his father's vow, he had undertaken to execute.
The completion of this magnificent edifice conferred Angu-
lar celebrity on the reign of Solomon. It was begun in the
4th year of his reign, and the fecond after the death of Da-
vid, B.C. 1012, and 480 years after the Exodus. In the
various departments of this great work, he employed no lefs
than 183,600 perfons. This wonderful ftructure was com.-
pleted in the i ith year of Solomon, or in the fliort fpace of
feven years ; and it was folemnly dedicated on Friday, 0<ft.
30, B.C. 1000 years. Solomon afterwards built two pa-
laces, one for himfelf and another for his queen ; and the
conftruftion of the temple and palaces occupied a period of
twenty years. He alfo built the walls of .Jerufalem ; and
he repaired and fortified a great number of cities. The
great expence which he thus incurred was defrayed by a
commerce which he carried on from Ezion-gebcr and Eloth,
on the Red fea, to Ophir ; for the fituation of which fee m
Ophir. I

Solomon, however, notwithitanding the wifdom which
rendered him fo famous, had not fufficient fortitude for
refilting the temptations that accompanied his profperity.
He was betrayed, in the mottculpable and difgraccful manner,
into the vices attendant on luxury and fenluality. Befides
700 wives, he had 300 concubines ; and in his declining age,
though he had erefted a temple to .lehovah the true God,
and was thus implicitly pledged to preferve the religion of
the Jews pure and uncorruptcd, their influence caufed him to
degenerate into the iiioit inexcufable idolatry, fetting up as
objefls of worfliip, Alhtorcth, goddefs of the Sidonians,
Moloch, the idol of the Ammonites, and Chemofh, the god
of the Moabites, and building for them temples on the mount
of Olives, over-againit, and ealt, of .lerufalem. As a juft
punifliment of his culpable conduft, the fovereigns of Edom
and Syria were excited againlf him, and he faw, before his
death, the commencement of that revolt which terminated
in the divilion of the kingdom.

Solomon clofed his life and reign in the year B.C. 975,
having reigned 40 years, at the age of 58. Such is the
.Scripture account, but Jofephus affigns to him a reign of
80 years, and a life of 94 years. He was buried in the city
of David, and fucceeded by his fon Rehoboam, who reigned
only over part of the divided kingdom of Ifrael. Tradition
afcribes to him a great number of books; but thofe only
under his name admitted into the canon of Scriptures, are
the " Proverbs," '< Ecclefiartes," and the " Canticles." See
each in its proper place.

SoLOMOx'j Seal, in Botany, a plant called by authors ^o-
lygoiiatum ; which fee. See alfo Conv.^llaria.

Solo.mon'j Iflands, in Geographs, a group of iflands in the
Pacific ocean, difcovered by Mendana in 1565 ; and after-
wards by M. Survilie, in 1767, who called them .Arfacides,
or Aflaliins ; they were pafled by Lieut. Shortland in 1788,
and called by him New Georgia. See Arsacid.?: and
Georgia.

SOLON, in Biography, one of the fages of Greece, and
the celebrated law-giver of the Athenians, was born in the
feventh century before Chrilt. He was of a family defcend-
ed from the ancient kings of Athens, but which, in the
revolutians of time, had fallen into indigence, for he pafled
his early years in travelhng on mercantile bufinefs. He
fhewed an early difpofition for poetiy, which he firll exer-
cifed on the following occafion. The Athenians, in a war
with the Megarenfianp, had been expelled fx-om the ifle of
Salamis, and their efforts to recover it were attended with fo

much

SOLON.

much lofs, that a law pafTcd to make it a capital offence for
any one to propofe a renewal of the attempt. Solon, feel-
ing mortified at the difgrace attached to this decree, com-
pofed an elegy adapted to roufc the fpirits of the people, and
feignintj himfelf to be under the influence of a temporary in-
fanity, ran into the market-place, mounted the crycr's ftool,
and pronounced his veries with great vehemence. The
crowd gathered round felt a rifing ardour ; which was far-
ther excited by an harangue of Pififtratus, and they, with-
out hefitation, decreed a war againll the Megarenfians. Sa-
lamis was recovered, and, according to a tradition which has
been generally received, by a ilratagem of Solon's. He af-
terwards increafed his reputation by adviling a war with the
people of Cirrha, who had ravaged the lacred territory of
Delphi, and contributed to the redudlion of their city.
Athens at this time was in a very unquiet ftate, arifing as well
from the contentions of different political faftions, as from
the oppreffions of the fuperior cladeF, who had reduced a
great part of the common people to (lavery, in confcqucnce
of their debts. Solon, in this emergency, was looked up
to by the citizens in general as the man who, by his wifdom
and virtue, was belt qualified to reftore public tranquillity,
and a large party was defirous of raifing him to the fove-
reignty. This, however, he pofitively declined ; but being
chofen archon by acclamation in the year B.C. 594, he fet
himfelf to compole the diffentions by moderate meafures.
At firft his plans were not well received, but refleftion con-
vinced all parties that his objeft was good, and they unani-
moudy invelled him with the high truil of new-modelling
their laws and conttitution. He abrogated the fanguinary
laws of Draco, excepting fuch as related to homicide.
Democracy being the form of government to which the
Athenians were attached, he regarded it as the bafe of his
new conftitution, but fludied to give it due checks and coun-
terbalances. Hence he divided the citizens into four dalles,
three of which were formed upon different fcales of pro-
perty : the fourth included thofe of the loweft order, who
vVere deftitute of all property. Thefe were excluded from
public offices, but admitted to vote in the general affembly
of the peoplci As this body was in pod'effion of the fu-
preme power, and judged caufes in the lafl refort, the con-
fequence, or at leall the fafety, ot tlie meanell members of
the ilate was fufficiently fecured. To prevent inconfidcrate
refolutions in the democratic affembly, he initituted a fcnate
of 400, which was to have a prior deliberation upon every
propofal to be fubmitted to the "general aliembly. Solon
revived the ancient Areopagus, and ordained that it ihould
be compofed only of thofe who had palled through the office
of archon, the highelt magillracy of the Itatc ; which con-
ferred on it a fplcndour that rendered its decrees revered
through tlie whole of Greece. The laws of Solon have
been ranged under various heads, but it would not comport
with our plan to enter at large into their nature. Their ge-
neral fpirit is mild and equitable. One of them has been
the fubjeft of much political dilcuffion : this was, that in
any cafe of civil contell, in which oppofite parties take up
arms, the citizen who remains neuter Ihall be punilhcd with
exile and confilcation of goods : another regulation, very fa-
lutary in its effeds, and well adapted to a fmall Ilate, was,
that the Areopagus fhould have full power to enquire how
every citizen fupported himfelf, with the view of inlliiling
penalties on the idle.

As an apology for any imperfeftion that might be found
in his code, Solon was accullomed to fay, " I have given to
the Athenians not the bell pofiible laws, but tlie bed they
were capable of receiving." Tlie code given by .SdIoii was
intended by the author to be in force a century, and then to

be revifed and amended, as occafion might fecm to demand.
After the promulgation of his code, Solon was continually
moleded by perfons who came to him, either for explanation
of oblcure paffages, or with propofals for improvements of
which they imagined it capable. To avoid iheir importu-
nities he refolved to travel ; and having obtained leave of
abfence for ten years, and exacted an oath from the citi-
zens, that nothing diould be altered till his return, lie
lailed to Egypt. He there procured inltruftions in pliilo-
fophy from the prielts of HeHupolis and Sais, one of whom,
it is faid, in the pride of Egyptian antiquity, faid to him,
" Solon, Solon, ycu Greeks arc children, you have not a
grey-headed man among you." From Egypt lie went to
Cyprus, where he fuggelted to one of the petty princes the
eredion of a new city, which was called after his name.
About this time alfo he held a conference with Thales, the
Milefian, recorded by Plutarch, and it was about this pe-
riod that he vifited the court of Cra-fus, king of Lydia.

On his return to Athens, he fmnid the Ilate in great con-
fufion from the contcds of different faftions. Pifillratus had
placed himfelf at the head of the popular party, and was
aiming, through its favour, at the fovercignty. Solon at-
tempted to oppofe the current, but in vain : he appeared
with his arms in the ad'embly, and harangued the people,
but he had loft his influence, and being wholly unable to
roufe the people, he withdrew from Athens never more to
return. The place anii time of his death have never been
accurately afcertained, but it is generally believed that he
died at Cyprus, at the age of eighty. The Athenians held
his memory in iuch high reverence, that they erected a llatue
of brafs to his memory in the forum : the opinion of man-
kind at large has, however, furvived the brazen memorial,
and he is itill regarded as among the greatell benefactors of
mankind.

Solon was one of thofe early Greek philofophers who
were diffinguilhed by the appellation of the feven wile men.
Philofophy had in that age attained to no fyltematic cultiva-
tion, and the only monuments of the wildom of moll of
thofe ancient fages which have come down to us, are fome
(hort moral and prudential maxims, which leem to require for
their difcovery little depth of penetration or extent of ob-
fervation. They have, however, been confecrated to per-
petual remembrance by the gratitude and admiration of
Greece. That the laws of Solon might be open to the in-
fpeftion of the people, they were inlcribed on wooden
tablets, turning on axes, and faid to have been of diflerent
forms, according as the laws which they contained related to
private or public affairs. The mode of writing is tiiat which
is termed in the Greek langu.ige pvcrlfofw-j, that is, trom the
right to the left, and tlien from left to right ; the term is
taken from the method uled in ploughing, which was always
done in ancient times by means of oxen. The fragments of
Solon's laws have been collefted by various writers, but
with very great care by Samuel Petit, in a learned work,
which is, however, not free from inaccuracies, and coujeftures
that will not bear the teft of criticifm. This work was
pubhihed at Paris, in folio, in the year 1635, under the title
of " Leges Atticns." It was republilhcd by Wedeling, with
many improvements, and the additions of his own remarks
and thole of other critics, in 1742. Diogenes Laertius has
annexed to his life of Solon four epillles, which he afcribes
to that philofopher, addrell'ed to Periander, Epimcnide.5,
Pifillratus, :.nd Croefus. Of his fayings or maxims, the fol-
lowing have come down to us. " Laws are like cobwebs, that
entangle the weak, but are broken througli by the llrong :"
«' 1 Ic who has learned to obey, will know how to command :"
" In every thing you Jo, coiiliJer the objed and end ;" ♦' In

all

SOL

all things let reafon be your guide :" " Diligently contem-
plate excellent things." Of the poetical talents of Solon,
time has left us little opportunity of judging. Thirty-one
fragments, coUefted from Stobaeus and other writers, have
been printed by Brunk. They are written in various mea-
fures, but chiefly in the elegiac. Many of them, in a Ityle
refembling that of Theognis, the poet of Megara, are em-
ployed in the illuftration of ufeful maxims relative to the
condudl of life and formation of manners. The fcanty frag-
ments of the Salaminian elegy, to which we have already re-
ferred, manifeft confiderable animation, fo that we can eafily
give credit to what is faid of the effedl which it produced.

Solon, in Geography, a military townfhip of America,
in the ftate of New York and county of Cortland, bounded
N. by Troxton, E. by Chenango county, 8. by Cincin-
natus, and W. by Homer; lo miles E. of Homer, and
132 miles W. of Albany. It is 12 miles fquare, and an
excellent traft of land. The timber in this tcwnftiip is
maple, beech, elm, afh, butternut, bafs, together with
fome pine and hemlock. The foil is principally a warm
gravelly loam, well adapted for farming, and the inhabitants
are farmers. The population in 18 10 confifted of 1270
perfons. The roads in this townfhip are in good order ;
and great numbers of lean cattle are driven from hence every
year to Philadelphia, Weft Chefter and Duchefs counties.
— Alfo, a town of Maine, in the county of Somerfet, con-
taining 312 inhabitants.

SOLONIUM, in jincient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Etruria, according to Dionyfius Halicarnaflus.

SOLOOKUPA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 15
miles N.N.E. of Nuldingah.

SOLOON, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea ; 25
miles from Samar. N. lat. 10^ 55'. E. long. 125^ 42'.

SOLOR, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, S. of Celebes,
about 70 miles in circuit, feparated from the E. coaft of
the ifland of Flores by a narrow channel, called the Straits
of Flores. S. lat. 8° 33'. E. long. 125° 42'.

SOLOS, ZrAo:, in Antiquity, an inftrument with which
the exercife of the quoit was performed, which lome will
have to be diftinguiflied from the difcu% becaufe that was
of iron, this of ilone ; but others, with more reafon, report
that the difference confifted in this, -viz. that the s-oXo; was
of a fpherical figure, and the difcus broad.

SOLOT, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea,
rear the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 12'' 8'.
SOLOTHURN. See Soleure.
SOLOTKOVA, a town of RufCa, in the government
of Irkutfl<, on the Ilmin ; 60 miles S.W of Orlenga.

SOLOTNICK, in Commerce, a weight in Ruffia, which
expreffes the finenefs both of gold and filver ; the pound or
other weight being divided into 96 fuch parts : fo that ttie
folotnick is alfo the Vith part of a Ruffian pound weight.
According, to the mint regulations eftablifhed in the reign of
the emperor Paul, and confirmed by an edift of the em-
peror Alexander, in 1 801, 224 rubles are to contain a
Ruffian pound of fine filver ; and they are to be 834^ folot-
nicks (or 10 oz. 8dwts.) fine ; fo that each ruble fhould
weigh 320^ Enghfh grains, and contain 2774 grains of fine
filver. It was declared that no gold coin fhould be here-
after ttruck in Ruffia, except the imperial and half-imperial,
the ftandard of which was raifed to 94I folotnicks, or 1 88^
Englifh grains. Accordingly,

£ s. J.
The imperial is worth i 12 gi] 1 . ■ t- in, u
The ducat o 9 ^ T'^^''^'^ '" Englifh gold.

The ruble of 1763 o
' of 1801 p

5 1

^ I r valued in Englifh filver.

SOL

By an afTay lately made on a number of rubles at the
London Mint, by order of the Bank of England : —

Rubles of 1763, weight from I4dwts. 21 grs. to I5dwt8.
20grs. ; average ijdwts. 8igrs. ; finenefs 44 dwts. worfe
than Englifh, that is, 8 oz. 18 dwts.

Rubles of 1801, weight from 13 dwts. 2 grs. to 13 dwts.
1 2 grs. ; average 13 dwts. 7 grs. ; finenefs 14 dwts. worfe
than Er.glifh, that is, 10 oz. 8 dwts. Thus we have the
value of the old ruble 3/. 2d. fterling, and of the new,
3^. 2\d.

The Ruffian weights are as follow, viz. the berquet or
berkowitz contains 10 poods ; the pood, 4olbs. ; the pound,
32 loths ; and the loth, 3 folotnicks. The Ruffian pound
weighs 28 loths, Cologne weight, or 6314 troy grains.
Hence 50olbs. Ruffians 45 libs, avoirdupois. The ordinary
computation among merchants is, that 361b3. avoirdupois
— the pood of 4olb3. Ruffian ; and that 63 poods = I ton
avoirdupois. Kelly's Cambift.

SOLOVETZKOI, in Geography, a fmall ifland of
Ruffia, in the White fea. N. lat. 64= 55'. E. long.

30" 14'-

SOLRE-LIBRE {Le Chateau), a town of France,
in the department of the North, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrifl of Avefnes ; 6 miles N.E. of Avefnes. The
place contains 1525, and the canton 7134 inhabitants, on a
territory of 212^ kiliometres, in 23 communes.

SOLSEQUIUM, a word ufed by fome chemical writers
as a name for fulphur.

SOLSOGAN Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S.
coaft of the ifland of Lu5on. N. lat. 13" 12'. E. long.
123° 50'.

SOLSONA, or Salsona, a town of Spain, in Cata-
lonia, the fee of a bifliop, fufFragan of Tarragona ; 97 miles
E. of Saragoffa. N. lat. 42° 2'. E. long. 1=' 22'.

SOLSTICE, SoLSTiTiuM, in AJlronomy, the time when
the fun is in one of the folftitial points ; that is, when he \i
at his greateft diftance from the equator, which is 23° 28' :
thus called, becaufe he then appears to Jland jiill, and not
to change his place in the degrees of the zodiac, any way :
an appearance owing to the obliquity of our fphcre, and
to which thofe who live under the equator are ftrangers.

The folftices are two in each year ; the ajlival or fummer
folftice, and the hyemal or luinter folftice.

The fummer folftice is when the fun is in the tropic of
Cancer ; which is on the 21ft of June ; when he makes the
longeft day.

The winter folftice is when he enters the firit degree
of Capricorn; which is on the 2 2d of December; when
he begins to return towards us, and makes the fhortelt
day.

This is to be underftood as in our northern hemifphere ;
for in the fouthern, the fun's entrance into Capricorn
makes the fummer folftice, and that into Cancer the winter
folftice.

Mr. Pond, the aftronomer royal, from obfervations made
on the fummer and winter folftice, deduces the mean ob-
liquity of the ecliptic for January i, 1813, at 23° 27'
5i".50 from the former, and from the latter 23° 27'

4/ -sy-

SOLSTITIAL Points, are thofe points of the ecliptic,
by which the fun's afcent above the equator, and his defcent
below it, are terminated.

The firft point, which is in the beginning of the firft
degree of Cancer, is called the ajlival or fummer point ;
and the latter, which is in the beginning of the lirft point
of Capricorn, the "winter point. The folftitial points are
diametrically oppofite to each other.

Solstitial

SOL

SOL

Solstitial CoIui-c, is that which pallcs through the fol-
ftitial points. See CoLUitE.

SOLTAU, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia, in the
■principaUty of Luneburg Zelle. The inhabitants arc for
the moil part clothiers; 29 miles N.N.W. of Zell. N.
lat. 53°4'. E. long. 9^55'.

SOLTCAMP, a town of Holland ; 13 miles N.W. of
Groningen.

SOLTE, a river of Germany, which runs near Klop-
penburg in Munller, and joining the Vehne, takes the name
of Soeft, on the borders of Friefland.

SOLTENHAGEN, a town of Hinder Pomernnia ;
8 miles E. of Zachan.

SOLTKOTT, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifliopric
of Paderborn, famous for its fait- works ; 6 miles S.W.
of Paderborn.

SOLTZ, a town of Germany, in the county of Heniie-
berg ; 4 miles N.W. of Meinungen.

SOLVA, a river of South Wales, in the county of
Pembroke, northward of Milford Haven, which forms the
port and harbour of the little town of the fame name.
This froall town is fituated in a deep valley, pervaded by the
above-mentioned river. Molt of the houfes are of modern
ereftion, and exhibit a neat appearance. They lie princi-
pally on the weftern fide of the vale, forming one ftreet in
the direftion of the river, but fcattered without plan or
order on the ftcep acclivity above. Solva is a fea-port, and
carries on a fmall commercial intercourfe with the adjacent
parts of thecoalt, chiefly with Milford. Its rapid increafe
in Cze, of late years, is an evidence of its profperity.

SOLVACH Bay, a creek of South Wales, on the N.
fide of St. Bride's bay ; 3 miles E. of St. David's.

SOLUBILITY of Sails, in Chemiftry, denotes their ca-
pacity to unite with, and remain fulpended in water ; and
the different falts poflefs different degrees of folubility, re-
quiring more or lefs of this fluid for their folution. See Salts.
SOLUBLE, in Medicine, loofe, or apt to go to llool.
In chemiltry it fignifiea eafily dillolvable.

Soluble Tar/ar. See Tartar, and Tarlrale of Pota/h,
under Salts.

Soluble Matter of Plants, in Agriculture, the foluble
parts of them, or the portion of vegetable matter which
they contain, and which is capable of folution and of being
employed as the food and nourifhrnent of man and animals.
The quantities or proportions of this matter, which different
plants or vegetable fubftances poflels, is very different. It
is confequently not improbable, but that the difference in
the nutrient powers of different plants and fubllances of the
vegetable kind may, in a great meafure, depend upon this
difference in the quantities or relative proportions of the
foluble matter which they may contain, but their utility
and importance as food do not appear to be wholly de-
pendent upon this circumilance.

S0LUIU.K Matter of Soils, the refolvable matter in them,
or the quantity and proportion of this fort of matter which
they contain in different cafes, and which is capable of be-
ing converted to ufe as food for the fupport and growth
of plants as crops. Some foils abound much with materials
of this nature, while others arc almoll wholly deficient of
them. This, in fome degree, coaftitutes the difference of
fertility in lands, though it is influenced by a great variety
of other caufe.'!. See Soil.

The rich black foils are, for the moff part, the mod
ajjundantly provided with tJiis kind of matter, though many
others pollefs it in a confiderable proportion.

SOLUE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the coun*
try of B^rca ; 10 miles S.W. »f C«iou.
Vor,. XXXIII.

SOLVENT, the fame with dl/folvent. See Solltion.

Solvent, Univerfal, in Alchemy. See Alkahest.

SOLVESBORG, in Geography. See SoLtwiTZBruo.

SOLUMBERE, a town of Hiudoollan, in the circar
of Oudipour; 35 miles S. of Afawully.

SOLUMBERGA, a town of Italy, in Friuli ; 7 miles
N. of Aviano.

SOLUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily, ac-
cording to Pliny ; marked in the Itinerary of Antonine as
the route from the Lilybjean promontory to the Tyndaris,
between Panormus and Thcrmx. — Alfo, a promontory
of Libya, on the coall of the Atlantic fea, according to
the Periplus of Scylax. A temple, dedicated to Vengeance
and Neptune, was erefttd on the fummit of this pro-
montory.

SOLUSAPRA, a town of Sicily, on the route from
Tyndaris to the Lilybxan promontory, according to the
Itinerary of Antonine.

SOLUTIO CoNTiNUi, or Solution of Continuity, a term
ufed by phyficians, &c. to exprels a diforder common to
the folid parts of the body, in which their natural cohelion
is feparated : as by a wound, or other caufe.

If this happen to a fimple, fimilar part of the body, it
is called limply folutio continui : if to a compound or or-
ganical part, it acquires a particular denomination, from
the nature of the part, the difference of the caufe, or the
manner of application ; as a wound, rupture, fradure, punc-
ture, fijfure, contujion, ulcer, corrojion, dilaceration, exfoliation,
caries, &c.

SOLUTION, SoLUTio, in Algebra and Geometry, if the
anfwering of a queftion ; or refolving any problem pro-
pofed. See Resolutio.v and Reduction of Equations.

The folution of the problem of the quadrature of the
circle, and that of the duplicature of the cube, by right
lines, are held impoffible.

Solution of Continuity, in Surgery. See Solutio Continui.

Solution, in Phyftcs, the reduAion of a folid or firm
body into a fluid ftate, by means of fome menltruum.

Solution is frequently confounded with what we other-
wife call dijfolution, but there is a difference.

Solution, in Chemiftry, is fometimes ufed for the ana-
lyfis, or reduftion, of a natural body into its chemical prin-
ciples.

In this fenfe, folution ii the fame with what we other-
wife call refolution.

Solution, as the term is commonly ufed by chemicd wri-
ters, coiifills in an union formed by the integrant parts
of one body with thofe of another body of a diflercnt
nature; and this eannot be cffedlcd till the aggregati.m of
one, at lead, of the two bodies is broken. And as bodies,
whofe aggregation is broken, nre ncceffarily in a fhite of
fluidity, or of vapours, an axiom has been formed, corpora
non agunt niji Jintjuida, i. e. bodies do not aft unlefa they
be fluid.

The two bodies which unite in folution, are commonly
diffinguilhed by two different names. That body is gene-
rally called the folvait, which, by its fluidity or acrimony, ap-
pears to be aftive ; and the body which, from its want of
tafte, or from its folidity, appears to be altogether paliive,
is faid to be dijfolved. E. g. When metal or marble is dif-
folved in aqua forti*, the folid bodies .ire confidcrcd as be-
ing diliolved, and aqua fortis as the folvent. Ncverthelefs,
it mud be remembered, that two bodies, which unite toge-
ther in folution, aft reciprocally upon om- another, and
their union is the effcft of their mutual affinity or tendency
to each other; and thus the marble and metal aft as much
upon the nitrpui acid as this does upon them.

' Tt That

SOL

That a folid may be diflolved in a fluid, it is neceffary
that the force of affinity between the two (hould be fuffi-
cient to overcome the force of cohefion between the particles
of the folid ; and hence it is, that Iieat fo much affilts iolu-
tion by lellening the force of cohefion between all particles
of matter.

M. Gellert, liowever, reprefents as folvents, the bodies
which are generally confidered as diflolved, and hence, he
fays, that fand difl'blves alkali. If, indeed, we allow the
aftion of the combining bodies to be mutual, it fignifies
little which we call the folvent, and which the body dif-
folved ; though it feems more clear and accurate to call that
body the folvent, whofe integrant parts are already fepa-
rated before the folution, and that the body diflolved,
whofe integrant parts are only difunited during the att of
folution. The folution of bodies may be eff'efted either
by the humid, or by the dry way ; of the former kind are
thofe folutions, in which the integrant parts of one or both
of the two bodies are diftributed in an aqueous fluid, e. g.
of acids ; and thofe folutions, in which one or both bodies
are rendered fluid by fire, as in vitrification, and in alloys
of metals with each other, are of the latter kind. A per-
fect folution requires, that each of the integrant parts of
one body be united to one of the integrant parts of an-
other : hence, if one of them be tranfparent, we ought to
have, after the mutual folution, a tranfparent compound,
fuch as occurs in the folutions of calcareous ftones and acids,
and thofe of earths by alkalies : whereas the folution of
foap in water is incomplete ; and the fame may be faid of
glafles that are not perfcftly tranfparent.

As the folution of two bodies can only be efFefted by the
mutual attraction of their parts to each other, thefe parts,
after the folution, are found to adhere together : fo that
heavy bodies, e. g. corrofive fublimate, may be fufpended
in the thinneft and lightell liquids, e. g. fpirit of wine,
when they are truly diflolved by each other.

In all cafes of folution at a common temperature, it
generally happens, that the mixture in the aft of folution
becomes either warmer or colder than the ingredients were
before the mixture. This is owing to an evolution or ab-
forption of free caloric, from the mixtures having a lefs or
greater capacity for caloric, than the mean capacity of the
two fubftances taken feparately. See Cilgric.

It happens alfo, in the greater number of cafes of folu-
tion, that the mixture has a greater fpecific gravity than
the mean gravity of the ingredients, relatively to their re-
fpeftive quantities. Hence they occupy lefs fpace than be-
fore, which may be feen by putti;ig into a bottle any foluble
fait [e. g. fulphate of foda), and filling it to the brim with
water ; after the folution is effefted, the liquor will appear
to have funk through a certain interval below the firft level,
without any lofs of the ingredients. See Affinity.

When folutions of falts are congealed, the ice often af-
fords very pretty figures ; but it is to be obferved, that the
fame fait does not always give the fame figures. Thus,
the fame folution of verdigris, frozen by means of fno.v
and fait, affords a different figure, from what is produced
by the natural cold of the air. And the former ice being
tha-.ved, and left to freeze in the fame phial, did not give the
fame figures as at firil. See Boyle's Works Abridged,
p. i68.

Solution, in Metallurgy, is dirtinguiflied into dry and
moill. The dry folution is the blending imperceptibly a
fmall quantity of a metal or mineral, with a very large one
of fome other body, dry, liard, and not fluid when cold.
The moifl fcJution is the diftributing a body tliroogh the

SOL

very minuteft parts of an aqueous, or in great part aque-
ous fluid, in fuch manner, that both may turn into a fluid,
to appearance homogeneous, which goes through all filters,
without being detained or feparated by them, and the
fmalleft part of which contains in it a proportionable quao-
tity of both the meuftruum or difiolvent, and of the dif-
folved body. The folution of gold in aqua regia, and of
filver in aqua fortis, as alfo that of any of the falts in water,
are folutions of this kind. Cramer's Art of Aflaying,
p. 194.

In the making of the feveral metallic refolutions, for the
neceflary procefles in chemiltry, the operator is fubjeft to
great danger in his health, from the noxious vapours. This
has been an accident complained of indeed by many, but
fcarcely attempted to be remedied or obviated by any, in a
rational way, till M. Geoffrey, whofe experiments fub-
jefted him greatly to the mifchief, employed his thoughts,
for his own fake, as well as that of the world in general, to
the effeftual prevention of it.

The diffolution of the metals in the corrofive acid fpirits
are thofe, which lend out the moil copious and mod dan-
gerous vapours. The exhalation of quickiilver, of anti-
mony, and of lead and copper, arc all in themfelves greatly
hurtful, as well as the fiery vapours of fpirit of nitre, fea-
falt, or vitriol ; and if either of thefe is fingly fo, how
pernicious mufl they need be in thofe cafes, where two of
them are joined together in fuch a manner, as that this
union fends up infinitely more vapours than would other-
wife arife ; in this cafe the utmoft care is neceflary to pre-
vent the chemift from falling a facrifice to his zeal for his
difcoveries.

The common way of avoiding this danger, is by making
the folution either abroad in the open air, or in a chimney ;
but fometimes thefe cautions cannot be ufed, and under
fome circumitances they are ineffeftual. This gave occa-
fion to M. Geoffroy to ufe a method, which he afterwards
propofed to the public, of flopping the nfe of the vapours
entirely, or at leafl of diminifhing them fo greatly, that
they fhall be harmlefs and unperceived. All that was necef-
fary to this, feemed to him to be the contriving to cover the
furfaceof the fluid with fome body, capable of retaining thofe
vapours, yet not capable of dillurbing the operation of the
menflruum on the metal ; and the common expreffed oils
of fruits, as the oil of olives, almonds, or the like, were
found capable of happily performing this efi'eft ; and that
particularly, as they would eafily receive into themfelves
the acid falts which arife in the conPiift. The thing which
gave this gentleman the hint of the difcovery was, that in
the boiling of fugars, honey, or the like fubftances, when
there is any danger of their boiling over the veffel, the
pouring in a little oil flops the fwelling. In the metallic
folutions it has the fame effecl ; and that heightened by
this good confequence, that by keeping in the fiery vapours
of the acid, it returns them back upon the metal, and by
this means does, in effeft, add greatly to the power of tjie
menflruum.

This method of ufing oil has indeed three advantages.
I. The preferving the operator from the injuries of the
vapours. 2. The greatly moderating of that violent rare-
faftion, which is often of ill confequence. And 3. The fame
quantity of t^-e menflruum, by this means, diflfolves more of
the metal. The bell method of making folutions with this
advantage is this : firft, wet the furface of the metal to be
diflolved with water, or fpirit of wine ; then pour a little
water, or fpirit of wine, into the glafs in which the folution
is to be made, this will prevent the d\\ from flicking to the
furfnces of either ; then put the metal into the glafs, and
9 pour

SOL

SOL

pour in the oil upon it ; laft of all, pour on the menllruum :
this, being greatly heavier than the oil, will iiiik to the bot-
tom and work upon the metal, while the oil perfeftly covers
the whole furface. There is no need to be cxaft as to the
quantity of the oil, but more or lefs is to be ufed, in pro-
portion to the greater or lefs ebullition which the mixture is
cxpefted to make.

The air-bubbles, which arife to the furface with great
impetuofity in the making of thefe folutions, are here feen
to break by degrees as they enter the covering of oil, and
generally are quite diflipated before they arife to the furface
of it. The few of them which retain their figure till they
arrive at the furface, there burll and give a flight exhala-
tion ; and one may continually fee the drops of the men-
ftruum falling back again out of the oil into it, after being
deferted by the bubbles of the air which had raifed them fo
far. On the contrary, in the common way of making folu-
tions, the air-bubbles pufh one another up to the furface,
where they form a fort of fcum, which continually thickens
by their frefli rifing and fupporting one another, till it often
rifes over the top of the veflel. Thefe bubbles of air feem
to be formed of fmall particles of air extremely condenfed
in the pores of the metal, which, when the particles of
it are feparated for folution, find themfelves at liberty to
dilate and expand, and arife to the furface in their proper
form.

If it be thought neceffary, in any folution which raifes a
more than ordinary quantity of vapours, to prevent the
flying off of that fmall quantity which may efcape through
the oil, there is nothing more neceflary than to pour a little
fpirit of wine upon the oil ; for the acid vapours which pafs
the oil will then be received in the fpirit, and will be dulci-
fied in it, and imlead of a difagreeable odour, will yield
only a very fwect and fafe one. Spirit of wine alone, ufed
inftead of oil, and poured gently on the folution, has very
great effefts ; infomuch, that if ufed to the folutions in
fpirit of nitre, which ufually fend up very noxious and coarfe
red vapours, they by this means are made to fend up only
very fine light white ones, and thefe of a very agreeable
fmell : the bubbles raifed in this cafe are very fmall, and
ufually burit before they arrive at the furface of the fpirit.
The only objeiSion to this method is, that t!ie fpirit of wine
foon mixes itfelf with the menftruum, and there are fome
cafes in which this may be of ill confequence to the procefs.
Mem. Acad. Par. 1 7 19.

SOLUTIVE, Loosening, or Laxative. See Laxa-
tive.

SOLWAY FniTH, in Geography, an arm of the fca,
branching off from the Irifh fea, and forming a confiderable
part of the boundary between England and North Britain.
Reckoning it to commence at Salternefs Point, the S.E.
corner of Galloway, its breadth to the nearcft land in Cum-
berland is about eight miles, and its length, inland, to the
ealt, 22 miles. As its outline, however, is rather irregular,
it may be confidered as comprehending an extent of 80 miles
of fea-coaft, of which 36 miles are on the Scottilh (hore and
the remainder on the Englifli fide. This frith opens to the
well, and is rather a tnuiblcfome navigation, as it abounds
with flioals. The tides here are extremely regular, fpring
tides rifing 20 feet above low water-mark, and ordinary
tides about 10 or 12. Numerous rivers pour their waters
into the Solway, of which the principal are the Nith,
the Annan, the Efk, and the Levin, in Scotland, and the
Eden and Wampool, in England. The Solway abounds
with fifli of various kinds, iMit particularly with falmon,
which are caught in great quantities, and either iold in the
neighbourhood, or fent pickled to London and other parts

of England. The modes of taking this valuable fifh here
are fo fingular as to deferve a particular detail. They are
four in number, firlt with leillers, a kind of four-pronged
fork, with the prongs turned a little to one fide, having a
fliaft from 20 to 24 feet long ; thefe the fifhermen run along
the fand on the edge, or throw them vi-hcn they fee any fifh ;
in this manner they kill or wound great numbers. Some of
the people are very dexterous at this exercife ; infomuch that,
according to Mr. Pennant, they will on horfeback, at full
gallop, throw a leiller, and kill at a great diftance. 2. By
heaving and hauling, that is, by (landing in the current of the
tide with fmall hand-nets. 3. By fixing (mall pock-nets to
(takes in the currents. Thefe nets are made with wide
melhea, and the fi(h that come rapidly down witli the Itream,
initantly run their heads into the mefhes, from whence they
are unable to difengage themfelves. The other method is
the common one ufed in other parts for catching falmon.
Sinclair's Statiilical Account of Scctland, Svo. 1796. Ge-
neral Report of Scotland, 8vo. 18 14. Hiftory and An-
tiquities of the Counties of Wcftmoreland and Cumberland,
4to. by Jofeph Nicholfon, efq. and Richard Burn, LL.D.
Solway Mofs, a trail of land in Cumberland, England,
is entitled to fome notice in this place on account of the ex-
traordinary effects of its eruption in the year 1771. Mr.
Gilpin, in his " Obfervations on the Mountains and Lakes
of Cumberland," &c. two vols. 1 78 1, thus defcribes the
nature of the place and the particulars of the inundation.
" Solway Mofs is a flat area, about feven miles in circum-
ference. The fubftance of it is a grofs fluid, compofcd of
mud, and the putrid fibres of heath, diluted by internal
fprings, which arife in every part. The furface is a dry
cruft, covered with mofs and ruflies ; offering a fair ap-
pearance over an unfound bottom, (baking with the lead
prefl'ure. Cattle, by inltinft, know and avoid it. Where
ru{hes grow the bottom is foundeil : the adventurous paf-
fenger, therefore, who fometimes, in dry feafons, travcrfes
this perilous wade, to fave a few miles, picks his cautious
way over the rufhy tuffocks, as they appear before him. If
his foot (lips, or if he ventures to defert this mark of fe-
curity, it is poffiblc he may never more be heard of. On
the louth, Solway Mofs is bounded by a cultivated plain,
which declines gently through the fpace of a mile to the
river Eflc. This plain is lower than the mofs, being fepa-
rated from it by a bread-work formed by digging peat,
which makes an irregular though perpendicular lin'^ of lov»
black boundary. It was tlie burlting of the mofs through
this peat breaft-work, over the plain between it and tlie
EA'C, that occafioned the dreadful inundation which deftroyed
fo large a diftrift. The more remarkable circumftances re-
lating to this calamitous event were thefe : On the 13th of
November, 1771, in a dark tempeduous night, the inha-
bitants of the plain were alarmed with a dreadful crafh,
which they could no way account for : many of them were
then in the fields watching their cattle, lelt the E(l<, which
was then rifing violently in the ftorm, (hould carry them off.
In the mean time, the enormous mafs of fluid fubdance,
which had burft from the mofs, moved flowly on, fpreading
itfelf more and more, as it got pofledion of the plain. Some
of the inhabitants, througli the terror of the night, could
plainly difcover it advancing like a moving liill. This wa«
in fatt the cafe ; for the gufli of mud carried before it
through the fird two or three hundred yards of its courfc a
part of the bread-work ; which, though lew, was yet fe-
ver.il feet in perpendicular height ; but it foon depofited this
folid mafs, and became a heavy fluid. One houfe after
another it fpread round, filR'd and jruflicd into ruin, jult
giving time to the terrified inhabitants to efcape. Scarcelj*
T t 2 any

S O L

any thing was laved except their lives ; nothing of their fur-
nitiire, tew of their cattle. Some people were even fnr-
prifed in their beds, and had the additional diltrcfs of flying
naked from the ruin. The morning light explained the
caufe of this amazing fcene of terror, and (hewed the ca-
lamity in its full extent : and yet, among all the conjedures
of that dreadful night, the mifchief which really happened
had never been fuppofed. Lands which in the evening
would have let for twenty (hillings an acre, in the morning
were not worth iixpencc. On this well-cultivated plain
twenty-eight families had their dwellings and little farms ;
every one of which, except perhaps a few who lived near
the fltirts of it, had the world totally to begin again. Who
could have imagined, that a breall-work, which had flood
for ages, (hould at length give way ? or that thofe^ fubter-
ranean floods which had been bedded in darknefs fince the
memory of man, (hould have ever buili from their black
abode? This dreadful inundation, though the fird (hock
of it was mod tremendous, continued ftiU fpreading for
many weeks, till it covered the whole plain, an area of five
liundred acres ; and, like molten lead poured into a mould,
(illed all the hollows of it, lying in fome parts thirty or forty
feet deep, reducing the whole to one level furface." The
plain that was covered with this Stygian torrent, has, how-
ever, fincc been reilored to fertility by the exertions of a
Yorkfhireman named Wilfon, whofe felf-taught genius at
once conceived a novel plan, and directed its execution.

This plan was fimple and eafily executed. Wilfon had
two large refervoirs formed in the higher grounds, filled
them with water, and direfted the whole body and force of
it, lirll againft a large knoll in front of Netherby houfc,
and afterwards againft the mafles of accumulated mofs,
all of which were progreffively carried away into the chan-
nel of the river Eflc. Further particulars may be feeii in
Gilpin's work, already referred to. Pennant's Tour to
Scotland.

The vicinity of Solway Mofs became celebrated from the
defeat of the Scottifli army under the command of Oliver
Sinclair, in the reign of Henry VIII. The whole army
was either taken or difperfed ; and a few fugitives are faid
to have perilhed in the mofs, into which they had plunged
to efcape the fword.

SOLYHULL. See Solihull.

SOLYMA, in Ancient Geography, a name fometimes
given to Jerufalem ; which fee.

SOLYMAN, in Geography. See Soliman.

SOLYMANIA, a diftrift of that portion of the pa-
chalic of Bagdad beyond the Tigris, which comprehends
almoft the whole of ancient Affyria proper, and is now
denominated the Lower Kurdiilan : extending from Ar-
menia and th.e territories of the chief of Julamerick to
the dillrift of Meadeli, which is its frontier, towards Ku-
ziftan or Chufillan. Each of the eight diftrifts into which
this province is divided has a feparate hakcm, or governor ;
but he who refidcs at Solymania rules over the greateft por-
tion of territory ; and as he muft, by birth, be a Kurd, he
ufually affumcs the title of pafha of Ivurdiltan. The town
of " Solymania a Shchr e Zour," defignated in the retreat
of Heraclius by the appellation of Siazuros, is diftant 1 8
leagues E. of Kerkuok. It is the refidence of Solyman,
pa(ha of Kurdiilan, a dilUiiguifhed warrior, who, in 1810,
at the inftigation of the Porte, took arms againft hi"; matter,
the pa(ha of Bagdad, whom he defeated and put to death.
Shehr e Zour, having fallen into decay, was fome years ago
rebuilt by Solyman, pa(ha of Bagdad, and fince that time
has aflumed his name. It is fituated in a delightful country,
xlofe to the foot of mount Zagros, and contains about 6000

S O M

inhabitants. Not far from Solymania was the city of Hol-
wan, the retreat of Yezdejird, after the battle of Cadefia,
and to which the caliphs of Bagdad were accullomed to re-
tire during the heats of fummer. It was ruined by Holaku,
and has never fince recovered its confequence.

SOLYME, in Ancient Geography, a town beyond Jordan,
in the diftrift of Gaulon. Jofephus.

SOLYMI, an ancient and venerable people, mentioned
by Homer, and the poet Choerilus, who fpoke Phoenician,
cut their hair round, and inhabited the Solymean mountains,
near a large lake. Thefe marks, according to Jofephus
and Tacitus, ag^ree with the Jev.-s, called Solymi, on ac-
count of their capital city Jerufalem : — a nation remarkable
for the fingularity of their laws and of their aftions, fpeak-
ing Phoenician or Hebrew, dwelling in a mountainous coun-
try near Jerufalem, fituated in the mountains and near the
Afphaltite lake. Thefe tokens, according to other learned
men, do not defignate Jews. Hence fome think, that they
were Moabites, or Midianites, bordering on the Afphaltite
lake, and reckoned among the Arabians, who cut tiieir hair
round in a circle. Others think that the Solymean moun-
tains were in Pifidia, near Lycia ; and that we mult here
feek the Solymi of Homer and Choerilus.

SOMA, in Ccmmerce, a corn meafure at Bergamo in
Italy, which is divided into 8 fetari, and contains 4; bufhels,
Engli(h meafure. In the illand of Corfica, it is a wine mea-
fure ; the barile being := 2 fome =12 zucchi = 108 pinte
;= 432 quarti.

Soma, in Hindoo Mythology, is the regent of the moon,
being in India a male deity, like the Mona of the Saxons,
and the Lunus among fome of the nations who fettled iii
Italy. The Hindoos have however a female moon, as the
conlort of Soma or Chandra : (he is named Chandri, being,
in their ftyle of perfoni(ication, the fakti, or energy of her
lord. (See Sakti.) Chandra is a name as often ufed as
Soma, perhaps oftener, and is the common name of the
moon in feveral dialefts of India. Chandri is fometimes
identified with the goddefs Parvati, confort of Siva, and
in piAures of that god (he is often feen in the form of a
crefcent ornamenting his head ; he is thence named Chan-
drafekra, or moon-crowned. In the Hindoo theogonies.
Soma is ftated to be the fon of a Rifhi named Atri, fon of
Brahma: and Boodh, or Mercury, is the fon of Chandra;
Boodh, or Budha, was married to Ila, daughter of the
feventh Menu, named Satyavrata. Soma is fometimes faid
to be the fon of Surya, or the fun, having fprung from a
ray of that glorious luminary. According to another legend,
it was a flalli of light from the eye of Atri that impregnated
a goddefs, who is found to be a perfonilication of the via
lattea, or fpace, who thence bore Soma. So that the Hin-
doo Soma is both hufband, wife, and offspring of the fun.
See Ila.

Soma is often invoked in the religious ceremonies of the
Brahmans, and receives a (hare in the offerings with which
fuch ceremonies often are accompanied. He is fometimes
(lyled lord of plants, efpecially of medicinal plants. We
may notice here, as connected with fome fuppofed coinci-
dences in Irifli and Indian mythology, that Som in the
former is the deity prefiding over plants, the fame as in
India ; for the Sanfcrit has merely a grammatical termina-
tion : the names are radically alike. (See Surya and Tri-
VE>Ji). One very myiterious vegetable is peculiarly facred
to the Hindoo Soma : it is called Somalata. Soma, like
the moon of weltern mythologifts, prefides in India over
Monday, which day is called Somvar in many dialefts. See
Zodiac.

The lunar deity of the Eail is ufually pourtrayed in a car

drawee

S O M

S O M

tlrawn by a pied antelope, his head encircled by a filver
crefcent, and fometimes witli a rabbit on his banner. He is
commonly fcen four-handed, fometimes holding a lotos, a
club, a difcus, and (hell, the ufual attributes of VilTinu ;
though he feems in a greater degree connefted with Siva,
which fee. He is alfo frequently feen with Chandra's em-
blem, the antelope, in his hand, which emblem is called Safin.
(See Sasin.) A crelcent on his forehead, and on the fore-
heads of his confort and offspring, is alfo a Sivean family
diftinftion. The idea of a male and female moon has given
birth to many poetical fancies and allegories. Ifa and Ifi,
under their names of Chandra and Chandri, undergo fevcral
fexual and other metamorphofes. Chandra, or Deus Lunus,
is the moon when in oppofition to the fun ; and Chandri, or
Dea Luna, when in conjunftion.

In the fol-lunar legends of the Hindoos, the fun is, as
we have (hewn, fometimes male, fometimes female ; and both
wife and hulb^nd of Lunus and Luna, under their feveral
names of Siirya, Savitri, Chandra and Chandri.

Chandri, who concealing herfelf in Somagiri, or the moun-
tain of the moon, was there vifited by Surya, the fun ; from
which conjunftion arofe a numerous family called Pulinda.
See Ila and Rohini.

The Hindoos have a fable that the moon is a vafe of nec-
tar, and draw many pleafmg figures from this poetical
fource : hence nectar-beaming is an epithet or name of Soma.
(See Sasik. ) Other names or titles of Soma are Himanfu,
..Jndu, Saganka, Safanka, and Snlhumna. A fimilar idea
of deriving ambrofia, or infpiration from the moon, is trace-
able in the poetics of Greece. The Hindoos call this im-
mortal beverage Umrita; which fee.

Images of Chandra are not often feen. He has been
noticed among the fculptures in the cavern temple on Ele-
phanta, and pictures ot him are not rare. He is reprefented
young and handfome ; and it is very common for poets, both
Hindoo and Mahometan, to compare their miltreifes to the
full moon ; this is perhaps common to almoil all nations.

In Hindoo hiftories and theogonies, mention is made of
numerous races, offspring of the fun and moon, and (eve-
rally called Suryavanfa and Chandra-vanfa. (SeeSuRYA-
VANSA.) It is common in works of antiquity to fee it
noticed whether the heroes be of the fular or lunar race, but
fuch diltinftions are little regarded in modern times. Aulle-
rities are common to Hindoo devotees, in expiation of of-
fences, or as fecurity from evil. (SeeTAPAs. ) One fpccies
of it is named Chandrayana, or the lunar penance. It con-
fills in the finncr or devotee " eating for a whole month no
more than thrice eighty mouthfuls of wild grains, as he
happen to meet with them, keeping his organs in fubjcc-
tion." The reward, according to Menu, is attaining the
fame abode as the regent of the moon ; and it ablolves a
Brahman from the fin of flaughtering a thoufand fmall
animals which have bones, or of bonelefs animals as many
as will fill a cart : and it is alfo the expiation for killing a
Sudra, an individual of the fourth or fervile clafs. See

SUDRA.

SOMADEVA, a name of the Hindoo regent of the
moon, who is called alfo Chandra, Soma, and by feveral
other names. (See the preceding article.) It is likewife
the poetical appellation of a celebrated Indian writer, men-
tion of whom is briefly made under the article Triveni.

SOMAINPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in the circar of Gohud ; 25 miles S.E. of Calpy.

SOMAISSON, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 22
miles W. of Bangalore.

SOMALATA, in Botany, ii the Sanfcrit name of the
afclepias acida, or cynanchum viminale, of our fyftems; a
12

vegetable highly venerated by the Hindoos. The name
means morn-plant : it is facred to Soma, or the moon,
and is of lucfi profound and myllerious allufion, that none
but Brahma.K mav prefume to tatle its juice. It is gathered,
exprefled, and drank, with many fuperllitious ceremonies;
and allufions to it are frequent in the writings of the Hin-
doos, who are faid to confider it as typical of the umrila or
ambrofia, obtained in fo poetical a manner by the gods, and
quaffed by th'.i' as the beverage tf immortality. (See
Umrita) " O thou who quaff the invigorating juice of
the fomalata," is an invocation to Brahmans, met with in
Sanfcrit books ; a farther examination of which would per-
haps lead to a furniife, if not to a conclufion, that the myf-
teries connefted with this holy vegetable in India are nearly
fimilar to thofe related of our druids with their myllcrious
millletoe. It is noticed under the article Soma, that the
Hindoos believe the moon to have great influence on vege-
tation in general, efpecially on the fomalata, or moon-plant,
of which he is the particular lord ; as well as generally of
all vegetables.

SOMALPET, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Berar ; 55 miles N.N.E. of Mahur.

SOMANAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
1 8 miles S. of Bangalore.

SOMANOOR, atown of Hindooftan, in Coimbctore ;
15 miles N.E. of Coimbetcre.
SOMASQUO, Fathers of. See Fathers.
SOMBAR, ill Geography, a town of Per(ia, in the pro-
vince nf Irak; 114 miles S.W. of Hamadan.

SOMBERNON, a town of France, in the department
of the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri^ of Dijon ; 13 miles W. of Dijon. The place contains
7j5, and the canton 7770 inhabitants, on a territory of 235
kiliometres, in 28 communes.

SOMBOR, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ; 6
miles W, of Halicz.

SOMBRERA, a fmall iiland in the Weft Indies, about
13 miles N. of Anguilla, dependent on Barbuda. N. lat.
i8^).o'. W. long. 63^ 25'.

SOMBRERE Channel, a channel between the Nico-
bar iflands. N. lat. q"^ 32' to 7^ 50'. E. long. 94°.

SOMBRERETE, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Zacatecas ; 55 miles N. of Zacatecas. N. lat. 23° 40'.
W. long. 4° 2'.

SOMBRERO, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 4'^ 40'. E. long. 5° 52'. — Alfo, a rock in
the fea of Mindoro. N. lat. 10° 49'. E. long. 121° 27'.

SOM-CH AN, a town of Chinele Tartary. N. lat. 41'^ 2'.
E. long. 120° 42'.

SOMEBODY KNOWS WHAT, a name given to
the extremity of the arm of DuOiy bay, which captain
Cook calls " Nobody knows what." This name was given
by captain Vancouver, who examined and found two inlets,
or at leaft a large branch, divided by a ridge of land through
its whole length.

SOMEER, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Go-
hud ; lomiles S.E. of Lahaar.

SOMEGILL, a river of Wales, which runs into the
Lug below Prefteign, in Radniirflure.

SOMENSHAR, a town of Little Bucharia ; 15 miles
N.W. of Hami.

SOMERA, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland ; 33 miles
S.W. of Tavalllms.

SOMERFELT, a town of PrufTia, in Obcrland, W.
of Liebftadt.

SOMERGEM, or Sommercf.m, a town of y'rancc, in
the department of the Scheldt, and chief place of a «amon,

la

S O M

in the diftria of Gand or Ghent ; 9 miles N.W. of Ghent.
The place contains 6221, and the canton 18,800 inhabitants,
on a territory of 125 kiliometres, in 7 communes.

SOMERS, John, Lord, in Biography, a diltinguilTied
lawyer and itatefman, born at Worcelter, in 1652, was the
fon of a refpedable attorney of that city. He received his
early education at the public fchoolof his native city ; and,
at a proper age, he was entered a gentleman-commoner of
Trinity college, Oxford. He quitted the univerfity with-
out a degree, but he had attained a good tafte for polite li-
terature, and being deitined by his father for the legal pro-
feflion, he fpent fome time as a clerk to iir Francis Winning-
ton, an eminent lawyer, after which he rerr.oved to the
Middle Temple. When called to the bar, he difplayed
ihofe talents which enfured his arriving .it profcfTional dillinc-
tion : at the fame time, though extremely diligent in his
legal {Indies, he did not abandon his claffical purfuits, but
tranflated the hiftory of the life of Alcibiades, and Ovid's
Epillle of Ariadne to Thefeus.

He was an ardent friend of liberty, and in the latter part
of the reign of Charles H. he wrote fome political tradls ;
which, though they appeared without his name, were afcer-
tained to be from his pen.

A piece entitled" The Security of Englifhmen's Lives ;
or the Trult, Power, and Duty of the Grand .Juries of
England, explained according to the Fundamentali of the
Englifli Government," was attributed to him by Mr. Wal-
pole, and is thought to be the fame with one alluded to by
bifliop Burnet, written in confequence of the grand juries
return of ignoramus to the bill again!! lord Shaftelbury. He
was moreover the reputed author of " A brief Hiliory of
the Succeffion of the Crown of England, collefted outof
the Records," the objedl of which was to prove the right
of parliament to regulate the defcent of the crown, with the
view of fupporting the intended exclufion of the duke of
York, on account of his religion. In 168 1 he took part in
publifhing " A juft and model! Vindication of the Pro-
ceedings of the two lalt Parnaments," originally written by
Algernon Sidney, but new-modelled by him. He was
counfel, in 1683, for the fheriffs of London, and for other
perfons who were profecuted for a riot in the city at the
eleftion of {heriffs. After the acceffion of James 1\. he
continued the firm oppofer of the arbitrary meafurcs of the
court, and obtained great credit as one of the counfel for
the feven bifhops. He moft heartily concurred in the event
of the revolution, and was one of the confidential advifers
of the meafure for bringing over the prince of Orange. He
fat as reprefentative of his native city in tiie convenl ion-
parliament, and was appointed one of the managers for the
houfe of commons, in the conference held with the lords
concerning the word abdicate, and his acute and fenfible ob-
fervations on the fubjeft were greatly admired. In 1689 he
was knighted, and made folicitor-general, and while he held
that high poll, delivered a fpirited and feafonable fpeech in
favour of the aft of convention for recognizing William and
Mary, the legaUty of which had been called in queftion by
a member of the houfe of commons. In 1692, the office
of attorney-general was conferred upon him, and in the fol-
lowing year that of lord-keeper of the great feal. When
advanced to the bench, his behaviour was that of an able and
upright magillrate, whofe love of juRice was tempered with
fmgular mildnefs and condefcenfion. At the fame time he
was in the higheft credit with the fovereign, and he made
ufe of his influence to ferve perfons of merit. He was a
patron to Mr. Addifon, and obtained for him an allowance
to enable him to make that tour in Italy, of which he has
printed an account. In 1695 he was advanced to the lord

S O M

cliancellorlhip of England, and was raifed to the peerage by
the title of lord So^ners, baron Evelham. At the lame time
he obtained certain gr.int3 from the crown, a circumllance
which has drawn upon him fome cenfurc ; though, without
this addition, his advancement to the peerage would have
been a punilhment inftead of reward, inafmuch as it would
have been impoffible for him to have maintained his rank in
the peerage.

Lord Somers was now regarded as the head of the Whigs,
and it was his aim to moderate the heat andjealoufy of that
party, and concihate to it both the king and nation ; hence
it has been averred that he was too compliant in fome points
to the royal pleafure ; which, however, did not prevent his
being made a facrilice when the Tories came into power. His
acquielcence in the firit partition treaty in 1699, with other
minillerial meafures, produced great complaints againll hira
in parliament, and an addrefs w.is moved in the houfe of com-
mons, praying the king that lord Somers might for ever be
removed from his majelly's prefence and council. This mo-
tion was, however, defeated by a large majority ; but the
king, foon after, to quiet th." difcontents, defired him volun-
tnrily to refign his feals. This he refufed ; and he was ac-
cordingly difmiffed from his office. In 1701 the houfe of
commons fent up to the lords an impeachment of lord So-
mers, which, howerer, was difmilfed by the peers, and the
profecution was not refumed. Very ihortly after this the
king died, and the new reign not being favourable to the
principles of lord Somers, he fpent his time in literary re-
tirement, and during this period of Icifure he was elected
prefident of the Royal Society. He was not, however, in-
attentive to public concerns, and vigoroufly oppofed the
bill brought into parliament by the high church party, to
prevent occafional conformity. In 1706 he drew up a plan
lor eifefting an union between England and Scotland, which
was fo much approved, that queen Anne nominated him
one of the managers for carrying that meafure into execu-
tion- He is alfo faid to have had a confiderable Ihare in the
bill of regency, by which the Proteftant fucceffion to the
crown was extended and fecured. Upon a change of mi-
niftrv in 1708, lord Somers was nominated to the poll of
prefident of the council, from which he was difmiflied in
1710; and though he continued for fome time to take an
aftive part in the bufinefs of the houfe of peers, it was not
very long before a decline in the (late of his health and fa-
culties rendered him unfit for public bufinefs. He died in
1716, at the age of 64. The memory of lord Somers is
ttill lield in high veneration by the friends of conllitutional
liberty ; to the eftablifhment of which, by means of the re-
volution and Proteltant fucceffion, no individual contributed
more than he. His abilities were very confiderable, his
manners highly ingratiating, and, notwithftanding the oppo-
fition which he had occafionally to encounter, few ftatefmen
have paficd through hfe with a purer cbarafter. He made a
large colleftion of fcarce and curious pamphlets, of which
there has been publifhed a feleftion in four parts, each con-
fifting of four volumes, 4to. His collection of original
papers and letters was unfortunately deftroyed by a fire,
which happened in the chambers of the Hon. Charles Yorke,
on the 27th of Jan. 1752. Biog. Brit.

Somers, in Geography, a townftiip of America, in Connec-
ticut, and county of Tolland, containing 1210 inhabitants ;

24 miles N.E. nf Hartford Alfo, a poft-townfhip of New

York, on the N. line of Welt Chelter county, 50 miles N. of
New York, and 1 20 from Albany ; bounded N. by Duchefs
county, E. by North Salem and South Salem, S. by Bed-
ford and New-Caftle, and W. by York or Yorktown. Its
name, which was formerly Stephentown, was changed in.

"1808.

S O M

S O M

l8o?. Here are four grain-mills, five or fix faw-mills, two
fulling-mills, a paper-mill, and feveral fine fcites (till unoc-
cupied. The foil of this townlhip is generally very good,
and adapted to produce a great variety of agricultural pro-
du6ls. Here are alfo a printing eitablilhment, that iffues a
weekly paper, the poft-office, and a fmall coUcAion of
houfes. This village is the principal market of lean Itock of
cattle and fheep, brought hither from diftant parts of the
country, for the fupply of the fales of fattened cattle and
fheep to the butchers of New York. The farmers of this
country carry on an extenfive traffic in this way, and droves
are annually and almoft conftantly arriving from the inland
regions, at the diftance of loo, 200, and even 300 miles, to
replace the confumption. The whole population confifts
of 1782 perfons. — Alfo, a townlhip of Prebble county, in
the ftate of Ohio, containing 719 inhabitants.

SoMERS JJlands. See Bermudas.

SOMERSDORF, a town of Germany, in the margra-
viateof Anfpach ; 5 milrs S. of Anfpach.

SOMERSET, Duhi of, in Biography, according to
Kircher (torn. i. lib. vi. p. 486.) and Printz, in his Germ.
Hift. Muf. invented in 1649 a new fpecies of violin, with
eight llrings ; which contained all the moft excellent fecrets
of mufic, and ravilhed every hearer.

Somerset, in Geography, a well-cultivated county of New
Jerfey, in America, on the N. iide of the great road from New
York to Philadelphia. The foil, efpecially on Rariton river
and its branches, is good, and produces good crops of wheat,
of which great quantities are annually exported. It is di-
vided into feven townfhips, and contains 14,728 inhabitants,
including 1968 flave';. The capital of the above county is
fituated on the W. fide of Millftone river, and contains a
court-houfe, gaol, and about 20 houfes; 13 miles N. of
New Brunfwick.

Somerset, a county of Maryland, bounded E. by the
ftate of Delaware and Worcefter county, and W. by the
waters of Chefapeak bay. It contains 17,195 inhabitants,
■including 6975 (laves. Wathington Academy, in this
county, was inltituted by law in 1779 : it was founded and
18 fupported by voluntary fubfcriptions and donations, and
is authorifed to receive gifts and legacies, and to hold 2000
acres of land.

Somerset, a county of Pennfylvania, bounded N. by
Huntingdon, and S. by Alleghany county, in Maryland ;
it is divided into 15 townfhips, and contains 1 1,284 inha-
bitants.

Somerset, a townfliip of the above county, containing
1548 inhabitants ; and alfo a borough, containing 489 in-
habitants.

Somerset, a county of the ftate of Maine, containing
12,910 inhabitants — Alfo, a townfliip of Wafhington
county, in Pennfylvania, containing 1500 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfliip of Windham county, in Vermont, con-
taining 199 inhabitants ; 10 or 12 miles N.E. of Ben-
nington.

Somerset, or Sommerfftt, a polk-town of Briftol county,
in Maflachufetts, on Taunton river ; incorporated in
1790, and containing 1199 inhabitants; 49 miles S.E. of
Bofton.

SOMERSETSHIRE, one of the maritime counties of
England, is fituated in the fouth-weltern part of tlie kingdom,
and is bounded by the Briltol Channel and Gloucclterlhire on
the north, by Wiltfliire on the eall, by Devonlhire on the
fouth-wolt, and by Dorfctdiire on the loutli-oaft. It is of
anpbleng form, and extends m length from north-call to loiith-
■weft about 80 miles, and in breadtii, in an oppi lite direction,
about 36 miles ; the circumference is fomething more than

200 miles, and the fuperficial contents abont one million
of acres.

Ancient Inhabitants, and hijlnrical Events.— ^]\\^ diftriS,
as well as its borders, is faid to have been, in early times,
inhabited by the Belgi, a people of Celtic origin, who
migrated hither from Gaul about three centuries prior to
the Chriftian era. They are defcribed as h?.ving eftabliflied
colonies, cultivated land?, and inftrufted fuch of the natives
as chofe to alfociate with them in the arts of induftry.
Their dominion was greatly extended about 250 years after
tlieir firfl fettlement, when Divitiacus, king of the Suef-
fones, brought over from the continent a confiderable num-
ber of their countrymen. To appeafe the holtilities which
had fubfifted between thefe fettlers and the native inhabit-
ants, a treaty was now concluded, and a line or boundary
made, to determine their refpeftive territories. This line
was perpetuated by a large and deep foffe, called, from the
circumftances of its origin, Wanfdike ; parts of which are
ftill confpicuous in Wiltfhire, &c. It is faid to commence
near Andover, in Hampfhire, and terminate at the Severn
fea, at Portifhcad, in this county ; being an extent of about
80 miles. On Marlborough Downs this fiiigular dike ap-
pears nearly in its priitine ftate, being exceedingly deep,
and flanked by a lofty mound, or rampart, on its fouth fide.
According to this demarcation, the Belgz occupied a great
part of this county : and of their chief cities, Ivelchelter,
Bath, and Winchefter, the two former are within its limits.
Their contentions vv'ith the people, whofe poireflions they
had ufurped, lailed till the arrival of the Romans in Britain,
when the oppreflors, in their turn, became the opprefTed.
The Cangi, a tribe of thofe Belgx who migrated hither
under Divitiacus, were nearly annihilated by the Romans,
nine years after their invafion. Many remains within this
diftritf bear teftimony to the charafterilUc aftivity of the
Romans, in eltablifhing flations, marking out camps, and
founding colonies. Befides their citier. of Aquas Solis or
Bath, and Ifcalis or Ilcheiler, there are many places which,
though their ancient names are lolt, bear evident marks of
a Roman origin, in the foundation of walls, and in various re-
mains that have from time to time been difcovercd. Their prin-
cipal road through this county was the Folfe, which extended
from Bath, in a fouth-welleily direction, to Perry-ftreet,
on the confines of Devonfliirc. In a dire<ffion nearly pa-
rallel to it another road palled from the forefl of Exmoor,
through Taunton, Bridgewater, and Axbridge, to Portif-
head ; whence there was a trajcttus acrofs the Briltol Chan-
nel, to the city of Ilea Silnrum, now Caerleon. A third
road, called Via Julia, extended from Bath to Briltol and
the Severn ; and a fourth communicated from the former
Itation to Portifhe d. Upwards of twenty-throe Roman
encampments are enumerated in this county. During the
dominion of the Romans, it formed part of the province of
Britannia Prima. On the decline of their power, and their
evacuation of the country, in tlie fifth century, it became
lubjeft to the Saxons, who incorporated it with their king-
dom of Wcflex. It is noted as being one of the diitriCts in
which the Chriltian doitriiies were propagated at an early
period ; and, according to ancient authors, king Ina, who
began his rcigii over the Welt Saxons m 688, built a col-
lege at Wells. His hicccflor, Keniilph, converted it into
an epifcopal fee, and built (he celebrated abbey <'f Glallon-
bury. lint in tliofe obfciire and barbarous time;, the pro-
grefs of Chriltianity was neevflariiy flow and uncertain ; for
It was not only oppofed by luperftition, but thwarted by
fanguiiiary wars. The incurlions of the Danes kept the
country in a ftate of continual alarm, and threatened its
total fubjugation. In the reign of Allrcd, they defolatcd

almult

SOMERSETSHIRE.

almoft every province of Britain, and at length carried their
ravages into the counties of Somerfet, Wilts, and Hants ;
which had hitherto remained fafe againll their encroach-
ments. Tlie younij king was conitramed to rehnquifh his
throne, and to preferve himfelf by difguife and concealment.
He retired to an obfcure part of this county, and lived in the
houfe of a neatherd. During his refidence here an incident
occurred, which, though trivial in itfelf, has been thought
fufFiciently interefting "to be recorded in hiftory, and has
been given in this work under Alfred. At the general
divifion of the kingdom into Ihires and hundreds, this
province retained the name of Somerfetftiire, which the
Saxons had o-iven it ; and which was probably derived from
Somerton, at that time the chief town.

In the Saxon times, this county was fubjeft to certain
officiary earls, who had authority to try and decide caufes,
and puni ill malefactors, within their jurifdiftion. The firll
earl of Somerfet was a warlike chief, named Hun, who at-
tended king Egbert in his war with Beornulf, king of
Mercia, and was flain in the battle of EUendiiiie, A.D. 823.
At the period of the Norman conquell, when the Saxon
nobles were, for the mod part, deprived of their honours
and eltates, this county was bellowed on feveral chiefs who
affifted William in his enterprife, either with troops or
money. In this dillribution, fir William Mohun obtained
by far the greateft (hare ; for, befides the caftle of Dunller,
he held fixty-one lordlhips, and had forty-feven knights in
his retinue. He likewile received the title of earl of So-
merfet, which devolved on his defcendant, fir Reginald de
Mohun. In the fanguinary contefls between the houfes of
York and Lancafter, the inhabitants of Somerfetfhire were
particularly aftive in behalf of the latter ; in confequence of
which, it is faid, that after Henrv VII. was advanced to
the throne, he encouraged and patronized the ereftion of
fome fplendid towers and churches in this county. During
the civil war in the reign of Charles I., Somerfetfhire had its
full fhare of diflention and calamity. Various flcirmifhes
were fought, but no general engagement took place, except
one at Laufdown, near Bath, between the parliament's
army, under fir William Waller, and the king's forces,
under the marquis of Hertford. In this aftion, out of two
thoufand horfe the marquis lolt fifteen hundred, by a regi-
ment of cuiraffiers, commanded by fir Arthur Hazlerig,
which was fo completely armed, that they were called the
regiment i>f lobllers. The marquis, however, drove fir
William from his poll, and compelled him to retire into
Bath. Somerfetihire was alfo the principal theatre of the
rebellion of the duke of Monmouth, in 1685.

Surface, Maizes, Soil, Isfc. — The fea-coaft of Somerfet-
fhire is very irregular, in fome places projefting into lofty
and rocky promontories, and in others receding into fine
bays, with flat and level fhores. From Stert-Point north-
ward the coaft is flat, and compofed of vafl fand-banks
repeUing the inundation of the fea, which, in ancient times,
waftied over thefe fhoals, and flowed up into the country,
covering with its waters that extenfive trad of land, now
called Brent-Marfli. The fea, after its general retirement,
however, frequently overflowed thefe parts ; and it was
found necefiary, for the fecurity of the country, to eilabli(h
a commiffion of fewers, the members of which were required
to examine the fea-banks, ditches, gutters, and fewers, con-
neded with the fea, and order the rcqnifite cleanfings and
reparations. The firft commifiion of this kind upon record,
was in 1304 ; and fimilar offices are extended to this day.
For fertihty of foil and general produce, this county ftaiids
eminently high in reputation. The plains are remarkable
for their luxuriant herbage, which furnifhes not only a fuf-

ficiency for home confumptton, but alfo a confiderable fur-
plus for other markets. London, Brillol, Sahfbury, and
other cities and towns of the kingdom, are annually fup-
plied from Somerfetfliire, with fat oxen, flieep, and hogs,
together with cyder, cheefe, butter, and many other articles
in great abundance. Nor are the hills deficient in arable
produftions ; yet the vicinity of the Bnltol Channel, which
fills the air with watery vapours unfavourable to the ripen-
ing of corn, particularly in the weftern parts, induces a pre-
ference of grazing and dairy hufbandry ; and, in con-
fequence, vaft quantities of grain are purchafed from the
adjacent counties of Wilts and Dorfet, to the amount of
at leall one hundred thoufand quarters annually. The fur-
face of the inland parts is varied by lofty hills, rich level
plains, and afpiring woods. The principal hills are the
Quantock, between Taunton and the Brillol Channel ;
Brendon, near Quantock; Poulden, near Bridgewater;
Mendip, between Frome and the coaft ; Broadfield-Down,
between Brillol and Wrington ; Leigh-Down, in the
hundred of Portherry ; Dundry, near Briftol ; Lanfdown,
near Bath ; White-Down, near Chard ; and Black-Down»
on the borders of Devonfliire. The refpeftive foils of thefe
may be thus Hated : Quantock, a thin variable foil, covering
a loofe flielly rock, interlperfed with occafional limeftone ;
Poulden, a ilrong lurface, covering a bed of clay or marie ;
Mendip, Broadfield, and Leigh-Down, a gravelly loam on
a limeftone rock ; Lanldown, a thin foil on a freeitone
grit ; White-Down, variable ; Black-Down, a thin furface
of black earth on a bed of fand or gravel. Almoft every
fpecies of foil (chalk excepted, of which there is only a
fmall portion in tiie eaftern divifion) may be found in
different parts of the county, and of a quality highly
fertile and produftive.

Fore/Is and Moors. — The ancient forefts of Somerfetfhire
were, Selwood, near Frome ; Mendip, between Frome and
the Briftol Channel ; Exmoor, between the port of Watchet
and the north-weft part of Devonfhire ; but moft of thefe
formerly wooded trafts of country are now deprived of
their ancient timber-trees, and inclofed. The principal
moorsare. King' s-Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater; Eaft-Sedge-
moor, between Wells and Glaftonbiiry ; Weft-Sedgemoor,
between Taunton and Langport ; North-moor and Stan-
moor, near the ifle of Athelney ; Common-moor, near
Langport ; Weft-moor, Curry and Hay-moor, near North-
Curr)' ; King's-moor, between Ilcheller and Somerton ; Ile-
moor, on the river Ivel ; Brent-Marfh, on the rivers Brue
and Ax ; Wefton-moor, near Uphill ; Banwell and Smeath-
moors, near Churchill ; Kenn-moor, near Yatton ; Nailfea-
moor, north of Kenn ; Clapton-moor, between Clapton
and Wirton. Of thefe, many have been inclofed, drained,
and improved within the courle of the laft forty years.

Minerals, &c. — This county produces lead, copper, iron,
lapis calaminaris, manganefe, coal, hmeftone, paving-ftone,
tiling-ftone, freeftone, fuUers'-earth, marie, and ochre.
The Mendip hills are noted for their mines, particularly of
lead and lapis calaminaris. The former feem nearly ex-
haufted, or at leaft the deep working is fo incumbered with
water, that little can be done, and in all probability millions
in value may remain concealed in the bowels of this moun-
tain. In times paft many thoufand pounds have been
paid to the fee of Wells for the lord's fhare (that is one-
tenth) of the lead dug on the foreft within the parifh of
Wells only.

Coal is abundant in the north-eaftern part of the county.
In the northern collieries, the ftrata of coal form an inclina-
tion in the plane of about nine inches in the yard. In thick-
nefs, it varies from ten inches to upwards «f three feet ; if

lef«

SOMERSETSHIRE.

tefs tlian fifteen inches they are feldom worked. Coal is
now working generally from feventy to eighty fathom in
depth : in a few places deeper ; and by the late introdudlion
of machinery to raife it by the Iteam-engine, a much greater
depth of working will be obtained. The coal is of prime
quality ; pure and durable in burning ; firm, large, and of
a ftrong grain ; which enfures its conveyance to almoft any
diltance, without injury to its appearance or quality, which
cannot be exceeded in any part of the kingdom. Bath is
the principal market for fale and place of confumption ; to
which may be added, the wefter;i parts of V/iltfhire, and
the next adjacent parts of Somerfetrtiire. The quantity
raifed is from fifteen hundred to two thoufand tons weekly :
a much greater can be fupplied, if an increafed demand're-
quires it. Men and boys, to the number of fifteen h\mdred,
are employed in the workings, with wafjes fuiliciently ade-
quate for a comfortable fubfiftence. The owners of the
freehold whence the coal is raifed generally receive an eierhth
of the grofs receipt of fale. The average price of coal is
five-pence ^i:r budiel at the pit, nine gallon meafure. The
collieries in the fouthern part of this dillrift are on a more
limited fcale : the ilrata of coal form an inclination of the
plane from eighteen to thirty inches in the yard ; in fome the
plane is annihilated, and the fhafts defccnd in a perpendicular
direftion. The fouth-weltern parts of Wiltihire, the northern
diltrift of Dorfetlhire, and tht; eail and fouthern parts of
Somerfeffhire, are the markets for confumption. The quan-
tity raifed is from eight hundred to a thoufand tons weekly,
and capable of extenfijn. Men and boys are employed to
the amount of from five to fix hundred. Average price
three-pence three farthings />cr bufhel. At Clapton, a vil-
lage to the north-weft of Leigh-Down, is a coal-work,
which pofleffes the advantage of a land level of forty-four
fathoms : about two hundred and forty bulhels are landed
daily. The beft coal is fold at three-pence halfpenny per
bufhel, and the fmall is (hipped at Portilhead for Wales,
where it is ufed for burning lime.

Rivers and Canals. — The principal rivers are the Avon,
Ax, Bruf, Parret, Yow, Cole, Chew, Tone, Frome, Ivel,
Ex, and Barl. Of thefc, four only are navigable. i)iz. the
Avon, from Batii to Bri(tol, i6 miles; the Brue, from the
Briltol Channel to Highbridge, two miles ; the Parret, from
Stert-Point to Langport, about 20 m\les ; and the Tone,
from Taunton to Boroughbridgc, eight miles. The chief
canals are, the Somerietfiiire coal canal, whicli has two
branches, one commencing at Paulton, the other at Rad-
ftock, and both communicating with that of the Kennet
and Avon ; the Dorfet and Somerfet canal, commencing
near Nettlebridge, and extending to Frome and thence to
the county of Dorfet ; the Ilchefter canal ; the Grand
Weltcrn canal, extending 35 miles from Taunton into Dor-
fetlhire. For a particular account of thefe, fee Canal, in
a former volume (jf this W(}rk.

Climate, &c. — Mr. Billinglley, who in the year 17*)^ drew
up a general view of the agriculture of this co\mty, divides
it into three diftrifts the north-eall, the middle, and tlie
fouth-welt. The firll comprehending the trad between the
ports of Uphill and Kingroad on the welt, and the towns
of Bath and Frome on the ealt ; the fccond embracing that
portion which is bounded by the Mendlp hills on the north,
Bridgewater-bay on the well, and the town of Chard on the
fouth ; the third occupying the remainder of the county.
The north-eaft diltrift being very irregular in furfacc, and
intermixed with lofty hills and rich'fertile plains, the climate
is in conleq\ience exceedingly varied. On the weftcrn fide,
including the hundred of Winter-Stoke and Portbury, the
foil is, for tlie moll part, a deep and rich mixture of clay

Vot. XXXIII.

and fand ; being originally a depofit by the fea, which, in
ancient times, flowed up a confiderable way into that part
of the country. Thefe moor-lands, as they are called, arc
fubjeft to frequent inundation ; and fometimes in rainy fea-
fons are covered with water for four or five fucceflive months.
The middle diltrift of the county, which is the largeft, pof-
felfes a climate, for the molt part, mild and temperate ; but
on fo varied a furface that uniformity of foil cannot be
ex petted.

The fouth-weft diltrift has nearly an equal portion of
rough mountainous country, and rich fertile (lopes and plains.
The climate, particularly of that part which is caUed the
Vale of Taunton-Dean, is peculiarly mild and ferene, and
the foil highly fertile and produftive : and the eye is agree-
ably reheved by a judicious mixture of arable and palture
lands. There are, however, certain parts north-welt of the
vale which are mountainous, and fubjeft to that mutability
of weather, and moilture of air, generally found on elevated
fituations.

Civil and Ecclejiajlical Diviftons. — Somerfetlhire is divided
into forty-three hundreds, and feven liberties. It contains
two cities, Bath and Wells, with a part of Briltol, feven
boroughs, twenty-two market-towns, one biihopric, three
archdeaconries, thirteen deaneries, and four hundred and
eighty-two parifhes. Of the three archdeaconries, that of
Bath contains two deaneries, Wells feven, and Taunton four.

Church Hijlory. — Although the inhabitants of this county,
as has been obferved, embraced Chrillianity in the feventh
century, the ecclefiaftical hiitory commences only with the
inftallation of Athelm, a monk of Glaftonbury, to the fee of
Wells, in the reign of Edward the Elder, in the early part of
the tenth century. During this reign, pope Formofus, for
fome unknown reafon, excommunicated the whole kingdom,
which continued under this ientence feven years, by which
feveral fees were vacant ; at length, the degraded monarch
called a fynod to confider the ftate of the church, and fent
archbilhop Plegmund to procure the removal of the interdift,
and have new bifhops confirmed. Having fucceeded in his
miflion, feven bifliops were confecrated in one day, among
whom wan Athelm, above-mentioned.

Political Economy. — Somerfetlhire is dated to contain
991,360 acres of land ; of which 330,000 are arable, 534,500
pafture, 126,860 of commons, heaths, woods, wattes, roads,
&c. The population, according to the return to parliament
ill the year 181 1, amounted to 303,180, of which 141,449
were males, 161,731 females; 23,732 families being Hated
to be employed in trade and nianufadtures, and 27,472
families chiefly in ai^riculture. The number of houfes were
54,787. The rcprefentatives in parliament are, for the coun-
ty, two ; Bath, two ; Bridgewater, two ; Ilcheller, two ;
Melborne-Port, two ; Minehead, two ; Taunton, two ;
Wells, two: in the whole fixteen members. The county is
included in the wedern circuit ; it is in the province of Can-
terbury ; and in the diocefe of Bath and Wells. — "The Hif-
tory and Antiquities of the County of Somerfet," by Edm.
Rack and the Rev. John Collinfon, 3 vols. 410. 1791.
" General View of the Agriculture of the County of So-
merfet, by John Biilingfley, cfq." 8vo. 1798.

SOMERSHAM, a conliderablc village and parifli in tlir
hundred of Hiirftingtonc, aiiil county of Huntingdon,
England, is fituated 6 miles dillaiit from St. Ives, and 6S
miles N. from London. It principally confiftsof one llrcct,
about three-quarters of a mile in length from E. to W.;
with a fecond, but much diorter llreet, eroding the former
at right angles. The ci'urch i« a fpacious drudure, and
conlilis of a nave, chancel, and aides, with afubttantial Qjn-
battled tower at tlie weft end. Near the church-yard ii a
U 11 iVof

S O M

free fchool, with a large fchool-houfe recently built, 54 feet
in length. The rich reftory of Somer(ham is annexed to
the Regius profefforfhip of divinity at Cambridge, and now
held by the venerable bilhop of Llandaff. Weever fays,
« William Weller (or Wolfere), parfon ef Somerrtiam, was
mafter of the rolls, ferving Edward III. in the chancery,
fortie years and more." The bifhops of Ely had formerly
a palace here : the fcite is now partly built on ; but the ad-
jacent grounds (till retain veftiges of their ancient appropria-
tion. The population of Somei(ham, accordmg to the re-
turn to parliament in the year 181 1, was 1032 ; the number
of houfes IJ2. A mineral fprintf was difcovcred here by
the late Dr. Lavard, who publifhed a fmall treatife concern-
ing it in 1759, and whofe experiments, with thofe of Dr.
Morris, on its waters, were printed in the fifty-tixth volume
of the Philofophical Tranfaftions : its virtues are now but
little noticed.

About the year 1731, near the road leading from Somer-
(ham to Chatteris, in a piece of fen-land belonging to Wil-
liam Thompfon, efq. the plough turned up and broke a fmall
urn, containing feveral Roman coins : and Mr. Thompfon
and the Rev. Mr. Ramfey, digging near the fpot, found
another, which contained about fixty coins, moftly copper,
and of the late emperors. Camden's Britannia, by Gough,
vol. ii. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. by E. W.
Brayley.

SOMERSWORTH, a townftip of America, in
Strafford county, New Hampfhire, taken from Dover, and
incorporated in 1754, containing 878 inhabitants.

SOMERTON, a fmall market-town in the hundred of
the fame name, Somerfetfhire, England, is fituated near the
centre of the county, to which it i^ faid to have originally
given name, and is 125 miles W.S.W. from London. So-
merton is faid to have been a Roman citadel : but we have
no authentic account of it previous to the Heptarchy, when
it appears to have been a town of confiderablc extent, and
ttrongly fortified. It was at one time a royal reiidence.
Ina, and feveral other Weft Saxon kings, held their courts
here. In the year 877 it was plundered and laid wafte by
the Danes, under the conduft of Inguar and Ubba ; but
was rebuilt, and recovered its importance, both for popu-
lation and Itrength. John, king of France, was confined
in the callle of Somerton, after his removal from that of
Hertford. In the time of Leland this caftle was converted
into a prifon : a part of the town-wall and a round tower
(till remain, but in a very ruinous condition. The town
now confills principally nf five ilreets : it is governed by a
bailiff and conttables, elefted annually by the inhabitants : a
weekly market is held on Tuefdays, and four fairs annually.
The church is an ancient ftru£ture, confilting of a nave,
chancel, and fide-ailles : at the fouth end is an octangular
embattled tower, 63 feet high. Near the church is an ex-
cellent free-fchool ; and a well-endowed alms-houfe for eiglit
poor women. In the centre of the town is a hall for hold-
ing the petty feflions. Adjoining to the town is the tything
of Lower Somerton, or Somerton Erleigh ; and about a
mile eaftward is the tything of Hurco : both are included
in the parifh ; which, according to the population return of
the year 181 1, contained 338 houfes, and 1478 inhabitants.
Colhnfon's Hiftory of Somerfetfhire, vol. iii.

SOMERVILLE, William, in Biography, fon of
Robert Somerville, was born at his father's houfe at Ed-
iton, in Warwickfiiirf. He was educated at Winchetter
fchool, from which he was elefted to New college, Oxford.
Here he made a good proficiency in claffical literature, and
cultivated a talent for poetry. His firft piece, as far as is
known to the public, was an ode to the duke of Marlbo-

S O M

rough, on his difmiflion from his pofts in 1710. He was
llrongly attached to the Whig party ; and when Addifon
purchafed an eltate in Warwickfhire, Somerville addreffed a
poem to him, which includ'-s the following couplet, alluding
to the papers in the feveral volumes of the Spectator, to
which are annexed the letters C, L, I, O.

" When panting virtue her laft efforts made
You brought your Clio to the Virgin's aid."

Mr. Somerville inherited a confiderable paternal eftate, on
which he chiefly lived, afting as a magiftrate, and purfuing
with vigour the amufements of a fportfman, varied by the
ttudies of a man of letters. He was courteous and hof-
pitable, but too much addifted to conviviality, and carelefs
of economy. His mode of living threw him into embar-
raffments, which fo preyed on bis mind, that for the fake
of relief, he fell into habits that (hortened his life. Ho died
in 1742, which Shenftone thus notices to a friend and cor-
refpondent.

" Our old friend Somerville is dead ! I did not imagine I
could have been fo forry as I find myfelf on this occafion.
I can excufe all his foibles, impute them to age and to dif-
trefs of circumftances: the laft of thefe confiderations wrings
my very foul to think on. For a man of high fpirit, con-
fcious of having, at leaft in one production, generally pleafed
the world, to be plagued and threatened by wretches that
are low in every fenle ; to be forced to drink himfelf into
pains of body, in order to get rid of pains of the mind, is
a mifery."

Somerville is chiefly known, as a poet, by his piece enti-
tled " The Chace," which is written in blank verfe, and which
maintains a high rank in the didactic and defcriptive clafs.
It has the advantage of being compofed by one who was
perfedtly acquainted with the fports which are its fubjeft,
and who entered into them with all the enthufiafm which
they are calculated to infpire ; hence his pictures, in exait-
nefs and animation, greatly excel the draughts of the fame
kind, attempted by poets by profeffion. Its language is
free and nervous, and its verfification generally denotes a nice
and praCtifed ear. He has another piece connefted with this
in fubjeft ; it is entitled " Field Sports," though it only de-
fcribes that of hawking. His " Hobbinol, or Rural
Games," is a kind of mock heroic, in which the burlefque
is managed with tolerable fuccefs. Of his other pieces,
ferious and comic, there are few that can be faid to add to
his fame ; but they make a part of the coUeftion of Britifh
Poets.

SOMEVOIRE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Upper Marne ; 15 miles S. of St.
Dizier.

SOMGHETIA, a province in the principality of Geor-
gia, W. of Tefiis.

SOMINO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra, on the Niger.
N. lat. 13° II'. W. long. 4° 48'.

SOMLYO, a town of Hungary ; 29 miles S. of
Zatmar.

SOMMA, a town of Naples, in Lavora, near which are
annually produced between 7000 and 8000 pounds of filk
of the beft quahty ; 10 miles E. of Naples. — Alfo, a town
of Italy, in the department of the Olona ; 24 miles N.W.
of Milan, — Alfo, a town of the Popedom, in Umbria ; 4
miles S. of Spoleto.

SOMMARIVA del Bofco, a town of France, in the
department of the Tanaro ; 5 miles S.E. of Carmagnola.

SoMMARiv.'V di Perao, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Tanaro; 7 miles E.S.E. of Carmagnola.

SOMMARNAS,

S O M

S O M

SOMMARNAS, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Tavaltland ; 35 miles S.S.W. of Tavalthus.

SOMME, a river of France, which rifes near Fon-
fomme, in the department of the Aifne, paffes by or near
to St. Quentin, Ham, Peronne, Bray, Corbie, Amiens,
Pequijjny, Abbeville, St. Valery, &c. and runs into the
Englifti Channel, about 5 miles AV.N.W. of St. Valery.

SoMME, one of the eleven departments of the northern
region of France, compofed of Amienois, Ponthieu, Vi-
meux, and Santerre, between Calais and Oile, in N. lat.
49° 45', and bounded on the N. by the department of the
Straits of Calais, on the E. by the department of the
Aifne, on the S. by the department of the Oife, and on the
W. by that of the Lower Seine, and the Englifli Channel.
Its territorial extent is 65125 kiliometrcs, or in French
leagues 34 in length, and 16 in breadth. It is divided into
5 circles or dillricts, 41 cantons, and 848 communes. The
circles are Abbeville, containing 1 14,060 inhabitants ; Doul-
lans, with 45,627 ; Peronne, with 91,470 ; Montdidier,
with 62,668 ; and Amiens, with 151,209 inhabitants: the
whole population being 465,034. According to M. Haf-
fenfratz, it is divided into 5 circles and 72 cantons ; and
its population confiits of 381,760 perfons. The capital is
Amiens. In the year 1 1 of the French era, the amount of
its contributions was 5,650,664 fr., and its expences and
charges 395,027 fr. 69 cents. This department is fertile
in grain, fruits, hemp, flax, and pallures, and has fome
forefts.

SOMMEIL, in French Mufic, an invocation to fleep ;
an old French movement of the lullaby kind, rHUch in fa-
vour during the time of Merfennus ; and continued in ufe,
according to Blainville, in the reign of Louis XIV., when
operas were firft attempted at Paris.

SOMME RD A, or Sommern, in Geography, a town of
Saxony, in the territory of Erfurt ; 1 1 miles N.N.E. of
Erfurt.

SOMMERDYCK, or Sommelsdyke, or Zomerdych, a
town of Holland, and chief town of the ifland of Over-
fiakee ; 2C miles W.S.W. of Dort.

SOMMEREUX, a town of France, in the department
of the Oife; 3 miles N.E. of Grandvilliers.

SOMMERFELD, a town of the New Mark of Bran-
denburg ; 15 miles S. of CrofTen.

SOMMERGEM. SeeSoMEROEM.

SOMME RO, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Finland. N.
lat. eo'' 8'. E. long. 24° 36'.

SOMMERSET. See Somerset.

SOMMERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
lordfhip of Speckfeld, on tlie Maine ; 4 miles S. of Wurz-
burg. N. lat 49° 45'.' E. long. 10° ?'.

SOMMIER, Fr. the wind-cheft, or found-board of an
organ. Sec Sound-board.

SOMMIERES, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftriA, in the department of the
Gard ; 1 2 miles S.W. of Nifmes. N. lat. 43° 47'. E. long.
4° 1 1'.

SOMMITE, in Minernlogy, Nepheliiie, Haiiy, a mineral
which occun. in fmall cryltals and cryllalline grains, in the
lava on the fides of mount Soinma, a part of Vefuvius. The
form of the cryftal is a fix-fided prifm ; the colour is greyilh
or greenifh-vThite : the angles are fufiiciently hard to fcratch
glafs. The cryftais are lankllar on the faces of the prifm,
but conchoidal, with a vitreous lulhe, in the diredtioii perpen-
dicular to the axis of the cryltal. It melts with difficulty
before the blow-pipe, into a tranfparent homogentoufi glafs.

Its fpecific gravity is 3.3. According to Vauquelin, fom.
mite contains

46

49
2
I

Silex . . _

Alumine

Lime ...

Oxyd of iron

This mineral covers the cavities of lava, and is accom-
panied with hornblende, mica, and vefuvian.

SOMNAMBULISM, in Medicine, horn fomnus, Jleep,
and amhulo, I lualk ; fometimes alfo called noHambulifm, or
night- ■waliing ; is a fingular condition of the body, in which
a perfon performs many voluntary aftions, implying a certain
degree of perception of the prefence of external objefts,
but without confcioufnefs while the aftions are performed,
and without recoUeAion of them when the confcioufnefs
returns.

This affeftion, as its name implies, is commonly confidered
as an imperfeft degree of fleep ; as it moll frequently occurs
after fleep, and feemsto be but a more aftive exertion of vo-
lition than that which takes place in imperfeft fleep, when
we move, and even talk, and fupport ourfelvcs in different
poftures. " There are many cafes," fays Mr. Stewart,
" in which fleep feems to be partial ; that is, when the mind
lofes its influence over fome powers, and retains it over
others. In the cafe of the fomnambuli, it retains its power
over the limbs, but it pofleffes no influence over its own
thoughts, and fcarcely any over the body ; excepting thofe
particular members of it which are employed in walking."
(See his Elements of ihf Philofophy of the Human Mind,
chap. 5, part i. ij 5.) The fubjeft is very obfcure, in con-
fequence perhaps of the rarity of thefe cafes, which have
not been fufficiently examined, fince the phyfiology of the
mind was rationally invefl;igated. Dr. Cleghorn, however,
in his excellent thcfis " De Somno" (Edin. 1783),
pointed out fome circumltances which diftinguifli this con-
dition from fleep ; and Dr. Darwin has more recently con-
fidered it as belonging to reverie, and not to fleep, or as ap-
proximating rather to epilepfy or catalepfy, than to mere
dreaming, or night-mare, to which it has alfo been referred.

Some of the molt remarkable and beft authenticated
cafes of fomnambulifm on record fcem to favour this view of
the fubjeft. The older authors, Horll, Scnnert, Schcnck,
Henry ab Heers, Willis, and many others, have related cafes
of fomnambulifm, in which various aftions were uncon-
fcioufly performed, fuch as opening doors and windows,
croffing bridges, even walking on the tops of houf'es, and
up precipitous paths, climbing to take a rook's neft, and
various other feats. It is faid, that if any fenfation is excited
fufficiently llrong to awaken the fomnambuli, they experience
great furprize and terror, fometimes fall in fyncope, and
have no recolleftion of what has pafied during the paroxyfm.
The eflence of tlie difeafe, however, as Dr. Darwin obferves,
feems to " confill in the inaptitude of the mind to attend to
external llimuli ;" and they are not eafily awakened. One
of the cafes mofl fully invcfligated, and reported to the
Phyfical Society of I.,aufanne, while it exhibits the pecu-
liarities of the malady, fecins to prove that a flight and brief
imprcflion is aftually made upon the feiifes, which excites
afterwards fo powerful a conception, or is fo ftrongly fixed
in the imagmatinn, that the volition continues to dircft the
aftioiis as accurately as if the imprenions on the fcnfes were
rejieated ; whiili is alfo the charader of reverie.

Tlie fomnambulill, in the cafe alluded to, was a lad thir-
teen years and a half old, of a good coiiilitution, but of
great ieiifibility and irritability, and very variable fpirits.
U u 2 His

SOMNAMBULISM.

His proceedings were watched by a committee of gentle-
men, who reported the refult to the fociety above-mentioned.
His fleep was at all times unquiet, but the walking did not
occur every night ; fomrtimes feveral weeks pall, during
which he was free from it. The paroxyfm commonly be-
gan about three er four o'clock in the morning, and the
longeft of them lafted from three to four hours. It was
preceded by motions in every part of the body, with dart-
ing and palpitations : he then uttered broken words, and
fometimes fat up in his bed, and afterwards lay down again.
Then he began to pronounce words more diftindtiy, rofe
abruptly, and aSted according to the inftigation of his ima-
gination. When he came out of the paroxyfm, he did not
recoiled any of the aftions he had been performing. It was
dangerous, however, to awaken him during the continuance
of it, efpecially if it were done fuddenly ; for he fometimes
fell into convulfions. " Having rifen one night with the in-
tention of going to eat grapes, he left the Iioufe, pafled
through the town, and went to a vineyard, where he expect-
ed good cheer. He was followed by feveral pcrfons, who
kept at fome diftance from him, one of whom fired a piftol,
the noife of which inflantly awakened him, and he fell down
without fenfe. He was carried home and brought to him-
felf, when he recoUefted very well having been awakened
in the vineyard, but notliing more, except the fright at
being found in the vineyard alone, which had made him
fwoon."

The following ftatements fhew how the impreffions of ex-
ternal objefts on the fenfes mingled with his reverie, as in
the cafe of ordinary dreams. See Dreams.

" Once he was obferved drefiing himfelf in perfeft dark-
nefs. His clothes were on a large table, mixed with thofe
<if fome other perfons ; he immediately perceived thif, and
complained of it much : at laft a fmall light was brought,
and then he drefled himfelf with fuf5cient precifion. While
his imagination was employed on various fubjeAs, he heard a
clock ftrike, which repeated at every ftroke the note of the
cuckoo. ' There are cuckoos here,' faid he ; and, upon
being defired, he imitated the fong of that bird imme-
diately." Again, the reporters fay, " If he is teazed, or
gently pinched, he is always fenfible of it (unlefs he is at
the time ftrongly impreded with fome other thing), and widies
to ftrike the offender : however, he never attacks the perfon
who has done the ill, but an ideal being, whom his imagina-
tion prefents to him, and whom he purfues through the
chamber without running againll the furniture, nor can the
perfons whom he meets in his way divert him from the
purfuit."

Other fafts, which the reporters record, irrprefTed them
with a belief that the deep-walker wa? capable of receiving
certain impreffions through the medium ot the fenfes, when
they accorded with the images which his imagination was oc-
cupied in forming ; but that this faculty was predominant,
and only admitted thofe perceptions which, on the princi-
ples of aliociation, m.ingled with the reverie. They interred,
too, that he was obliged to open his eyes, in order to recog-
nize objefls ; but that the impreffion, once made, although
rapidly, was vivid enough to fuperfede the neceffity of open-
ing them again ; that is, the fame objefls appeared to be
afterwards reprefented by the conceptionii of his imagination,
with as much force and precifion, as if he aftually fawthem.
In the effort to open his eyes, however, when he wifhed to
fee an objeft, he could fcarcely raife them a line or two,
by drawing up his brows ; and the iris appeared fixed,
and the eye dim. He made this effort whenever any thing
was prefeuted to him, and he was told of it, always half

6

opening his eyes with great difficulty, and then fhutting
them after he had taken what was offered.

" Having engaged him to write a tiieme," the committee
obferve, " we iaw him light a candle, take pen, ink, and
paper from the drawer of his table, and begin to write,
while his maftcr diftated. As he was writing, we put a
thick paper before his eyes, notwithftanding wiiich he con-
tinued to write, and to form his letters very diflintlly ;
fliewing figns, however, that fomething incommoded him,
which apparently proceeded from the obftruftion which the
paper gave to his refpiration, being held too near his
nofe."

" An experiment was made by changing the place of the
ink-ftandifh, while Devaud was writing. He had a light be-
fide him, and had certified himfelf of the place where his
inkholder was Handing by means of fight. From that time he
continued to take ink with precifion, without being oblio-ed
to open his eyes again : but the ink-ltandifh being removed,
his hand returned as ufual to the place where he thought it
was. It mud be obferved, that the motion of his hand was
rapid, till it reached the height of the ftandifli, and then he
moved it (lowly, till the pen gently touched tiie table, as he
was feekisg for the ink. He then perceived that a trick
had been put upon him, and complained of it : he went in
fearch of his ink-ftandifh, and put it in its place."

This experiment, they af&rm, was feveral times repeated,
and was always attended with the fame circumllances.
And they put the following queftions refpefting tiie infer-
ences to be drawn from it. " Does not what we have here
ftated prove, that the ftandifti, the paper, the table, &c.
are painted on his imagination in as lively a manner as if he
really faw them ; fince he fought the real ftanuifh in the place
where his imagination told him it ought to have been ? Does
it not prove that the fame lively imagination is the caufe of
tliemoft fingular aftions of this fleep-walker ? And, laflly,
does it not prove that a mere glance of his eye is fufficient to
make his imprcfiions as lively as durable ?"

Thcfe conclufions appear to be legitimate ; and the facts
feem to flicw how much more completely this condition of
the fomnambulift is allied to reverie, than lojleep, though com-
monly commencing from the latter. From the flighted de-
gree of abfence, or hroiun ftudy, as it is popularly called,
in which the conceptions of the imagination, upon fubjedls
that intereft the individual, are fa vivid as to exclude for a
time the perceptions excited by furrounding objeAs, up to
this complete fomnanibulifm, various degrees of the abftrac-
tion from external impreffions may be traced. Moil perfons,
perhaps, have been fenfible, at times, when any fubjeft of
fevere ftudy, or any great gratification, anxiety, or diflrefs
ftrongly occupied their minds, how great the difpofition to
this abftraftion has been. If engaged in reading, they have
purlued every line with the eye, turned over leaf after leaf, and
at length awoke from the reverie which had occupied the ima-
gination, and found that not the fmalleft imprefiion had been
made on the mindbv the pages which the eye liad periifed,and
the hand had turned over. If walking in a crowded ftreet,
they have probably proceeded fome way under the influence
of reverie, moving the limbs as ufual, direfling the walk-
ing-flick, and performing other unconfcious but voluntary
a£ls, winding fafely among the paffing people, avoiding the
pofts and other obftacles, but fo exclufivcly occupied by
the conceptions of the mind, as to be totally infenfible of all
thefe aftions of their own volition, and of the objefts
which they have paffed, and which neceffarily imprefs their
fenfes fo as to regulate thofe afts. From this ftate of the
faculties in reverie, which we have fo often experienced in our-

fclves.

S O M

SON

feWes, and obferved in others, as to fuppofe that the truth of
the forecfoing itatement will be readily admitted, that condi-
tion ol thenn which conftitutes fomnambulifm feems to differ
principally in two circumftaticcs, viz. in commencing
commonly in a difhirbcd fleep, and in requiring a ftronger
impn-flion upon the feiifes to break the chain of mental
conception ; fo that the lighter impreffions only mingle
with and modify the conceptions, according to the prin-
ciple of aflociation. The following ftngular example of the
fomnam.buhllic reverie is well authenticated, and is related
of an amiable and diftinguilhed poet. We quote it from
the life of that writer in Anderfon's edition of the poets,
vol. xi.

" Dr. Blacklock, one day, haraffed by the cenfures of
the populace, whereby not only his reputation, but his very
fubfiftence was endangered, and fatigued with mental exer-
tion, fell afleep after dinner. Some hours after, he was
vifited by a friend, anfwered his falutation, rofe, and went
with him into the dining-room, where fome of his compa-
nions were met. He joined with two of them in a concert,
finging, as ufual, with tafte and elegance, without miffing
a note, or forgetting a word. He then went to fupper, and
drank a glafs or two of wine. His triendp, however, ob-
ferved him to be a little abfent and inattentive : by and by he
began to fpeak to himfelf, hut m io flow and confufed a
manner, as to be unintelligible. At laft, being more
forcibly roufed, he awoke with a certain Itart, unconfcious
of all that had happened ; as till then he had continued fait
afleep."

Thofe who wifli to inveftigate this curious fubjeft farther,
may confult the old writers mentioned in the beginning of
this article ; alfo Hoffmann's Diflertatio de Somnambulifmo,
in the third volume of the fupplcment to his works ; the
French Encyclopedie, article Somnambulifme ; Darwin's
Zoonomia, vol. i. fedl. xix ; Cleghorn de Somno, &c.

SOMNER, William, in Biography, an able antiquary,
was born at Canterbury in the year 1606. He received a
good common education, after which he was taken as clerk
by his father, who was regiller of the court of Canterbury.
He was afterwards promoted by archbifliop Laud to an office
in the ecclefialtical court of that diocefe, which naturally
engaged him in the Itudy of national antiquities. To pur-
fue this to advantage, he applied with great diligence to the
Saxon tongue, and having made himfelf mailer of that lan-
guage, he drew up copious notes, and a gloffary, to fir Roger
Twilden's publication of the laws of Henry I. The anti-
quities of his own country engaged his particular attention,
and he compofed " A Treatife of the Roman Polls and Forts
in Kent," left by himfelf in MS. but which was printed at
Oxford in 1693; and "A Treatife on Gavelkind," completed
in 1647, and publiflied in 1660. He alfo wrote " A Dif-
courfe of Portus Iccius," which was afterwards tranflated
into Latin by bifliop Gibfon, and publiflied with fome other
trafts. Having Itudicd all the kindred dialctts to the
Saxon, he wrote obfervations on fome old German words,
collcftcd by Lipfiu;., which were publilhcd by Meric Ca-
faubon, and he drew up the Gloflary annexed to the ten
writers of Englifli hiftory, publiflied by Twifden. This
gloilary being a key to reclufe and antiquated words, im-
proved whatever of ihis nature had been done before. It is,
indeed, a work of that extent as may ferve as a key to all
other hilloriana, and Vo all records : " neverthelefs," lays the
writer of the life in the Biographia Britannica, " it might be
greatly improved from our author's fubfequcnt collections,
which remain in the archives of Canterbury ; from .lunius's
" Etymologiciim Anglicanum ;" and from Dr. Wilkin's
Gloilary, at the end of his edition of the Saxon laws. Mr.

Somner aflifled Dugdale in compihng the " Monafticon."
In 1 659 he publiflied a Saxon diftionary, in folio, which has
been llyled the true and lafling monument of his praife ; a
work of incredible labour to himfelf, and of fingular benefit
to the world. The previous afliflaiice of the like kind which
came into Mr. Somner's hands were, i. .(Elfric's Gloflary,
tranfcribed by Fr. Junius, from a very ancient copy in the
library of fir Peter Paul Rubens, of Bruffels ; 2. The
two ancient glolFaries in the Cotton library ; 3. Nowell's
Saxon Vocabulary ; 4. Joceline's Colledtions. From thcfe
and fome other Saxon books then extant, Mr. Somner made
immenfe collections, in two large volumes, for the compiling
his diftionary. When it was finiflicd, he fent it to Oxford,
where it was printed, and it came out in the year already
mentioned. During the compofition of this diftionary, he
was chiefly fupported by the laiary fettled on the Saxon lec-
ture, founded by fir Henry Spelman. Somner being a zea-
lous royalilt, he was arrelled and imprifoned on account of
the Kentifli petition for a free parliament, in the fame year
that his dictionary was publiflied ; but was liberated on the
rclloration, and promoted to the maiterfliip of St. .John's
hofpital, in Canterbury. He died in 1669, and Ins books
and manufcripts were purchafcd by the dean and chapter of
Canterbury, and depofited in the cathedral library. Biog.
Brit.

SOMNIFEROUS. See Soporiperous.

SOMNOLENTUM Com.4. See Coma.

SOMNUS, in Mythology. See Sleep.

SOMORROSTROW, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the province of Bifcay, fituatcd on a bay of the Atlantic ;
which, according to the opinion of baron Dillon, has all the
appearance of b'.'ing alluvial. Some of the workmen, as he
fays, aflured him that they have often found broken pieces
of pick-axes, mattocks, and other inltruments, in places that
had been worked centuries ago, and are now replete with new
ore. Hence he infers that the mine increafcs. The ore is laid
to form an uninterrupted llratum, wliofe thicknefs varies
from three to ten feet, and is covered with a coat of whitifll
calcareous rock, from two to fix feet thick. Everyone is
at liberty to dig at pleafurc, and tranfport it by land or
water, without being fubjeft to duties or any formalities.
It is generally allowed, that no iron in Europe is fo eafy to
fufe, or fo foft, as that of Somorroflrow. When the ore is
firlt taken out of this mine, it has the colour of bull's
blood ; and when wetted becomes purple. Great quantities
are carried away by water to the neighbouring provinces,
where they fufe it by itfelf, or mix it with ore of their own,
which generally yields a harder iron. According to appear-
ance, a quintal of ore will produce about 35 lbs. of good
iron, and the refidiic about 30 lbs. of flag and dead earth.
13 miles N.W. of Bilbao. N. lat. 43° 19'. W. long.

3°7'-

SOMOSIERRA, a town of Spain, in New Cattilc ;
8 miles N. of Buytrago.

SOMOVNIA, a town of European Turkey, in Bul-
garia ; 10 miles W. of Nicopoli.

SOMPIL, a town of Thibet; 45 miles E.S.E. of Pa.

SOMPUINS, or SoMPY, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the
didridt of Vitry-fur-Marnc ; l 8 miles N.W. of Monehould.
The place contains 645, and the canton 4745 inhabitants, on
a territory of 3><2t, kiliomctrcs, in 16 communes.

SOMSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erz-
gebirg ; 10 miles S. of Frcyberg.

SON, a relative term, applied to a male child, confidered
in the relation he bears to his parents. See Ciiii.p and
Pauent.

The

SON

The children of the king of England are called fans and
daughters of England. The eldeft fon is born duke of Corn-
wall, and created prince of Wales. The younger fons are
called cadets.

The king of France's children were anciently called Jils
wA files de France, fons and daughters of France; and the
grand-children, pet its Jils and petits files de France. At a
later period, the daughters were called mefdames ; and the
grand-daughters mefdemoifelles de France.

Son, Natural. See Bastard.

Son, Adbptive. See Adoptive.

Son of God, is a term ufed in various fenfes in the holy
fcripture, a-, i. For Jefus Chrift, or the Saviour of man-
kind ; who is thus called, as fome fay, with refpeft to the
manner of his generation, as being begotten of the Father.

This feems to have been the opinion of Dr. Clark, in his
« Scripture Doftrine of the Trinity." Generation, fays
he, when apphed to God, is but a figurative word, fignify-
ing only, in general, immediate derivation of being and life
from God himfelf : and " only begotten" fignifies being fo
derived from the Father, in a Angular and inconceivable
manner, as thereby to be diftinguilhed from all other beings.
Among men, a fon does not, properly fpeaking, derive his
being from his father ; father, in this fenfe, fignifying
merely an inftrumental, not an efficient, caufe : but God,
when he is ilyled father, muft necelfarily be nnderftood to
be (ai7i») a true and proper caufe, really and efficiently
giving life. This confideration, he fays, clearly removes
the argument ufually drawn from the equality between a
father and fon upon earth. It is obfervable, as our author
proceeds, that St. John, in that paflage, where he not only
fpeaks of the Word before his incarnation, but carries his
account of him farther back than any other place in the
whole New Teftament, gives not the lead hint of the meta-
phyfical manner how he derived his being from the Father ;
does not lay, he was created, or emitted, or begotten, or
was an emanation from him, but only that he rjias, that he
was in the ieginnin^, that he -was -u>ith God, and that he was
(©!k;) partaker of divine power and glory with and from
the Father, not only before he was made fejh or became man,
but alfo before the world tuns. As the fcripture, fays Dr.
Clark, has no where diftinftly declared in what particular
metaphyfical manner the Son derives his being from the
Father, men ought not to prefume to be able to define.

Some fuppofe, that this title of " fon of God" belongs
to Clirilt, on account of his polfeffing the fame divine na-
ture with the Father. Accordingly bifhop Pearfon fays,
the communication of the divine eflence by the Father vi-as
the true and proper generation, by which he hath begotten
a foil. A fon is nothing but anotiier produced by his
father, of the fame nature with him. But God the Father
hath communicated to the Word the fame divine ciTence, by
which he is God ; and he fays, the Father hath the effence
or attributes of himfelf, and the Son by communication
from the Father. But Dr. Waterland denies any literal
generation of the fon at all ; for he fuppofes his being in
the Father, before he was generated, to be the firft and
moll proper fihation or generation ; which he allows to be
a mere co-exillence with the Father, and not any derivation
from him.

Whilft the Athanafians believed the Father and Son to
be of the fame fubllance, «'. e. of the fame generlcal fubltance,
as two men are of the fame fubilance ; and the Pfeudo-
Athanafians believed them to be of the fame identical na-
mertcal fubftance ; the Arians, who believed the divine
fubftance of the Father to be oii--nr7\oc, unbetfotten, and
aiajJC"') without beginning, concluded, that it was different

SON

from the fubftance of the Son, who was begotten, and had
a beginning. Moreover, as they believed the divine fub-
Itance of the Father to be indivifible and uncompounded,
they could not believe the Son to be generated in or from it,
in any literal fenfe, either as being compounded with it, or
divided from it ; and, therefore, they concluded, that the
generation of the Son was fgurative, and was not a parti-
cipation of fubltance, but a creation ; as the word creation
is frequently ufed in fcripture with regard to mankind.
They believed that Chrift was the only begotten Son of
God, becaufe he only was created by the immediate aft and
power of God himfelf, and that all other beings, the Holy
Ghoft not excepted, were created by Chrift ; in which they
agreed with Origen and Eufebius ; and, therefore, they called
him a creature, but not like other creatures ; but they be-
lieved that he was generated or created before all ages.

Sonfhip, fays Dr. Lardner, in his " Letter on the Lo-
gos," (Works, vol. X. vol. xi. ) is a term of nearnefs, dear-
nefs, and affeftion ; and Jefus is the Son of God, lit, upon
account of hi 5 miraculous conception and birth (Luke,i. 31 —
35); zdly, upon account of the efpecial commiflion gives
him by the Father, and the extraordinary qualifications be-
llowed upon him, in order to his fulfilling it (Matt. iii. 16.
Mark, i. ic. Luke, iii. 31,22. John, i. 32 — 34. iii. 34.
If. xi. 1 — 3. xhi. I — 4. Ixi. I — 3. and Matt. xii. 17.
Luke, iv. 1 8, 19.) ; 3dly, on account of his refurreftion from
the dead on the third day, to die no more ( Rom. i. 3, 4.
Heb. i.6.); 4thly, on accountof his exaltation to God's right
hand, and being inverted with authority and dominion over
all flefa, and conftituted judge of the world, by whom God
will pafs fentence upon all mankind (John, iii. 35. v. 21,
22. Heb. i. I, 2. iii. 5, 6.) ; 5thly, on account of the pour-
ing out of abundance of fpiritual gifts, though in different
degrees, upon his apoftles, and thofe who beheved in him
after his refurreftion (John, i. 32 — 34. Matt. iii. 1. Mark,
i. 8. Luke, iii. i6. John, vii. 37 — 39. Afts, xi. 15, 16.
i. 5. ii. I — 36. Gal. iv. 6. Eph. ix. 8 — 13.) Upon
all thefe accounts, and not only upon account of his mira-
culous conception and birth, is Jefus " the Son of God."
Our author fuggelts, that the paffages which he has cited
manifettly fhew, that it is in reipeft to his humanity, and
the dignity conferred upon it, that he has the title of the
Son of God. This learned author rejefts the opinion of
thofe who underftand by the " Son of God," an intelligent
being or emanation, begotten by the Father, or proceeding
from him, in an ineffable manner, from all eternity, and of
the fame effence or fubftance with the Father ; and alfo
of others, who underftand by this appellation a mighty
(pirit, or angel, begotten or formed by the will of the Fa-
ther, in time, before the creation of the world, and of a
different fubftance from the Father ; which fon of God, as
they fay, became incarnate, that is, united himfelf, either
to the hum.an natufe, confifting of foul and body, or to an
human body, fo as to fupply the place of a human foul.
Thefe fenfes of the title, as he fays, arc not to be found in
any of the books of the New Teftament. The Jews, ac-
cording to Whitby upon Rom. ix. 5. had no notion that
their Meffiah ffiould be any thing more than mere man.
See alfo Jortin's Difcourfcs concerning the Chriftian Re-
ligion, p. 17. In the gofpcls, as Dr. Lardner obferves,
this title of the " Son of God" is given to our Lord, by
many who took him to be a man fpccially favoured by
God. (Matt. xvi. 16. and the parallel places. John, vi,
69. John, i. 34. iii. 3^, 36. John, i. 49. xi. 27. Matt.
xiv. 33. Luke, iv. 41.) Our bleffed Lord likewife often
takes it to himfelf, either direftly orindireftly. (John, iii.
17,18, V. 25. ix. 35 — 37. X. 36. X!. 4.) IntheJewifh

ftyle.

SON

SON

ftylf, and the language of fcripture, all good men, and all
people who are in a covenant relation to God, are his fons,
and as fuch entitled to many privileges and blefTings ; bu^
Jefus, as the Meffiah, is " the Son of God," by way of
eminence and diftinftion, and has in all things the pre-
eminence. Accordingly, the Chrift, or the Mefliah, and
the " Son of God," are equivai^ jt in the New Teftament.
(Matt. xvi. 1 6. John, vi. 69. Mark, viii. 19. Luke,
ix. 20. ) And that, in the language of the Jews, the titles
of Meffiah ad Son of God are the fame, may be feen in
Matt. xxvi. 63. and Luke, xxii. 66. 70. John, i. ^4 — 49.

2. Several creatures are alfo called " fons of God," not
as being fo by nature and generation, but on divers other
accounts. Thus, the angels are called fons of God by
Job, in refpeft to their creation, adoption, &c. And
great men are called fons of God in the Pfalms, as being his
lieutenants, or the depofitories of his authority. Good
men, and particularly the eminently pious, as we have
clearly (hewn, are alfo called fons of God, in various places
of the facred writings.

Son of Man, is frequently ufed, in fcripture, to fignify
man ; as expreffing not only the nature of man, but his
frailty.

The expreffion is very iifaal among the Hebrews and
Chaldeans : Daniel, Ezekiel, and Jefus Chrilt, are par-
ticularly thus called ; the firll once, and the two latter fre-
quently.

Some think, that the " fon of man," when ufed by our
Saviour, denotes his high dignity, or a man of diftinftion
and eminence, and is equivalent to Meffiah, or the Chrift ;
and he thus intends to fignify, that he is the great perf<in
fpoken of by the prophets, who was to come for the benefit
of mankind. (See Dan. vii. 13, 14. Matt. xxvi. 63, 64.
Mark, xiv. 61, 62.) Againll this fenfe Dr. Lardner has
fuggefted fome exceptions : and he obferves, that man, and
fon of man, with the Hebrews, often denote a man of low
condition. fPf. xlix. i, 2. Pf. cxliv. 3.) Our Lord,
therefore, by this phrafe or charafter, might reprefent that
humbling of himfelf, which is fpoken of by the apoftle in
the fecond chapter to the Philippians, and is the lame with
what is faid in If. liii. 3. " he is dcfpifed, and rejefted of
men," or is one of the lowelt and meaneft of men. Our
Lord adopts this charafter in fpeaking of himfelf, in order
to undeceive the Jews, and correft their falfc opinion con-
cerning the kingdom of the Meffiah ; and to intimate, that
he was not to arrive at glory, and the lull poileffion of his
kingdom, but tiirough iufferings and humiliations. If fon
of man, then, be equivalent to Meffiah, it is not ufed, as
our author conceives, to denote his dignity, as the firft and
greateit of men, but rather to fignify his humble form and
low condition, in which he then lived ; and is expreffive of
the fcorn and contempt which were caft upon him, and in
which he acquicfced.

Dr. Lardner further intimates, agreeably to his own
opinion of the perfon of Chrilt, that he frequently makes
ufe of this expreffion to denote his real humanity, and
alfo that he was not made and created as Adam, but
was a man born even of a woman. He adds alfo, that
our Lord might afiume this charafter as a modeft way of
fpeaking. Eminent and diltinguifticd perfons, who have
many occafions to fpeak of thcmiclves, efpecially if it be to
their advantage, decline the too frequent ufe of the phrafes
/and me, and choofe to fpeak in the third perfon, as of
another, diftmft from themfclves. Works, vol. x.

Sometimes the phrafe fon of man is alfo ufed for the
wicked and reprobate ; in contradiftmftion to thoic called
fons of God.

Son, Fr., a muCcal found.
Son Fondamental. See Fundamental.
Son Fix, Fr., a fixed and unalterable found. To ac-
quire fuch a found, we muft be certain that it will be the
fame at all times, and in all places. To be lure of this,
it is not fufficient to have a pipe of a certain length or
diameter in the fixed placp ; for though the pipe may always
remain in the fame itate, the weight of the air will not al-
ways remain the fame : the found will become more grave
or acute, as the air becomes more denfe or rarefied. For
the fame reafon, the found of the fame pipe will change with
the column of the atmofphere, in proportion as this pipe
Ihall be carried high or low, in the mountains or in the
villages.

Secondly, this fame pipe, of whatever materials it is
made, will be fubjeft to the variations which heat and cold
occafion in all bodies. A pipe or ftring, if of metal, will
lengthen or fhorten ; and its tone will be higher or lower,
in proportion. If the pipe be of wood, it will fwcll or
ffirink, expand or contraft ; and from thefe caufes com-
bined, arifes the difficulty of acquiring a fixed tone, and
almoil the impoffibility of being fure of the fame found in
two places at the fame time, or twice in the fame place.

Son, or Sun-Plant, the crotalana juncea of Linnsus, in
Botany, is cultivated in every part of Hmdooftan with great
affiduity, and applied to various ufes. The feeds reduced
to powder, and mixed with oil, form a kind of unguent,
which the black ladies apply to their hair, in order to make
it grow. The bark of this plant furniflies all kinds of rope,
packing-cloths, nets, &c. ; and from thefe, when old, mod
of the paper in that country is prepared. For this purpofe
they cut them into fmall pieces, macerate them in water for
about five days, wafh them in water, and then throw them
into a vefl'el of water ftrongly impregnated with a lixivium
compoled of fix parts of fedgi mutti, which is an earth con-
taining a large portion of foffile alkali, and fuppofed to be
the natron of the ancients, and feven parts of quick-lime.
Here they remain eight or ten days, when they are again
wafhed, broken into fibres by a damping lever, and then
expofcd to the fun, and again lleepcd in a irefh lixivium, as
before. When they have undergone three operations of
this kind, they are fit tor making coarfe brown paper ; and
after feven or eight operations, they are prepared for making
paper of a tolerable whitenefs. For a farther account of
the procef', fee Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixiv. p. loi, where it is
minutely defcribed and illiiftrated by figures.

SONABARYA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 38
miles N.E. of Calcutta.

SONAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal; Smiles
S.S.E of Ghidore.

SONAN SuNDI, a town of Congo; 10 miles W. of
Cundi.

SONx\PURRA, a town of Hindooitan, in Bengal ;
26 miles E.S.E. of Kiflicnagur.

SONATA, Ital. from fuonare, to found, or play on an
iiillrument. Its ufe at prefent, in Mufic, is confined to
folos for a fingle inilrument : as Corelli's folos for the
violin. Martini's folos for the German flute ; and trios, or
compofitions in three parts, for two violins and a bate, &c.
But which, in the body of thefe works, are all called
fonatas.

In tlic laft and 17th century, the Italians had diftinft
fonatas of two kinds: 7^i fonatc da chief u fonatas lur the
church ; jndfjnate da camera, foiiata;- for the thambir, or
private concerts, of a lighter kind. The firft and third fet
of Corelli's fonatas are of the former kind, and the fecond
and fourth of the latter. To the firit »i>d third fet of Co-

10 rcUi'i

SON

relli's fonatas for the church, there are two bafes, one
for the bafe viol, or viol da gamba, and the other for the
organ, arch lute or harp, figured for thorough-bafe.

In vocal mufic, Ji fuona is written over the fymphonj or
ritornelli, interftitial pafTages played by an inflrument, either
as an echo to the voice part, or to give the finger time to
breathe. S'l caiita, " it is fung," to diftinguidi the vocal
from the inftrumental pafTages of fongs written on one
ftaff.

SONAUT, or SuNAT Rupee, in Commerce. See
Rupee.

SONAWRY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 20 miles S. of Bahraitch.

SONAX, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc; 4 miles N.N.E. of Chambery.

SONCHUS, in Botany, myx^; of Diofcorides, fuppofed
by fome etymologifts to be corrupted from croftv'or, holloiv,
or empty, in allufion to its hollow ftem. This fcems fcarcely
fatisfattory, and yet we meet with nothing elfe worth men-
tioning. In Englifh it is named Sow-thiille, becaufe fwine
are particularly fond of the plant. — Linn. Gen. 400.
Schreb. 527. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1509. Mart. Mill.
Di<ft. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 436. Sm. Fl. Brit.
815. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. v. 2. 124. Purlh 501.
Juir. 169. Tourn. t. 268. Lamarck lihiilr. t. 649.
Gxrtn. t. 158. — Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-
eqiwlis. Nat. Ord. Compofite femiflofculofa, Linn. Cicho-
raceit, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx imbricated, bellying, of nume-
rous, linear, unequal fcales. Cor. compound, imbricated,
uniform ; florets all perfeft, numerous, equal, of one petal,
ligulate, linear, abrupt, with five teeth. Stam. Filaments
five, capillary, very fiiort ; anthers united into a cylindri-
cal tube. Pi/l. Germen nearly ovate ; llyle thread- (haped,
the length of the (tamens ; iligmas two, reflcxed. Peric.
none, except the calyx, clofiiig into tiie form of a deprelied
globe, with a conical point. Seeds folitary, rather oblong ;
down capillary, feffile. Recept. naked.

EfT. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx imbricated, fwell-
ing at the bafe. Seed-down fimple, feflile.

Having detailed at length the fpecies of Scorzon'era,
(fee that article,) a genus which has been, in feveral in-
ftances, confounded with the prefent, we find it necefTary
to give a reformed view of Sonchus, fjllowing WiUdenow
in the diltribution of the fpecies.

1. S. maritimus. Sea Sow-thiftle. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 1 16.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Prodr. Fl. Grsc. n. 1889.
AUion. Pedem. v. 223. t. 16. f. 2. Cavan. Ic. v. i. 38.
t. 51. — Flower-llalks moltly folitary, terminal, naked.
Leaves clafping the Hem, lanceolate, undivided, with (harp
reflexed teeth. — Native of maritime fituations in the Ibuth
of Europe, and north of -'\frica. Dr. Sibthorp met with
it in Crete. Miller cultivated this plant in 1748, but it is
hardly to be feen in any garden at prefent, either here or on
the continent. The root is perennial. Stem herbaceous,
about two feet high, fiender, round, fcarcely divided.
Leaves near a foot long, narrow, fmooth, glaucous, with a
double fet of fmall, (harp, recurved teeth ; their bafe taper-
ing, entire, clafping the item at the bottom. Flowers fome-
times two or three, on long, (lightly brafteated, (talks,
yellow, above an inch in diar^eter, with a fmooth calyx.

2. S, craJIfelius. Thick-leaved Sow-thiftle. Willd.
n. 2. Pourret MSS. — " Flower-flalks fomewhat umbel-
late, fcaly. Ltavcs lanceolate, with fprcading pointed
leeth ; their bafe rotmded, clafping the ftem." — Native of
■Spain. Root perennial. This pLnt is intermediate be-
ivieen $• maritimus and arvenfts, but moft akin to the for-

SON

mer. Stem fimple, creft. Leaves thick and glaucoms, nn»
equally toothed ; the teeth lanceolate, fpreading at right
angles. Flowers the fize of the preceding, terminal, fome-
what umbellate, with very fliort, fohtary, fingle-flowered,
axillary ilalks, from the uppermoft leaves. 'Ezch Jlali is
fcaly, and fhorter than its calyx.

3. S. uliginofiis. Bog Sow-thiftle. " Marfchall vou
Bieberltein." Fifcher MSS. — Flower-flalks fomewhat
umbellate, naked, much longer than the calyx. Leaves
elliptic-oblong, with copious, fpreadine:, pointed teeth ;
their bafe rounded, clafping the item. — Native of mount
Caucafus. Communicated under the above name, by Dr.
Fifcher of Mofcow. This feems nearly related to the laft.
The Jlem is ereft, ftout, fomewhat branched, three feet or
more in height, round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves four or five
inches long, and above an inch broad, acute, fmooth, veiny,
rather thick or coriaceous, flightly glaucous, bordered with
very numerous fpinous teeth, projefting at right angles.
Flowers refembling the lail, four or five together in termi-
nal umbels, whofc ftalks are quite naked and fmooth, as
well as the calyx.

4. S. quercifoliui. Oak -leaved Shrubby Sow-thiftle.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 225. t. 213. Willd. n. 3. — Flower-
ftalks fomewhat corymbofe, alternate, flightly fcaly. Calyx-
fcales loofcly imbricated. Leaves oblong, finuatcd, toothed,
fomewhat three-pointed. Stem flirubby. On hills near
Cafsa in Barbary. Stem from one to two feet high, branched,
thick and flcfliv. Leaves fcattered, from four to eight
inches long, very fmooth and glaucous, rather fucculent,
evergreen, pinnatifid, with (harp lobes, directed forward
rather than backward, their bafe tapering down ir.to a
fliort dilated footjlalh. Flowers terminal, yellow, about
an inch and a half broad, four or five together in a lax
corymbofe panicle. Scales of the calyx ovate, fmooth,
not clofe-preded. Desfontaines.

5. S. fruiicofus. Great Shrubby Sow-thiftle. Linn.
Suppl. 346. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. Jacq. Coll. v. i.
83. Ic. Rar. t. 161. L'Herit. Stirp. t. 81. — Flower-
llalks fomewhat umbellate, brafteated. Calyx-fcales
loofely imbricated. Leaves oblong, finuated, flightly rnn-
cinated, toothed. Stem (hrubbv. — Gathered by Mr. Maflon
on rocks in the iflands of Tenerifte and Madeira, from
whence it has found its way into th; more curious green-
houfes of this and other countries. The habit is much
like the laft, with a thick flefhy_^«m. The chief difference
feems to confift in the more umbellate iiiflorefcence, accom-
panied by leafy IraSeai. The calyx is iqu.irrofe in a dried
itate only. Flowers like the co.nmon Dandelion in fize
and colour.

6. S. acidus. Sour Sow-thiftle. Willd. n. 5. — " Flower-
ftalks branched, naked. Calyx-fcales fpreading. Leaves
pinnatifid, with oblong-lanceolate, pointed, entire fegments.
Seem fhrubby." — Gathered in Morocco by Mr. Schoufboe.
Leaves half a foot long, ft.lKed, fmooth. Flower-Jlalhs
very much branched, fomewhat forked, and partly umbel-
late. Flowers the fize of .9. arvenjis. WiUdenow.

7. S. pinnatus. Wing-leaved Sow-thiftle. Ait. ed. I.
V. 3. 116. ed. 2. n. 3. Willd. n. 6. — " Flower-ftalks
naked. Calyx fmooth. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets linear-
lanceolate, flightly toothed. Stem flirubby." — Gathered
by Mr. Mafton in Madeira, from whence it was introduced
into the greenhoufe at Kew, in 1777, but it feems never
to have flowered, and is now perhaps loft.

8. S. radicatus. Long-rooted Sow-thiftle. Ait. ed. I.
V. 3. 116. ed. 2. n. 4. Willd. n. 7. — " Flower-ftalks
naked, fmooth hke the calyx. Stem fhrubby, almolt
naked. Radical leaves lyrate, fmooth on both fides, with

triangular

SONCHUS.

Uiangular ovate lobes. Brought by Mr. MafTon from the
Canary idands, in 1780. It flowers in the greenhoufe in
July, y^iton.

9. S. taraxncifolius. Dandelion-leaved Sow-thiille.
Willd. n. 8. — Flower-ftalks fcaly, panicled. I.,eave<; run-
cinate, with callous teeth ; tapering at the bafe. — Native
of Guinea. Stem as thick as a gonfe-quill, fpongy. Leaves
rather crowded, fmooth, like Dandelion, but the tips of
their teeth are white ; the upper ones lanceolate, fcarcely
divided, thout^h minutely toothed ; the uppennoft of all
linear and entire. Common Jloiver-Jialh fix inches, or more,
in length, furniflied with a few leaves, and dividing into a
panicle at the top ; partial ones very (hort, fcaly, crowded
at the terminations of the panicle. Calyx like the Garden
Lettuce. r/iUdeao'w.

10. S. palujlris. -Tall Marih Sow-thi(lle. Linn. Sp.
■Pl. 1 1 16. Willd. n. 9. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot,
't. 935. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 59. Fl. Dan. t. 606.

(S. IsEvior auftriacus quintus altiflimus ; Cluf. HiiL v. 2.
147. S. arborefcens alter; Ger. Em. 294.) — Flower-
ftalks fomewhat ambellate, briltly like the calyx. Leaves
runcinate ; arrow-fiiaped at the bafe ; rough in the margin.
— In low mardie^, efpecially about the mouths of great
rivers, in Holland, France, England, &c. as well as in
Greece, flowering in .July and Augufl. It occurs in
feveral places bordcrinpj on the Thames, below London, as
■well as in the ide of Ely. The root is perennial, flefliy,
branched, but not creeping. Stems herbaceous, from fix
to eight feet high, leafy, angular, hollow, but little
branched. Lea-jes runcinate, acute, fmooth, finely toothed,
not rounded, but acutely arrow-fliaped, at the bafe. Pa-
nicle umbellate or cymofc, of feveral yellow_/?«u'crj-, whofe
calyx, as well as the JJowerJlnlks, is rough with denle,
black, glandular hairs. Haller confounded this with the
following, but Curtis has well dillinguifhed them.

TI. S. arvenjis. Corn Sow-thilUe. Linn. Sp. PI. 1116.
Willd. n. 10; (excluding the reference to Fl. Dan.) Fl.
Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 674 Curt. Lond. fafc. 4.
t. 53. Purfli n. 1. (S. arborefcens; Ger. Em. 294.
Hieracium majus ; Fuchf. Hilt. 319.) — Flower-ftalks
fomewhat umbellate, briltlv like the calyx. Leaves runci-
nate, finely toothed ; heart-fliaped at the bafe. Root creep-
ing.— In fields and about hedges, on a clay foil, in the
middle or fouthern parts of Europe, as well as in Penn-
fylvania ; frequent in England, efpccially towards the fea,
flowering in Augu'l. The root is flefliy and milky, run-
ning deep into the (Ground, and difficult of extirpation.
Stem but tlyee or four feet high, nearly fimple. Leaves
rounded at the bafe. Flowers largtr than in the lall, and
of a fuller golden hue, externally reddifh ; the tubes of
their florets hairy. Dr. Sibtliorp thought this the o-oy;^o;
ilifoi of Diofcorides.

12. S. agrejlis. Weft Indian .Sow-tliiftle. Swartz.
Prodr. no. Ind. Occ. 1289. Willd. n. 11. (S. Ixvis ;
Sloane .Tarn. v. i. 255.) — Flower-ftalks downy, many-
flowered. Calyx fmooth. Stem ftriated. I..eaves fcflile,
deeply ferratcd or en'. — Native of cultivated ground in the
Weft Indies, along with S. oleraceus. Root annual. Stem
two or three feet hit!;h, leafy, round, deeply ftriated, downy.
Lower leaves fcarcely divided. Floiucrs terminal and axil-
lary, yellowifli-white. Calyx elongated, fometimes flightly
Jjubefcent, but little tumid at the bafe, lu which this fpecies
differs from the oleraceus, as well as in the remarkable Hiort-
ncfs of itsjlorets, which have not the appearance of being
ligulate, but tubular. Seeds long, ftriated. Svjarlz.

13. S. lacenis. Jagged-leaved Sfsw-thiftle. Willd.
Vol. XXXIII.

n. 12. — " Flower-ftalks umbellate, rather downy. Calyx
fmooth. Leaves pinnatifid, toothed ; auricled and heart-
fliaped at the bafe." — Native country unknown. Root
annual. Stem two feet high, or more. Leaves witk lanceo-
late, angular-toothed fegments ; their bafe dilated, clafpmg
the ftem, and coarfely toothed. Floiuer-Jlalks branched.
Flowers the fize of S. oleraceus. IVilldenow. We have a
mutilated fpccimen gathered by Tliunberg at the Cape of
Good Hope, which, as far as any judgment can be formed
of it, anfwcrs to the above defcription ; but it is very like
the prickly varieties of the common oleraceus,

14. S. angujl'if alius. Narrow-leaved Sosv-thiftle. Def-
font. Atlant. v. 2. 225. Willd, n. 13. — " I..eaves pin-
nate, glaucous, fmooth ; leaflets dittant, linear, finely
toothed. Stem fcarcely any." — Gathered near Cafsa, in
Barbary, by Dcsfontaines. Root perennial, long, fpindle-
fliaped. Stem very fliort, or none. Leaves from four to
cisjht inches long ; their teeth withered and whitilh. Flower'

Jlalks nightly fcaly, bearing one or more ycWaw Jlowers, the
fize of S. arvenfis. Calyx fmooth, ovate. Dtsfont.

15. S. umbellifer. Umbelliferous Cape Sow-thiftle.
Thunb. Prodr. 139. Willd. n. 14. — "Flower-ftalks
hifpid, fomewhat umbellate. Leaves oblong-heart-fliaped,
ferrated." — Native of the Cape of Good Hope.

16. S. glaber. Smooth Cape Sow-thiftle. Thunb.
Prodr. 139. Willd. n. 15. — "Flower-ftalks umbellate,
fmooth like the calyx. Leaves heart-fliaped, runcinate."
— Native of the fame country.

17. S. goraenfis. Scaly Goree Sow-thiftle. Lamarck
Did. V. 3. 397. Willd. n. 16. — " Flower-ftalks lateral,
fliort, clothed with membranous fcales. Leaves lyrate,
with little fpinous teeth." — Native of the ifland of Goree,
on the weft coaft of Africa. Sparrmann fcnt feeds to the
Paris garden. The root is annual. Stem a foot high,
round, fmooth, with lax branches. Leaves diltant, clafp-
ing the ftem, fcarcely more than two inches long, and one
broad, fmooth, green, fomewhat runcinate. Flowers yel-
low, almoft feflile along the branches. Calyx nearly cylin-
drical. Flower-Jlalks fmooth, their fcales witii white mem-
branous edges. Lamarck.

18. S. oleraceus. Common Sow-thiftle. Linn. Sp. PI.
1 1 16. Willd. n. 17. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 843.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 2.1.58. (S. Insvis ; Ger. Em. 292.
Camer. Epit. 279. Matth. Valgr. v. i. 452.)

S. S. oleraceus; Fl. Dan. t. 682. (S. Ixvis latifolius ;
Ger. Em. 292.)

y. S. afperior ; Ger. Em. 29 1.

i. S. afper ; ibid.

E. S. fubrotundo folio noftras ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 61. f. 5.

^. S. aphyllocaulis, angullo et oblongo folio, nollras ;
Pluk. Phyt. t. 62. f. 4. Seealfo t. 61. t. 5.

Flower-ftalks downy, imperfeftly umbellate. Calyx
fmooth. Leaves runcinate, toothed. — A common weed in
cultivated land throughout Europe, as well as in otlier part*
of the world to which Europeans have h.id accefs, flowering
in fummcr and autumn. Tlie root is annual, fpindle-fluiped.
Herbage fmooth, brittle, milky, very various with rcfpcttt
to luxuriance, and the quantity of teeth, lobes, or prickloa
about the edges of its leaves ; their fegments, however, arc
almoft always acute and runcinate. Flower-Jlalks axillary
and terminal, rather cymofe than umbellate, clothed when
young with foft, white, denfe, cobweb-like, decidiioin
down. Corolla lemon-coloured. Seeds angular, with cre-
nate ribs.

19. S. lenerrimus. Clammy Sow-thiftle. Linn. Sp. PI.
1117. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 8. Sm, Fl. Grxc Sibth.

X X t. 790,

SONCHUS.

t. 790, unpublifhed. Tour on the Continent, v. 2. 31J. —
(Hieracium foliis in tenues lacinias profunde feftis, flore
luteorPluk. Phyt. t. 93. f. 3. ChondriUa lutea ; Bauh.
Hift. V. 2. 1020.)— Flower-ltalks downy, fomewhat um-
bellate. Calyx hairy. Leaves deeply pinnatifid, with pa-
rallel, oblong, toothed, blimtith legments ; their bafe fome-
what arrow-(haped.— Native of rocks and old walls, in
Italy, Barbary, Crete, and Cyprus, as well as the fouth of
France, flowering in fpring. At Rome and Florence it is
eaten in fallads, being of a more delicate, lefs bitter, flavour
than S. oleraceus, from which it is alfo readily known, by
the almoft peainate lobes of its leaves, hairy vifcid calyx,
and a much more elegant and flender afpeft in the whole
plant. The root is annual.

20. S. dotidrilloides. Scaly Sow-thiftle. Desfont.
Atlant. V. 2. 226. Willd. n. 19. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth.
t. 791, unpubliflied. (ChondriUa ficula tragopogonoides
maritima; Bocc. Sic. 13. t. 7. f. i.)— Flower-ftalks
elongated, fcaly, fmgle-flowered, fomewhat corymbofe.
Calyx fmooth ; its outer fcales heart-fhaped. Radical
leaves deeply pinnatifid, toothed : thofe of the ftem oblong,
toothed ; heart-fliaped at the bafe. — Native of fandy ground,
in Barbary, Sicily, and Zante. Root perennial. Herb
fmooth, fomewhat glaucous, with more radical, and fewer
ftem-leaves, than the latt. Flowers large, yellow. Outer
fcales of the calyx, like thofe fcattered over Xhcfower-Jlalls,
heart-lhaped, pointed, with a broad, white, membranous
border.

21. S. hifpanicus. Spanifh Sow-thiftle. Jacq. Hort.
Schoenbr. v. 2. 9. t. 143. Willd. n. 20. — Flower-ftalks
fcaly, fwelling upward, fomewhat corymbofe. Calyx-
fcales recurved. Leaves pinnatifid, toothed, clafping the
ftem, glaucous, with white downy dots. Fou«d near Ma-
laga, in Spain. An annual, milky herb, flowering from
June to Auguft. Jacquin. Stem a foot high, branching
from the bafe, fpreading, glaucous, and covered, like both
fides of the leaves, with white dots, which prove, under a
magnifier, tufts of down. Floiuers fmaller than the laft,
and more like the following, efpecially in their dark-purple
central tint ; but differing from both in the recurved points
of their calyx-fcales, whofe white membranous margins,
moreover, are crifped, or undulated.

22. S. tingitnnus. Tangier Sow-thiftle. Lamarck
Dia. v. 3. 397. Willd; n. 21. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth.
t. 792, unpubliflied. (S. tingitanus, papaveris folio ;
Tourn. Inlt. 475. Scorzonera tingitana ; Linn. Sp. PI.
1 114. Curt, Mag. t. 142. S. orientalis ; Linn. Sp. PI.
II 13. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 1507. ChondriUa tingitana,
floribus liiteis, papaveris horteiifis folio ; Herra. Lugd-
Bat. 657. t. 659.) — Flower-ftalks fwelling upward, flightly
fcaly. Calyx-fcales erea, with membranous edges. Leaves
pinnatifid, toothed, clafping the Item, glaucous, fmooth. —
Native of maritime rocks in Barbary and the Levant. Said
to have been cultivated at Chelfea above 100 years ago,
but it had long been loft, and its feeds were brought, by the
writer of this, from Paris, to the garden of his worthy
friend Dr. Gwyn of Ipfwich, in 1787. The plant is an-
nual, flowering in autumn, and its glaucous leaves, finely
contrafted with the golden, purple-eyed Jioiuers, make a
ftriking appearance. The purple-tipped white-edged fcales
of the calyx alfo contribute to the beauty and Angularity of
the whole. That this plant is a Sonchus, not a Scorzunera,
is evident to all who look at \x.5 fced-doivn, and the Linnaean
herbarium proves Scorzonera orientalis, gathered by Haflel-
quift, to be the very fame fpecies.

23. S. picreides. Various-leaved Sow-thiftle. Lamarck

Dia. V. 3. 398. Willd. n. 21. AUion. Pedem. v. i. izj-
t. 16. f. I. Sm. Fl. Grzc. Sibtli. t. 793, unpubhfhed-
(Scorzonera picroides ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1 1 14. Crepis Dale-
champii ; Dalech. Hift. 562.) — Flower-ftalks fwelUng up-
ward, fcaly. Calyx-fcales clofe-prefl'ed, with (lightly mem-
branous edges. Leaves toothed ; radical ones fomewhat
lyrate ; the reft clafping the ftem, obovate-oblong ; upper-
moft linear, nearly entire. Native of the fouth of France,
Barbary, Greece, Cyprus, and the Archipelago ; fent by
M. Richard to Kew, in 1773. ^^ '^ ^ hardy annual,
flowering in fummer. The herb is fmooth, rather glaucoub,
varying much in luxuriance, and the leaves of the fame plant
differ greatly in Ihape. The radical ones are runcinatc and
lyrate ; being rarely obovate, and merely bordered with
fmall teeth, like the reft. Floivers of an uniform yellow,
above an inch broad, folitary, on a flightly fcaly elongated
ftalk, at the end of each branch. The fcales of the ftalks,
like the outer ones of the calyx, are heart-fliaped, pointed,
fmall, clofe and flat, with a narrow white edge. Although
Plukenet's t. 61. f. 5, cited by Linnxus and Willdenow,
bears fome refemblance to the leaves of the fpecies before
us, yet that, being of Englifli growth, can hardly be any
thing elfe than a variety of S. oleraceus, to which we have
often feen near approaches in that variable plant ; fee
n. 18, ^

24. S. crepioldes. Hawk weed Sow-thiftle. (Scorzo-
nera crepioides ; Poiret in Lam. Dia. v. 7. 25.) — Flower-
ftalks naked, fomewhat panicled. Stem much branched,
rather downy as well as the calyx, whofe outer fcales are
oval. — Gathered by M. Poiret, on the coafts of Barbary.
His defcription of the fine, filky, fimple feed-down, and
naked receptacle, induces us to refer the plant to Sonchus.
He defcribes it as having the afpea of Crepts biennis ; but
he knew not its leaves, nor the lower part of its herbage.
Each divifion of the Jiem has, at its bafe, a little, clafping,
linear-lanceolate, pointed, downy leaf. Flowers of a mid-
dle fize, yellow. Calyx oval, clofe ; its inner fcales long,
narrow, downy, or farinaceous ; outer vei-y fliort and oval.

25. S. dlchotomus. Forked Sow-thiftle. Willd. n. 23.
(Scorzonera dichotoma ; Vabl. Symb. v. 2. 89. Desfont.
Atlant. V. 2. 450. Laauca flava ; Forfli. iEgypt-Arab.
143.) — " Flower-ftalks fcaly, of equal thicknefs through-
out. Stem forked, almoft leaflefs. Radical leaves run-
cinate." — Gathered by Forflcall in the vale of Surdud, in
Arabia Felix, and by Vahl in the kingdom of Tunis. The
herbage is fmooth. Stems divided from the bafe into rigid
forked branches, bearing in their lower part two lyrate
leaves, like the radical ones, but otherwife only fmall, lan-
ceolate, or ovate, entire ones under each fubdivifion.
Fleiuers terminal, folitary, yellow. Calyx very fmooth ;
its outer fcales ovate, loofe, with broad white edges.

26. S. Plumlerl. Pyrenean Blue Sow-thiftle. Linn.
Sp. PI. I II 7. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 11. — Flower-ftalks
panicled, fmooth, with clafping, long-pointed braaeas.
Leaves pinnatifid, pointed, runcinate — Native of the Py-
renees. It is alfo found, though rarely, on the Alps of
Switzerland, having been obferved by M. Favrod, on the
mountain called Deut de Jamare, and above Quveifimen, in
Teufelsgraben. We have feen this fine plant in fome curious
gardens, but cannot find it any where figured. The root is
perennial. Stem often as tall as a man, round, branched,
itriated, leafy, fmooth and glaucous like every other part of
the herbage. Leaves one or two feet long, deeply pinnatifid,
with numerous, pointed, oppofite, parallel, fliarp-toothed
fegments, and a terminal, pointed, triangular lobe ; their
bafe dilated, clafping the ftem ; under fide moft glaucou*.

Flowers

SONCHUS.

Flowers numerous, large, pale blue, lefs vivid than thofe of
the Wild Succorj'. BraSeas fmooth, rounded at the bafe,
with long, taper points. Calyx fmooth. Its outer fcales
fomewhat cordate.

27. S. macrophyllus. Large-leaved Hairy Blue Sow-
thiftle. Willd. n. 25. Purfh n. 3. (S. canadenfis ; Froe-
lich in Ufter's Anna), v. 1. 29. S. n. i ; Gronov. Virg.
ed. 2. 115. " Chondrilla fylveftris alta, flore cieruleo fpe-
ciofo, foliis finuatis longis acuminatis alternis, Icviter hir-
futis, caule ad cacumen ramofo, femine nigro, pappis albis
et quafi argenteis inftruAo ; Clayt. n. 139.") — Flowcr-
ftalks hairy, panicled. Leaves lyrate ; heart-(haped at the
bafe ; hairy beneath. — In fhady low grounds, near fprings,
from Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering in Augull and
September. From four to feven feet high. Flowers blue,
the fize of Clchorium Intyhus. Root tuberous. Purjh.
Mr. Froelich, above quoted, defcribes this fpecies as havmg
for fome years been cultivated in the botanic garden at Er-
lang, with fimple, fpatulatc radical leaves a foot long, which
wither before x.\ie flowers come to perfeftion ; their ribs and
veins hairy beneath ; ihejlem-leaves lyrate, toothed, fomewhat
fringed ; much dilated, heart-fhaped, rounded, and finely
toothed, at the bafe ; paler and hairy beneath ; their ter-
minal lobe very large, triangular, in loine degree heart-
fhaped ; the intermediate ones ovate, obtufe, unequal : upper
leaves more fimple, fpatulate, very broad at their bafe, with
fcarcely any intermediate lobes. Panicle with alternate,
hairy, fubdivided, unequal branches ; the upper ones longelt
and mod: compound. Flower-Jlalks unequal, credt, denfely
clothed with glutinous hairs, and bearing one or two fcales.
BraHeas lanceolate, pointed, hairy, much fhorter than the
partial ftalks. Calyx half an mch long, cylindrical, pale
violet ; its inner fcales about fourteen, linear, equal, thin at
the edges ; outer Ihorter, fcattered, unequal, clofely imbri-
cated, a little hairy at the back. Florets from thirty-four
to forty, of a purpli(h flefli-colour, with hairy tubes. Seeds
ovate-oblong, triangular, llriated. Down feflile, roughifh,
very white. Odour of the plant like opium, difagreeable, as
ivell as the tajle, which is bitter. Of this little-known fpe-
cies we fufpetl there is an imperfett fpecimen in the Lin-
nxan herbarium, firlt marked as having been communicated
by Kalm, and then by Gmehn, a reference to Sonchus, n. 12.
Fl. Sibir. v. 2. I2. t. 4. f. i, being at the back. This laft
is an error, the faid figure anfwering bell to S. alpinus of
moll authors, c^ruleus of Fl. Brit. which\ve fufpett to have
been Gmelin's plant. He mentions having feen but a fingle
fpecimen, or we (liould think it had been one of his, now
alfo in our hands, which Linnaeus, by a parallel error to the'
above, has marked as coming from Kalm, and delcribed by
the name of canadenfis. At lealt, Linnasus's having con-
fufcd liimfelf about thefetwo fpecimens, may account for his
defcribing as a Canadian plant, what no one has ever found
in that country ; for Mr. Purlh evidently admits it on report
only, by the name of alpinus.

28. S. ceerukuj. Alpine Hairy Blue Sowthiftle. Camer.
Epit. 281. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 2425. (S. cana-
denfis ; Linn. Sp. PI. ill J. S. montanus ; Lamarck Dift.
v. 3. 401. S. alpinus ; Willd. n. 26. Ait. n. 12, exclud-
ing the reference to Fl. Lapp. Purfh n. 4. Froelich in
Uft. Annal. v. i. 26. Fl. Dan. t. 182. S. cseruleus lati-
fohus ; Bauh. Hilt. v. 2. 1005. S. flore ciruleo ; Ger.
Em. 294. S. n. 20; Hall. Hill. v. i. 9.) — Flower-ilalks
hairy, racemofe, with (etaceous braftoae. Leaves fomewhat
lyrate ; arrow-fliaped at the bale ; their tenninal lobe tri-
angular, very large. — Native of alpine pallures in various
parts of Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. The late

Mr. G. Don found it on Lochnjgore, Aberdeen (Kirei wrhicli
is the only authority for retaining it in our Flora Bntannica;
S. alpinus of former Britilh writers being only Cichorium In-
iybus, admitted on the word of a Northumberland writer,
Icarcely more correft than he who defcribed the lemon, as
growing on the bleak Welfh crag of Penmaen Mawr. Thii
ipccies has a flclhy, perennial, tufted root. Stems about a
yard high only, fimple, leafy. Leaves confiding chiefly of
a large, triangular, toothed, fliarply-pointed lobe, on a
bordered, flightly pinnatifid, ftalk, clalping the Hem with
an arrow-fliaped bafe ; the under fide glaucous, with now
and then a few hairs on the rib : the uppermoft leaves are
often quite linear, and merely fringed. Clujler terminal,
folitary, ereft, many-flowered, fcarcely compound, its ftalks,
like the calyx, rough with copious, red, glutinous, promi-
nent hairs. BraBeas linear or fetaceous. Corolla of a fine
blue. Anthers red. Seed-down roughiih.

Linnius originally confounded this with his true S. al-
pinus., which has given rife to much confufion and contro-
verly ; for authors, indolently following fome of his fyno-
nyms, without regarding his definitions, have been thus led
widely aftray ; nor can we icreen their errors, by allotving
them to change a fixed and primary Linnxan name. The
learned and candid Mr. Froelich only has any claim to at-
tention on this fubjeft. He would call this plant alpinus,
becaufe Linnseus has, in Philofophiu Botanica, p. 273 & 274,
inadvertently fpoken of his true alpinus, by the name oi lap-
ponicus. So has he there called his oleraceus, Uvis i hxi pa-
lujlris, belgicus ; and his Cichorium Intybus, fcanenfe ; all
which errors he has correfted ia his own copy of the work ;
nor did he dream of their mifleading any body. Even La-
marck has ufed the name of alpinus, according to its ori-
ginal dellination, and fo we fhall prefume Hill to apply it ;
fee the following fpecies.

29. S. alpinus. Alpine Scaly Blue Sow-thiftle. Linn.
Sp. PL 1 117. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 269, excluding all, except
Linnsean, fynonyms. Fl. I.iapp. ed. 2. 240. Lamarck
Dift. v. 3. 400. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 21. (S. lapponicus ;
Froelich in Uft. Annal. v. i. 26. Wilkl. n. 27.) — Flower-
ftalks Icaly, racemofe, ereft. Leaves pinnatifid, pointed,
toothed, fmooth ; glaucous beneath. Stem fimple. — Found
by Linnseus on the fides of hills, and in valleys, among the
Lapland alps, where it is extremely common, though not
known in any other part of the world. The Laplanders
peel the ftalks, before flowering, and cat the flelhy part,
which Linnsus thought too bitter, without the ufual fcafon.
ing of a fallad. He fpeaks of this plant as extremely hand-
fome, the height of a man, or taller, with a llraight, rigid,
leafy y?fm. The leaves are fmooth and fliining, deeply pin-
natifid, fliarply toothed ; rounded, but not dilated nor clafp*
ing, at the bafe ; glaucous beneath. Clujler more or lefs
compound, long, denfe ; lUjlalks not at all hairy or downy,
but clothed with imbricated, concave, acute, flieathing Icalei.
Flowers blue, about half the fize of tlie laft, but much
more numerous. Calyx ovate, fmooth. The late profeflor
WiUdenow informed us, in 1796, that this rare plant wa»
then growing luxuriantly, in the garden of Mr. Kraufe, at
Berlin. He favoured us with feeds, but they did not
fucceed. The root is marked as biennial.

30. S. leucophdus. Pale-blue American Sovv-thiftlc. Willd.
n. 28. Purfli n. 5. (S. fpieatus ; Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 401.)
— Flower-ftalks fcaly, racemofe, drooping. Leaves pinna-
tifid, toothed, fmootli. Stem wand-like, panicled. — On the
borders of woods, by road fides, from New England to
Virginia, flowering from July to September. Root biennial.
Flowert fmall, white tinged with blue. Purjl. Lamarck

X X 3 fay*

SON

fays ihefem is only two or three feet high. Leaves narrow ;
the upper ones fmall, linear, and entire.

31. S. forii/anus. Small-flowered Florida Sow-thiftle.
Lirni. Sp. PI. 1118. WiUd. u. 13. Purfh n. 6— Flower-
ftalks panicled, diftantly fcaly. Leaves fomewhat lyratc,
minutely toothed, Imooth, with a large, triangular, acute,
terminal lobe.— On road iides, in the (hady woods oi Vir-
ginia and Carolina, flowering from July to September. Root
biennial. Leaves a fpan long, of two large lobes, befides
.the much larger terminal one ; narrow and linear at the bale.
'^Panicle, or r/iijler, doubly branched, ipreading. Flo-u-'ers
very fmall, blue. Mr. Purfli fays, this plant has been ufed
for curing the bite of the rattle-fnake, in the fame manner
as his Preimnlhes ferpnitarici, and is known by the name ot
Gall of the earth.

32.S.rtf;/m/nrt/wJ. Pointed-leaved Sow-thiftle. Willd.n.30.
(Laftuca villofa ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 62. t. 367 ?)

« Flower-ltaiks flightly fcaly, panicled. Radical leaves

fomewhat runcinate ; thofe oi" the Item ovate, pointed,
llalked." — In low fhiidy places, from Pennfylvania to Vir-
ginia, flowering in Augiilt and September. Biennial.
Flonvtrs fmall, blue. Purjh. Stem-leaves tapering at each
end, and furniflied ;it each fide, in the nuddle, with fmall
pointed teeth. It differs from S.for'ulanus in thefe leaves
being undivided. They are alio (lightly hairy beneath. The
panicle was flender, compofed of {ewjlomers, in Willdenow's
wild fpccimen. and the Jeed-dotvn feffile. Jacquin's figure
exhibits a triply-compound panicle, of innumerable fmall
pale-blue _/?OTOfrj-, and he unluckily does not mention the
feed-down. We know nothing of this fpecies, but from
thefe authorities. It appears akin to the laft, though fuf-
ficiently diftinft.

^^. S.pallidus. Pale-vellow Canadian Sow-thiftle. Willd.
n. 31. Ait. 11. 14. Purfh n. 8. (Laftuca canadcnfis ;
Ijinn. Sp. PI. 1119-) — Clufter compound, with fcaly ilalks.
Leaves lanceolate, toothed, fmooth, clafping the ftem ; the
upper ones taper-pointed. — On road fide":, and in woods,
from Canada to New England, flowering from July to Sep-
tember. Perennial. Flowers fmall, yellow. Purfh. The
fcales of thsjlower-jialks are ovate, pointed, crowded and
recurved. Clujler denfe. Calyx very fmooth. Seed-down
quite feffile. The leaves are not properly fword-fhaped.
Mr. Purfli cites under this fpecies Robert's Icones t. 148
and 151, which we have not been able to confult.

34. S. pulchellus. Beautiful Blue Sow-thiftle. Purfli
n. 9. — " Flower-italks fcaly, in a corvmbofe clufter. Stem-
leaves ovate-oblong, acute, entire, fmi>oth ; with a clafp-
ing heart-fhaped bale." — On the banks of the Miflouri,
flowering in September. Perennial. Flowers large, <;f a
beautiful blue. PurJIj.

35. S.Jibiricus. Willow-leaved Sow-thiftle. Linn. Sp.
Pl.niS. WiUd. n. 32. Ait. n. 15. ( S. n. 1 1 ; Gmel.
Sib. V. 2. 1 1, t. 3. Laftuca falicis folio, n. 21 1 and 212 ;
Amm. Ruth. 150.) — Flower-ftalks corymbofe, with dillant
lanceolate fcales. Leaves lanceolate, feffile ; the upper ones
entire ; lower varioufly toothed. — Found throughout Si-
beria, as well as about the river Wolga, and in fome parts
of Ruflia and Finland. The root is perennial, creeping ex -
tenfively. Stem from one to four feet high, leafy, wan<i-
like ; fomctimes branched in the upper part. Leaves nume-
rous, about four inches long, very fmooth and even ; rather
gi?.ucous at the back. Flowers blue, about an inch in di-
ameter, compofing a level-topped corymb.

36. S. iatarkus. Tartarian Sow-thiltle. Linn. Mant.
572, excluding the fynonym. WiUd. n. 33. Ait. n. 16. —
Flower-ftalks racemofe, nearly naked. Leaves lanceolate,

SON

runcinate.— Native of Siberia and Tartary. Perennial,
flowering in June and July. A rather larger plant than the
laft ; the teeth of its leaves large, pointing backward.
Flowers blue, in compound clullers, terminating the Item
and branches.

^■]. S.prenanthoides. Long-cluftercd Sow-thiftle. " Mar-
fchall von Bieberftein." Fifcher MSS. — Flower-ftalks race-
mofe, Lateral and terminal, fcaly, downy. Leaves elliptic-
oblong, toothed, fomewhat fiddle-fhaped. — Native of mount
Caucaius. The^fm is round, terminating in a long feries
of alternate, fliortiih, fomewhat compound, clujlers, whofe
partial flalks are cottony and fcaly. The Jlowers feem to
be blue or purplifh. Leaves fmo(>th, fomewhat (talked,
three or four inches long, an inch and half broad, finely
toothed ; the upper ones diminifhing into lanceolate narrow
l)raSeas.

SONCINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, on the
Oglio ; 8 miles E.N.E. of Crema.

SONDAU, a town of Brandenburg, in the duchy of
Magdeburg ; 50 m.iles N.N.E. of Magdeburg.

SONDELY, a town of Norway, in the province of
Bcriren ; ^o miles S.S.W. of Romfdal.

SONDERBORG, a lea-port town of Denmark, on the
S. coaft of the ifland of Alfen, with a royal palace, and
one of the beft harbours in Denmark. In this palace
Chriftian II. king of Denmark, was confined as a prifoner
for 13 years: the inhabitants are chiefly fcamen : 16 mile3
E.N.E. of Flenfljorg. N. lat. 54° 57'. E. long. 9° 59'.

SONDERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Schwartzburg, fituated on the Wipper. On an
eminente without the town (lands the palace, wliere the
ruling prince of the Sonderfhaufen line ufually refides ;
20 miles N.E. of Mulhaufen. N. lat. 31" 22'. E. long.
10° 57'.

SONDE RSITZ. See Ur.^itz.

SONDHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
7 miles N. of Bifchoffsheim.

SONDRE GRUND, or Bottomless, an ifland in the
South Pacific ocean, difcovered bv Le Maire and Schoote;i,
in 1616; about 20 leagues in circumference, long but not
broad. It appeared covered with tree ■, among which were
palmetoes and cocoa-nut trees. It had no anchoring ground.
The inliabitants were naked, except a piece of mat round
the middle, of a ycUowifh or rcddifll-brown colour, and
black hair ; their (kin was marked with many figures ; they
were covetous of iron, and thieves. S. lat. ij°. W. long.
14S0.

SONDRIO, or Soxders, a town of Italy, and capital
of the Valteline, partly on a plain and partly on the fide of
a rock, in a romantic fituation, at the extremity of a narrow
valley, on a fmall river which runs into the Adda ; 15 miles
E. of Chiavenna. N. lat. 46° 6'. E. long. 9° 50'.

SONE, a town of Bengal; Smiles S.E. of Ramgur.
SONEGA, a town of Holland, in Friefland ; 9 miles
E. of Knynder.

SONEGUERA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Honduras ; 32 miles N. of St. Jorge de Olancho. N. lat.
15° 15'. W.lorg. S6°40'.

SONEHUTCH, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa ; 30
miles N.E. of Indore.

SONENBERG, a town of Germany, in the county of
plndentz ; 4 miles N. of Pludentz. — Alfo, a town of the
New Mark of Brandenburg ; 6 miles E. of Cullrin.

SONEPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Orifl'a, on the
Mahanada ; 38 miles S. of Sumbulpour. N. lat. 20' 47'.
E. long. 83^ 40'.

SONER-

SON

SON

• SONERGONG. See Sunergong.

SONEWALDT, a town of Lufatia ; 8 miles S. of
Luckau.

SONEY, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa ; 9 miles E.
of Saiirungpour.

SONG, a town of Africa, in Bambarra, on the Niger.
N. lat. 1 3° 54'. W. long. 3=55'.

Song, a town of China, of the third rank, in Ho-nan ;
37 miles S.S.W. of Ho-nan.

So.N'G Song, a Imall ifland in the Indian fea, near the
coaft of Africa. S. lat. 8° 1 2'.

SONG, in Poetry, a little compolltion, conlilUng of
fimple, eafy, natural verfes, fet to a tune, in order to be
fung.

Each llanza of a fong is called a couplet.

The fong bears a great deal of refemblance to the madri-
gal, and more to the ode ; which is, indeed, nothing but a
fong, according to the ancient rules.

Its objeft is ufually either wine or love, whence M. le
Brun defines a modern fong, to be either a foft and amorous,
or a brillc and Bacchic thought exprelled in few words.

Indeed, this is to reltrain it to too narrow bounds ; for
we have devout fongs, fatyrical fijngs, and panegyrical
fongs. But, be the long what it will, the verfes are to be
eafy, natural, and flowing ; and are to contain a certain
harmony, vvliicii neither fliocks the reafon nor the ear ; and
which unites poetry and mufic agreeably together.

Anciently, tiie only way of preferving the memory of
great and noble aftions, was by recording them in fongs ;
and, in America, there are Hill people who keep their whole
hiftory in fongs.

Songs have at all time?, and in all pLices, afforded amufe-
ment and confolation to mankind: every pailion of the humau
bread has been vented in fong ; and the molt favage as well
as civilized inhabitants of the earth have encouraged thefe
cffufions. The natives of New Zealand, who feem to live
as nearly in a (late of nature as any animals tiiat are merely
gregarious, have their fongs, and their tmprovifntori ; and
the ancient Greeks, during every period of tiieir hiitory and
refinement, had lhe\rJco!ia for almoll every circumllance and
occafion incident to fociety.

Singing was fo common among the ancient Romans as
to become proverbial. Phxdria, in the Phormio of Te-
rence, begs Dorio to hear him, he iias but one word to offer ;
when Dorio tells him he is always fiiiging the fame fong.
Horace fpeaks of the fame affectation among tiie fingers of
his time as prevails with the prefent ; never to iing when
they are entreated, or to dcfift if no one wilhcs to hear them.
And fome idea of the cultivated itate of ir.ufic in Gaul, fo
early as the fifth century, may bo acquired from a pailage in
one of the epilUes of Sidonius Aptlhnarir, who, in his clia-
rafter of king Theodoric the Goth, fays, that " this prince
was more delighted with the fweet and foothing founds of a
iingle inllrument, wliich calmed his mind, and flattered his
car by its foftncfs, than with hydraulic organs, or the noife
and clangor of many voices and inllruments in concert."

Clothaire II. in the ftventh century, having gained a
preat vidtory over the Saxons, it was celebrated by a Latin
long in riiyme, wiiich the annalills tell us was fung with
great vociferation all over the kingdom.

As the origin of fongs and the formation of the language
of every country are fo nearly coeval, we hope the reader
xvill allow II': to bellow a few columns on a fubjeci which,
though it may not be tiiought abfolutely necellary for a
jnul'ical lexicographer, or even liifloriaii to trace, yet it lies
lo near his path, that he can hardly proceed on hie way with-

out its being imprefled on his mind fortuitoufly. For the
/on^s of the ancient Greeks, fee ScOLlA.

But in enquiring after the moil ancient fongs in modern
languages, we Ihall not enter upon the merits of a qnellion
which has been much agitated in France during the middle
of the lalt century, " Whether the prefent language of that
country was firll cultivated in the northern or foisthern pro-
vinces .'" The origin of all inventions, after having been
futtiiid by ignorance and idlenefs to fleep for many ages, is
k> difficult to afcertain, that if the inhabitants of the king-
doms which gave them birth, where information is moft
likely to be furnilhed, are unable to bring them to light, it
would be arrogance in a foreigner to attempt it. The
Frencli critics and antiquaries all agree that the capital was
the lalt place to cultivate the vulgar tongue, and to receive
the firll eilays of thofe who made it the vehicle of their
thoughts. Fontenclle fays the firlt fparks of poetry appeared
chiefly at the two extremities of the kingdom, in Provence
and Picardy. " The Provengaux," fays he, " warmed by a
more genial fun, ought to have had the fuptriority ; but the
inhabitants of Picardy are their inferiors in nothing." M.de
la Ravaliere gives the honour of priority to the writers of
Normandy ; and Fauchet and Pafquier, feparating the French
poetry from the Provenijal, challenge the admirers of the
Troubadours to produce verfes of their writing of equal
antiquity with the ipecimens of French poetry which they
have exhibited. However, the Provenijai bards have lately
had many able champions, among whom M. de Lacurne de
Sainte Palaye, and his faithful 'Iquire, M. Millot, have dif-
tinguiflied themfelves. And though it cannot be denied
but that fragments of fongs lubfiit in the French language
of higher antiquity than in the dialetl of Provence, yet, as we
have been able to find no melodies that have been fet to
a modern language more ancient than thofe that have been
preferved m tiie Vatican library to the fongs of the Trou-
badours, we fliall begin our enquiries concerning the origin
of vulgar dialetts m Europe, by endeavouring to trace the
firfl formation of the language of Provence.

Every refined and polifhed nation has a vulgar language
in its remote ))rovinces, and even in its capital, among the
comnion people, in which there arc innumerable words and
phrafcs t!iat have never been admitted into books. This
mult doubtleis have been tiie cafe with the Romans ; and it
is the opniion of fome perfons of great eminence in literature,
among whom niav b' numbered tiie learned cardinal Bembo,
and the marquis Malfoi, that tiie ancient Romans had at all
times an oral vulgar language whicli wa: diflerent from that
of books ; and that this colloquial language, lefs grammati-
cal and elegant than that of the learned, was carried by the
Romans into all the provinces under their dominion. It is
therefore probable that tliis, and not the written language
of Italy, was the mother of the Provenijal, Sicilian, Ita-
lian, and Spanilh dialefts.

But luppoling fuch a language as Cicero's was ever
fpoken, it could not be laid alide for another all at once ; and
when we are told of a particular period or century, during
which the I^atin tongue ccafed to be fpoken in France or
Italy, and the Provencal, French, or Italian begun ; cre-
dulity itfelf is llaggcied, and unable to reconcile it to pro-
bability. Every language is long fpoken before it is written ;
and though the firll poet of Italy or Provence, who com-
mitted his verfes to writing in the vulgar tongue, could be
named, no one would venture to tell us by whom it was
firll fpoken.

Tiie learned Maflei is of opinion that there was a vulgat
language in Italy long before the irniptiuns of the Lombards,

Goths,

SONG.

Goths, or Franks ; and has traced its ufe as early as the
time of Quintihan, who tells us, that he had often heard the
crowd in the Circus applaud, or demand fomething of the
champions, in a barbarous language ; that is, in a vulgar and
plebeian dialeft, different from pure Latin. Sammonicus,
who lived in the time of Septimius Severus, names the vulgar
language. And both Pliny and St. Jerome fpeak of the
mihtary language as of that kind ; the latter even tells us
that Fortunatianus, bifhopof Aquileia, wrote a commentary
on the Evangelifts in this vulgar language, rujlico fermone,
during the time of Conftantine. But this was a fmgular
inftance, which was not imitated.

It appears, however, from the Dialogues of St. Gregory
the Great, written J93, that there was then a language
merely colloquial at Rome. For he tells us that a new con-
vert, of whom he is fpeaking, was fent to a convent with
two veflels of wine, which the vulgar call flai]<s.

And Gregory of Tours, fo early as 572, complains of
this vulgar or ruftic tongue gaining ground in France,
and being more in favour than Latin, the language of the
learned.

It was therefore by degrees that Latin ceafed to be under-
ftood by the common people, and the Romance language had
admiflion into books. And in 8 1 3 it was ordered by a canon
at the council of Tours, tbat the bifhops fhould be employed
in tranllating homilies into the Roman ruftic tongue, that
they might be the more eafily underitood by the common
people. The fame canon, we are told, was renewed in a
council at Aries in 851.

In the ninth century hiftorians tell us, that Charlemagne
and his fons and fucceflbrs fpoke the Romance language,
fpecimens of which may be feen in Fauchet, Pafquier, and
feveral other writers on the French language. And in the
twelfth century it began to be the general language of
poets and polite writers. Some of the iermons written and
preached by St. Bernard, about 1137, in this language, are
ilill preferved among the MSS. of the convent of Feuillans,
in the rue St. Honorc at Paris.

The colloquial language ufed only in familiar converfation
was called by the Romans_/tvmo ufualis, quotidianus, pedejlris,
vulgaris, mUitaris, rujllcus, &c. It is fuppofed by M. Bo-
namy, as well as by others, that from this vulgar Latin not
only the French language and its different dialefts but the
Spanifli and Italian are derived. Indeed, it is moit probable
that the Latin tongue, in its periods of greateft purity, was
only the language of the learned, in the Roman provinces
temote from the capital ; and that it was never fo generally
cultivated in other times as to exclude the vulgar dialedl.

In the frequent revolutions and ftruggles for empire during
thefe ages, the Roman language mult have been debafed and
corrupted, while new tongues were forming, which, though
not iufiicieiitly fixed and grammatical to be ufed in books,
were doubtlefs long the vulgar and colloquial dialefts be-
fore the Latin cealed to be the common language of the
learned.

It was about this time that the art of rhyming, or uni-
fonoiis termmations of vcrfcs, ilole into poetical compofition,
in a manner whicli the learned and judicious author of an
Etfay on the Language and Verfification of Chaucer, feems
to have traced to its fource. Leonine vcrfes, fuppofed to
have been fo called from a pope or monk Leo, their author,
in the feventh century, are by feme thoughc the firlt attempt
at rhyme ; while others imagine the hymn to St. John the
Baptilt, by Paul Diaconus, written about the latter end of
the eighth century, to be not only rendered memorable by
Guide's fcale, but by having been the model of all other

monkifh rhymes in Latin, as well as in modem languages
Ut queant laxis, &c.

But neither of thefe genealogies fatisfies all enquirers.
Gravina thinks it as abfurd to afcribe the invention of
rhyme to any one writer, as to attribute to an individual the
propagation of the plague, which is caufed by the univerfal
contagion of the air.

The Arabs had rhyme, according to Don Calmet, before
the time of Mahomet, who died 632, and in the fecond cen-
tury ufed a kind of poetry in meafures fimilar to the Greek,
and fet to mufic. See Rhyme.

While the new languages were unfettled, and but par-
tially known, even in the fingle kingdom or province where
they were forming, it was not uncommon to write half a
poem in Latin and half in a vulgar tongue. Indeed Dante
has left a poem in three languages, Latin, Provencal, and
Italian ; and Rambaud de Vachieras, a Provencal poet,
in five.

Petrarca and Muratori think that the Sicilians firft com-
pofed and wrote fongs in a vulgar language ; that from them
the cuftom went into Provence, and from Provence into
Italy. Indeed Sicily and Provence were long under the
dominion of the fame princes, and the fame language may
have been cultivated at the courts of both countries ; but as
no veftiges remain of Sicilian poetry refembhng the Pro-
vencal, the opinions of thefe authors, however eminent, and,
on other accounts, refpeftable, while unfupported by reafons
and fafts, can have but little weight.

Cardinal jBembo, however, w as of opinion that the firlt
rhymers and poets who wrote in a modern language were of
Provence ; after them the Tufcans, who had more affiftance
from them in their poetry than from any other people.
And both Crefcembeni and Gravina make the fame con-
ceflion.

Noltradamus, in his lives of the Provengal poets, fays
that Provence was called the mother of Troubadours and
Minftrels ; and that Dante, Petrarca, Boccaccio, and other
Tufcan poet?, enriched both their language and fancy from
the produftions of his countrymen. However, as no ver/i
fciohi, or poetical hues without rhymes, are to be found \n
the Provencal poets, though tlicy abound among the Ita-
lians, it is natural to fuppofe that in thefe meafures of blank
verfe the Italians imitated their ancellors the Romans, and
that in rhyming, the Provenjals were their models.

It was the opinion of Voltaire that this language began
to be formed in the ninth century, out of Latm and Teu-
tonic ; that it was the mother of French, Spanifh, and Ita-
lian ; " continued in favour till the reign of the emperor
Frederic II. and is itiU fpoken in fome villages of the Gri-
fous, and near Switzerland."

Carpentier derives the word Troubadour from Troba, Pro-
vencal, Jigmentum. H'inc Troubadours appellati poet£ Pro-
vindahs.

It was in the eleventh century, during the firft crufade,
according to the abbe Millot, tiiat Europe began to emerge
from the barbarous ftupidity and ignorance kito which it
had long been plunged. And while its inhabitants were
exercifing every fpecies of rapine, plunder, and pious cruelty
in Afia, art, ingenuity, and reafon, infenfibly civilized and
foftencd their minds.

It was then that the poets and fongfters known by the
name of Troubadours were multiplied, and their profeflion
honoured by the patronage and encouragement of the count
of Poitou, and many other powerful princes and barons,
who had themfelves fuccefsfuUy cultivated poetry and
mufic. At the courts of thefe munificent patrons they

were

SONG.

vttre treated with fiie greateft confideration and refpeft.
'The ladies, whofe charms they celebrated, gave them the
mod generous and flattering reception ; and fometimes dif-
dained not even to liften with compaflion to tales of tender-
nefs, and defcriptions of the havock which the irrefillible
charms of thefe fublunary divinities of chivalry had made in
their hearts. The fuccefs of a few infpired the refl with
hope, and excited exertions in the exercife of their art,
which impelled them towards perfeftion with a rapidity that
nothing but the united force of emulation and emolument
could occafion.

As thefe founders of modern verfification, thefe new poe-
tical architefts, cnnftrufted their poems upon plans of their
own invention ; and as all clafTical authority was laid afide,
either thraugh ignorance or delign, each individual gave
unlimited indulgence to fancy in the fubje£t, form, and fpe-
cies of his compofition. And it does not appear, during the
cultivation and favour of Provencal literature, that any one
Troubadour fo far outftript liis brethren in the approaches
he made towards perfeftion, as to beconfidered as a model
for his fucceffbrs. We find, though military prowefs,
hofpitality, Gothic gallantry, and a rage for feafts and
revelry prevailed, that talte, refinement, and elegance, were
never attained during this period, either in public or pri-
vate amufements. The want of originality of compofition
is frequently lamented when licence is repreffed by laws, and
the wild efTufions of an ardent imagination are bounded by
authority ; but the produftions that have been preferved
of the Provencal bards, which may be called the offspring of
writers in a ftate of nature, feem to prove the neceffity of
rule, order, and example, even in the liberal arts as well as
the government of a free itate. For the progrefs of taite
rauft ever be impeded by the ignorance and caprice of thofe
who cultivate an art without fcience or principles.

During near two centuries after Guido's arrangement of
the fcale and invention of the time-table afcribed to Franco,
no remnants or records of fecular mufic can be found except
thofe of the Troubadours, or Provengal poets. And though
in the fimple tunes which have been preferved of thefe bards,
no time is marked, and but little variety of notation appears,
yet it is not difficult to difcover in them germs of the future
melodies, as well as poetry, of France and Italy. Unluckily
the poetry and mufic of the Troubadours of Provence were
not for a long time called into notice by writers pofielTed
of thofe blandilliments of Ityle or manner which fafcinate,
and render whatever fubjeft they treat intcrelling to the ge-
nerality of readers. Faucliet, Pafquier, and Nollradamus
have written in a language that is now become fo uncouth
and difficult, that few have the courage to attempt acquiring
information or amufement from it ; and Muratori and CreU
cembeni, who are refpefted for their diligence andexaftitude,
are certainly dry and dull narrators of facts which promife
delight to every lover of literature ; nor do we remember, in
tonfulting their voluminous writings, ever to have found
them guilty of hazarding a fingle reflertion or conjecture
that has embelliffied tlie fubjedt, or rendered it amufing.
But this cenfure mull not be applied to Sainte-Palaye, Bo-
namy, la Ravaliere, and Barbazan, wlio, in the Memoires de
Litterature and elfewhere, have not only embeUifhed, but
nearly cxhaulted the fubjcA. Indeed, tlie period of Pro-
vencal poetry is intcrelling to literature, and the melody to
which it was lung is a fubjeft of curious enquiry to a mu-
fical hidorian ; for it is generally allowed that the Trouba-
dours, by fingiiig and writing in a new tongue, occafioncd a
revolution not only in literature but the human mind.
And as almoit every fpecies of Italian poetry i> derived

from the Provencals, fo air, the moft captivating part of
fecular vocal melody, feems to have had the fame origin.
At lealt the moft ancient ftrains that have been fpared by
time, are fuch as were fet to the fongs of the Troubadours.
See Troubadours.

Songs feem in a particular manner to belong to the
language of Italy. The ancient Romans were no great
fongllers ; and by what degrees the Latin language be-
came Italian, would be a tedious and difficult enquiry. We
know when the mufical drama or opera was cllablifhed, and
confequently when opera airs, with inftrumcnatal accompani-
ments, began firft to be cultivated ; but thefe are not the fub-
jefts of our prefent refearch : but when national melodies,
for fuch every country has, were firft applied to fongs in the
Italian language, a dialed which has long been univerfally
allowed to be more favourable to finging than any one
which the numerous combinations of letters in all alphabets
of modern times has produced, we are ignorant. And if the
French, Provengal, and Spanifh dialefts can be deduced from
the Latin, how much more eafy is it to trace the Italian from
that fource ? which is itfelf frequently fo near pure and claflical
Latin, that no other change or arrangement of words feems
to have been made, than what contributed to its fweetnefs
and facility of utterance.

That the Itahan tongue is derived from the vulgar lan-
guage of the ancient Romans, feems the opinion of the beft
critics ; but to difcover and point out by what degrees it
was fmoothed and polifhed to the ftate in which Dante,
Petrarca, and Boccaccio found it in the fourteeenth cen-
tury, would require more time, and occupy more fpace in
this article, than the fubjeft feems necellarily to require.
However, as the Italian language has been truly allowed to
be more mufical in itfelf when merely fpoken with purity,
than any other in Europe, an enquiry into the caufes of its
natural melody and mellifluence does not feem foreign to the
fubjeft of the prefent article.

Muratori (Difl'ert. 32.) has given innumerable paffages
from authors of the eighth and ninth centuries, to prove,
that after the Franks and Germans were fettled in Italy,
articles were ufed in the Latin language inftead of pronouns
and changes of termination, in order to fave the trouble of
infledling the cafes in nouns ; but pretends not to fay what
this vulgar language was, or whether the clergy preached
to the common people, or merchants carried on their corre-
fpondence in Latin or Itahan.

The learned Maffei allows the Provencal, French, Spanifh,
and Italian languages, to be defcendants from the L.itin, but
denies that the ancient inhabitants of Italy adopted any
words from the Goths or Huns who invaded them. The
genius of the German, Francic, or Teutonic language, which
was fpoken by the Lombards, was fo diametrically oppofitc
to that of the Italians, that it feems incredible there fhould
have been any exchange or union of dialedts between them :
the one being as remarkable for its numerous confonants and
harrti terminations, as the otiicr for its open vowels and mel-
lifluous endings. As it is the opinion of this profound
critic that the Romans had always a vulgar dialeft, lefs gram-
matical and elegant than that of the fenate and of books, ho
fuppofes the French, Spanifli, and Italian languages to have
been different modifications of this ruftic, plebeian dialctt.
But it is as difficult to alTigii a reafon for all thefe daughters
of one common mother being fo diffimiiar, as it is to account
for the little refembiance tiiat is frequently found between
other children of the fame parents. And why the French
language Ihould have fo many nafal endings, the Spanifh
fo many fibillating, and the Italian alone have none but
4 vucal

SONG.

vocal terminations, can only have been occafioned by fome Ensrlifh verfification. This may have. contributed to im-
particular and radical tendency in the vulgar and plebeian prove our lyric poetry ; but to confefs the truth from the
lan^uaffe of each country from very high antiquity. few parts of the firll clafs throughout Europe, who, at the

While thi' languaffe was forming, no mufic feems to have beginning of the fixteenth century, condefcended to write
been cultivated in Italv,exceptthecai)tofermo of the church; madrigah and fongs for mufic, it feems that the rage for
and unluckily no written melody can be found to the Can- canon, fugue, multiplied parts, and diffimilar melodies,
zon'i of Dante,' the fonnets of Petrarca, or the fongs of Boc- moving at the fame time, had fo much employed the com-
caccio, the three great founders of the Itahan tongue. Yet pofers, and weaned the attention of the hearer$ of thefe
thefe 'we are told, were all fet to fome kind of mufic or learned, or, as fome call them, Gothic contrivances, from
other, and fung even in the ftreets. See the biographical poetry, that the words of a fong feem to have been only a
articles of thefe lyric poets, particularly that of Boccaccio ; pretence for finging ; and as the poets of the two or three
whofe " Decamerone" has always been regarded as a natural laft centuries were in little want of mufic, muficians, in their
and faithful delineation of the manners and cultoms of Italy, turn, manifefledas little rcfped for poetry; for in thefe

elaborate compofitions, the words are rendered utterly unin-
teUigible by repetitions of particular members of a verfe ; by
each part finging different words at tlie fame time ; and by-
an utter inattention to accent.

In the " Effays on Song-writing," published with a col-
leftionof Englifh fong? (we need not name the author, whom

at the time when it was written.

With refpeft to mufic, whether the perfonages wliich lie
affen-.bles together after the plague at Florence 1348, and
the ftories they tell, are real or imaginary, the amufements
he afiigns them in his ritual mull have been fuch as were
ufual to the Florentines, among whom he lived at that time ;
and indeed the poems that are pretended to have been fung, he lias not named himfelf, nor given the date of the publi-

and the inftruments with whicli they were accompanied,
fubfiftcd before this period, and ftill fubfift.

Boccaccio tells us, at the end of his prima giornala, or
firft day, that " after fupper the inftruments were called in,
when the queen, for the day, ordained that there fliuuld be
a dance ; and after one had been led offby Lauretta, Emilia
fung a fong, in which fhe was accompanied by Dion, a gen-
tleman of the party, on the lute." There is nothing new or
extraordinary in this quotation. But in Italy, whence all the
liberal arts have travelled to the rell of Europe, it is curious
to know in what rank mufic was held at this early period,
and what ufe was made of it in polite affemblies, by tl:e in-
habitants- And here a writer, juftly celebrated for the cx-
aftnefs with which he has defcribed the culloms of his con-
temporaries in all fituations, tells us, that in an adembly of
perfons of birth and education, who paiTed ten days together

during fummer in a conllant fucceffion of innocent amufc- cannot be too fimple.

cation) there are many judicious and excellent reflexions;
and the fongs are admirably feledled, and form the bell col-
leftion in our language, under the three following heads :
" On Song-writing in general ;" " On Ballads and palloral
Songs ;" " On paffionate and defcriptive Songs."

We can perceive, however, that the author of thefe in-
genious eflays loves poetry better than mufic ; a perfonagc
whom he does not treat with common civility, when he fays,
" the heroine Poetry mult give place to the harlot Mufic,"
notwithftanding her claim to the title of a laJy of fafh'ton.
But we think the two ladies fhould rule and tie. There are
fongs wliere the poetry fiiould be refpefted, and the mufic
fubordinate ; and others, where mufic is entitled to pre-
eminence.

We wifh not fine poetry to have fine mufic, nor fine
mufic to be manacled by laboured poetry. Lyric poetry

ments, each evening was clofed by dance and fong ; in which
the whole company, confifling of feven ladies and three
gentlemen, of different charafters and acquirements, were able
' to perform their parts.

When we are told, that the lady who fang was ac-
companied by the lute, we know not of what this accom-
paniment confiltcd, whether it only fortified the voice-
part bv playing the fame melody, or more elaborately
furnifhed a bafe and a different treble, arifing out of its
harmony.

On the fccond day we find, tliat one of the company lead-
ing cflP 3 carol, a f mg was fung by another, which was an-
fwered in a kind of chorus by the reft.

At the clofe of tlie fecoad day B-^ccaccio tells us, that
after the fting, of which he gives the words, had been per-
formed, many others were fung, and many dances danced to
different tunes, by which we may gatlier, that befides carols
and ballads, the finging of which marked the ftep^ of a dance,
there were at this time fongs without dances, and tunes with-
out fongs.

Whoever reads the hiflory of the moft ancient inhabitants
of this ifland, the Cambrc-Britons, will find innumerable
inftances of the reverence which they paid to ther poct-
muficians, the bards both of Pagan and Chriftian times ; and
fongs of very high antiquity have been preforved in the
Welfh language, though not all the tunes to which they
were fung.

We are told (Mifcel. Anliq. vol. ii. p. 8.) that fir Thomas
^'^yatt was the firft who introduced Italian numbers into

9 •

The author allows the primitive meaning of a fong to
fignify fomething to he fung : and when he fays, " a fong,
as a poetical compofition, may be defined a ftiort piece,
divided into returning portions of meafures, and formed
uoon a fingle incident, thought, or fentiment," we readily
fubfcr^be to the definition. Indeed it was our opinion, (fee
Italian Tour,) long before we had the pleafure to perufe
thefe well written eflays ; and it is an opinion to wliich
Metaftafio ha? conftantly adhered, in all his admirable
mufical dramas.

With regard to paftoral fongs, though the Sicilian paf-
toral is not natural to our chmate, yet we produce better
fruit for the table in our hot-houfes, than the fouthern con-
tinent of Europe can boatt. An opera fong is a hot-houfe
plant. Paftoral fongs may have paftor.il mufic, as the
Siciliana movement has been happily treated more frequently,
by Handel, and many of our beft national compofers, fuch
as Arne and Boyce, than any other. And as for fimple
ballad tunes for hiftorical and narrative fongs, and common
ditties, there can be no fcarcity ; as a colleftor of our ac-
quaintance, many years ago, had amaffed a fufficient number
of foiig^ fet to mufic, and printed on a fingle folio half-fheet,
from the latter end of the 1 7th century, to fill twelve
volumes.

For defcriptive and paffionate fongs, we have pifturefqiie
and paffionate mufic ; and we hope this intelligent and ele-
gant writer will allow the lady Mttjic to be tricked out a
little in paffionate and defcriptive fongs. Haydn, in his
" Seafons," has defcribed very happily, we think, rural

fports

SONG.

fports and occupations, and admirably difplayed her imita-
tive and pifturefque powers, in awakening ideas of the
feveral feafons, and the rullic employments of each.

Spring.

The overture paints the departure of winter, and ap-
proach of fpring ; ploughing, fowing ; a prayer to iieaven
for profperity ; the youths and virgins going a Maying ;
chorus of thanks to the Supreme Being, in which is an ad-
mirable fugue, equal to the bed vocal fugues of Haodel.

Summer.

The overture paints the dawn of day ; the rifing fun ;
choral hymn to that luminary ; mowing, reaping ; a Ihady
retreat ; rural employments, and evening fports.

Autumn.

The fymphony indicates the hulbandman's fatisfadlion at
his plentiful harvell ; chorus in praife of induftry and la-
bour ; fruits gathered ; duet between an innocent fond
pair ; field fports ; hunting ; vintage ; dancing ; romping ;
finging ; revelling, and jubilation.

Winter.

The overture paints thick fogs at the approach of winter ;
horrors of winter ; diftrefs of travellers ; evening domeftic
amufemeiits ; purring of the wheel ; a narrative ruitic fong ;
moral refledtions on winter, fet to a fine air, cantabile ; fu-
ture rewards of a life well fpent, in the coro finale.

Milton's Allegro and Penferofo, as fet by Handel,
which are all defcription, have not been injured by too ela-
borate mufic ; but thefe are not the fongs nor the mufic of
which we meant to trace the hiftory, when we began the
prefent article. See Air.

Song of Birds, is defined by the Hon. Daines Barrington
to be a fucceflion of three or more different notes, which
are continued without interruption, during the fame interval,
with a mufical bar of four crotchets in an adagio movement,
or whilft a pendulum fwings four feconds.

It is obferved that notes in birds are no more innate than
language in man, and that they depend entirely upon the
mailer under which they are bred, as far as their organs will
enable them to imitate the founds which tliey have frequent
opportunities of hearing : and their adhering fo iteadily,
even in a wild ilate, to the fame fong, is owing entirely to
the nelUiiigs attending only to the inltruftion of the parent-
bird, whillt it difregards the notes of all others that may
perhaps be finging round him.

Birds in a wild tlate do not commonly fing above ten
weeks in the year, whereas birds, that have plenty of food
in a cage, fing the greateil part of the year : and we may
add, that the female of no fpccies of birds ever fings ; and
this is a wife provifion of nature, becaufe her fong would
difcover her neft ; and, in the fame manner, we may ra-
tionally account for her inferiority in refpeft to plumage.
The faculty of finging is confined to the cock birds ; and
accordingly Mr. Hunter, in didefting birds of feveral
fpccies, found the mufcles of the larynx to be ftrongcr in
the nigiitingale than in any other bird of the fame fize ; and
in all thofe indances, where he diifeftcd both cock and hen,
the fame mufcles were llronger in the cock. To the fame
purpofe, it is an obfervation as ancient as the time of Pliny,
that a capon does not crow.

Some have afcribcd the finging of the cock-bird in the
fpring to the motive only of plcafing his mate, during in-
cubation ; nature, indeed, partly for this end, has given to
the male the power of finging : but the finging of a bird in

Vol, XXXni.

the fpring is more probably owing to the greater plenty of
plants and infedts, which, as well as feeds, are the proper
food of finging birds, at that time of the year.

Mr. Barrington remarks, tliat there is no inftance of any
bird's finging, which exceeds our black-bird in fize ; and
this, he fiippofes, may arife from the difficulty of its con-
cealing itfelf, if it called the attention of its enemies, not
only by bulk, but by the proportionable loudncfs of its
notes. This writer farther obferves, that fome pafi'ages of
the fong, in n few kinds of bird:, corrcfpond with the in-
tervals of our mufical fcale, of which the cuckoo is a
ftriking and known mltance; but much the greater part of
fuch fong is not capable of mufical notations : partly, be.)
caufe the rapidity is often fo great, and it is alfo fo uncer^
tain when they may (lop, that we cannot reduce the paffageal
to form a mufical bar in any time whatfoever ; partly alfo^
becaufe the pitch of moft birds is confiderably higher than
the moll fhrill notes of thofe infiruments which comprehentj
even the greateft compafs ; and principally, becaufe the in-
tervals ufed by birds are commonly fo minute, that we can-
not judge at all of them from the more grofs intervals into
which we divide our mufical oAave. This writer appre-
hends, that all birds fing in the fame key ; and in order to
difcover tliis key he informs us, that the following notes
have been obferved in different birds. A, B flat, C, D, F,
and G ; and, therefore, E only is wanting to complete the
fcale : now thefe intervals, he fays, can only be found in
the key of F with a (harp third, or that of G with a flat
third ; and he (uppofcs it to be the latter, becaufe, ad-
mitting that the firtt mufical notes were learned from birds,
thofe of the cuckoo, which have been moil attended to,
form a flat third ; and moll of our compofitions are in a flat
third, where mufic is fimple, and confids merely of melody.
As a farther evidence, that birds fing always in the fame
key, it has been found by attending to a nightingale, at
well as a robin, which was educated under him, that the
notes reducible to our intervals of the oiftave were always
precifely the fame.

Mod people, who have not attended to the notes of birds,
fuppofe, that thofe of every fpecies fing exattly the fame
notes and paflages, which is by no means true, though it is
admitted that there is a general refemblance. Thus the
London bird-catchers prefer the fong of the Kentifli gold-
finches, and EfTex chaffinches ; but fome of the nightingale-
fanciers prefer a Surrey bird to thofe of MidJlefex.

The nightingale has been almolt uuiverfally reckoned the
mod capital of finging birds ; and its fupcriority, deduced
from a caged bird, confids in the following particnLis : its
tone is much more mellow than that of any other bird,
tliough at the fame time, by a proper exertion of its mufical
powers, it can be cxceflively brillinnt. Another point of
fupcriority is its continuance of long, without a paufe,
which is fometimes no lefs than twenty feconds ; and when
the refpiratiun became ncceffary, it has been taken with as
much judgment as by an opera-finger. The (Icy-lark in
this particular, as well as in compafs and variety, is only
fecond to the nightingale. The nightingale alfo fings, if
the exprtflions may be allowed, with fiiperior judgment
and tade. Mr. Barrington has obferved, that his iiiglitin-
gale, which was a very capital bird, began foftly like the
ancient orators ; referving its breath to fwell certain notes,
which by this means had a mod adonilhing eflfcft. Thi»
writer adds, that tlie notes of birds, whicli are annually im-
ported from Afia, Africa, and America, both fingly and
in concert, are not to be compared to thofe of Europe.

T!ie following table formed by Mr. Barrington, agree-
ably to tile idea of M. de Piles in cdimating the merits of
Y y paintcr»j

SON

painters, is defigned to exhibit the comparative merit of the
JBritifh finging birds : in which twenty is fuppofed to be the
point of abfolute perfeftion.

Nightingale - - . • -
Sky-lark ------

Wood- lark

Tit-lark

Linnet •-.----

Goldfinch

Chaffinch

Greenfinch - - . . .
Hedge-lp arrow . - - -
Aberdavine or fifltin - -

Red-poll

Thrjfh

Blackbird

Robin -------

V/ren

Reed fparrow . . . -

Black-cap, or Norfolk ]

mock nightingale - - -j

'9

4

i8

12

12

4

4
4
6

2 j
O

4 1

6

° I

o I

H
19
4
12
16

19
12

4
o

4
4
4
4
16
12
4

19

4

17

12

12

4

4

4

6

o

o

4

o

12

o
o

19
18

12
12
16
12

8
4
4
4
4
4
2
12

4
2

14

19
18

12

18

12

8

6

4

4

4

4

2

12

4

2

'4

See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixiii. pt. ii. art. 31. p. 249, &c.

Song, Refponfary. See Respon'sary.

SONGARI, in Geography, a river of Chinefe Tartary,
which joins the Amur at Saghalien. — Alfo, a town of
Chinefe Tartary ; 10 miles N.W. of Foe Petoune Hotun.

SONGEONS, a town of France, in the department of
the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Beauvais ; 1 2 miles N.W. of Beauvais. The place con-
tains 1041, and the canton 12,577 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 205 kiliometres, in 29 communes.

SONG-HOA, a town of Corea ; 50 miles S.W. of
Hoang.

SONGI, a river of Malacca, which runs into the Chinefe
fea, N. lat. 2° 10'. E. long. 104° 10'.

SoKGi Tanjang, a town on the weft coaft of the ifland of
Sumatra. N. lat. 2° 35'. E. long. 97= 10'.

SONGIEU, a town of France, in the department of
the Ain ; 13 miles N. of Belley.

SONG-KI, a town of China, of the third rank, in Fo-
kien ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Kien-nhing.

SONG-KJANG, a city of China, of the firit rank, in
Kiang-nan, fituated in the midlt of feveral rivers or canals,
near the fea, fo that the Chinefe junks approach it in every
direftion. It carries on a large trade in cotton cloth, which
the inhabitants fend to different parts of the empire. It has
four towns in its jurifdiftion ; 560 milts S. of Peking.
N. lat. 31°. E. long. 1 20° 44'.

SONG-MEN-CHAN, a fmall ifland, near the coaft of
China, in Tche-kiang. N. lat. 28'' 22'. E. long. 121° 21'.

SONGO, or Sango, a town of Africa, in the kingdom
of Mandingo, near the coaft of the Gambia.

SoNGO. See Saxkari and Sogno.

SONGOA, an ifland in the ttraits of Malacca, about
50 miles in circumference. N. lat. 2° 18'. E. long,
loo'^ 30'.

SONGOO, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near the
coaft of Africa. S. lat. 7° 20'.— Alfo, a town on the eait

coaft of the ifland of Banca.
106" 16'.

S. lat. 2° 12'. E. long.

SON

SONGORA. See Sangora,

SONG-TCHOUI, a town of China, of the third rank,

in Hou-quang ; 40 miles N.E. of Ou-tchang.

SONG-TSI, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Hou-quang ; 27 miles W. of KiHg-tcheou.

SONG-YANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Tche-kiang ; 22 miles W. of Tchu-tcheou.

SONGY-DAVAN, a town on the weft coaft of Su.
matra. N. lat. 1° 18'. E. long 98° 12'.

SONGY-LAMA, a town on the weft coaft of Sumatra.
S. lat. 3° 40'. E. long. 101° 57'.

SONHO, SoNGO, or Sogno. See SoGNO.

SON-HOIT, a diftria of Chinefe Tartary, in the ter-
ritory of the Mongols. N. lat. 42° 4S'. E. long. 1 14° 27'.

SONKOE, a town of Bengal ; 15 miles W.N.W. of
Moorfhedabad.

SONMEANY, the principal fea-port in the diftrift of
Lus, and province of Mekran, in Perfia. It is a fmall and
mean town, and was deftroyed in 1809 by the Jouaflimees.
It is fituated on an elevated bank, at the mouth of the river
Pooralee, which forms a bar about a mile from the town,
three fathoms deep at low-water, and boats can anchor clofe
to the ftiore. The inhabitants, with the exception of a few
Hindoo merchant?, live chiefly by fifhing. Frtfli water is
procured by digging in the fand : and it is neceflary that the
well be immediately filled up ; for if it be fuffered to remain
open, the water becomes fait.

SONNA, a book, or coUeftion of the Mahometan tra-
ditions, or of the fayings and aftions of their prophet, which
all the orthodox Muflulmen are required to believe. This
is a kind of fupplement to the Koran, directing the ob-
fervance of feveral things omitted in that book, and in
fenfe, as w^ell as defign, correfponding to the Miflina of
the Jews. See Mahometaxism.

The word fignifies, in Arabic, the fame with m'lfl.ma in
the Hebrew, that is, fecond la-w ; or, as the Jews call it,
oral laiu.

The adherents to the Sonna are called Sonnifes, or TraJi-
tionaries ; and as, among the .Tews, there is a feft of Ca-
raites, who rejeft the traditions as fables invented by the
rabbins ; there are alfo feclaries among the Mahometans,
called Scbiiles, (fee the article,) who rejeft the traditions
of the Sonnites, as being only founded on the authority of
an apocryphal book, and not derived to them from their
legiflator.

There is the fame enmity between the Sonnites and
Schiites, as between the rabbinilf Jews and the Caraites.
The Schiites reproach the Sonnites, with obtruding the
dreams of their doftors for the word of God ; and the
Sonnites, in their turn, treat the Schiites as heretics, who
refufe to admit the divine precepts, and who have corrupted
the Koran, &c.

The Sonnites are fubdivided into four chief fefts, which,
notwithftanding fome differences as to legal conclufions in
their interpretations of the Koran, and matters of practice,
are generally acknowledged to be orthodox in radicals or
matters of faith, and capable of falvation ; and have each of
them their feveral ftations or oratories in the temple of
Mecca. The founders of ihefe feels are regarded as the
great mafters of jurifprudence, and are faid to have been
men of great devotion and felf-denial, well verfed in the
knowledge of thofe things which belong to a future life,
and to man's right conduft in the prefent ftate, and direft-
in^ all their knowledge to the glory of God. This is AI
Ghazeli's encomium of them, who thinks it derogatory to
their honour, that their names (hould be ufed by thofe who,
neglefting to imitate the other virtues which form their

charafter.

SON

SON

oharafter, apply themfelves merely to attain their fl<ill, and
follow their opinions in matters of legal praftice.

The firH of thefe orthodox fefts is that of the " Hane-
fites," fo named from their founder, Abu Hanifa al Nomen
Ebn Thebet, who was born at Ciiia, in the Soth year of
the Hegira, and died in the 150th ; ending his life in prifon,
at Bae^dad. The reafon of his confinement was his refufal
to be called " Kadi," or judge ; and when he was quef-
tioned concerning it, he is faid to have replied, " If I fpeak
the truth, I am unfit ; but if I tell a lie, a liar is not fit to
be a judge." It is reported, that, during his confinement
in prilon, he read over the Koran no lefs than 7000 times.
An Arabian writer calls the Hanefites " the followers of
reafon," and thofe of the three other fefts " followers of
tradition ;" the former being principally guided by their
own judgment in their decifions, and the latter adhering
more tenacioufly to the traditions of Mahomet. This feft
formerly obtained chiefly in Irak, but now generally pre-
vails among the Turks and Tartars. The fecond orthodox
feft is that of Malec Ebn Ans, who was born at Medina,
in the year of the Hegira 90, 93, 94, or 95 ; and died
there in 177, 178, or 179. This doftor is faid to have
paid great regard to the traditions of Mahomet. In his lall
illnefs, a friend who vifitcd him, and found him in tears,
and a(l<ing the realbn of it, received for anfwer, " How
fhould I not weep ? and who has greater reafon to weep
than I ? Would to God that for every queltion decided
by me according to my opinion, I had received lo many
ftripes ! then Vv'ould my account be more eafy. Would to
God I had never given any decifion of my own !" The
doftrine of Malec is chiefly favoured in Barbary, and other
parts of Africa. The third orthodox feCt was denominated
«' Shafeites." (See the article.) The founder of the
fourth feft was Ahmed Ebn Hanbaj. See Hanbai,.
Sale's Koran, Int.

SONNEBECK, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lys ; 5 miles N.E. of Ypres.

SONNEBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz ; 6 milts W. of Commotan. — Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in the principality of Coburg ; 10 miles N.N.E. of
Coburg. N. lat. 50° 2^'. E. long. 1 1° 13'. — Alfo, a town
of Auftria; 12 miles S.S.W. of Laab. N. lat. 48° 29'.
E. long. 16° 2'. — Alfo, a citadel of Auftria, which gives
name to a county veiled in the houfe of Auftria ; 23 miles
S. of Bregentz.

SONNEBORN, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Oberland; 5 miles S. of Morungen.

SONNEBURG, a town of the Middle Mark of Bran-
denburg, on a fmall river, which runs into the Warta ; in
which is a commandcry of the knights of Malta. The
grand-mafter may create as many knights as he plcafes, nor
are Lutherans excluded, who are permitted to marry. The
eleftor of Brandenburg is the grand-mafter of the order ; 10
miles E.S.E. of Cuftrin. N. lat. 52^ 37'. E. long.
14° 58'.

SONNECQUE, a river of Brabant, which runs into the
Senne, 5 miles above Halle.

SONNEG, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ; 2 miles
S. of Eberndorff.

SONNEN KoGEL, a mountain of Auftria ; 8 milcj S.
of Steyr.

SONNENBERG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Nallau Saarbruck Uffingen ; 2 miles N.E. of
Wifbaden — Alfo, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Grotkau; 6 miles S.E. of Grotkau.— Alio, a town of
Pruflia, in the province of Bartenland ; 12 miles S.E. of

Bartcnftein. — Alfo, a town of Pruflia, ia the province of
Ermeland ; 16 miles E.N. E. of Elbing.

SONNENBURG, a town of Brandenburg, m the New
Mark, on the Lenza ; 7 miles E. of Cuftrin. N. lat. 52*^
37'. E. long. 14° 58'.

SONNENSTEIN, a fortrefs of Saxony, in the'mar-
graviate of Meiilen, near Pirna.

SONNERATIA, in Botany, was fo named by the
younger Linna;us, in honour of a diftinguilhed French tra-
veller and naturalift, M. Sonnerat, who publiflied, in 1 776, a
Voyage to New Guinea, in one volume. 410. ; and in 1782,
a Voyage to the Eaft Indies and China, in two fimilar vo-
lumes. Both works are adorned with a multitude of en-
gravings. They do honour to the author's charaftcr, as
well as to his infoi-mation. The latter publication is pecu-
liarly inftruftive and correft, on the fubjeft of Hindoo my-
thology, and has been made much ufe of by various fuc-
ceeding writers. Botany does not make a prominent part
of M. Sonnerat's performances ; but he has defcribed and
figured feveral new or rare plants, particularly adverting to
important articles of trade or medicine whole hiflory was
previoufiy obfcure, in his Voyages, and he is alfo the author
of fome exprefsly botanical treatifes, of fimilar aim, which
have been given to the world in periodical publications.
He died, a (hort time fince, at an advanced age, having jull
before paid a vifit to England. — Linn. Suppl. 38. Schreb.
Gen. 337. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 999. Mart. Mill. Did.
v. 4. Jufl'. 325. Lamarck Illullr. t. 420. (Aubletia;
Gxrtn. t. 78.) — Clafs and order, Icofandrta Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. M'lyrii, Jufl'.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, coriaceous,
fomewhat bell-fliaped at the bafe, with a tumid internal
border ; the limb in fix or tour ovate, acute, fpreading,
flat, permanent iegments. Cor. Petals fometimes fix, awl-
fliaped, ipreading, inferted into the internal rim of the
calyx, and about the fame length ; in fome cafes wanting.
Stam. Filaments numerous, flattened, inferted likewife into
the rim ot the calyx, as long or longer than its fegments ;
anthers roundifli. PjJI. Gormen iuperior, globofe, ftyle
thread-fliaped, about the length of the ftamens ; ftigma
capitate. Perk. Berry large, globofe, pointed, fmooth,
feated on the permanent calyx, of many cells, full of vefi-
cular pulp. 5ff(/j- numerous, oblong, curved, gibbous and
corrugated.

Elf. Ch. Calyx in four or fix fegment!, coriaceous, in-
ferior, permanent. Petals awl-fhapcd, or none. Berry of
many cells. Seeth numerous, gibbous.

Obi. This genus is fomewhat like a Punka, with its
fruit turned out of the calyx. The younger Linnaeus feems
to have ftudied very fuperficially the only Ipecies which fell
in his way, never perceiving it to be an old plant of his fa-
ther's, defcribed and figured by Rnmphius.

I. S. acula. Red-flowered Scniieratia. Linn. Suppl.
252. Willd. n. I. ( Rhizophora cafcolaris ; Linn. Sp. PI.
635. Aubletia cafcolaris ; Gsertn. v. i. 379, excluding the
fynonym of Rumphiu^'. Mangium cafcolarc rubrum ;
Rum.ph. Amboin. v. 3. 112. t. 74. Pagapate ; Sonner.
Nouv. Guin. 16. t. lo, 1 1.) — Flcwersin fix fegments ; with
fix petals. Leaves elliptic-oblong. Branches quadrangu-
lar.— Native of the muddy banks of large rl;i is in the Mo-
lucca iflands ; often planted about luiufes for the lake of its
fruit. Sonnerat found it in moill parts of New Guinea.
We have a fpecimen, gathered by Dr. Buchanan in Bengal,
where, as he informs u-^, the natives know th-'s pi ml by tlie
name ot Duabanga. The Malay 3 call it Brappat, accord'ng
to Rumphius, who dcfcribes it as a large tree, flowering in
y y 2 Odobcr.

SON

Oftober. The branches, as he juftly obferves, arc fquare,
not round. The heart of the ivood is hard and durable.
Z,fOT« oppofite, on very (hort ftalks, eUiptic-oblong, ob-
tufe, with a fmall point, entire, fomewhat lucculent, a fpan
long, fmooth, with one rib, and numerous tranfverfe veins ;
their under fide glaucous. Flowers terminal, fohtary, of a
beautiful red. Fruh green, acid, fmelling like rotten cheefe,
falling out of the calyx when quite ripe. The Malays, &c.
eat it, as well as the young leaves, with fifh and other food.
The beautiful half-expanded /i3Wf« are worn as orna-
ments for the head, and are often imitated in gold. Rum-
phius fays it is ufual to deprefs the ftamens with two little
pegs, forced crofs-wife through the piftil.

2. S. alba. White-flowered Sonneratia. (Mangium
cafeolare album ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. iil. t. 73.) —
Flowers in fix, or more, fegments, without petals? Leaves
elliptical or roundifh. Branches round. — Native of Itony
or rocky plains, overflowed by the tide, on the fea (hore of
the Molucca and neighbouring iflands, flowering in Augult
and September. Rumphius defcribes this as a large, thick
and rugged tree, like an oak, with fpreading and curved
branches, commonly laden with various parafitical plants.
The branches are round. Leaves fmooth, brittle and fuccu-
lent, with hardly any vifible veins, and of a rounder broader
ihape than the foregoing. Flowers two or three together at
the end of each branch. Calyx green, in fix, feven or
eight divifions. No mention is made of any petals. Stamens
long, white, with brown anthers. Style very long, with a
green Jligma. Fruit deprefled, as broad as the hand, in-
ternally dry, white, and granular, with an aftringent, and
(lightly acid flavour, but no fmell. It burfts at length into
feveral portions, but does not fall off" like the former, nor is
it fo generally eaten, except when drelled with fi(h. Rum-
phius fo clearly diftinguifhes this fpecies, which Gaertiier
millook for the former, and Linnxus confounded therewith
imder his Rhizophora cafeolarts, that though we have leen no
fpecimen, we have ventured to defcribe it. What thofe
horn-fliaped excrefcences are, which occupy the foil at fome
diftance from the bafe of this tree, from a fpan to a foot in
length, and of a corky fubilance, as defcribed by Rum-
phius, we can offer no conjefture.

3. S. apetala. Small-flowered Sonneratia. Buchanan in
Symes's Embafly to Ava, oftavo, v. 3.313.1.25. — Flowers
in four fegments ; without petals. Leaves ovato-lanceolate.
Branches round, pendulous. — Native of the moiit inundated
fea-fhores of the kingdom of Ava, near Rangoon, flowering
in May. We have fpccimens communicated by Dr. Rox-
burgh to lord Valentia. This is defcribed as a moft beau-
tiful tree, refembling our Weeping Willow, but taller, with
fcattered, pendulous,- fmooth, round, flender branches.
Leaves few, oppofite, ilalked, ovato-lanceolate, entire,
fmooth, rather fleihy, about three inches long, moitly blunt,
a little unequal at the bafe, hardly an inch broad. Flowers
axillary and terminal, ftalked, drooping, greenifh, about an
inch in diameter, with white ftamens, the length of the
calyx, but no petals. Fruit orbicular, deprelTed, of eight
cells, with numerous angular feeds. The Jligma is remark-
able for its great fize, and conical figure, hollow underneath,
like a fort of cap. The want oi petals in this fpecies induces
us the more readily to believe, that they may alfo be want-
ing in the lafl, and thjt the accurate Rumphius has not
merely by accident omitted to mention them.

SONNERSKARET, in Geography, a fmall ifland on
the E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. Sy' 25'. E.
long. 21° 32'.

SONNET, SoNETTO, in Poetry, a kind of compofi-

SON

tion properly contained in fourteen verfes ; ii/z. two ftanzaf,
or meafures, of four verfes each, and two of three ; the
eight firft verfes being all in two rhymes.

Thefonnetis of Italian origin, and Petrarch is allowed to
be the father of it ; it is held the mofl difficult and artful of
all poetical compofitions, as requiring the utmoft accuracy
and exaftnefs. It is to end with fome pretty ingenious
thought : the clofe mufl be particularly beautiful, or the
fonnei is defeAive.

In Malherb, and fome other French poets, we meet with
fonnets, where the two firfl ftanzas are not in the fame
rhyme ; but they are held irregular ; and, in effeft, great
part of the merit of thefe pieces confifts in a fcrupulous ob-
fervance of the rules.

Ronfard, Malherb, Maynard, and Gombaut, have com-
pofed abundance of fonnets ; but, among two or three
thoufaiid, there are Icarcely two or three worth much.

Pafquicr obferves, that Du Bellai was the firft wlio intro-
duced fonnets into France. But Du Bellai liimfelf fays,
that Merlin de S. Gelais firft converted the Italian fonnets
into French.

Of twenty-three fonnets which were written by our great
poet Milton, that addreffed to Henry Laws is one of the
bell ; and yet this fhews how difficult and unnatural the con-
ftruftion of this fpecies of poem is in the Englifh language ;
whereas, from the great number of fimilar terminations in
the Italian tongue, and the fuccefs of Petrarch, it has long
been the favourite meafure of Italy for fhort compofitions.
However, Muratori thinks it extremely difficult for his
countrymen to make a good foiinet ; and he compares this
kind of poem to the bed of Procruftes, where the legs of
thofe that were too fhort were flretched, and thofe too long
were cut to the fize of the bed.

Antonio a Tempo, a civilian at Padua, in his Treatife on
Poetry, 1332, diftinguifhes fixteen different kinds of fonnet.
Burney's HilL Mufic, vol. ii. p. 324.

SONNEWALDE, in Geography, a town of Saxony ;
10 miles S. of Luckau. N. lat. 51° 40'. E. long.

•3° 38'-

SONNINO, a town of Campagna di Roma; 6 miles

N. of Terracina.

SONNO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 18
miles N.W. of Iwata.

SONOKI, a town of Mingrelia ; 45 miles S.E. of
Anarghia.

SONORA, or Senora, a province of New Spain,
filuated between 35° and 27° N. lat. and 110° and 117°
W. long.; bounded N. by New Mexico, W. by California,
S. by Sinaloa and the gulf, and E. by Bifcay and New-
Mexico. Its greateft length from N. to S. is about 420
miles, and its breadth from E. to W. 380 miles. The air
is dry and pure, and the climate generally healthy, though
near the gulf the ground is marlhy, and it is, in fome of
the diftricls, infalubrious. Sonora abounds in rich gold
and filver-mines, particularly the former. Like Bilcay, it is
deftitute of timber, but it has fome rich foil near the gulf.
Its rivers are the Rio de I'Afcenfion, which enters the gulf
of Cahfurnia about N. lat. 31°, and the Rio Yaqui, which
difcharges itfelf into the fame gulf at Guyamas, at N. lat.
28°. Its animals are the deer, cabrie, and bear, and large
lizards, which are tamed by the inhabitants, and trained to
catch mice. The population of Sonora may be eftimated
at 200,000 fouls, confifting of Spaniards, Creoles, Metifs,
and Indians. The capital of Sonora is Arifpaa, fituated in
N. lat. 21" and W. long. 111°, near the head of the river
Yaqui ; celebrated for the urbanity and hofpitality of its in-
0 habitants,

SON

S O O

fiabitants, and for the large quantity of gold table Utenfils
ufed in their houfes ; and having a population of 3400 per-
'"ons. The next cities in refpeft of magnitude are Sonera,
S., and Terenate, N. of the capital. Sonora trades with
New Mexico and Bifcav for the produftions of thofe dif-
ferent province;;, and with old Mexico, both by land and
fea, through the gulf of California. It is famous for its
cheefe, horles, and fheep. The governor is a brigadier-
;^enerai, and his falary is 7000 dollars, in addition to his
pay in the line. The regular military force of this province
confiftsof 900 dragoons, and 200 infantry, the latter being
I Indians called Opejas, and reckoned the beft foldiers in New-
Spain. The profefled religion is the Catholic, and it belongs
to the diocefe of the biihop of Durango. The feat of go-
vernment is at Chihuahua.

SONORYA, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares; 10
miles S. of Merzapour.

SONS Harmoniques, or fluted found?, a fingular
kind of found produced on the violin, tenor, and violon-
cello, by touching the firing (lightly in its aliquot parts
and harmonic divifious, without preffing the finger on the
finger-board ; by which means, that part of the ftring
founds, which is above the hand next to the nut, not the
part touched by the bow. Thefe founds are very different
in quality of tone from thofe which would be produced, if
the finger were prefTed down. As to the pitch of tone, the
harmonics will give the fifth, when the third would be pro-
duced by the ufual means ; the third, when the fixth is ex-
pefted, &c. The quality of tone acquired by this means
is fo much more fweet than the common tones of the inflru-
ment, that tlie French have entitled them notes Jlutees, fluted
notes. Rouifeau fays, that to form an accurate idea of
tliefe founds, it was neceflary to hear Mondonville produce
them on his violin, and Bernard on his violoncello, who
could form a regular fcale of thefe fweet tones, which very
much aftonifhed thofe who did not know the theory. But
we have heard Salomon perform this feat, this trick of
youth, with a dexterity and tafte unknown to Mon-
donville.

As the principle on which this theory is founded depends
on transferring the tone, produced by the bow, to that
part of the firing next the nut, inflead of that next the
bridge, of which the bow prevents the vibration, the long
divifion of the firing, when touched flightly by the finger,
feems to produce the highell note ; and e contra.

We fliall give, in tlie Mufic Pliitss, a table of harmonic
founds, which will facilitate the pradlice of this fcemingly
eccentric fcale. The fiifl line, or flafl, will indicate the
founds which would be produced in the common way ; and
the fecond line, the correfpondcnt fluted note, when the
firing is touched harmonically. All the founds of the
trumpet marine are harmonics, which renders it difficult to
produce certain founds upon that inllrument. See Noi.sE.

SONSBECK, in Ceogriiphy, a town of the duchy of
Cleves ; 11 miles S.S.E. of Cleves.

SONSECA, a town of Spain, in New Caflile ; 8 miles
S. of Toledo.

SONSINO. See Soncino.

SONSONATE. Sec La Tjiinidad.

SONTAG, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 3 miles
N.W. of Fridau.

SONTAGBERG, a town of Audria, in which is a
cloiflcr of Bencdidtines ; 5 miles N. of Bavarian Waid-
hovcn.

SONTAGE, in our Old Writers, a tax of forty flullings
laid upon every knigiit's fee, according to Stow, p. 2S4.

SONTHEIM, ui Geography, a town of Germany, in

the lordfhip of Limburg ; 15 miles S.E. of Hall in
Swabia.

SoNTHElM, Maine, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg,
on the Maine ; 3 miles N. of Kitzingen.

SONTHOFEN, or Sunthofen, a town of Bavaria,
in the bifliopric of Augfburg ; 56 miles S. of Augfburg.

SONTHONNAX de la Montagne, a town of France,
in the department of the Ain ; 6 miles N.W. of Nantua.

SONTRA, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Hefle Rhiufens, on the Wohra ; 28 miles S. of Cafiel. N.
lat. 51=5'. E. long. 9" 58'.

SON VI CO, a town of Italy ; y miles N. of Lugano.

SONUS, or NuMADUS, \n ^hicunt Geography, a river of
India, on this fide of the Ganges, which had its fource in
the mountains, ran towards the eall, and bending its courfe
towards the north-eafl, difcharged iifelf into the Ganges, a
little below Jomanas, after a courfe of about 200 leagues.
M. d'Anville fuppofes that this river is the Audomatis of
Arrian ; but as this river had its rife among the Mondiadini,
and ran into the Ganges, it could not be the fame with
the Sonus.

SONWARY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 21 miles S. of Surat.

SONZAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre and Loire ; 12 miles N. of Tours.

SOO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ; 25 miles
N.W. of Uxumi.

SOOBARUM, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 10 miles N.W. of Vifigapatam.

SOOBKA, a town of Bengal; 13 miles S. of Bogli-
pour.

SOOBOO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra ; 10 miles
W. of Sego.

SOOBRUDOOKI, a town of Africa, in Bondou ;
20 miles S.W. of Fatteconda.

SOO-CHOO. See Sou-TCHEOU.

SOOCOO, in Commerce, a money of account at Ben-
coolen ; 4 foocoos being = a dollar = 32 fattalies, or fa-
tellers : this dollar is reckoned at jx. flerling.

SOODEREH, m Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore ; 15 miles N.N.E. of Ameenabad.

SOOE, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 37 miles
N.N.E. of Radunpour.

SOOHA, a town of Africa, in Bambarra, on the river
Niger. N. lat. 13° 10'. W. long. 4^^ 52'.

SOOHAGEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Boggilcund ;
30 miles N.N.E. of Rewah.

SOOINS, a name given m the North to a kind of rural
food, that has been found very beneficial in the fcurvy.
This food is prepared by putting fbme oatmeal into a
wooden vcllel, and pouring hot water upon it, and con-
tinuing the infuiion till the liquor begins to tafte fourifh,
/. e. till a fermentation comes on, whicii in a place mode-
rately warm may be in the fpace of two days. The water
is then poured off from the grounds, and boiled down to
the confillence of ajelly.

SOOKA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 42 miles
W. of Silhet.

SOOKANG, a town of Africa, in Fooladoo. N. lat.
if 35'. W. long. 8"' 5'.
"SbOKAPOORA, a kingdom of J.ipan.

SOOK.IURAH, a town of Bengal; ^i miles W. of
Nagore.

SOOKSOR, a town of Bengal; 6 miles N. of Cal-
cutta.

SOOLARAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
EUore.

SOOLOO,

s o o

SOOLOO, one of the Philippine ifiands, in the Eaft
Indian fea, about 30 miles long and 10 broad, and con-
taining 60,000 inhabitants, who are Malays, governed by
a king or fultan, with an ariftocracy of about fifteen nobles,
named " datoos," who form the greatefl part of the legif-
lature, whofe title is hereditary to the eldefl fon, and who
fit in council with the fultan. This ifland enjoys a per-
petual fummer, and produces a great variety of fruit : it
abounds with the tree called teak. Many Chinefe live on
the ifland, and carry on great trade, fending to Canton
black and white fwallows, wax, pearls, teepye, or pearl
oylter-fhells, bird's-nells, tortoile-fhell, fago, rattans, fan-
dal, and various dyeing woods, cinnamon, or caflia, &c. At
Sooloo, and many neighbouring iflands, the pearl fifhery
has been carried on for ages, and is the principal fource of
their wealth. The dominions of Sooloo extend over the
principal part of the archipelago of iflands between Borneo
and Mindanao, called the Sooloo Archipelago, and even on
the north coaft of the former ifland. Their religion is Ma-
hometan, but in their morals they are faithlefs and cruel.
The Englifh Eaft India company have an agent in this
ifland. On the neighbouring fea are fome excellent pearl
fiflieries ; and abundance of edible bird-nefts are found,
efpecially in a fmall ifland, or rock, to the S.W. of Sooloo ;
but the principal produAion is fago. The fituation is be-
tween Borneo and Mindanao, 42 miles S.W. from the latter.
N. lat. 6°. E. long. 119°.

Sooloo Archipelago, a part of the Eaftern Indian fea,
covered with a great number of fmall iflands, extending
from the S.W. coaft of Mindanao to the N.E. coaft of
Borneo.

SOOMA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
45 miles E. of Jedo.

SOOMGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Goondwana ;
10 miles S. of Nagpour.

SOOMOONANG, a lofty range of mountains, which
forms the boundary of Thibet on the louth, and divides it
from Bootan.

SOONABATTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
40 miles E. of Doefa.

SOONAJURA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 50
miles W. of Silhet.

SOONAL, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Malwa, of confiderable extent, of a fquare form, and in-
clofed within a ftone wall. Two wide ftreets crofs one
another, at right angles, in the middle of the town, which
is the " Chovvk." There are 32 villages in this per-
gunnah.

SOONAM, or SuNXAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of Delhi ; 136 miles W.N.W. of Delhi. N. lat.
29° 57'. E. long. 75° 31'.

SOONAMOOKY, a town of Bengal ; 13 miles N. of
Bifl'unpour. N. lat. 23° 18'. E. long. 87° 33'.

SOONDA, a fmall country of Hindooftan, near the
weft coaft, between Canara and Concan, about 40 miles
from north to fouth, and 30 from eaft to weft. After the
death of Tippoo, fultan of Myfore, this country was af-
figned to the Mahrattas.

SOONGARES, a nation of Ruflia, which, at the re-
paration of the Mongolian monarchy, formed one ftock
with the Derbetans, but afterwards parted, under two dif-
cordant brothers of their princely family. It was this
horde which, in the 17th and i8th centuries, reduced to
their fubjeftion a great part of the other Kalmuck races,
particularly the Khofchot, Derbet, and Kho-it ; and waged
bloody wars with the Mongoles, as well as with the Chinefe
empire itfelf, but which ended in their total fubjugation and

s o o

difperfion. Previoufly to this unhappy period, they, to-
gether with the Derbets, numbered upwards of 50,000
bows, or fighting men, and pafted in modern times tor the
braveft, richeft, and moft powerful horde. Their feat was
formerly about the Balkhafh lake, and its rivers Tfchuy
and Ily ; and their moft flourifliing period was between the
years 1 696 and 1 746. The towns of the eaftern Bucharia
and the great Kirghife horde were, about this time, tri-
butary to them. They conquered Budala, the capital of
the Dalai-lama, and raifed contclts in Siberia, where they
made tributary fome nations belonging to Ruflia. On the
death of their khan Galdaii Zeren, a dilTulution of the
liorde enfued, occafioned by dilptites concerning the fuc-
ccflion ; when the Torgots, the Khofchots, and Derbets,
feparated from it. Many of the Soongarians difperfed
themfelves in the interior parts of Afia, and quite into the
Ufl)eck towns ; fome thoufands of them fled into Siberia ;
when the generality accommodated themfelves to the Chi-
nefe fovereignty : and from their own ftatements it appears,
that fcarcely 20,000 families of them and of the Derbetaa
nation are now remaining. The number of the Soongares,
who at that time (1758) took refuge in Rulfia, amounted
to about 20,000 perfons. They were united with the
Volgaic Kalmucks, but for the moft part returned with
them, in the year 1 770, again into the Soongarey. Tooke's
View of the Rufl. Emp. vol. i.

SOONGEY PESANG Bay, a bay on the well coaft of
Sumatra. S. lat. o"^ 57'. E. long. 99'' 50'.

SOONKY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 15 miles
W.N.W. of Arrah.

SOON WALLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 17
miles W. of Akoat.

SOONYGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Goond-
wana ; 60 miles N. of Ramteak.

SOOP. See Soup.

SOOPA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Dow-
latabad ; 27 miles E. of Poorunder.

SOOPOUR, a town of Napaul, on the borders of Ba-
har ; 120 miles N. of Patiia. — Alfo, a town of Bengal;
30 miles S.E. of Nagore. N. lat. 23° 38'. E. long. 87^
4S'. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 45 miles N.W. of Midna-
pour. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan ; 5 miles N.W. of
Benares. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 46 miles
N.N.E. of Gooracpour. N. lat. 27° 20'. E. long. 84° 13'.

SOOPSUNDY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
10 miles S.S.E. of Tanjore.

SOOR, or Shook, a name given to the river Indus, be-
tween Attock and Moultan.

SooR. See Tsor.

SOORANGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Oriflk
country, near the river Mahanada ; the burial-place of an
Englifliman of the name of Elliot, who died on his way from
Calcutta to Nagpour in the year 1778. Mr. Haftings
caufed a monument to be erefted on the fpot to his me-
mory ; 200 miles E. of Nagpour.

SOORAPATEE, a kingdom of the ifland of Java, on
the fouth coait, eaft of Panaraga.

SOORAPETTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
33 miles S. of Combamet.

SOORATPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar;
lo miles N.N.E. of Arrah.

SOOREAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Ruttunpour ; 28 miles S.S.E. of Ruttunpour.

SOORJEW, a name given to the Dewah, in Thibet.

SOORMA, a river of Afia, which rifes in Meckley,
and mins into the Burrampooter, near Sunerampour, in
Bengal.

SOOROOT,

s o o

s o o

SOOROOT, an ifland in the Eaftern Indian fea, about
25 miles in circumference. N. lat. 2° 45'. E. long.
ic8° 36'.

SOORORE, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the north,
eaft, and fouth, by Coflimpour and Dinagepour ; and on
the weft by Rajemal ; about ten mites long, and from five
to eight broad. Bydell feems the chii-f town.

SOORWALL, a town of HindooUan, in Bundelcund ;
35 miles W. of Allahabad.

SOORY, a town of Bengal ; 7 miles E. of Nagore. N.
lat. 23° 55'. E. long. 87° 38'.

SdOSELA, a town of Africa, in KuUo. N. lat. 12°
21'. W. long. 8° 40'.

SOOSNEER, a pretty large town of Hindooftan, in
Malwa, belonging to Sindiah. See OuGEiy.

SOOSOOHOONAM, or Soesoehoonam, often called
Soefoehoonam Materam, from the place of the refidence of
the emperor of Java, a kingdom or empire, being the
fourth, of the ifland of Java. This empire formerly com-
prehended the greateft part of the ifland ; that of " Cheri-
bon" formed a part of it, and it was then very powerful :
but fince the Dutch eftablifhed themfelves there, it has loft;
much of its importance. Neverthelefs it remained undivided
till about the middle of the laft century, when the emperor
found himfelf fo much embarraffed, in confequence of the
rebellion of Manko Boeni, a prince of the blood, that he
made a ceffion of his territories to the Company ; who, in
return, granted him half of it as their vaflal, and piomifed
him their protection ; engaging, at the fame time, never to
make any one emperor of Java, who was not a prince of the
imperial family. The empire being thus divided, the other
half was, in the fame manner, given to Manko Boeni, as
the Company's vaUal, under tlie title of fultan, with the like
promife of protection, and the like engagement never to
nominate any other than princes of his family, as fuccefTors
to his dignity. This other half conftitutcs the fifth empire
of Java. The capital of Soefoehoonam is Jolo.

SOOSWARGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Sumbul-
pour ; 32 miles W. of Sumbulpour.

SOOT, an earthy volatile matter, arifing from wood,
coal:, and other fuel, along with the fmoke, by the aftion
of fire ; or rather, it is the fmoke itfelf, fixed and detained
on the fides of the chimney.

Soot is a colleftion of fubftances formed by the matter
in the flame of inflammable bodies, but which have efcaped
perfetl combuftion, from not h.iving fufficient contaft with
the vital air. Hence it is that the loot may be burned over
again, and hence likewifc it is that when the combuftion is
very rapid and effectual, there is no perceptible fmoke, be-
caufe all the inflammable matter is then dcftroyed ; as in the
cylinder lamps, violent fires, &c. This matter is always
of a black colour, more or Icfs brownidi, which colour it
acquires from an oil that is burnt, and half reduced to the
ftate of coal. Its different qualities and appearances are
owing to the nature of the inflammable fubllances which
produce it, and the different manner in which they are
burnt.

Chimney foot is a compound of black carbonaceous mat-
ter with a confiderable quantity of carbonated ammonia,
and probably fome other ammoniacal falls ; and hence it
gives a llrong pungent fmcll of this alkali, when rubbed
with quicklime. The analyfis of foot exhibits an oil, which
may be extraO'tcd by diltillation ; a refin, which may be
taken up by alcohol, and which arifos either from
the imperfeft alteration of the refin of the vegetable,
or the combination of vital air with the volatile oil. It
likcwife affords an oil, which is often formed by the de-

I

compofition of mucus ; and it is this acid, of great utility
in the arts, for which the academy of Stockholm have de-
fcribed a furnace proper for coUcfting it. Soot likewife
affords volatile falts, fuch as the carbonate of ammonia, and
others. A flight portion of fibrous matter is likewife vola-
tilized by the force of the fire, and it is again found in the
foot.

Soot is moftly formed from the combuftion or burning of
common or pit-coal, and in general contains fome portion of
matters derived from animal fubftances : it is confequently
powerful, when applied as a manure. In the trials of fir
Humphrey Davy, it was found to afford ammoniacal falts
by diftillation, and to yield a brown extractive matter, of a
bitter tafte, by means of hot water. It is likewife faid to
contain an empyreumatic oil, but that its great bafis is
charcoal, in a ftate in which it is capable of being rendered
foluble by the aftion of oxygen and water.

The foot which is formed either from vegetables or from
coal, is good both for corn and grals, efpecially on cold
moill grounds, or lands apt to be over-run with mofs.
Many have found their account in ftrewing it early over
their green wheat and barley crops ; but Mr. Ellis fays,
neither of them ought to be footed after the 25th of April,
becaufe the wheat, and generally the barley, have then
done gathering and branching, and are upon the fpindle.
He likewife thinks it proper to be fown over young tur-
nips, juil after they have appeared. But care fltould always
be taken not to ftrew it too thick, left its hot nature fhould
hurt the plants. Mr. Worlidge feems to think wood-foot
the beft ; but Mr. Mortimer prefers that which is made
from fea-coal, of which about 40 bufhels are commonly
allowed to an acre ; though fome grounds will require
more : to which he adds, that it produces a very fine fweet
grafs, and deftroys worms and weeds ; and that it ought
not to be fown upon wheat till Candlemas, becaufe the long
cold rains and fnows are apt to wafli it in too foon ; nor is
it fafe to lay it on later, left a drought fucceed, and bum
it up. See Manure and Top- Drefflngs.

However, Mr. Donaldfon obferves, that this ufeful ma-
nure can be obtained in confiderable quantities only from
great cities, or large manufacturing towns. The price in
London, whence great quantities are carried to the adjacent
dittrifls, is eight-pence the bufhel. The ordinary allow-
ance is from 25 to 35 bufhels an acre. Soot is ufcd in
many parts of England, as Middlefcx, Buckingham, Glou-
ccller, Wilts, Laiicafhirc, Yorkfliire, &c. The mode of
application is chiefly as top-dreflings for young clover, fain-
foin, and old worn-out meadows. The beft feafon for
laying it on is in February or March. It is carefully fpread
over the field with the hand, and always fucceeds beft, if
rain immediately enfues. But Mr. Marfliall recommends
its being fown before rain, when a fliower waflies it in, and
will be of obvious fervice ; but that if it lie on the furface
long without rain, there will be no benefit derived from it.
A rich foil wants no foot, but a foil much out of heart
wants 40 or 50 buflicl^. In his Rural Economy of Nor-
folk, he fays, that the time ol fowing it over the land is
coiifidered as very material. If it be fown early, and the
frofl catch it, its ftrengtli is thereby lowered ; if late, and
no rain falls to wafti it in, it is thought to be rather in-
jurious than beneficial to the crop of wheat. And it is not,
in any cafe, found of much, if any, fervice to the fucceeding
crop of barley.

The method of fowing it i^ extremely fimple ; and, in the
only inftancc he faw, the fowing of foot practiled there was
very complete. A favourable op|)ortunity being embraced,
when the wind blew gently, and in the direction, or nearly

in

SOOT.

in the fame direaion, as the lands or ridges lie ; the fame
waggon which brought it from Norwich, and which, until
the opportunity offered, had Itood fafe under cover, was
drawn in a furrow againft the wind ; while a man, itanding
on the outfide of the waggon, fpread the foot, with a
fhovel, feveral yards wide on either ilde of him ; the height
of his fituation at once enabling him to fpread it wide and
even. As he reached the windward end of the lands, the
team wheeled round under the hedges, and took a fre(h
width. The quantity fet on was forty biifhels an acre in this

cafe.

Mr. Young, however, remarks, that, in general, thirty
bufhels are ufed for a complete dreffing ; that is, when dung
or fome other manure has not been previoufly applied to the
fame crop, which is very frequently the praftice, and the
quantity of top-dreffing is then diminilhed to about one-half
of a complete dreffing. Of foot, a complete drefiing, as
above, colls from 30^-. to 36^. per acre. Soot is found to an-
fwer beft on wheat in April. It likewife fucceeds on peafe or
clover in the fame month, and has a good effeft fown with
barley, in the beginning of April, and harrowed in. A
flight dreffing of foot is ufed at any time in the fpring, when
grubs or worms appear to injure the young corn. The
worms frequently make great havoc, by drawing the blades
of young corn after them into their holes : this foot prevents
bell : foot thinly diltributed on newly fown turnips, juji be-
fore they come up, prevents the fly or grub from injuring
them, provided no rain falls to. waih it into the foil. Soot
anfwers beft on light, dry, chalky foils, and in moderately
wet feafons. It does little good on ftrong or wet land, or
in very dry feafons, unlefs fown earlier than ufual. The
London foot from coals is rarely bought unmixed with cnrk-
duil, coal-alhes, or fweepings of the ilreels ; yet, even in
this adulterated Hate, it is found to anfwer much better than
real country foot from wood.

And it is remarked, in the Agricultural Survey of Hert-
fordfhire, that about Stevenage they fpread from 20 to 40
buthels an acre, bringing it from London : it cofts St/., and the
carriage -i,d., in all \ i(/./>f/-bu(hel. And Mr. Clarke of San-
dridgebury, Ipreads from 3 J to 4obufhels an acre on wheat.
But about Beachwood they fow from 30 to 40 bulhels on
wheat, in February or March, bought at i j. a bufhel at Lon-
don, and bring 160 bufliels in a waggon with four horfes.
Around Hitchin, 40 bulhels are fown on wheat. And a good
deal is ufed at Watford, at the rate of 40 bufliels an acre.
Alfo, about Barkway they have a very high opinion of it ; 50
bufhels an acre, brought 30 miles from London, are feen on
wheat to an inch. And it is ttated, in addition, that the
praftice is univerfal through this country ; infomuch, that
the queftion is, whether there is a parilh in it in which
fome men are not in the habit of ufing this manure from
London.

On cabbage crops that have been fown, it has been found
that if, as foon as the plants appear diflinSly above the
ground, a furge of foot be drilled upon them, to the amount
of from 10 to 12 bulhels the acre, it affords much fecurity
againft the fly. And it has been fuggelted that thisbufmefs
may be cheaply and conveniently executed by a hopper and
round of cups, fimilar to Cook's, but larger, fixed to a
frame fimilar to that of the Northumberland drill. When
employed for preventing the fly in drilled turnips, it fhould
be fprinkled along the rows, from a fcuttle, by the hand, or
fome fuch mean, in the proportion of about twenty bulhels
the acre.

But in refpeft to the application of this fort of fubftance
£0 land, it is remarked by Mr. Kiddle, in the fourth vo-
Jume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, that

all manures that are laid on the furface of land cannot be
laid on too early in the feafon. Soot, for inftance, is al-
ways recommended to be fown on wheats or clovers, and
grafs-lands, in the month of February, from a notion, that
if fown fooner, they v.ould exhauft themfelves too foon.
This, he thinks, abfurd reafoning. No manure can be of
any fervice to the crop, which it is meant to advantage, until
it reaches the roots : and what contributes more to fave it
than the winter rains, and the dilTolving of the fnow ? He
has, in confequence, always fown the foot for wheat and
clover, when he has been able to procure it, in the month
of November or December, and always with fatisfaftion to
himfelf. He laft year fowed with foot an inclofure of wheat
of eight acres, part of which was fown in the beginning of
December, before the froft fet in, and a heavy rain fucceed-
ed the fowing ; on the remaining parts, owing to his not
being able to procure more foot at that time, the fowing was
poftponcd until after the froft was gone, in the month of
February. The quantity fown on an acre, in both inltances,
was equal ; but the fuperiority of the crop of wheat, where
it was fown early, might be difcerned by the eye. He had
the curiofity to have it tliraflied feparately, and found its in-
creafe beyond the other confiderable. If he could procure
foot at the time of fowing wheat, he fhould be under no ap-
prehenfion of its anfwering then, if the land was worked for
the wheat. Some years fince, having bought a fmall quan-
tity of foot immediately after harveft, he had the defire to
try its effe(5ls on the crop at that early feafon, and having a
pea-ftubble which had been ploughed twice, and was de-
iigned for wheat, after fowing as much of the land as he
had foot for with wheat, he then had the foot fown, and
ploughed both in together. He owns he was anxious to fee
the fuccefs of his experiment, as it was a novel one, as were
his neighbours alfo who had feen it done. The remainder of
the land was fown with foot, as he was able to procure it.
The wheat, where the foot was loon with it, kept the lead
during the firft months : this he did not wonder at, but ex-
pefted it from its forcing quality ; but lie was very much
pleafed to fee it continue to do fo during the remainder
of the feafon, and at harvell the fuperioritv in favour of
it was eafily to be feen.

Soot, in fome diftrifts, as where the foil is rather inclining
to be ftrong and heavy, is far from being found a durable
manure, though it commonly produces very llrong crops
for the firft year. And it is in other places more commonly
applied over the grafs-lands than the tillage crops, being fup-
pofed more ufeful and proper in fuch a manner of applica-
tion. But it is not improbable but that it is a fort of ma-
nure that may in general be the beft fitted to be employed in
its dry ftate by being thrown into the ground at the fame
time with the feed, fomewhat in the manner of powdered
rape-cake, having the advantage of requiring no fort of pre-
paration when ufed in this way.

Some fuppofe that 20 bulhels of foot to the acre are
nearly equal to 50 of the afhes of either coals, wood, or
peat. And the writer of the Middlefex corredled Agricul-
tural Report remarks, that the fmoke, confifting of the
lighteft particles of foot and coal, raifed by the force of the
afcending current of rarefied air arifing from 300,000 fires in
the metropolis and its vicinity, is daily depofited on the fur-
rounding country ; where the next rain wafhes it into the
foil, and it promotes vegetation and the fertility of the
land to a confiderable degree.

The dyers make a confiderable ufe of foot, for a kind of
dun-colour ; which, it is true, has no agreeable fmcU ; but,
in return, it has the property of faving clothes, and other
Huffs, from moths.

Carbonated

s o o

S O P

Carbonated ammonia is extrafted from it in the large way
in feveral manufaftories of this fait.

Soot of Franhncenfe, is the fmalleft and fiiiell part of the
incenfe called olibanum, or male iiicenfe ; burnt after the
manner of rofin, to make lamp-black.

Soot, Wood, was formerly regarded as a good medicine in
many cafes, but the principles upon which it atted as fuch
were never well underftood, till Buerhaave gave a regular
analyfis of it. The directions he gives for the procefs are
thefe.

Choofe the blackeft and dryelt wood-foot from the chim-
ney of an oven, where nothing is baked but bread, and
nothing burnt but vegetables ; gather this in a dry day, and
fill with it a glafs retort almoft up to the neck ; clean the
neck of the retort, and luting on a receiver, give a fire of
ljo°, and keep it up equably, a large quantity of tranf-
parent water will come over with confiderable violence.
When no more water will come over, cleanfe the receiver,
and raifing the fire to a little above 200°, there will then
come over a whitifh fat liquor ; this alfo comes over with
great violence, and the fire muft be gradually increafed, till
no more of this will come. Change the receiver, and raife
the fire to a yet greater degree, and a yellow, copious, vo-
latile fait will come over, and ftick all over the fides of the
new receiver. When no more of this fait will arife, increafe
the fire to the utmoft that fand can give, and with a heat of
fuppreifion there will arife a black thick oil ; when this is
all come over, and the vedels cooled, there will be found in
the neck of the retort a fait, which could be raifed no
higher, even by that violent fire ; and in the bottom of the
retort there remains a black feculent matter, the upper fur-
face of which is covered with a white falinecrull, which, both
in figure, colour, and the llrufture of its itrise, refembles
the common fal ammoniac. If the milky liquor be reftified,
it affords a very penetrating volatile fpirit, and fome (harp
volatile fait.

Here we are taught what the agitation of an open fire can
move, change, expel, and drive through the air by burning ;
firll in the form of fmoke, then of flame, and lafUy of ex-
halation, and how high it is able to carry them ; for a chim.
ney is a kind of ftill-head, converging in an open top, and
foot is often carried up thirty or forty feet, or more, to the
top of thefe, and after this a black fmoke is difcharged out
of the orifice, which difperfes in the air, and finally feems to
vanifli.

From his accurate analyfis of wood-foot, we may learn,
fays Boerhaave, that foot, which contains fo many adlive
principles, mud be qualified for a powerful medicine. Pills
of dry foot are found very beneficial in all cold ditlempers ;
the volatile fait of foot pofTefles the virtues of tlie volatile
falts of animals. The fait which rift-s lall is recommended
greatly by Hartman for giving relief in cancers ; and this is
very probable, fince fal ammoni;ic of the common kind,
properly applied, is known to be of great ufe in cafes of
running cancers. Soots of different fuels are not all to be
fuppoted to pofTefs the fame virtues ; that of pit-coal is found
to be a fubllance of a very different kind from that of
wood ; and that of the common turf or peat, and of the
oak-wood, have alfo been found, on experiment, to be very
different.

Boerhaave very juftly obferves, that the foot from kitchen-
chimneys, where the fmoke mull have been impregnated
with the effluvia of the vidtuals, mull be very different from
pure wood-foot. Bocrhaave's Chemiflry.

Wood-foot was formerly direfted in hylteric cafes, and in
different nervous diforders, as an antifpafmodic and corrobo-
rant. It was ufed chiefly in the form of a fpirituous tincture,
Vol. XXXIII.

in conjundlion, commonly, with affa-foetida, or other mate,
rials of fimilar intention : the officinal tinfture was drawn
from two ounces of loot, and one of afl"a-/tetida, with a
quart of proof fpirit.

The virtues of the foot are extrafted almoft equally by
proof fpirit, reftified fpirit, and water, each of which, if the
foot is of a good kind, difiblvcs about one-fourth of it.

The extrafts, obtained by infpiiiating the filtered folu-
tions, are very bitter, and the fpirituous extraft retains molt
perfeftly the peculiar flavour of the foot. Lewis.

Diofcorides (hews how to make a foot of butter, which
was thought to have feveral ules in medicine. The foot
found in furnaces of glafs-houfes is ufed by painters.

SOOTA, in Geography, a town of Japan, on the N.
coafl of the ifland of Sado.

SOOTEEAH, a town of Hindoollan, in Bahar ; 15
miles N.N.E. of Chuprah.

SOOTEREE, a town of Bengal; 12 miles S.E. of
Ramgur.

SOOTICH, a town of Bengal; 15 miles N.N.E. of
Kifhenagur.

SOOTY, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles N.E. of Calcutta.
— Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 27 miles N. of Moorfhedabad.
N. lat. 24° 2;'. E. long. 88'=' II'.
SOPE. See Soap.

SOPEDIERO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in
New Bifcay ; 140 miles S.S.W. of Parral.

SOPETRAN, a town of Spain, in New Caflilc ; 10
miles N. of Guadalaxara.

SOPHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in
the tribe of Zebulon, according to Epiphanius.

SOPHANITjE, a people of Arabia Fehx, placed by
Ptolemy in the fouthern part of that country.

SOPH AR, a town of Judea, in the tribe of Gad.
SOPHECLA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the gulf
of Engia ; 5 miles N.W. of Engia.

SOPHENA,Zopii, in yfnctent Geography, a country of
Afia, in the Greater Armenia, N. of Mefopotamia and
Comagene, between the mountains Mafius and Antitaurus.
according to Strabo.

SOPHERA, in Botany. See Cassia and Soi-hora
SOPHI, or Son, a title of quality, given to the em-
peror of Perfia ; importing as much as wife, lage, or philo-
fopher.

Tlic title is by fome faid to have taken its rife from a
young (hepherd thus named, who attained to the crown of
Perfia in 1370; others derive it hocn l\\i fcphoi, or fage.s
anciently called magi- Voffius gives a diflerent account of
the word : fophi, in Arabic, he obferves, fignifics wool ;
and he adds, that it was applied by the Turks out of de-
rifion to the kings of Perfia, ever fince Iflim.iel's time ; bc-
caufe, according to their fcheme of religion, lie is to wear no
other covering on his head, but an ordinary, red, woollen
ftuff ; whence the Perfians are alfo called har^rlbafchs, q d
red-heads. But Bochart afi'uros us, that fophi, in the orip,i-
nal Perfian language, fignifies one that ic pire in his religion,
and who prefers the fervice of God in all things : and derivci
it from an order of religious called by the fame name.

The fophis pride thcmfelves, and with fonic rcafon, o^
their illuftrious extraftion ; the race being fccond to none in
the Ealt. They arc defccnded in a right Imc from Houflein,
fccond fon of Ali, Mahomet's coufin, and Fathima, Ma-
homet's daughter.

There is no prince in the world whofe authority is more
abfohitc than that of the fophi of Perfia ; his power is not
even limited by any laws lie himfelf can make ; but he fuf-
Dcudi, chanires, and annuls them at pleafuiv. See Soi-itrs.
* '' Zz !jOPHIA =

SOP

SOPHIA, or Sofia, in Ceoi^raphy, a city of European
Turkey, in Bulgaria, built by Juftinian on the ruins of the
ancient Sardica. This is the capital of Bulgaria, and a
tingiacat ; the fee of a Greek archbifhop, and of a Roman
bilhop. It is commercial, populous, and well-built, but
without walls; and the ilreets are narrow, uneven, and
dirty : aSo miles W.N.W. of Conltantinople. N. lat. 42°
56'. E.long. 23'-' 14'.

Sophia CInrurgorum, in Botany, a name foraetimes given
tea fpecies of water-crelles.

SOPHIA I, in Geogiaphyy a town of RufTia, in the go-
Ternment of Petorfburg ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Pctertburg.
N. lat. 50° 4c'. E. long. 13' 14'.

SOPH I ANA, a town ot Perfia, in the government of
Adirbeitzan, or Azerbijan ; 24 mile.^ N.W. of Tauris.

SOPHIENBERG, a town of Denmark, in the ifland
of Zealand, near the coalt of the Sound, with a royal pa-
lace; 13 miles N. of Copenhagen.

SOPHIENBURG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; j miles S. of Bayreuth.

SOPHIENLUST, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg ; 3 miles S. of Meiiuingen.

SOPHIS, or SoFEEs, denote a kind of order of reli-
gious among the Mahometans in Perfia, anfwering to what
are otherwife called dervijh ; and among the Arabs and In-
dians, faquirs.

Some will have them called fophis, from a kind of coarfe
camblet which they wear, called fouf, from the city Sonf,
in Syria, where it is principally manufaftured.

The more eminent of thele fophis are complimented with
the UtXe/chfik, that is, revfremi; much as in Romilh coun-
tries the religious are called reverend fathers.

Sheick Sophi, who laid the firft foundation of the gran-
deur of the royal houfe of Perfia, was the founder, or rather
the reilorer, of this order : Khmael, who conquered Perfia,
washimfelf a iophi, and j;reatly valued himfelf oh liis being fo.
He chofe all the guards of his perfon from among the re-
ligious of this order ; and would have all the great lords of
his court fophis.

The king of Perfia is ftill guard-matter of the order ; and
the lords continue to enter into it, though it be now fallen
under fome contempt.

The vulgar I'ophis arc now chiefly employed as uihers and
attendants of the court ; and fome even as executioners of
juttice ; the emperor lall reigning would not allow them, ac-
cording to cuftom, to gird thefword on him.

This negleft into which the fophis are funk, has occafioned
the late emperor to difufe the title aifophi, or fofi : however,
M. de la Croix is miftaken, when he fays, that they never
bore it.

SOPHIS, Sofees, or Sufs, the denomination of a fetl of
modern philofophers among the Perfians, whofe name is de-
rived either from the Greek word for a fage, or from the
woollen mantle which they ufed to wear in fome provinces
of Perfia. They feem, fays fir William .Toues (Works,
vol. iii. p. 130. Svo. cd.) to have adopted that metaphyfical
theology, which has been profefled immemorially by a nu-
merous feft of Perfians and Hindoos, which was carried into
Greece, and which prevails, even at this time, among the
learned Mufiulmans, who fometimes avow it without referve.
Their fundamental tenets are, that nothing exills abfolutely
but God : that the human foul is an emanation from his
cfTence ; and, though feparated for a time from its heavenly
lource, will be finally reunited with it : that the higheft pof-
fible happinefs will arife from its reunion ; and that the chief
good of mankind, in this tranfitory world, confifts in as per-
fect an union with the eternal Spirit, as the incumbrances

S O P

of a mortal frame will allow : that, for this purpofe, tlxy
fhould break all conncdion with extrinfic objects, and paf»
through life without attachments, as a fvvimmer in the ocean
Itrikes freely without the impediment of clothes : that they
fhould be llraight and free as the cypref;;, whofe fruit is
hardly perceptible ; and not fink under a load, Uke fruit-
trees attached to a trellis : that, if mere earthly charms have
power to influence the fnil, the /We;; of celcltial beauty mult
overwhelm it in extatic delight : that, for want of apt words
to exprefs the divine perfections with the ardour of devotion,
we mull borrow fuch expreffions as approach the nearell to
our ideas, and fpeak of beauty and love in a tranfcendent and
myftical fenle : that, like a reed torn from its native bank,
like wax feparated from its delicious honey, the fuul of
man bewails its difunion with melancholy mujtc, and (beds
burning tears like the lighted taper, waiting paffionately for
the moment of its extinction, as a difengagement from
earthly trammels, and the means of returning to its only
Beloved.

Such, in part, is the wild and enthufiaftic religion of the
modern Pcrfian poets, efpecially of the fweet Hatiz, and the
great Maulavi. Such is the fyftem of the Vedanti philofo-
phers, and belt lyric poets of India ; and, as it was a fyftem
of the higheft antiquity in both nations, it may be added to
many other proofs of an immemorial affinity between them.
The philofophy of the Sofees feems alfo, in early times, to
have prevailed amongft the Jews, in Europe among the Theo-
fophijls (fee that article), as well as among the difciples of the
Vedanti ichool in India. Sir William Jones has exprefled
with great precifion the tenets of the Indian fchool, nor do
they differ from the doftrines maintained by the Sofees of
the prefent day. The fundamental tenet of the Vedanti
fchool, fays fir W.Jones (Works, vol. lii. p. 239. 8vo. ed.)
to which, in a more modern age, the incomparable Sancara
was a firm and illuftrious adherent, confilted not in denying
the exiltence of matter ; that is, of folidity, impenetrability,
and extended figure ; but in corre£ting the popular notion of
it, and in contending that it has no eflence independent of
mental perception ; that exiilence and perceptibility are con-
vertible terms ; that external appearances and fenfatior.s are
illufory, and would vanilh into nothing, if the divine energy,
which alone fuftains them, were fufpended but for a moment,
an opinion which Epicharmus and Plato feem to have
adopted, and which has been maintained in the laft century,
and in our own country, with great elegance and acutenefs
by Berkeley and others. The Sofees confider themfelves, as
we have above ftated, immerfed in depravity by an union
with matter, and in the figurative llyle of their poets, la-
ment the feparation from their beloved, and folicit, with
impatient ardour, a releafe from a material and earthly
bondage.

SOPHISM, So?i(7fi«, in Logic, a captious and fallacious
reafoning ; or an argument, which, with fome fubtlety,
carries much appearance of truth, but little folidity. See

F.\LLACY.

A fophifm is, properly, an argument falfe at bottom,
and only invented to amufe and embarrafs the perfon to
whom it is ufed.

Logicians enumerate the following kinds of fophifm, viz.
ignaratio elenchi, or a miitake of the queftion, i. e. when
fomething elfe is proved, which has neither any necelTary
conneAion nor inconfiltency with the thing inquired, and
confequently gives no determination to the inquiry, though
at firft fight it may feem to determine the queftion ; petitio
principii ; a circle ; non caufa pro caufa, or the aflignation
of a falfe caufe ; fallacia accidentis, which pronounces con-
cerning the nature and eflential properties of any fubjeft,

according

SOP

SOP

according to fomething which is merely accidental to it.
A diBo fecundum quid ad diditm Jimpliciter, arguing from
that which is true in particular circumftances, to prove the
fame thing true abfolutely, fimply, and abltrafted from all
circumftances, and tike verfd : the fophifms of compofition
and divilion, when we infer any thing concerning ideas in a
compounded fenle, which is only true in a divided fenfe,
and vice verfd: and the fophifms arifing from an abufe of
the ambiguity of words : to which may be added an imper-
feft enumeration, or falfe induftion, when from a few ex-
periments and ohfervations, men infer general theorems
and UFiiverfal propofitions. Watts's Logic, p. iii. c. 3.
fed. I.

Thefe fophiltical modes of reafoning, or logical quibbles,
called by Arillotle Erillic fvllogifms, were introduced into
the Megaric fchool, founded by Euclid of Megara, (fee
his article,) by Eubulides of Miletus, who in that fchool
fucceeded Euclid ; but as they furnifhed merely examples
of egregious trifling, they deferve no farther notice. The
Stoics alfo amufcd tliemfelves with quibbles and fallacies of
the fame kind wilh (hofe of the Megaric fchool, of which
the following example will be iuf&cient. Protagoras the
fophift (fee Protagoras) agreed to indruft a youn;r man
in eloquence for a large fum, one half of which was to be
paid in hand, the other half upon his fird fuccefsful plead-
ing in the courts. Neglecting to plead for a long time
after Protagoras had completely inftrufted him in the art
of rhetoric, the fophill lued him for the remaining msicty
of his Itipend. Each pleaded his own caufe. Protagoras
urged, that which way foever the caufe was determined,
the young man muft complete the payment : for if the caufe
was determined again/l the defendant, the payment would
be granted him by judgment ; if for him, the payment
would be due according to agreement. The young man,
on the contrary, pleaded, that if the caufe was determined
in hit favour, he (hould be excufed from the payment by
the decifion of the court ; if againjl him, Protagoras, by
his own agreement, could have no demand upon him. The
fubtlety of thefe pleas perplexed the judges ; and, without
commg to any determination, they difmifled the court.

Sophisms, or Sophijlical Arguments, among Logicians, are
more particularly fuch as are not in form, or are founded
on equivocals.

As, Tou have every thing you have not lojl ; but you have
not loft horns, therefore you have horns.

SOPHIST, 'iLcUTi:, formed from c-o^o?, "juife, or rather
from u-ocirn:, impqflor, deceiver, a perfon who frames fo-
phifms ; that is, ules fubtle arguments, with defign to de-
ceive thofe whom he would perluade or convince.

The term fophill, which is now reproachful, was anciently
honourable, and carried a very innocent idea. St. Auguf-
tine obferves, it fignifies a rhetor, or profeflbr of eloquence ;
fuch as were Lucian, Athensuo, Libanius, &c. Suidas,
and after him Olar. Celfius, in an cxprefs diliertation on
the Greek fophifts, tells us, that the appellation was ap-
plied indifferently to all who excelled in any art or fcience ;
whether divines, lawyers, phyficians, poets, orators, or
muficians.

However, as rhetoricians often employed their art rather
to vindicate what was falfe and unjuft, than to fupport
truth and virtue, their ccndntt brought a difcredit both
upon themfelves and t heir profelTion ; and, therefore, the
fame fophi/i, fomttimcs cmifounded with that of fophi/ler,
has been ufed in an ill fenfe, to li^nify a fpecious but falfe
reafoner, one flcilled ratlii-r in the arts (if cavilling than
qualified to fpeak well and accurately upon any fubjeft.

Solon is the firlt who appears 10 have ever borne the ap-

pellation of fophift, which is given him by Ifocrates; after-
wards, it was fcarcely ever given, except to philofophers and .
declaimers.

In the time of Socrates, there was in Athens a large
body of profeffional preceptors of eloquence, diftinguifhcd
by the appellation of fophifts. By the mere pomp of
words, thefe men made a magnificent difplay of wifdom,
upon a flight foundation of real knowledge ; and they
taught an artificial ilrufture of language, and a falfe me-
thod of reafoning ; by means of which they were able, in
argument, to make the worfe appear the better caufe.
Whilft they arrogated to themfelves the merit of every kind
of learning, they pubhcly praftilcd'theart of difputing wilh
y>laufibility on either fide of any queftion, and profelfed to
teach this art to the Athenian youth. By theleimpofing
pretenfions, they coUefted, in their fchools, a numerous
train of young men, wiio followed them in hope of acquiring
thofe talents, which would give them influence and autho-
rity in popular affembhes. In fuch high repute were thefe
fophifts, that they were hterally fupported, not only by
contributions from their pupils, but by a regular falary
from the ttate ; and were in many inflances diftinguilhed by
public honours, and employed in offices of magiftracy. Of
their enmity to Socrates, we have given an account under
his biographical article.

The title fophijla was in great credit among the Latins in
the twelfth century, and in the time of St. Bernard ; but it
began to lofe ground in Greece as early as Plato's time ; on
account of Protagoras and Gorgias, who made a fordid
traffic of it, by felling eloquence for money. Hence Seneca
calls the fophifts quacks, or empirics.

Cicero fays, that the title fophijli was in his time given
to fuch as profefied philofophy with too much oftentatioii,
in order to make a trade of it, by running from town to
town, to retail their deceitful fcience. A fophift, there-
fore, was then, as now, a rhetor, or logician, who makes
it his bufinefs to enfnare and perplex people, by frivolous
dillinftions, vain reafonings, and captious difcourfes.

Nothing has conduced more to the increafing of the
number of fophifts than the contentious fchool-philofophy :
people are there taught to puzzle and obfcure the truth,
by barbarous unintelligible terms ; as, antipredicaments,
great and little logicals, quiddities, &c.

The title fophift was given to Rabanus Maurus, by way
of eminence. John Hinton, a modern Englifh fcholaftic
writer, endeavoured alfo to procure the fplendid title o(
fophift.

SOPHISTICATION, in Chemijlry, Alchemy, &c. a
term particularly apphed to the counterfeit works of frau-
dulent alchemifts, who uie indireft means of whitening
copper, gilding filver, and giving other fuperficial tinAures
to metals ; as alfo of making augmentations, by divers mix-
tures, and other illegal operations, to delude thofe at whofe
fxpence they are employed.

Hence the term is alio applied to merchandizes, and
other goods adulterated, mixed, or altered, by the deceit
of the feller.

SOPHOCLES, ill Biography, a celebrated tragic poet,
was born at Athens about the year 497 B.C. He received
an education in every way fnitable to his rank in life ; and it
appears that he was but a youth, when the monuments of
the viftory over Xerxes were fixed up at Salamis, and then
he went at the head of a chorus of noble birth, whofe fong
of triumph he led by the llrains of liis lyre. He iirft ap-
plied himfelf to lyric pocliy ; but the fame acquired by
iEfchylus, tae author, or at leaft the great reformer, of
Grecian tragedy, induced him to try his powers in that
Z r z fpcciei

SOP

fpecies of compofition ; and in his 28th year he ventured to
contend with that veteran for the theatrical prize. He
obtained the vidory, which was followed by the retreat ot
his rival, who left him the undifputed nnaller of the tragic
ftas-e. The improvements introduced by Sophocles were
folreat, that he has generally and juftly been regarded as
the father of the regular tragedy. " He brought, fays
the critic, " a third interlocutor to the two who before alone

SOP

204. Schreb. 275. Willd. Sp. PI. v
Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.
Lamarck lUuftr. t. 325. Gaertn. t.
( Edwardfia ; Salif. in Tr. of Linn. Soc.
Hort. Kew. V. 3. I.) — Clafs and order,
gynia. Nat. Ord. PapUionacta, Linn
Gen. Ch. Cnl. Perianth inferior.

dignity ; and invented that artful conltruftion of fable and
developement of incidents, which contribute fo much to the
intereft of a dramatic performance." In thefe pomts he was
fuperior to his younger competitor Euripides ; and upon
the whole, he appears to have ftood at the head of his clals,
in the judgment both of Greek and Roman critics. Cicero
terms him a diiine poet; and he is highly commended by
Dionyfius of HaUcarnailus, for preferving the dign-ty of
his charafters, and dwelling rather on the more noble and
generous affedions, than on the mean and debafing panion3.
Thefe praifes (hew that his works were regarded as the moil
perfea example of tratjcdy, in the higheft fenfe of the word.
Sophocles was a Itatelnun, as well as a tragedian, and cn-
trufted with very important civil and military employments.
He retained his faculties to the lad, and continued to write
tragedies to an advanced age ; and when his unnatural fons,
on account of fome ncglcft in his doraellic affairs, applied to
the magiftrates to put him under their guardianlhip, as
having outHved his underltanding, he appeared in court,
an advocate in his own caufe, and reciting his Oidipus
at Colonus, which he had juil finifhed, appealed to the
judges and auditors, if that were the work of the dotard
defcribed by his own children. The fentence was pro-
nounced unanimoufly in his favour, and he was carried home
•with every mark of triumph. The benignity of his cha-
rafter acquired him a number of friends, his attachment to
whom, and his moderate wirties, caufed him to decline the
invitations of the kings who were defirous of drawing him
to their courts. He paid every token of refpeft to the
memory of his rival Euripides, thus demonltrating that
he was incapable of the meannefs of jealoufy. He lived to
the great age of 90, and is faid even at that age to have
died with joy, on obtaining the prize for his laft tragedy.
Above a hundred pieces have been attributed to him by
fome ancient writers, of which, however, only feven have
reached our times. Of thefe, both feparately and col-
leftively, many editions have been made. Among the moil
efteemed are Johnfon's, 3 vols. 8vo. Oxon. et Lond. ;
Capperonier's, Par. 4to. ; Brunck's, 2 vols, royal 8vo.
1786; and Mufgrave's, Oxon. 2 vols. 8vo.

SOPHONE, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
fituated in the place where the Tigris re-appears, after
having been under ground for the fpace of 25 miles, ac-
cording to Juif in.

SOPHORA, in~ JSotany, a name of mod whimfical
origin. Sophera is, according to Profper Alpinus, the
Egyptian denomination of a fpecies of Cajfia, the Linnsan
C. Sophera, nearly related to the genus before us. Linnceus,
in his Hortus Cllfi'ortiamis, 156, fpelling it Sophora, calls it
a genus fophortim, or of wife men ; as teaching that feparate
ftamens, in the papilionaceous family, if ever the limits of
that family can be determined, aftbrd fo decifive a mark of
difcrimination, as almoft to exclude the plants furni(hed
with fuch, from the fame natural clafs, or order, with
rhofe whofe filaments are combined. The foundnefs of the
doftrine may make us tolerate the conceit. — Linn. Gen.

2. 499. Mart.-

3. 2. Jul!. 351.

149, tomentofa.

v. 9. 298. Ait.

Decandria Mono-
Leguminoft, Jufl".
of one leaf, fhortj
oblique ; gibbous on the upper fide ; its tube turbinate, an-
gular ; limb bell-fliaped, abrupt, with five teeth. Cor.
papilionaceous, of five petals. Standard oblong, ilraight,
dilated upwards, deflexed at the tides, various in length.
Wings two, as long as the ftandard, or longer, with a lobe
at the bafe. Keel of two petals, fimilar to the wings and
about the fame length, their lower edges clofe together,
boat-hke. Stam. Filaments ten, inferted into the tube of
the calyx, dillincf, parallel, rigid, awl-fhapcd, about the
length of the corolla, and lodged in its keel, deciduous ;
anthers fmall, oval, incumbent. P'lJ}. Germen fuperior,
oblong, flender, nearly cylindrical ; Itylc the fize and (liapo
of the Itamens ; iligma fimple, obtufe. Perk. Legume
very long and flender, of one cell, and two imperfi-ft valve.-',
fwelling at each feed, fo as to become beaded ; often an-
gular or winged. Seeds numerous, rounJifh, large, po-
iifhed.

Elf. Ch. Calyx bell-lhaped, oblique, five-toothed ; tur-
binate at the bafe. Corolla papilionaceous. Legume
beaded, fcarcely burfting, with many feeds.

We have under Edv.ardsia (fee that article) expreded
an opinion unfavourable to the permanency of that genus of
Mr. Salifbury's, though we iiave many reafons for wifhing
we could admit it ; nor does our decifion at all interfere
with the propriety of the name. Our reafons will appear
prefently. The genus of Sophora is, ncverthelefs, com-
modiouily divifible into two fcftions, by the fituation of
the inflorufcence, but this can make no generic diftinftion,
unlefs it were fupported by fome charafter in the fruftifica-
tion, fuch as the learned editors of the Hortus Keiuenjis
thouglit they had found in the legume ; but it is overfet by
a new fpecies before us ; fee n. 5.

Seclion I . Clujlers terminal, elongated.

1. S. tomentofa. Downy Sophora. Linn. Sp. PI. 533.
Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. I. (S. occidcntalis ; Linn. Sp. PI.
533. Willd. n. 6. S. arborefcens, &c. ; Trew's Ehret,
27. t. 59. Colutea zeylanica argentea tota ; Herm.
Lugd.-IJat. 169. t. 171. Galega ? n. i; Browne Jam.
289. t. 31. f. I.) — Stem arboreous. Leaflets numerous,
roundifh-elliptical, very obtufe, downy as well as the calyx.
— Native of the Eall and Weft Indies. Long cultivated in
our lloves, but it has feldom flowered. The branches,
flalhs, foliage, and injlorefcence, are more or lefs clothed with
(hort, denfe, hoary pubcfcence. Leaves a fpan long, of
fix or feven pair, with an odd one, of ftalked, elliptical,
coriaceous leaflets, all nearly equal and uniform, above an
inch long ; fometimes their upper furface is fmooth, and
the whole of the plant much lels downy than nfual. Sti-
pulas none. Clujlers terminal, folitary, ftalked, fimple,
generally a foot long, compofed of very numerous, large,
elegant, pale-yellow Jloivers. Legume three or four inches
in length, beaded, two-edged, flighlly downy, often inter-
rupted here and there by a failure in the impregnation of
fome of the feeds, which, when perfeft, are the fize of a
large pea, globular, brown, difcharged finally by the decayj
and partial iplitting of the valves.

2. S. beptaphylla. Seven-leaved Sophora. Linn. Sp.
PI. 533. Willd. n. 8. (Anticholerica ; Rumph. Amboin.
V. 4. 60. t. 22.) — Stem (hrubby. Leaflets about feven,
elliptical, acute ; downy beneath.^Native of the Eafl

1 2 Indies,

\

SOPHORA.

Indies, on fandy or rocky lea-coafts. Riimphius defcribes it
as about the fize of a Privet-bufti, but with a thicker trunk.
He fays there are feven, eight, or nine pair of leaflets, be-
fides an odd one ; dark green above ; downy and grey be-
neath ; hardly two inches long, about one broad. Linnseus
defcribes feven fmooth leaflets in all. T\\s Jloiuers are yel-
lowifh. Legumes beaded. Having feen no fpecimen, we
forbear all further defcription ; only excluding, without
hefitation, the Fruticulus Jtnenjts, ferns fyhejlris folio, &c.
Pluk. Ainalth. append, t. 451. f. 10. (See the next
fpecies.) The root and feeds of the plant of Rumphins are
celebrated by him as inellimable remedies for dangerous
bilious colics.

3. S. japonka. Japanefe Sophora. Linn. Mant. 68.
Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 2. Thunb. Jap. 178. Andr.
Repof. t. 585. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 55. t. 353. —
Stem arboreous. Leaflets ovato-lanceolate, acute, fmooth.
Clufters Compound, panicled. — Native of Japan and China.
Introduced by the celebrated cultivator Mr. James Gordon,
in 1753. It has been nearly as long cultivated about Paric,
where it was called I'arbre inconnu des Chinois, This is a
tall and handfome hardy deciduous tree, with elegant,
fmooth, pinnate leaves, whofe leajlels are about an inch and
a half long, and half an inch broad, acutely pointed.
Flowers fmaller than thofe of Laburnum, of a pale greenilh-
yellow, almoll white, compofing numerous, branched,
fpreading chijlers, collefted into large, terminal, upright
panicles. Legumes pendulous, tvro or three inches long,
turgid, fmooth. By Jacquin's figure the withered Jlamens
feem permanent. Perhaps Plukenet's Amalth. t. 451.
f. 10, cited with doubt by Linnasus for 5. heptaphylla, may
belong to this.

4. S. alopecuroldes. Fox-tail Sophora. Linn. Sp. PI.
533. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. (Glycirrhiza filiquis no-
dofis, quafi articulatis ; Buxb. Cent. 3. 25. t. 46. Ervum
orientale alopecuroides perenne, fruftu longiffimo ; Dill.
Ellh. 136. C. 112. f. 136.) — Stem herbaceous. Leaflets
elliptic-oblong, obtufe ; fomewhat filky beneath, when full
grown. — Native of the Levant, hardy in our gardens, where
it was cultivated in the days of Miller and Sherard, flower-
ing in July and Augult. The root is perennial, creeping
extenl'ively. Stems annual, herbaceous, fimple, leafy, about
two feet high. Leaflets numerous, about an inch long,
green, Iparingly pubefcent. Clujlers fimple, fohtary at the
top of each item, without much of an elongated ftalk, com-
pofed of numerous, pale, greenifh-white, fweet-fcented
flotvers, larger than thofe of the common Galega offdnalis.

Calyx nearly fmooth. Legurne fleiider, fomewhat filky.
DiUenius noticed the ten ^\^\n&.flamens ; and he allerts that
to make the plant flower freely, the roots muft be confined
in a pot.

5. S. Jlavefcens. Siberian Sophora. Ait. ed. I. v. 2.
43. cd. 2. n. 4. Willd. n. 3. — " Stem herbaceous. Leaf-
lets ovate-oblong, nearly fmooth." — Native of Siberia ; in-
troduced here in 1785, by Mr. John Bell. A hardy peren-
nial, flowering from May to July. We have feen no
fpecimen. Willdcnow fays it is like the preceding, but
entirely fmooth. Leaflets fix pair, with an odd one, ovato-

• lanceolate, bluntiih. Calyx obfcurely toothed. Mr. Salif-
bury recommends the leparation of thefe two lall from
Sophora, on account of their permanent Jamens ; but it
fccms to us that 5. japonica connects them witli the original
fpecies, both by that charafter, and (omcwhat of habit, or
afpeif.

Sedlion 2. Clujlers lateral, jhorter than the leaves.

6. S- macrocarpa. Great-lceded Sophora. — Leaflets
elliptic-oblong, nearly fnoooth. Clutlers axillary, very

fliort. Legume filky, two-edged, tumid, without wiilgs.—
Native of Chili, where it is commonly known by the name
of Mayo. We received fine fpecimens from the late abbe
Cavanilles, in 1804. The Jlem is arboreous. Branches
roundifli, knotty ; filky when young. Leaves deciduous,
about a finger's length, compofed ot from fix to nine pair
of, not exaftly oppofite, obtufe, rigid leaflets, three quar-
ters of an inch long, befides an odd one, all green ; fliining,
and fparingly downy, above ; paler, and rather filky, be-
neath. Clujlers towards the ends of the branches, axillary,
fimple, compofed of four or five large yeWow Jlowers, whofe
partial (talks are about the length of the common one, all
filky, as well as the calyx. Stamens occafionally permanent.
Legume from three to five inches long ; when voung com-
prefled, two-edged, and finely filky ; where the feeds ripen,
they form large oval fwellings, almolt as big as a buUace
plum, partly deprived of their downinefs, and marked with
a flight ridge along each fide, as in 5. tomentofa, but quite
dellitute of angles, wings, or other inequalities. In in-
florefcence, habit, and afpeft of the Jloiuers, this fpecies
accords exaftly with all the following ones, while its legume
is that of the, original Sophone. We conceive, therefore,
that it overfets the genus Edwardjia, to which, if that
genus exifts at all, the prefent plant mould belong, and yet
its legume is neither quadrangular nor winged, nor is there
any charafter in the fruftification at all different from
Sophora.

7. S. nitida. Silky-leaved Sophora. — Leaflets elliptic-
oblong, filky on both fides. Clufters axillary, very fliort.
Legume hairy, with four prominent angles. — Gathered by
Commerfon, in the ifle de Bourbon. An elegant filky

Jlirub or tree. Leaves two or three inches long, compofed
of from eight to twelve pair of lenjlcts, half the fize of the
laft, beautifully filky, as well as their ftalks; brighter be-
neath. The Jloivers are pall in our fpecimen ; their Jlalks
are much like the laft, but more hairy, with larger, more
permanent, oppofite bradeas. Half-ripe legumes about
four inches long, rather flcnder, beaded, their four thick
prominent angles much more hairy than the intcrllices,
which ftiould feem to become quite fmooth as the oval parts,
cnclofing the feeds, are more enlarged.

8. S. tetraptera. Four-winged Sophora. Ait. ed. i.
V. 2. 43. Willd. n. I. J. Mill. Ic. t. I. Curt. Mag.
t. 167. Lamarck f. 3. Roem. and Uft. Mag. fafc. 12.
t. I. (Edwardfia grandiflora ; Salif. Tr. of Linn. Soc.
V. 9. 299. Alt. Hort. Kew. V. 3. i.) — Leaflets elhptic-
oblong, filky on both fides. Clufters lateral. Legume
flightly hairy, with four membranous crenate wings. — Dif-
covered in New Zealand, by fir Jofepli Banks, and brought
in 1772 to this country, where it thrives well againft a foiith
or weft wall, in the open air, with only the protcAion of a
mat in winter, flowering about Mayor June. Few flirubi
are more ornamental. The filky leaves are much like the laft,
but rather larger. Flotvers about fix together, in filky-
(lalked, drooping clufters ; each JJoiver near two inches
long. The brown Jlalls and calyx are ftrikingly contrailed
with the golden petals, whofe ftandard is fliorter, and of a
fuller yellow, than the reft. Legume three or four inches
long, each tumid part, where a feed is lodged, bordered,
at each fide of the future, with two parallel wings, the
whole legume being lomcwhat comprefled, and not uni-
formly winged in four dinftions, like that of Loliis telra-
gonolobus. The bafe or tube of the calyx is, in this Ipectes
broader, or more dilated, tlian in moft of the reft, befides
having ten ribs. But we find it prccifely analogous to the
fame part in .?. tomentofa, and others, where it always has
a difl'ercnt colour, texture, or appearance, from the limb.

9. S.

SOP

9. S. chryfophylla. Golden-leaved Sophora. (Edward-
fia chryfophylla; Salif. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 299. t. 26.
f. I.) — Leaflets cbovate, emarginate, filky. Clulters la-
teral. Leaume — Gathered in the Sandwich iflands,

by Mr. Menzies. The leafets are thrice as broad as in the
foregoing ; Jloiuers yellow, about half the fize of that
fpccies. Nothing is known refpefting the legume.

10. S. microphylla. Small-leaved Sophora. Ait. ed. I.
V. 3. 43. Willd. n. 2. Lamarck, f. I. Jacq. Hort.
Schoenbr. v. 3. 10. t. 269. (S. tetraptera ; Forft. Prodr.
32. Linn. Suppi. 230.) — Leaflets numerous, roundifh-
obovate, fomewhat filky. Clufters lateral. Legume with
four membranous creiiate wings. — Difcovered by Banks,
Forfl:er, and others, in New Zealand. Introduced in 1772
to the notice of Britifh cultivators. It is ufually treated
here as a greenhoufe flirub, though marked as hardy by
Mr. Alton, flowering in May and June. The younger
Linnajus, like Forfter, confounded this with S. tetraptera,
n. 8, though our native fpecimen, from the latter, is marked
microphylla. It differs eflentially from tetraptera, though
their legumes are fimilar, in having Jloivers not above half fo
large, and efpecially in the rounded figure, and fmall fize,
of its numerous leaflets, whofe filky pubefcence, motl con-
fpicuous on their under fide, is filvery, not of a tawny or
golden hue, even after long keeping.

For other fpecies, formerly referred to this genus, fee

OrMOSIA and PoDALYRIA.

Sophora, in Gardening, contains plants of the her-
baceous, flowery, perennial, and ftirubby exotic kinds, of
which the fpecies (as feme have reckoned them) cultivated
are, the wing-podded fophora (S. tetraptera) ; the fmall-leaved
(hrubby fophora (S. microphylla) ; the fox-tail fophora (S.
alopecuroides) ; the blue fophora (S. auftralis) ; the dyer's fo-
phora (S. tinftoria) ; the white fophora (S. alba) ; the downy
fophora (S. tomentofa); the occidental fophora (S. occiden-
talis) ; tlie ihiniiig-leaved fophora (S. japonica); the vetch-
leaved fophora (S. capenfis) ; the golden-flowered fophora
(S. aurea) ; and the round-leaved fophora (S. myrtillifolia.)

Method of Culture. — The firll five forts are hardy, and
may be increafed by feeds, or parting the roots. The
feeds fhould be lown in the fpring, in pots of fine mould ;
and when the plants are come up, they ftiould be removed
into feparate pots, till they have obtained fufficient ilrength,
when they may be planted out where they are to grow.
The roots may likewife, in many of the forts, be parted at
the fame feafon, and planted in pots, or where they are to
remain. The firft and fecond forts may alfo be raifed from
cuttings and layers, planted or laid down at the fame feafon.
Thefe, when planted againlt a wall, fo as to be protefted
from the froil in winter, fucceed very well.

But all the other forts are tender, and require the pro-
teftion of the hot-houfe or ilove. They arc increafed by
lowing the feed in the early fpring, in pots filled with fine
mellow light mould, and pluna-ing them in the hot-bed
under glaiie,';, or in the bark-bed. When the plants have
advanced a little in growth, they fliould be removed into
feparate pots, filled with foft loamy mould, being well
watered, and replunged in the bark-bed till frefli rooted ;
being afterwards managed as other exotic Itove plants, with
but Httle water. They likewife fometimes fucceed by
layers and cuttings, treated in the fame manner.

It may be noticed, that the firft forts afford variety in
the borders, and among potted plants ; and the latter in
ftove coUeftious, where heat is required. Many of the
tender forts are very elegant plants, proper for affording
ornament and curiofity in fuch fituations.

SOPHRONIST./E, cr<D?jo»trai, among the Athenians,

S O R

were ten officers, appointed to take care that the young
men behaved themfelves with fobriety and moderation.

SOPHRONISTERIUM,5-i._-{o-..rv:5,ov,among the Athe-
nians, a houfe of correction, like our Bridewell.

SOPI.-\N.£, in Ancient Geography, z town of the Lower
Pannonia, upon the route from Sirmium to Carnuntum, be-
tween Antiana and Manfuetianus, according to the Itinerary
of Antonine.

SOPIO, a name ufed by fome of the old writers for
opium, from its foporific virtue.

SOPOLO, in Geography, a town of Turkilh Albania ;
32 miles S.S.E. of Valona.

SOPORARI./E Ahteui.'E, a name given by fome au-
thors to the carotid arteries.

SOPORIFIC, or SopoRiFEROUS, a medicine that has
the faculty of procuring fleep. Such are opium, lauda-
num, &c.

The word is formed from the Latin fopor, Jleep. The
Greeks, in lieu of it, ufe the word hypnotic.

SOPOROUS, Sleepy, or Drotufy difeafes, a term by
which medical writers exprefs the lethargy and coma, and
fome others even the carus and apoplexy.

SOPPAL^, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Jagerndorf ; 5 miles N. of .Tagerndorf.

SOPPY, a town on the N.W. coaft of the ifiand of
Morty. N. lat. 2° 40'. E. long. 128" 15'.

SOPRA, Ital. above, upper : as nelle parte difopra, in the
upper parts ; di fopra, above; contrapunto fnpra H foggettOt
counterpoint above the fubjeft. See Soggetto.

SOPRANO, in Italian Mupc, means fupreme, or the
higheft vocal part. Its clef is that of the tenor or C clef on
the firfl. line. Mufic for a foprano or treble voice in Italy,
is always written in the C clef on the firll line, thence called
the foprano clef. The treble or G clef, in which we write
vocal treble parts, is called by the Italians, chiave di violino,
the violin clef, and only ufed for the higheft parts of inftru-
mental miific.

SOPRON, in Geography. See Edenburg.

SOQUA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 60 miles
N. of Warlaw.

SOR, a river of France, which runs into the Agout, fix
miles below Caftres.

SoR. SeeTsoR.

SOR A, in Botany, the name given by the people of
Guinea to a kind of ihrub which they ufe in medicine, boil-
ing it in water, and giving the decocUon in cafes of pain of
any kind.

The leaves of this ftirub are of the fize and fhapeof thofc
of fenna; they ttand upon ihort footftalks, and are woolly
underneath. Philof. Tranf. No. 231.

SoRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Deferta,
on the confines of Mefopotamia. Ptolemy- — Alfo, a town
of India, on this fide of the Ganges, according to Ptolemy,
who gives it the title of " Arcati Regia." — Alfo, the name
of a town of Phoenicia. Steph. Byz. — Alfo, a town of
Italy, in Latium, towards the N.E., upon theLixis. Ac-
cording to Livy, it belonged to the Samnites.

SoR.'v, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Lavora, the
fee of a biiliop, immediately under the pope; 31 miles
N.N.W. of Sezza. N. lat. 41° 47'. E. long. 13° 36'.

SORACTES, in Ancient Geography, mountain^ of
Italy, in Etruria, on the confines of the .:ouiitrj- of the Fa-
lifci, and in the vicinity of the Tiber.

SOR.S, a people of India, who dwelt in the vicinity of
Carmania and Gedrofia, near the river Caberon, according to
Phny. — Alfo, a people of India, on this fide of the Ganges,

counted

sou

counted among the Nomades by Ptolemy, who places them
between the mountains Bitigus and Difathrus.

SOR^I, a people of Africa, in Mauritania Cxfarienfis.
Ptolemy.

SORAGNA, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Parma ; 13 miles N.N.W. of Parma.

SORAMIA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. t. 219. JufT.
433. See Mappia.

SO R ANUS, in Medical H'l/Iory, one of the mod able of
the phyficians of the methodic feCt, according to the opinion
of Caelius Anrelianus, and the one who put the finilhing
hand to that fyltem, was a native of Ephtfus. His father's
name was Menander, and that of his mother Phcebe. He
ftudied medicine, and afterwards praftifed it at Alexandria,
but at length he fettled at Rome, and was in conliderable
repute in that metropolis in the reigns of Trajan and Adrian.
His charafter, indeed, feems to have been highly eflimated ;
for he was in favour with all parties. Even Galen, who
was violent in his oppofition to the Methodijls, and abufed
Theflalus with fome acrimony, fpeaks favourably of the
knowledge of Soranus, and bears his teilimony, from expe-
rience, to the efficacy of fome of his remedies. Soranus
compofed fevtral works, none of which have come down to
us in their proper form ; but as Cslius Aurelianus, in his
treatife " De Morbis Acutis et ChroMicis," every where
acknowledges himfelf to be a tranflator from the Greek of
Soranus, that work may be coiifidered as in fubftance the
produdlion of the latter.

Some confufion prevails among medical writers, who mif-
take Soranus the Methodift for two other phyficians of the
fame name. The iirlt of thefe was alfo a native ot Ephc-
fus, but poilerior to the Methodift. He was the author of
a good treatife on the diieafes and organs of generation of
women, which was printed at Paris in IJ56, under the title
of " De Utero et Muliebri pudendo libellus," together with
fome pieces of Rufus, the Ephefian. This fragment is fo
accurate in point of anatomical defcnption, as to leave a re-
gret that the other writings of this phyfician are loft. The
third of thefe phyficians of the name of Soranus, was fur-
named Melotas, from the town in Cilicia, where he was born.
There is, however, no very authentic record of him extant ;
and the only work afcribed to him, which is entitled " Ifa-
goge faluberrima in Artem mcdendi," and was printed at
Bade, 1528, and Venice, 1547, is maintained by Vofiins
to be the work of a pofterior Latin writer, and not of any
of the three perfons named Soranus. See Le Clcrc, Hift.
de la Med. Eloy DiA. Hilt.

SORARUM, in Geography, 1 town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cicacole ; 10 miles W. of Coffimcotta.

SORAS, a town and jurifdidtion of Peru ; 60 miles S.
of Guamanga. — Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Feltrin ; 8
miles W.S.W. of Fchri.

SORAU, or Zvouv, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Ratibor ; 18 miles E. of Ratibor. N. lat. 50° i'.
E. long. 18° 40'.

SORAW, or Zauow, a town of I^nfatia, and one of
the moll ancient towns in the country, furrounded with walls
in the year 1207. It has manufaftures of cloth, and a con-
fiderable trade in linen and yarn ; 25 miles S.S.E. of
Guben. N. lat. 51'' 37'. E. long. 15° lo'.

SORBA, a town of France, in the department of .Te-
mappe, and chief place of a canton, in the diflrift of Cortc.
The canton contains 2000 inhabitants.

SORBAIT, Paul de, in Biography, a phyfician of
eminence, was a native of Hainault, in the I>ovv Countries.
Having finilhed his courfes of claffical and philolophical
lludies, he commenced that of medicine, which he appears

S O K

to have concluded by taking the degree of doftor in that
faculty at Vienna, where he ultimately fettled. He ob-
tained a high reputation for medical fkill and erudition ; and,
in 1655, was appointed to the principal profeflorfhip of
medicine in the univerfity of that metropolis, the duties of
which he executed with confiderable celebrity, until the year
1679. While he was engaged in his courfe of this year,
he was honoured with the appointment of phyfician to the
dowager emprefs Eleanor, and at the conclufion of it, rchii-
quilhed altogether his academical avocations. His merits
were ftill farther rewarded by the office of counfellor and
fupcrintendant of the public health, and by his elevation to
the dignity of a knight of the kingdom of Hungary. He
died in April 1691, at an advanced age. He left feveral
works, namely, a body of medical praftice, firft pubhfiied
at Nuremberg, in 1672, folio, with the title of " Univerfa
Medicina, tarn Theorica quam Praftica, nenipe Ifagoge
Inftitutionum Medicarum et Anatomicarum, S;c." This
work was rcpiiblilhed at Vienna in 1680, and again after
his death, in 1701, with the new title of " Praxeos Medicae
auftae, et a plurimis typi meiidis ab ipfo Auftore caiti-
gats, Traftatus VIT. &c." " Nova et aucta Inftitu-
tionum Medicarum Ifagoge," 1678, 4to. " Commentaria
et Controverfiae in omnes Libros Aphorifmornm Hippo-
cratis," 1680. In the preceding year he publidied an ac-
count of the plague, which had committed dreadful ravages
in Vienna, having deftroyed, he affirms, not lefs than 76,921
perfons. Its title was " Confilium Medicum, five Dialogus
Loimicus de Pefte Viennenfi," 1697 ; and he publilhed the
lame work, in German, in 1680. He was author alfo of
" A Treatife on Midwifery," in the German laiifruaee.
Eloy Did. Hift. de la Med.

SORBECKE, in Geography, a river vehich rifes in Weit-
phalia, and runs into the Rhnr, about two miles S. of Ncheini.
SORBELLONI, in Biography, a fecond rate Italian
opera finger in foprano, who arrived here in 1761 ; and
who, from the mere fweetnefs of his voice, free from vul-
garity, was always much applauded. He was here at the
fame time as Paganini, and performed the part of ferious
man in the burlettas of the time.

SORBIERE, Samuel, was born in i6r5, at St.
Ambroix, in the diocefe of Ufez. He was educated
by his maternal uncle, an eminent Calvinift ir.iniftcr at
Nifmes. He came to Paris in 1639, and being difgufted,
for fome reafons not now known, with the lludv of theo-
logy, he took up that of medicine. In 1642 he went to
Holland, where, befides purluing his medical ihuiics, he
materially affifted in the trandation of Camden's Britannia,
and alfo More's Utopia. He married, in Holl.ind, the
daughter of one of his townfmcn, and went to Leyden,
with the intention of fettling in his proteffion. In 1648 he
publilhed, under his own name, a French verfion of a
treatife of Gailendi, entitling it " Dilconrs fceptiqiie fur le
Pad'age du Chyle, et le Mouvement du Cocnr." Rctiniiing
to France in 1650, he was made principal of the college of
Orange, and there printed a Difcourfe on the true caule of
the troubles of England, and a letter on the defigns of
Cromwell. He conformed to the Catholic religion in 1653,
after which his life was chiefly fpent as an author, with a
view, it is faid, of attempting to obtain pcnfions, in which
he was very fnccefsful, having laid under contrihution car-
dinal Mazarin, Ixwis XIV., and the popes Alexander VII.
and Clement IX. He vifited England in 1664, and on his
return he publiftied an account of what he had obiervcd,
which was lo free in its ftridures, that he was for a time
exiled by a httre de cachet. Sorbiere was hkewile author of
a work entitled " Lettres et Difcours fur divers Matieres
2 curicufes,"

S O R

euneures," which contributed to his temporary reputation.
He died in 1670, and a Sorberiana was publilhed after his
death, containing fentiments fuppofed to have dropt from
him in converfation. His writings exhibit a caulhc and ia-
tirical fpirit, and the learning which they difplay is neither
original nor folid. He was intimately connefted with
Hobbes and Gaflendi, on whom he impofed himfelf as a
profound thinker.

SORBTODUNUM.in Ancient Geography. See SoRVlo-

DUNUM.

SORBOE, in Geography, a fmall iflandin the North fea,
near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 59° 5'.

SORBOLE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia ; 10
miles S.W. of Umea.

SORBONNE, Robert de, in Biography, founder of
tiie famous theological college which bears his name, \vas
born in 1201, of an obfcure family at Sorbon, in the dio-
cefe of Rheims. Being educated at Paris, and having taken
his degree of doclor, he devoted himfelf to preaching, in
which he became fo celebrated, that the king made him his
chaplain and confeflbr. Having become a canon of Cam-
bray in 1251, the recoUeftion of the difficulties which he
had experienced in the courfe of his own iludie-', fuggefted
to him a plan for facilitating to poor fcholars the means of
proceeding to graduation. This was to form a fociety of
feciilar ecclefiaftics, who, living in common, and provided
with a regular maintenance, fhould read lectures gratui-
toufly. With the affiftance of his friends, he founded the
college called the Sorbonne, which was particularly confe-
crated to the lludy of theology, and its conftitution has
ferved as a model for that of all colleges fince ercfted in that
country. Sorbonne afterwards added to tliis foundation a
college for the languages and philofophy, under the name of
the College of Calvi, or the Little Sorbonne. He was
made canon of Paris in 1258, and rofc to fuch a height of
reputation, that princes looked to him on many important
occafions as the arbitrator in their difputes. He died in
1274, at the age of 73, and left coniiderable property to
his college. He was author of feveral works on theologi-
cal fubjefts, which are preferved in MS. in the library of
the great college of which he was the liberal founder.

Sorbonne, or Sorbon, the houfe or college of the
faculty of theology, eftabhfhed in the univerfity of Paris.

It was founded in 1256, by St. Louis, or rather by Ro-
bert de Sorbonne, his confeflbr and almoner ; firil canon of
Cambray, and afterwards of the church of Paris ; who gave
his own name to it, which he himfelf took from the village
of Sorbon, or Serbon, in the department of the Ardennes,
near Sens, fix miles N. of Rethel, where he was born.

The foundation was laidin 1250, afterwards the kinggave
him all the houfes he had in the fame place, in exchange for
fome others in another.

The college has been fince magnificently rebuilt by the
cardinal de Richelieu. The defign of its inftitution was for
the ufe of poor ftudents in divinity.

There were lodgings in it for thirty-fix doftors and ba-
chelors of the houfe ; who were faid to be of the/odely of
the Sorbonne. Thofe admitted into it without being doc-
tors were faid to be of the ho/pila/ily of the Sorbonne. Six
regent doftors held leftures every day, for an hour and half
each : three in the mnniing, and three in the afternoon.

Sorbonne has been alfo ufed in the general for the whole
faculty of theology at Paris, becaufe the affemblies of the
whole body were held in the houfe of the Sorbonne : and be-
caufe the bachelors of the other houfes of the faculty, as
the houfe of Navarre, &c. came thither to hold their for-
honnique, or aft, for being admitted doftors of divinity.

S O R

SORBUS, in Botany, a word ufually derived by critics
itom forbeo, to fuck in ; becaufe its truit Sorbum, the Sorb-
apple, or Service, fee Service-tree, is not eatable till the
pulp becomes quite foft, fo as to be fucked rather than
bit:en, De Theis, however, goes to the recondite fources
of Celtic learning for its oiigin ; Sormel, the name of the
fruit in that language, being, as he fays, formed oi for,
harfii or rude, and met, an apple. — Linn. Gen. 250. Schreb.
338. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 1008. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 204. Jufi". 335. Lamarck lUuftr.
t. 434. — Clafs and order, Icofandria Trigynia, Linn. Nat.
Ord. Pomaces, Linu. Rofacca, Jufl'.

This genus, confifting, in moll authors, of three fpecies,
S. aiicuparia, hybrida, and domeflica, we refer, without fcru-
ple, as in the Flora Britannica, to Pyrus ; fee that article,
n. 24, 25, 26. See alfo Mespilus.

SouBUS, in Gardening, contains plants of the ornamental
tree kind, among which the fpecies cultivated arc, the
raountain-fervice, mountain-a(h, quicken-tree, roan-tree (S.
aucuparia) ; the true fervice, or forb (S. domeftica) ; and
the baUard fervice, or mountain-afli (S. hybrida).

In the firft fort the leaves make a pretty variety, when
mixed with other trees in plantations : it is alfo handfome
when in flower, and in the autumn, when in fruit ; but the
blackbirds and thrufhes are fo fond of it, that they devour
it before it is well ripe.

In the fecond fort there are varieties in the fruit ; ai
with apple-fliapcd fruit ; witli pear-ftiaped fruit ; with
oval fruit ; with turbinated fruit ; and with comprefled
fruit.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are all capable of being
raited from feed, and alfo by layers ; but the firll is the belt
method. The feeds, when well ripened in the autumn,
(hould be fown on fmall beds of light fine ground in the
nurfery, either in drills or over the lurface, covering them
in to the depth of about an inch. When the plants rife in
the following or fecond fpring, they fliould be kept clear
from weeds, and when of a year's growth, be planted out
in nurfery rows, to remain till of a proper fize for planting
out. But the fecond fort is fometimes fown in large pots,
and forwarded in a hot-bed, fo as to be fooner fit for plant-
ing out in nurfery rows, as in one year, or a fliort fpace of
time.

In the layer method, fome of the beft trees Ihould be cut
down near to the ground while young, by which (hoots will
foon be made and fent off, which fhauld be laid down in the
ufual way in the autumn or fpring feafons, where they readily
ttrike root, and become proper for being planted out in
nurfery rows in about one year.

In order to continue any partitular variety, this method
mult conflantly be adopted. Alfo, in cultivating the fecond
fort, for the purpofe of fruit, the beft method is by grafting
or budding upon ftocks of any of the forts raifed as above,
or upon pear-ftocks.

Thefe trees, in rearing, fhould be trained for ftandards,
each with a fingle upright ftem, in the nurfery, till from
three to fix or eight feet high, when they are proper for any
plantation, and may be tranfplanted as required. And they
maybe introduced in any large flirubbery orotherornamental
plantation, and in thofe of for^ft-trees. Some of the do-
meftic fervice-tree fort may alfo be introduced as fruit-trees
in gardens and orchards, principally as ftandards, butocca-
fionally in efpaliors, &c. in botli of which modes they ftiould
be planted and managed as apple and pear-trees, permitting
the ftandards to ftioot freely above into full heads ; the
others being regulated according to their order of training.
They will produce plentiful crops of fruit annually, after

forac

I

S O R

fome time, to gather in autumn. In gathering of which
for the table, it is proper to lay fome in the fruitery, or other
place, a little time, to mellow and become foft and tender ;
in which Itate it is eatable, and of an agreeable tafte and
flavour.

Some of thefe forts of trees, as the firft and laft kinds,
are very ornamental in pleafure-ground plantations, and
large fhrubberies, both in their leaves and fruit. The other
fort may alfo be occafionally introduced with good efFeft in
particular fituations.

SORCERER'S Islano, in Geography, a fmall ifland in
the Atlantic, near the coalt of Airica, where the Negroes
come yearly to facrifice to their deities, near the mouth of
the Rio Grande.

SORCERY, the crime of witchcraft, or divination, by
the affillance of evil fpirits. See Magic and Magician.

Some hold forcery to be properly what the ancients call
forti-hgiitm, or divination by means of fortes, or lots. Lord
Coke, 3d Inft. fol. 44, delcribes a forcerer, qui utitur forti-
ius, et incantat'ionll/us d(smonum.

Sorcery is pretended to have been a thing formerly very
common ; at lead the credulity of thofe ages made it pafs
for fuch ; and people fuffered frequently for it.

This fuppofed crime was made felony by 33 Hen. VIII.
C. 8, and I Jac. I. c. 12 ; but this abfurd law was very
properly repealed by an aft of George II. See Conju-
ration.

SORCY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Meufe, fituated on the Meufe ; 3 miles
S.E. of Commercy.

SORDE, or Sordes, a town of France, in the depart-
ment »f the Landes, on the gave of Oleron ; 9 miles E. of
Bayonne.

SORDES, a term applied to the matter difcharged from
ijlcers in horfes, when it is rather vifcid or glutinous. This
matter is frequently of a brownifh-red colour, fomewhat re-
Jfembling the grounds of coffee, or grumous blood mixed
with water. Sordes, fames, and Ichor, are all of them terms
which imply a difcharge much more fetid than purulent mat-
ter, and none of them are altogether tree from acrimony ;
but that which is generally termed ichor is by much the
moft acrid of them, being frequently fo (harp and cor-
jTofive, as to deftroy large quantities of the neighbouring
parts.

SORDINO, Ital, Sourdine, Fr., a mute, or little
machine placed on the bridge of a violin or violoncello to
enfeeble or deaden the tone, by impeding the vibration of
the whole inftrument. The French never ufe this machine,
and the Italians but feldom, at prefent.

SORDITIES, \n Surgery, putrid pus of bad quality.
SORDUN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine and Marne ; 3 miles S.E. ef
Provins.

SORE, a town of France, in the department of the
Landes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Mont-
de-Marfan ; 27 miles N. of Mont-de-Marfan. The place
contains 1450, and the canton 340Q inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 420 kiliometres, in 4 coinmuncs.

Sore, among Sporlfmen, denotes a buck of the fourth
year.

SOREL, a buck of the third year.
SoUEL, in Botany. See SonuEL.

SouEL, in Geography, a cape on the N. coaft of the ifland
of Jerfey ; 7 miles N.E. of St. Hclier.

SORELLE, a town of Lower Canada, fituated at the
mouth of a river of the fame name, which runs from lake
Champlain into the St. I^awrence. It was laid out about
Vol. XXXIII.

S O 11

the year 1787, and on an extenfive plan, with very wide
ilreets, and a large fquare ; but at prefent it contains only
1 00 houfes, which are all very indifferent, and widely fepa-
rated from one another. This is the only town on the St.
Lawrence, between Montreal and Quebec, inwhich Enghfh
is the predominant language. The inhabitants confift prin-
cipally of loyalifls from the United States, who took refuge
in Canada. The chief bufinefs carried on here is that of
fhip-building ; feveral veflels are annually launched from
50 to 200 tons burthen, which are floated down to Quebec,
and there rigged. The river of Sorelle is deep at its
mouth, and affords good flielter for fhips from the ice, at
the breaking up of winter : it is not navigable far beyond
the town, even in boats, on account of the rapids ; 24
miles N.N.E. from Montreal. Weld's Travels, vol. i.

SORENTO, or Sorrento, a fea-port town of Naples,
in Principato Citra, fituated on the brink of the fteep rocks
that overhang the bay of the fame name, and prefenting an
enchanting afpeft. The mountains of Vico and MafTa, be-
tween which it lies, fhelter it from the W. and S. winds.
Its ftreets are narrow ; but this is no inconvenience in a
warm climate, where carriages are not ufed, nor any com-
munication with the metropolis prafticable by land. Of all
the places in the kingdom, this enjoys the moft dehghtful
climate, for which it was renowned in ancient times. Silius
Italicus extols its foft and wholefome zephyrs : " Zephyro
Suorentum molle falubri." At prefent it enjoys fhady
groves, excellent water, fruit, fifh, milk, butter, the fineft
veal, the belt wine, and every neceflary of hfe at an eafy
rate. Its population confilts of about 15,000 inhabitants,
being half the population of the whole plain. Thefe are
goldfmiths, mariners, or fifhermen. The women are em-
ployed in breeding filk-worms, and weaving the filk which
they draw from them. It is an archiepifcopal fee, of which
the bifhops of Stabia, Vico, Equenfe, and Maffa, are fuffra-
gans. Some abbies are alfo fubfervient to it.

According to Hyginus, it was built by the Greeks ; and
was called Syrenetum, or Surenetum, from its having been
the refidence of the fyrens Leucofia and Ligia. However
this be, it was anciently the abode of the Ofci, Opici, and
Picentini, whofe capital it was, and afterwards a Roman
colony, and a municipal city, as we may conclude from a
multitude of antique marbles. Its numerous ruins of edi-
fices fhew that the towm is much reduced from its ancient
ftate. It was formerly adorned with feveral magnificent
temples, among which were thofe of .Juno and Diana ; but
the moft fplendid of them was that built by Pollius, in ho-
nour of Hercules, and which Statius has depicted in all the
charms of poetry. The place where this temple flood i«
now called corruptly Polo, and fome traces are Itill fccn of
thofe of Ceres, Neptune, and Apollo. Befides the fruiti
and wines for which Sorrento is famous, it was alfo cele-
brated among the ancients for its beautiful earthen veflels,
efpccially as goblets or drinking cups. Pliny very much
applauds them, and Martial prefers them to thofe of thr
moft valuable materials, and of the moll exquifitc work-
manfliip. Sorrento values itfclf upon having been the birth-
place of the celebrated grammarian L. Craffitiui Pafide?,
mentioned by Suetonius in his treatifc " l)e illuflribun
Grammaticis ;" of the learned Bcrnardin Rota; and of the
renowned Torquato Taflo ; 15 miles S. of Naples. N- lat.
40° 40'. E. long. 14° 24'.

The bay of Sorrento is three miles wide : a fcmicircular
chain of woody mountains inclofes a rich and beautiful plain,
rather Hoping towards the fea, full of white building*
peeping out of the groves. This crcfcent terminates in a
flraight line to the fea, by a bold coail of black pcrpciidi-
3 A cuUr

S O R

cular rocks. This probably formed a portion of a circle,
half of which broke off and funk into the waves, and pro-
bably the whole was once the crater of a volcano. The
whole foil of the plain is cineritious, and its rocks confiil
of a flrong blue lava, except near the eaft end, where they
are of a fofter piperino kind. The encircling mountains are
compofed of regular calcareous layers ; and the materials of
the lower jrround are without doubt volcanical.

SOREX, or Shrew, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of the
Mammalia Fera: clafs and order, of which the followmg is
the generic charnder : there are two upper fore-teeth, which
are long and bifid ; the lower fore-teeth are from two to
four ; the intermediate ones are (horter ; there are feveral
tufks on each fide ; the grinders cufpidate. ( See the article
Shrew.) Seventeen fpecies are enumerated in Gmelin's laft
edition of the Linnacan genera, which are as follow.

Species.

Cristatus ; Crafted Shrew. The noftrils in this fpecies
are carunculate ;' the tail is ft'ort. It inhabits North Ame-
rica. The whole animal is four inches long, and the tail
an inch and a quarter : it feeds on roots, and refembles the
mole in its face and fnout.

MiNUTUS; Minute Shrew. The fnout of this fpecies is
very long, and it has no tail. It inhabits Siberia, in moill
woods, under the roots of trees : it makes its nelt of lichen,
coUeAs feeds, runs and burrows quickly ; it bites, has the
Toice of a bat, and weighs about a drachm.

Aquaticus ; Aquatic Shrew. In this fpecies the hind-
feet are palmate ; fore-feet are white ; the tail is fhort and
white. It is an inhabitant of North America, and is the
fize of a mole,

MoscHATus. Feet palmate, tail flattened, thickeft in
the middle. This is called the mufl<y fhrew ; it inhabits
about the lakes of Volga and Tanais ; burrows under the
banks, with an entrance into the water ; feeds on flags and
fifh ; the body of the animal is fcven inches long, and the
tail is eight.

* BicoLOR ; Water Shrew. The tail of this fpecies is
of the mean length ; it is nakedifh ; the body is blackilh,
beneath it is cinereous ; the toes are fringed. It inhabits
Europe and Siberia, near fwamps and rivers ; fwims eafily,
often under water : the female has ten teats, and brings
forth nine young at a time ; it makes a noife like the chirp
of a grafshopper ; the body of the animal is four inches
long, and the tail two.

MuRlNus ; Murine Shrew. The tail is of a middle
length ; the body is brown, feet and tail cinereous. It in-
habits Java, and is the fize of a moufe.

* Araneus; Fetid Shrew. The tail of this fpecies is
of the middle length ; the body beneath is whitifh. It in-
habits almoft every part of Europe, and in the northern
climates of Alia ; it lives in old walls, ftables, yards, gra-
naries, out-houfes, fwamps, and pools ; it feeds on corn and
infefts ; it fmells of muflc ; is killed, but not eaten, by cats ;
the voice is fhrill ; it runs much flower than a moufe ; brings
five or fix young ones in fpring and fummer ; it is feldom
fo long as three inches. There are two varieties. I. Head,
and upper parts, dufky ; fides brownifh rufty. This is found
in Hudfon's Bay and Labrador. 2. The upper parts are
of a duflcy grey, and underneath the animal is of a yellowifli-
white.

SuRiNAMENsis ; Surinam Shrew. The tail of this fpecies
is half as long as the body ; the body above is chefnut, be-
neath white and ye!lowi(h-grey. It is found, as its fpecific
name denotes, at Surinam.

PusiLLUs ; Timid Shrew. Ears rounded ; tail Ihort, a

S O R

little fringed at the fides. It inhabits iht northern parts of
Perfia, in holes which it burrows ; it is three inches and a
half long ; the body is of a dark grey above, and the belly
is paler.

Brasiliensis. The body of this fpecies is brown, the
back is black, with three ftripef. It inhabits Brafil, is
about five inches long, with a tail of two inches in length.

ExiLis. The tail of this is very thick in the middle,
tapering to each end. It inhabits Siberia ; it is the fmalleft
of quadrupeds, fcarcely weighing half a drachm ; it is like,
though of a darker colour, the S. araneus.

C.SRULEUS ; Blue Shrew. The tail is of a mean length ;
the upper parts are of a pale blue ; the belly is lighter ; the
legs and feet &re white. It inhabits Java, and the other Eaft
Indian iflands, feeds on rice, fmells Ifrongly of muik, is
eight inches long, with a tail about half that length.

Mexicanus : Mexican Shrew. The tail is ftiort ; the
fore-feet are three-toed ; the hind-fect have four toes. It is
found in New Spain ; burrows in valt numbers, feeds on
roots and feeds ; the flefh is good ; it is about nine inches
long.

Albipes ; White-footed Shrew. Tail flender, hairy ;
upper parts dulky-afh ; feet, belly, and teeth, white.

QuADRi-CAUDATUS ; Square-tailcd Shrew. The tail, as
its fpecific name denotes, is fquarifh ; the head and upper
parts are of a dulky-afh ; the belly is paler ; the fore-teeth
are brown.

LuRi-CAUDATUs ; Carinatc Shrew. The tail is taper,
keeled underneath ; head and upper parts dufliy-afh, belly
whitifh ; fore-teeth brown, a white fpot behind each
eye.

Unicolor. The tail is compreffed at the bafe ; the
body is of an uniform dufky-afh. It isobferved by Gmelin,
that the laft four, defcribed as diftinft fpecies, are probably
only varieties of th« S. araneus. They are all found near
Strafburg.

SOREY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Meufe ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Commercy.

SOREZE, a town of France, in the department of the
Tarn; 12 miles S.S.W. of Caitres.

SORG, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Anfpach, on the Schwarzach ; 8 miles E. of Schwabac^h.

SORGANO, a town of the ifland of Sardinia ; 38 miles
E. of Bofa.

SORGE, George Andrea.s, in Biography, a voluminous
writer on mufic, and a compofer, born in 1705, and who
died in 1778. In Gerber there is a lilt of his works.

SORGENFREY, or Saxs Souci, in Geography, a town
of Denmark, in the ifland of Zealand, with a royal palace ;
6 miles N. of Copenhagen.

SORGHUM, in Botany, a name of oriental or barbarous
origin, but venerable for its antiquity. — " Perf. Ench. v. i.
lOl." Purfti v. I. 78. (Sorgum; Mich. Gen. 35. Mieg.
Aft. Helvet. v. 8. 131. Holcus ; Brown Prodr. Nov.
Holl. V. I. 198.) — Clals and order, TrianJria Digynia. Nat.
Ord. Gramma.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume of two ovate, concave, coriaceous,
unequal valves, inflexed at the margin, fingle-flowered. Cor.
of two membranous, ovato-lanceolate, rather unequal valves,
hairy at the edges ; the innermolt rather the fmalleft, cloven,
bearing from its fiffure a twifted awn, twice the length of
the glume itfelf. Neftary a thin, awl-ftiaped, villous fcale.
Stam. Filaments three, capillary ; anthers cloven at each
end, prominent. Pift. Germcn ovate, polifhed ; ftyles two,
capillary, ftiort, fprcading ; ftigmas oblong, feathery. Some
flowers, elevated on italks, have neither awn nor piftil. Peric.
none, except the permanent, hardened, clofed calyx. Seed

folitary,

S O R

folitary, oval, tumid, concealed in the hard polifhed calyx,
out of which the awn of the corolla projefts.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, fingle-flowered. Corolla
of two valves ; the inner one cloven and awned. Nedlary
villous. Seed enclofed in the hardened calyx. Some flowers
male, ilallted, without an awn.

We have under the article Holcus adverted to the prefent
jrenus, which requires to be feparated therefrom, and is in
itfelf important, on account of its economical ufes. What
are its genuine Ipecies, we do not completely undertake to
determine, nor how far thofe which are defcribed are diilinft,
authors having been obliged to recur to colour in their de-
finitions. " They are annual grafles, of quick growth, and
of a very large bulk, abounding with faccharine juice, as
much as the lugar-cane, at leaft in Italy." Profellor Ar-
duino (hewed the writer of this, at Padua in 1787, good
fugar and treacle procured from his Holcus Cafer, hereafter
mentioned. See Sm. Tour on the Continent, ed. z. v. 3. 10.
The ftalks of the ripe panicles of fome of the fpecies make
brooms, or even carpet and clothes-bruflies of a very good
quality. The following will ferve to exemplify the genus in
queilion.

S.Dora. Common Indian-millet. (Holcus Dora ; Mieg.
Aft. Helvet. V. 8. 125. t.4. f. 3. Holcus Sorghum ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 1484. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 929. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 5. 430. Arduin. 01c. o Sorg. 19. t. 4. f. I. Milium
indicum ; Matth. Valgr. v. i. 370.) — Panicle ovate, com-
paft, ereft. Glumes downy. Seeds (lightly comprelied. —
Native of the Eaft Indies. Cultivated in the fouth of
Europe. The root is annual, confifting of innumerable
fibres. Stem ereft, round, jointed, leafy, from fix to ten
feet high, as thick as the finger or thumb. Leaves fheath-
ing„ reed-like, lanceolate, fmooth, with a (Irong mid-rib,
and many fine lateral, oblique, parallel ones. Panicle ter-
minal, from four to twelve inches long, very much branched,
clofe, of innumerable dov/nyjlo'wers, on zig-zag or curved
ftalks. Seeds roundi(h, various in colour, ufually yellow or
reddilh. This is the moil general fpecies, under which in-
deed many of the reit have been confounded ; but fome of
them, by their fuperior merits, have (uperfeded it in cul-
tivation.

S. licolar. Two-coloured Indian-millet. (Holcus bico-
lor ; Luin. Mant. 301. Willd. Sp. Pi. v. 4. 929. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 5. 430. Arduin. Olc. o Sorg. 29. t. 6.
H. Sorgiium ; Mieg. Aft. Helvet. v. 8. 129. t. 4. f. 4 ?) —
Panicle ereft, fomewhat lobed. Glumes fmooth, black.
Seeds globofe, white. — Said to be a native of Perfia. Suf-
ficiently dillinft from the former, by the above charafters.

S. cernuum. Drooping Indian-millet. (Holcus cernuus ;
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 930. Arduin. Olc. o Sorg. 14. t. 3.
f. I, 2.) — Panicle compaft, curved downward as it ripens.
Glumes downy. Seeds globofe. — Cultivated in Arabia,
.Syria, and various parts (;f the Levant, being probably a
native of India. It is remarkable for its deflexed, or pen-
dulous ^izn;V/(» of yW, whofe ilalk cannot be made ftraight
without breaking. Thcjlem is five or fix feet high. Leaves
fmooth. Seeds very white, fcarccly compreffed.

S. cajfrorum. Cadres Indian-millet. (Holcus caffrorum ;
Thunb. Prodr. 20. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 930. H. Cafer ;
Arduin. Olc. 0 Sorg. 5. t. I.) — Branches of the panicle
fpreadmg every way, deflexed. Glumes downy. Awns
deciduous. Seeds globofe. — Native of the Cape of Good
Hope. Rather larger than moll ot the preceding, with a
fpreading, drooping-branched ^an/c/f. Seeds more expofed
than in the others. ProfelTor Arduino recommends this
much for culture, on account of its abundant crop ; the
goodnefs of the grain for poultry ; and the copious fac-

S O R

charine juices of tlie/cm/. We prefume his plant and Thun-
berg's to be the fame, but have no proof.

&■ fticcharatum. Yellow-feeded Indian-millet. Purflm. I.
(Holcus faccharatus; Linn. Sp. PI. 1484. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 4. 930. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 5. 430. Arduin. Olc. o Sorg.
22. t. 4. f. 2. Mieg. Aa. Helvet. v. 8. 119. t. 4. f. i.

Sorgum ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 194. t. 75. f. i.)

Panicle ereft, with (lender, drooping, lax branches. Glumes
hairy. Male flowers very few, withering. — Native of the
Eaft Indies. The more difperfed flowers, on the long,
fpreading, drooping, whorled branches of the panicle, readily
mark this fpecies.

S. nigrum. Coal-black Indian-millet. (Holcus niger ;
Arduin. Olc. o Sorg. 20. t. 9. ) — Panicle ovate, ere£l, with
fpreading denfe branches. Glumes and feeds black. — No-
thing is faid of the native coui;try, or particular qualities,
of this fpecies, which is one of the largcft of the genus.
The leaves are long and broad, confpicuous for their white
rib. Panicle fomewhat pyramidal, not near fo denfe as that
of the firft fpecies, but the fo-jjers are thickly fet on its
fpreading, (lightly deflexed, branches.

SORGUE, or Pont de Sorgue, in Geography, a town
of France, on the river Sorgue ; 6 miles from Avignon. —
Alfo, a river of France, which rifes from the fountain of
Vauclufe, and runs into the Rhone, by leveral mouths, at
and near Avignon.

SORI, a town of the Ligurian republic; 9 miles S.E.
of Genoa.

SORIA, a town of Spain, in Old Callile, near the
fource of the Duero, built near the ruins of the ancient
Numantia. This town, which fuffercd much during the
Moori(h wars, was repeopled in the beginning of the 12th
century, by order of Alonfo, king of Caftile ; 116 miles
N.N.E. of Madrid. N. lat. 41° 47'. W. long. 2° 35'.

SORIANG, a river on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Celebes, which runs into the fea, S. lat. 3° 9'. E. long.
1 19° 48'.

SORIANO, Francesco, in Biography, a great canonifl,
and critic of the mullc of his time, was maeftro di cappella
of St. Peter's church at Rome, and in 1610 publilhed one
hundred and ten canons upon the chant to the hymn '< Ave
Maris Stella," for three, four, five, fix, fcven, and eight
voices. Refolutions of thefe canons in fcore, with remarks,
by Zacconi, 1625, in manufcript, were m the poilciTion of
the late refpedable theorill and hillorian, P. Martini, who,
among his other mufical curiofities, communicated to us this
manufcript, which imprelled us with a much higher opinion
of the patience than tlie genius of Soriano. Few mailers,
except himfelf, could perhaps have compofed thefe canons,
but many mull have thought that the lofs to mufic would
not have been very great, if they had never been compofed.
Baptill Doni, an enemy to learned mufic, and a great advo-
cate for the recitative and melodies for a fingle voice, which
were now advancing into favour, fsys (Tratt. della Muf.
Scenica, Op. omn. tom. ii. p. 129.) that though Soriano
was generally allowed by mulicians to be a learned co;)tra-
puntilt, he never hud genius fufiicient to invent a fingle air
that was beautiful or pleafing ; on which account lie applied
himfelf to the compofition of elaborate fugues and canons :
as in poetry, thole who have no original ideas or ijivtntion
can write acrollics and anagrams, by whicii lluy become
only rhymers, not poets ; fo canonills (hould be c.illed con-
trapuntills, not nuificians.

SoKiANO, in Geography, a town of the P.itrimonio ; 6
miles E.S.E. of Vuerbo. — Alfo, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Ultra ; 6 miles E.S.E. of Milcto.

3 A 2 SORI.

S O R

S O R

SORIBOA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Truxillo,

and jurifdiiftion of Chacapoyas.

SORICINA, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Upper Po ; 12 miles N> of Cremona.

SORIGO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Lario ; 27 miles N. of Como.

SORIN, a river of France, which runs into the Rhone,
at Roanne.

SORITES, 2a>pEiT>i?, formed from o-^.p©-, cumulus, heap,
in Rhetoric, &c. a kind of argument, in which feveral middle
terms are chofen to conneft one another fiicceffively in feve-
ral propofitions, till the lalt propofition connects its predi-
cate with the firft fubjeft. Whence Cicero calls \t fyllogifmus
acervatus, an accumulative fyllogifm.

Such was that merry argument of Themiftocles, to prove,
that his little fon, under ten years old, governed the whole
world. Thus : " My fon governs his mother ; his mother
me; I the Athenians; the Athenians the Greeks ; Greece
commands Europe ; Europe the whole world : therefore
my fon commands the whole world."

This method of difputing prevailed much among the
Stoics ; efpecially with Zeno and Chryfippus ; but it is very
fophiflical.

SORITO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra; 5 miles E.S.E. of Mileto.

SORIVA, a town of Italy, in the Feltrin ; 6 miles W.
of Felt'ri.

SORKEY, a town of Hindoollan, in Bahar ; 15 miles
W. of Rotafgur.

SORLECHEU, a town of France, in the department
of the Jemappe ; 6 miles E.N.E. of Avefnes.

SORNAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Uffel. The place contains 1453, and the canton 5647 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 205 kiliometres, in 8 communes.

SORNI, a name given by fome of the chemical writers
to iron.

SORNZIG, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
circle of Leipfic ; 3 miles S. of Mugeln.

SORO, a river of Portugal, which runs into the Tagus,
near Salvaterra, in the province of Ellremadura.

SOROCEPHALUS, in Botany, fo named by Mr.
Brown, from aa^o:, a heap, and x.iZa.7.-n, the head, alluding
to the aggregate, or crowded, heads of flowers. — Brown
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 139. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 202.
— Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Pro-
teaceic, Jufl. Brown.

EH'. Ch. Corolla four-cleft, regular. Stamens in the
concave tips of the fegments. Neftary four fcales beneath
the gcrmen. Stigma vertical. Nut fuperior. Involucrum
of from three to fix leaves, permanent, containing one, or
a very few, flowers. Common receptacle naked.

Shrubs, with wand-hke branches. Leaves fcattered ;
either thread-fhaped or flat, undivided ; the lowermoft only
being occnfionally bipinnatifid. Involucrums nearly iefiile,
with a folitary braftea, collected into a capitate terminal
fpike, fometimes fubteuded by imbricated brafteas. Flowers
purplifli. Bro'uin.

Mr. Brown defcribes eight fpecies, all natives of fouthern
Africa. Two are in the Enghlh garden.':.

Seftion I. Spiie nearly naked. Involucrum from one to
ihree-Jtonvered. Nut entire at the bafe, on a vtryjhortjlalk.
I^eaves thread-Jhaped, undivided.

I. S. fetaceus. BnlUe-leavod Sorocephalus. Br. n. i. —
" Involucrum fingle-flowercd. Leaves fetaceous, incurved,
hairy, as well as the branches." — Gathered by Dr. Rox-
burgh, at the Cape of Good Hope. An ereitjlirub, with

ftraight umbellate tranches. Leaves numerouf, an inch, oi"
rather more, in length, with a briltly faded point ; the
lower ones lefs incurved. Head terminal, feflile, ovate, the
fize of a black cherry. Lower part of the corolla loofely
downy ; its fegments bearded. Stigma ovate, fomewhat
conical.

2. S. fal/oloides. Salt-wort Sorocephalus. Br. n. 2. —
" Involucrum fmgle-flowcred. Leaves triangular-thread-
fhaped, incurved, fmooth." — p"rom the fame country. Rox-
burgh. ErecS, very much branched. Younged branches
finely downy. Leaves half an inch long, furrowed above,
v^'ith an acute point, nearly of their own colour. Head
rather fmaller than the former, accompanied underneath by
a few minute lanceolate braffeas. Corolla bearded with (hort
hairs. Stigma ereft, or flightly inclined.

3. S. imberbis. Beardlefs Sorocephalus. Br. n. 3. — " In-
volucrum three-flowered. Segments of the corolla, as well
as the points cf the bracleas, fmooth." — Gathered by Mr.
Niven, near the Cape of Good Hope. Much branched ;
the young branches downy. Leaves fmooth, an inch long,
moderately fpreading, fcarcely incurved, lliarp-pointed ; fur-
rowed above. Head on a Ihort ftalk, terminal, nearly glo-
bofe, the fize of the firft fpecies. BraQeas lanceolate,
fringed, with a fmooth awl-fhaped point. Lower part of
the corolla bearded. Style llraight. Stigma club-fhaped,
equal.

/[.. S. fpatalloides. Curve-ftyled Sorocephalus. Br. n. 4.
— " Involucrum three-flowered, fomewhat ftalked. Seg-
ments of the corolla bearded." — Found by Mr. Niven, near
Franche-hoek, at the Cape of Good Hope. An upright
fhrub, with umbellate, finely downy, branches. Leaves
fcarcely an inch long, moderately (preading ; hairy when
young. Heads either folitary, or two or three together,
ovate or oblong, the fiie of a hazel-nut, on fliort (talks.
Bradeas lanceolate, acute, downy ; fometimes fmoothifh at
the point. Corolla bearded with long hairs. Style generally
incurved at the point, in which cafe tUeJiigma is fomewhat
unequal ; but if the Jlyle be nearly ftraight, it is ovate and
equilateral.

Section 2. Spiie tvith more or lefs of a general invohcrttm.
Partial involucrum luith from four to fix Jloivers . Nut emar-
ginate at the bafe.

5. S. tenuifolius. Slender-leaved Sorocephalus. Br. n. j.
— " Leaves thread-ftiaped, very fhort. Heads of few flowers.
Corolla with a feathery beard ; its innermo'l fegmcnt nearly
mked." — Gathered by Mr. Niven, in moilt fituations near
Breed river, at the Cape of Good Hope. A fhrub three
or f:iur feet high, with fmooth, reddilh, leafy branches;
fomewhat villous when young. Leaves imbricated, roughifli,
fharp-pointed, not halt an inch long ; the younger ones
hairy. Aggregate head termisal, feffile, the fize of a pea,
compofed of from two to four partial heads. Partial in-
volucrums fomewhat imbricated ; their leaflets lanceolate,
bearded, fmoothifli at the points. Corolla very deeply four-
cleft, equal. Style ftraieht. Stigma ovate, creft, equilateral.

6. S. lanatus. Woolly Sorocephalus. Br. n. 6. Ait. n. 1.
(Piotea lanata; Thunb. Dili', n. 30. t. 3. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. I. 519.) — Leaves triangular-thread-lhaped ; furrowed
above. Heads of many flowers. All the fegmento of the
corolla with feathery beards. — Native of Swartland, and
other mountainous trafts, about the Cape of Good Hope.
Sent to Kew garden, by Mr. Maflon, in 1790. It flowers
from June to September. An upright fhrub, with fome-
what umbellate, ftraight, leafy, minutely downy branches.
Leaves imbricated, from five to eight lines long. Head the
fize of a large hazel-nut, feffile, globofe, folitary ; the par-
tial ones very clofely crowded, each of from five to eight

6 flowers.

S O R

S O R

*owers. /rivolucrumj of from five to feven narrow-lanceolate
bearded leaves. Corolla equal, deeply divided. Style ilraight,
with a thick equilateral_/?/jma Nul finely downy, with a
thin, brown, (lightly rugged, (hell ; its Italk very (hort.
The leaves are occafionally roughilh or fmooth, their keel
rounded or acute.

7. S. imbricattis. Imbricated Sorocephalus. Br. n. 7.
Ait. n. t.. (Protea imbricata ; Thunb. DifT. n. 45. t. 5.
Linn. Suppl. 116. Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 527. Andr.
Repof. t. 517. — Leaves lanceolate; rough Bnderneath.
Bale of the corolla clothed with glandular hairs. Stigma
club-fhaped. — Found on hills at the Cape of Good Hope.
Sent to Kew, by Mr. Maflon, in 1794. Mr. Hibbert alfo
obtained it from his colleftor there, Mr. Niven. This has
the habit of the foregoing, but the leaves are lanceolate,
near an inch long ; hairy beneath, and at the edges ; fmooth
above. Head felTile, ovate or oblong, either folitary, or
compofed ol two or three crowded together ; with a com-
mon iiAolucrum, of many lanceolate coloured leaves. Each
partial involucrum, of four lanceolate hairy leaves, ufually
contaipis four flowers. Corolla (lender, purplifh ; its feg-
nients bearded, with a long denfe tuft of white hairs, as
is likewife the gerjneti. Style ftraight. Stigma a little gib-
bons. Nut oblong, brown, very fmooth and (hining.

8. S. diverjif alius . Various-leaved Sorocephalus. Br.
n. 8. — " Leaves fpatulato-lanceolate ; fmooth underneath :
the lowermofl doubly pinnatifid. Corolla bearded through-
out. Stigma cylindrical." — Gathered by Mr. Niven, on
(lony hills near Goud Rivier, at the Cape of Good Hope.
A. (vnooth /hrub, v/hote Jlem is from two to fix feet high,
either fimple or divided, ilraight, ereft, as thick as a fwan's
quill; downy in the upper part. Leiver leaves two inches
long, twice three-cleft, channelled ; the reft imbricated,
bluntifh, fcarcely concave, hardly half an inch in length.
Head feffile, folitary, ovate, obtufe, the fizc of a fmall
plum.

SOROCHTNSKAIA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruf-
fia, in the government of Upha, on the Samara ; 80 miles
N.W. of Orenburg.

SOROE, a town of Denmark, in the idand of Zealand,
furrounded by three frefh-water lakes. In this place is a
royal academy, endowed with the revenues of a ricii con-
vent, which was didolved at the revolution ; 35 miles
S.W. of Copenhagen. N. lat. 55° 27'. E. long. 1 1° 30'.
— Alfo, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near the coalt of
Norway. N. lat. 70'' 30'.

SO ROOM AN, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Oman ; i lo miles S.W. of Julfa.

SOROTO, a town of Thibet ; 70 miles W.N.W.
of Cha-tciieou.

SORRANCES, among Farriers, fignify two things;
OTz. either an ill Hate, or habit, of a horfe's body, arifing
from fome part difeafed ; or a lonfening and foiution or
the continuity of the parts ; which, according to the va-
rious circun-iftarces of it, acquire new names, as frac-
ture, wound, ukcr, rupture, convulfion, cramp, excori-
ation, &c.

SoniiA}^CE-lVtiler, a name given by our farriers to a
foiution of vitriol, and fome other ingredients, in vinegar ;
a medicine much eitecmed in many of the difeafes of horfcs.
It is prepared in the following manner.

Take Roman vitriol, and roach-alum, of each an ounce
and a half; verdigris, an ounce; copperas, two ounces:
reduce all thefe to powder together, and put them into a
two-quart bottle, into which pour a quart of the llrongell
and bell wine-vinegar ; this is to be fct in balneo Maria:.
The fliort way of doing which by the farrier, is this ; he

puis a wifp of hay into the bottom of the kettle, and then
tying fome pieces of lead or iron about the neck r.f the
bottle, to make it heavy enough to fink in water, it is fet
upon the hay fo, as to (land very upright ; then three
notches are cut lengthwife in the cork to give pallagc to
fome of the vapours when the bottle is heated, that it may
not burll. When every thing is thus prepared, fo much
cold water i^: to be put into the kettle, that the neck of the
bottle may Hand two or three inches above it ; the kettle
is then to be fet over the fire, and the water is to be made
to boil, and kept boiling about half an hour, the bottle
being at times taken out, and thoroughly (haken. When
the falts are thus thoroughly didolved in the vinegar, the
whole is to be kept for ufe.

The method in which they ufe it is this : take an
earthen pan, which will hold about twelve quarts ; let this
be filled with urine that has been made by found, healthy,
and young perfons ; the ftaler the urine is, the better it is
for ufe, and it ought indeed always to Hand, at lealt, three
weeks before it is ufed. It is proper for the farrier,
therefore, always to keep a quantity of this ready, and
when the water is to be ufed, half a pint of it is to be
mixed with a quart of the urine ; or, if it be required Itronger,
more of the water is to be added : thefe are to be tho-
rougly mixed together, and the legs, or other affefted part
of the horfe, bathed with it with foft rags twice a-day.

The virtues of this water are highly extolled : it is faid
to cure the malanders in two or three times drelTing ; it is
alfo a fovereign remedy for the mange, either dry or wet,
and for the rat -tails, fcratches, gourded or fwcUed legs and
heels, and it alfo cures horfes when the gre-ife is f.dlcn into
their heels, as the farriers exprefs it. The farcy is alfo
faid to be often cured by a long continuance in the nfe of
it, purging the horfe two or three times, at different diftanccs
of time, during the time of his being under cure by the
water. They alfo find it a good cleanfcr and healer of
foul ulcers, and that it prevents the breeding of proud-fle(h
and worms in wounds, and drives away a flux of humours
that were falling upon any part. They ufe it alfo in
clefts and cracks of the heels, and in windgalls, efpccially
in the prevention of the lall, by its repellent qualities.
The green water alone is an excellent remedy for filliihis,
cankers, and the galled backs of horfes ; difpoliiig inch lor-
rances, as they are called, not to feller, rot, and grow
worfc, as all gieafy and oily medicines do, but cleanfing
them, and preparing the way to a very found and Itanding
cure.

SORREL, AcF.ro.sA, in Botany, Gardening, and the
Materia Medica. See RuME.x.

SoRKELS, Indian Red, and Indian White, or Syrian Mai-
htv, in Botany, are Ipecies of Hilifcus ; which fee.

SoKREL, Wood, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia
Medica^ Sec Oxalis.

SoKBEL, Common and Curled, in /Igrictdture, troiible-
fome weeds in meadows and pafture lands ; alfo the latter
in cultivated arable ground, where neither horfes nor neat
cattle will eat it, which, of courfe, renders it necedary to
be eradicated. This is molUy accnmplilhtd by rooting it
out, or frequently cutting the ilalks over jiill below the
furface of the land. It has often the title of curled dock.
See Wee».s.

SonitEL, in the Manege, is ufed for a reddidi colour.
The mane ought to be red or white, in a horfe of this
colour. It is dillinguiflied, according to the degrees of its
deepnefs, into a hurnt forrel, and a bright or light forrcl.
Generally fpeaking, it is a fign of a good hoi le.

Sonujii., Salt >jJ\ in Chemtjlry, the native luper-oxalat of

putafhi

S O R

potafh, contained in the juice of this plant. See Oxalk

Acid.

SoRREL-Tw, in Botany. See Andromeda.

SORRO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Beeroo ;
85 miles S.W. of Walet.

SORROINSU, a town of the department of Liamone,
or inand of Corfica ; the canton of which contains 1528
inhabitants. ,,

SORS, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; 10 miles
N.N.E. of Sadari. „ r , . ■ l ,

^SORSELE, a town of Swedilh Lapland, in the lap-
mark of Pitea ; 105 miles W. of Pitea. N. lat. 65° 33°.
E. lonsj. if 20'.

SORSOKEN, a fea-port town in the S.E. p.wt ot the

ifland of Lufon.

SORT, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia ;
18 miles W. of Urgel.— Alfo, a fea-port town of Africa,
in the country of Tripoli, fituated on the coaft of the
Mediterranean, in the gulf of Sidra. N. lat. 30° 28'. E.
long. 16° 55'.

SORTES, Lots, in Jntiquity, a method of deciding
dubious cafes, where there appears no ground for a pre-
ference ; by referring the decifion to chance ; as in calling
of dice, drawing of tickets, &c.

The fortes, or lots, were of ancient ufe among the Jews ;
and in the books of the Old Teilament we meet with divers
Handing and perpetual laws, and divers particular commands,
prefcribing and regulating the ufe of them. Thus, the
Scripture informs us, that the lot fell on St. Matthias,
when a fucceffor to Judas in the apoftolate was to be
chofen. Our Saviour's garment itfelf was cad lots for.

The SoRTES Pntneftinie were famous among the Greeks.
The method of thefe was to put a great number of letters,
or even whole words, into an urn ; to Ihake them together,
and throw them out ; and whatever (hould chance to be
made out in the arrangement of the letters, &c. compofed
the anfwer of this oracle.

Cicero, de Divin. lib. ii. § 41, fays, that a variety of
predidlions were infcribed on pieces of wood, which were
kept in a box or chelt ; and one of thefe drawn out by a
child, after the box was Ihaken, contained the anfwer
fought. He alfo informs us, how thefe fragments of wood
were firft difcovered ; but he obferves, " Tota res eit in-
venta fallaciis, ant ad quxltum, aut ad fuperllitionem."
In lieu of this, another kind of fortes was introduced
into Greece and Italy ; which was, to lake fome celebrated
poet, as Homer, Euripides, or Virgil, to open the book,
and whatever firft prefented itfelf to the eye upon opening,
was taken for the ordinance of heaven. This made what
they called the Jbrtes Homericis, and fortes VirgUianie ; which
fucceeded to the ufe of iht fortes Prtenejl'mte.

The bath kol among the Jev/s was much of the fame
kind, differing only in tliis circumftance, that the Jews
took their oracle from the firft words which they heard
any body pronounce; the Heathen, from the firft they call
their eyes upon, on opening Homer, &c. in which they
endeavoured to difcover a meaning fuitable to the matter
concerning which they inquired.

This fuperftition paffed from Paganifm into Chriftianity ;
and the Chriftians took their fortes out of the books of the
Old and New Tcftament. The firft paffage that prefented
itfelf upon opening a book of Scripture, was efteemed the
anfwer of God himiclf.

If the firft paffage did not happen to be any thing to the
purpofe for which the fortes were confulted, another book
was opened ; till a palia^e was met with that might be
taken for an anfwer. This was called fortes fandorim.

S O R

St. Auguftine (Epift. ad. Jan. 109.) does not difapprove of
this method of learning futurity, provided it be not ufed
for worldly purpofes.

Gregory of Tours adds, that the cuftom was firft to lay
the Bible on the altar, and to pray the Lord, that he
would difcover by it what was to come to pafs. Inftances
of the ufe of the forte? fandlorum are very frequent in
hiftory. Heraclius, M. Fleury tells us, in his war againft
Chofroes, to learn where he Ihould take up his winter-
quarters, purified his army for three days, and then opened
the Gofpels, and found the place appointed for his v?inter-
quarters was in Albania.

Gilbert of Nogent informs us, that, in his time, (that is,
about the beginning of the 12th century,) the cuftom was,
at the confecration of bilhops, to confnlt the fortes fanc-
torum, to learn the fuccefs, fate, &c. of their epifcopate.
The practice is founded on a fuppofition, that God pre-
fides over the fortes, and on Prov. xvi. 33. " The lot is
call into the lap ; but the difpofing thereof is of the Lord."
In effect, many divines hold that the lot is condufted in a
particular manner by Providence ; that it is an extraordinary
manner in which God declares his will by a kind of imme-
diate revelation. The fortes fanftorum, however, were
condemned by the council of Agda, in 506, at the time
they were besjinning to take footing in France, &c.

SORTILEGE, Sortilegiu.m, a kind of divination by
fortes, or lots.

SORTING Sheep-Stock, in Agriculture, the practice of
carefully choofing, forting, collecting, and putting toge-
ther, thofe which are the moft proper and beft fuited for the
purpofe of breeding, or any other ule that may be in the con-
templation of the grazing farmer. It is a pratlice which
has hitherto, for the moft part, only prevailed among the
larger and better kinds of Iheep-farmers, but which ought to
be every where attended to where good fheep-ftock is wanted,
and good management with them to be purfued. It, how-
ever, requires great care and attention in the execution, in
order to perform it in a proper manner ; but, when well
coudufted, amply repays the judgment and flcill of the
flock-farmer. The proper introdutlion vof new and ap-
proved breeds has done much in bettering this fort of Hock,
by promoting a more fpirited attention to the fubjedt, and
inculcating the necefiity of a more careful feledtion ; as,
fince this has been the cafe, very evident improvements have
taken place in the forms and difpofitions of flieep, as well
as in the quality of their wool.

The utmoft care and attention are conftantly demanded in
the feleftion of fuch fheep as are to be bred from ; and as
it would require a great length of time to correft and re-
move the errors and bad confequences that might arife from
any negleft in fo important and eflential a matter, the
fheep-mafter fhould always himfelf be, as much as poflible,
employed in the bufinefs. He fhould take care that the
ewe tege, or young ewes, be very fully and ilriftly examined
in the mouths, to fee that they are not chopped or defedive
in fuch parts ; their make fhould be feen to be proper and
handfome in all points, and their wool of a fuperior quality ;
the ftaple being well fuited to the pafture or nature of the
keep, rather Ihort than long, as Ihort wool is commonly
thick, and kindly for the fheep ; but svhen too long, it is
apt to be thin, and to draw too much nourilhment from the
animal, without affording the neceilary warmth and protec-
tion in the winter feafon. Thefe forts of fheep fhould in
all cafes be forted down, or refufed, as it is called, in a very
clofe manner ; and when there are not more than are wanting
to put the ram to, and many of thefe are defedlive, all fuch
fliould be fattened or fold, and their places fupplied by the

bell

S O R

S O R

beft of the old ewe-ftock, which would otherwife be fent
away. This is not generally praftifed, but it is evident
that a well-formed or perfeft old ewe mult be better for
breeding- from, than fuch young ones as are ill-formed or
imperfeft in their Ihape.

There are different periods for the forting or felefting
of (heep-ltock ; as the time when the ewes are arranged
and put into different clafles for the rams, the feafon of
lambing, &c. : in each of whicli, the defefts and imperfec-
tions of them may be difcovered without much difficulty.
But the mod proper time of all, according to fome, is in
the early fpring, as about the beginning of March, as then
the foft, the long, the coarfe wool, and all other imper-
\(£lions in the ewes, are the mod confpicuous, and readily
letecled, and thofe of the beft forms, qualities, and dii-
politions, may be the mort fitly drawn off and preferved ;
as fuch fheep a? are capable of fupporting theinfelves, and
of looking well under the difficulties of a fevere winter
feafon, mull in general be the molt deferving of the breed-
ing (heep-farmer's attention ; while fuch as have wintered
badly will not unfrequently (hew a good difpofition in the
iimmer feafon. In thefe cafes, where imperfedlions are
jifcovercd, the (heep fhould either be drawn off, put out,
and lambed by themfelves, or a private mark fet upon them ;
,ind the ewes and lambs fold or made fat. Thus, the num-
ber of bad ill-formed fheep, that ought not to be kept,
•jre conveniently reduced and completely got rid of, which,
if they or their lambs were fuffered to blend and intermix
with the well-formed (heep, the flock would be in danger
of being contaminated. It is the common praftice in mod
cafes, to only feleft or fort the fheep once in the year ;
but with good managers they are had under hand two or
three times in the fame fpace of time ; and whenever a
iTieep is feen with any fort of defeft, it is immediately
marked, and fent to be made fat.

Many make this forting, or infpeftion, fo late as the
beginning of the autumn, but an earlier performance of the
bufinefs is evidently preferable, in order that the defeftive
ftock may be put to fatten in proper time.

The manner of performing the bufinefs is commonly
by pounding the (heep in a (mail number at a time, fo that
the fheep-farmer may be able to examine them at once,
without the danger of being diltraiSed or confufed by
having too many expofcd to liis view, and confequently
be incapable of diflinguifliing the properties of their forms,
and other qualities whic!) ought to be particularly attended
to in forming his decifion. In the execution of this work,
the farmer, his (heplierd, or looker, are provided with
ochre, or fome other material, for giving the defcftive fheep
the ufual private mark, in order that they may be known
from the perfect part of the flock, and be difpofed of accord-
ingly. This marking, hr liverlng, as it is called in fome
places, is performed differently, according to circumftances,
as the purpofes the (heep are to be put to, and the number
of lambs the ewes have had. It is well done fometimes
alfo to have the Jheep marked with pitch, according to
their ages. Sec TiVEniNC.

The defefts which arc chiefly to be taken notice of in
the forting of (heep in this intention, are thofe of bad
fhapc, as the head being thick or too long, the body too
iong and narrow, without fuflicient roundncls, the feet
and bones too large, the chefl too much confined, the want
of ftraightnefs in the back, too great a length in the legs
and neck, the fheep being too large for the palture or keep,
their not handling in a proper manner, the wool bad, as
too coarfe or too long and picky, or coming off, waxy,
or hempy, the flicep being loufy, Itruck with the fly, gaily,

I

thick pelted, and fcurvy, their being hog-chopped, that is>
having the lower jaw fhortcr than the upper one, by which
their feeding properly is prevented, the mouths large, caufing
the lofs of the cud in rechewing their food, &c. By forting
and feledling fheep as free as pofTible from defefts of theft
kinds, the belt fheep-llock may be procured, provided the
true form be properly undcrllood and conflantly kept in
mind, without fuffering it to be injured in any way by the
admiflion of improper qualities at any time, or under any
circumftances.

The forting or feleftion of fheep in this intention, may
perhaps be a little different in different cafes ; but wherever
a good ftock is aimed at, the breeding fheep-farmer fhould of
courfe feleft that breed, whatever it may be, which is moft
fuited to his circumftances and purpofes, and which the
moft nearly approaches towards the ftate of perfeftion in
its form and other properties, or which pofl'efles that par-
ticular kind of improvement which he is in want of, being
conflantly well aware what conftitutes fuch ftates in the
animal. The parts of his ftock which are deficient, or do
not fully come up to or poflefs fuch properties, are always
to be lorted out and rejcfted, being fold or turned off for
the purpofe of fattening, both in the ewes and the lambs,
as they might be in danger of accidentally injuring the
ftock. Good breeding fheep-farmcrs are alfo at all times
clofely on the watch to have n<?ne but thofe of fuperior
qualities, and to take advantage of any accidental improved
variety which may anfwer their intentions. The full proper
culling or felefting and forting of the younger part of the
ewe-ftock, is in all cafes a material point in having good
(heep-ftock, and one which is never to be neglefted. The
careful breeder fhould indeed continually have his eyes upon
his flock, to fee that there arc no faulty animals continued
in it, efpecially in any material degree, as much may be
effefted in this way, and the trouble of forting be confider-
ably leffened. See Breeding, Live-stock, and Sheep.

The praftice of forting ftieep is not, however, ufeful
only for the purpofe of breeding, but may be beneficially
employed in other intentions. The forting of fheep, ac-
cording to their ages, fizes, kinds, and other qualities, is
often highly important and advantageous in the ftocking of
pafture lands, as it enables the fheep-farmer to do it with
greater propriety and correftnefs, as well as with a greater
profit in the improvement of the ftock. See Stocking
Pajlure Land.

Sheep are likewife forted with very much benefit for the
different purpofes of ftore-feeding, lambing, fattening, and
other forts of management with them.

But however beneficial the praftice may be in thefe
feveral intentions, as well as in fome others, it is probable
that it has hitherto been attempted only in a few inllances,
and in many of thofe in much too (light and inattentive
a manner; it is, notwithftanding, of the utmoft necefTity
and importance in the management of this fort of live-ftock,
and when once well iiiiderftood and properly performed,
cannot fail of producing very advantageous effefts, and
much improvement in the bufil!el^; of fhecp-farming.

SORTINSKOI, in Geography, a town of RulTia, in the
government of Tobolfk ; 72 miles S.S.W. of Bcrezov.

SORTOWITZ, a town of PrufTia, in the palatinate of
Culm ; 10 miles N. of Culm.

SORVIODUNUM, or Sorbioduntm, in Anatnl Geo-
vraphy, a town of the ille of Albion, upon the route from
Calleva to Vrioconiuni, in pafling by MuriJunum between
Brige and Vindocladi.i, accordiug to the Itinerary of Anto-
nine ; Calleva being Silchefter, Muriduiuim, being Eggerton,
Vrioconium being Wroxeter, Brige being Broughton,

Viiido.

S O R

Vindocladia near Cranburn, and Sorbiodunum being Old
Sarum.

SORUNDO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Sudermanland; 20 miles S.S.W. of Stockholm.

SORUS, in Botany and Vesetable Phyftology, from j-ufs?,
a lnap, is a term recently introduced, for the aflemblage of
capfules in Ferns, which had hitherto been called a dot,
fpot, or line, according to its particular figure. ( See Fi-
LICES.) The Sort in many kinds of Polypodium and Afpi-
dlum are very much elevated, or prominent, well anfwcnug
to this appellation, v/hich is indeed, in every cafe, more
correct and lefs exceptionable than the terms it fnperfedes.
In an early itate, the Sori are httle more than fpots, more
or lefs opaque, or quite pellucid, in whofe homogeneous
fubftance nothing can be difcerned of the myltery of im-
pregnation, though certainly performed there. Whether
that myftery takes place before the fliape of each particular
capfule is developed, we cannot determine, though it ap-
pears moll probable ; for if the Sori fwell at all, they do
not feem to fail afterwards. If they do not come to per-
fedlion, they remain in their original ftate, of a fcarcely
confpicuous dot.

SO RUT, in Geography, a circar of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 120 miles long, and 40 broad.

SORWY, a river of Monmouthfliire, which runs into the
Edwith.

SORY, in Natural H'tftory, the name of a foffile fubftance,
much fpoken of by the ancients, but erroneouily fuppofed
to be now loft.

It is a firm and not brittle fubftance, though of a fpongy
and cavernous ftrufture, and is confiderably heavy. It is
found in maffes of no regular fliape or fize, fome being
roundilh, others angular or flatted, and fome of the fize
of a walnut, others of many pounds weight. It feels very
harfli and rough to the touch, and is covered with no io-
veftient coat or crult, but (hews its natural furface, which
is always corrugated or wrinkled, and ufually full of fmall
protuberances and cavities, and when broken, is found to
be of a rugged and fpongy ftrudlure within.

Its natural colour is a rufty black, but it is fometimes
reddifh, and fometimes blueifti : and is commonly ftained,
in different places, with fpots of a blueifh or ruft colour,
when black ; and of a greenilh hue, when it is of a reddifti
colour ; in the places where it is free from thefe, it is
ufually fomewhat bright and fparkling. It is of an acrid
and difagreeable tafte, and of a ftrong and naufeous fmell ;
put into the fire it burns to a deep purple ; and if boiled
in water a great part of it becomes dilTolved in it ; and
this may again be feparated from the water by evaporation
and cryftallization, and then appears in the form of pure
blue vitriol, forming regular rhomboidal cryftals, and
tinging iron to a copper colour, on being firft wetted, and
then rubbed upon it.

It is found in many parts of the Turkilh dominions, par-
ticularly in Gallo-Groecia ; as alfo in fome parts of Ger-
many. In this country it is boiled for the blue vitriol it
contains. In Turkey it is mixed with lime, and made
into a pafte with water, which is laid on fuch parts of the
body as they would eradicate the hair from, and effefts
that purpofe in a very few minutes. In the eaftern na-
tions, where it is thus ufed, it is known by the name of
rufma.

The ancients ufed it externally to take off pimples, and
put a piece of it into a hollow tooth, as a remedy for the
tooth-ache. There can be no doubt of their fory being the
fame fubftance with this ; fince Diofcorides has defcribed it
to be blackifli in colour, full of fmall cavities, moift on the

SOS

furface, (as ours always is in raoift weather,) and of a difv
agreeable tafte and fmell.

This fubftance, as alfo the chalcitis, mify, and melan->
teria, are all properly ores of vitriol, the particles of thofe .
falts being fo perfeftly blended in them, as not to be at all
diftinguilhable to the naked eye, yet being always regularly
feparable from them by water, which is to tiie faline ores
what fire is to thofe of the metalline kind. Hill's Hift. of
Fofi". p. 606.

SORYGAZA, in Anelent Geography, a town of India,
on the banks and on the other fide of the Ganges, towards
the eaftern coaft. Ptolemy.

SOS, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Lot and Garonne ; 10 miles S.W. of Nerac. — Alfo,
a town of Spain, in Aragon ; 30 miles W. of Jaca. — Alfo,
a river of Spain, in Aragon, which runs into the Sinca,
near Mongon.

SOSA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg;
22 miles S.S.W. of Chemnitz.

SOSE, a river of Germany, which runs into the Ruhme,
9 miles E. of Nordheim.

SOSES, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; 6 miles S.W.
of Lerida.

SOSIBES, in ylncient Geography, a people who inhabited
the environs of Afiatic Sarmatia, and who are compre-
hended, by Julius Capitolinus, in the number of thofe who
had confpired againft the Roman empire, under Marcus
Antoninus the philofopher.

SOSIGENES, in Biography, a Peripatetic philofopher,
and livilful aftronomer, was brought from Egypt by Julius
Csfar, with the view exprefsly of aflifting him in reforming
the calendar. The philofopher, by tolerably accurate ob-
fervations, difcovered that the year was 365 days and
6 hours ; and to make allowance for the odd hours, he in-
vented the intercalation of one day in four years ; and the
duphcation of the fixth day before the calends of March
was the intercalary day : and hence the year in which this
took place was called Biffextile. This was called the Julian
year, the reckoning by which commenced in the 45th year
B.C., and continued till it gave place to fomething more
accurate, and a ftill farther reformation under pope Gre-
gory XIII. Sofigenes was author of a commentary upon
Ariftotle's book ""^De Coelo."

SOSIPPUS Pqrtus, in ulncient Geography, a port of
Arabia Felix, on the coaft of the Arabian gulf, between
Mufa Emporium and Pfeuducelis, according to Ptolemy.

SOSNINSKAIA, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
the province of Novgorod ; 32 miles N. of Novgorod.

SOSNITZA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Novgorod Sieverfkoi ; 32 miles S.S.W. of Novgorod Sie-
verflvoi. N. lat. 51° 30'. E. long. 32"^ 46'.

SOSNOPA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Perm ; 48 miles S. of Ofa.

SOSNOVOI, an ifland of Ruflia, in the riyer Angara;
96 miles N.N.W. of Ilimflv.

SOSNOVSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Kolivan. N. lat. 55° 50'. E. long. 85° 44'.

SOSPELLO, a town of France, in the department of
the Maritime Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Monaco ; divided by a fmall river into two parts.
The town contains 2990, and the canton 5512 inhabitants,
on a territory of 142^ kiliometres, in 4 communes. It is
the fee of a bifliop, united with Vintimiglia ; containing
four churches, one of which is a cathedral, and two con-
vents ; 10 miles N.E. of Nice.

SOSPIRO, Ital., Soupir, Fr., a crotchet reft in Mufu.
See Characters and Time-table.

SoSPIRO,

SOT

SOU

SospiRO, yll Canone. See Canone at Sofpiro.

SOSSINATI, in ylncient Geography, a name given to
one of the four claffes of mountaineers in the ifle of Sar-
dinia, who took up their abode in caverns. Strabo.

SOSSIUS, a river on the fouthern coaft of Sicily, be-
tween the town Pintia and the mouth of the river Ifbarus.
Ptolemy.

SOSTENUTO, in Italian Mufic, Soutenu, Fr., fuf-
tained, continuing founds and unitnip them to each other,
in oppofition to fpiccato, detached. See Legato.

SOSTI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra ; lo miles S. of Squillace.

SOSTRATUS, in Biography, the molt eminent archi-
teft of his time, was a native of Gnidos, in LelFer Afia, and
flourilhed in the third century before the Chriftian era.
The patronage which he met with, caufed him to be deno-
minated the friend of kings ; and he was particularly in
favour with Ptolemy Philadelphus, fovereign of Egypt.
He is celebrated in hiitory likewife for the terraces, fup-
ported on arcades, which adorned his native city ; and the
famous Pharos, the light-houfe of Alexandria, which was
reckoned one of the wonders of the world. He tranfmitted
his name to pofterity by an infcription on this light-houfe,
in the Greek language, of which the tranflation is, " Sof-
tratus of Gnidos, the fon of Dexiphanes, dedicates this to
the gods, the protedlors of navigators."

SOSVA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in
the government of Tobolflc, N. lat. 6i° lo'. E. long. 59°
54', foon after enters into the province of Ekaterinburg,
and takes a fouthern courfe to lat. 59°, then bends its
courfe eallerly, and lofes itfelf in lake Phelim, in the go-
vernment of Tobolflc, N. lat. 59° 15'. E. long. 63° 54'.—
Alfo, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Oby, 40 miles
S. of Berezov.

SOSZNIZOWITZ, or Saszinkowitz, a town of Si-
lefia, in the principality of Oppeln ; 35 miles S.E. of Op-
peln. N. lat. 50° 14'. E. long. 18° 28'.

SOTA DE PALANA, a town of the ifland ef Cuba ;
1 00 miles S.W. of Havanna.

SOTCHEOU, a town of Core^ 5 403 miles E. of Pe-
king. N. lat. 40° 9'. E. long. 124" 34'.

SOTELLO, a town of Spain, in Old Callile ; 30
miles S. of Burgos.'

SOTER, m Biography, pope, a native of Fondi, in the
Campagna of Rome, was elefted to the Roman fee on the
deceafe of Anicetus, in the year 168. During the period
that he ruled the church, the herefy of the Montanilts made
its appearance, and he is faid to have compofcd a book
againft their doftrines ; but as the title is not known, the
faft itfelf is liable to much doubt. Four decretals have
been afcribed to him, but they are generally regarded as
fpurious. He died in 176, and he has been enrolled among
the martyrs by modern writers, but no ancient one gives
him that title. He is, however, generally commended for
the contributions which he caufed to be railed for the relief
of the poor bretlu-en in foreign countries, and particularly
for thofe who were condemned to the mine?, on account of
their faith.

SOTERIA, formed from a-urn^, favtour, in /Inliquity,
facrifices offered to the gods, in gratitude for their having
delivered a perfon from danger. See Sachifice.

The term is alfo applied to poetical pieces compofed for
the fame end. Orpheus is the firlt who appears to have
compofed foteria.

Our Latin poets give the fame name to poems in Latin
verfe, written to give thanks lo God, or the faints, for
having preferved them on any eccafion. F. Petavius being

Vol. XXXIIL

delivered from a dangerous difeafe, by the interccflion, ais
he fuppofed, of St. Genevieve, compofed that fine piece
in honour of that faint, ftill extant under the title of " So-
teria."

SOTERUS, in Ancient Geography, a port of the Ara-
bian gulf, according to Diodorus Siculus.

SOTI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the country
ofWhidah; 18 miles W. of Sabi.

SOTI R A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Aria. Ptol. — Alfo, a town of Alia, in Cappadocia, Pliny.
— Alfo, a town of Parthia. Arrian.

SOTIRELLA, a name given by fome to a compound
medicine, in form of a hard mafs, and conliiting of opium,
and fome other narcotics, with camphor, wood-loot, and
nutmeg. It is defcribed in the Auguftan Difpenfatory,
and is intended to be put into hollow lectli, as a remedy for
the tooth-ache.

SOTO, DOiMiNlc, in Biography, a learned Spanifh cc-
clefiaftic, was born at Segovia in 1494- His father was a
gardener, and his circumftances being of a very humble na-
ture, he deftined his fon for the fame occupation ; but
having learned the elements of inllruftion, he officiated in
the duties of facriftan in a village church, and at length
rendered himfelf qualified to iludy philofophy at the uni-
verfity of Alcala. He afterwards completed his ftudies at
Paris ; and on returning to Spain, entered into the Do-
minican order. He was employed as a profellor in different
univerfities, and publiflied commentaries on the Ariilotelian
philofophy. Li 1545 he was deputed as a theologian to
the council of Trent, and was one of the perfons to whom
was committed the office of recording decifions of the af-
fembly, and drawing up its decrees. He was a frequent
and able fpeaker in the council, and maintained the pro-
pofition, " that the refidence of bifhops is of divine right."
The emperor Charles V., in 1549, offered him the bifhopric
of Segovia, which he refufed. He was, however, per-
fuaded to take the office of judging between Las Cafas and
Sepulveda, in their conteft relpefting the Indians, which
he determined in favour of the former. He then retired
to Salamanca, where he died in 1560. His chief works
are, " De Julticia et Jure ;" " De Tegendis Secretis ;"
" De Pauperum Caufa ;" " De Cavendo Juramentorura
Abufu."

SOTOVENTO, in Geography, a name applied to the
Leller Antilles in the Welt Indies. Among thefe, the chief
may be reckoned Trinidad, Margarctta, Curaffoa, and
Tortngas.

SoTovENTO Lobos, or Leeward IJland of Sea-lVohes or
Seals, an idaiid on the coaff of Peru ; 7 leagues from Barlc-
vento Lnbos, or Windward ifland of fea-wolves. It is
about 6 miles in circuit, and 15 miles from Cape Aguja.

SOTTEGHEM, a town of France, in the department
of the Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Audeiiaerde. The place contains 1508, and the canton
14,603 inhabitants, on a territory of 77^ kiliometrct, in
14 communes.

SOTTERN, a lake of Sweden, in the province of Nc-
ricia ; 14 miles S.E. of Orebro.

SOTTEVAST, a town of France, in the department
of the Channel ; 9 miles W. of Valogncs.

SOTTEVILLE, a town of France, on the fouth fide
of the Seine ; 3 miles S. of Rouen.

SOTTO VocK, in Italian Mufic, implies a degree of
piano, or foft, and fubdued voice ; which is fometimes ex-
prcffed by mezzo forte, and mezza voce, half piano.

SOU, in Commerce. See Soi..

Sou, or So-icheou, in Geography, a town of China, of
3B the

S O V

the fecond rank, in Chen-fi. N. lat. 39° 38'. E. lon^.

08'' 44'. , „

SOUADI, or SouALLY, a town of Egypt, on the ealt
fide of the Nile ; 23 miles S. of Abu Girge. This burgh
is governed by a cachef; and weft of it are two Coptic
monatteries, fituated at the entrance of the defert. 1 heir
churches are ornamented with Corinthian pillars, with a
crofs in the middle of the capital; and they are paved with
red granite, covered with hieroglyphics. Their architefture
is faid by Savary to indicate the decline of tafte among the
Greeks. They are thought to have been built by the em-
prefs Helena. On the fpace between them are Ihewed
antique marbles. Thefe remains point out the fcite of
Crocodilopolis, or the facred city ot this name, which was
far from the river, and which Ptolemy places after Aphro-
ditopolis, or the city of Venus.

SOUADY, or Sohar, a fmall ifland in the Arabian
fea, near the coaft of Oman. N. lat. 24° 14'.

SOVANA, a town of Etruria, the fee of a bifhop ; 45
miles N.N.W. of Rome.

SOUANANPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Gol-
conda; 10 miles S. of Hydrabad.

SOVANOCALCHI, in yjncic-nt Geography, a people
of Afiatic Sarmatia, upon the banks of the Euxine fea.
Ptolemy.

SOUBES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Herault ; 3 miles N. of Lodeve.

SOUBIZE, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Charente ; 3 miles W. of Rochefort.

SOUC, a town of Thibet ; 360 miles N.N.E. of Laffa.
N. lat. 33° 18'. E. long. 94° 24'.

SOUCTOU, a mountain of Thibet. N. lat. 32° 18'.
E. long. 84° 19',.

SOUCY, a town of France, in the department of the
Yonne ; 19 miles S. of Provins.

SOUD AH, a rocky defert country of Africa, between
Tripoli and Fezzan.

SOUDAN, from Souda or Suda, which fignifies in
Arabic black, a name given by the Moors and Arabs to
Negroland, or Nigritia ; and fometimes more particularly
to the empire of HaufTa, or HoulTa. Abulfeda includes
the whole lower part of Africa, fouth of the Great Defert
and Egypt, under the denomination of Belad Soudan, or
the country of Soudan. With him Soudan is the fouthern
quarter of the globe ; and d'Herbelot alfo allows it a wide
range. See Negroland.

SOUDE ST. CROIX, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Marne ; 10 miles W. of Vitry.

SOVEIB, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the Eu-
phrates ; 20 miles N.W. of Baflora.

SOUE-KI, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Quang-tong ; 30 miles S.W. of Hoa.

SOVEL, a fmall i^and in the Chinefe fea, near the coaft
of Tonquin. N. lat. 11^ 2'. E. long. 105° 25'.

SOUE-OUIE-CHAN, a town of Corea ; 30 miles
N.W. of Loncr-kouan.

SOVERDEM, a town of Italy ; 3 miles N. of Bel-
luno.

SOVEREIGN, Supreme, the chief and higheft Being,
or the Almighty ; a term, in ftriftnefs, only applicable to
God.

The word is French, founieratn ; which Pafquier derives
farther from the Latin ftiperior, the firft in any thing ; or
he who is fuperior to the rcit. Hence,

In the ancient Frencli cuftoms we meet with fovereign
mailer of the houfehold ; fovereign mafter of the forefts ;
fovereign mailer of the treafury. Under Charles VI. the

S O V

title fovereign was given to bailiffs and fcnefchals, with re-
gard to their fuperiority over prevots, and chatelains.

Sovereign, with regard to fubjefts, is applied to kings
and princes, who are fupreme and independent.

The authority of a fovereign is only bounded by the law
of God, of nature, and the fundamental laws of the ftate.
See King. See Sovereignty, infra.

Sovereign is alfo a title given to fuch as are invefted
with certain rights and prerogatives, which belong only to
fovereigns ; as the power of coining money, fending agents
to diets, to treat of war and peace, &c.

In which fenfe the feudatories of the empire, and the tri-
butaries of the grand fignior, are called fovereigns.

Sovereign is alfo applied to courts and judges, who
have a power from a prince to decide the proceffes of his
fubjefts without appeal, or in the lalt refort.

At Paris, under the old regime, there were five fovereign
companies : the parliament, the chamber of accounts, the
court of aids, the grand council, and the court of monies.

In England we have but one fovereign court, which is
the houfe of lords.

Sovereign, in Engl'ijh Coinage, a gold coin of 20s. value,
equal to the double ryal, which was coined by order of
Henry VII. in the year 1485 ; and this was accompanied
by the double fovereign of 40J. Henry VIII., in 1527,
added to the gold denominations fovereigns of 22s. 6d., and
ryals of lis. ^d., angels of yx. 6d., and nobles at their old
value of 6s. 8</. In 1546 the fame prince, after raifing the
value of filver, and making it to gold as i to 5, ftruck ,
fovereigns of the former value of 20s., and half-fovereigns
in proportion. Upon the union of the crowns, James I. of
England gave the fovereign the name of unite, it being
then of 20s. valwe. The fovereign, which had been com-
monly termed the " broad-piece," under the Commonwealth
afTumed the uninvidious name of the twenty-fhilling piece,
which it retained till fupplanted by that of the guinea,
which was proclaimed in 1663, and to pafs for 20s. But
it never went for lefs than 2 is. by tacit and univerfal con-
fcnt. Pinkerton's Efl. on Medals, vol. ii.

SOVEREIGNTY, in Po/itical Economy, denotes that
public authority, wliich commands in civil fociety, ordering
and diredling what each is to perform, in order to obtain
the end of its inftitution. This authority belonged ori-
ginally and efl'entially to the body of the fcciety, to which
each member fubmitted, and ceded the rights he received
from nature, to conduft himfelf in every thing as he pleafed,
according to the diftates of his own underftanding, and to
do himfelf juftice. But the body of this fociety does not
always retain this fovereign authority : it frequently truits
it to a fenate, or to a fingle perfon. This fenate, or this
perfon, is then the fovereign. (See Sovereign, _/a//-a.)
It is evident that men form a political fociety, and fubmit
to laws, folely for their own fafety and advantage. The
fovereign authority is then eftabhlhed, only for the common
good of all tlie citizens ; and it would be abfurd to think
that it could change its nature, on its pafTing into the hands
of a fenate, or a monarch. Flattery, therefore, cannot
difown, without rendering itfclf equally ridiculous and
odious, that the fivereign is only eitabliflied for the fafety
of the flate, and the advantage of fociety.

A good prince, a wife condudlor of fociety, ought to
have his mind imprefTed with this great truth, that the fove-
reign power is only entrufted with him for the fafety of the
ftate, and for the happinefs of all his people ; that he is not
permitted to feek himfelf in the adminiftration of afiairs,
to propofe his own fatisfaCtion, or his private advantage ;
but that he ought to direct all his views, all hi? fteps, to
9 the

SOVEREIGNTY.

the great advantage of the ftate and people who liave fub-
mitted to him. How noble a fight is it, fays the admirable
Vattel, to fee a king of England acquaint hi? parliament
with all his principal operations ; afliire that body, the re-
prefentatives of the nation, that he propofes no other end
but the glory of the ftate, and the happinefs of his people ;
and affeflionately thank all who concur with him in fuch
falutary views ! Certainly a monarch, who makes ufe of
this language, and proves his fincerity by his conduft, is,
in the opinion of the wife, the only great man. But for a
long time a bafe flattery has, in moft kingdoms, caufed
thefe maxims to be forgotten. A crowd of fervile courtiers
without difficulty perfuade a proud monarch, that the na-
tion was made for him, and not he for the nation. He foon
confiders the kingdom as his patrimony, and his people as a
herd of cattle, from which he may obtain riches, and dif-
pofe of them fo as beft to anfwer his views, and gratify his
paflions. From thence arife thofe fatal wars, undertaken by
ambition, reftleflhefs, hatred, and pride : from thence thofe
oppreflive taxes, diffipated by luxury, or fquandered Upon
miftrefles and favourites < from thence, in fine, are important
potts given by favour, while public merit is neglefted, and
every thing that does not immediately interett the prince,
abandoned to minifters and fubalterns. Who can obferve,
in this unhappy government, authority eftablifhed for the
public welfare ? A great prince will be on his guard, even
againft his virtues. Let us not fay, with fome writers, that
private virtues arc not the virtues of kings ; the maxim of
fuperficial politicians, or of thofe who are very inaccurate
in their expreflions. Goodnefs, friendfliip, gratitude, are
ftill virtues of the throne ; and would to God they were to be
always fo ! But a wife king does not, vrithout difcernment,
give himfelf up to their impreffions. He cherifhes them,
he cultivates them in his private life ; but in ftate-affairs he
littens only to juilice and found politics. And why ? be-
caufe he knows that the government was trufted to him only
for the happinefs of fociety ; and that, therefore, he ought
npt to confult his own pleafure in the ufe he makes of his
power. He tempers his goodnefs with wifdom. He gives
to friendfhip his domettic and private favours ; he dittributes
potts and employments according to merit ; public rewards
to ferviccs done to the ftate. In a word, he ufes the public
power only with a view to the public welfare. All this is
comprehended in the fine faying of Lewis XH., " A king
of France does not revenge the injuries of a duke of Or-
leans."

A political fociety is a moral pcrfon, as it has an under-
ftanding and a, will, of which it makes ufe for the conduft
of its affairs, and is capable of obligations and laws.
When, therefore, a people confer the fovercignty on any
one perfon, they inveft him with their underllandintr and
will ; and make over to him their oblig.itions and rights,
fo far as relates to the adminillration of the affairs of ftate,
and the exercife of the piibhc authority ; tlius the fovcreign,
or conduftor of the ftate, becoming the fubjcft, in which
refide the obligations and rights relative to government, in
liim is found the moral pcrfon, who, without ablblutely
ceafing to exitt in the nation, afts from thence forwards
only in and by him. Such is the origin of the reprefenta-
tive charafter attributed to the fovereign. He reprefents
the nation in all the affairs it was capable of managing
as fovcreign. It does not dcbafe the dignity of the grcateil
monarch to attribute to him this reprefcntative charafter ;
on the contrary, nothing can make him fhine with greater
luftre : for by this means the monarch unites, in his own
perfon, all the raajcfty that belongs to the entire body of
the nation.

The fovereign, thus clothed with the pubhc authority,
with every thing that conftitutes the moral perfonality of
the nation, is under the obligations of that nation, and in-
vefted with its rights.

Every thing that concerns the general duties of a nation
towards itfelf, particularly regards the fovereign. He is
the depofitary of the empire, and of the power of com-
manding whatever relates to the public welfare : he ought,
therefore, as a tender and wife father, and as a faithful ad-
niiniftrator, to watch for the nation, to take care of pre-
ferving it, to render it more perfed, to better its ftate, and
to fecure it, as much as he is able, from every thing that
threatens its fafety, or its happinefs.

The prince derives his authority from the nation ; and it
is exaftly equal to what they have entrufted him with. If
the nation has fimply and ftridly invefted him with the fove-
reignty without limitation, or divifion, he is fuppofed to be
invefted with all the prerogatives, without which the fove-
reign command, or authority, could not be exerted in the
manner moft conducive to the pubhc welfare. Thefe are
called regal prerogatives, or the prerogatives of majejly.

But the fovereign power is limited and regulated by the
fundamental laws of the ftate : thofe laws fhew the prince
the extent and bounds of his power, and the manner in
which it ought to be exerted. The prince is, therefore,
ttriftly obliged not only to refpeft, but alfo to fupport
them. The conftitution and the fundamental laws are the
plan on which the nation has refolvcd to endeavour the ob-
taining of happinefs : the execution is entrufted to the prince.
If he rehgioufly follows this plan ; if he regards the funda-
mental laws as inviolable and facred rules, and knows that
the moment he deviates from them, his commands become
unjuft, and are no lefs than a criminal abufe of the power
with which he is entrufted. He is, in virtue of this power,
the guardian and defender of the laws ; and being obhged
to punifh any one who fliall prefume to violate them, he him-
felf ought not to trample them under his feet.

While the laws of a fociety, over which a fovereign pre-
fides, fubfift, he ought religioufly to maintain and obferve
them. Tliis is no lels his true intcreft than hie duty. But
in explaining this fubmilTion of tlic prince to the laws, Vattel
obfervcs, that he is above all civil penal laws. The majefty
of a fovereign will not fuffer his being punifiied like a pri-
v.^te perfon ; and his employments are too fublime to admit
of his being troubled, under the pretence of a fault that
does not direftly concern the goverimient of the ftate. His
perfon, therefore, fliould be regarded as inviolable. Never-
thelefs, this high attribute of fovereignty is no reafon why a
nation fhould not curb an infupportable tyrant, call him
even to an account, refpefting in iiis perfon the majefty of
his rank, and withdraw itfelf from liis obedience. To thii
mdifputable right a powerful republic owes its birth. The
tyranny exercifed by Philip II. in the Netherlands, excited
thofe provinces to rife : feven of them, clofely confederated,
bravely maintained their liberties, under the conduft of a
hero of the houfe of Orange ; and Spain, after feveral vain
and deftruftive efforts, acknowledged them fovereigo and
independent ftates. If the authority of the prince is limited
and regulated by the fundamental laws, the prince, on
leaving the bounds prefcribed liini, commands without any
right, and even without a jutt title : the nation, then, is not
obliged to obey him, but may refill his unjuft euterprizcs.
As foon as he att.tcks the conftitution of the ft.ite, the
prince breaks the contraft which bound the people to him ;
the people became free by the atl of the fovereign, and ice
nothing in him but an ufurper who would load them with
oppreflion. This truth is acknowledged by every fenfible

3IJ 2

wTiter,

SOVEREIGNTY.

writer, whofe pen is not enflaved by fear, or rendered
venal by intereft. But fome celebrated authors maintain,
that if the prince is invefted with the fupreme command in
a full and abfolute manner, nobody has a right to refill him,
much lefs to curb him, and that the nation has no refource
left but to fuffer and obey with patience. This is founded
upon the fuppofition that fuch a fovcreign need not give an
account to any perfon of the manner in which he governs ;
and that if the nation might controul his aftions and refill
him, where they were found to be unjuft, his authority
would no longer be abfolute ; which would be contrary to
this hypothefis. They fay, that an abfolute foTereign pof-
feffes completely all the political authority of the fociely, in
which nobody can oppofe him ; if he abufes it, he docs ill,
indeed, and wounds his confcience, but that his commands
are not the lefs obligatory, as being founded on a lawful
right to command : that the nation, by giving him abfolute
authority, had referved nothing toitftlf, and had lubmitted
to his difcretion, &c. We might fatisfy mufelves with
anfwering, that in this light there is not any fovereign who
is completely and fully atsfolute. But in order to remove
all thefe vain fubtilties, let us remember the eilcntial end of
civil fociety : is it not to labour in concert for the common
happinefs of all i' Is it not with this view that every citizen
llrips himfelf of his rights, and refigns his libertv ? Was
it in the power of the fociety to make fuch ufc of its a\ilho-
rity as to deliver up itfelf, and all its members, without
relief, to the dtfcretion of a cruef tyrant? No, certainly,
fince it had no right itfelf, if it was difpofcd to it, to op-
prcfs a part of the citizens; When it, therefore, conferred
the fupreme and abfolute government, without an exprefs
referve, it was necelfarily with the tacit rcferve, that the
fovereign fhould ufe it for the fafety of the people, and not
for their ruin. If he becomes the fcourge of the itate, he
degrades himfelf; he is no more than a public enemy,
againll whom the nation may and ought to defend itfelf;
and if he has carried his tyranny to the utmoll height, why
fliould even the life of fo cruel and perfidious an enemy be
fpared ? Who prefumes to blame the Roman fenate, that
declared Nero an enemy to his country ?

But it is of the utmolt importance to obferve, that this
judgment can only be palled by the nation, or by the body
by which it is reprelented ; and that the nation itfelf cannot
make any attempt on the perfon of the fovereign, but in
cafes of extreme neceflity, and when the prince, by violating
the laws, and threatening the fafety of his people, puts
them in a itate of war againll them. The perfon of the
fovereign, the very intereft of the nation declares facred and
inviolable ; but not that of an unnatural tyrant, and an
enemy of the public. We feldom fee fuch monfters as
Nerp.

As foon as a nation acknowledges a prince for its lawful
fovereign, all the citizens owe him a faithful obedience. He
can neither govern the (late, nor perform what the nation
expects from him, if he is not punftually obeyed. Subjefts
then have no right, in doubtful cafes, to queftion the wif-
dom or juftice of tlicir fovereign's commands ; this examina-
tion belongs to the prince : his fubjefts ought to fuppofe,
if there be a poffibility of doing it, that all his orders are
ju(t and falutary : he alone is accountable for the evil that
may refult from them.

In the mean time, this ought not to be entirely a blind
obedience. No engagement can oblige, or even authorize,
a man to violate the laws of nature. All authors who have
any regard to confcience, or modefty, agree, that a perfon
ought not to obey fuch commands as are evidently con-
trary to the laws of God. Thofe governors of places,

12

who bravely refufed to execute the barbarous orders of
Charles IX. to the famous St. Bartholomew, have been
univerfally praifed ; and the court did not dare to punilh
them, at leall openly. " Sire," faid the brave Orte,
governor of Bayonne, in his letter, " I have communicated
your majeity's command to your faithful inhabitants and
warriors in the garrifun ; and I have found there only good
citizens and brave foldiers : not one hangman ; therefore,
both they and I mod humbly entreat your majefty, to be
pleafed to employ our arms and lives in things that are pof-
fible, however hazardous they may be, and we will exert
ourfelves to the laft drop of our blood." The count de
Tende, Charney, and others, replied to thofe who brought
them the orders of the court, that they had too great a
refpcft for the king, to believe that fuch barbarous orders
came from him.

It is not eafy to determine iff what cafes a fubjeft may
not only refufe to obey, but even refift a fovereign, and by
force repel force. However, when the injuVies, which fo-
ciety fuffers, are manifeft and atrocious ; when a prince,
without any apparent reafon, is refolved to deprive us of
life, or of thofe things, the lofs of which would render life
bitter, who can difpute our right to refill him ? Self-pre-
fervation is not only a law of nature, but an obligation im-
pofed by nature, and no man can entirely and abfolutely
give it up to another. And though he might give it up,
can he be confidered as having done it by his political en-
gagements, when he entered into fociety only to eftablifh
his own fafety upon a more folid bafis ? The welfare of
fociety does not require fuch a facrifice ; and as Barbeyrac
well obferves in his notes on Grotius, " If the public intereft
requires, that thofe who obey (hould particularly fuffer
fomething ; it is not lefs for the public intereft that thofe
who command, (hould be afraid of carrying their patience
to the utmoll extremity." The prince who violates all
laws, who obferves no meafures, and who would in his
tranfports of fury take away the life of an innocent perfon,
llrips himfelf of his royalty, and is no more than an unjuft
and outrageous mortal, againft whom his people are allowed
to defend themfelves. But he who, after having loft all the
fentiments of a fovereign, divells himfelt even of the ap-
pearances and exterior conduft of a monarch, degrades him-
felf; he no longer retains the facred perfon of a lovereign,
and cannot retain the prerogatives attached to his fublime
charafter. However, if this prince is not a monller, if he
is furious only from a juft paflion, and is fupportabie to the
rell of the nation ; the refpeft we ought to pay to the tran-
quillity of the ftate is fuch, and the refpeft of fovereign ma-
jefty fo powerful, that we are ftriftly obliged to feek every
other means of prefervation, rather than to put his perfon in
danger. Every one knows the example fet by David : he
fled ; he kept himfelf concealed, to fecure himfelf from
Saul's fury ; and more than once faved the life of his perfe-
cutor. When the reafon of Charles VI. of France was
fuddenly difordcred by a fatal accident, he in his fury killed
feveral of thofe who furrounded him : none of them thought
of fecuring his own fife, at the expence of that of the king ;
they only endeavoured to difarm him, and to make him
mailer of himfelf: they did their duty like brave men and
faithful fubjeds, in expofing their lives, to fave that of this
unfortunate monarch. We owe this facrifice to the Itate
and to fovereign majefty. Furious from the diforder of his
organs, Charles was not guilty ; he might recover his
health, and again become a good king.

We fhall here further obferve, that a fovereign is un-
doubtedly allowed to take minifters, to eafe him in the
painful office of government ; but he ought never to aban-
don

sou

sou

t5on his authority to them. Minifters oiiglit only to be iii-
ftruments in the hands of the prince ; he ouglit conilantly
to direft them, and continually endeavour to know whether
they follow his initrudlions. Minifters, however, who un-
dertake this charge, become refponfible to the ftate for
their conduft ; for the advice which they are fuppofed to
give to the iovereign, and for the meafures which they adopt
and purfue. Vattel's Law of Nation-;, b. i. ch. 4.

SOVERICK, in Geography, formerly known by the
lame of Sauro, a town of the pachalic of Orfa, a pachalic
'. hich is almoll entirely encircled by the windings of the
i'^uphratcs and the river Khabour, and occupying a con-
Iderable portion of the moft barren part of Mefopotamia.
rhe town is fituated, according to Niebuhr, in N. lat. 37°
;S', and contains about 500 inhabitants, with three mofques,
;iid a Itrong callle. The country to the fouth of the parallel
if Soverick is, for the raoft part, flat, fandy, and unculti-
1 ated, and inhabited by tribes of wandering Arabs, who
itch their tents on the banks of the rivers, and in the vi-
inity of fprings. From Soverick to Diarbekir it is more
. ountainous, and better inhabited.

SOUF, or VosTANi, the middle diftrift of Egypt, be-
tween the Bahira and Said.

SOUFFEL, a river of France, which runs into the
'-'.hine, four miles below Stralburg.
SOUFFLEUR, Fr., the bellows-blower of an organ.
SOUFFLOT, James-Germain, in Biography, an emi-
rnt architeft, was born in 1714 at Irancy, near Auxerre.
J lis father, an advocate in parliament, deftined him for his
own profelfion, and fent him, while very young, to Paris
for education ; but he felt a tafte and inclination for the
fcience of arcliitefture. Having been employed for fome
time in that art at Lyons, he went into Italy, where, by his
talents and indultry, he was admitted one of the king's pen-
fioners. It being refolved that feveral public buildings
fliould be eretted at Lyons, he was recommended to under-
take a part of the work, by the director of the French
academy at Rome ; and the conitruftion of the exchange
and the hofpital was committed to him. The noble fim-
plicity of ths hofpital, together with its excellent adaptation
to the objett for whicii it was intended, were univerfally
admired, and raifcd him to high reputation as an artift.
He was, after this, employed to build the concert-room
and theatre of the fame city. He next travelled into Italy,
and on his return he fettled at Paris, where he was fuc-
ceffively made controller of the buildings at Marly and the
Tuilleries, member of the academies of architcfturc and
painting, knight of St. Michael, and intendant of the royal
buildings. In 1757 he laid the foundation of the church of
St. Genevieve, of which he was able only to finifli the
portal, the nave, and the towers. In this bufinefs he fub-
jefted himlelf to fome fevere criticifm, efpecially with re-
fpeft to the poflibility of credling the intended dome upon
the bafcs defigncd to bear it ; though fome cxaft calcula-
tions jultified his plan. The criticifms and unfriendly re-
marks of Ills rivals were more than his temper, naturally
irritable, could bear ; and he died, partly of chagrin, in the
year 1780, at the age of 67. Befidcs the public works
already mentioned, he executed many others, which difplay
the powers of a great artift ; and after his death, M. Dii-
mont, profefTor of arciutefture, publidied a book of Dc-
figns, whicli he had left behind him, under the title of
" Elevations et Coupes de qiielijnes Edifices de France ct
d' Italic, defignees par feu M. Soufflot, Architeftc du Roi,
et gravces par fes Ordres." Though Soufflot was rough
and hally in his manners, he was kind and friendly ; whence
he obtained the name of It Bourru Bicnfaiffant.

SOUFFRIERE Bay, in Geography, a bay on the eaft
coart of the ifland of Dominica. N. lat. i?°Ji'. W. lone.
61° 17'. ^ ^

SOU-FONG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Kiang-nan ; 47 miles S.W. of Ngan-king.

SOUGH, in /Igriculture, a covered drain of any fize,
but commonly of the more large kind. Sough drains are
moft commonly employed in the bufinefs of fpring-draining,
thougli occafionally in other modes. See SpRlNG-£)ram
and SvRlNC.-Dralning.

Sough, otherwife called an yidit, in Mineralogy, is a
pailage like a vault cut out under the earth, to drain the
water from the mines.

In a canal, it denotes a fmall culvert or leading.

SOUHAITOU, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 28
miles W.NW. of Yolotou Hotun.

SOUI, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Hou-
quang; 527 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 3 1-48'. E. long.
1 12° 40'.

SOUI-CHONTO, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of Hami. N, lat. 41° 8'. E. long. 94' 37'.

SOVIESE, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia ;
44 miles W. of Birlat.

SOUI-KI, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Ouang-tong ; 30 miles N. of Louy.

SOUILLAC, a town of France, in the department
of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of
Gourdon. The place contains 1654, and the canton 8158
inhabitants, on a territory of 1825 kihometres, in 10 com-
munes.

SOUILLY, a town of France, in the department of the
Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Ver-
dun. The place contains 792, and the canton 7528 in-
habitants, on a territory of 230 kiliometres, in 2 1 com-
munes.

SOUIN-HING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Hou-quang ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Tfin.

SOUI-PING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Ho-nan ; 17 miles W.N.W. of Yun-hing.

SOUI-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Se-tchuen, at the cunflux of the rivers Yafi and Kincha ;
8jo miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 28° 40'. E. long.
104° 23'.

SOUI-TE, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in the
province of Chen-fi, on the Voutin river; 337 miles
W.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 37° 38'. E. long. 109"' 34'.

SOUI-YANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Se-tchuen ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Tlun-y.

SOUKAPURA, a kingdom on the fouth coal! of tiic
ifland of Java.

SOUKENE, a town of Africa; 130 miles S. of Tri-
poli.

SOUKERKE, a town of France, in the department of
■the Lys ; j nnks N.W. of Bruges.

SOUKETON, a river of New Hampihire, which runs
into the Meirimack, N. lat. 42-48'. W. long. 71° 30'.

S0U-KI8E, a town cf China, in Hou-quang, on the
river Lo ; 55 miles N.N.W. of Pao-king.

SOUL, A.mma, a (pint adapted to an organized btidy.
See Si'ilUT and Bouv.

Many of the ancient philofophers afl'ertcd an Anima
Mundi (which fee), a foul which moved and animated the
machine of tlie univerfe, and gave adlion to all natural
caufc:;. This dodlrine Plato handles very fully in his Ti-
mms. (See Platonism.) For the doftrine of the Stoics
on this fubjedt, fee S loics. See alio PiiKUrrvi)K.s.

The ancient Iiidiaiitt, who poflibly derived lla-ir notions

of

SOUL.

of God and providence from the Perfian Zoroaller, con-
ceived God to be the foul of the world, a rational and in-
telleaual light, from which all good is derived, and the
chief feat of whofe divinity is the fun. Their notion of di-
vine providence, deduced from that of the foul of the world,
probably extended no farther than that this principle is
necelTarily the firft fpring of all motion, life, and enjoyment ;
and fell far (hort of that wife and gracious voluntary fuper-
intendance, which is the Chriftian idea of Providence.

Others have given particular fouls to all the heavenly
bodies, the fun, liars, earth, &c. to regulate their motions.
The philofophers, many of them, allow of two, and others
of three, kinds of fouls ; -viz. a

Soul, Rational, %vhich they hold to he divine, and l!i-
fufed by the breath of God. This they call the fpirit, and
in this they fuppofe the intelleft and will to be feated.

Soul, Senfiti-vi, or Irrational, which man has in common
with brutes ; which is formed out of the elements, and in
which they apprehend the paffions and appetites are feated.

Soul, Vegetative, which we have in common with plants ;
and, as the firft is the principle of rcafon and underftanding,
or that in us which thinks and underilands ; and the fecond,
the principle of life ; this is the principle of growth, nutri-
tion, and vegetation.

The firft ancient philofopher who taught the immor-
tality of the foul, is faid to have been Pherecydes. ( See
his article. ) The human mind, according to the doftrine
of the ancient Indians (fee Brachmans), is of celeftial
origin, and has a near relation to God. When it departs
from the body, it returns to its parent, who expefts to re-
ceive back the fouls which he has fent forth. The human
foul they reprefented as of divine original, becaufe, with
all the other eattern nations, they conceived it to be a par-
ticle, or an emanation, of that intelleftual fire, by which
they believed the univerfe to be animated. Their doftrine
of the return of the foul to God, which fome have con-
founded with the Chriftian doftrine of the refurreftion,
feems to have meant nothing more than that the foul, after
being difengagcd from the grofler material body, would be
reunited to the fountain of all being, the foul of the world.
For the opinion of the Egyptians concernir.j the human
foul, we refer to the article Egypt,

Among the northern nations it was a generally received
opinion, that the iiuman foul was of divine original, rational
and immortal. That this was the univerfal doftrine of the
Celts, whether Gauls, Britons, Germans, or other nations,
is unanimoully attefted by the Greek and Roman v.-riters,
and by the remains of northern antiquities. Cxfar in-
forms us (Bell. Gall. lib. vi. c. 14.), that the firft doc-
trine of the Gallic Druids was, that the foul of man is im-
mortal; and Pomponius Mela (lib. iii. c. 2.) fays, that
one of their doftrines, which was divulged among the
people in order to infpire them with martial courage, was,
that the foul is immortal. This account is confirmed
by Valerius Maximus (1. ii. c. 6.), Strabo (1. iv. ), and
other hiftorians. And tlie fables every vifhere received
among the Celts concerning a future ftate, leave no room
to doubt, that the doftrine of the immortality of the foul
was generally received among them.

« Without or breath, or reafoning pow'rs, or fpeech.
Or vital blood, or the fair human face,
Alkus and Emla lay : till Odin bade
Them live, Haer.erus kindled in their breaft
The lamp of mind, and Laedur through their veins
Pour'd forth the purple Itream ; thus man arofe.
Graceful in youth, an animated form."

The hiftory of all the northern nations abounds with
fafts, which prove that their contempt of death originated
from an expeftation of immortality. It does not, however,
certainly appear, what kind of immortality thefe nations
cxpefted. According to Caelar (1. ii. c. 6.) and Diodorus
Siculus (I. i.), they thought, that the foul at death paflej
from one body to another. This doftrine of tranfmi-
gration is alfo afcribed to them by Lucan (Pharf. 1, i, ,
v. 454.)

" If dying mortals doom they fing aright,

No ghofts defcend to dwell in dreadful night ;

No parting fouls to grifly Pluto go.

Nor feek the dreary lllcnt fhades below :

But forth they fly, immortal in their kind.

And other bodies in new worlds they find :

Thus life for ever runs its endlefs race.

And, like a line, death but divides the fpace." Rowe,

On the contrary, Pomponius Mela reprefents the Celts
as expefting to pafs, after death, into the invifible world.
And this notion beft agrees with the accounts, which are
given by various writers, of the funeral ceremonies prac-
tifed in the northern nations, particularly that of commit-
ting to the funeral pile, or to the fepulchre, whatever had
been dear to the deceafed. It is alfo moft confonant to
the language of the ancient Edda, which every where re-
prefents the future life, as an allembly of good or bad
men, in a ilate of reward or punifhmept, and only fpeaks of
a return to life for the purpofe of reuniting the foul and
body, after the foul has pafled through a necefiary courfe
of purification, previoufly to its admiffion into the regions
of the happy. From this ftate of purgation none were to
be excufed, except thofe who had voluntaiily expofed them-
felves to death in battle : and hence it was, that they who
fell in war were deemed to have made a glorious and happy
exit from life, whilft they who died by ilcknefs were thought
to have periftied fhamefully and wretchedly. See Celts
and Daums.

Of the opinion of Socrates concerning the human foul,
we liave already given an account under the article
Socrates. For Plato's opinion, fee Pl.^tonism. For
an account of the Ariftoteban doftrine on this fubjeft, fee
Aristotle. Strabo taught that the feat of the foul is in
the middle of the brain ; and that it only afts by means of
the fenfes. (See Strabo.) Dicearchus, of whom Cicero
fpeaks as a learned and eloquent writer, maintained, that
there is no fuch thing as mind, or foul, either in man or
beaft ; that the principle, by which animals perceive and aft,
is equally diffufcd through the body, is infeparable from it,
and expires with it. For the opinion of the Stoics, fee
Stoics. For the opinion of Pythagoras and his followers,
fee Pythagoreans. See alfo Empedocles, Democri-
tus, and Heraclitism.

The Epicureans took the fubftance of the foul, we mean
of the rational foul, to be a fubtile air, compofed of their
atoms, or primitive corpufcles. See Epicureans.

The tenets of the modern Platonifts with regard to the
foul of man, may be found in the writings of Plotinus,
Jambhchus, and Porphyry, who may be reckoned among
the principal perfons that belonged to the Ecleftic feft.
Plotinus taught, that the firft principle of the univerfe,
which is diftinft from the univerfe, is the caufe of intellec-
tual life and the fource of eflence and being, fimple in its
own nature, and having no place, and deftitute both of
motion and reft ; infinite and unlimited, eftentially good,
and fair and beautiful, the author of all that is lovely, the .
beginning and end of beauty. From this firft principle

proceeds

SOUL.

proceeds mind, or intelleft, and foul, or the aftive principle.
The primary eflential good is the centre ; mind, the light
emerging from it, and remaining fixed ; foul, the motion
of the emerging light ; and body, the opaque fubftance,
which is illumined by the foul. From the emanative energy
of mind is produced foul, or the aftive principle of life.
This divine principle is the fountain, whence all life is
derived. It fubfifts, as well as intclleft, within the divine
elTence, and is therefore iStsjxoV^iov, fupramundane. This
13 the immediate fource of the principle which animates the
world, lyKoa-iJiwy, and which is difTufed, in various portions,
through animated nature. The fouls of men and inferior
animals conftitute the common limit between the intel-
leftual and fenfible world. The human foul is derived
from the fupramundane foul, or firft principle of life,
and is in this refpeft filter to the foul of the world.
Souls are not in the body as their place, nor as their
receptacle, nor as their fubjeft, nor as a part of a whole,
nor as form united to matter, but fimply as the ani-
mating principle ; and it is in this refpeft only, that we
know the foul to be prefent with the body. The power
of the foul is diffufed through every part of the body ;
and though it be faid to refide in its chief inftrument the
brain, it is incorporeal, and exifts entirely every where within
the fphere of its energy. Partaking of the nature of real
being, it is immutable. It is the principle of motion,
moving itfelf, and communicating motion to bodies. The
vices and infelicities of the foul, are wholly derived from
its union with the body.

Souls, in the periodical revolutions of nature, feparate
themfelves from their fountain, and defcend into the lower
regions of the world. In their pafTage, they attraft to
themfelves an ethereal vehicle, and at lafl fink into animal
bodies, as into a cavern or fepulchre. But when, by the
power of reminifcence, they again turn themfelves to the con-
templation of intelligible and divine natures, they regain their
freedom. God, on account of his greatnefs, is not known
by intelligence or fenfe, but by a kind of intuition fuperior
to fcience, by means of which the foul can fee him in his
real nature, as the fountain of life, mind, and being, and
the caufe of good. A foul which has attained to this vifion
of God will lament its union with the body, and will re-
joice to leave its prifon, and return to the divine nature
from which it proceeded. After death, the fouls of men
pafs into other animals, or afcend into fuperior regions, and
are converted into beings of an higher order, according to
their prefent degree of defilement or of purification.

The human foul, according to Jamblichus, has an innate
knowledge of God, prior to all reafoning, having originally
derived its ed'ence from, and fubfilted in, the divine nature.
By the intervention of demons, it enjoys communications
with the fuperior divinities, and with God himfelf. Prayers,
hymns, lultrations, and facrifices are the means by which
this intercourfe is maintained. The mind of man, as we
learn from the writings of Porphyry and others, originally
a portion of the divine nature, having fallen into a Uatc
of darkncfs and defilement by its union with the body, is
to be gradually emancipated from the chain of matter, and
by contemplating real entities, to rife to the knowledge
and vifion of God. The end of philofophy is, therefore,
the liberation of the foul from its corporL-al imprifonment.
For this purpoi'e it mult pafs through the feTcral lUges of
the human and divine virtues. The human virtues arc
phyfical, economical, and political ; or thole which refpeft
the cave of the body, and tlic oiliccs of domeftic and civil
life. The divine virtues are purgative, ihcoictic, and the-
urgic : the firll clafs confilts in bodily abltincncc, and other

voluntary mortifications ; the fecond comprehends all thofe
excrcifes of the intelleft and imagination, by which the
mind contemplates abftraft truth, and intelligible natures ;
the third includes thofe religious exercifes, by which the
philofopher is qualified for, and admitted to, an immediate
intercourfe with fuperior beings, attains a power over
dxmons, and afcends fo far above the ordinary condition
of humanity, as to enjoy the vifion of God in this life, and
to return, at death, to the divine mind, whence it firll
proceeded. Thus, we have given a fpecimcn of the vifionary
fubtleties of the Alexandrian philofophy, or that of the
Ecleftic fcft.

According to the popular doftrine of the Jews, in and
after the tenth centur)-, the foul of man is a thinking fub-
ilance, having three faculties, the vegetative, the fenfitive,
and the rational : it is poflefied of hberty, and is immortal.
After death it is not immediately admitted to celeltial joys,
but wanders in this world, chiefly about its body, during
which time it is tormented by evil dimons ; in this purga-
tory it is clcanfed from its ilains ; after which it pafles into
either bodies of men, or inferior animals. There will be
a refurreftion of the bodies of dead men, and an univerfal
judgment, which will be fucceeded by a ftate of retribution.
The foul will enjoy eternal life in paradife, and the wicked
will be configned to the infernal regions ; the Jew for a time,
but the infidel for ever. The world will be deft royed ; but
the materials of which it is compofcd will remain. Thus the
modern Jews blended tenets, which they derived from their
facred fcripturcs, with opinions which they borrowed from
their Gentile neighbours. They firft fuffered their doftrines
to be corrupted by the Egyptian philofophy, and after-
wards learned from the Saracens to reafon, after the Peri-
patetic manner, upon metaphyfical fubjefts ; of which ex-
amples may be feen in the writings of Maimonides, and in
the book Cofri. The human foul, according to the
Cabbaliftic doftrine, proceeding by emanation from the
Deity, is an incorporeal fubltance, of the fame nature with
the divine intelleft. Being united ti) the body, one com-
plex nature is produced, endued with reafon, and capable
of aftion. The human foul confifts of four parts, " ne-
phefh," or the principle of vitality ; " ruach," or the
principle of motion ; " nefchamah," or the power of in-
telligence ; and "jechidaii," a divine principle, by means
of which it contemplates fuperior natures, and even afcends
to the Enfophic world. All fouls were produced at once,
and pre-exilted in Adam. Every human foul has two guar-
dian angels, produced by emanation, at the time (A the pro-
duftion of fouls. The mind of man is united to the divine
mind, as the radius of a circle to its centre. The fouls of
good men afcend above the manfion of angels, and are
delighted with the vifion of the firft light, which illumi-
nates all the world.

The doftrine of the Arabians, ftaled by Al-Gazcl, is,
that the fouls of men are immortal, and that their bodies
will be raifcd from the dead. In the interval between death
and the refurreftion, fouls remain in an intermediate Hate ;
and after the refurreftion the good and faithful (liall be re-
warded, and the wicked and unbelieving fliall be pmiifhed ;
but they wlio, after having fuilered punilhmeiit, Ihall con-
fefs one God, will, through Ins favour, be releafed from
their confinement, and placed among the blelfed.

The Cartefians make thinking the elTencc of the foul ;
and, from this principle, deduce its immateriality and im-
mortality. But, according to Mr. Locke, &c. the prin-
ciple is falfe ; nor is there any need to define the loul a fub-
ftance that thinks, to prove it immortal. It is enough that
tiie foul be capable of thinking, and tliatit produce its own

thoughts,

SOUL.

thoughts, without making thinking its eiience. It is no
more eflential to the foul to think than to will ; for a thing I
can conceive the foul without, cannot be its efTence.

Again, if thought be the eflence of the foul, as a thing can-
not produce itfelf, its own being, or efTence ; the foul does
not produce its own thoughts, nor its own will : and thus it
is brought to the condition of brutes, or even of inanimate
bodies, without any aftion, any liberty, &c.

If the Cartefians only mean this of the faculty of think-
ing, they do wrong even to call this the elFence of the foul.
It is no more its eflence than the faculty of willing is. And
we conceive fomething in the foul prior to both thofe
faculties.

The foul is a fpiritual fubftance, proper to inform or ani-
mate a human body : and, by its union with this body, to
conllitute a reafonable animal or man. This is its efTence,
and this its definition.

It muft be owned, the Cartefians prove the fpirituality and
immortality of the foul, from its thinking, exceedingly
well ; but they are not to have the honour of this proof as
their own invention. All the great philofophers ufed it be-
fore them, and ufe it ftill.

For an account of Leibnitz's doftrine concerning the
foul, fee Leibnitz, Leibnitzian Philofophy, Monad, and
Pre-cjlablijhed Harmony.

Spinoza, and his followers, allowing only of one kind of
fubllance, I'/z. matter ; maintain the foul to be of the fame
fubftance with the body, w'z. material. See Spinozism.

The doftrine of the materiality of the human foul has
been adopted and maintained by feveral modern writers ; and
even by thofe who have diftinguifhed themfelves as able and
zealous advocates in the caufe of rehgion, both natural and
i-evealed. In this number we may reckon Dr. Prieftley,
who, rejefting the commonly received notion of matter,
(fee Matter,) as an abfolutely impenetrable, inert fub-
ftance, and premifing, that the powers of fenfation or per-
ception, and thought, as belonging to man, have never been
■ found but in conjunftion with a certain organized fyftem of
matter, maintains, that thofe powers neceffarily exifl in, and
depend upon, fuch a fyflem. In proof of this doArine, it
19 alleged, that perception and thought are not incom-
patible with the properties of matter, confidered as a fub-
ftance extended and endued with the powers of attraftiou
and repulfion ; and, therefore, if one kind of fubftance be
capable of fupporting all the known properties of man,
true philofophy, which will not authorize us to multiply
caules or kinds of fubftance, without necefTity, will forbid
us to admit of any fubllance in the conftitution of human
nature, efTentially different from matter. The proper feat
of the powers of perception and thought, according to this
writer, is the brain ; bccaufe, as far as we can judge, the
faculty of thinking, and a certain ftate of the brain, always
accompany and correfpond to one another ; and there is no
intlance of any man retaining this faculty, when his brain was
deftroyed ; and whenever that faculty is impeded or injured,
there is fufficient reafon to believe that the brain is difordered
in proportion. Dr. Prieftley apprehends, that fenfation
and thought neceflarily refult from the organization of the
brain, when the powers of mere life are given to the fyftem,
and that they follow of courfe, as much as the circulation
of the blood follows rcfpiration ; but he profefTes to have
no idea at all of the manner in which the power of percep-
tion refults from organization and life.

To this reafoning it has been replied, in general, that Dr.
Prieftley's account of matter does not anfwer to the com-
mon ideas of matter, or that it is not folid extenfion, or an
impenetrable and inert fubftance, which is the only matter that

is the objeil of natural philofophy ; but fomething not folid,
that exifts in fpace, and fo far agreeing with Ipirit ; and con-
fequently, if fuch matter is, as he afTerts, the only matter
poflible, it will follow, not that we have no fouls diftinft
from our bodies, but that we have no bodies diflinft from
our fouls, and that all in nature is fpirit. Befides, it has
been farther urged, that a connection and dependence by no
means prove famenefs.

From the dependence of aftual fenfations and thought on
the brain, we have no more reafon to conclude that the brain
is the mind, than a favage who had never heard the mufic of
a harpfichord, and did not fee the hand that played upon it,
would have to conclude, that it played upon itfelf, and was
the mufician ; becaufe he could trace all the founds to the
inftrument, and found that when the ftrings were out of
order, the mufic was difturbed or deftroyed. What expe-
rience teaches us is, that the exercife of the mental powers
depends on the brain and the nerves ; not that the mind is the
brain and the nerves. We are fure the mind cannot be the
brain, becaufe the brain is an afTemblage of beings ; where-
as the mind is one being.

It has been further objeAed by an anonymous writer
(Edinb. Rev. N°XVII.), that it is unphilofophical to clafs
perception among the qualities of matter, when it is ob-
vious, that it is by means of perception alone that we get
any notion of matter or its qualities ; and that it is poflible,
with perfeft confillency, to maintain the exiltence of our
perceptions, and to deny that of matter altogether. The
other qualities of matter are perceived by us ; but percep-
tion cannot be perceived ; all we know about it is, that it is
that by which we perceive every thing elfe. It founds forae-
what abfurd and unintelligible, to fay that perception is that
quality of matter by which it becomes confcious of its own
exiltence, and acquainted with its other qualities. It is
plain that this is not a quality, but a knowledge of qualities ;
and that the percipient muft neceffarily be diitinft from that
which is perceived by it. We muft always begin with per-
ception ; and the followers of Berkeley will tell us, that
we mull end there alfo. At all events, it certainly never
entered into the head of any plain man to conceive, that the
faculty of perception itfelf was one of the qualities with
which that faculty made him acquainted ; or that it could
pol!ibIy belong to a fubftance, which his earlieft intimations
and molt indeftruftible impreffions taught him to regard as
fomething external and feparate.

The following lines, if we may be allowed to avail our-
felves of poetry in the illuftration of a metaphyfical queftion,
forcibly exprefs the univerfal and natural imprefiion of man-
kind on this fubjeft.

" Am I but what I feem, mere flefh and blood ?
A branching channel, and a mazy flood ?
The purple Itream, that through my veffels glides,
Dull and unconfcious flows like common tides.
The pipes, through which the circling juices Itray,
Are not that thinking I, no more than they.
This frame, compafted with tranfcendent fkill.
Of moving joints, obedient to my will,
Nurfed from the fruitful glebe like yonder tree,
Waxes and waftes : I call it mine, not me.
New matter ftill the mouldering mafs fuftains ;
The manfion changed, the tenant ftill remains.
And, from the fleeting ftream repair'd by food,
Diftinft, as is the fwimmer from the flood."

But, befides the impropriety of making the faculty of
perception a quality of the thing perceived, and of abfurdly
converting our knowledge of the qualities of matter into

another

souu

another quality of the fame fubftance, chargeable upon the
doArine of materialifm, it is alleged that to call perception
a qualily at all, is a grofs and unwarrantable abufe of language.
Perception is an aft or an event, a faft or a phenomenon, of
which the percipient is confcious ; but it cannot be intelli-
gibly cvinceived as a quality ; and, Icall of all, as a quality
of that fubllance which is known to us as folid and extended,
ift. All the quahties of matter, it has been already ftated,
are perceived by the fenfes ; but the fenfation itfelf cannot be
fo perceived : nor is it poflible to call it an objeft of fenfe,
without the grolleft perverfion of expreflion. 2dly. All the
qualities of matter have a direft reference to fpace or exten-
fion, and arc conceived, in fome meafure, as attributes or
qualities of the fpace within which they exift. When we
fay that a particular body is folid, we mean merely that a
certain portion of fpace is impenetrable ; when we fay that it
is coloured, we mean that the fame portion of fpace appears
of one hue, — and fo of the other qualities : but fenfation
or thought is never conceived to occupy fpace, or to charac-
terize it ; nor can thefe faculties be at all conceived as de-
finite portions of fpace, endued with perceptible properties.
In the third place, all the primary qualities of matter are in-
feparable from it, and enter necelTarily into its conception
and definition. All matter mult neceflarily be conceived fo
extended, folid, and figured. It is obvious, however, that
thought or fenfation is not an infeparable attribute of matter,
as by far the greater part of matter is entirely deftitute of
it ; and it is found in conneftion with thofe parts which we
term organized, only while they are in a certain Itate, which
we call alive. If it be faid, however, that thought may re-
femble thofe accidental qualities of matter, fuch as heat or
colour, which are not infeparable or permanent ; then we
reply, that none of thefe things can properly be termed
matter, more than thought or fenfation ; they are themfelves
fubftances, or matter pofleded of infeparable and peculiar
qualities, as well as thofe which addrefs themfelves to the
other fenfes. Light is a material fubltance, from -which the
quality of colour is infeparable ; and heat is a material fub-
itance, which has univerfally the quality of exciting the
fenfation of warmth. If thought be allowed to be a fub-
ftance in this fenfe, it will remain to fliew that it is material,
by being referrible to fpace, and liable to attraftion, repul-
fion, condenlation or refleftion, hke heat or light.

Thought, as the advocates of materialifm allege, is
nothing elfe than motion ; but, without attempting to de-
fine motion, it is fufiicient to obfervc, that it is not a quality
of matter ; it is an att, a phenomenon, or a faft ; but it
makes no part of the defcription or conception of matter,
though it only exills with reference to that iubilance. Let
any man afl< himfelf, however, whether the motion of mat-
ter bears any fort of refemblance to thought or fenfation ;
or whether it be even conceivable that thefe (hould be one
and the fame thing ? But, it is faid, we find fenfation always
produced by motion ; and as we can difcovcr nothing clfe in
conjunftion with it, we are judified in afcribing it to motion.
This is not the quellion. It is rot necellary to inquire,
whether motion xnd.y produce fenfation or not, but whether
fenfation be motion, and nothing elfe. It feems pretty
evident that motion can produce nothing but motion or im-
pulfe, and that it is at lealt as inconceivable that it (hould
ever produce fenfation in matter, a9 that it (liould produce
a feparate fubltance, called mind. But this is not the
queltion with the materialilU. Tiieir propofition is, not
that motion produces fenfation, which might be as well
in the mind as in the body ; but that fenfation is motion ;
and that all the phenomena of thought and perception are
Vox.. XXXIII.

intelUgibly accounted for by faying, thu they ar* certain
little fhakings in the pulpy part of the brain.

That fenfation may follow motion in the brain, or may cvea
be produced by it, is conceivable at leait, and may be
affirmed with perfeft precifion and confiftcncy ; but that the
motion is itfelf fenfation, and that the proper and complete
delinition of thought and feeling is, that they arc certain
vibrations in the brain, is a doftrine that can only be won-
dered at, and that muft be comprehended before it be
anfwered.

No advocate for the exiftence of mind, ever thought it
neceflary to deny that there was a certain bodily appa-
ratus neceffary to thought and fenfation in man, and that on
many occafions the fenfation was preceded or introduced by
certain impulfcs and correfponding movements of this ma-
terial machinery ; we cannot fee without eyes and light, nor
think without living bodies. All that they maintain is,
that thefe impulfes and movements are not feelings or
thought, but merely the occafions of feeling and thought,
and that it is impoffible for them to confound the material
motions which precede their fenfations, with the fenfations
themfelves, which have no conceivable affinity with matter.

Dr. Prieltley farther argues, that all our ideas either pro-
ceed from the bodily fenfes, or are confequent upon the per-
ceptions of fenfe ; and hence infers, that the notion of the
pofllbility of thinking in man, without an organized body,
is not only deltitute of all evidence from aftual appearances,
but is direftly contrary to them. Moreover, if the mind
was naturally fo independent of the body, as to be capable
of fubiilting by itfelf, and even of appearing to more ad-
vantage after the death of the body, as fome of the advo-
cates for an intermediate (late have maintained, it might, he
fays, difcover fome figns of its independence before its
death, and efpecially when the organs of the body were
obltrufted, fo as to leave the foul more at liberty to exert
itfelf, as in a (late of fleep or fwooning, which mod refem-
ble the (late of death, in which it is pretended that the foul
is moll of all alive, moll adtive, and vigorous ; but, judg-
ing by appearances, the reverfe of all this is the cafe. Bc-
fides, if the mental principle was, in its own nature, imma-
terial and immortal, all its particular faculties would be fo
too ; whereas we fee that every faculty of the mind, with-
out exception, is liable to be impaired, and even to become
wholly extinil before death. Whence he infers, that the
fubltance, or principle, in which thefe faculties ex ill, mud
be pronounced to be mortal too. He adds, if the fentient
principle in man be immaterial, it can have no cxtcnfion,
but every thing within it, or properly belonging to it, muft
be fimple and indivilible ; and if this were not the cafe, the
foul would be liable to corruption and death. But Dr.
Pricdlcy obferves, that, whatever ideas arc in themfelves,
they are evidently produced by external objefts, and muft
tiicrefore correlpond to them ; and fince many of tlie ob-
jefts or archetypes of ideas are divifible, it necell'arily fol-
lows, that the ideas themfelves are divifible alfo ; and hence
he infers, that the fentient principle in man, containing ideas
which certainly have parts, and are divifible, and confc-
quently having extenfion, cannot be that fimple, indivifible,
and immaterial fubdance, that fome have imagined it to be ;
but fi)metlung that has real extenfion, and therefore may
have the otiier proiicrties of matter. To this reafoning an
excellent writer replies, that it would be as proper to alfcrt
that ideas are hard or round, as to alfert that they are divi-
fible. Perception is a fingle and indivifible aft ; and though
the objett perceived may be divifible, the perception of it
by the mind cannot be lo. Dr. PrielUey farther adds, that
3 C the

SOUL.

the foul poffetres a (jreat vai-iety of mental affeftions, which
necelTarily imply alteration, cfpecially melioration and depra-
vation, which is fomethina; fo fimilar to corrnption, that it
has iiniverfally obtained the fanie name, and which is cer-
tainly incompatible with natural and perfeft fimplicity. This
writer alleges alfo, in favour of the fyitem of materialifm,
that we hereby ^et rid of many difficulties, which mull em-
barrafs the oppoiite fvftem ; fuch, e. gr. as thefe — what be-
comes of the full durino- fl'-ep, in a fwoon, when tlie body
is feeminiily dead (as by drowning, or other accidents), and
efpecially after death ? alio what was the condition of it be-
fore it became united to the body, and at what time did
that union take place? what are the nature and ttate of the
fouls of brutes ? what is the ufe of the human body ? &c.
The fyftem of materialifm, he fays, which revelation \ini-
formly fuppufes, is clogged with no difficulties of this kind.
Man, according to this fyitem, is no more than what we
now fee of him. His being commences at the time of his
conception, or perhaps at an earlier period. The corporeal
and mental faculties, inhering in the fame fubftance, grow,
ripen, and decay together ; and, whenever the lyltem is dif-
folved, it continues in a Itate of difl'olution, till it (hall
pleafe that Almighty Being, who called it into exillence,
to reltore it to life again. Accordingly the Chriftian fyf-
tem provides no reward for the righteous till the general re-
■furreftion of thejull, nor any punilhment for the wicked till
the end of the world. Hence alfo the doftrine of the pre-
exiftence of human fouls, and that of the pre-exiltence of
Chrilt, is rejefted, as having no other foundation than the
notion of there being fomething in man quite different from
his corporeal organized fyftem.

Dr. Prieflley argues in many parts of his work on the
luppofition, that, according to the ideas of modern imma-
terialifts, fpirit can have no relation to place, and is incapa-
ble of being prefent any where. But Dr. Clarke, and fome
others of the belt modern writers, did not entertain thefe
ideas of fpirit. Time and place arc neceil'aryto the e.xiltence
of all things ; and hence Dr. Clarke infers, that infinite
fpace and duration are the effential properties of the Deity.
Sir Ifaac Newton was alfo of the fame opinion ; and Dr.
Price obferves, that if fpirit exifts at all, it muft exift fome-
where, as well as in fome time.

Dr. Prieltley deduces another argument in favour of the
material fyitem, from the confideration, that fpirit and body
have no common property, and that it muft, therefore, be
impoflible for them to aft upon one another : againft which
it has been objefted, that his principles tend to prove, that
the Deity is material, as well as all inferior beings : and if
matter be a power of attraction and repulfion united to ex-
tenfion, the Deity muft be the fame. But if this maxim be
not univerfally true, and the Deity be immaterial, as Dr.
Prieftley himfelf afferts.it will follow, that fpirit may a£t upon
matter, without having any other common property with it
than being locally prefent to it ; and one of his chief argu-
ments for the materiality of the foul will be given up. Be-
fides, allowing this maxim, how is it poffible to avoid affert-
ing the impoffibility of the creation of the world out of
nothing ? For what common property can the Creator have
with nothing? Dr. Prieftley has laboured to prove, that the
fcriplures, both of the Old and New Teftament, fuppofe
and inculcate the doftrine of the uniform compofition of
man, or of the materiality of the human foul ; and that, in
conformity to this doftrine, the ftate of retribution does
not take place till after the general rcfurreftion. Accord-
ingly, his fyftem leads him to deny the natural immortality
ef the foul, and its confcious exiftence in the intermediate

ftatc. To thofe who objcdt, that it the loul be not natu<
rally capable of furviving the body, or if death is unavoidably
its deftrutlion, then the refurreition muft be the refurrec-
ticm of a non-entity ; he replies, that though the power
of thinking cannot exift without its fubftance, which is
an organized fyftem, yet if this property of thinking necef-
farily attends the property of life, nothing can be requifite
to the reftoration of all the powers of the man, but the
reftoration of the body to a itate of life. And he appre-
hends that a refurreflion properly lo called (becaufe this
can be only a refurreftion of fomething that had been
dead, d/s. the body ), is manifcftly ufelefs, upon the fuppo-
fition of there being a foul diltincf from the body ; it
being, upon this hypothefif, the foul, and not the bodv,
that is the feat of all perception, and the fourcc of all ac-
tion. See Sleep of the Sou!.

Dr. Prieftley conceives, that the three doftrines of mate-
rialifm, of that which is commonly called Socinianifm, and
of philofophical neceffity, are equal parts of one fyitem,
being equally founded on jutt obfervatious of nature, and
fair deduftions from the fcriptures ; and that whofoever (hall
duly confider their conneftion and dependence on one another,
will find no fufficient confiftency in any general fcheme of
principles that does not comprehend them all. But it has
been urged by another able writer, that if man be the
matter itfelf which conftitutes the man, and not its form or
arrangement, as Dr. Prieftley allows, the man will always
remain while the matter which conftitutes him remains,
however different its organization or arrangement may be :
that fince death does not deitroy the matter which conftitutes
man, it does not deitroy the man ; and that, confequently,
he goes on to exift after death, or is naturally immortal :
that, in order to the refurredfion of the fame man, the fame
matter mult arife ; and that it is no lefs polfible tor man to
have exifted before his birth, than it is, that he ihoiild exift
after his death ; and that, confequently, all the lupport to
the Socinian fcheme, which Dr. Prieftley derives from his
fentiments of materialifm, falls to the ground. To this
reafoning, however, he replies, that the pre-exiltence of the
materials of the man Jefus is a very difterent kind of pre-
exiltence from that of thofe who make Chrilt, or rather the
principal part of him, to have pre-exilted in an aftive (late.
We (hall here fubjoin the following argument, urged by the
learned Dr. Clarke againft Mr. Dodwell, in jjroof of the
immateriality and natural immortality of the foul. Tliat
the foul cannot be material, he fays, is demonftrable from
the (ingle confideration even of bare fenfe and conlcioufneis
itfelf. For matter being a divifible fubftance, confifting
always of feparable, nay, of aftual feparate and diltintl
parts ; it is plain, unlefs it were effentially confcious, in
which cafe every particle of matter muft confitt of innu-
merable feparate and diltinft confcioufnclTes, no fyftem of
it in any poffible compofition or divifion, can be an individual
confcious being : for fuppofe three, or three hundred particles
of matter, at a mile, or any given diltance, one from another,
is it polTible that all thofe feparate parts fhould, in that ftate,
be one individual confcious being? Snppofe, then, all thefe
particles brought together, into one fyftem, fo as to touch
one another, will they, thereby, or by any motion or com-
pofition whatfoever, become any whit lefs truly dillinft
beings than they were at the greateft diltance ? How then
can their being difpofed in any poffible fyftem, make them
one individual confcious being ? If you fuppofe God by
his infinite power fuperadding confcioufnefs to the united
particles, yet (till thofe particles, being really and neceffarily
as dillinft beings as ever, cannot be themfclves the fubjeft in

which

SOUL.

which that individual confcioufnefs inheres ; but the con-
fcioufnefs can only be fuperadded by the addition of fome-
thing, which, in all the particles, mult Hill itfelf be but one
individual bein^. The foul, therefore, whofe power of
thinking is undeniably one individual confcioufnefs, cannot
polTibly be a material fubftance. See on the fubjeft of this
article, Brucker's Hiftory of Philofophy, by Enfield.
Prieftley's Difquifitions relating to Matter and Spirit, 8vo.
1777. Correfpondence between Dr. Price and Dr. Priell-
ley, 8vo, 1778. Clarke's Demonllration of the Being and
Attrib\ite3 of God. Ar.fwer to Dodwell. Controverfies
with Collins ; and Letters between him and Leibnitz.
Butler's Analogy, chap. i. Baxter's Matho, vol. i. En-
quiry into the Nature of the human Soul, &c. vol. i.

The notions of the ancients were very various with regard
to the feat of the foul, and the mode of its aftion on the
body. Some have maintained, that it is equally diffufed
through every part of it ; and others fay, that whilft it in-
fluences and afts upon every part of the body, it has its prin-
cipal refidence in fome particular part. Since it has been
difcovered, by the improvements in anatomy, that the nerves
are the inftruments of perception, and of the fenfations ac-
companying it, and that the nerves ultimately terminate in
the brain, it has been the general opinion of philofophers that
the brain is the feat of the loul ; and that it perceives the
images that are brought there, and external things, only by
means of them. Des Cartes, obferving that the Pineal
Gland (wiiich fee) is the only part of the brain that is
fingle, all the other parts being double, and thinking that
the foul mull have one feat, was thus determined to make
that gland the foul's habitation ; to which, by means of the
animal fpirits, intelligence is brought of all objefts that affeft
the fenfes. See Cartes and Cartesianism.

Others have not thought proper to confine the habitation
of the foul to the pineal gland, but to the brain in general,
or to fome part of it, which they call the " fenforium."
Even the great Newton favoured this opinion, though he
propofes it only as a query, with that modeily which diftiii-
guifhed him no lefs than his great genius.

" Is not," fays he, " the fenforium of animals the place
where the fenticnt fubftance is prefcnt, and to which the
fenfible fpecies of things are brought through the nerves and
brain, that there they rhay be perceived by the mmd prefent
in that place ? And is there not an incorporeal, living, in-
telligent, and omniprefent Being, who, in infinite fpace, as
if it were in his fenforium, intimately perceives things
themfelve>, and comprehends them perfectly, as being pre-
fent to them ; of which things, that principle in us which
perceives and thinks, difcerns only in its little fenforium, the
images brought to it through the organs of the fenfes ?"
His great friend Dr. Clarke adopted the fame fentiments witli
more confidence. In his papers to Leibnitz, we find the
following pallage-i. " Without being prefent to the images
of the things perceived, the foul could not polfibly perceive
them. A living iubltance can only there perceive when it
is prefent, citlier to the things then\felves, (as the omnipre-
fent God if to the whole univerfe,) or to the images of tilings,
(as the foul of man i.s in its proper fenfory). Notliing can
any more aft, or be adtcd upon, where it is not prclent, than
it can be where it is not. We arc furc the foul cannot per-
ceive what it is not prefent to, bccaufe nothing can aft, or
be afted upon, where it is not." See Si.NsoitiUM.

Mr. I^ocke exprefles himfelf in fuch a manner, that, for
the moll part, one would imagine, that he thought the ideas,
or ijnagcn, of things, which he believed to be the immediate
'■.hjefts of perception, arc imprcflions upon the mfrid itfelf;

yet in fome paffages he rather places them in the brain, and
makes them to be perceived by the mind there prefent. From
fuch padages, cited by Dr. Reid (ubi infra), it may be in-
ferred, that he thought there are images of external ob-
jefts conveyed to the brain. But whether he thought, with
Des Cartes and Newton, that the images in the brain are
perceived by the mind there prefent, or that they are im-
printed on the mind itfelf, is not obvious. This hypothefis
is founded on three allumptions ; and if any one of them
fail, it mull fall to the ground. 1. That the foul has its
feat, or, as Mr. Locke calls it, its prefence-room, in the
brain : 2. That images are formed in the brain of all the ob-
jefts of fenfe: 3. That the mind or foul perceives thofe
images in the brain ; and that it perceives not external ob-
jefts immediately, but only perceives them by means of
thofe images. The firit aflumption is not fufficiently efta-
blifhed to warrant our founding other principles upon it. Of
the fecond there is no proof or probability, with regard to any
of the objetts of fenfe. The brain has been diflefted times
innumerable, by the nicelt anatomifts ; every part of it has
been examined by the naked eye, and with the help of mi-
crofcopes ; but 110 vellige of any external objeft was ever
found. The brain feems to be the moft improper fubftancf
that can be imagined for receiving or retaining images, being
a foft, moilt, medullary fubltance. The third alFumption
is as improbable, as that there are images of external objefts
in the brain to be perceived. If our powers of perception,
fays Dr. Reid, be not altogether fallaciou.^, the objefts we
perceive are not in our brain, but without us. Reid's EITay
on the Intelleftual Powers of Man, EfT. ii. ch. 4. See
Perception.

Borri, a Milanefe phyfician, in a letter to Bartholine, " De
Ortu Cerebri, et Ufu Medico," allerts, that in the brain is
found a very fubtle fragrant juice, which is the principal feat
or refidence of the rcafonable foul ; and adds, that the fub-
tlety and finenefs of the foul depends on the temperature of
this liquor rather than on the flrufture of the brain, to which
it is ufually afcribed. This liquor, we conceive, mufl be
the fame with what is ufually called the ner\<ous juict, or ani-
mal fpiiils : the conltitution of which is, doubtlefs, of great
importance, with regard to the faculties of the foul.

Mr. Locke diilinguifhes two principal faculties or powers
of the rational or human foul, viz. perception and 'willing.
See Power.

To thefe, other philofophers add others ; as fenfatian^
liberty, memory, imagination, and /laiil.

The myltic divines diltinguifh two principal parts of tho
foul : the fuberior part, which comprehends the undcrftand-
ing and the will, and the inferior part, which comprehends
imagination and fcnfation.

As to the ioul of brutes, the Cartefians, and fome others,
deny its exiltence in the common fenfe of the word foul ;
that is, they ilrip it of all the properties or faculties of the
human foul : and the Peripatetics, on the contrary, inveil it
with the grcatell part, if not all of them.

In man, a particular agitation of the fibres of the brain
is accompanied with a lenfation of lieat ; and a certain flux
of animal fpirits towards the heart and vifccra is followed by
love or hatred.

Nowtlie Peripatetics maintain, that brutes feel the fame
heat, and the fame paflioiis, on the fame occaljons ; thst
they have the fame averlion for what incommodes them ; and,
in the general, are capable of all the palRons, and all ths
fenfations we feel.

The Carteliana deny ihry have any peiceptioiu ornoticca

at nil, that they feel any pain or,pleafuro, or love or hate «ny

3 C 1 thing.

sou

thing. The ground of their opinion is, that they allow of
nothing in brutes but what is material : and that they deny
fenfations and paffions to be any properties of matter.

Some of the Peripatetics, on the other hand, mamtam
matter, when fubtilized, framed, ranged, nnd moved, in a
certain manner, to be capable of fenfation and paffion ; that
beads may feel and perceive, by means of the animal fpirits,
which are a matter thus modified ; and that even the human
foul itfelf only becomes capable of fenfation and paffion by
means of it.

The maintainers of the contrary opinion urge that appear-
.ance of fenfe, of fear, caution, love for their young, ad-
mirable fagacity, both for their own prefervation and that of
their fpecies, vifible through the whole brute creation.
And It is true, that all the aiftions of beafts plainly exprefs
an underltanding, for every thing that is regular expredes
it, even a machine or watch exprefles it, and a plant much
more ; the radicle of the feed turning downwards, and the
item upwards, whatever fituation the feed is fown in ; the
young plant knitting from fpace to fpace to ftrengthen it, its
putting forth prickles, &c. to defend it, &c. mark a great
underltanding. All the motions of plants and brutes plainly
difcover an intelligence ; but the intelligence does not refide
in the matter thereof ; it is as diftinft 'from the beaft or
plant, as that which ranged the wheels of the watch is dif-
tinft from the watch itfelf.

For, in effect, this intelligence appears infinitely great, in-
finitely wife, infinitely powerful ; and the fame which formed
us in our mother's womb, which gave us our growth, &c.
Thus, in brutes there is fiot cither underltanding or foul, in
the fenfe we generally ufe the word ; they eat vrithout plea-
fure, cry without pain, grow without knowing it. They fear
nothing, know nothing ; and if they aft in fuch manner as
(hews underltanding, it is becaufe God, having made them,
to preferve them, has formed their bodies fo as to avoid
whatever might hurt them mechanically.

Otherwife it might be faid, that there is more underltand-
ing in the vileft infeft, nay, in the fmalleft grain, than in the
molt knowing men ; for it is evident, either of them con-
tains more parts, and produces more regular motions and
aftions, than we are capable of underltanding. Thus does
the great F. Malebranche argue againft the fouls of brutes.
(Recherche de la Verite, liv. vi.) On this fubjeft, fee
Brutes and Instixct.

In connection with the interefting fubjeft of this article,
we fhail here introduce fom.e appropriate oblervations of an
acute and elegant writer. (See Stewart's Elements of the
Philofophy of the Human Mind.) This writer agrees with
Dr. Reid in fuppofing, that the notions we annex to the
words matter and mind, arc merely relative. If I am
afked, fays he, what I mean by matter ? I can only explain
myfelf by faying, it is that which is extended, figured, co-
loured, moveable, hard or foft, rough or fmooth, hot or
cold ; that is, I can define it in no other way, than by enu-
merating its fenfible qualities. It is not matter or body
which I perceive by my fenfes ; but only extenfion, figure,
colour, and certain other qualitiee, which the conditution of
my nature leads me to refer to fomething which is extended,
figured, and coloured. The cafe is prccifely fimilar with
refpeft to mind. We are not immediately confcious of its ex-
iftence, but we are confcious of fenfation, thought, and vo-
lition ; operations, which imply the exiltence of fomething
which feels, thinks, and wills. Every man too is impreffcd
with an irrefiltible conviftion, that all thefe fenfations,
thoughts, and vohtions, belong to one and the fame being ;
to that being which he calls himfelf; a being which he is led,

SOU

by the conditution of his nature, to confider as fomething
didinft from his body, and as not liable to be impaired by the
lofs or mutilation of any of his organs. From thefe confi-
derations it appears, that we have the fame evidences for the
exidence of mind, that we have for the exiftence of body ;
nay, if there be any difference between the two cafes, that
we have dronger evidence for it ; inafmuch as the one is fug-
geded to us by the fubjefts of our confcioufnefs, and the
other merely by the objefts of our perception. But as from
our earlied years the attention is engrod'ed with the qualities
and love of matter, thefe phenomena occupy our thoughts
more than thofe of the mind, and we are perpetually tempt-
ed to explain the latter by the analogy of the former, and
even to endeavour to refer them to the fame general laws ;
and we acquire habits of inattention to the fubjefts of our
confcioufnefs, not eafily furmountcd. If, therefore, our
notions of mind and matter are merely relative ; if we know
the one, only by fuch fenfible qualities as extenfion, figure,
and fohdity, and the other, by fuch operations as fenfation,
thought, and volition, vi-e are warranted in faying, that
matter and mind, confidered as objefts of human Itudy, are
eflentially different ; the fcience of the former reding ulti-
mately on the phenomena exhibited to our fenfes, and that of
the latter, on the phenomena of which we are confcious.
Indead, therefore, of objefting to the fcheme of materialifm,
that its conclufions are falfe, it would be more accurate to
fay, that its aim is unphilofophical. It proceeds on a mif-
apprehenfion of the proper objeft of fcience ; the difficulty
which it profefles to remove being manifedly placed beyond
the reach of our faculties. Surely, when we attempt to
explain the nature of that principle which feels, and thinks,
and wills, by faying, that it is a material fubdance, or that
it is the refult of material organization, we impofe on our-
felves by words, forgetting that matter as well as mind is
known to us by its qualities and attributes alone, and that
we are totally ignorant of the edence of either. Should it
be faid that the unknown fubdance which has the qualities of
extenfion, figure, and colour, may be the fame with the un-
known fubdance which has the attributes of feeling, think-
infif, and willing ; this is only an hypothefis, which amounts
tonothing more than a mere poffibility ; and even if it were
true, it would no more be proper to fay of mind that it is
material, than to fay of body that it is fpiritual.

Souls, Cure of- See Cure.

Souls, Migration of. See Migr.\tion and Mktem-

PSVCHOSIS.

Soul, Sleep of the. See Sleep of the Soul.

SovL-Scot, a certain fee paid by our Saxon anceftors to
the pried on opening a grave.

Sort'j C/.'ea/, a legacy anciently bequeathed at their
deaths by our fcrupuloufly pious ancedors, to the parifh-
pried, to compenfate for any tithes that might have been
forgot in their lives.

SOULAINES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in
the didrift of Bar-fur- Aube ; 1 2 miles N. of Bar-fur-Aube.
The place contains 763, and the canton 7723 inhabitants,
on a territory of 265 kiliometre?, in 21 communes.

SOULAMEA, in Botany, llightly altered from Sou-
lamoe, the name given to the plant in the ifland of Ternate.
Lamarck Dift. v. i. 449. jud. 429. This is no other
than what we have defcribed under the article Rex Ama-
RORIS, to which we refer the reader. Commerfon, it feems,
gathered this curious plant at Port Praflin, in the Arfacides.
Lamarck defcribes the flowers with a three-cleft calyx, three
petals, (ixjlamens, and two fligmas. Thtgermen is fuperior.

Fruit

sou

sou

Fruit an inverfely heart-fliaped capfuh, compreffed, dilated
at the margin, of two cells, each containing an oyA feed ;
but it often happens that one of thefe feeds is abortive.

SOULANCOURT, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Upper Marne ; 4 miles E. of
Bourniont.

SOULE, a fmall country of France, fo called before
the revolution, fitiiated between Beam and Navarre, of
■which Mauleon was the capital, now in the department of
the Lower Pyrenees. ,

SOULLIERES, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Blanc ; 20 miles E. of St. Jean de Maurienne.

SOULONA, a town of Thibet ; 20 miles E.S.E. of
Couc<iur-Hotun.

SOULTZ, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridl of
Colmar. The place contains 4298, and the canton 9317
inhabitants, on a territory of 875 kiUometres, in 9 com-
munes.

SOULZ-SOUS-FORETS, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrift of WilTemboiirg ; 2 miles S. of Wiflem-
bourg. The place contains 1269, and the canton 13,768
inhabitants, on a territory of 145 kiliometres, in 26 com-
munes.

SOUM, in Agriculture, a term denoting the palturage of
a full-grown cow. It is moftly apphed to lands in the
moory Hate, and fuch as are under the Iheep-walk fyftem. It
nearly anfwers, in fome refpetts, to gaite. It is much ufed
in the northern parts of Scotland. In the county of Perth,
a horfe is accounted two foums ; in fome places four fheep,
but in other places five, are eftimated at one foum ; and of
young cattle according to their age. The grafs of a foum,
in hilly ground, is valued, on an average, from five to feven
ftiUlings, according to its quality. By fome, much cenfure
has been bellowed on this mode of afcertaining the value of
palture or grafs-land in the Highlands : but in mountainous
dillridl;, where the ground has never been meafured, and
probably never will, where one mountain is exaftly different
from another in the quality and quantity of its produce as
a pafture, and where there is even a great diverfity in dif-
ferent regions of the fame mountain, it is perhaps not eafy
to conceive a better method of afcertaining the value of paf-
ture than by the number of cattle it can maintain. Who-
ever propofts to explode any old cultom, ought, it is fup-
pofed, to fubltitute a better in its place.

Such old culloms are now, however, a great deal more
neglefled and difregarded, even in thefe Highland fituations,
than was formerly the cafe ; juil in the fame manner as the
term gaile has partially grown into difufe in different dif-
trifts in the fonthern parts of the kingdom.

SOUMENZAC, in Geography, a town of Fr.ince, in
the department of the Lot and Garonne ; 7 miles N. W. of
Laufiin. N. lat. 44° 41'. E. long. 0° 27'.

SOUND, Sonus, a perception of the foul, communi-
cated by means of the ear ; or the effeft of a collifion of
bodies, and a tremulous motion confequent upon it, com-
municated thence to the circumambient fluid, and propa-
gated through it to the organs of hearing.

Sound is not fimpiy a vibration or undulation of the air,
as fome have called it, for there arc many founds in which
the air is not concerned, as when a tuning-fork or any other
founding body is held by the teeth : nor is found always a vi-
bration or alternation of any kind, for every noife is a found,
and a noife, as didmguifhed from a continued found, confifls
of a fingle impulfe in one direilion only, fometimcs without

I

any alternation ; while a continued found is a fucceffion of
fuch impulfes, which, in the organ of hearing at leaft, cannot
but be alternate. If thefe fucceffive impulfes form a con-
nefted feries, following each other too rapidly to be ieparately
diflinguifhed, they conftitute a continued found, like that of
the voice in fpeaking ; and if they are equal among them-
felves in duration, they produce a mufical or equable
found, as that of a vibrating chord or Itring, or of the
voice in fuiging. Thus, a quill ftriking againfl a piece of
wood caufes a noife, but linking againft the teeth of a wheel
or comb, a continued found ; andi if the teeth of the wheel
are at equal diftances, and the velocity of the motion is
conllant, a mufical note.

To illultrate the caufe of found, we obferve, firfl, that a
motion is necefTary in the fonorous body for the produdion
of found. Secondly, that this motion exifts, fiirft, in the
fmall and infenfible parts of the fonorous bodies ; and is ex-
cited in them by their mutual collifion and percuffion againft
each other, which produces that tremulous motion fo obferv-
able in bodies that have a clear found, as bells, mufical chords
or firings, &c. Thirdly, that this motion is communicated
to, or produces a like motion, ufually in the air, or fuch
parts of any material fubflance as arc fit to receive and pro-
pagate it, inafmuch as no motion of bodies, at a diftance,
can afteft our fenfes, without the mediation of other bodies,
which receive thofe motions from the fonorous body, and
communicate them immediately to the organ. Laltly, that
this motion muft be communicated to thofe parts that are
the proper and immediate inftruments of hearing. See
Ear.

Further, that motion of a fonorous body which is the
immediate caufe of found, may be owing to two different
caufes : either the percuffion between it and other hard
bodies, as in drums, bells, firings, &c. or the beating and
dafhing of the fonorous body and the air immediately
againfl each other, as in wiiid-inflruments, flutes, trum-
pets, &c.

But, in both cafes, the motion, which is the confequence
of the mutual aftion, and the immediate caufe of the fono-
rous motion which the air conveys to the ear, is an invifible,
tremulous, or undulating motion, in the fmall and infenfi-
ble parts of the body.

To explain this, all fcnfible bodies are fuppofed to confift
of a number of fmall and infenfible parts or corpufcles,
which are of the fame nature in all bodies, and are perfeftly
hard and incompreffible.

Of thefe are compofed others, fomcwhat greater, but
flill infenfible ; and thefe different, according to the different
figures and union of their component parts. Thefe, again,
conflitute other maflcs, bigger and more different than the
former; and of the various combinations of thefe lalf, are
thofe grofs bodies compofed that are vifible, tangible, &c.
The firfl and fmallell parts, v.'e have obfer»ed, arc abfo-
lutely hard ; the others are compreflible, and are united in
fuch manner, that, being comprellcd by an external impulfe,
they have an elaitic or rcllitutivc power, by which they re-
flore themftlves to their natural ftate.

A fhock, tlien, being made by one body upon another,
the fmall particles, by their elaflic principle, move to and
again with a very great velocity, in a tremulous, undulating
manner, fomewhat like the vifible motions of groffer fprings ;
as we cafily obfcrvc in the firings of mufical inllruments.
And this is what we may call the fonorous mclion, which is
propagated to the ear ; but obferve, that it is tin* infenfible
motion of thofe particles next the fmallell, which is lup-
pofed to be the immediate caufe of found ; and, of thefe,

only

SOUND.

©nly tliofe next the Turface communicate with the air,
the motion of the whole, or of the greater parts, being no
farther concerned, than as they contribute to the other.

To apply this theory, ftrlke a bell with any hard body,
and you eafily perceive a fenfible tremor on the furface,
fpreadin^ itfelf over the whole, and that more fenfibly as
the ihock is greater. Upon touching it in any other part,
the motion and the found too are flopped. Now this is ap-
parently a motion of the fmall and infenfible parts, changing
their fituation, with refpeft to one another ; which being fo
many, and fo clofely united, we cannot perceive their mo-
tions feparately and diftinftly ; but only a trembhng, which
we reckon to be the effecl of the confufion of an infinite
number of little particles, clofely joined, and only moving
in infinitely little lines.

M. Perrault adds, that the vifible motion of the parts
contributes no otherwife to found, than as it caufes the invi-
fible motion of the fmaller parts, which he ca\h particles, to
diftinguifh them from the fepfible ones, which he calls
parts, and from the fmallefl of all, which we call corpufcUs.

This he fupports from the inftance of a chord or Itring,
which being ilnick, and the found, and fenfible undulations,
at reft again, if you approach the chord foftly with the
finger, you will find a fmall tremulous motion, which is the
remains of the vibrations of the whole firing and the parts.
Now the parts vibrate without any found ; but no fooner is
the vibration felt by the finger, than the found is heard
again ; which he afcribes to this, that the motion of the
parts being infufficient to m.ive the particles, whofe motion
is the firll that ceafes, requires fome aHiflance from dafhing
againll the finger, whereby to become enabled to give the
particle the motion necefiary for the producing of found.
He finiflies his proof by the inftance of flutes, which, when
made of different matters, as wood, metal, &c. whofe parts
are very different, but their particles nearly the fame, if their
lengths and bore be the fame, there is very little fenfible dif-
ference in then- found?.

The fonorous body having made its impreflion on the con-
tiguous air, that impreflion is propagated from one particle
to another, according to the laws of pneumatics.

A few particles, for inftance, driven from the furface of
the body, drive their neighbouring particles into a lefs
fpace ; and the medium, as it is thus rarefied in one place,
becomes condenfed in the other ; but the air, thus comprefled
in the fecond place, is, by its elafticity, returned back again,
both to its former place and its former ftate ; and the air con-
tiguous to that is comprefTed ; and the like obtains, when
the air lefs comprefled expanding itfelf, a new comprefTion is
generated. From each agitation of the air, therefore, there
arifes a motion of the an-, analogous to the motion of a
wave on the furface of the water ; which we call a <wave,
or undulation of air.

In each v/ave the particles go and return back again,
through very (liort, but equal fpaces ; the motion of each
particle is analogous to the motion of a vibrating pendulum,
while it performs two ofcillations ; and moll of the laws of
the pendulum, with very little alteration, are applicable
thereto.

The only condition neceffary for the produftion of a fim-
pie found, is a fufficient degree of velocity in the motion or
impulfe which occafiono it. A very moderate velocity muft
be fufiicient for producing an impreflion on the ear : and
when the found is continued, it may remain audible with a
velocity of no more than one hundredth part of an inch in a
fecond, or perhaps with a velocity much lefs than this ; but
at its origin, it )s probable that the velocity of the motion

conltituting a found muft always be confiderably greater.
A continued found may be produced by a repetition of fe-
parate impulfes, independent of each other, as when a wheel
ftrikes in rapid fuccelTion the teeth of a pinion, fo as to force
out a portion of air from between them ; when a pipe,
through which air is pafTing, is alternately opened and fhut,
either wholly or partially, by the revolution of a flop-cock
or valve ; or when a number of parallel furfaces is placed at
equal dillances, in aline nearly perpendicular to them, and j||
a noife of any kind is reflected from each of them in fuccef- fl
fion : — a circumftance which may often be obferved, when
we are walking near an iron railing, an acute found being
heard, which is compofed of fuch refleftions from the fur-
faces of the palifades. See Sound, in Muftc, infra.

Sounds are as various as are the means that concur to
their produdlion. The principal varieties refult from the
figure, conftitution, quantity, &c. of the fonorous body ;
the manner of percuffion, with the velocity, &c. of the
vibrations confequent thereon ; the ftate and conftitution of
the medium ; the difpofition, diftance. Sec. of the organ ;
the obftacles between the organ and the fonorous objeft, and
the adjacent bodies. The moil notable diflinftion of founds,
arifing from the various degrees and combinations of the
conditions mentioned, are into loud and h'w (or ftrong and
weak) ; \w\.o grave and acute (or (harp and flat, or high and
low); and into long znd. Jbort : the management of which
makes the office of mufic. See the next ai^ticle.

M. Euler is of opinion, that no found, making fewer vi-
brations than 30, or more than 75.20 in a fecond, is diftin-
guifliable by the human ear. According to this doftrine,
the limit of our hearing, as to acute and grave, is a>n inter-
val of eight oftaves. Tentam. Nov. Theor, Muf. cap. i.
feft. 13.

The velocity of found is the fame with that of the aerial
waves, and does not differ much, whether it go with the
wind or againfl it. By the wind, indeed, a certain quan-
tity of air is carried from one place to another ; and the found
is accelerated, while its waves m.ove through that jxirt of
the air, if their direftion be the fame as that of the wind. But
as found moves much more fwiftly than wind, the acceleration
it will hereby receive is inconfidcrable ; and the chief effcA
we can perceive from the wind is, that it increafes and di-
minifhes the fpace of the waves, fo that by help of it the
found may be heard to a greater diftance than otherwife it
would. See Wind, cs" infra.

That the air is the ordinary medium of found, and that
the prcfence of this, or of fome other material fubftance
for its tranfmiffion is neceffary, appears from various expe-
riments in rarefied and condenfed air. In an uncxhaufted
receiver, a fmall bell may be heard at fome diftance ; but
when exhaufted, it can fcarcely be heard at the fmallefl
diftance. If the air be condenfed, the found will be louder
proportionably to the condenfation, or quantity of air
crowded in, of which we have many inilances in Mr.
Haukfbee's experiment". From thefe experiments (Phil.
Tranf. 1709, xxiv. 1902, 1709, xxvi. 367. 371.) it appears,
that a bell was heard at the diftance of 30 yards, when the
air was in its common ftate, at 60 with the force of two at-
mofpheres, at 90 with the force of three : beyond this the
intenfity did not much increafe.

Befides, founding bodies communicate tremors to dittant
bodies ; e. g. the vibrating motion of a mufical firing puts
others in motion, whofe tenfion and quantity of matter dif-
pofe their vibrations to keep time with the pulfes of air,
propagated from the itring that was flruck. Gahleo ex-
plains this phenomenon by obferving, that a heavy pendu-
lum

SOUND.

ium may be put in motion by the lead breath of the mouth,
provided the blaUs he often repeated, and keep time exaftly
with the vibrations of tlie pendulum, and alio by tlie like
art in raifing a large bell. '

Dr. Prieftley conftruftcd an apparatus in order to afcer-
tain whether the intenfity of found is affefted by any other
property of the air in which it is made befides its mere den-
fity. The refult of his experiments with different kinds of
air was, that the intenfity of found depends folely upon the
uenlity of the air in which it is made, and not at all upon
any chemical principle in its conltitution. In inflammable
air the found of the bell he ufej was hardly to be diftin-
guifhed from the fame in a pretty good vacuum ; and this
air is ten times rarer than common air. In fixed air the
found was much louder than in common air, fo as to be
heard about half as far again ; and thi;. air is in about the
fame proportion, denfer than common air. In dephlogifti-
cated air the found was alfo lenfibly louder tlian in com-
mon air. Experiments and Obfervations, 6cc. vol. v.
p. 296, Sec.

But it is not the air alone that is capable of the impref-
lions of found, but water alfo, as is manifefl by ilriking a
bell under water, the found of which may plainly enough be
heard, only not fo loud, and alfo a fourth deeper, accord-
ing to good judges in mui'ical notes. And Merlenne fays, a
found made under water is of the fame tone or note as if
made in air, and heard under water.

It does not appear that any diredl experiments have been
nade on the velocity with which an inipulfe is tranfmitted
through a liquid, although it is well known that liquids are
capable of conveying found without difficulty. Profelibr
Robifon informs us, tliat he heard the found of a bell
tranfmitted by water, at the diltance of 1200 feet. It is
eafy to calculate the velocity with which found mufl be pro-
pagated in any liquid, of which the comprelTibility has been
meafured. Mr. Canton has alcertained, that the elafticity
of water is about 22,000 times as great a; that of air : it is,
therefore, meafured by the height of a column, which is in
the fame proportion to 34 feet, that is 750,000 feet ; and
the velocity correfponding to half this height is 4900 feet
in a fecond. In mercury alfo, it appears from Mr. Can-
ton's experiments, that the velocity mufl be nearly the fame
as in water ; in fpirit of wine a little fmaller. The experi-
ments were made bv fillinir tlie bulb of a thermometer with
water, and obferving the efFetts of placing it in an exhaufled
receiver, and in condenfed air ; taking care to avoid changes
of temperature, and other fources of error. The fluid rofe
in the tube wliun the preliure was removed, and fubfided
when it was increafed. A flight correftion, however, is
neceffary, on account of the expanfion and contradtion of
the glafs, which mult have tended to make the clallicity of
tiie fluids appear fomewiiat greater than it really was. See

COMPRKSSIOK.

The leaft elaftic fubllance that has been examined is per-
haps carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, which is confiderably
denfer than atmofpherical air, cxpoled to an equal de-
gree of prclfurc. The lieight of the atmofphere, fuppofcd
to be homogeneous, is, in ordinary circumltances, and at
the fea-fide, about 28,000 feet ; and in falling t'lrough half
this height, a heavy body would acquire a velocity of 946
feet in a fecond. But from a comparifon of tlie accurate
experiments of Dcrham, made in the day-time, with tliofe
of the French academicians, made chiefly at night, the true
velocity of found is about I 130 feet in a fecond; which
agrees very nearly with fome obfervations made with great
care by profelfbr Piftet. This difference between calcula-
tion and experiment, which has long occupied the attention

of natural philofophcrs, has been in a great meafure removed
by the iuggeftion of La Place, who has attributed the effcft
to the elevation of temperature, which is always found t<i
accompany the aflion of condenfation, and to the depreiTion
produced by rarefaftion. When the denfity of the air is
changed, while its elaflicity remains unaltered, which hap-
pens when it is expanded by heat, or condenfed by cold,
the height of the column, and confequently the velocity,
will alfo be altered ; fo that for each degree of Fahrenheit's
thermometer, the velocity will vary about one part in a
thoufand. Bianconi has aftuaily obfervcd this difference of
velocity according to the different heights of the thermo-
meter, and it may be Ihewn lefs diredtly by means of the
founds of pipes ; but it has not been accurately determined
whether or not the correilion, on account of the eflFeil of
comprefTion in caufing heat, remains unaltered, aithouo-h
Bianconi's experiments agree very well with the fuppofition
that no material change takes place in this refpeit. The
velocity of found mult alfo be, in fome meafure, influenced
by the quantity of moiiture contained in the atmofphere : it
mufl; be a little diminilhed by cold fogs, which add to the
denfity, without augmenting the elallicity ; and increafed
by warm vapours, which tend to make the air lighter: and
thefe two oppofite flates are probably often produced in
fuccelTion, in wind inftruments blown by ths mouth ; the
air within them being at firll cold and damp, and afterwards
warm and moift.

In pure hydrogen gas, the velocity of found ought, from
calculation, to be more than three times as great as in com-
mon air ; but the diilereiice does not appear to liave been fo
great in any experiment hitherto made on the founds of
pipes, in gales of different kinds. For fuch experiments,
the comparative fpecific gravity of the gas may be moil
conveniently afcertained by Mr. Leflie's method of obferv-
ing the time employed in emptying a veflel through a fmall
orifice, by means ot the preflure of an equal column of wa-
ter ; according to the Ample theory, the velocities of the
gas thus difcharged ought to be in the fame proportion as
the refpedtive velocities with which founds would be tranf-
mitted by them : and if any variation from this proportion
were dilcovered, it mult be attributed to the different de-
grees of heat produced by condenfation in the different
fluids. Steam, at the temperature of boiling water, is only
one-third as heavy as common air ; confequently the velo-
city of found in fleam mufl. be nearly three-fourths greater
than in air.

A certain time is always required for the traiifmiflion of
an impulfe through a material fubftance, even through fuch
fubftances as appear to be the hardell, and the leaft com-
preflible. It is demonftrable that all minute impulfes are
conveyed through any homogeneous elaftic medium, whether
lolid or fluid, with an uniform velocity, which is always
equal to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling
through half the height of the modulus of elallicity, that is,
in the cafe of the air, half the height of the atmofphere,
fuppofed to be of equal denfity ; fo that the velocity of
found, Daffing through an atmofphere of an uniform elallic
fluid, mufl be the f.ime with that of a wave moving on its
furface. In order to form a dillindt idea of the manner in
which found is propagated through an elaftic fubflance, we
mull firll confider the motion of a fingle particle, which, in
the cafe of a node, is pulhed forwards, and then either re-
mains flatioiiary, or returns back to its original lituation ;
but, in the cafe of a mufical found, is coiitimially moved
backwards and forwards, with a velocity always varying,
and varying by different degrees, according to the nature or
quality of ihc tunc : for inftance, differently in the notes: of

a bell

SOUND.

a bell and of a trumpet. We may firft fuppofe, for the fake
of fimplicity, a fingle feries of particles to be placed only in
the fame line with the direftion of the motion. It is ob-
vious, that if thefe particles were abfolutely incompreffible,
or infinitely elaftic, and were alfo retained in contad with
each other by an infinite force of cohefion or of compreffion,
the whole feries muft move precifely at the fame time, as
well as in the fame manner. But in a fubftance which is
both compreffible and extcnfible or expanfible, the motion
muft occupy a certain time in being propagated to the fuc-
cefGve particles on either fide, by means of the impulfe of
the firft particle on thofe which are before it, and by means
of the diminution of its prefTure on thofe which are behind ;
fo that when the found confifts of a feries of alternations,
the motion of fome of the particles will be always in a lefs
advanced ftate than that of others nearer to its fource ;
while at a greater diftance forwards, the particles will be in
the oppofite ftage of the undulation ; and ftill further on,
they will again be moving in the fame manner with the firft
particle, in confequence of the effeft of a former vibration.

It is well known, that folid bodies in general are good
conduftors of found : thus, any agitation communicated to
one end of a beam is readily conveyed to the ear, applied to
the other end of it. The motion of a troop of cavalry is
faid to be perceived at a greater diftance, by liftening with
the head in contaft with the ground, than by attending to
the found conveyed through the air ; and we may frequently
obferve, that fome parts of the furniture of a houfe are a
little agitated by the approach of a waggon, before we hear
the noife which it immediately occafions. The velocity,
with which impulfes are tranfmittcd by folids, is in general
confiderably greater than that with which they are con-
veyed by the air. Mr. Wunfch has afcertaincd this by di-
reft obfervations on a feries of deal rods clofely united
together, which appeared to tranfmit a found inftanta-
neoufly, while a fenfible interval was required for its paff-
ing through the air. He alfo found that the blow of a
hammer on a wall, at the upper part of a high houfe, is
heard as if double by a perfon ftanding near it on the
ground ; the firft found defcendmg through the wall, the
fecond through the air. It appears from experiments on
the flexure of folid bodies of all kinds, that their elalticity,
compared with their denfity, is much greater than that of
the air : thus, the height of the modulus of elailicity of fir
wood is found, by means of fuch experiments, to be about
9,500,000 feet ; whence the velocity of an impulfe con-
veyed through it muft be 17,400 feet, or more than three
miles, in a fecond. It is obvious, therefore, that in all
common experiments, fuch a tranfmifiion muft appear per-
feftly inftantaneous. There are various methods of afcer-
taining this velocity from the founds produced under dif-
ferent circumftances, by the fubftances to be examined ;
and profcftor Chladni has, in this manner, compared the
properties of a variety of natural and artificial produftions.

Sound may be propagated not only in fingle right lines,
or ill parallel lines, but ufually the impulfe that occafions
it, more efpecially when four.d is tranfmitted through a
fluid, fpreads in every direction, fo as to occupy at any one
time nearly the whole of a fpherical furface. It is impof-
fible, however, that the whole of this furface ftiould be
aff^cAed in a fimilar manner by any found, originating from
a vibration confined to a certain direftion, fince the par-
ticles behind the founding body muft be moving towards
the centre, whenever the particles before it are retreating
from the centre ; fo that in one half of the furface, the mo-
tions may be called retrograde or negative, while in the
other they are dired or pofitive : confequently at the fides.

where thefe portions join, the motions can neither be pofi-
tive nor negative, and the particles muft remain at reft : the
motions muft alfo become gradually lefs and lefs fenfible, as
they approach to the limit between the two hemifpheres.
This Itatement may be confirmed by an experiment on the
vibration of a body, of which the motion is limited to a j
certain direftion ; the found being (carcely audible, when '
the ear is in a direftion precifely perpendicular to that of
the vibration. The found, thus diverging, muft always be
fpread through a part of a fpherical lui-face, becaufe its ve-
locity muft be equal in every direftion ; fo that the impulfe
will always move forwards in a ftraighl line paffing through
the centre of the fpliere, or the vibrating body. But when
a hemifpherical pulfe arrives at the furface of a plane folid
obftacle, it is reflefted, precifely in the fame manner that a
wave of water is reflefted, and aflumes the form of a pulfe
proceeding from a centre at an equal diftance on the oppo-
fite fide of the furface. This refleftion, when it returns
back perpendicularly, conltitutes what is commonly called
an echo (which fee): but in order that the echo may be
heard diftinftly, it is necefiary that the reflefting objeft be
at a diftance moderately great, otherwife the returning
found will be confuted with the original one ; and it muft
either have a fmooth furface, or confift of a number of fur-
faces arranged in a fuitable form : thus there is an echo not
only from a diftant wall or rock, but frequently from the
trees in a wood, and fometimes, as it is faid, even from a
cloud.

If a found or a wave be reflefted from a curved furface,
the new direftion which it will aflume may be determined,
either from the condition that the velocity with which the
impulfe is tranfmitted muft remain unaltered, or from the
law of refleftion, which requires that the direftion of the
reflefted pulfe or wave be fuch as to form an angle with the
furface, equal to that which the incident pulfe before
formed with it. Thus, if a found or wave proceed from
one focus of an clHpfe, and be reflefted at its circumference,
it will be direfted from every part of the circumference to-
wards the other focus ; fince the diftance which every por-
tion of the pulfe has to pafs over in the fame time, in fol-
lowing this path, is the lame, the fum of the lines drawn
from the foci to any part of the curve being the fame ; and
it may alfo be demonftrated that thefe lines form always
equal angles with the curve on each fide. (See Ellipsk.)
If an elliple be prolonged without limit, it will become a
parabola (which fee) ; hence a parabola is the proper form
of the feftion of a tube, calculated for coUefting a found
which proceeds from a great diftance into a fingle point, or
for conveying a found nearly in parallel direftion? to a very
diftant place. It appears, therefore, that a parabolic conoid
is the beft form for a hearing trumpet, and for a fpeaking
trumpet. See Trumpet.

The decay of found is the natural confequence of its dil-
tribution throughout a larger and larger quantity of matter,
as it proceeds to diverge every v/ay from its centre. The
aftual velocity of the particles of the medium tranfmitting
it appears to diminifti fimply in the fame proportion as
the diftance from the centre increafes ; confequently their
energy, which is to be confidered as the meafure of the
ftrength of found, muft vary as the fquare of the diftance ;
fo that, at the diftance of ten feet from the founding body,
the velocity of the particles of the medium becomes one-tenth
as great as at the diftance of one foot ; and their energy, or
the ftrength of the found, only one-hundredth as great.
Young's Left, on Nat. Phil. vol. i. left. 31.

The fpace through which found is propagated, in a given
time, has been very difterently eftimated by authors who

have

SOUND.

have written concerning this fubjeft. Roberval gives it at
the rate of 560 feet in a fecond ; Galiendua, at 1473; Mer-
fenne, at 1474 ; Du Hamel, in the Hiftory of the Academy
of Sciences at Paris, at 1 172 ; the Academy del Cimento,
at 1 148; Boyle, at izoo; Roberts, at 1300; Walker, at
1338; fir Ifaac Newton, at 968; Dr. Derham, in whofe
meafure Mr. Flamfteed and Dr. Halley acquiefced, at
1 142.

The reafon of which variety Dr. Derham afcribes partly
to fome of thofe gentlemen ufing llrings and plummets, in-
ftead of regular pendulums ; and partly to there not being
dillance enough between the fonorous body and the place of
obfervation ; and partly to there being no regard had to
the winds : Derham having found the effefts of the wind,
though not of any changes of weather.

But by the accounts fince publKhed by M. Cafiini de
Thury, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris for the year 1738, where cannon were fired at
various as well as great diilances, under great variety of
weather, wind, and other circumilances, and where the
meafures of the different places had been fettled with the
utmoil exaftnefs, found was propagated at a medium at the
rate only of 1038 French feet in a fecond. The French
foot exceeds the Enghfh by nearly feven lines and a half,
or is as 107 to 114; and confequently 1038 French feet
are equal to 1106 or 1 107 Engli(h feet. The difference,
therefore, of the meafures of Dr. Derham and M. Cafiini
is 34 French, or 36 Englidi feet, in a fecond. According
to this lad meafure, the velocity of found, when the wind
is ftill, is fettled at the rate of a mile, or 5280 Englifh feet
in 4t2oV.

According to Mayer, the velocity of found in a fecond
IB 1 1 oj feet; according to Miiller, nog; and according
to Piftet, about 1180. According to Bianconi (C. Bon.
ji. i. 365.), in fummer, the thermometer being at 20°, 70
vibrations of the pendulum elapfed while a found paffed over
13 miles; in winter, 79 feconds, the thermometer being at
1.2°. In a cloud or mift, 155" elapfed while the found
paffed and repaiied. Hence the air (hould expand ^ for
21.2% or -j-^, for 1° of the thermometer employed, pro-
bably Reaumur's, which is ^i-^ for 1° of Fahrenheit.
The mean difference of the temperature of the air was
probably fomewhat lefs than is fuppofed, perhaps 17*^
or 18°.

Chladni infers, from the longitudinal vibrations of dif-
ferent fiibftances, a velocity of 7800 feet in a fecond in tin,
9300 in filver, 12,500 in copper, 17,500 in glafs and iron,
11,000 to 18,000 in wood, and 10,000 to 12,000 in to-
bacco-pipes. Thefe obfervations are fully confirmed from
different grounds. According to the elalticity of fir, as
inferred from an experiment of Mr. Leilie, the velocity of
an impulfe rtiould be 17,300. The velocity may be eafily
calculated from the found of a brafs-rod : if the number of
vibrations of the gravell found in a fecond be n, the velo-
city will be 978 — v", / being the length, and d the depth

in feet. From an experiment of this kind, Dr. Young fays
(Left, on Phil. vol. ii. p. 266.) that he found tiie velocity
17,70c in crown glafs, and 1 1,800 in brafs.

Some of tiie moll confiderable queries, relating to the
laws of founds, have been propofed by Dr. Dcrliam ; and
he anfwercd (cveral of them acciir;ittly, from e.speriments
made for that purpofo by himfelf, as follows :

How far does a found move in a fecond of time ? Sound
moves 1 142 feet, or 380 yards m a fecond, which is juft an
Enghffi mile in 9^ or 9.25 half futonds ; two miles in 18^ ;

Vol.. XXXIII.

three miles, or a league, in 27!-, &c. ; and about 13 mile*

in one minute.

But fea-miles are to land-miles nearly as 7 to 6 ; and,
therefmc, found runs a fea-league in about 12 feconds of
time. It is a common obfervation, that perfons in good
health have about 75 pulfations, or beats, of the artery at
the wrill, in a minute ; confequently, in 75 pulfations,
found (lies about 13 land-miles, and about ii-j- fea-miles,
which is about one land-mile in fix pulfes, and about one
feamile in near feven pulfes, or a league in 20 pulfes.
And hence the diftance of objetts may be found, by know-
ing the time which found takes to move from thofe objefts
to an obferver; £g- upon feeing the flafh of a gun at fea,
if 56 beats of the pulle at the wrift were counted before the
report was heard, the dillance of that gun may be eafily
found by dividing 56 by 20, which gives 2.8 leagues, or
about eight miles.

Does the report of a gun, difcharged with its mouth to-
wards us, come fooner than when the muzzle is from the
obferver ? By repeated experiments it appears, there ii no
difference m the found from this different direftion.

Do founds move in the fame time, through the fame
fpaces, in all Hates of the atmofphere, and heights of the
barometer, by day and by night, in fummer and in winter,
in fnowy and in clear weather, in this or that climate ? By
repeated experiments, it does not appear there arifes any
difference from any of thefe different circumllances.

Do the winds affect the motion of founds .' By repeated
experiments, it appears, there is fome, though a very fmall
difference, in the velocity of founds, with or againft the
wind ; which is alfo augmented or diminished by the ftrength
or weaknefs of the wind.

Do a great and intenfe found, and a fmall or languid one,
move with the fame velocity ? It appears that they do.

For by experiments, a cannon fired with a half-pound
charge of powder, was heard at about the diftance of 17^
miles, in the fame time after the flafii was feen, as when
fired with a charge of fix pounds.

Does the found of a gun move equally fwift at all elera-
tions of the gun ? It does.

Do different quantities or llrengths of gunpowder oc-
cafion any difference as to the velocity of the found ?
None.

Does found move in a right line the neareft way, or does
it fweep along the earth's furface ? And is there any dif-
ference in the time, if the piece be difcharged in an acclive
and a dcclivc pofition ? Sound moves the nearelt way ; and
the velocity appears to be the fame in accHvities as in de-
clivities.

Have all kinds of founds, as thofe of guns, bells, &c.
the fame velocity ? And are founds equally fwift in the
beginning of their motion and in the end ? There appears
no inequality in either of thefe refpefts ; and, therefore,
the times in which found is heard are proportional to tl»e
diftance ; that is, at a double diftance it is heard in twice
the time, &c.

SouNO, for the RefeBion, RefraSion, i^c. of. Sec £cud
and Puo.MCs.

Sounds, /Irticulale. See Akticulate.

Sound, in Mufic, denotes a quality in the fcveral agita>
tions of tlic air, confidered as their difpofition, meafure, S:c.
may make mufic or harmony.

Mufical founds are moft frequently produced by the al-
ternate motions of fubftatices naturally capable of ifochro-
nous vibrations ; which (ubftaiiccs may be either folids or
fluids, or iiillruments compofcd of a combination of fluids
with folids. The rcfonance of a room or paffagc it 011c of
3D the

SOUND.

the fimpleft fources of a mufical found ; the walls being
parallel, the impulfe is reflefted backwards and forwards
continually, at equal intervals of time, fo as to produce the
effeft of a mufical found. When we blow obliquely and uni-
formly into a cylindrical pipe clofed at one end, the impulfe
or condenfation mult probably travel to the bottom and
back, before the refiftance is increafed ; the current of our
breath will then be diverted from the mouth of the pipe,
for an equal time, which will be required for the diminu-
tion of the refiftance by the difcharge of the condenfed air,
fo that the whole time of a vibration will be equal to the
time occupied by an impulfe of any kind in pafling through
four times the length of the pipe. An open pipe may be
confidered nearly as if it confiited of two fuch pipes, united
at their clofed ends ; the portions of air contained by them
being agitated by contrary motions, fo as always to afford
each other a refiftance fimilar to that which the bottom of
the ftopped pipe would have furnifhed. It is probable,
fays Dr. Young, that when an open pipe is once filled with
air a little condenfed, the oblique current is diverted, until
the effeft of the difcharge, beginning at the remoter end,
has returned to the inflated orifice, and allowed the cur-
rent to re-enter the pipe. Where the diameter of the pipe
is different at different parts of its length, the inveftigation
of the found becomes much more intricate ; but it has been
purfued by M. Daniel Bernouilli with confiderable fuccefs,
although upon fuppofitions, fays Young, not llriftiy con-
flftent with the aftual ilate of the motions concerned.

In the fame manner as an open pipe is divided by an
imaginary bafis, fo as to produce the fame found with a
ftopped pipe of half the length, a pipe of any kind is
capable of being fubdivided into any number of fuch pipes,
fuppofed to meet each other's correfponding ends only ;
and in general the more violently the pipe is inflated, the
greater is the number of parts into which it fubdivides
itfelf, the frequency of the vibrations being always pro-
portional to that number. Thus, an open pipe may be
divided not only into two, but alfo into four, fix, eight, or
more portions, producing the fame founds as a pipe of one-
half, one-third, one-fourth, or any other aliquot part of
the length ; but a ftopped pipe cannot be divided into any
even number of fimilar parts ; its fecondary founds being
only thofe of a pipe of which the proportion is determined
by the odd numbers, its length being, for example, one-
third, one-fifth, or one-feventh of the original length.
Thefe fecondary notes are fometimes called harmonics ;
they are not only produced in fucceffion from the fame
pipe, but they are alfo often faintly heard together, while
the fundamental note of the pipe continues to found. When
the pipe has a large cavity connefted with it, or confifts
principally of fuch a cavity, with a fmall openine, its vibra-
tions are ufually much lefs frequent, and it is generally in-
capable of producing a regular feries of harmonics.

It is obvious, from this ftatement of the analogy between
the velocity of found and the vibrations of the air in pipes,
that they muft be affefted in a fimilar manner by all altera-
tions of temperature. Thus, the frequency of the vibra-
tions of a pipe muft be increafed nearly in the ratio of 33
to 34 by an elevation of 30 degrees of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer ; and if this change be accompanied by a tranfition
from dampnefs to fimple moifture, the found will be ftiU
more altered.

Dr. Chladai has difcovered that folids of all kinds, when
of a proper form, are capable of longitudinal vibrations,
cxaAly refembhng in their nature thofe of the air in an
organ-pipe, having alfo their fecondary or harmonic notes
related to them in a fimilar manner. Thefe vibrations are

always far more frequent than thofe of a column of air of
equal length, the velocity with which an impulfe is tranf-
mitted by a folid of any kind, being ufually from 5 to 16
times as great as the velocity of found in air ; fo that the
longitudinal founds are always extremely acute, when they
are produced by fubftances of moderate length. Thefe
founds afford perhaps the moft accurate mode of deter-
mining the velocity of the tranfmiffion of an impulfe through
any elaftic fubftance, and of obtaining from that velocity
the exaA meafure of its elafticity : they may be eafily ex-
hibited by holding a long bar or wire of iron or brafs in
the middle, and ftriking it at one end with a fmall hammer
in the direftion of its length.

The vibrations by which folid bodies moft ufually pro-
duce found, are, however, not longitudinal, but lateral,
and they are governed either by a tenfion, derived from the
operation of a weight, or of fome other external force, or
by the natural elafticity of the fubftance. The vibrations
of extended fubftances referable molt in their properties
thofe of elaftic fluids, and they occur the moft frequently
in praftice, although the vibrations produced by the elafti-
city of the fubftance may be confidered as the moft natural.
See String and Vibration.

Sound is the objeft of mufic ; which is nothing but the
art of applying founds, under fuch circumftances of tone
and time, a^ to raife agreeable fenfations.

The principal affeftion of found, by which it becomes
fitted to have this end, is that by which it is dillinguifhed
into acuti and grave.

This difference depends on the nature of the fonorous
body ; the particular figure and quantity of it ; and even,
in fome cafes, on the part of the body where it is ftruck ;
and this is that which conftitutes what we call different
tones.

The caufe of this difference appears to be no other than
the different velocities of the vibrations of the founding
body. In effeft, the tone of a found is found, by abun-
dance of experiments, to depend on the nature of thofe
vibrations, whofe difference we can conceive no otherwile
than as having different velocities : and fince it is proved,
that the fmall vibrations of the fame chord or (tring are
all performed in equal time, and that the tone of a found,
which continues for fome time after the ftroke, is the fame
from firit to laft, it follows, that the tone is neceffarily
connefted with a certain quantity of time in making each
vibration or each wave ; or that a certain number of vibra-
tions or waves, accomplifhed in a given time, conftitute a
certain and determinate tone. From this principle are all
the phenomena of tune deduced.

If the vibrations be ifochronous, the found is called
mufical, and is faid to continue at the fame pitch ; and
is faid to be acuter, fharper, or higher, than any other
found, whofe vibrations are flower and graver, and flatter
or lower, than any other whofe vibrations are quicker. See
Unison.

From the fame principle arifc what we call concords, &c.
which are nothing but the refults of frequent unions and
coincidences of the vibrations of two fonorous bodies, and
confequently of the waves and undulating motions of the
air occationed by them.

On the contrary, the refult of lefs frequent coincidences
of thofe vibrations is what we call a S/cord.

Another confiderable diftinftion of found, with regard

to mufic, is that by which they are denominated long and

Jhort ; not with regard to the fonorous body's retaming a

motion, once received, a longer or a lefs time, though

gradually growing weaker, but to the continuation of the

impulfe

SOUND.

impulfe of the efficient caufe on the fonorous body, for a
longer or fliorter time, as in the notes of a violin, &c. which
arc made longer or Ihorter by llrokes of different length or
quickncfs.

This continuity is properly a fucceflion of feveral founds,
or the effeft of feveral dilUndl ftrokes, or repeated impulfes,
on the fonorous body, fo quick that we judge it one con-
tinued found, efpecially if it be continued in the fame de-
gree of llrength ; and hence arifes the do6lrine of meaj'urc
and time.

Sounds, again, are diftinguifhed, with regard to mufic,
vcAo JimpU and compound^ and that two ways. In the firft,
a found is faid to be compound, when a number of fuc-
ceflive vibrations of the fonorous body, and the air, come
fo faft upon the ear, that we judge them the fame continued
found ; as in the phenomenon of the circle of fire, caufed
by putting the fire-end of a ftick in a quick circular motion ;
where, fuppofing the end of the ftick in any point of the
circle, the idea we receive of it there continues till the im-
prefiion is renewed by a fudden return.

A fimple found then, with regard to this compofition,
(hould be the effeft of a tingle vibration, or of io many
vibrations as are neceflary to raife in us the idea of found.
In the fecond fenfe of compofition, a fimple found is the
product of one voice, or one inftrument, &c.

A compound found confifts of the founds of feveral dif-
tinft voices or inftruments, all united in the fame individual
time and meafure of duration, that if, all ftriking the ear
together, whatever their other differences may be. But in
this fenfe, again, there is a two-fold compofition ; a natural
and an artificial one.

The natural compofition is that proceeding from the
manifold refleAions of the firft found from adjacent bodies,
where the refleflions are not fo fudden as to occafion echoes,
but are all in the fame tune with the firil note.

The artificial compofition, which alone comes under the
mufician's province, is that mixture of feveral founds, which
being made by art, the ingredient founds are feparable
and dittinguifhable from one another. In this fenfe the
diftind founds of feveral voices or inftruments, or feveral
notes of the fame inllrument, are called fimple founds, in
contradiftindfion to the compound ones, is which, to an-
fwer the end of mufic, the fimples muft have fuch an agree-
ment in all relations, chiefly as to acutenefs and gravity,
as that the ear may receive the mixture with pleafure.

Another diftinftion of founds with regard to mufic is
that, by which they are laid to he fmooth and even, or rough
and harjh, alio clear and hoarfe : the caufe of which differ-
encej depends on the difpofition and ftate of the fonorous
body, or the circumflances of the place ; but the ideas of
the differences mud be fought from obfervation.

Smooth and rough founds depend principallyon the found-
ing body ; of thefe we have a notable inftance in ftrings
that are uneven, and not of the fame dimcnfion or conftitu-
tioii throughout.

M. IVrrault, to account for roughnefs and fmoothnefs,
maintains, tlit-re is no fuch thing as a fimple found ; but
that the found of the fame chord or bell is a compound
of the founds of the feveral parts of it ; fo that where
the parts are homogeneous, and the dimenfions or figure
umfoim, there is always fuch a perfeft mixture and union
of all the founds, as makes one uniform and fmooth
found : contrary conditions produce harfhnefs. In cfTeft,
a likenefs of parts and figure make an uniformity of
vibrations, by which a great number of fimilar and co-
incident motion* confpir*: to fortify and improve each

other, and unite, for the more effeftual producing of the

fame effeft.

This account he confirms from the phenomenon of a bell,
which differs in tone according to the part it is llruck in ;
and yet ffrike it any where, there is a motion over all the
parts. Hence he confiders the bells as compofcd of an in-
finite number of rings, which, accordinn^ to their different
dimenfions, have different tones, as choi ds or ftrings of dif-
ferent lengths have ; and when flruck, tno vibrations of the
parts immediately ftruck fpecify the tone, being fupported
by a fufficient number of confonant tones in other parti.
This muft be allowed, that every note of a ftringed inftru-
ment is the effeft of feveral fimple founds ; for there is not
only the found refulting from the motion of the firing,
but that from the motion of the parts of the inftrument,
which has a confiderable eff^eft in the total found, as is evi-
dent from hence, that the fame firing on different violin*
founds very differently.

But Perrault affirms the fame of every firing itfelf, and
without confidering the inftrument. Every part of the
ilring, he fays, has its particular vibrations, different from
the grofs and fenfible vibrations of the whole ; and thetf
are the caufes of different motions and founds in the par-
ticles, which uniting compofe the whole found of the ftring,
and make an uniform compofition, in which the tone of the
particular part ftruck prevails, and all the others mix under
a due fubordination with it, fo as to make the compofitioi\
fmooth and agreeable. If the parts be unevenly or irregu-
larly conftituted, the found is harfh ; which is the cafe in
what we cd^ falfe ftrings, and various other bodies, which,
for this reafon, have no certain and diftinft tone, but a com-
pofition of feveral tones, which do not unite and mil, fo
as to have one predominant to fpecify the total tone.

As to clear and hoarfe founds, they depend on circum-
ftances that are accidental to the fonorous body ; thus, a
voice and inftrument will be hollow and hoarfe, if raifed
within an empty hogfhead, that yet is clear and bright
out of it : the effeft is owing to the mixture of other and
difterent founds, raifed by refleftions, which corrupt and
change the fpecies of the primitive founds.

For founds to be fit to obtain the end of mufic, they
ought to be fmooth and clear, policfiing efpecially the firft
quality: fince, without this, they cannot have one certain
and difcernible tone, capable of being compared to others,
in a certain relation of acutenefs, of which the ear may
judge, and of confequence tbey can be no part of the ob-
jeft of mufic.

Upon the whole then, with Mr. Malcolm, %ve call tliat
an harmonic or muftcal found, which, being clear and even,
is agreeable to the ear, and gives a certain and difcernible
tune (hence called tunable {mivi<\) , which is the iubjeft of
the whole theory of harmony.

Dr. Burney, in the difcuffion of the fubjeft of this article,
obferves, that enquiries concerning the abfolute produftioi.
and modification of found belong to phyfics ; whereas a
mufician only examines founds comparatively one with the
other, and conlidcrs their proportions and relation as divided
into concords and difcords. (Sec Concord, Dikord, and
Rklation.) And it is only in this light, he fays, that we
fhall confider found in tlic rcliduc of this article. We Ihall
examine found under three different heads ; the tone, the
force, and the quality of tone. Under tliclc head;;, found
admits of modification : firft, from grave to acute ; fe-
condly, loud and foft ; thirdly, harfh and fwcet, or dull and
brilhant.

We fhall firft eftablifh it as i principle, that whatever is

the caufe of found, it* vehicle is the circumambient air ;

3 D 7 hccaufe

SOUND.

becaufe the air is the only medium of which we are certain,
between the founding body and the organ of hearing : that
we mud not multiply bodies unneceflarily, as the air is fuf-
ficient th explain the formation of found ; and it is found by
an exhaufted receiver, that found cannot be produced with-
out air.

The continuance or permanence of found can only be oc-
cafioned by the agitation of the air. As long as this agi-
tation continues, the tremulous motion of the air is com-
municated to the ear, and hkewife prolongs the fenfation of
found. And there is no way more fimple of accounting for
the duration of found, than in fuppofmg that the fucceflion
of vibrations continues to renew the impreflion. Further,
this agitation of the air, of whatever kind it may be, can
only be produced by a fimilar agitation in the feveral parts
of the founding body ; and it is a certain faft, that thefe
feveral parts of a founding body are in conftant vibration as
long as it continues to found. If we touch the body of a
violoncello, or any inflrument, while it is founding, we feel
it tremble under the hand, and we may even fee the llring
tremble as long as it founds. It is the fame with a bell
caufed to found by a blow of the clapper, we may feel and
fee it tremble ; and grains of fand, if fprinlcled on its fur-
face, will be feen to jump and i\<.\p. If a llring is relaxed,
or a bell cracked, there is no longer either found or vibration.
If, therefore, neither the bell nor the itring can communicate
to the air no motion but Inch as they have themfelves, there
can be no doubt but that found is produced by the vibra-
tions of the founding body, and is propagated by fimilar
vibrations, which this tremulous body communicates to
the air.

This being fuppofed, let us firll examine what conltitutes
the ratio of found, with refpecl to grave and acute.

RouiTeau, in his article Son, found, repeats all the ex-
periments for meafuring and comparing found with found,
which we have given, and (liall give, under the different
heads of tuning glafles by water, fee Armonica ; firings
by weight ; by moveable bridges, fee Monochord ; by
the number of vibrations, fee Ratio ; by the relative
length, thicknef^, and tenfion of njlring, whicli fee ; by the
beats of organ-pipes, fee Beat ; by the holes in flutes and
hautbois, which ferve to fhorten the tube ; by the different
columns of air, which form the different tones of horns
and trumpets : thefe are all upon the fame principle as
the fons harmouiques of the violin and violoncello. See
Harmonics.

The fecond point to be confidered in analyfing found, is
its force, which depends on the vibrations of the founding
body : the more powerful and Itrong thefe vibrations are
made, the more vigorous and audible is the found. A cer-
tain limited degree of force can only be given to a pipe or
firing, beyond which all its proportions are broken, and its
tone rendered falfe and difagreeable to the ear. The velo-
city of found has been confidered by the moll eminent phi-
lofophers and mathematicians ; but the refult of their en-
quiries and experiments have materially varied. Halley and
Flamftecd make found move, in England, 1070 Fr. feet in
a fecond ; and La Condamine 1 74 loifes in Peru ; while
Merfcnnus and Gaffendi alTure us that the wind being fa-
vourable or contrary, neither accelerates nor retards the
motion of found. But fince the experiments of Derham
( Phil. Tranf . ) , and the Academy of Sciences at Paris, former
calculations are regarded as erroneous.

Without flackening its pace, found becomes weaker by
extent from the place of its produftion ; but if not
checked by any obltacle, nor repreffed by the wind, it gene-
cally moves in the ratio of the fquares of The diitance.

12

Thirdly, as to the difference of found in the quality of tone, it
certainly does not arife from its elevation in the fcale, nor
from its force. The tone of a flute and a hautbois, though
perfectly in tune together, can never referable each other.
There will always be a foftnefs and fmoothnefs in the flute,
and a fpirit and agreeable vibration of the reed in the haut-
bois, which muft ever prevent fimilarity ; without mention-
ing the different tones of voices, by which individuals are as
well recognized as by their features. See Voice.

Rouffeau fays, a compofer does not confider merely whe-
ther the founds he ufes are high or low, but whether they
fhould be loud or foft, rough or fmooth, dull or brilliant ;
and he diilributes them to different inllruments and voices
accordingly ; fometimes in folo parts, and fometimes in
tutii, or full chorus ; at the extremities or medium of in-
llruments or voices in piano or forte, as the compofition
fhall require.

For the appreciable extent of the mufical fcale or com-
pafs, it depends on our power of perception, though in
nature it is infinite. Lengthen or fhorten a mufical Itring
to a certain degree, and it produces no found. We can
neither augment nor diminiffi the compafs of the flute at
our pleafure, or the length or fliortnefs of an organ-pipe ;
both have their limits. All appreciable founds are com-
prifed, according to Euler, within the numbers 30 and 7552.
So that by the experiments of this great geometrician, the
lowed found of which we can afcertain the tone, makes 30
vibrations in a fecond, and the higheft 7552 vibrations in
the fame time ; an interval of nearly eight oftaves. See
Euler, and Compass.

In our prefent fyftem of mufic, we have but one oftave of
twelve founds, the rell are all replicates, recurrencies, or
repetitions of thefe twelve femitones in the odlaves above
and below ; and if we could ufe all thefe oftaves or recur-
rencies of found in the firll oilave, they amount in all to
96, which is the greateft number of prafticable founds in
mufic, generated by one fundamental.

It is impolTible to calculate, with fimilar precifion, the
number of praAicable founds in the mufic of the ancients.
For the Greeks may be faid to have formed as many fyllems
of mufic, as they had different ways of tuning their tetra-
chords. It appears, in reading their treatiles of mufic, that
thefe different tunings amounted to an indefinite number,
including all the changes of genus and mode which a new
found or key would introduce. See Tetrachord, and
System of lie ancient Greeks.

With regard to the twelve founds of the modern fyllera,
the tuning never changes, and they are always immoveable.
Broll'ard pretends that they are moveable, founding his opi-
nion of their being often altered by flats and fliarps ; but
the changing the qhord or ftring, or its found, are different
things.

Sounds, Harmonical. See Harmonics.

The harmonical founds, wc. t!ie twelfth and feventeenth
above the principal (as well as fome others), have been
long known to accompany every fundamental found ; and
may naturally, and in general, be fuppofed to be produced
by the partial or feparate vibrations of the ftring or fonorous
body, fpontaneoufly dividing itfelf, according to a deter-
minate law, into three, five, or other ahquot parts of the
whole, confidered as unity. The theory of M. Rameau,
which has been fo excellently illuftrated by M. d'Alembert,
in his Elemens de Mufique, is founded on thefe harmonical
founds. See Fundamental Bafe, Harmony, and System.

Sounds, Harmonic, denote alfo a fingular kind of founds,
which are produced in certain inftruments, fuch as the violin
and violoncello, by a particular motion of the bow, and by

placing

SOUND,

placing the finger lightly in certain divifions of the chord or
Uriiig. On account of their fweetnefs, they are called
Jluted founds. By Aiding the finger lightly from {harp to
flat, from the middle of a chord which is touched at the
fame time with the bow, we hear dittinftly a fucceflion of
harmonic founds from flat to (harp, which are very aftonifli-
ing to thofe who are not acquainted with the theory. See
Sons Harmonlques.

The principle on which this theory is founded is, that if
a chord be divided into two parts which are commenfurable
with each other, and confequently with the whole chord,
and the obllacle placed at the point of divifion obftrufts, in
an imperfeft manner, the communication of the vibrations
from one part to another ; when it is founded, it will not
yield the found of the entire chord, nor that of its greater
part, but that of the fmaller part, if it exaftly meafures
the other ; or if it does not meafure it, the found of the
greateft aliquot common to thefe two parts. Let a chord,
as 6, be divided into two parts, as 4 and 2, the harmonic
found will be produced by the fmall part, 2, which is the ali-
quot of the other, 4 ; but if a chord, as 5, be divided into two
parts, as 2 and 3, then, as the fmall part does not meafure
the greater, the harmonic found will proceed from the half,
I, of the fmall part ; unit being the greateft common mea-
fure of the two parts 3 and 2, and of the whole chord 5.
By means of tins law, which is conformable to the experi-
ments of M. Sauveur and of Dr. Wallis, it is eafy, by a
very fimple calculation, to ailign to each tone the harmonic
found which anfwers to it. Whilll the finger Aides the
length of the chord, we obtain a feries of harmonic founds,
which fucceed each other rapidly according to the order of
the divifions of the chord, to which the finger is fucceflively
applied.

The firft column of the following table exhibits the founds
■which the divifions of the inftrument would yield when
touched full, and the fecond column fliews ih^ jluted founds
correfponding to them when the chord is touched harmoni-
cally.

Table of Harnionic Sounds.

The whole chord") Tthe unifon.

The minor third the 19th, or double oftave of

the 5th.
the 17th, or double ottave of

the major third,
the double oftave.
the 1 2th, or oftave of the fame

jth.
the triple oftavc.
the 17th major, or double o£tavc

of the 3d.
_the oAave.

After the firft oftave, i. e. advancing from the middle of
the chord towards the bridge, we fliall have again the fame
harmonic founds in the fame order on the fame divifions, i. e.
the 19th on the minor 10th, the 17th on the major lOth,
&c. Encyclop^die, art. Harmoniquis Sons. See Har-
monics, and Harmony.

Sounds, Third, denote thofe which are produced by
founding two notes at the fame time, either on the fame or
on two different iullruments ; and which are almotl always
graver than the loweft of the two tones that generated them,
and are their proper fundamental bafe.

The difcovery of tlicfe founds has been generally afcribed
to Tartini, who publifhed an account of them in his " Tratto
di Mufica, fecundo la vera Scien/.a dcll'Armonia," printed at
Padua, 1754; but the Encyclopedic, art. //armonfV, attri-

The major third

The fourth
The fifth

The minor fixth
The major fixth

The oftave

gives ;

butes the firft. difcovery, though probably unknown to
Tartini, to M. Romieu, of the Royal Society of Sciences
of Montpellier, who pablilhed an account of it in a memoir
in 1752.

The experiment may be made by founding the perfeft in-
terval of a 3d, 4th, or 5th, &c. either on two ftrings of
the fame violin, or on two viohns played upon at the diltance
of about thirty feet, with a ftrong bow, and holding out
the notes ; or with two trumpets, hautbois, or German
flutes ; the hearer, in the latt mentioned cafes, playing him-
felf in the middle of the interval between the two inftru-
ments. Thus, e. gr. the interval C r, or a major 3d, pro-
duces C, the oftave below the lower note ; C ftiarp e, a
minor 3d, produces A, a tenth below the graver tone ;
B f, a 4th, gives E, the oAave of the upper note ; By"
ftiarp, a 5th, produces an unifon to B ; B^, a 6th, gene-
rates the double oftave below the upper note ; and B flat^,
or the major 6th, produces E flat, the 5th of the lower
note, &c.

M. Tartini obferves, that the third found refulting from
the 4th, from two 3ds, from two 6ths, whether major or
minor, is the moft eafily dillinguiftied, becaufe this found is
always more grave than either of the two which produce
it ; that the third found produced by the jth is diftinguifhed
with greater difficulty, becaufe it is an uniU)n of a graver
found ; and that it is more difficult to diftinguiih it in the
tones major and minor, becaufe thefe tones, differing httle
from one another, are eafily confounded in the intonation ;
and for the fame reafon, with greater difiiculty, in the femi-
tones major and minor.

The author, in a fong compofed of two parts, difcovers,
by means of two correfponding founds, the third found re-
fulting from them ; and this, he fays, is the true bafe of
the fong ; and every other bafe will be a paralogyfm. From
his experiments and reafoning he concludes, that if any ad-
joining two fimple intervals in the harmonic feries i, -5) j» i»
&c. be founded, the third found will always be that of half
the ftring ; that the fmaller the interval is, the farther dif-
tant is the third found : fo that, e.g. the third found to the
interval of the femitone minor G G (harp, is the 26th below
G natural.

M. Serre, of Geneva, in his '< Eftai fur les Principes de
I'Harmonie," printed at Paris in 1755, mentions this dif-
covery of Tartini as a faft fufficiently al'ccrtained ; and adds,
that he has produced the fame effedl by means of two fine
female voices, as Tartini Iiad done by inftruments ; but he
mentions only the third (ound produced by the third major,
and that produced by the third minor : and there is this dif-
ference between the refults of thefe two gentlemen. Accord-
ing to M. Tartini, the two founds of a third major, as ut mi,
produced the oftave ut below ut ; and according to M. Serre,
a double odave : according to the former, the two founds
of a third minor, /a ut, produced the tenth major, fa below
la ; but according to the latter, the feventeenth major below
la, or the ottave under the tenth/j. M. Serre takes no
notice of a third found produced by any other two founds,
and it does not appear that he made any trials of this
kind.

As to the phyfical caufe of thefe third founds, it is much
more difficult to ofler any plaufible conjefturcs concerning
it, than concerning the harmonical notis mentioned in the
preceding article ; becaufe all thole of the latter kind being
more acute than the principal, or generating tone, are, for
that reafon, capable of being actually and immediately pro-
duced by the vibrations of certain portions ut tlie firing or
other foundiiij; bidy ; whereas, in the third (ounds, a tone
is heard always (except m the caie of the fifth), and often

conii-

sou

conCderably below the pitch of either of the bodies whofe
vibrations it accompanies, and which confequently cannot
immediately proceed from either of thefe bodies. To take
the firlt of the above-mentioned intervals, that of the greater
third, for an example : a third found is here heard, fuch as
would be produced by the aftual vibration of a firing of the
fame diameter and tenfion with, but of double the length of,
that which produced the loweft note of the interval. As no
fuch Itrmg, however, is employed in the experiment, we are
obliged to feek for the caufe of this new found in the air, or
other medium of found, or in the organ of hearing, or in
fome internal modification of the fenfitive faculty.

As the immenfe variety of our fenfations of colour is juilly
fuppofed to be produced by an equal diverfity of coloured
particles of light, each highly qualified to excite one par-
ticular fenfation and no other, fo fome, with M. Mairan,
have fuppofed, that our numerous and diverfified fenfations
of mufical tones are not produced by the undulations of the
air, confidered in its whole mafs, but by aerial particles,
fpecifically different in elafticity, magnitude, figure, &c.
each capable of exciting, by its motions or other modifica-
tions, the idea of only one determinate tone. Therefore we
might fay, that the two orders of particles which give the
tones C and :, either by an harmonical congruity in their
fpring with that fet of particles which give the third found
C below, or by fome other peculiar affinity to them, are
qualified, by their joint aftion on thefe laft-mentioned par-
ticles, to give them that particular modification, by which
they excite in us the fenfation of that fpecific tone to which
they are adapted. Or, may we not conceive in general, that
a mixture of two given tones may excite the idea of a third
and different found, in fome fuch manner as two given co-
lours, e. g. blue and yellow ; nay, the paft impreHions of
thefe colours excite the idea of green, different from both
of them.

But if the effeft is produced merely by the organ of hear-
ing, we may obferve, that, from a confideration of the fpiral
and conical Itrufture of the cochlea, fome phyfiologifts have
been tempted to imagine, that the branches or filaments of
the auditory nerve, after puffing out from the nucleus or
axis of the cochlea, are llrained upon the fpiral plates, like
the radii of a circle, and become gradually fliorter and
fijorter toward its apex. It may be fuppofed likewife, that
of thefe nervous firings, the longefl, which are in the bafis
of the cochlea, are adapted to receive the tremors or other
impreffions, and convey to the mind the ideas, of grave
tones ; and the fhorter nervous chords, fixed more towards
the apex of the cone, thofe of acute founds. This being
allowed, and taking the former interval C e for an example,
it may be faid that the tone C, befides afting on the nervous
chord appropriated to excite the idea of that tone, muft aft
likewife on another nervous chord of double its length, fitu-
ated towards the bafis of the cochlea, &c. and which is na-
turally adapted to receive and tranfmit to the mind C, the
oftave below ; but which the upper tone C now divides into
two equal parts, each giving tones unifon to the faid note C.
The tone :, \\\ like manner, will excite five equal vibrations
in each of the halves of this nervous chord ; all which, like-
wife, produce fenfations unifon with itfelf. Thefe pheno-
mena at leaft are invariably obferved to be produced in mu-
fical firings. Thus we obtain the unifons to C and e : and
farther, the laft-mentioned chord thus vibrating in two and
in tea parts, and from one extremity of it to the other, mav
fairly be fuppofed to vibrate in its whole length ; in which
cafe it muft excite in the mind the idea of its own funda-
mental tone, the third found C, an oftave below the firft of
thefe notes, and a tenth below the latter. See, on the fub-

SOU

jeft of this article, Encyclop^die, art. Bafe F<»n>AMlW-
TALE. Principles and Power of Harmony, 4to. 1771, and
Monthly Rev. vol. xlv. p. 371, &c.

Sound, in Geography, denotes a ftrait or inlet of the
fea, between two capes or head-lands.

The Sound is ufed, by way of eminence, for that famous
flrait which joins the German fea to the Baltic.

It is fituate between the ifland of Zealand and the coaH
of Schonen. It is about fixteen leagues long, and in gene-
ral five broad, excepting againil the caftle of Cronenburg,
(which fee,) where It is but one ; fo that there is there no
paflage for veflels but under the cannon of the fortrefs.

This was firft erefted for the better commanding of the
Sound, as was alfo Helfinburgh, on the oppofite fhore in
Schonen, for the protection of fhips from pirates, then nu-
merous in that fea.

This has given occafion to the Danes to fettle a toll on
all veffeU, which is faid to be one of the beft revenues of
the crown of Denmark ; and to forbid all pilots from pall-
ing through the Great and Little Belt, which are two other
inlets into the Baltic, though fomewhat lefs commodious
than the former.

All nations who traffic into this part of the North are
fubjeft to this toll : the Swedes, indeed, were exempted
from it by the treaty of 1644, but by the treaty of 1720,
they are excluded the privilege, and put on the fame foot-
ing with their neighbours.

By the treaty of Spire, made between the Danes and
Charles V. in behalf of his Netherland fubjefts, the toll for
this pallage was fixed at two rofe nobles for a fhip of two
hundred tons ; yet, in the year 1640, the fame was raifed to
upwards of five hundred rix-dollars.

The connivance of our king James I. who had married a
daughter of Denmark, and the wars which the Hollanders
had been long engaged in for their liberty, furnifhed the
occanon for fo grievous an exaftion. Of late years, the toll
has been again reduced to an eafier footing.

Cromwell was bent on extorting this pafFage from the
Danes, and had probably effefted it, but that, before the
fleet for that purpofe arrived there, he died.

However, in 1659, England, Holland, and France, by
treaty, obliged Denmark to ftipulate, that it fhall never be
increafed upon the faid three nations, who are mutual
guarantees to this treaty.

The origin and progreis of this impofition (which, from
an eafy contribution, of which we have an account fo early
as 1348, voluntarily' paid by merchants for maintaining
lights on certain places of the coaft, and for protedlion of
fhips from pirates, and of which the king of Denmark was
only treafurer or truftee, grew at length to be a heavy bur-
den on trade, as well as a kind of fervile acknowledgment
of his fovereignty of thefe feas) is given in lord Molefworth's
Account of Denmark, chap. iii. p. 1 1. feq.

As to the prefent ftate of this toll, Dr. Bufching, in his
New Geography, obferves, that it is on an equal footing
with all nations, excepting the Hamburghers, who pay more
than others : the Enghfh, Dutch, Sivedifh, and French
fhips, are not fearched when provided with proper pafies,
according to treaties ; and pay down only i pir cent, for
fuch goods as are not fpecified in the tarif. But all other
nations pay l\ per cent, and muft fubrait to be fearched.
With regard to the Hanie Towns, on the Baltic, there is
a greai variety in the toll they pay, for almoft every one of
thofe towns is treated with in particular. See Denmark
and Elsineur.

On the Sound, accounts are kept in rix-dollars, of 4orts,
■which contain 96 fkillings Danifh, or 48 (hillings Ham-
burgh

sou

sou

burgh money. The tolls paid at the pafTage of the Sound are
reckoned in rix-doUars, Swedifh fpecie, which are i2^/fr
cent, better than crown money, and therefore l<)^ per cent.
better than Danifh currency; but this rix-doUar is 21 per
cent, worfe than the effeftive rix-dollar fpecie of 7 marks
6 (kilhngs Danifh currency. The tolls are alfo fometimes
fettled in crown money. In paying duties at the Sound,
the (hippond is reckoned for 300 lbs. ; the ftein or (tone for
30 lbs. ; the RulTian berkovitz for 300 lbs. ; and the pood for
jolbs. Here are alfo certain regulations for foreign meafures,
an abftraft of which is given in Kelly's Cambift.

Sound, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to be found that
does not halt. When a jockey fells a horfe he warrants him
found hot and cold ; that is, that he does not halt either
when you mount him or when he is heated, nor yet after
alighting, when he ftands and cools.

Sound, an inllrument which furgeons introduce through
the urethra into the bladder, in order to difcover whether
there is a ilone in this vifcus or not. The found is ufually
made of very highly polifhed fteel, that it may be well calcu-
lated for conveying to the furgeon's fingers, a fenfation of
any thing againlt which its end may flrike. It is alfo gene-
rally lefs curved than a catheter, fo that its end may be more
eafily inclined to the lower part of the bladder, where the
Itone is mod frequently fituated.

SOUND-BOARD, or Wind-chejl, of an organ, is the
principal part of that moft noble and comprehenfive inllru-
ment, and that which feeda all the pipes with wind. See
Organ.

The found-board, or fommier, as it is called in France, is
a refervoir, into which the wind drawn in by the bellows is
conduded by a port-vent, and thence dillributed into pipes
placed over the holes of its upper part. The wind enters
the pipes by valves, which are opened by preffiiig the keys,
after drawing the regifters by the ftops, which prevent the
air from going into any of the pipes, except thofe required.
Organs, whofe longell pipe in the diapafon is four feet, have
♦heir found-board from five to fix feet. Organs of fixteen
feet have two found-boards, which communicate the wind
from one to the other, by means of a pewter port-vent.

SOUND-HOLM, in Geography, one of the fmaller
Shetland iflands, near the S.W. coaft of Yell.

SOUNDING, in Navigation, the aft of trying the depth
of the water, and the quality of the bottom, by a line and
plummet, or other srtifice.

There are two plummets ufed for this purpofe ; one of
which is called the hand-lead, weighing about 8 or 9 lbs. and
the other the deep-fea lead, which weighs from 25 to 30 lbs.
and both are fhaped like the fruftum of a cone or pyramid.
The former is ufed in (hallow waters, and the latter at a
great diftance from the (horc, particularly on approaching
the land after a fea voyage. Accordingly, the lines employed
for this purpofe are called the deep-fea lead-line and the
hand-lead line. The hand-lead line, which is ufually 20
fathoms in length, is marked at every 2 or 3 fathoms ; fo
that the depth of the water may be afccrtaincd cither in the
day or night : at tlie depth of 2 and 3 fathoms, there are
marks of black leather ; at 5 fathoms, there is a white rag ;
at 7, a red rag; at 10, and at 13, black leather; at 15, a
white rag ; and at 17, a red one.

Sounding with the hand-lead, which the feamen call heav-
ing the lead, is generally performed by a man who (lands in
the main-chains to windward. Having the line all ready to
run out, without interruption, he holds it nearly at the dif-
tance of a fathom from the plummet, and having fw\ing the
latter backwards and forwards three or four timen, in order
to acquire the greater velocity, he fwings it round his head,

and thence as far forwards as is neceflary ; lo that, by the
lead's finking whilft the (hip advances, the line may be almoft
perpendicular when it reaches the bottom. The perfon
founding then proclaims the depth of the water in a kind of
fong, refembling the cries of hawkers in a city ; thus, if the
mark of 5 is clofe to the furface of the water, he calls, ' by
the mark 5,' and as there is no mark at 4, 6, 8, &c. he efti-
mates thofe numbers, and calls, ' by the dip 4, Sec' If he
judges it to be a quarter or a half more than any particular
number, he calls, ' and a quarter 5,' and ' a half 4,' &c.
If he conceives the depth to be three-quarters more than a
particular number, he calls it a quarter lefs than the next :
thus, at 4 fathoms f , he calls, « a quarter lefs 5,' and fo on.

The deep-fea lead-line is marked with two knots at 20
fathoms, 3 at 30, 4 at 40, &c. to the end. It is alfo marked
with a fingle knot at the middle of each interval, as at 25,
35, 45 fathoms, &c. To ufe this lead more effeftually at
fea, or in deep water on the fea-coaft, it is ufual previoufly
to bring-to the fhip, in order to retard her courfe : the lead
is then thrown as far as poflible from the (hip on the line of
her drift, fo that as it finks, the fhip drives more perpendi-
cularly over it. The pilot feeling the lead ftrike the bottom,
readily difcovers the depth of the water by the mark on the
line neareft its furface. The bottom of the lead being alfo
well rubbed over with tallow, retains the diltinguilhing marks
of the bottom, as fhells, ooze, gravel, &c. which naturally
adhere to it.

The depth of the water, and the nature of the ground,
which are called the foundings, are carefully marked in the
log-book, as well to determine the diftance of the place
from the (hore, as to correft the obfervations of former
pilots. Falconer.

For a machine to meafure unfathomable depths of the fea,
fee Altitude.

Sounding the Pump, at Sea, is done by letting fall a fmall
line, with fome weight at the end, down into the pump, to
know what depth of water there is in it.

Sounding, in Surgery, the operation of introducing the
found. Sec Searchikc for the Stone.

SOUNDIPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bahar, 8 miles S. of Rotalgur.

SOUNE, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near the coall
of Africa. S. lat. 10° 5'7'.

SOUNISA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern-
ment of Sivas ; 27 miles N. of Tocat.

SOUNMEN Hakiio Hotun, or Soumen Char, a town
of Chincfe Tartary, in the province of Hami ; 15 miles
N.W. of Hami-Hotun.

SOUP, or Soop, a kind of pottage made of bread, and
broth, or of the juice of flclh, or other matters, ufually
ferved at the beginning of a meal.

The word is French, formed from the Itahan, %uppa, or
fuppa, of the Latin, fapa, wine boiled away to a third part.
Others derive it from tne Celtic, fouben, which fignifies the
fame.

Soup is eltecmed effcntial to a French dinner. Sometimes
they heighten the relilh by the addition of onions, or leeks,
or cabbage, or turnips, &c.

SouF, Porlalle, is a kind (if cake, formed of concentrated
broth, which, being freed from all fat, and havnig by long
boiling evaporated the moll jiutrefcent parts of the meat, it
reduced to the confiUence ol a ^>lue, as in reality it is, and
will, like other jjlues, in a dry place, keep found for years
together. Sir John Pringlc inclines to believe, that the
gelatinous parts of animal lubftances, iuch as compofe thefe
cakes, are not of a nature much difpofed to putrefy. But,
however that be, captain Cook obfcrvci, that, in tut voyage

(lee

^; O U

sou

(fee Scurvy), this foup was the means of making his people
«at a greater quantity of greens than they would have done
otherwife, and fo far we mull allow it to have been virtually
antifeptic. For the method of preparing cakes for portable
fo6p, by Chaptal, &c. fee Jelly.

SouPi in ylgricuhure, a term applied to fuch liquid animal
food or provifions, as are formed by cutting various dry ma-
terials, fuch as hay, ftraw, &c. and blending them with
liquid matters ; and alfo to fuch as are prepared with meals
of different forts, fuch as that of oats, peas, beans, and
others of a fimilar kind. By this praftice, the fubftances
are not only found to go much farther, but to have a much
ereater effect in promoting the growth or fattening of the
animals.

The advantages of preparing the food, and feeding fome
forts of animals in this way, are now well known, as fuch
food not only goes much farther, but affords a much greater
improvement in the animals. The advantage of feeding
young hogs with foups of thefe kinds are fail becoming
well underllood ; and the animals are found to go on far
better with them than in the old methods of proceeding,
but there is Hill much to be done in regard to the modes of
preparing of them, and the conditions in which they fhould
be at the time they are given. See Swine.

SOUPROSSE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Landes ; 6 miles S.E. of Tartas.

SOUR. See Sur.

Sour, a river of France, which rifes near Baftogne, in
the department of the Forefts, and runs into the Mofelle,
3 miles above Treves.

Souu Gujlan, a town of Algiers, near mount Jurjura.

&ovv.-Doch, in Botany. See Sorrel.

d>ovv.-Food, in Agriculture, fuch food as has been rendered
•four by the acetous fermentation, and which has lately been
faid to be of fuperior utility in the fattening of animals.
Oxen as well as fwine have lately been fuppofed by fome to
feed fafler, where their food has been brought into this con-
dition before ufing it, than when ufed in the natural (late.
See STALL-feeditig.

SoVR-Gourd, in Botany. See Adansonia.

Soun-Gra/s, in Agriculture, the coarfe tufty herbage
ufually met with about the dung-heaps in fields, and where
there is much ftagnant moifture. It is obferved by Dr.
Darwin, that where a piece of grafs is over-run with tuffocks
of four-grafs, which often happens near towns, he has been
informed, that lime or coal-afhes fpread on them, would
render the grafs fweeter, fo that horfes or cattle would eat
it. But he fuppofes the more certain and advantageous
management would confill in mowing it frequently, and
giving it to horfes or cattle in the liable or ftall ; as he be-
lieves they will eat it greedily after it has been a few hours
withered, and thus the land will not only yield more pro-
vender at prefent, but after a few mowings a fweeter grafs
will rife in the place of that which was of a bad kind, or
of too luxuriant growth, for which purpofe it ftiould be
mowed as near the ground as may be ; or if it be frequently
mowed during the fummer, and left on the ground, fome
cattle will eat it, when it is withered to a certain degree ; by
which the difagreeable flavour of it is probably lell'ened or
deftroyed. Proper drainage and clofe feeding fuch lands,
are likewife ufcful methods of bringing them into a ftate of
better and fweeter grafs.

SovR-Kroute. See Croute.

SovR-Land, in Agriculture, a term applied to cold clayey
foils, and fuch as have fome fort of impervious ftrata at no
great diftance from the furface, by which they are kept in a
wet and four flate. See CtAY, and Clayey Soil.

Hou^-Sop, in Botany. See Annona.

SOUR A, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Irak,
on the Euphrates; 1J3 miles N.W. of Baffora.

SouRA, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura, fituated
on the river Soure ; 7 miles S.S.E. of Montemor o VeUio.

SOURABAYA, a pleafant town on the N.E. coaft of
the ifland of Java, fituated on the banks of a river, a mile
and a half diftant from the fea-fhore, fo that only the flag-
ilaff can be feen from the road. The river is navigable up
to the town for vcffels of 100 tons burthen, and the bank
on one fide is made convenient for tacking. The Chinefe
carry on a confiderable trade here, and have a town on the
fide of the river oppofite to Sourabaya. The country
near the town is flat, and the foil light, fo that they plough
with a fingle bullock, or buffalo. The latitude in Soura-
baya road is 7" 11' S. The Dutch had a refident in this
place, with the rank of fenior merchant, and the title of
the commander of the eaftern dillrift. The chief commo-
dity of this government is rice. The interior parts of the
country, near the mountains, are infelled with a breed of
fierce tigers, which render travelling dangerous. Here is
alfo a breed of horfes, fmall, but handfome and ftrong.
The Javanefe in the vicinity are numerous. Stavorinus's
Voyage, vol. ii.

SOURAH, a town of ' Hindooftan, in the circar of
Aurungabad ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Jaffierabad.

SOU RAN, a town of Perfia, in Khorallan ; 255 miles
N. of Herat.

SOURAPATA, a kingdom on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Java.

SOURATAU HOUTCHIN, a town of Chinefe Tar;
tary, in the country of the Monguls. N. lat. 53° 54'. E.
long. 114° 34'.

SOURDEVAL, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrift of Mortain ; 4 miles N. of Mortain. The place
contains 3896, and the canton 9580 inhabitant*, on a terri-
tory of 115 kihometres, in 9 communes.

SOURDON, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a bivalve
fhell-fifh found on the coaft of Poitou, and other places.
It is a fmall filh, its length being httle more than an inch,
and its breadth about three quarters of an inch ; its fliells are
both confiderably convex ; the outer furface is deeply fur-
rowed, but the infide is perfeftly fmooth : the fifh buries
itfelf lightly in the fand, and has a pipe of communication,
which it raifes to the furface ; but as this creature never
buries itfelf deep, the pipe is neceflarily very ftiort ; but
they are cut into feveral fegments at the extremity, and
appear as it were fringed, and have feveral hairs growing
from thefe fegments. The fourdon is capable of a pro-
greflive motion by means of a limb, fomewhat refembling
that of the other chamse, but more than any approaching
the nature of a leg, as it in fome meafure reprefents, in
miniature, a human leg with a clumfy boot upon it : by
means of this limb the creature can eafily bury itfelf in the
fand, or rife up out of it, or move horizontally on the
furface, and that as well backwards as forwards, and with
more fwiftnefs than could well be fuppofed. Mem. Acad.
Par. 1 7 10.

SOURE, in Geography, a river of Portugal, which
runs into the Mondego ; 4 miles S. of Montem.or o Velhi).

SOURE RAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 40 miles W.N.W. of Ganjam.

SOURI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Lariftan,
on the Perfian gulf; 38 miles S.W. of Ormus.

SOURING Lime for Mortar and Plajler, in Rural
Ecmomy, the praftice of macerating and rendering it pro-
per

sou

per for tliefe ufes. It lias been ftated by the writer of an
" Eflay on Quicklime as a Cement," that when lime is to
be employed for making plaller, it is of great importance
that every particle of the limeftone be flaked before it is
worked up ; for, as the fmoothnefs of the furface is the
circumltance moft wiflied for in plaller, if any particles of
lime fliould be beaten up in it, and employed in work be-
fore they have had fufficicnt time to fall, the water Hill con-
tinuing to aft upon them after the materials have been
worked up, will infallibly flake fuch particles, which will
then expand themfelves in a forcible manner, and be pro-
duAive of thofe excrefcences upon the furface of the
plaiter, which are commonly known by the name of bliflers.
Confequently, if it be intended to have a perfeft kind of
plaiter, which is capable of remaining fmooth on the furface
and free from bliilers, there is an abfolute neceflity for
allowing the lime of wliich it is compofed, to lie for a con-
liderable length of time in maceration with water, before
it is wrought up into plaller, which is a procefs or opera-
tion that is here termed fouring. Where the limeltone
is of a pure quahty, and has been very perfeftly calcined
or burnt, there will feldom be any danger of the whole of
the lime falling at firit ; but where it has been lefs per-
feftly burnt, there will be many particles, which will re-
quire to lie a long time before they will be completely re-
duced into powder. This macerating procefs or operation
is confequently more nccefiary with impure than pure lime;
but lUU it ought on no occafion to be omitted or neglefted,
as there is not the fmallelt probability, but that fome
blifters would appear on the farfacc of plallers made with
even the purell lime, when worked up and applied imme-
diately after being flaked, without undergoing this fouring
procefs in fome degree.

The praftice is alfo common of fouring the lime when
it is intended for being ufed in mortar ; but although it is
uot fo indifpenlably nccefiary in this cafe, as in that where
it is defigned for plafter, yet, when properly performed,
it is evident, it is faid, that it muft even in this inltancc too
be of utility ; as any dry knots of lime that may fall after
the mortar is ufed, muft have a tendency to difunite the
parts of it, which have already been united, and to render
the mortar or cement much lefs perfeft than if the whole
had been properly mixed up with the materials and allowed
to four before uling. More circumfpcftion is, however,
requifite, it is faid, in fouring lime for mortar than for
plafter ; for, as it is not neccHary that plafter ftiould be en-
dowed with a ftony degree of hardnefs, there is no lofs
fuftained by allowing a great proportion of the lime which
is defigned for that purpofe to abforb its air before it be
ufed ; for a very fmall quantity of cauftic or quicklime
will be lufficicnt to unite the whole into one flightly co-
herent mafs. Confequently, the only circumftance which
is neceflary to be attended to in fouring lime for plafter is,
that it be allowed to macerate long enough, as there is no
danger of ever erring on the oppolite extreme. It is in-
deed necell'ary, it is faid, on fome occafions, it fliould lie
a very long time, before any certainty can be had, that all
the particles are thoroughly flaked, as pieces of lime-fhells
have been known to he upwards of fix months expoled to
all the changes of the winter weather, and fall alter that
psriod. Such flightly burnt Itoiies are indeed, it is faid,
ufually fcparated in fifting the lime for plafter ; but as fome
fmall chips may efcape, it is always the fafelt way to allow
lime to lie in the four a very confidcrable length of time.
Another advantage of fome confequence likewile, it is laid,
attends this praftice ; as, if by fuch means a large propor-
tion of the lime be allowed to abforb its air, and become

Vol. XXXIII

SOU

in the mild or effete ftate, when it is wrought or beaten up
for ufe, the water can have no fenfible effeft upon this mild
lime ; it will only fcparate the particles of the cauftic lime
more perfeftly from each other, fo as to permit it to dry
without cracks of any kind, and render the furface of the
plaiter a great deal more fmooth and entire, than could
have been the cafe, if the whole had been made ufe of
while in the perfeftly cauftic ftate. By this means too,
thofe cryftalline exudations, which are fo common on walls
newly plaflered, will be the belt and moft effeftually pre-
vented. On all which accounts, the praftice of fuft'cring
lime, which is defigned for plafter, to macerate or iour a
long time with water, fliould never, it is faid, except in
cafes of neceihty, be neglefted or overlooked.

However, as hme, from the moment of its being fully
flaked, begins to abforb air, and continues to take up more
and more every minute from that time until it becomes
perfeftly mild or effete, fo as to be rendered gradually lefs
and lefs proper for forming mortar of any kind, it necef-
farily follows, that where lime defigned for this purpofe is
permitted to lie long in the four, a great part of it will be
converted into chalky matter, or uncryftallized mild or
effete lime, in which ftate it will be capable of having fo
much fand added to it, or of forming fo good a mortar as
would have been the cafe, if a larger proportion of the
fandy material had been made ufe of in the firIt place, and
been wrought up as fpeedily as poffible, without lo much
fouring, into mortar, and immediately made ufe of. The
evil will alfo be increafed where the lime has been but
flightly burnt, confequently the bell burned lime fl\ould
always be preferred for this ufe, which, when carefully
fifted after flaking, will foon fall fufficiently for this pur-
pofe ; as the main point here is to have the mortar firm and
binding ; and the falling or burlting of very fmall unflaked
particles of lime in the mortar afterwards, will not be pro-
duftive of fuch evident inconvenience as is the cafe in the
making and ufing of plafter. In the making of good
mortar, it will confequently be neceffary to get the bell
burnt lime, and to only fufter it to macerate or four with
water a very fhort time before it is wrought and applied.
The bell burnt lime, however, moftly requires fome days
to macerate and four with water, be-fore the whole be-
comes fully flaked and fallen for this ufe.

This doftrine of the nature and utility of the fouring
procefs in the making of tliefe fubftances is fuppofed to re-
ceive additional proof and fupport from the praftice which
was followed by the ancients, which is very fimilar to this,
if the accounts given of it by Vitruvius and Pliny can be
depended on. The former, it is faid, cxprcfsly recom-
mends that the lime fhould be macerated or fourcd in water,
for exaftly the fame reafons that have been already feen,
as it is only by that means, he allerts, that the plafter can
be prevented from bliftering. His words are tliefe : " tunc
de albariis operibus ell cxplicaiidum. Id autem crit reflc,
fi gleb'JE calcis optime, ante multo tempore quam opus
fuerit, macerabuntur. Niimque cum non penitus macerata,

fed recens fiimitur hahtns lalenles crudot cuculos, puflulat

om'Ut'il. (2»( calculi diffolvunt el dijfipani leSorii pelitionet."

Vit. lib. vii. c. 2.

The latter points out, it is faid, in a ftill more clear
maimer, the difference between the quality of the lime,
which is neceffary for making mortar and plafter: — a cer-
tain proof, it is conceived, that the ancients had been very
accurate in the obfcrving of fafts, as they could hive no
idea of the reafoiiing by which thofe fafts might have been
corroborated or explained.

" Kuiiiarum urbis," fays he, " ea maxime caufa, quod
3 E furto,

sou

sou

furto, calcis fine ferrumlne fuo camenta componiintur. /«-
trita quoque quo "velujitor, eo melior. In antiqiiarum (anti-
quis) sedumligibus invenitur, ne recentiore trima uteretur
redemptor ; idio nulla (nuUse) teftoria eorum rimae faedavere."
Plin. Hill. lib. xxxvi. c. 23.

In this pafl'age, the writer ftrongly contrails, it is faid,
mortar {ciementa) with plalter (inlrita). The fird, he con-
tends, by implication, ought always to be compofed of
lime cum ferrumine fuo ; that is, lime which ftill retains its
gluten, cementing or adhering principle ; lime that (till keeps
or poHefTes that quality, by which it is enabled to unite
detached matters into a folid body, zwA glue them, as it
were, together. In other places of the fame work, the
author, it is faid, defcribes it as cak'is quam vehementtjffim£ ;
lime in its moll acrid ftate ; that is, perfeAly caujlic lime.
And this quality he plainly hints, it gradually lofes by
time, fo as to come at length to hs fine ferrumlne fuo : in
which ftate, as it is impoffible to become a good firm mortar
or cement for building with, thofe who make ufe of it as
fuch are feverely reprehended. But although the praftice
of ufing old and inert lime for mortar is condemned, it is
immediately added, as has been feen above, that for plafter
it is better than new, becaufe it is not fo fubjeft to crack
in the work.

Thus it would feem, that the importance of the fouring
operation or procefs, for thefe different purpofes, was well
known at an early period, though the principles on which
its utility depended, were probably far from being under-
ftood.

SOURIS, Lake </«, in Geography, a lake of Canada,
the direftion acrofs which is amongll iilands, N.W. by W.
fix miles. In this traverfe is an ifland remarkable for a very
large ftoiie in the form of a bear, on which the natives
have painted the head and fnout of that animal ; and here
they were alfo formerly accuftomed to offer facrifices. This
lake is feparated only by a narrow ftrait from the lake
du Serpent, which runs N.N.W. feven miles, to a narrow
channel, that connefts it with another lake, bearing the
fame name, and running the fame courfe for 1 1 miles, when
the rapid of the fame denomination is entered on the W.
fide of the lake. A fingular circumllance is obfervable
here, that for three or four miles on the N.W. fide of this
lake, there is an high bank of clay and fand, clothed with
cyprefs trees, no fuch cafe occurring on any other lake
defcribed by Mackenzie ; as they are bounded, particu-
larly on the N., by black and grey rocks. Mackenzie's
Travels, Introd.

SouRls, in the Manege, is a cartilage in the noflrils of
a horfe, by means of which he fnorts. See Snort.

The cutting of this cartilage is called in French ejfou-
r'tffer.

SOURMAN, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 250 miles
N.E. of LafTa.

SOURNAT, a town of France, in the department of
the Correze ; 9 miles N.N.W. of Uffel.

SOURNI A, a town of France, in the department of the
Eait Pyrenees, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrid
of Prades ; 7 miles N. of Prades. The town contains 842,
and the canton 3718 inhabitants, on a territory of 160 kilio-
metres, in 12 communes.

SOUROUBEA, in Botany. See Ruyschia.
SOURTOU, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tartary.
N. lat. 44" 51'. E. long. 94° 24'.

SOURUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 3J miles S.W. of Ganjam.

SOUSEL, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo, containing
About 1300 inhabitants ; 6 miles N.N.W. of Ettremoz.

SOUSOU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natoha;
24 miles N. of Satalia.

SOUSOUGHERLIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia ; 20 miles S.E. of Balikefri.

SOUSSERAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot ; 6 miles E. of St. Cere.

SOUSTONS, a town of France, in the department of
the Landes, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrift of
Dax. The place contains 25'78, and the canton 6604 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 417^ kiliometres, in 1 1 communes.

SOU-TCHEOU, Soo-cHoo, or Soo-choo-foo, a city
of China, of the fird rank, in the province of Kiang-nan,
fituated in the vicinity of Nan-lum, on a river which com-
municates with the lake Tainhoo. This is reckoned one of
the mod agreeable cities in China, and compared by Euro-
peans, who have feen it, with Venice, with thij difference,
that the latter is built in the fea, and Sou-tcheou is inter-
fefted by canals of frefh water, branching from the principal
canal, over each of which branches is ereded an elegant
llone-bridge. In the walls of the city are turned feveral
arches, through which the canal pafles. Under thefe walls
are drawn up an immenfe number of vellels ; and one Ihip-
building yard contained, when this city was vifited by the
embafiy, fixteen upon the flocks, clofe to each other, each of
the burden of about two hundred tons. The fuburbs are
very extenfive. Sou-tcheou is large and very populous ; the
houfes are neat and well built, and the inhabitants refpeftably
dreffed, moiHy in filk. The women, fays fir John Staunton,
were fairer than thofe in the north ; many of whom wore a
fmall cap of black fatin, adorned with fpangles upon the
forehead, brought down to apeak above the eye-brows ; and
they had ear-pendents of gold or cryltal.

There is not perhaps in the univerfe, according to Gro-
fier's account, a country more delightful, either for pleafant-
nefs of fituation, or mildnefs of climate. The air is fo tem-
perate, provifions fo plentiful and cheap, the foil fo fruitful,
and the manners of the people fo gentle, that this city is
confidered as the paradife of China. •' Above (fay the
Chinefe authors) is the celefHal paradife ; but the paradife
of this world is Sou-tcheou." Upon obferving the con-
tinual motion of its immenfe number of inhabitants, and the
confufion occafioned every where by their commercial inter-
ccurfe with ftrangers, one would be induced to believe that
the trade of all the provinces centered in it. The brocades
and embroideries manufactured here are in great requefl
through the whole empire. The jurifdiftion extends over
only eight cities, one of which is of the fecond clafs, and the
rellof the third ; but all thefe cities are beautiful, and about
two or three leagues each in circumference. In the vicinity
of this city is found that remarkable tree which furnifhes
tallow, the " croton febiferum" of Linnaeus. See Croton.
N. lat. 31° 22'. E. long. 120°.

SOUTELLO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 17 miles W. of St. Joao do Pefqueira.

SOUT-EL-TELL, a mountain of Algiers ; 30 miles
N.E. of Tremecen.

SOUTERRAINE, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Gueret ; 17 miles W. of Gueret. The place con-
tains 2665, and the canton 10,237 inhabitants, on a territory
of 275 kiliometres, in 11 communes. N. lat. 46^ 15'. E.
long. 1° 34'.

SOUTH, one of the four cardinal points of the compafs.
See Cardinal Points.

South, Robert, in Biography, a divine of the church
of England, eminent for learning, talents, and wit, was the
fon of a London merchant, and was born at Hackney in

sou

sou

1633. He was educated at Weftminfter fchool by the cele-
brated Bufby, from whence he was elefted to Chriftchurch,
Oxford. Here he was ioon dillinguiflied for his claflical
attainments, of which one of his produfts was an elegant
Latin poem addreffed to Ohver Cromwell, on the conclufion
of the Dutch war. Another poem of his, which was much
read and applauded, was entitled " Mufica Incantans,"
which was afterwards printed feparately, at Dr. Fell's requelt.
In 1657 he commenced M.A., and in the following year he
received holy orders from one of the deprived bilhops, and
being foon after chofen to preach the aflize fermon before
the judges, he made a violent attack upon the Independents,
which ingratiated him with the Prefbyterians. Soon after
the Relloration, he was chofen public orator of the univerfity.
In this office he acquitted himfelf fo much to the fatisfaftion
of lord Clarendon, when complimenting him at his invefti-
ture as chancellor of the univerfity, that he was taken under
the protedlion of that eminent man, and appointed his do-
meftic chaplain. He was promoted to a prebend of Welt-
miniter in 1663, and was in the fame year admitted to the
degree of D.D. He foon fucceeded to a«canonry of Chrill-
church, and in 1673 he attended as chaplain to the younger
fon of the earl of Clarendon, in an embaliy to Poland. On
his return he was prefented to the redtory of Iflip, in
Oxfordfhire, and became greatly diftinguifhed by his turn
for humorous farcafm, in which he indulged even in the
pulpit. During the reign of Charles II. Dr. South was,
from principle, a llrenuous aflertor of the royal prerogative,
as he was alfo during the following reign, though he was
fully fenfible of the dangers to which the eftabliflied religion
was expofed under the bigotted and gloomy James. II. He
neverthelefs refufed to join in an invitation to the prince of
Orange to come to its refcue ; and after the arrival of that
prince, he dechned fubfcription to the affociation for his
fupport, which was figned by the vice-chancellor, and feveral
heads of colleges in Oxford. When William was feated on
the throne, he did not fcruple taking the oath of allegiance
to the new government, but he is faid to have rejected the
offer of fome perfons in power to place him in one of the
fees vacated by the nonjuring bifhops. His political con-
duft continued the fame : he was a violent enemy to toler-
ation, and to any conceffions for conciliating the feparatifts.
In 1693 he engaged in the controverfy refpefting the doc-
trine of the Trinity with Dr. Sherlock, and is faid to have
difplayed as great a want of Clirillian charity, as abundance
of learning and orthodox zeal. He now began to dechne
in health ; and though his mind was aAive, yet his bodily
powers failed him, and he palled the greater part of queen
Anne's reign in a (fate of inaftion ; but on Sacheverel's
trial, he exerted himfelf vigoroufly to procure a lenient fen-
tence from the judges. When his friends came into power,
towards the clofc of that reign, he was folicited to accept
the bifhopric of Rochefter and deanery of Wcllminfter, but
he replied, fuch a chair would be too uneafy for an old in-
firm man to fit in. The queen's deceafe was confidered by
him as a fignal of his own approaching didolution, " fince,"
he faid, " that all that was good and gracious, and the very
breath of liis noftrils, had made its departure to the regions
of blifs and eternal happinefs." He died in July 1716, at
the age of 83, and was interred with much folemnity in Weft-
minfter Abbey.

Dr. South cannot be regarded as a proper pattern of a
Chriftian minifter, the follower of the meek and holy Jefus ;
though his fincerity as a true believer of the doflrines of
revealed religion has never been doubted. His temper was
harfh and unamiable, irafcible and unforgiving, and his
talents for wit and humour led him too frequently to in-

dulge in ill-natured farcafm. His talenta were cojifiderabl«,
and he is ufually reckoned among the good writers of the
time, though he frequently manifefted a want of tafte in not
adapting his wit to fubjefts fuited to it. He is author of
Sermons, in fix volumes, which have palled through many
editions. After his deceafe there appeared his " Opera
Pofthuma Latina," and his Enghfh potthumons works,
which confirted of three additional fermons ; Travels into
Poland, and Memoirs of his Life, in 2 vols. 8»o. Biog,
Brit.

South, in Geography, a (hort river of Anne Arundel
county, in Maryland, which runs eafterly into Chefapeak
bay ; its mouth is about fix miles S. of Annapolis city, and
is navigable for vefiels of burden ten or twelve miles.

South ylnna, a branch of North Anna river, in Virginia,
which together form Pamunky river.

South Bay, a bay in Hudfon's Straits, on the N. coaft

of Labrador, W. of Cape Cliidley Alfo, an arm of lake

Champlain, extending weilerly from its fouth extremity.
Where it unites with the lake, it receives Wood creek from
the fouth.

South Cape, a cape at the fouthern extremity of New
Holland. S. lat. 43° 42'. E. long. 146"^ 56'.

South Creek, a river of North Carohna, which runs into
Pamlico Sound, N. lat. 34° 54'. W. long. 76° 48'.

South Downs, downs of England, in the county of Suf-
fex, between Brighthelmftone and Lewes.

South Do-wns Sheep. See Sheep.

SoviH-EaJl Bay, in Geography, a bay of the SE. ex-
tremity of Tavia-Poenammoo. S. lat. 46^ 45'. W. long.
191° 21'.

South EJi. See EsK.

South Friar's Bay, a bay on the S. coaft of the ifland of
St. Chriftopher ; 3 miles E.S.E. of BafTeterre.

South Hams, a tra£l of land in the county of Devon,
England, in the vicinity of Torbay, celebrated for cyder.

South Ha-ven Point, a long crooked projeftion of land on
the coaft of Dorfetftiire, in the Englifti Channel, which forms
one of the points of entrance into Pool harbour.

South Head, a cape on the N.E. coaft of New Holland.
S. lat. 24° 2'. W. long. 108° 17'.

South Hero. See Hero. North Hero, in 18 10, con-
tained 552, and South Hero 826 inhabitants.

South Ifland, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near the E.
coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 17°. E. long. 50" 20'. —
Alfo, a fmall ifland in the ftraitof Saleyer, near the S. coaft
of the ifland of Celebes. S.Iat. 5°45'. E. long. 120° 51'.
^Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
S.W. coail of the ifland of Bouton. S. lat. 5" 42'. E. long.
122*^ 50' — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the North Pacific ocean.
N. lat. 24° 22'. E. long. 141° 20'.

South Key, a fmall ifland in the Spanilh Main. N. lat.
15° 40'. W. long. 82° 35'. — Alfo, one of the Bahamas, in
the Weft Indies. N. lat. 22^ 21'. W. long. 74'^ 6'.

South Mountain. See Blue Ridge.

South Point, a cape on the S. coaft of the ifland of Anti-
cofti. N. lat. 49° 5'. W. long. 62° 35'. — Alfo, a cape at
the fouthern extremity of the iiland ofBarbadoes. N. lat.
13°. W. long. 58° 23'.— Alfo, a cape on the S.W. coaft
of Sir Henry Martin's ifland. S. lat. 8' jS'. E. long.
220° 15'. — Alfo, a cape on the S.W. coaft of the ifland of
Fortaventura. N. lat. 28' l'. W. long. 14° i'.

South River, a river of Antigua, which runs into the
fea, a little to the north of Young Point. — Alfo, a river of
Canada, which runs into the St. Lawrence, N. lat. 46° 56'.
W. long. 70" 26'.

South Salem, a poft-lownftiip of America, in the li.ite
3E 2 of

sou

of New York, and county of Weft Chefter ; 50 miles fi-oni
New York ; bounded north by North Salem, eall by the
ftate of Connedlicut, fouth by Connefticut and the towns
of Pounbridge and Bedford, and weft by Somers. The
whole of this townfhip may be called a good farming
country. In 1810, the number of its inhabitants was 1566.
This town was formerly called Salem, but its name was
ahered in 1808. The inhabitants manufafture moft of
their clothing in their own houfes.
South Sea. See Pacific Ocean.

^OVTH-Sea Cajlle, a fortrefs of England, in the vicinity
of Port/mouth ; which fee.

^o\:vw.-Sea Company. See CoMPAXY and FuND.
South- j'm Tea, in Botany, &c. See Ilex.
South Tbule, in Geography, a point of land in the South
Atlantic ocean, being the moft fouthern land difcovered by
navigators. S. lat. 59° 54'. W. long. 27^ 45'.

Sovrii-iyejl Bay, a bay on the fouth-weft coaft of
Tavai-Poenammoo, between Cape South and Cape Weft.

South- fVe/1 Cape, a cape on the fouth coaft of New
Holland, north-weft of South Cape. S. lat. 43= 37'. E.
long. 146- 7'.

SovTH-lVe/l Point, a cape on the fouth-weft coaft of the
ifland of Anticofti. N. lat. 49=" 25'. W. long. 63° 4'.

SOUTHADLEY, or South H.^dley, a poft-town of
America, in the ftate of Madachufetts, and county of
Hampftiire, on the eaft bank of Connefticut river ; 12 miles
N. of Springfield; incorporated in 17531 and containing
902 inhabitants.

SOUTHAKER Ledge, a reef of rocks, near the fouth
coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50" 5'. W. long. 60'.

SOUTHAM, a fmall market-town in Southam divifion
of Knighlow hundred, Warwickftiire, England, is fituated
lo miles from Warwick, 12 from Coventry, and 82 N.W.
from London. In Domefday book the name is written
Sucham, and the town is there faid to contain four hides,
with two mills, and woods of one mile in length and half
a mile in breadth ; all which belonged to the king.
Henry III. granted it a weekly market, and an annual fair.
The market is held on Mondays, but little bufinefs is tranf-
afted. The chief fources of emolument are the two roads
which pafs through it : that from Coventry to Banbury,
and that from Warwick to London. The parifh church is
a handfome edifice, with a fpire rifing from a fquare tower
at the weft end. The population of the parifh, in the year
181 1, was returned as 1007; the number of houfes 165.

Two miles from Southam is the village of Long itching-
ton, where the earl of Leicefter magnificently entertained
queen Elizabeth, July 9, 1575, in her progrefs to Kenil-
worth. The village is now fmall, but appears to have been
of confiderable confequence at the time of the Conqueft,
and for fome fucceeding ages. It was the birth-place of
St. Wolftan, bifhop of Worcefter, in the eleventh century,
a man of fome eminence in the pious chronicles of that
period. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv. part 2.
Warwickftiire, by J. N. Brewer.

SOUTH AMBOY, a town of America, in Middlefex
county, New Jerfey, containing, by the cenfus of 1810,
3071 inhabitants. See VE.T^.TH-ylmboy, which contained
S15 inhabitants.

SOUTH AMERICA. See America.
SOUTHAMPTON, or Southton, an ancient bo-
rough, pert, and corporate town of Hampftiire, England,
is feated on a neck of land, which is bounded on the weft
and fouth by a broad lake -like expanfe, called the South-
ampton Water, and by the river Itchin on the eait. From
this peculiarity of fuuation, it has only one approach by

SOU

land, from the north ; and from the fame caufe, the iirft
buildings of the town appear to have been raifed at the ex-
treme point of land, and to have projTreftively continued
in a line northward, on a ridge of ground between the two
waters. Hence the town was foon formed by one long
ftreet, flanked and guarded by embattled walls, and itrongly
fortified gates towards the water on the fouth, and to the in-
land country on the north. The prefent Soutiiampton is
comparatively a modern town, and originated in the fuperior
eligibility of its fcite, for commerce, to the itation at Bit-
tern, the Claufentum of the Romans, and the Hamton of
the Saxons, &c. The ancient hiftory, before the Norman
conqueft, applies chiefly to Old-Hampton ; but it is almoft
impoflible to afcertain when the old town was deferted, and
the new one formed and governed by its own laws. It is
evident that Hampton niuft have been a town of confe-
quence under the Anglo-Saxon dynafty, as it imparted its
name to the whole county, and is ftill the county town.

Htftorkal Events. — The origin and name of this town have
occafioned much conjefture and diffcrtation. The moft
natural fuppofitio^^ is, that it was derived from the river
Ant, or Anton, near the fouthern extremity of which it
ftands. This river, after flowing from the upper parts of
the county, and giving appellations to feveral places in its
courfe, here widens into a confiderable eftuary ; and, in
conjunftion with the Itchin, forms the head of the South-
ampton Water, the fuppoied Antona of Tacitus. There are
indeed thofe who prefer deducing it from Ham, a home or
refidence, with the adjunct Ton. Domelday book and
other ancient records, however, clearly favour the former
opinion ; for in thefe writings it is fpelt Hantun, and Han-
tune. The prefix of South evidently arofe from its relative
fituation to Northam. The county itfelf was alfo called
Hantunfcyre, though its name has been long altered into
Hampjh'ire.

It appears from the Saxon Chronicle, that in 873 Han-
ton was attacked by the Danes, who landed from 33 ftiips ;
but, after committing many atrocities, they were repulfed
and driven to their Ihips. About the year 980 another
body of Danes landed here, and ravaged the town and its
neighbourhood ; and it was fcarcely 1 2 years afterwards,
that they are recorded to have a third time plundered South-
ampton, under the command of Sueno of Denmark, and
Olaus of Norway.

It does not appear with any certainty, whether the town
had been fortified previous to thefe devaftations ; though an
eminent antiquary, fir Henry Englefield, fuggefts the
opinion, that a cajlle was built here by the Saxons, very
foon after they had achieved a permanent eftablifliment in
this country. " The peculiar advantages of the narrow
and rather high point of land on which Southampton now
ftands," fays the worthy baronet, " commanding at once
the Itchin and Teft rivers, and very eafily fortified on the
land fide, could not efcape their notice ; and from the high-
circular hill, on which the keep of the caftle formerly ftood,
and the curved line of its yet remaining wall, we have pro-
bable grounds for fuppofing it to be among the moft ancient
of the Saxcn caftles."

The different aflaults made on Hanton by the Danes,
render it probable that it had very early rifen to fome im-
portance ; and moft likely from its commerce, to which its
fituation was very favourable. The acceffion of Canute to
the Britifti fceptre, however, put a period to the Danilh
ravages in this ifland ; and Southampton appears to have
become an occafional refidence of that fovcreign : for it is.
here that he is recorded, by Henry of Huntingdon, to have
repreiled the impious flattery of his courtiers by a moft im-

preflive

SOUTHAMPTON.

J)refiive leflbn. They had hailed him as one whofe royal
mandate all nature muft obey. To put this fuppofed omni-
potence to the tell, and to reprove the flattery, he, de-
fcending the beach, commanded, fays the hiftorian, a chair
to be fet for him ; in which having feated himfelf, he faid
to the flovifing tide, " Thou art under my dominion, and
the ground on vsrhich I fit is mine ; nor did ever any difobey
my commands with impunity : therefore, I command thee
not to wet the clotiies or feet of me, thy lord and malter."
But the rude waves, continues the hiftorian, prefeiitlv came
up to his royal feet, and dafhed over him ; when, fpringing
back, he exclaimed, " Let all the inhabitants of the world
know, that the power of monarchs is a vain and empty
thing ; and that no one deferves the name of king, but He,
whofe will, by an eternal decree, the heavens, the earth, and
the fea, do obey." Nor would he ever after fuffer the
crown to be put on his head, but caufed it to be placed on
the great crucilix at Wincheller. And it is worthy of re-
mark, that all the coins or Canute fcem to give fanftion to
this ftory ; as they either reprefent him as wearing a mitre,
or a cap, or a triangular covering, fimilar to that on the
coins of St. Edward. See Canute.

Several circumltauces prove, that this town had attained
confiderable importance before the Norman invalion ;
though it appears to have fuffered greatly from the ravages
of earl Toltan. Henry I. is fuppofed to have made it a
borough by charter ; as the " burgefies of Southampton"
are mentioned in his grants to the canons of the priory of
St. Dionyfius, which he had founded. Many privileges
were granted to the burgefies by king John, who exempted
them from toll, paffage, and pontage, by fea and land, in
fairs and in markets, througho'.it all his dominions ; as well
on this fide the fea as beyond. By the fame charter he
granted them the port of Portfmouth, in ferm ; tor which,
together with the ferm of Southampton, they were to pay
200/. yearly. The agreement to pay this fum fufficiently
indicates the opulence and flourifhing Hate of the town at
that period ; which appears to have arifen principally from
the wine trade: and, fo early as 1215, the merchants of
Southampton are recorded to have imported more wine than
any others in England, thofe of London excepted. White
or fweet wines were then moftly in ufe, and thefe were
chiefly imported from Genoa and Venice, by aliens ; who
were reftrifted to this port by a duty payable to South-
ampton, even if the wine was landed elfewhere.

In the reign of Henry III. the barons of the Cinque
Ports became very troublefome to the merchants of South-
ampton, by frequently attaching their perfons, and feizing
their goods, under pretended reference to ancient grants.
The king, being appealed to on this fubjcft, iffucd a writ,
dated May 14, 1252, commanding the barons to deiilt "^rom
their outrages ; and four years afterwards he invelled the
burgefies with new privileges, by a very ample charter,
dated at Briflol, July 14, 1256. It appears that South-
ampton firft fent members to parliament in the 23d of
Edward I. Confiderable trade was now carried on betvveeni
this port and France; and the detention, at St. Valery and
Barfleur, of fome flii])3 belonging to Southampton, was in
great meafure the cauie of the war between this country and
France, toward tlie conclufion of the 13th century.

The trade of this town continued very flourifhing till the
rupture with France in 1338, on account of the rcfufal of
the ftatc^- of that kingdom to acknowledge the claims of
Edward III. to its tiirone. The fame year the mayor and
bailiff were commanded, by writ, to caufe all their fliips,
of 40 tons burthen and upwards, to be vidluallcd, and fur-
niflied with men at arms, ready to defend the land, in cafe

of invafion. Thefe preparations, however, were made tod
late. The French, with their allies, the Spaniards and
Genoefe, landed in Oftober, from a fleet of jo gallies ;
and, having flain all who oppofed them, entered and plunl
dered the town, and afterwards deflroyed the greater part
of it by fire. Many of the principal inhabitants were, at the
fame time, mhumanly put to death. The invaders did not,
however, effeft this devaftation with impunity : feveral dif-
tinguiflied perfonages of their own party were flain, and,
among them, the fon of the king of Sicily. This fatil
event interrupted the growing profpcrity of Southampton ;
as many of the merchants were totally ruined, and others
afterwards removed to places lefs expofed to invafion. In
the following year an aift was pafl'ed for rebuilding and
fl:rongly fortifying the town ; and the king, in a new char-
ter, confirmed all the grants made by his predeceffors, and
inverted the inhabitants with additional immunities.

In the reign of Richard II. a plan was propofed, by a
rich Genoefe merchant, for rendering Southampton one of
the principal ports of Europe ; but the jealoufy of fome
London merchants is faid to have defeated the defign, and
to have caufed the aflalTination of the projeftor.

In July, 1345, the army, which afterwards fo memorably
diftinguilhed itfelf on Crefly's plains, was embarked at this
port. That gallant army of Britons alfo, which gained im-
mortal fame at the battle of Agincourt, under Heury V., in
1415, was affembled and embarked at Southampton ; and it
was here that the foul confpiracy againit the life of that mo-
narch was timely difcovcred and puniihed. The principal
confpirators were Richard, carl of Cambridge, grandfather
of king Edward IV., lord Scrope of Malliain, and fir
Thomas Grey of Northumberland. They were brought to
trial, condemned, and executed in this town. Lord Scrope,
who had been a particular favourite of the king, was hanged,
drawn, and quartered : the others were beheaded ; and their
bodies were interred in the chapel of the Domus-Dei, or
God's Houfe ; as is recorded by an infcription on a ftone,
erefted by a predeceffor of the prefent carl of Delaware.
Hillorians differ widely refpeAing the motive to this plot.
Some fay, that the projeft was fuggetled by the court of
France ; which, terrified at the preparations of Henry, had
engaged thefe three noblemen, fur the bribe of a million of
livres, to murder the king at Southampton ; an account
wliich Shakfpeare feems to have credited. See his play of
Henry V. aft ii. fc. 2.

" See you, my princes and my noble peers," &c.

With greater probability, however, others appear to think
that the confpiracy was formed originally by the earl ot
Cambridge, fecond fon of the duke of York ; who, having
efpoufed the filler of the carl of March, had /ealoufly em-
braced the interefls of that family, and engaged lord Scrope
and fir Tliomas Grey to fecond his views. See Holingflied's
Ciironicle.

The trade of Southampton mull have been in a very
flourifliing flate in the reign of Henry VI. ; or we can
hardly fuppofe that fb great a man as the lord mayor cf
London, and keeper of queen Margaret's wardrobe, fir
Thomas Cooke, would have borne the otTice of cullomer
of this port.

Ill the reign of Edward IV., when the feuds between
the houfes of York and Lancafler raged with thoir utnioll
violence, fcarcely a day clapfed which was not marked with
fome holliliticj of the oppofite parties. That divifion of
fentiments, with refpeft to the two contenders for the
crown, which pervaded almofl all England, liibfilUd at
Southampton ; and at lall raged with luch fury, that a

fierce

SOUTHAMPTON.

fierce fkirraifli enfued between the partifans of the white
and red rofes, in which feveral of the inhabitants loft their
lives. The Yorkifts being at length viftorious, the leaders
of the Lancallerian party were made prifoners. Edward
was of a temper too jealous and fevere to pardon fo great
an infult on his government. Haftening immediately to
Southampton, he commiffioned Tibetot, or Tiptoft, earl of
Worcefter, to fit in judgment on the prifoners. About
twenty of tliem were tried, condemned, and executed ; but
the malice of the monarch, not fatisfied with that infliftion,
which ought to have clofed the fcene of human punifhment,
permitted their breathlefs carcafes to be impaled, and ex-
pofed in this horrid ilate to the public gaze : a mean grati-
fication of impotent revenge, ufelefs as it was unpopular,
which brought a deferved odium on the king, and on Tip-
toft, as the minifter of his vengeance. Leland's CoUeftanea,
i. 502.

Among the number of royal viCtors who have occa-
fionally honoured Southampton with their prefence, it
reckons the emperor Charles V., who, in 1522, embarked
here on board the Enghfh fleet, which conveyed him to
Spain. We have alfo to mention Edward VI. In the
year 1552 this prince, having been attacked by both the
meafles and fmall-pox, his conititution was fo much weak-
ened, as to render relaxation abfolutely neceflary. By the
advice of his phyficians, therefore, he made a tour of amufe-
ment through the weftern and fouthern parts of his king-
dom, attended by 320 foldiers, and courtiers and fervants
to the amount of 4000 horfe. Amongft other places, he
vifited Southampton, and was received by the inhabitants
with much refpeft, and coitly preparations. In 1534,
Philip, then prince of Spain, but who afterwards reigned
as Philip II., landed here, when he came to marry Mary I.
queen of England. Queen Elizabeth kept her court here
in 1569 ; and in 157J granted to the corporation the arms,
which are now ufed in the town-feal.

Camden, who wrote in the reign of queen Elizabeth,
fays, that the town was, in his time, famous for the num-
ber and beauty of its buildings, its affluent inhabitants, and
the refort ef numerous merchants. But after this, South-
ampton appears to have declined in its trade and confe-
quence ; being, in the year 1695, (as Gibfon, in his edition
of Camden, obferves,) " not in the fame flouriftiing ftate as
formerly : for, having loft its trade, it has loft alfo moft of
its inhabitants ; and the great houfes of its merchants are
now dropping to the ground, and only Ihew its ancient
magnificence." Since that time, however, trade has again
brought its advantages to Southampton : numerous opulent
families alfo have been attrafted, by the beauty of its neigh-
bourhood, to fettle in and around it ; and it is at prefent
a town of the firft beauty and confideration in the weft of
England.

Commerce and Trade. — Southampton has many confider-
able wine, corn, and timber merchants. Hemp, iron, and
tallow, from Ruffia, and tar and pitch from Sweden, are
imported. Englifh iron is brought coaft-ways from Wales ;
and coals, lead, and glafs, are conveyed by the coUiers from
Newcaftle. The importations from Portugal are chiefly
wine and fruit. To Jerfey and Guernfey 6000 tons of un-
wrought wool are allowed to be exported annually ; great
part of which is again returned, manufatlured into coarfe
knit hofe. During the laft war, large quantities of Spanifti
wool were landed here. Contrafts for bifcuits for the navy,
and bread and clothing for the army, were executed to a
conu'lerable extent. A filk-manufattory employs a num-
ber of children. Ship-building is alfo carried on at dif-
ferent docks near the town. At Woodraill, in the neigh-

10

bourhood, the late Mr. Walter Taylor's curious machinery
for the manufafture of blocks and pumps for (hipping ftill
exiils ; but the chief bufinefs of fuppiying the navy is now
transferred to Portfmouth dock-yard. The lateft bye-law$
for the regulation of the port and harbour of Southampton
were arranged in an aft of parhament, pafled 43d Geo. III.

The corporation, according to its laft charter, granted
by Charles I., confifts of a mayor, a recorder, ninejuftices,
a flierifF, two bailiffs, twenty-four comraon-councilmen, and
as many burgefles. All who have pafled the chair are
aldermen. The town, which was made a borough by
Henry II., and by king John (or, as others fay, by
Henry VI.) a county in itfeif, is independent of the lord
lieutenant and ftieriff of Hampfliire. The mayor is admiral
of the liberties, from South-fea caftle to Huril caftie, and
half fea over from Calftiot to the Ifle of Wight. There are
about 700 voters for the two members in parliament for
this place ; and not only thofe who pay fcot and lot, but
out-burgefles alfo vote. It may be here obferved, that
feveral royal burgefles have been enrolled among this cor-
poration : the late prince of Wales, in 1750, at his parti-
cular requeft ; the late dukes of York, Cumberland, and
Gloucefter ; his prefent majefty ; the prince regent ; the
dukes of York, Kent, Cumberland, Suflex, and Cam-
bridge ; the duke of Wirtemberg alfo, who pafled through
this town immediately after his arrival from the continent.

There are two annual fairs, the principal of which is
Trinity fair, held near Chapel Mill, adjoining to the town.
It commences on Saturday noon in Whitfun-week, and
continues till Wednefday noon in Trinity-week ; but Mon-
day is the chief day of bufinefs, when there is a tolerable
ftiow of cattle. The fenior bailiff' prefides during the fair,
having a tent, in which he entertains the corporation, and his
other vifitants. During the continuance of the fair, no one
can be arrefted for debt within its precinfts. St. Mark's
fair is held above Bar, on the 6th and 7th of May. Three
weekly markets, on Tuefday, Thurfday, and Saturday,
are well fupplied with excellent fifli, poultry, meat, butter,
fruit, and vegetables.

The falmon taken in the Southampton Water is excellent,
though much lefs plentiful than formerly ; when it is faid
to have been neceflary to ttipulate in indentures, that ap-
prentices fliould not be obliged to eat of this fi(h oftener
than once a day.

Public Buildings, ^c. — Of late years Southampton has
been much frequented as a watering-place ; for which pur-
pofe its pecuharly healthful and pleafant fituation is ex-
tremely favourable. The aifembly-rooms are fituated near
the weft quay, and very elegantly fitted up. A theatre was
erefted here in 1766 ; but not being found large enough, a
new one, on a much more commodious and extenfive fcale,
has fince been built on the fcite of St. John's hofpital.

The population of Southampton, as returned under the
aft of 1801, was 7913, Wz. 3390 males, and 4523 females ;
the number of houfe& was 1582. But the return of 181 1
ftated the population at 9617, viz. males 4130, and females
5487 ; the number of houfes 1669.

As already noticed, the northern extremity of the old
High-ftreet is terminated by an ancient fortified gate-houfe,
called the Bar-gate. This is a curious itrufture, and con-
fifts of a central arched paflage, about eighteen yards in
length, and four in width. On both fides of this are twa
lateral paflages, or poftern door-ways. This majeftic
portal was principally built in the reign of Edward III. ;
and, according to the architefture of that time, it is both
machicolated and embattled. On its north front are por-
trayed two gigantic figures, one on eack fide of the gate-
way j

SOUTHAMPTON.

way ; which are traditionally faid to have been intended to
reprefent, the one, Afcupait, or Afcapard, a terrible giant
and mighty warrior ; and the otlicr, fir Bevois, or Bevis, of
Southampton, who, accordinj^ to the popular legends, flew
him in combat. Over the arches of the gate is the town-
hall, which is 52 feet long, and 21 feet wide.

The Callle was fituated on the weft fide of the town, but
very little of the ancient building itfelf is remaining. Its
area was of a form approaching to a femicircle, or rather of
a horfe-rtioe ; in the louthern part of which ftood the keep,
on a very high artificial mount. This keep was circular,
but has given place to a fmaller and more modern round
tower, erefted with the materials of the former one. The
view of the town and the adjacent country from this fpot is
extremely mterelling. The callle was purchafcd by the
late marquis of Lanfdowne, who made great additions and
alterations to it, and fitted it up in a coltly, but fantaftic
ftyle.

There were formerly in Southampton fix parifli churches :
thofe of Holy-Rood, St. Michael, All-Saints, St. Law-
rence, St. John, and St. Mary. But in the reign of
Charles II. the parifhcs of St. John and St. Lawrence were
united, and the church of the former was taken down : a
burying-ground now occupies the fpot on which it Hood.

Holy-Rood church has a fine organ, and feveral hand-
fome monuments ; one of which, by Ryfbrack, to the me-
mory of Mifo Stanley, has an infcription from the pen of
the a\ithor of "The Seafons," Thompfon. St. Michael's
church is the moft ancient in the town, and has a fine (lender
o&angular fpire, which greatly adds to the beauty of many
profpefts : it was erefted for a mark or guide to fhips en-
tering the port. In the north aifle of the chancel is a hand-
fome monument to the memory of the lord chancellar
Wriothefley ; and in the oppofite aifle, on the fouth, is a
curious antique font. In this church the mayor is always
fworn into office. All-Saints church is a modern ItruCture,
wliich does honour to the genius of its architett, the late
Mr. Revely. St. Mary's and St. Lawrence's churches are
not particularly remarkable.

A fpacious manfion in Porter's-lane, near the fcitc of the
Water-gate, difplays confiderable antiquity. It has been
minutely defcribed by fir H. C. Englefield ( Archxologia,
vol. xiv.), in a " Walk through Southampton," who con-
jeftures it to have conititutcd a part of the palace occa-
fionally inhabited by the Saxon and Danifli fovereigns.
The length of the building in front is 1 1 1 feet.

The Domus-Dei, or God's Houfe, is an hofpital,
founded, according to Leland, in the reign of Henry III.,
by two merchants, brothers, of the names of Gervafius and
Protofius. " Tliefe two brethren, as ther Icrned, dwellyd
in the very place, where the hofpitale is now, at fuch tyme
as old Hampton was brent by pyrates ; thefe two brethren,
for Goddes fake, caufed their houfe to be turnid into an
hofpitale for poor folkes, and endowed it with fonie landes."
By a charter of 6 Edw. III., however, it feems that Roger
Hampton foundt-d it ; but at what time is not known. It
was given by Edward III. to Queen's college, Oxford,
which had been founded by Philippa, his contort ; and to
that inllitution it Hill belongs. The prefent ellablifhment
confifls of a warden, four aged men, and as many women,
who are allowed two fliillings each, weekly, from the col-
lege ; and have a yearly donation of coals, under the will
of the late Mrs. Fifield, of Southampton.

Among other ancient inititutions in this town was a
houfe of Grey friars, founded in the year 1240, but of
which fcarcely any remains are now ftanding ; part of its
fcite being occupied by Glouceller-fquarc ; and another

part by a building now ufed as a waretioufe, •< for the vaft
quantities of Spaniih wool, which, by Jlrtfs of -jjealhcr, are
landed here every year." St. John's hofpital, for the in-
itruftion of fix boys in the woollen manufafture, has been
lately given to the poor-houfe by the corporation, with the
confent of the heirs of the founder.

A free grammar-fchool was eftablifhed in Southampton
by Edward VI., in an old building in Winkle-llreet, now
ufed as a carpet-manuf.iftory ; fr.im which, many year*
afterwards, it was removed to its prefent fituation, an an-
cient manfion, known by the name of Weft-Hall. Here
are alfo a charity fchool, a Sunday fchool, and a fchool of
induftry ; and near the entrance of the town, on the right,
is a neat range of alms-houfes, for eighteen poor widows,
who are allowed two fliillings each, weekly, from the pro-
duce arifing from a bcqueft by Robert Thorner, efq. of
B.iddefley, who died in July, 1690.

The environs of Southampton are noted for piAurefque
fcenery, handfome villas, and interefting objects of anti-
quity. About one mile north-eaft of the town is the fcite
of the ancient Claufentum. Tlie fituation of this ftation
has been a matter of dilpute among antiquaries, nor was it
exaftly fettled till the year 1792, when the Rev. Mr. Warner
publiftied an eftay to prove it to be at Bittern, and rendered
any farther doubt on the fubjeft fuperfluous : moreover,
fome late difcoveries made there, in the formation of the
bridge over the Itchin, and of tlie road connefted with
it, have fully confirmed whatever Mr. Warner had previoufly
advanced as conjeftural. An account of thefe difcoveries
has been publilhed, with an engraved plan of the fituation,
in the rirli volume of " The Hampdiire Repofitory." The
time when Claufentum became a ftation has alfo been a
fubjeft of difpute ; but Mr. Warner pronounces it to have
been formed under the diredlion of Vefpafian, during his
continuance in the fouthern parts of Britain.

In 1804 and 1805 other difcoveries were made at Bittern,
by the late proprietor, Henry Simpfon, efq. of which a de-
tailed account has been given by fir H. C. Englefield, bart.
in liis " Walk through Southampton," 2d edit.

Immediately facing Bittern, on the weft fide, is Bevis-
Hill, fo called from a tradition, that fir Bevis, the fa-
mous knight of Southampton, lies buried under it. It
now makes part of the gardens formed by the late earl of
Peterborough, and in which his lordftiip was ufed to walk
with Arbuthnot and Pope.

About half a mile north of Southampton is Belle-Vue, a
handfome building, with iiighlypiAiirefque pleafiirc-groundi,
belonging to Jofiah Jacklon, efq. Two miles from this
town, tow.irds the north-eaft, is Portfwood Houfe, a manfion
of the late Gil s Stibbert, efq. who ercded it in 1771, from
defigns by Mr. Crunden, architett. Since then it has been
much altered. Seated on an emmence, it commands exten-
five and diverfified views of the Itchin river, Southampton
Water and town, and much line wooded fcenery. In the
parifh of South Stoneham is Wood-Mill, built by the late
Walter Taylor, for the manufadory of blocks and pumps
for the navy. The improvements made in thefe articles by
Meffrs. Taylor and fon, have been of great miportance in
naval tactics. In 1759 thefe gentlemen exhibited fpecimens
of biockj, ftiivers, and pins before the Board of Ordnance,
who immediately commiffioned the inventors to prepare and
fupply all the gun-tackle blocks for the navy. From this
time feveral improvements were made in the machinery and
mechanical formation of blocks, &c. and equal improve-
ments in the conftruftion of (hip-pumps. By one of thefe,
called the double b<uling machine, four tons of water may
be railed in two minutes and a half, ud even vrith or with-
out

sou

out the atmofphcre. (Prints and defcriptions of thefe mr»-
chines are publifiied in the " Hampfliire Repofitory.")
North Stoneham Park, the feat of Mrs. Fleming, is a
haiidfome houfe, in a fine park, the latter of which was
laid out by the late Mr. Brown. In the adjoining church
is a fuperb monument to lord Hawke, who died Oftober 17,
1781. See Hawke.

The remains of St. Dionyfius's priory form a pleafmg ob-
jeft from Bittern. They Hand at the dillance of two miles
from Southampton, on the weltern fide of the Itchin, in the
ground; which belonged to the late general Stibbert.

At the diflance of four miles from Bittern, in a fouthcrn
direAion, are the ruins of Nctley, or Letley abbey, on the
callern bank of the Southampton Water. Their fituation is
very beautiful. The field on which they Hand commands
feveral views of the river beneath, equally beautiful, but
various according to the fpot whence they are feen. The
profufion of ivy which covers the mouldering walls ; the
various (hrubs and trees that now occupy the fcite and walls
of the church ; the fragments of architecture lying around
in diforderly ruin ; and the elegance of thofe few parts which
have yet efcaped dellriiftion ; combine to form a fcene which
contemplation cannot leave without reluftance. The founder
of this abbey, it is believed, was Henry III., who took a
certain number of monks from the abbey of Beaulieu, and
placed them at Netley, about the year 1229. The monks
vere of the Ciltercian order, and the houfe itfelf was dedi-
cated to the Virgin Mary and St. Edward. The feite of
Netley abbey, with all the buildings, was, at the dif-
folution, granted by Henry VIII., in the twenty-eighth year
of his reign, to fir William Paulet, afterwards marquis of
Winchetter : they next became the property and refidence
of the earl of Hertford ; and fince then were inhabited by
the marquis of Huntingdon. The whole is at prefent the pro-
perty of lady Holland, widow of the late fir Nathaniel Dance
Holland, bart, who has a life-intereft in them by virtue of her
marriatje with her former hufband, the late Mr. Dummer,
ivho purchafed them of Henry Clift, efq. The principal
parts of Netley abbey that remain, are the walls of the
church, the kitchen, and the refeftory. Thefe are in a ftate
of ruin, but difplay fuch elegancies of architefture, as con-
vince us, that the fabric muil have been originally of great
beauty. On the fliore, at a fhort diftance from the abbey,
ftands a fort, or fmall caltle, called Netley caftle, in a di-
lapidated ftate, which appears to have been crefted by
Henry VIII. at the time of his building Cowes and Hurit
callles. The paffage by water to the lile of Wight, about
fifteen miles diilant, is delightfully pleafant.

As natives of Southampton, who have rendered themfelvcs
eminent, we cannot omit to mention the names of Nicholas
Fuller, a learned divine, born in 1557, who died in 1622-3 >
Dr. Ifaac Watts, born in July 1674, who died in 1748;
and Richard Pococke, a diitinguiflied traveller, and bifhop
of Meath, born in 1704, w'ho died in 1765. See accounts
of thefe under their refpettive heads.

Southampton lies S.W. from London, at a dittancc of
feventy-four miles, by the way of Bafingftoke.

" A Walk through Southampton," by fir Henry Engle-
field, bart. 8vo. 1805, an intereiling and truly rational
cffay on the antiquities of Southampton and Claufentum.
" The Southampton Guide ;" " A Companion in a Tour
round Southampton," i2mo. 1809; " A Vifit to Netley
Abbey," 2d edition, all by Mr. John BuUar, a fchoolmaller
of Southampton, are ufeful and intereiling topographical vo-
lumes, and contain much original information. " The
Southampton Guide," 18th edition, by T. Skelton, is a
lyell-digeited eflay on the hiltory, &c. of the town and of

SOU

objefts in its vicinity. In the Beauties of England, vol. vi.
is a copious account of the town and county, by J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley.

Southampton, a county of Virginia, between James's
river and North Carolina, containing, by the cenfus of 1 8 10,
13,497 inhabitant?, of whom 6406 are (laves.

Southampton, a town of Madachufetts, in the county
of Hampfiiire, feparated from Eaft Hampton by Paw-
tucket river; about 9 miles S.W. from Northampton. It
was incorporated in 1753, and in 1810 contained 1171 in-
habitants.

Southampton, or South Hampton, a townlhip of New
Hamplhire, in Rockingham county, on the fouth line of the
ftate, which feparates it from MaiTachufetts ; 16 miles
S.W. of Portfmouth. It was taken from Hampton, incor-
porated in 1742, and contains 427 inliabitants.

SouTKAMPTON, a poft-townfiiip of New York, in Suffolk
county, on the S. fide of Long ifland ; lOO miles E. of
New York ; bounded N. by Riverhead and Southold, E.
by Eaft Hampton, S. by the Atlantic ocean, and W. by
Brookhaven. Its length E. and W. is about 23 miles, and
its medial breadth 4^ miles. The foil is light and fandy on
the W. and N., but fertile in the S. and E. It is well
wooded with pine, oak, walnut, &c. and fupplies New York
with large quantities of cordwood for fuel. The land re-
quires manure, but vi'ith good management yields tolerable
crops of grain and grafs. Fifli is much ufcd for manure.
In 18 10 this townftiip contained 3899 inhabitants, including
61 (laves, and 475 eleftors. By means of Ssgg-harbour,
which is a port of entry in the N.E. corner of this townlhip,
it carries on a fmall trade.

Southampton, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in Bucks
county, containing 739 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip in
Franklin county, containing 1060 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
townlhip in Bedford county, with 932 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
town(hip in Somerfet county, having 455 inhabitants.

Southampton, or South Hampton, a town(hip in the
eaftern part of Nova Scotia, in Halifax county, formerly
called Tatmagruche ; 35 miles from Ondow.

Southampton, or South Hampton, a poll-town of New-
York, in Genefee county ; 486 miles from Wafhington.

Southa.mpton Water, or Triffanton Bay, a bay of the
Englilh Channel, on the c.iaft of Hampdiire, extending from
about three miles above Southampton to the channel that
feparates the Ifie of Wight from the continent. N. lat.
50° 48'. W. long. 1° 7'. See Southampton.

SOUTH BOSTON, a fmall town in Virginia, in Ha-
lifax county, on the N. fide of Dan river.

SOUTH BRANCH House, a ftation of the Hudfon's
Bay Company, in North America, fituated on the E. fide of
Sanca(hawen river.

SOUTH BRIMFIELD, a townftiip of the Malfachu-
fetts, in Hampfiiire county ; 80 miles W. of Bofton ; incor-
porated in 1762, and in 1810 containing 645 inhabitants-

SOUTHBROUGH, a fmall towniliip in the eaftern
part of WorcetUr county, MafTacKufetts, incorporated in
J727, and in 1810 containing 926 inhabitants; 30 miles
W. by S. from Bofton.

SOUTH BRUNSWICK, a townfhip of New Jerfey, in
Middlefex county, containing 3332 inhabitants.

SOUTHBURY, a town of Connedicut, in New Haven
county, containing 141 3 inhabitants.

SOUTH CAROLINA. See Carolina.

SOUTH EAST, a poft-townfhip of New York, in the
S.E. corner of Duchefs county; 18 milea E. of Weft
Point ; its extent is about fix miles fquare ; it is bounded
on the S. by Weft Chefter county, E. by Connefticut,

N.by

sou

sou

N. by the town of Patterfon, and W. by the town of Car-
inel. The face of the country is rocky, mountainous, and
hilly, but the foil is in general good, and adapted to grafs.
It is well watered, and affords tolerably good crops of grain
and fruits. It abounds with iron-ore of good quality. And
the river Cretan, which runs through it, affords excellent
mill-feats. " Joe's" hill or mountain lies near the centre
of this town, and extends to Conneflicut. Here are five na-
tural ponds, the largelt, called Peach-pond, being about two
miles long and one wide. The population confifts of 1887
perfons, and here is one meeting-houfe. Their domeltic
looms produce 21,000 yards of cloth.

SOUTH-END, a hamlet in the pariih of Prittlewell,
hundred of Rochford, and county of Eflex, England, is
fituatid on the acclivity of a well-wooded hill, at the mouth
of the Thames, nearly oppofite to Sheernefs, forty-two
miles eaft from London. Within thelalt twenty years this
place has obtained fome repute for fea-bathing ; and though
previoufly but little known, has been fince advancing to
importance. Some refpeftable lodging-houfes have been
erefled for the accommodation of vifitors : and alfo an
alTembly-room. At a fmall diftance from the hamlet is a
flone, placed as a boundary mark of the extenfion of the
jurifdiftion of the corporation of London over the river
Thames, in the eaftern direftion. The village of Prittle-
well is built on the declivity of a hill, on the fummit of
which is the parirti church, a large and refpeftable edifice,
the tower of which ferves as a land-mark to veffels faihng
into the Thames. About a quarter of a mile north of the
church was a priory ef Cluniac monks, founded in the reign
of Henry II. Beauties of England, EfTex, vol. iii.

SOUTHE RN, Thomas, in Biography, a dramatic writer,
is faid to have been born at Stratford-on-Avon, about the
year 1662, though others affume that he was a native of
Dublin, and educated at the univerfity there till his eigh-
teenth year, when he came to England. He was entered
of Pembroke college, Oxford, in 1680, and foon after com-
pofed a tragedy, entitled " The Perfian Prince, or Loyal
Brother," which was afted in 1682. He took up his refi-
dence at the Middle Temple in 1683, and in the following
year another play compofed by him was afted and publiftied.
When James II. came to the crown, he rewarded Southern
for his loyalty in defendmg his caufe, when his exclufion
from the throne was warmly, or indeed violently agitated,
by giving him a captain's commillion in the troops intended
to oppofe the landing of the prince of Orange. When his
military fervices became of no account, he returned to his
dramatic career, and wrote feveral pieces, both in tragedy
and comedy, from which he drew a liberal fubfiftcnce.
Though Southern does not rank with the higheft of our
dramatic geniufcs, yet he was capable of deeply intereiling
the pafiinns. His belt pieces were " Ifabella," and " Oroo-
noko :" the latter, formed upon one of Mrs. Benn's novels,
was faid to have been taken from a real ilory. Southern
was apt to naix fcenes of low and indecent comedy with his
tragic fcenes, but they are fo managed that they may be
eafily feparated, and leave pieces which are occaiionally
viewed with applaufe. He lived to a great age, and bore
a very refpcftable charafter. He died in 1746, at the age
of 84. His plays were publifhcd collectively by T. Evans,
in 3 vols, litno. Biog. Brit.

Southern Hemifphere. See Hemisphere.

Southern Ocean. See Ocean.

Southern Sign. See Sign.

Southern States, in Geography, a denomination compre-
hending the following ttates of America ; viz.. Maryland,
Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tenellee, South Ca-

VojL. XXXIIL

rolina, and Georgia, bounded N. by Pennfylvania. The
Hates above-mentioned contain, by the ccnfus of 18 10,
3,246,455 inhabitants, including 1,099,523 (lares. The
principal produftions of this dillrift of the Union are,
tobacco, rice, indigo, wheat, corn, cotton, tar, pitch,
turpentine, and lumber ; and in this dillrift is fixed the per-
manent feat of the general government, viz. the city of
Wajlyington, which fee.

SOUTHERNWOOD, in Botany and the Materia
Medica. See Artemisia.

SOUTHFIELD, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
in the ilate of MaTachufetts, and S.E. corner of Berkfir.e
county ; bounded S. by the Connefticut line, containing 147
inhabitants — Alfo, a townfliij) of New Yck, and the ca-
pital of Richmond county, on the S. fide of Staten ifland ;
12 miles S. of New York ; comprehending an extent along
the fca, and at the Narrows, of abo>it eighteen miles in length.
The furface is diverfified, and the land of various qualities.
The fouth part is level, and fit for farming;. Here is a traft
of natural meadow, around the Great Hills, being a fmall
bay, noted for its dams. Here is a very extenfive filad-
fifliery at tlie Narrows, on the E., within half a mile of which
is the plain called " Old Town," which was fortified by the
early inhabitants, for defence againil the Indians. The
whole population of this town in 18 10 was 1007, with 97
eleftors. The " Narrows, (which fee,) leave an opening
for the united waters of the Hudfon and Eaft rivers to
communicate with the ocean, 1905 yards wide. On the
weft fliore are ereiEled the various military works, defigned
for the piotedlion of the trade of New York, and for mili-
tary defence againft naval foes. Thefe confift of feveral
forts and batteries, erefted by this ftate fince tlie year 1807,
at a very confiderable expence. Fort Richmond is the
principal work, being formed of itone, and well fupplied with
all the apparatus and means of defenfive warfare. The
telegraph, for fpeedy communication with New York, Hands
on the high grounds in the rear of fort Richmond.

SOUTH GEORGIA. See New Georgia.

SOUTH HEMPSTEAD,apoft-town(hipofNewYork,
in Queen's county, on the S. fide of Long ifland, 22 miles
nearly S.E. from New York. It is bounded N. by North
Hempftead.E. byOyfter bay, S. by the Atlantic ocean, and
W. by Jamaica. This towndiip has the greateft aggregate
population of any in the county, and there are feveral fmall
villages, the largeft of which is of the fame name with the
town. Although it has fome fmall ftreams of water, it
principally depends upon tide-mills. The land if generally
under good cultivation. The whole population in 18 10
was 5804, and at this time it iiad 445 fenatorial elcAors.
Rockaway beach on the fea-fhore is much frequented in
fummer for fea-bathing, and the various pleafurcs of tilhiag,
fhootinjr, &c. Game is very plentiful.

SOUTHILL, a pariih in the hundred of Wikamtrcc
and county of Bedford, England, is fituatcd about four
miles diilant from Bigglcfwade, nine miles from Bedford,
and forty-threo N. from London. In ancient record* it is
called South-Ycvel. The manor is the property of lord
Ongley, who alio holds the manor of Stanford, or Stamford-
bury, in this parilli The monks of Warden abbey had a
manor here in 1369, called Gatehn'a Bury. Sir George
Byng, a naval onicer of eminence in the reigns of queen
Anne and George I., purchafcd an eftatc and (eltlcd in lhi»
pariih. In 1721 he was created a peer, by the title of
baron Byng of Southill, and vilcount Torrington. He died
in 1733, and lies buried in the parifli churcli. His unfor-
tunate foil, admiral John Byng, who was fliot by fentenc
of a court-martial, March 14, 1757, was iiorii and interred
3 F »t

sou

at Southill. He is generally confidered to have fallen a
viftim to the violence of party. There is an infcription
in the church to his memory, written, it may be thought,
with too much afperity for fo facred a place. There are
alfo feveral other infcriptions m memory of other branches
of the family. The prefent lord Torrington fold his ettate
at Southill, in 1795, to Mr. Whitbread, who left it to his
fon, Samuel Whitbread, efq. M.P. lately deceafed. Ihis
manfion, which is called Southill-Houfe, ranks among the
firft in the county. It was built about the year 1795, by
Holland the architeft. The internal decorations are very
elegant. Over the doors of fome of the principal rooms
are fubjefts in baflb-relievo of animals by Garrard, and
paintings of game by Gilpin. In the biUiard-room is a col-
leftion of Garrard's models of ftieep and cattle. Over the
book-cafes, in the library, are portraits of the principal
clerks in Mr. Whitbread's brewery ; and over the chimney-
piece, tiiat of Mr. Whitbread, fen. placed there by his fon,
with this modeit and appropriate motto, " Nobis hoec otia
fecit."

The pari(h of Southill was inclofed by an aft of parlia-
ment, paiTed in 1797, and was then computed to contain
2600 acres. The population return of the year i8ii, ilated
this paridi (including the hamlets of Broom and Stamford)
to contain i85houfcs, and 1024 inhabitants. Lyfons's Magna
Britannia, Bedfordfhire, 4to. 1806.

SOUTHOLD, or South-hold, apoft-townlhipof New
York, in Suffolk county, coraprifing the N.E. part of Long
ifland, bounded N. by Long illand Point, foutherly by the
waters that feparate it from the towns of Eaft Hampton and
Southampton, and W. by Riverhead. The extent of South-
old from W. to E., where it terminates in a point, exclufive
of the iflands, is twenty -two miles, and its greateft width three
miles. In 1810 its population was 2613, including 30
flaves, and it then had 306 eleftors. Southold town has a
ftreet five miles long, in which are the pott-office, a meeting-
houfe, and two fchool-houfes, with 160 families ; 100 miles
E. of New York.

Southold, a townfhip of Upper Canada, in Suffolk
county, W. of Yarmouth, and bounded on the S. by lake
Erie.

SOUTH HUNTINGTON, a townfhip of Pennfylva-
nia, in Weftmoteland county, containing, in 1810, 1656
inhabitants.

SOUTHING, in Navigation, the difference of latitude
a fhip makes in failing to the fouthward.

SOUTHINGTON, in Geography, a townfhip of Ame-
rica, in Connefticut, and county of Hartford ; 20 miles
S.W. of Hartford, containing 1807 inhabitants.

SOUTH KINGSTON, a townlhip of Rhode ifland, in
Wafhington county, on the W. fide of Narraganfet bay,
containing 3560 inhabitants.

SOUTH-MOLTON. See Molton, South.
SOUTHWALLS, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland
of Pomona. N. lat. 58° 40'. W. long. 3° 3'.

SOUTHWARK, commonly called The Borough, a
town of Surrey, England, alfo a fuburb of the city of
London, and generally regarded as part of that vnft
metropolis. It is, however, completely feparated from
London by the river Thames, which at this place is 915
feet acrofs ; and over which a bridge was conftrufted ante-
rior to the Norman conqueft. Southwark occupies an
area of about one mile and three quarters from eafl to weft,
by one mile in an oppofite direftion. Nearly the whole of
this extent is now covered vvitli houfes, public edifices, and
flreets, whilll the bank of the river is occupied by numerous
warehoufes, manufadories, timber and coal-yards, glafs-

SOU

houfes, &c. The Borough is alfo noted for its number of hop.
warehoufes. On the eafl it is bounded by the parifh of Rother-
hithe, on the fouth by that of Newington-Butts, on the well
by Lambeth, and on the north by the river Thames. For
accounts of each of which, fee the refpeftive words.

Ancient Hi/lory. — Although part of the prefent diftrift
was probably occupied by fome Roman villas during the
dominion of the Romans in Londinium, yet there is no
evidence of its having been a ftation, or mihtary poft. In-
deed, it was mofl probably at that time a marfhy traft of
land. By the Saxons it was called Suth, or " South Work,"
in reference to fome military work or fortification, bearing
that afpeft from London : it was alfo called the Borough,
or Burg, probably for the fame reafon. It was anciently
a diitinft corporation in itfelf, and was governed by its
own baihfFs ; but in confideration of the inconveniencies
arifing from the efcape of malefadlors from the metropolis
into this place, it was, in 1327, granted by Edward IIL to
the corporation of London, on payment of lo/. annually. It
was then called the •villnge of Southwark ; it was afterwards
ityled the liai/iwici of Southwark, and the mayor and com-
monalty of London appointed the bailiff. This power,
however, not being fufficient to remedy the evil, a more
intimate connedlion was thought neceffary ; and in the reign
of Edward VI. it was united to the city of London, at the
earneft and inceflant requeft of the citizens to the lord
proteftor, who was at length prevailed on to grant it ; per-
haps induced to comply by the confideration of 647/. 2s. id-
paid for the charter. It was formed into a 26th ward, by
the title of " Bridge Ward Without ;" and 500 marks
more were paid for certain privileges, antecedently enjoyed
by the archbilhop of Canterbury, the abbot of Bermondfey,
the priors of St. Mary Overy's, or Charles Brandon, duke
of Suffolk. In confequenceof this, it was fubjefted to the
lord mayor of London, who has Cnce appointed the Iteward
and bailiff. Southwark, however, being divided into two
parts, this is to be underilood only of the divifion called the
Borough Liberty, which confifts of three of the parifhes
belonging to the town, with the greater part of a fourth
parifh. For the city divifion, the lord mayor, by his
fteward, holds a court of record every Monday at the
feffians-houfe on St. Margaret's Hill in this borough, for
all debts, damages, and trefpaffes, within the limits of his
jurifdiftion. To this ward of Bridge Without, which is
not reprefented in the court of common-council, the fenior
alderman, or father of the city, as he is called, is always
removed, as to an honourable finecure, which exempts liim
from the fatigues ufually incurred in the other twenty-five
wards. The other divifion of Southwark is called The
Clint, or The Manor of Southwark, and is fubdivided into the
great liberty, the guildhall, and the king's manor ; for each of
which fubdivifions a court-leet is held, where the conftables,
ale-conners, and flefh-taflers, are chofen, and other bufinefs
of that kind tranfafted. This divifion is in the jurifdiAion
of the bifhop of Winchefler, who, befides a court-leet,
keeps here a court of record on the bank-fide near St. Sa-
viour's church, by his fteward, or bailiff, for pleas of debt, for
damages, and trefpaffes. Court-leets are alfo kept at Lam-
beth, Bermondfey, and Rotherhithe, three diitrifts adjoin-
ing to the Borough,

The firft time that Southwark is mentioned in hiftory, K
on the occafion of earl Goodwin's faihng up the river
to attack the royal navy of fifty fhips, lying before the
palace of Weftmmfter. This was in 1052 ; when, we are
told, he went ad Suthtuecree, and ftaid there till the return
of the tide.

Although the borough of Southwark has fo long been

a ward

SOUTHWARK.

a ward of the city of London, it ftill retains the privilege
of fending two members to parliament, as it has done ever
fmce the 23d Edward I. ; but it is not afcertained when it
firlt fent reprefentatives. The right of eleftion is in the
inhabitants paying fcot and lot, amounting to about 3ZOO.

The things moll worthy of note in the borougli-town of
Southwark, properly fo called, are the churches, the hof-
pitals, and the prifons.

The parifhes are St. George the Martyr, St. Olave, (part
of this parifh is in the city of London,) St. John Horfely-
down, St. Saviour, (commonly called St. Mary Overy's, )
St. Thomas, and Chriltchurch : thefe parifhes were found, in
1811, to contain 12,217 houfes, and 72,119 inhabitants;
viz.. 33,61 1 males, and 3^^,508 females. The families chiefly
employed in agriculture were 116, and thofe occupied in
trades, manufadures, and handicraft, io,yio.

Churches. — The parilh church of St. George the Martyr
is fituated a little to the fouth of the Marlhalfea. The
original edifice was of very ancient foundation, and belonged
to the abbey of Bermondfey, to v/hich it was given, in 1122,
by Thomas Arderne. Being in a very ruinous ftate, the
parifluoners obtained an aft of parliament for taking down
the old church, and erettmg another ; in confequence of
which the prefent ilrufture was begun m 1734, and fmidied in
1736. In the old church was interred Edward Cocker,
the celebrated arithmetician ; and the infamous bifhop
Bonner, who died miferably in the Marflialfea in 1569, is
laid to have been buried in the church-yard, under the call
window.

St. Olave's church is fituated in Tooley-ftreet, near the
iouth end of London-bridge. The original edifice is men-
tioned as early as 1281, but the date of its ereftion is un-
known. Part of this old church having fallen down in
1736, an aft was obtained to rebuild it, and the prefent
-flrufture was finifhed in 1739.

Eallward of St. Olave's is the parifh of St. John Horfely-
down, corruptly fo called from Horfe-down having been
originally a grazing-ground for horfes. St. John's is one
of the fifty new churches ordered by acl of parliament to
be built in the metropolis, and was finiflicd in 1732, when
this diltriA was feparated from St. Olave's, and conllituted
a diftinft parifh.

St. Saviour's church, commonly called St. Mary Overy,
originally belonged to a nunnery founded by a female,
prior to the Norman conqueft, and endowed by her with the
profits of the ferry acrols the river Thames at this place
before the ereftion of London-bridge. This houfe was
afterwards converted into a college for pricfts, by whom
the firft bridge over the Tliames was built of wood, and
kept in repair, till tliey were enabled, by the munificence
of benefaftors, to (upply its place by another of Itone. In
1 106 the college was transformed into a priory of canons
regular ; but thofe were fcarcely fettled, when the bifliop
of Wincheder brought in fecular canons in their (lead.
The revenues of this priory, at its furrender in 1539, were
valued at 624/. 6s. dd. per annum. On its fupprelFion, the
inhabitants of Southwark purchafed the cliurch belonging
to it, which was by charter appropriated to the joint ule
of the parifhioners of St. Mary Magdalen and St. Margaret,
by the name of St. Saviour's. This church is built upon
the plan of a cathedral, though of fnialler dimenfions. Part
of the original architcfture is perceived in tlie interior, near
the weft front of the churcli ; as all the reft of the fabric
exhibits the ftyles in ufe between the 13th and ifith cen-
turies. The tower, ftanding in the centre, rifes in three
ftories, the walls finifhing with battlements, and being
fidorned at the angles with turrets and pinnacles. It wa«

from this tower that Hollar took his celebrated views of
London, both before and after the great fire in 1666.

This church has three chapels : viz. our Lady's, or the
New Chapel, at the eaft end of which is run out a fmall
monumental chapel, and wliich, after this edifice became
parochial, was let for upwards of 60 year?, by the church-
wardens, for the purpole of a bake-houfe ; St. John'?, now
the vcftry, on the north fide of the choir ; and St. Mary
Magdalen's, on the fouth fide. In our Lady's chapel is a
grave-ltone, ten feet in length, on which was formerly a
border, and a figure in brafs of a bifhop in his pontifical
habit ; it is fuppofcd to cover the remains of the celebrated
William of Wykeiiam, bifhop of Lincoln, and afterwards of
Winchelter, who died in 1395. Eallward of the altar is
the monument of Lancelot Andrews, bilhop of Winciieller,
who died in 1626, aged 71. His effigy, in full proportion,
habited as a prelate of the order of the Garter, lies on a
tomb of black and white marble. At las feet are his arms,
within a garter, between two fmall figures of Juftice and
Fortitude. Here alfo is a pleafing mural monument, from
a defign of Mr. Soane, to the memory of Abraham New-
land, efq., late cafhier to the bank of England, who was
interred here November 28, 1807. In the north aifle is a
curious monument, with a llatue for Gower, one of the
earliell Englifh poets, and a benefaftor of this church, to
the rebuilding of which he contributed about the year 1400.
On the wall are painted three female figures, crowned with
ducal coronets, reprefenting Pity, Mercy, and Charity.
See " The Hiftory and Antiquities of the Church and Parifh
of St. Saviour," by Concanen and Morgan, i vol. 8vo.

1795-

St. Thomas's church ftands on the fouth fide of St.

Thomas's-ftreet. The original church, being old and ruin-
ous, was taken down, and rebuilt in 1702.

The parilh of Chriftchurch was taken out of that of St.
Saviour, and was originally part of the diftrift called the
liberty of Paris Garden. The firll church was erefted at
the expence of Mr. John Marfhall, of Southwark, and
finifhed in 1671 ; when he endowed it with an cllate of 60/.
per annum, towards the fupport of the minifter. This edi-
fice, however, in confequence of the badnefs of the found-
ation, foon became fo ruinous, that, in 1737, Mr. Marfliall's
trullees applied to parliament for power to rebuild it, with
the fum of 2500/., which had accumulated in their hands
from the trull ; and obtained an aft for that purpofe. The
prefent ftrufture was accordingly erefted. It ftands on the
weft fide of the road leading from Blackfriars-bridge.

For the hofpitals in and near the borough of Southwark,
fee St. Thomas's H0.SPITAL, Guy's Hospital, and Mag-
dalen Hospital.

Here we may mention fome other charitable ertablilh-
ments in the vicinity of Soutliwark. The Afylum is a
foundation for preferving friendhfs and deferted girls under
twelve years of age from the danger of leduCUon and
proftitution. This excellent charity was let on foot by
the well-known magiftrate of Bow-ftrect, fir John Fielding.
The firft female children were admitted in July, 1758;
and they are inftrufted in fuch a manner as to render them
moft ufeful to fociety. This building Hands at an angle,
formed by the meetings of the WellminlUr-road from the
Borough to the Stone's-End, and the Jireft road to Kcn-
nington and Vauxhali.

A httle farther on the north fide of the Wcftminfter-road
is a neat modern edifice, called the Freemalons' Charity-
School, appropriated for female children from five to ten
years of age ; though no child who has not had the fmall-
pox, or who has any dcfcft in her fight or luiibs, or is weak
3? 2 or

SOUTHWARK.

cr fickly, can be admitted. Every child applying for ad-
miflion, muft produce a certificate from the mafter and
wardens of the lodge in which her father was made a malon,
with a certificate of the marriage of her parents. Sixty
girls are maintained and educated in this benevolent mftitu-
tion, which owes its origin to the philanthropic mind of the
late chevalier Bartholomew Rufpini, of Pail-Mall.

To the fouthward of this, and on the fcite of the Dog
and Duck tea-gardens, is a noble edifice, the new Bethlehem
hofpital, which coil about 150,000/. in building. The
edifice is large, commodious, and admirably adapted to its
deftination. It is intended to accommodate 400 patients,
and has very recently been completed from the defigns of
James Lewis, efq., architeft. It was commenced in 1 8 1 2, is
about 580 feet in length, and is built chiefly with brick, hav-
ing Itone dreffings, a bold portico in the centre, and a dome.
About twelve acres of garden ground, &c. attach to this
hofpital, where fome of the patients are allowed to exercife.
Among the important improvements and reformations of the
prefent time, is the humane and rational fyftem of managing
infane patients, that has been very recently adopted ; and
in the further improvement of which the Englifli legiflature is
now engaged. See Bethlehem Hospital.

At the point of conflux of the London, Weft;miniler, and
Blackfriars-roads, we find an extenfive range of buildings
for the protedlion and fupport of the indigent blind, main-
tained, like the other inlUtutions that we have mentioned,
by voluntary contributions. The unfortunate objefts are
taught to manufadture baflfets, clothes-lines, and fafti-cord,
which are fold at the fchool. See Blindness.

On the right-hand fide of the London-road Hands the
building belonging to the Philanthropic Society, incor-
porated in 1806. See Philanthropic Society.

Near Cuper's bridge is eltabliflied the Refuge for the
Deftitute. The objeft of this molt benign and excellent
charity is to provide a place of refuge for perfons difcharged
from prifon, or the hulks, unfortunate and deferted females,
and others, who, from Infs of charaSer, or extreme indi-
gence, cannot procure an honeft maintenance, though will-
ing fo to do. They are engaged in ufeful trades and manu-
faftures fuited to their fexes ; and as an incitement to good
conduct, a certain portion of their earnings is fet apart, and
allowed them, if difcharged with credit to themfelves.

Prifens, Isfc At the end of the Borough High-ftreet

is St. Margaret's Hill, the fcite of the ancient church of
the fame name ; which, being forfaken on the union of the
parilh with St. Saviour's, was converted into a fefGons-
houfe and prifon, fince removed to Mill-lane, and called the
Borough compter. The whole has lately bten rebuilt, but
has nothing worthy of particular notice. In the front,
facing Black man-ltreet, which is a continuation of the
High-ftreet, the huilings for the eleftion of reprefentatives
for this borough are ufually eretled. On the oppofite fide
of the itreet w?s the Tabard Inn, which was the refidence
of the abbots of Hyde, in Hampfiiire, whenever bufiuefs or
their parliamentary duty required their prefence in the me-
tropolis. This was the houte celebrated by Chaucer as the
place of rendezvous for pilgrims r^^airing to Becket's
fhrine at Canterbury ; and the very building defcribed by
bim exilted till 1 676, when it was burnt, with the feffions-
houfe, aud other contiguous edifices. When rebuilt, it was
ignorantly called The Talbot, under an idea that this was
the fame with Tabard ; and by that appellation it ftill con-
tinues ti-) be kiiown.

On the north fide of Tooley-ftreet, next to the Thames,
is the Bridge-houfe, a foundation which feems to be coeval
with London-bridge j having been ufed as a ftore-houfe for

II

ftone, timber, and other materials employed in its repairs.
It is under the fuperintendance of two officers, called
bridge-mafters, who are elefted by the livery of London.
Below the Bridge-houfe, on the banks of the Thames,
Hood the inn of the abbot of Battle. The fpot, ilill called
Battle-bridge, was thus named from a bridge over a water-
courfe flowing out of the Thames, built and repaired by
this prelate, on whofe ground it was fituated. In the front
of this manfion were the gardens belonging to it ; the recol-
leftion of whofe embellifliment is yet perpetuated by the
Maze, and the Maze-pond.

On the eaft; fide of Blackman-ftreet is the Marfbalfea,
a court of law and a prifon, originally intended for the de-
termination of caufes and differences between the king's
menial fervants, and under the controul of the knight-
marlhal of the royal houfehold. It had particular cog-
nizance of murders and other offences committed within the
king's court. To thi"; place alfo, perions guilty of piracies
and other off^ences on the high feas are committed, though
the offenders are tried at the Old Bailey, iu London. The
prifon, which contains about fixty rooms, is too fmall, and
much out of repair. In 1377 it w-as broken open by a
mob of failors, and four years afterwards by Wat Tyler's
followers. It efcaped, however, in the riots of 1780,
though the King's Bench, the Borough prifon, and the
Clink, were all at that time the objedls of popular fury. See
Court of Marjhaljea.

The county-gaol and houfe of correftion is fituated in
Horlemonger-lane, at the fouth-eaft end of Blackman-
llreet. This gaol, which has been recently built, is ex-
clufively for the county of Surrey. It was rendered re-
markable in the year 1802, when colonel Edward Marcus
Defpard, and fix of his adbciates, were hanged upon a
platform on the top of the gaol, being convicted of high
treafon, upon the evidence of an accomphce. The heads
of thele wretched perfons were fevered from their bodies,
and held up to the view of the fpcftators, numbers of whom
fainted at the <ight.

At the fouth-weft end of Blackman-ftreet is the prifon
of the King's Bench, a place of confinement for debtors,
and for all perfons fentenced by that court to fuffer im-
prifonment. It confifts of one large pile of brick buildings,
comprehending 224 rooms. The fouth centre has a pedi-
ment, under which is a chapel. The place is furrounded
by a brick wall about thirty feet high, defended by che-uaux
de frife ; without which the marlhal, or keeper of the prifon,
has very handfome apartments. Priforers in any other gaol
may remove here by habeas corpus. The liberties, or rulesy
as they are termed, extend about three miles round the
prifon ; and the right of refiding in any part of them may
be purchafed by debtors at the rate of ten guineas for the
firil hundred pounds, and about half as much for each
fucceeding hundred pounds, of the fums for which they are
in cuftody. Day-rules, of which three may be obtained in
every term, may be purchafed for four Ihillings and two-
pence the firlt day, and three fliillings and ten-pence the
others. Each perlon mull alfo give good fecurity to the
marflial. The day-rules, however, only authorife the pri-
foner to go out on the days for which they are bought.
The infide of tliis extenfive prilon refumbles a fmall town,
from the circumllance of its being furnilhed with butchers'
ftiops, bakers', green-ftalls, Ike. ; while the throng of
people coiiftantly at play give it the appearance of a fair.
See Court of king's Bench.

The Clink wab a gaol at Bankfide for the confinement of
fuch as ftiould " brabble, fray, or break the peace on the
faid bank, or in the brothel-houfes." This prifon itiU

exifts.

SOUTHWARK.

exifts, and has been reprefented as a filthy, noifome dun-
geon. The bifhop of Wincheftei's fteward tries pleas of
debt, damages, or trefpafs within the Clink liberty for any
fum.

Palaces, Theatres, &c. — Contiguous to the priory of St.
Mary Overy, and nearly at the foot of London-bridge, was
fituated the bifhop of Wincheftcr's palace. The houfe was
built about 1 107, by William Gifford, at that time biftiop of
Winchefter, upon a piece of ground belonging to the prior
of Bermondfey. Bifhop Beaufort, uncle to Henry VI., on
being created a cardinal on his return from France, was met
by the mayor and aldermen of London, and condufted by
them in great pomp to this his palace in Southwark. During
the civil wars this place was for fome time a prifon for the
royalifts. Sir Francis Doddington and fir KeneJm Digby
were both confined here at once ; and here the latter wrote
his book on " Bodies, &c." Winchefter houfe was fold
by parliament, in 1649, to Thomas Walker of Cemberwell,
for 4380/. 8.f. 3</. with the park included. The buildings,
in the old plans of London, appear to have formed two
court-yards, with various offices, &c. The fouth fide was
bounded by beautiful gardens, ftatues, fountains, &c. ;
the north fide by the river ; the eafl by the monaitery of
St. Saviour ; and the weft by the Bear-gardens. The
greater part of the building, which is ftill remaining, is
occupied by corn-lofts, warehoufes, &c.

What is now denominated Bankfide, was formerly a range
of dwellings, licenfed by the bifhops of Winchefter " for
the repair of incontinent men to the hke women," and de-
nominated the Bordello, or (Icw-houfes. Thefe brothels were
fubjeft to various laws and regulations enafted by parlia-
ment ; among which we find the following : " that they
were to be kept flint on Sundays and holidays ; that no
married women ihould be received into them ; that no man
Ihould be drawn or enticed thither ; and that no ftew-
holder fhould keep any woman who had on her the venereal
difeafe, then termed the ' perilous infirmity of burning,' or
fell bread, ale, fifh, or any viftuals." (See Burning.) In
4 Rich. II. thefe houfes, then belonging to fir William Wal-
worth, lord mayor of London, were rented ef him by froes,
or bawds, of Flanders, and were deltroyed by the Kentifh
rebels under Wat Tyler. It feems probable, that refent-
ment for the perfonal injury fuftained on this occafion may
have had its fhare, as well as loyalty, in producing the ac-
tion for which Walworth is particularly diftmguifhed. The
ordinances refpefting thefe houfes were, however, again
confirmed by Henry VI. ; but in 1J06 they were for fome
time uninhabited. It was not long, however, before they
were again opened, that is, fo many as were permitted ;
" for whereas," fays Fabian, " before were eighteen houfes,
from thenceforth were appointed to be ufed but twelve
only.'-' Thefe privileged flews had figns painted on the
fronts, which looked towards the Thames ; as the boar's
head, the crofs keys, the gun, the cardinal's hat, &c.
Stow relates, that the women who frequented them were
forbidden the rites of the church, and excluded from
Chriftian burial, unlefs they were reconciled to it before
they died. A plot of ground, called the Single Women's
church-yard, at fome dillance from tlic parifh church, was
therefore appointed for their interment. In 1 546, thefe
flews were fupprcfled by Henry VIII. ; and it was pro-
claimed by found of trumpet, that they fliould be no longer
privileged and ufed as a common brotlicl, but that the in-
habitants were to keep good and honcft rules, as in other
places of this realm.

Not far from St. George's church flood the magnificent
palace of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, the dcferviog

favourite of Henry VIII. After his death, in ic+r, it
devolved to the king, who eftablifhed here a royal mint.
At that time it was called Southwark Place, and in great
meafure preferved its dignity. Edward VI. once dined in
It. His filler and fucceffor prefented it to Heath, arch-
bifhop of York, as an inn or refidence for him and his fac-
cefiors whenever they repaired to London. As to the mint.
It became a fanftuary for infolvcnt debtors ; and at length,
becoming the pefl of the neighbourhood, by giving fhelter
to villains of all forts, it aroufed the attention of parliament;
which, by the ilatutes 8 & 9 Will. III. and 9 & 1 1 Geo. I.
entirely took away its abufed privileges.

In the parifh of Chriftchurch, near the water on the
Bankfide, flood Paris Garden, one of the ancient play,
houfes of our metropolis. Ben Jonfon is reproached by
Dekker, an envious critic, with his ill fuccefs on the ftage ;
and, in particular, with having performed the part of Zuh-
man at Paris Garden. It feems to have been much fre-
quented on Sundays. This profanation, however, was at
length fully punilhed by a dire accident which befel the
fpedtators in 1582 ; when the fcaffolding fuddenly fell, and
multitudes of people were killed or mifcrably maimed. The
omen feems to have been accepted ; for in the next century
the manor of Pans Garden was ereded into a parifh, and a
church founded under the name of Chrill's church.

Near this fcene of amiifement were the Bear-garden,
and a place for baiting of bulls. " Herein (Stow tells us)
were kept bears, bulb, and other beafh to be baited, as alfo
maftives in feveral kennels nourifhed to bait them. Thefe
bears and other bcafls are there kept in plots of ground
fcaffolded about for the beholders to fland fafe." This was
at that time an amufement for perfons of the firil rank : our
great Ehzabeth caufed the French ambafladors to be car-
ried to this theatre, to divert them with thefe bloody
fpeftacles.

Not far from the fpot in which the Bear-garden was, near
Banlcfide, is Globe-alley ; fo called from that theatre which
flourifhed in 1603, with a licence under the privy feal,
granted by James I. to Shakfpeare, Fletcher, Burbage,
Heming, &c. and where the plays of our inimitable Shak-
fpeare were firfl reprefented. See Pi..\viiousE.

About ten years after it had been licenfed, " by the ne-
gligent difcharging of a peal of ordnance, clofe to the fouth
fide thereof (fays Stow), the thatch took fire, and in a
very fliort fpace the whole building was quite confumed,
and no man hurt, the houfe being Idled with people to be-
hold the play of Henry VIII." In the following fpring it
was rebuilt ; but in the next reign it fell int.j difrcpute.
See an interefting account of and difquifition on the Globe
theatre and the old playhoulcs in the Gentleman's iVlaga-
zine for 18 16, and in Malone's and Chalmer's accounts of
the Englifh flage, in the third volume of the edition of
Shakfpeare's Plays, 1813.

St. George's Field.s, which have borne their fhare of
celebrity in ancient times, having frequently been the fcene
of grandeur and cavalcade, and foiiietimes the rendezvous
of rebellion and tumult, and which, lefs than half a century
ago, were mere marfhes, and only pallable to foot-palTenctcrs,
are now ahnolt covered with newly-creited buildings, from
the ditch at the end of Great Surroy-dreet, or Burrow's
buildings, to the Fifhiiionger's alma-iioufes, in one direc-
tion ; and from the Marlhallea prilon to the lato Dog and
Duck, ill the other direction ; with feveral irregular inden-
tions ill its circumference. Where the principal road- meet,
an Obelifk was ereftod in 1 771, in honour of Brafs Cri;fby,
cfq. the patriotic lord mayor of London, wlio had been con-
fined in the Tower, with alderman Oliver, for the coufcien-

tious

sou

tious difcharge of his magifterial duty. An iiifcription on
one fide of it exprefles the caufe of its erection ; and thofe
on the other three fides mark the diftances from Fleet-flreet,
London and Weftminller bridges. This obelifk is about
a mile from the one at the end of Bridge-ftreet, on the city-
fide of Blackfriars-bridge.

One of the new bridges for which afts of parliament have
recently been obtained, is defigned to crofs the Thames from
the bottom of Queen-ftreet, Cheapfide, to Bankfide, and
to be called the Southwark bridge : it is alfo propofed to
form a handfome ftreet from the foot of it to St. Margaret's
Hill.

In Union-ftreet, northward of the mint, is Union-hall,
a handfome ftrufture, appropriated to the purpofes of a
police office for the Borough.

At the foot of Blackfriars-bridge is a large range of
buildings, which were erefted by a company of gentlemen
fome years fince, with a view of counterafting the impolitions
too common in grinding of corn. There was a fteam-engine,
made by Medrs. Boulton and Watt, of Birmingham, which
turned ten pair of ftones, each pair grinding nine bulhels of
corn every hour, without intermiffion by day or night ; be-
fides which, it gave motion to the various apparatus for
hoiiling and lowering the corn and flour out of and into
the barges ; for fanning the corn, to keep it free from im-
purities ; and for fifting and drefling the meal from its firlt
ftate, till perfeftly cleared for the ufe of the baker. The
accidental burning of thefe mills, on the 3d of March 1791,
forms a kind of epoch among the remarkable fires that have
occurred in and about the metropolis. Such a body of light
and heat was fcarcely ever known as difplayed itfelf on this
occafion. The fire broke out about fix in the morning, and
burnt with fuch amazing rapidity, that the houfe of the
fuperintendant, at one corner of the building, was all that
efcaped the fury of the flames. Out of 4000 facks of
flour, 36 only were faved. The front, &c. remained fome
years unrepaired ; but the whole range has lately been formed
into a row of handfome private houfes.

On the oppofite fide is Albion-place, containing the
houfe belonging to the Britifli plate-glafs manufaftory.
This company, incorporated in 1773, carries on a flourifliing
concern here, and at their works at Raveiihead, in Lan-
cafliire.

On the weft fide of Blackfriars-road, near the bridge, is
the building occupied a few years fince by fir Afhton Lever's
mufeum, removed thither from Leiceiler-fquare, when, by
lottery, it became the property of Mr. Parkinfon. This
aftonifhing coUeftion of fubjefts of natural hiltory here ex-
perienced the moft mortifying neglefk, till, in 1806, it was
finally difperfed by public audion, in a fale which latted 40
days. The premifes are now occupied by the Surrey Infti-
tution, one of thofe ufeful eltabhfliments which are intended
to promote the ditfufion of fcience, literature, and the arts,
and which was opened March 25, 1808.

Surrey chapel, on the eail fide of Blackfriars-road, is a
large octagonal building, for the ufe of Proteftants of the
Methodill perfuafion, under the Rev. Mr. Rowland Hill,
a rather eccentric preacher, but a molt worthy man. It
is calculated to hold nearly 50GO perfons, and can feldom
contain the numbers that flock to it for admittance. The
organ, by Elliot, has been much admired for its fweetnefs
of tone, as well as for its extenfive powers : it has, in fadt,
faeenaflerted, that on the performance of one of the hymns
defcriptive of thunder, many of the congregation have
fainted.

The Royal Circus is fituated at the end of Blackfriars-
road, near the Obelilli, before-mentioned. It originated in

SOU

a fubfcription in favour of Mr. Hughes, a riding-mafter,
who, in conjunftion with the late Mr. Dindin, exhibited
ballets, pantomimes, and horfemanfhip, with confiderable
fuccefs. Through fome difagreement this houfe was feve-
ral years fhut up ; but was at length opened by MelTrs.
Jones and Crofs. In Auguft 1805, the whole building was
confumed by fire, but in the courfe of the following year
it was rebuilt in a manner fuperior in tafte and elegance to
the former ftrufture. Under the management of Mr. El-
lifton, of Drurylane theatre, the exhibition of horfemanlhip
was abolifiied ; and, with the new appellation of the Surrey
theatre, this place has acquired more of the fpirit and cha-
racter of the legitimate drama. Bray's Hiftory and Anti-
quities of Surrey, 3 vols, folio. Defcription of Surrey in
the 14th vol. of the Beauties of England, &c. by F. Scho-
berl, 1 8 13. Picture of London, 1815. Pennant's Ac-
count of London. Oldfield's Reprefentative Hiftory of
Great Britain, 6 vols. 8vo. 1816. See the article Lon-
don, in a preceding part of this work ; alfo La.mbeth,
Surrey, Newington-Butts, and Rotherhithe.

Southwark, Eajl, atownftiip of Pennfylvania, in Phi-
ladelphia county ; containing 7264 inhabitants.

Southwark, Wejl, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Phi-
ladelphia ; containing 6443 inhabitants.

SOUTH WASHINGTON, a town of North Caro-
lina, on the N.E. branch of Cape Fear river, which is navi-
gable fo far for boats ; 36 miles from Winnington.

SOUTHWELL, or Swell, called Suthell, an ancient
market-town and parilh in the wapentake of Thurgarton,
and county of Nottingham, England, is 14 miles N.E. of
the county-town, and 138 N.N.W. from London. It is
feated on 3 gentle eminence, on the bank of the river Greet,
celebrated for its red trout. Some writers have conjeftureJ
it to have been the Ad Pontem of the Romans, but without
fufficient grounds of authenticity. There is, however, an
ancient intrenchraent in the vicinity. Its modern appella-
tion is faid by Dugdale to owe its origin to a fpring or well
to the fouthward of the church. The governmi'nt of the
town is divided between the clergy, called prebends, and
laity, or juftices : the former exercifing authority over one
part of the town, called the Prebendage, including the col-
legiate church and its property ; and the latter over the
oclier part, called the Burgage, which comprehends all that
part between the market-place and the river. Tlie' cuftos-
rotulorum,and the magiftrates for this jurifdiftion, who are
nominated by the archbifliop of York, and conftituted by a
commilTion under the great feal, hold their feflions both at
Southwell and at Scrooby, and perform all other judiciary
adts diftinft from the county. A collegiate church is faid
to have been founded here by Paulinus, archbilliop of York,
about the year 630, and this feems to have been always under
the patronage of the prelates of that fee, though the firlt
i^rant we meet with of this is by king Eadwy to archbifliop
Ofcytel, in 958. It appears by Domefday book, that
here were feveral canons at the Conqueft, but the number of
fixteen was not fettled till the next century, and fo many con-
tinue to this day ; for though the then archbifhop furrendered
this church to king Henry VIII., 1540, yet he eftablilhed
the chapter fhortly after, and endowed it with the greateil
part of its ancient pofleflions ; and though it fuffercd again
in tiie time of Edward VI., it was reitored by Elizabeth,
and confirmed by James I.

The collegiate church is a large, ancient, and very curious
edifice. It confifts of a nave, with two aides, two towers at
the weft end, a tranfept, a choir with aifles, and a chapter-
houfe. The extreme length from E. to W. is 306 feet,
width of tranfept from N. to S. 12 1 feet, and breadth of

sou

nave 59 feet. The oldeft parts, the nave, wefteni towers,
and tranfept, are commonly laid to be of Saxon architefture,
built during the fliort reign of Harold ; but we (hould rather
refer them to an age after the Norman conquelt. The
choir, with its fplendid (tone (tails, as well as the very beau-
tiful chapter-houfe, are all about the date of Edward III.'s
reign. Between the nave and the choir is a ftone fcreen of
very elaborate workmanlhip, with niches, pilafters, pinnacles,
crockets, &c. A large alabafter altar-tomb is raifed in tliis
church to the memory of archbifhop Sandys. In the
church-yard was a college for chanting-ptiells. Here is
now a free-fchool, under the care and government of the
chapter, who choofes the mafter. Two fellowfhips and two
fcholarlhips in St. John's college, Cambridge, are in the
prefentation of Southwell college. Thefe were founded by
Dr. Keton, canon of Salifbury, in the time of Henry VHI.
The archbifliops of York formerly had a palace here, fituated
on the fouth fide of the church-yard, and which was once a
large and elegant building : the ruins of it are ftill extenfive,
but diverted of all its architeftural forms. Some windows,
and a circularchimney of the age of Henry VIII. , yet remain,
and being deeply overlhadowed with ivy and embofomed in
trees, add much to the romantic beauty of the place. The
archiepifcopal parks were once four in number ; or, accord-
ing to Leland, three ; but they have been divided and en-
clofed fince the deltruftion of the palace in the civil war of
Charles I. During thofe unhappy times the king was often
here ; and the town frequently experienced the fate of war.
Southwell, according to the population return of 181 1,
contained 561 houfes, occupied by 2674 perfons : though
not a place of much trade, it has a refpeftable market
on Saturdays, and an annual fair. Dickinfon's Hiftory
and Antiquities of Southwell, ^to. 1787. At the end
of Dugdale's Hiftory of St. Pauls, is an account of the
church of Southwell. Thoroton's Hiftory, &c. of Notting-
hamfhire, by Throlby, in 3 vols. 4to. 1790.

SOUTH WEST Point, a poft-town of TenefTee, at
the confluence of the Clinch with Teneftee river, where a
block-houfeis crefted ; 40 miles from Knoxville.

SOUTHWICK, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of
Maftachufetts, and county of Hampfhire ; iio miles from
Bofton : incorporated in 1770, and containing 1229 inha-
bitants.

SOUTHWIST. See Wist.

SOUTHWOLD, a market-town in the hundred of
Blything, and county of Suffolk, England, is fituated on
an eminence overlooking the German ocean, but nearly fur-
rounded by the river Blyth, which hire difcharges itfelf into
the fen. Its ancient name was Sudwald, or Southwood. It
is diftant from Ipfwich 36 miles N.E., and 105 miles, in the
fame bearing, from London. The manor was an ancient
donation from Alfric, biftiop of the Eaft Angles, to the
abbey of Bury St. Edmunds, by which it was held for the
viftualling of the monks. From the dimenfions of this
manor given in Domefday Survey, Gardner, in his Hiftory
of Dunwich, calculates that the fea has fince gained upon
this coalt one mile, one furlong, and nineteen perches. In
the tenth year of Henry IV. South wold was exempted
from the payment of any cuftoms or tolls, for their fmall
boats, pafting in or out of the river or port of Dunwich.
Henry VII., in confideration of the induflry and good fer-
vices of the men of Sonthwold, made the town a free burgh
or corporation, to be governed by two bailiffs, a recorder,
and twelve aldermen ; to whom and the commonalty he gave
liis lorddiip, called Queen'"! demefne revenues, and alfo the
privilege of admiralty, for the annual payment of 14/. He
further granted them exemption from all dues and culloras

SOU

payable to Dunwich, and conferred on the town the rights
of a haven, which probably caufed the denomination ofthe
port of Dunwich to be changed to that of Southwold.
Henry VIII. not only confirmed all his father's grants, but
added many gifts, franchifes, and immunities. Thefe royal
favours gave great encouragement to the trade and naviga-
tion of the town, of which the fifhery conftituted a material
part, being carried on by merchants, who annually fitted
out vefiels for taking cod and other fifh in the North fea.
The herring-fiftiery off their own coaft was highly condu-
cive to the profperity of the town. Though in fome degree
affefted by the diflolution of religious houfes, yet South-
wold retained an extenfive trade, and furpaffed all the neigh-
bouring towns in fhipping and commerce. But the greateil
calamity that ever befel it was on the 25th of April, 1659,
when a fire, heightened by a violcHt wind, confumed, in the
fpace of a few hours, the town-hall, market-houfe, prifon,
t(ranaries, warehoufes, and 238 dwelling-houfes, and other
buildings, with the principal part of the goods and merchan-
dize of the inhabitants ; the total lofs exceeded 40,00c/. to
the ruin of more than 300 families, fo that the town never
recovered its former importance. About a century after-
wards the commerce was confiderably improved : the en-
trance to the haven being fubjeft to be choaked up, an aft of
parhament was obtained for repairing and improving it : one
pier was erefted on the north fide of the port in 1749, and
another on the fouth in 1752. The eftabliftiment of the
Free Britifh Fiftiery, about the fame time, alfo contributed
to the profperity of the town ; two docks were conftructcd,
and various buildings erefted for making nets and depofiting
ftores. A chapel appears to have been built here in the
reign of king John, by the prior and monks of Thetford,
who were patrons of the church of Reydon, to which
Southwold was then only a hamlet. This chapel being de-
ftroyedby fire about 220 years after its ereftion, the prefent
edifice was erefted about 1460, and was then made parochial,
and in 1751 was feparated from Reydon, and made a dif-
tinft curacy. The length of this fabric is 143 feet ; the
width 56 feet : it has two ailles, feparated from the nave
by feven arches, and fix pillars of elegant workmanlhip.
The tower, about 100 feet in height, is a fine piece of ar-
chitcfture. Though Southwold has many good houfes, it
has no other building worthy of particular notice. On the
chffs are two batteries, one of which is a regular fortifica-
tion, with a par:ipct and fix guns ; the other has but two.
On a hill called Eye-hill, veftigcs arc feen of an ancient en-
campment, which Gardner conjeftures to have been a camp
ofthe Danes, when they invaded the country in lOlO- The
population of Southwold in the year l8il was returned to
parliament as 1369; the houfes 326. A rcfpeftable mar-
ket is held on Thurfday ; and here are two annual fairs.

Southwold-bay, commonly called Sole-bay, is celebrated
as the fcene of a moll obftinate and fanguinary engagement
in 1 672, between the combined fleets of England and France
on one fide, and the Dutch on the other. The former, con-
fifting of loi fail, were lying in this bay on the 28lh of
May, when the Dutch fleet, coinpofed of 91 men of war,
54 fire-fhips, and 23 tenders, commanded by the famous
De Ruytcr, bore down upon them lo unexpeftedly, that
many of the (hips were obliged to cut thiii- cables, that
they might g<t out more expeditioully, and arrange in order
of battle. The French bore but a (in.ill part in the engage-
ment, which was vehemently ccinlefted by the Englllh and
Dutch during the whole of the day, till at nine at night,
the Dutch vefiels being dreadfully fliattercd, were obliged
to retreat, and the Englilh, ii.iving ei|u,illy furthered, were
not in a condition to purfue them. lu this conflict the Eng-

9 lith

sow

lifh lolt fix (hips, and about 2003 men killed and wounded.
The Dutch loft only three (hips ; their lofs in men mutt have
been very great, but the States forbade the pubhcation.
Hiftorical Account of Dunwich, &c. 410. 1754. Beauties
of En^'land and Wales, vol. xiv. Su{rolk, by F. Schoberl.

SOUTO Major, a town of Portugal, m the province
of Beira ; 14 miles N.W. of Pinhel.

SOUTOUX, an Indian village of Louifiana, on the
W. fide of the Miffifippi river, oppofite to the Nine-mile
Rapids, and 28 above Riviere de la Roche. N. lat.

41° 50'. , . .,

SOUTSONE, a town of Little Bucharia ; ijo miles

W.N.W. of Ca(hgar. „ ■ ^ n.

SOUVERABO, a town of Africa, on the Grain Coatt.
SOUVERINHO, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Alentejo ; i 7 miles W.N.W. of O Crato.

SOUVIGNY, a town of France, in the department of
the Allier, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Moulins; 6 miles W. of Moulins. The place contains
2659, and tiie canton 10,022 inhabitants, on a territory of
340 kiliometres, in 1 1 communes.

SOUZA, Louis de, in Biography, a Portuguefe writer,
born at Santarem, v/as fon of a man of rank, governor of
the calUe of St. George de la Mina. He was educated to
the profeffion of arms, and ferved firft in the order of Malta,
when he was taken prifoner by the Turks. After recover-
ing his liberty, he ferved with the troops in America and the
Eall Indies. After this he married, but the lofs of a child
and other afflifting circumltances imprelTed both him and his
wife with a fpirit of devotion, and they took the religious
habit in the Dominican order, De Souza changing his bap-
tifmal name of Manuel for that of Louis. He had already
acquired a good (hare of hterature, and had written an ele-
gant preface to the Latin poems of Falcone. He was,
therefore, chofen to write the hiftory of his order in Portu-
gal in the vernacular tongue, of which he printed the firft
volume, folio, in 1623. From his papers two other volumes
were printed after his death. He was author alfo of the
♦' Life of Dom. Bartholemew, one of the Martyrs," print-
ed in 1 61 9, and of which a French tranflation has been
given ; and " A Hiftory of John III. King of Portugal,"
which has not been publilhed. De Souza is accounted one
of the beft writers of his country.

SOW, in Geography, a river of England, in the county
of Stafford, which runs into the Trent, 3 miles E. of Staf-
ford.— Alfoy a river of England, in the county of Stafford,
which runs into the Avon, 4 miles N. of Warwick.
Sow, in Zoology. See Sus, Hoc, and Swine.
Sow, in the Iron-iuoris, the name of the block or lump
of metal they work at once in the iron-furnace. The fize
of thefe fows of iron is very different, even from the fame
workmen and the fame furnace. Thefe furnaces having
fand-ftone for their hearths and fides, up to the height of a
yard, and the reft being made of brick, the hearth, by the
force of the fire, is continually growing wider ; fo that if
it at firft contains as much metal as will make a fow of 6 or
7 cwt., at laft it will contain as much as will make a fow
of 20 cwt.

Sow, in Ancltnl Military Language, a kind of covered
filed, fixed on wheels, under which the befiegers filled up
and pafled the ditch, fapped or mined the wall, and fome-
times worked a kuid of ram.

Some fay it derived its name from the foldiers lying
under it clofe together, like pigs under a fow ; though
another reafon is given for that appellation, namely, its
being applied to digging and rooting up the earth. The
former was alluded to by the countefs who defended the

SOW

cattle of Dunbar againft king Edtvjrd III., when flie
threatened, that unlefs the Englifiimen kept their fow bet-
ter, (he would make her call her pigs. Camden, who men-
tions this circumftance, fays, " the fow is yet ufcd in Ire-
land." Two machines, the one called the boar and the
other the fow, were employed by the parliamentarians in the
fiege of Corfe-caftle, Dorfetfhire. The fow was fimilar in
conttruftion to the Callus, (which fee), cat-houfe, or cat,
fo called becaufe under it foldiers lay in watch, like a cat
for its prey ; fome of thefe cats had crenelles and chinks,
from whence the archers could difcharge their arrows ; thefe
were called caftclbted cats.

Sow, or Hop-fo-w, in Agr'icullure, a name appli' \ in fome
dittridts, as in the county of Effex, to a tool or contrivance
for pulling or forcing up hop-poles out of the earth in
which they have been fixed. It is conftruded of a ftout
ttrong tapering fort of pole or (take, about three inches in
diameter, and five feet in length, to which, at the dillance
ef nearly a foot from thelowc" or larger end, is firmly fixed
and clinched a (mail bar of iron, about half an inch Iquare,
and a foot long, which is bent nearly in the middle, fo as to
form an acute angle with the (lake, four inches or rather
more being open at the upper end of it, which make a fort
of hook with the ftake, by which the pole io grafped, and
the infide of the iron bar being raifed and coughed by the
fmith, fomewhat in the manner of teeth, when fixed upon
the lower end of the hop-pole, near the furface of the
ground, is enabled to bite and hold it faft ; when, by the
lower end of the tool being made to reft upon the ground
on the oppofite fide of the hop-pole to that on which the
workman Hands, and the whole ading as a lever, is readily,
and with facility, made to raife or hft the hop-pole out of its
focket in the fohd ground, though it may be fet a foot or
more into it.

It is a fimple, cheap, and effedlive invention for accom-
pli(hing this neceffary purpofe in hop-management. In the
county of Kent, the implement employed in the fame in-
tention is denominated a hop-dog ; and thofe in other hop
diitrifts have molt probably the fame name given to them.
See Hop.

Sow-BreaJ, in Botany, &c. See Cyclamen.

The roots of the round-leaved fow-bread with a purple
under-fide, have a naufeous, acrid, biting tafte : by drying
their acrimony is abated ; neverthelefs, when taken inter-
nally, they betray a great degree of irritating power.
Dried and powdered they have been given in dofes of a
drachm, and found to operate as a ftrong, inflammatory,
but (low cathartic. The juice is faid to purge when applied
externally to the belly in ointment ; and the juice or bruifed
root to be of great efficacy for foftening and difcuffing indo-
lent hard tumours. The flowers are of a different nature,
and have not been ufed medicinally ; and the ufe of the
roots is now, among us, in a great meafure, laid afide.
Lewis.

Sov/-Th'i/lle. See Sonchus.

The common fow-thiftle has been much recommended by
authors as a refrigerant and attenuant. It was prefcribed
by many of the old phyficians in ftranguries, and other dif-
orders of the urinary paffages ; and ordered externally in
cataplafms, in all kinds of inflammations.

Sovf-Thi^le, Downy. See Andryala.

Sow and Pigs, in Geography, rocks in the German fea,
near the E. coaft of England, and the county of Northum-
berland ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Blythe. N. lat. ^f 9'.
W. long. 1° 12'. — Alfo, rocks on the coaft of Maffachu-
fetts, in Buzzard's bay, lying off the SW. end of Catahank
ill and.

SOWAGE-

sow

s o w

SOWAGEPOUR, a town of Hindoollan, in Baliar ;

27 miles N.N.W. of Hajypour.

SOWERBjEA, in Botany, was fo named, by the writer
of the prefent article, in commemoration of liis friend and
fellow labourer, Mr. James Sowerby, F.L.S., &c. an ex-
cellent botanift and artilt, to whofe accuracy and acutenefs
of obfervation he acknowledges himfelf to have been often
indebted, in the courfe of his own botanical lludies and
publications ; and to whom various other authors have been
no lefs obliged. — Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 218. Ait.
v.'2. 231. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. 1. 285. — Clafs and
order, Triandr'ia Monogytiia. Nat. Ord. Spathacea, Linn.
Afphodeli, Jud.

Ger.. Ch. Cal. Common Sheath of feveral membranous,
permanent fcales ; the outer ones ovatc^, concave ; inner in
many fine fegnients. Cor. Petals fix, ovate, equal, perma-
nent ; three of them interior. Stam. Filaments fix, (hort,
broad, flattened, obtufe, three of them barren ; anthers
three, on the three filaments oppofite to the interior petals,
oblong, each of two linear fpreading lobes, of one cell,
nightly connefted a little above their bafe only, divaricated
at each end, permanent. Pi/i. Germen fuperior, roundifli,
with three furrows ; ftyle thread-fiiaped, permanent ; iligma
fimple. Perk. Capfule roundilh, three-lobed, of three cells
and three valves ; the partitions from the centre of each
valve. Seeds one or two in each cell, angular, rough.

Eff. Ch. Sheath of many valves. Petals fix. Stigma
fimple. Anthers with dilunited cells. Three alternate
filaments barren. Seeds nearly folitary.

I. S.juncea. Rufh-leaved Sowerbxa. Sm. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 5. 159. t. 6. Ait. n. I. Br. n. i. Kcr in Curt.
Mag. t. 1104. Andr. Repof. t. 81. — Native of Port .Tack-
fon, New South Wales. Firlt cultivated by MelTrs. Lcc
and Kennedy, in 1792. It is a hardy greenhoufe herbaceous
plant, flowering in the early part of fummer, and cafiiy
increafed by parting its fibreus perennial roots n\ tlie fpring,
planting them in peat-earth. The whole herb is fmooth,
deftitute of a item. Leaves numerous, radical, fheathing,
ereft, linear, acute ; channelled above ; femi-cylindrical be-
neath ; their (heaths crowned internally with a fimple mem-
branous ^//i»/rt, like that of a grafs. Sta!i folitary, ertft,
fimple, above a foot high, taller tlian the leaves, bearing a
rather denfe umbel, of copious, elegant, rofe-coloured,
fcentlefs Jloiuers, much refembling thofe of feveral fpecies
of AU'mm, on capillary partial_^a//.f, each of which has, as
Mr. Brown remarks, a joint under the flower. The capfules
become pendulous as they ripen, each enclofcdin its fliining,
fcarcely altered, corolla. Anthers yellow.

The authority of Mr. Brown, who ha:- examined this
plant in its native country, induces us to correift feme of
our ideas concerning it, which indeed had never been very
firmly imprcfled in our mind. The cells of the anthers prove
to be fimple, and though they firlt open at the top, by a
feeming pore, they foon fpht all the way down, by a furrow,
which gives them the appearance of being two-celled.
Though nearly feparate, therefore, through their whole
length, thele cells together conllitute but one anther, as in
the ScitamiN£;e, fee that article, whole cells arc ftill fur-
ther disjoined. The genus of Sozuerhita is, neverlhelefs,
perfeftly dillmdt, though nearly related to Allium. The
herb, when bruifcd, has no peculiar fceiit.

SOWING, in Ajirkidtiire, the aft of fcatterliig, or
putting the feeds of grain, plants, &c. on or into the
ground, in order to their producing crops. See SKi;r>.

With regard to the period or feaion of lowing, or ])iitting
crop? into the foil, it is remarked, that the moil proper and
advantageous feafon for fowing or felling fuch a? pollefi
- Vol. XXXUT.

the habit, or are capable of pcrfefting and ripening their
feed or produce in the fame year, is that of fome of the
more early fpring months, according as they are more for-
ward or late in their kinds, and the climate more mild, or
the contrary ; wliile, on the other hand, fuch as are, from
the peculiarity of their nature or habits', incapable of com-
pleting their vegetation in the fame year, the molt favour-
able period will be fome of the more early autumnal months,
according to the differences of their habits, and the varia-
tions of climate and feafon : as by thefe means, in the former
cafe, the feeds, grains, or roots, become perfcftly evolved,
and the radicles of the young plar.ts firmly ellabliflied in the
foil, and capable of fullaining theinfelves againft the hot
feafon fets in, which is to bring them to maturity ; and, in
the latter, the feeds have attained fuch a ftate of growth,
and fo far fixed their roots in the ground, as to be capable
of fupporting themfelvee, without fullaining much injury
from the feverity of the winter feafon, and confequently ad-
vance with greater rapidity in tl-.eir vegetation in the fpring,
in order to perfeft their feed by the heal of the fummer
feafon.

And it is further ftated, on the authority of lord Orford,
thai the pradlice is advifed of fowing certain forts of grains
and feeds, and alfo of felling particular kinds of roots, at
much earlier periods in the fpring than is commonly had re-
courfe to by the farmer. Thus, it is faid, by putting
barley into the ground in the beginning of February, great
advantage has been fuppofed to have been derived in the
forwardnefs and finenefs of the grain. But .igainll this
method it has, however, been ingenioufly fuggeiled by Dr.
Darwin, that as much moidure, with or without lubfequent
frod, is more liable to dellroy the embryo in its very early
ll.ite in the feed, than after it has (hot out roots and a fum-
mit, and thus acquired fome habits of life, fuch early fow-
ing mull, in fome cafes, be praftifcd with caution. But
that fuch an objeftion cannot be brought againlt the early
autumnal fowings.

The crops of autiimn-fown wheat (hould be conftanlly
put into the ground in the latter end of September, or be-
ginning of the following month ; but the former, if poflible.
And the fpring-fown kinds (hould not be later than the end
of March ; a^, when later fown, they never ripea well.
And with oats and barley crops, February, March, .ind
April, are the feafons ufually had recourfe to. But from
grain feeds and roots requiring fuch dilTerent lengths of
lime in arriving at maturity, the particular period at which
each fort of grain, feed, or root, (hould be fown, fct, or
put into the earth, with the greatelt chance of fuccefs, will
be more fully noticed, feen, and pointed out, in fpcaking
of the cultivation and growth of the diflerent forts of
crops.

The laft mentioned ingenious writer has likcwifc re-
marked, that the difficulty of determining the bell feafon
for fowing, or putting in feeds in the fpring, owing to the
variation of the weather in tlie fame latitude, as well as of
laying down or fixing the exatt feafons for towing in dif-
ferent latitudes, occafioned Linnx'US to form or conllruA
what lie terms a calendar of Flora, which was afterwards
adapted to this climate by Stillingflcct ; and which confitled
in obferving the firll appearance of the root-fcioiis, or
(lowers of the uncultivated native vegetables ; with direc-
tions to Cow the cereaita, or harveft-feed, when (uch pl.ints
or flowers became vifible. By altcntion to obfervations of
this kind, on fuch (oris of uncultivated plants, in many
climates, the above writer conceives fuch tables might be
conftrufted, as would point out the molt proper times of
fowing the moft ufeful feeds or grain* in e\ery latitude and
T^ O fituation.

SOWING.

April

fituation. And he further adds, thut another tabular view
of the climates where plants grow naturally, and of their
native fitnations, in refpeft to moifture or drynefs, hill or
valley, with the kind of foil where they were originally
found, might alfo contribute to their fuccefsful cultivation.

The following is the order of leafing of a few tree"; and
(hrubs, which Mr. Stillingfleet has put down, as noticed by
himfelf, in the county of Norfolk, in the year 1755.

Plants. Seafuns.

1. Honey fuckle - - .

2. Goofeberry - - .

3. Currant . . . -

4. Elder ....

5. Birch - - . -

6. Weeping willow

7. Rafpberry ...

8. Bramble ....

9. Briar ....

10. Plum ....

11. Apricot ....

12. Peach ....

13. Filbert . - . - .

14. Sallow - - ^ -

15. Alder - - ' -

16. Sycamore . - . . .

17. Elm

18. Quince .....

19. Marfli elder ....

20. Wych elm ....

21. Quicken-tree ....

22. Hornbeam ....
2'3. Apple-tree ....

24. Abelc . . - . .

25. Chefnut .....

26. Willow

27. Oak .....

28. Lime

29. Maple .....

30. Walnut . -

31. Plane . .

32. Black poplar ....

33. Beech .....

34. Acacia robinia ....

35- A(h

36. Caroline poplar ....

Alfo, the conformity between vegetation and the arrival
of certain birds of palfage is, he fays, extraordiiyry. Of
this he gives an inltance, marked down by himfelf, in the
above-mentioned county, in his diary of the fame year.

April 16th, young figs appear.
17th, the cuckoo fings.

And he notices, that the word mxxi/J fignifies a cuckoo,
and likewife a young fig ; and that the reai'on for it is, that
in Greece they appeared together. He alfo itates, that the
fame year he firll found the cuckoo-flower to blow the 19th
of April. He likewife further adds, that, according to
Linnxus, the wood anemone blows from the arrival of the
fwallow. In his diary for the year 1755, he finds the fwal-
low appeared April the 6th, and the wood anemone was
in blow the loth of the fame month. He adds alfo, that
the marfh-marigold blows when the cuckoo fines ; and ac-
cording to his diary, the marfh-marigold was in blow April
the 7th, and the fame day the cuckoo fung.

It has alfo been remarked, that a due temperature of the
feafon, with refpeft to heat or cold, drought or wet, (for
all thefe greatly influence the Hate of the earth,) is eflentially

- January 15

- Ma,rch 1 1

1 1
II
I
1

3

3

4

6

6

6

7

7

7

9

10

10

10

12

•3

'3

14

16

16

17
18
18

19
21
21
21

21
21
22

22

neceffary, and Ihould be carefully attended to by the culti.
vator, when he fows ; but the precife time moll proper for
thij work cannot, by any means, be invariably fixed, be-
caufe it will always depend on the concurrence of a variety
of circumftances. The feafons are more or lels forward,
and the ground is more or lefs dry, in fome years than in
others. A proper feries of well-made obfervations would
furnilh the bell rules in this refpedt, but certainly would not
fix the time of lowing to any particular day or week, for
years to come. Linnaeus's method, of carefully obferving
the foliation of trees, &c. would determine the proper time
for fpring fowing. And Pliny, after mentioning the feveral
conftellations by which farmers were guided in his time, in-
flrufts the farmer with regard to autumnal fowing, upon a
principle fimilar to that of the great modern naturalill.
Why, fays he, does the hufbandman look up to the Itars,
of which he is ignorant, whilll every hedge and tree point
out the feafon by the fall of their leaves ? This circum.
llancc will indicate the temperature of the air in every cli-
mate, and (hew whether the feafon be early or late. This
conllitutes an univerfal rule for the whole world; becaufe
trees ihed their leaves in every country, according to the
difference of the feafons. This gives a general fignal for
fowing ; nature declaring that (he has then covered the earth
againfl the inclemency of the winter, and enriched it with
this manure.

It can, therefore, only be obferved in general, that it is
better, as has been fuggeded, to fow early in autumn than
too late, provided the feafon will admit of it ; becaufe the
plants are better able to refill the feverity of the winter, after
they have acquired a certain degree of ftrength ; and their
roots being then longer, and confcquently better fixed in
the earth, they will be lels liable to be thrown out by the
frolt. For this reafon, in particular, perhaps the colder
the climate is, the earlier the wheat (hould be fown.
Some lands are of fuch a nature, that they fwell greatly in
hard frods ; and fubfiding again upon a thaw, leave the roots
of plants quite bare upon their furface. There have indeed
been years, in which fields fown very late, for inftance in
December, have done extremely well ; but that ought not,
on any account, to be made a rule, experience Ihewing that
fuch late fowings very feldom aiifwer. On the other hand,
tlie corn is likewife expofed to many dangers, when fown
too early ; for the ftalks, which flioot up before winter,
cannot well bear hard froll ; though wheat would not be
hurt bv them, when only in the blade. M. de Chateauvieux
is clearly of opinion, that though the proper time of the
year for fowing be come, the corn (hould not be put into
the ground, if the temperature of the feafon be not favour-
able ; and that, on the contrary, the fowing of it ought to
be deferred, in hopes of a change. If, fays he, the weather
is very hot, and the earth extremely dry, it will be abfo-
lutely neceffary to wait till fome rain has fallen ; for other-
wife the feed will rife but very imperfetlly. This he is fure
of, by which he contradicts the common faying of fome
farmers, that the earth is the bed granary to keep the corn
in. Full of this notion, whenever the Hated time? come
round, they fow, without didinclion, in wet Lnd or in dry.
Even heat does not hinder them : they think their feed will
certainly fprout well after the firll rain ; but he has always
experienced that the plants have come' up thin. But to
fatisfy himfelf Hill farther on this point, he tried an experi-
ment purpofely to know whether corn can be lown, with
any reafonable expectation of fuccefs, when the weather ia
very hot, and the earth very dry. Upon reading M. Du-
hamel's Treatife on the Prefervation of Corn, he has ob-
ferved that he had found, by his experiments, that wheat

dried

SOWING.

dried in a ftove, heated to 60 decrees of M. de Reaumur's
thermometer, had loft its faculty of growing. From
thence he conjeftured, that wheat which fliould undergo a
heat, for example, of 30 degrees during a longer time,
would be equally parched up, and rendered incapable of
vegetating. He confidered the earth, when hot and dry,
as a kind of itove, in which the feed, if it remain too long
without receiving any moifture, may become fo dry, that
the greatell part of it will never be able to fprout. This
reafoning is juft, and he therefore determined to have re-
courfe to that trutty guide, experience.

He was fure that the wheat which he fowed wds perfeftly
found, and in every refpeft capable of growing-. It war;,
therefore, qaite clear, that fo great a number of grains out
of the whole, which did not fprout at all, loft the faculty
of growing, by their being parched up by the heat and
drynefs of the earth. To be ftill more certain of this, three
weeks after he had fowed thefe grains, he watered half of
them feveral times, but to no purpofe ; not one of them
rofe, and he found feveral of them quite whole in the earth
where he had fown them.

Upon the whole he concludes, from his own repeated
praftice, that the beft time for fowing, in fuch a climate as
Geneva, (which diifers very little from our's, ) is from the
20th of Auguft to the end of September ; and thinks that
even the firft fortnight in Oftober may be taken in, if the
land cannot poflibly be lowed fooner. But he allows of
this only in a cafe of neceflity, and judges that, rather than
fow later, it is beft to rtay till fpring. Thus, fays he, it is
that experience and obfervation teach us to leave off bad
cuitoms, or fuch as are not founded on principles with
which a man of fenfe may reft fatisfied.

In the northern trafts of the ifland, where the fummer
feafon is not of much length, but ftormy and extremely
variable in the ftate of the weather, early fowing is faid to
have been lately found to be attended with many advan-
tages ; and that the prejudices in favour of a late performance
of this fort of bufinefs is faft wearing off ; as the good
eff^efts of putting feed into the ground as early as the feafon
will admit, are fo evident, in fuch a climate, and the benefit
of the praftice fo great and manifeft, that the moft pre-
judiced are beginning to fufpeft their late fowings to be
bad, and that the praftice of thofe who eagerly catch and
embrace the very firft opportunities which the ftate of the
weather will allow, of fowing their grain crops, bids the
faireft for faving them, at the latter end of the feafon.
The hazard to be dreaded from it with forae forts of grain,
as oats, is very little, while the benefit to be derived is very
great. The advantages of it are very important, in having
the beft part of the fummer feafon for bringing the crops
to full perfeftion, which increafes the value of the grain,
and in having long days and a favourable feafon for cutting,
coUefting, and fecuring the produce in perfeft condition :
while late fowing, on the contrary, occafions the rifl< of
having the crops expoled, after being cut, for weeks toge-
ther, in the fields, under rottmg rains, until the ftieaves be-
come each a mafs of vegetation. Inftead of fixing upon
any exaft period for commencing the bufinefs of fowing,
which is extremely abfurd, efpecially in fuch a climate, the
prudent cultivator will regulate his conduft in this refpedl
by the ftate of the weather, ar.d the appearances which
have been fuggefted above. And as the gardener forms an
annual calendar of the weather for himfclf, by what he
fees coming on in his garde!i ; fo fhould the farmer, by the
courfe of experience and information, learn to diftinguifh
the proper times for performing 'he particular operations
of his art ; not, however, by havin<^ recourfe to any precife

or fee period of the feafon, but by reference to certain
natural appearances, which may indicate the mildnefs or
clemency of particular feafons, or the contrary. This may
be particularly ufeful in the bufinefs of fowing different
kinds of crops.

In many diftridls towards the fouthern extremity of the
kingdom, the utility and benefits of early fowing have beer
likewife noticed and experienced, as the carlieft fown crops,
efpecially of the wheat kind, have been almoft invariably
found the beft. This opinion, which is of fome ftanding,
is, in fome meafure, confirmed by the afiurance, that nearly
the whole of the famous crops which have been produced
and talked of by the farmers in thefe diftrifts, were raifed
from early fowings. Now and then a crop may contraditt
this conclufion, but they are very rare, and moftly arife from
fome unobferved circumftance in the land which produced
them. There c?.n, therefore, be no reafon for doubting
that more early fowing than is at prefent praftifed, in many
cafes and circuujftances of land, may be highly advantageous
and beneficial to the farmer, not only in the quantity of
produce, but in feveral other ways.

It is of the greateft confequence to the farmer, that
feed in fowing be placed in the earth at a proper depth,
and in the beft manner ; but experience is yet wanting to
determine with due exaftnefs, what is the depth which beft
fuits each kind of grain in different foils. In the fpring
fowings, when there is moftly much moifture in the foil,
from the wetnefs of the previous feafons, lefs depth may be
required than in the fummer, where the land is rendered
more dry and parched. From half an inch to an inch and
a half, may be fully fufficient for the feeds of the grain,
turnip, and carrot kinds, fo as that they may be fully pro-
tected from birds and infefts. And for root-fcts, fuch a»
potatoes, from two to four inches, in proportion to the
ftate of the foil, may be quite fufficient.

But, in the very early autumnal fowings, as from the ex-
ceflive drying heats of the fummer feafon, th.re muft in
common be a deficiency of moifture in the earth, it may be
better to have the feed put in fomewhat deeper, a^ from two
inches to three or more, in order that their vegetation may
not only proceed more fpeedily, but their roots be more fully
guarded from the effefts of the frofty nights, which ufually
take place foon after fuch fowings. And in this way they
are more effeftually protefted from the attacks of birds and
other vermin, which are generally more eager and dtftruAive
in their attacks, from the diminiflicd quantity of food at
fuch periods of the year.

However, in general, as the procefs of fprouting or early
vegetating is found to be greatly promoted by the feed
being fully fupplied with oxygen air, it may be the moft
beneficial praftice to have them put into the foil, in rather
a fuperficial manner, or but lightly covered, as by fuch
means they may be the moft fully fupplied with atmo-
fpherical air. And for this reafon, too, it may be the moft
advantageous method to have the feeds or roots di-pofited
in the foil as foon as pofiible after it has been turned up by
the plough or fpade, as, in Inch circumftauces, it luuft con-
tain the largeft proportion of atmofpherical air among its
conftituent particles ; which, it is obtervcd by Dr. Darwin,
may be neccllary to ftimulate into elevation the plume of
the embryo plant, as the moifture of the earth is nccellary
to llimulate the root into its elongation downwards.

The particular ftate of the feafon and climate in which
the fowings or plantings are performed, may likewife have
fome influence on the crops. It has been commonly lup-
pofed that the beft praiJlicc is that of fowing in dry feafons,
and letting out plants in fuch as are moilt ; but it is obvious,
3 G 2 .1 Lite

SOWING.

a late writer thinks, that, in fo far as the fowint^ is con-
cerned, this bufinefs ought, in fome refpeft, to be con-
dueled according to the differences of the quahties of the
lands and the nature of the climate, in regard to its warmth,
or the contrary. Thus, in the drier and more mellow and
porous defcriptions of foils, and the more warm and genial
climates, it may, in many cafes, be advantageous, not only
to fow in the wet, or rather moilt feafons, but alfo at more
early periods, than in fuch as are more retentive of humidity ;
as from the moilhire being commonly, in fuch forts of lands,
quickly dilTipated, a more certain and expeditious vege-
tation of the feed may in this way be fecured. But in the
more heavy and wet kinds of foil, where the climate is colder,
it will conilantly be a more beneficial method to choofe, if
pofiible, a dry and warm feafon for performing the bufmefi
of fownig or putting in the crops, as by fuch means the
i-rain will be more certain of vegetating, and in lefs danger
of perilhing by the over-abunJant wetnefs, and the want of
heat in fuch lands and climates. And it has been jultly
remarked by Dr. Darwin, that in fome clayey grounds,
much foftened by rain, if the feed be put into holes and a
dry feafon fucceed, an almoll impenetrable cruft may be
produced by the quick exhab-tion of the moilture, and
what is termed by the farmers, the fetting of the clay ;
and in this manner the vegetation and early growth of the
crop be much retarded, or in a great meafure prevented.
And that though it ha"; been ingenioufly fuggcfted that
ufeful purpofes in the early vegetation of fome forts of
plants may be anfwered by the fowing of the fruits or huflcs
that furround particular kinds of feeds and berries, no ex-
periments have yet been made to fliew whether the fowing
the chaff, or covering of the grain with it, might not, in
particular circumftances of the foil and climate, be of uti-
lity in affording it warmth and proteftion in the firll
ftages of its growth.

With regard to the methods of fowing or putting the
lead into the earth, there are different ones in ufc, hot only
in diftridls where the nature and qualities of the foils are
different, but in thofe in which they liave have much fimi-
larity. It is obferved, that the moft general and common
mode, as well as that whxii is more or lefs prevalent in
almoll every part of the kingdom, is that of fowing or call-
ing the feed over the furface of the ground by means of the
hand, having it afterwards covered to a proper depth by
harrowing. In this method of performing the bufinefs, the
moft ufual praftice, efpecialiy where tlie ridges are equal in
breadth, and not of too great a width, as live or fix yards,
is that of difperfing the feed regularly over each land or
ridge in once walking round ; the ftedfrnan, by different
cafts of the hand, fowing one half gor.:g and the other in
returning. In doing this, it is the cullom of fome feedfmen
to fill the hand from the bafket or hopper which they
carry along with them, as they make one Hep forward, and
difperfe the feed in the time of performing the next ; while
others fcatter the feed, or make their cafts, as they are
termed by farmers, in advancing each Hep. Mr. Parkinfon
ftates, in the account which he has given of Triih farming,
that he found a good fower the moll difficult thing to be
met with ; m faft, he did not himfelf know the true art of
fowing feed broad-call until he went to America, and the
man from whom he took the idea there attracled his notice,
from the particular manner in which he walked while fow-
ing, which was precifely as if he had been blind, keeping his
eyes on the feed as he threw it, by continually looking
upwards. It is confequently evident, that in accomplifhing
this bufinefs with regularity and exaftnefs, upon which
much of the fuccefs of the crop muff depend, there is con-

fiderable difficulty, and the proper knowledge and habit of
which can only be acquired by experience. Wherever this
method of putting in the feed is had recourfe to, it is con-
fequently of importance for the farmer either to perform
the operation himfelf, or to be careful in feledling fuch
perfons as are converfant with the bufinefs, as he may other-
wife incur much unneceffary expence in the wafte of feed,
and run confiderable rifk in refpedl to his crop. Mr.
Marlhall, finding a great walle and inconvenience attending
the broad-caft. fowing, ordered his feedfman to walk on the
left-hand inner furrow, with his face towards the land to
be fown, and to make his call diagonally, not acrofs the
land. This gave him a great fcope ; and after a few-
minutes prailiee he made very good work : before night
he walked at the rate of three or four miles an hour, and
though a young feedfman, made as good work as could be
wifhed. A man walking in the Imnoth, open, inner furrow,
may foiv three acres in lefs time, with more eafe, than one
walking among the rough clods and loofe mould could fow
two acres. This method proved fuperior to the ufual way,
being cropped as well, and with lefs feed. Tlie extra ex-
pence of fowing is about two-pence an acre, but the faving
of the feed was at leall two (liiUmgs per acre. The method
obferved was for the feedfman to walk up one fide of the
rid'~e or bed, and down the other fide ; always keeping his
face, and the hand with which he fows, towards the bed he
is fowing. He always keeps his eye on the edge of the
oppofite interfiirrow, and delivers his feed principally on
the fide of the bed next to it : as he returns, the fides of
courfe are rcverfed, and the beds become evenly feeded.
An old feedfman, who has been ufed to throw large hand-
fnls with all his might, in wide cads ftraight acrofs his
walk, will find it aukward at firll to make the fnug diagonal
call which is neceffaryin fowing five-bout beds fingly.

But it is obferved, that the ufual way of fowing in broad--
call cannot aiifwer all the intentions of placing the feed
properly in the earth, and mull be attended with feveral
inconveniencies : fuch as the feed's becoming th<; prey of
various birds and animals ; its being laid fo fuperficially,
that the fun often parches it, or a long continued rain, in-
itead of promoting a kindly vegetation, foaks into the
grains, and burlts them ; the feed is very unequally fown,
becaule of the inequality of the handfuls which different
fowers grafp, and a great part of it necefiarily falls together
into hollows, where the furface of the ground is any way
unequal, &c. And that, fenfible of thefe diladvantages,
farmers have, efpecialiy for their winter grain, fometimes
adopted the metliod of fowing under-furrow, that is, fowing
one half of the feed in broad-caft, and then ploughing it in ;
and afterwards fowing the other half, which is covered by
harrowing. But this method is alfo liable to almoll as
many objeftions as the other ; for the quantity fown in each
particular fpot, and the equal diftribution which ought to
take place throughout the whole, cannot but be even more
uncertain than in the broad-call, where the whole is fown
at once ; nor dares the farmer, in this fowing under furrow,
omit fowing the fecond quantity, left a great part of what
has been ploughed down be buried fo deep that it cannot
rife, efpecialiy if the foil is at all llrong. And another
general fault in the common way of fowing is, that too
much feed is employed ; partly becaufe cuilom has efta-
bliftied a kind of rule in that refpeft, and partly on account
of the allowances which it is neceffary to make for what the
birds eat, and for what lies too deep ever to rife ; the cir-
cumftances by which a very great quantity of corn is abfo-
lutely loft. See Broad-cast Sowing.

There are inconveniencies and difficulties in this manner

12 of

SOWING.

D+ iowiiig, oil many other accounts ; as where the lands or
ridges are hable to vary in their dimenliona or breadths at
the different ends or parts, the fowinfr is not performed
without great trouble and walte of feed, as the fcattering
of it, in turning fo often on the different parts, is prevented
from being effected in fo regular and ex.iA a manner, as
when the feedfman :s direfted by a particular furrow-llice.
The fowing is, therefore, fometiraes very imperfeft in fuch
eafes, even with good feedfmen. In fowing in this way
there are probably, too, lefs economy, lefs exadlnefs in many
points, and lefs attention provided for the management of
the crops, wliile they are growing afterwards.

Sowing in tlie broad-call manner has, however, many ad-
vocates, and is probably the moft prevailing praftice in
moft diftricis of the kingdom ; and fome think that, in
common, all forts of grain produce the largeit quantity
on the acre, when fown in this method. It fhould, not-
withflanding, perhaps give way to the machine pradice
of fowing, wherever it can be had recourfe to with eafe and
facility.

In general it is, however, fuppofed, that thefe incon-
veniencies may be prevented by the drill method of fowing,
which drops the feed at v.'hatever depth and dillance ex-
perience has (liewn to be the fittelt for the particular kind
which is fown ; fills all the furrows with earth, fo that none
of the grain rcinains uncovered ; and lets fall into each fur-
rew the cxadl quantity of feed which has been found to be
mofl proper. In this way the feed is of courfe diftributed
with greater regularity and exaftnefs, both in regard to
depth and the dillance of the rows, by which the crops not
only fuccced better, but are more capable of being aflilled
in their culture afterwards ; while much feed is faved. It
is likewife believed to have many other advantages over the
common method of fowing. See Drilling.

It evidently admits more air and light for the growth and
maturation of the crops, and produces a better and more
abundant quantity of them. In fowing wheat and other
grain crops in this way, they fhould probably not have more
ipace between the rows than about feven inches ; but in
other kinds it fhould vary, according to the nature and
habits of the growtii of the plants, and the ftate of the foil.
The fowing in this way in too thin a manner has oflen been
injurious to the cultivator.

Sowing is fometimes performed likewife in methods be-
tween thofe of the broad-call and the drill, as by means of
tools with different numbers of fhares. The fowing is, in
thefe cafes, executed, when the land becomes firm and rather
folid, immediately after the tool, over the whole furface of
the land in the broad-calt way, the feed moltly falling into
the little furrows or openings that are left by the implement.
In fowing in this manner, there are the advantages, it is
obfervcd, of having the land firm between the fmall drills,
of the feed taking firmer hold of the ground, of its being
readily performed and attended with little trouble, of the
feed coming up with great regularity, of the crop being
lefs liable to accidents, in confequence of the ailion of the
fun and air being more free, of its affording a greater faci-
lity in the after-culture, and of the quantity of grain being
incrcafcd. On light and dry foils, this m'.ide of fowing is
faid to be attended with the befl effefts. Some, however,
think that one call before and another after this tool is the
moll preferable mode of fowing.

But whatever may be the benefits of fowing in the drill
manner, it has hitherto made no very great progrefs, though
it is evidently a moil ufeful method.

There are alfo other methods of fowing, as by dibbling,
dropping, and fetting with the hand, which, under diflerent

circumllances, are found very beneficial modes. See Dib-
bling and lliDCE.

Thefe are, however, methods wliich are only fuited to
particular fituations and circumllances of land.

AH thefe different ways of fowing, or putting the feed
into the ground, may perhaps be found ufeful, and be prac-
tiled with luccefs, under different circumtlances and condi-
tions of land ; as where one miode is improper, or not
capable of being had recourfe to, another may be fubfli-
tuted, in order to fupply its place, and accomplifh this im-
portant bufinefs of the farmer, in the moll proper and
defirable manner.

In fowisg fmall feeds for plants, conllant attention is
necefl'ary to the times or periods at whicli the plants will be
wanted for fetting out as crops, and the different fowing;
made accordingly. For thefe fowings, fmall fuitable por-
tions of land, in a fine Hate of preparation and cultivation,
and which are well fecured, are always to be cholcn. The
fowings for cabbage, and other fimilar forts of plants, fhould
be made at two or three different times, both for the autumn
and fpring crops, in order that the plants may be flrong and
healthy. And for raffing fpring plants of the ieveral dif-
ferent other kinds, as thofe of the lettuce, or other fimilar
forts, the feeds fhould be fown at two or more feparate
times, in the early fpring feafon, that good plants may be
in readinefs for fetting out, when war.ted. In general,
fmall fpaces of ground will be fufficient for thefe purpofes,
as they may contain the quantities of plants which arc ne-
ceflary. The fowings, in fuch cafes, are to be made in a
regular, but not too thick a manner ; the plants being after-
wards, when of fome growth, properly thinned, that they
may become flrong plants. In fowing fom.e forts of fmall
feeds, it is ufeful to mix a little afhes, or fome other fimilar
fubflance, with them, to make them low better. The fow-
ing of grafs-feeds fliould always be performed in as regular
and exaft a manner as poflible. See Gr.vss and Grass-
Land.

Sowing of Seeds, in Gardening, the pradlice of putting
feed into the ground, in the garden manner ; in which dif-
ferent methods are made ufe of, according to the forts : as
broad-cafl fowing and raking-in, drill fowing, bedding-in
(owing, &c. ; in each of which there are fome advantages in
different ways.

The firll is the mofl common and expeditious method of
fowing, both for many of the principal crops to remain,
and for tranfplantatioii ; and is performed by fowing the
feed with a fpreading call evenly all over the furface of the
ground, either in one continued plat, or when divided into
beds, which is immediately raked with a large rake, to bury
all the feeds a due depth in the earth ; fome requiring to be
raked in as light as polfible, otliers Iialf an inch or an inch
or more deep, according to their kinds and fi/.es, &c.

In preparing for this method of fowing, the ground i^
previoufly dug over in the common way, or in fuch a manner
as is neceffary ; making the furface level with the tpade, as
the work proceeds ; and, according to the nat'ire of the
feed, fowing it as foon as poflible afterwards. And this
fort of fowing fliould generally be performed in dry weather,
particularly the early lowings in winter and fpring ; but in
hot weather, in fummcr and autumn, it may often be eli-
gible to take advantage of fowing immediately after a
Ihower of moderate rain. And as to the fowing the leed in
the broad-call way, it is clfeftcd occafionally both with at)
open and locked iiand. In the former cafe, it is performed
by delivering the feeds with an open haiiil, and bro.id-lpread-
iiig call, as praCiiled in fowing corn in the open fields, pre-
vioufly llepping out the ground in breaks, or certain widths,

as

SOWING.

as a guide to low with the greater regularity ; proceeding
with the fowiiig along each fpace with a regular ftep and
calt, giving the hand a proper fweeping cant forward, fully
expanded at the delivery of the feeds, making them fpread
abroad evenly in every part ; and thus proceeding up one
fpace, and down another, till finiftied ; which method is
piaaifed in large kitchen-grounds, in fowing any confider-
able fpace in one continued plat. But the latter is pradifed
occafionally, both in fowing large continued plats of ground,
and narrow beds, &c. ; but more generally the latter, efpe-
cially when intended fowing them bed and bed feparately ;
or on narrow borders, :ind other fmall plats of ground, com-
monly fowing or delivering the feeds with a locked or clofc
hand, difchaiging them from between the fore-finger and
thumb ; opening or pinching the thumb more or lefs, ac-
cording to the fize and nature of the feeds, and thickncfs
they require to be fowii ; giving the hand a fort of jerking
turn, or cant forward, at the delivery, to caufe the feeds
to fpread regularly, and in an exacl manner.

As foon as the feeds are fown, they fhould be direflly
raked in, before the furface of the ground is rendered either
too dry by the fun or wind, or made too wet by rain, in a
regular and even manner, fo as to bury them hifficiently ac-
cording to their kinds ; all large ilones, lumpy clods, and
rubbifh, being cleared off; fmaller or larger rakes being
ufed, as they may be neceffary. See Gar/Ien-KAKE.

But previoufly to the raking in the feeds, fown on the
general furface in one continued fpace, where the ground is
loofe, light, and dry, and in a dry feafon, it is fomctimcs
the praftice, after fowing, to tread them in evenly by tread-
ing the ground all over lightly and regularly with the feet.
It is alfo fometimes proper to pare up the loofe earth of the
alleys an inch or two deep, and fpread it thinly over the
furface. The work of treading in the feeds is performed
with the feet nearly clofe together, taking (liort regular
fteps, treading the furface all over, once in a place, with
but fmall fpaces between the lleppings.

And in extenfive market kitchen-gardens, where large
trafts of ground are fown at once, inftead of raking in the
feed, they, for the fake of expedition and cheapnefs, have
light fhort-tined harrows to draw with men, with which
they harrow in the feeds ; and fometimes in light dry
ground, and a dry furface, they afterwards roll the ground
with a light wooden roller, to clofe and fmooth the furface
over the feeds more efleftually ; performing it when the fur-
face is a little dried, fo as not to adhere to the roller.

Alfo in large garden-farms in fields, where they com-
monly plough and harrow the ground for the reception of
the feeds, they praclife only the broad-caft fowing in con-
tinued trafts, for almoft all their efculent feeds, except
peafe, beans, and kidney-beans ; the ground being pre-
pared by ploughing, and afterwards rough-harrowed, to
fmooth the furface moderately ; the feeds being then fown
in the fpreading open-handed manner, and harrowed in
either with a light (hort-toothed horfc-harrow, or by men
for particular crops ; when, if very dry weather, they roll
the furface afterwards with a wooden roller, drawn by
ihorfes. Sec. to fmooth the furface.

In thefe fowings, the land may either be formed into fmall
beds of four or five feet in width, fowing each in a feparate
manner ; or the whole may be rendered even, and then fown
all over the furface, to be afterwards trodden into beds of
fuitabie breadths, as already fuggetted. The intervals, in
both cafes, when the fowing is finifhed, are to be thinly
pared and call over the beds, which are then raked over in
a regular neat manner, the whole length of them. The
forming the land into fmall beds may, in fome cafes, be the

lo

moll defirable and advantageous praftice ; as where it ii
wet, and not capable of bearing treading, the intervals can
be flood in not only to fow the ieed, but perform the raking
of it in, without injuring the beds by trampling upon them.
Befides, when weeding, watering, or tranfplanting the
crops become neceffary, they are capable of being flood in
for performing fuch works, as well as for culling and gather-
ing the produce of them. In kitchen-gardens, however,
where there is a fcarcity of ground, or where it is of confe-
quence to make the moft of every part of fuch ground, and
to ufe the utmoft expedition in fowing or putting in the
feed, the whole furface method, in one continued plat, may
be the moft eligible plan of feeding the land, efpecially in
very large grounds, for the mam crops of fuch kinds, at
the carrot, the parfnip, turnip, leeks, onions, fpinach, let-
tuce, radifh. and fome others.

In the raking or harrowing in the feed, in this mode of
fowing, great care is to be taken not to draw the mould and
feed into lumps or heaps, but to bury it reijularly in the foil,
and finiffi the work in a neat manner. Where the feed has
been trodden in, but flight raking is neceffary.

This mode of fowing and covering in the feed may be
had recourfe to for moft of the efculent crops, fome flower
plants, &c.

It may be remarked, that the fecond method of fow-
ing is neceffary for maiiy forts of feeds, efculent, flower,
tree, and fhrub kinds in tiie nurfery, both for the plants to
remain where fown, and for tranfplaiitation ; which is per-
formed in drills, from a quarter or half an inch to two or
three inches deep, according to the fizes and forts of feeds ;
which being fown evenly along the bottom of the drill, the
earth is drawn evenly over them with a hoe or rake, the
depth as above, and the furface lightly raked fmooth.
This mode is always proper for large kinds of feeds, fuch as
peafe, beans, kidney-beans, and many large kinds of tree
and flirub feeds, nuts, and berries ; it being not only the
moft ready method of committing thofe large feeds to the
ground the proper depth, but, by beir.g in row5 at a dif-
tance, beft fuits the nature of the growth of thefe forts of
plants, and their methods of culture. Many kinds of fmall
feeds are alfo the moft conveniently fown and cultivated in
drills ; fuch as feveral of the kitchen-garden plants, as
parfley, chervil, coriander, all the forts of fmall fallading,
and fometimes fpinach, beet, &c. ; alfo fome of the aro-
matic', when defigned as edgings ; and alfo occafionally in
rows in beds, both to remain and for tranfplanting, fuch as
thyme, favory, hyffop, &c. ; likewife many forts of flower-
feeds for tranfplantation, and fometimes to remain. It is
performed by drawing the drills with a common drawing-
hoe, larger or fmaller, in proportion to the forts of feeds
to be fown ; fettirg a line as a guide to draw the drills
itraight by, which are drawn of different depths, as the
forts and fizes of the feeds may require, and at proportion,
able diftance.';, from three or four inches to as many feet,
according to the nature of the plants. Sometimes, when
very fmall drills are required for fine or fmall feeds, to be
fown in a bed, border, or hot-bed, it is done with the end
of the finger, or with the end of a fmall flat ftick.

The feeds fliould in general be fown and covered in
direftly, if the ground be dry and in good order ; but if
the foil be wet, efpecially at an early fealon, it may be
proper to fuffer the drills to lie or be open and expofed to
the fun and air an hour or two, or more, to dry a little,
particularly for tender feeds in early fowings, in the full
ground. The fowing in the drills is performed for the
moft part with a locked or clofed hand, difcharging the
feeds from between the fore-finger and thumb, fcattering

them

SOWING.

them CTenly along the bottom of tlie drill, fome forts re-
quuintr to be fown thinly juit along the middle, fuch as in
the angular drills drawn corner-ways of the hoe, for peas
and many other larger feeds ; alfo (ometimes for fmaller
feeds when intended for edgings ; but in the (hallow flat-
bottomed drill?, it is generally intended for the feeds to be
fcattered evenly the whole width of the drill, thicker or
thinner, according to the nature of growth of their refpec-
tive plants.

The work of covering or turning in the earth into
the drills over the feeds, may be performed occafionally
with the rake, hoe, and feet ; but the rake or hoe is the
molt proper for general pratlice for all fmaller feeds, draw-
ing the earth evenly into the drills a regular depth, fully to
the depth of the drill, whether deep or (hallow : however,
peas, beans, kidney-beans, and fuch like larger feeds, in
large drills at wide diftances, are often covered in with the
feet, by flipping them lightly along each fide of the drill
alternately, turning the earth evenly in over the feeds ; the
furface being then lightly trimmed along with the rake, to
fmooth it and clear it of large (tones, &c.

This is a manner of fowing which has not only the ad-
vantage of putting in the feeds to the molt equal, regular,
and fuitable depths, but of placing them in rows at fuch
diilances, as may admit the fun, light, and air, in the moll
elFeftual manner for promoting the growth of the plants as
crops. Befides, the moulding up, and necellary culture
afterwards, can be better and more beneficially performed.

Tn the lalt method of fowing, the ground being dug and
formed into four or five-feet wide beds, with alleys a fpade's
width or more between bed and bed, and the earth drawn off
the top of the bed with a rake or fpade half an inch, or an
inch or more deep, into the alley, the feed is (own all over
the furface of the bed ; which done, the earth in the alley
is immediately, either with a rake, drawn fpreadingly upon
the bed again over the feeds the fame depth, or fpread over
with a fpade, and the furface raked fmooth and even in a
fimilar manner. It is often pradifed in the nurferies, efpe-
cially in fowing fome large forts of feeds, as well as others,
but not very frequently in kitchen-gardens. It is not fo
expeditious as the broad-caft (owing, but is very proper for
many forts of (mall feed:, and many forts of the tree and
(hrub kind, being a very regular method of fowing, fo as
to cover all the feeds an equal depth, and is performed two
or three different ways ; fuch as by the rake, by the fpade,
and by fifting. It is alfo (ometimes performed with the
rake and fpade together, particularly when intended to fow
any large feeds a good depth, ufing the rake to (hove or
rake the earth from off the bed into the alleys ; or if it
cannot be conveniently performed with the rake a proper
depth, it is effeiled with the fpade, trimming or paring the
earth evenly off the lurface into the alleys; then fowing
the feeds all over the furface ; and if they are of tlie larger
berry, nut, or (tone kind, or any other large feed, previous
to covering them, prefling or patting them all evenly down
into the earth with the back of the fpade ; and then, either
with the rake or fpade, ipreading the earth out of the
alleys evenly over them ; though if it is a deep covering,
efpecially when taken ofl with the fpade, it is moll eligible
to ufe the fame implement in returning it, being careful to
fpread it evenly, to cover the feeds all equally a proper
depth, fmoothing the furface with the rake in linifhing the
work.

Another method fomctimes praftifed with large feeds is,
that when the ground is laid out in bed'; uiiraked, the feed
is (own on the furface, and with a rake (Iricken a little into
the earth, then with a fpade paring the alleys, and calling

the earth evenly over the bed, half an inch, or an inch or
more deep, as may be required, raking the furface even.
This is alfo fometimes praftifed in wettifh ground, at an
early feafon, when it does not readily admit of treading or
raking. And by deepening the alleys and railing the beds,
it drains the moillure from the furface, which is a great ad-
vantage in many cafes.

The method by fifting is fometimes pradtifed for feveral
fmall light feeds of a more delicate nature, that require a
very light covering of earth when fown ; as, in order to
cover them as (hallow as polTible, it is done by fifting fine
earth over them out of a wire or chip fieve. Before the
leed is fown, the furface of the bed, &c. is raked fine ;
then the earth thinly (liovcd off the furface of the bed with
the back of the rake into the alley, making the furface as
fmooth as pofiible, and then fowing the feed, fmoothing it
down lightly with the fpade, and fifting the earth in the
alleys evenly over it to a fuitable thicknefs, as half a quarter
or a quarter of an inch deep ; or fometimes the furface is only
raked as fmooth as poffible without drawing off the earth,
and fometimes only lightly fmoothed with the back of the
fpade, then fowing the feed, and letting fome loofe fine
earth from the alley, or fome brought for the purpofe, be
Cfted thinly over it. Thi?, too, is a fort of broad-call fowing,
as the feed is (own over all the furface, but in a fomewhat
different way to that manner of fowing. But the modes
of fowing the different forts of feed crops are mure fuUy
explained under their refpeftive heads.

In the fowing of all kinds of garden feeds, a greater and
more e.-iaft attention to times and feafons is necedary than
in the field, not only for the produftion of full and good
crops of difiercnt kinds, but that of having them in due,
proper, and regular fuccellion. Small errors, in this refpcct,
are not unfrequently productive of much trouble, incon.
venience, and dilappointmeiit to the cultivators of fuch
crops, but alio to thole who make ufe of them. The
neglcft of only a few days or a week, in foino cafes, is even
of very material conlequence in the raifing of crops of this
nature.

The larger principal crops are conftantly to be fown as
near their proper times as pollible, and the fncceffioiial ones
in due order alter them. Sometimes, however, fmall crops
are fown to come in before the large main ones in particular
indances, in which a nice attention to the proper feafon is
requifite.

Small feeds mud alfo be regularly and exaftly fown in
order to have proper fupplies of dilh rent forts of young
plants for fetting out at proper times and in proper fuc-
ceffion.

For flower feeds, exadt periods of lowing, according to
the nature and habits of the plant.s, mult be liki wife clioicn
in the view of having them in the fulleil and bell perfediion,
as well as for projier fuccedlons in different cafes.

In moll cafes of garden fowing, it is better to bo rather
too early than too late, in the ditierent feafons lor perform-
ing the bufinefs.

Sov/iSG-Mac/jinc; an agricultural implement, which, as
its name imports, is employed for fowing feeds, and dif-
tributing them ,-it regular diltanccs upon the land.

The greater number of (owing-machines which are in
ulc, are called (Irillin^-machims, becaufe they depofit the
feeds in parallel and equidillant rows, or drills extending
the whole length ol the field. This fyltem of fowing corn,
or other feeds, which was invented by Tull, ha,^ many ad-
vocates, whilll others prefer the ancient mode of broad-calt
hwlbandry, in which the feed is fcattered equally over tlir
whole (urfacc of the laud. For the comparative .idvan-

tagcP

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tages of thefe methods, fee the articles DRrLL> Drilling,
Hoeing, Husbandry, and Drill Machine.

Mr. J. Horn of Dover, Kent, conltrufled an umvsrfa!
jive-furro'w machine of this nature, which he recommended
as fuited for either broad-cafting or drilhng all the different
forts of grain, pulfe, and feeds, with eqisal regularity and
eafe, as well as in any quantity or proportion, and depth,
that may be thought proper. And which alfo poffeffes, he
fays, the peculiar advantage of fowing turnips, fo as to
enfure the crop a'Tainil the ravages of the fly. This ad-
vantage is obtained by fowing the ufual quantity oi turnip
feed Iroad-cajl by the machine, and at the fame time ftrik-
ing furrows at a proper diitance apart in the land ; by this
means part of the feed is depofited in the drills, and the
reft fown in broad-caft between them, fo that if it proves
a dry fe.-ifon, it is favourable for that depofited in the drills,
if a vi'et feafon, for that which is fown broad-caft between
them : and if that part of the feed which is fown broad-
caft is carried avi-;iy by the fly, that which is depofited in
the drills, by coming at another period of time, is faved,
and "Vice -verfd. If the whole grows, the farmer has then
the opportunity of feltfting the inoft vigoroiis plants from
both. But notwithftanding thefe itated advantages, the ma-
chine is, we believe, little employed by the cultivators of
land.

No machine, as far as we know, has hitherto been in-
vented, which is well contrived for, and adapted to, the
purpofe of general fowing, though a great number of at-
tempts of this kind have been made at different times, in
the view of fupplying fo great a defeil in the agricultural
machinery of the country. Tfiey have all been found on
trial, and when put fully to the teft, to be materially de-
feftive in feme important point or other, which rendered
them either wholly ufelcfs, or only capable of being employed
imder particular circumftances. This has been equally the
cafe, whatever may have been the nature or kind of con-
ftruftion, in which they have been formed. In order to
conftruft a machine to be generally ufeful in this intention,
it muft be free from every kind of fault ordefeft in the de-
livery of all forts of grain, pulfe, and feeds, be capable of
very great nicety and variation in fowing all thefe different
articles, be very eafy and exa6l in the movements of the in-
ternal parts, have great latitude of motion, giving way,
and taking up in the lliares or other parts, which are made
ufe of in forming the little furrows or drills in the land, be
capable of being guided and direfted with eafe and facility
in a regular, fteady, and exaft manner, be cheap and rea-
fonable in the expence of its conftruftion, &c. But very
few of thefe materially important points and objefts have
yet been accompliflied in a full, complete, and fatisfaftory
manner, in any of the fowing machines which have been
contrived and conftrufted. Some of them, as already fug-
gefted, have a defeft in fome one of the particulars, fome
others in another, by which means they become neglefted
and of no ufe to the farmer, whofe fowing muil at leatt be
performed with a certain degree of correftnefs.

It is evident, therefore, from what has been faid, that
the conftruSors of fuch forts of machinery, to render it
generally ufeful, fliould have a full and competent knowledge
of the moft proper proportions or quantities of the above
feveral kinds of articles which are to be fown, as well as of
the moft fuitable widths, diftances, or fpaces between the
rows, which are neceffary to be fown and left, in different
cafes and circumftances, in fowing with machines of this
nature, as where this is not the caf'e, there muft frequently,
if not generally, be much lofs fuftained in making fuch
machines to fow too much or too little feed, as the dif-

ferences in the feed, and the fpaces which are required in
different ftates and circumftances, and conditions of land
and feafon, are very great. The proportions of feed that
are the moft beneficial for early and late fowing are by no
means the fame ; nor does different kinds and Itates of the
foil admit of the fame. Thev may differ alio on fome other
accounts. The fpace.=, which are the moft ufeful, likewifc
vary greatly in different kinds of foil, crops, and cultiva-
tion. It is coufequently feen, that a perfeft knowledge of
this fort is abfolutely neceffary, and that fuch fowing ma.
chines as are mcapable of fowing any kind of grain or feed
in any proportion or quantity which may be required, are
by no means fit for public or general ufe. In the internal
parts of machines of this fort there ftiould be great fim-
plicity and incapability of being put out of order, the mov-
ing cyfuiders, or other parts fupplying their places, being
made fo as to admit of great variation in the degrees of
their motion or velocity. The utility of tin cylinders for
this purpofe is fomewhat doubtful, and the fhaking or iift-
ing principle ha; not been found to fucceed well, except in
the cafe of round feeds, fuch for inftance as thofe of the
turnip, cabbage, rape, clover, and fome other fimilar kinds,
and even in thefe cafes fometimes, with fome of thefe feeds,
a feed will ftick in a hole which will permit another fort to
pafs in a free manner, and in thofe forts which moft readily
pafs, there is rarely a deficiency of fome fmall feeds, of
which two are capable of entering the fame hole at the fame
time, which, by flicking fall together, impede and prevent
the delivery in fuch machines. On this account, fome fow-
ing machines fow too much of one fort of fuch feeds and
fcarcely half enough of another. Pierced cylinders of the
tin kind might probably be made to fow peas, which are
nearly round in their form ; but they would not be found
to aiifwer the fame purpofe for wheat or beans, and ftill
lefs for barley or oats. And the fame may perhaps be the
cafe in fowing fome other forts. It is therefore probable,
that wooden or metal cylinders, which have grooves on
their furfaces, and bruthes to promote and regulate the de-
livery, are the beft modes which have yet been difcovered
for effefting the purpofe of fowing in a proper manner in
thefe m.ichines, though they are far from approaching any
fort of perfeftion in the bufinefs.

The fhares, or other contrivances, which are made for the
purpofe of forming the little drills or furrows in the ground
for the reception of the feed, fhould have great power and
facility of moving and giving way in an upward direction in
cafe of their meeting with any hard impeding fubftances in
the foil, and that they may be ufed on all iorts and forms
of ridges. They fhould alfo have the capabihty of being
wholly taken up, when occafion may require, as in turning
at the ends of the ridges, and in removing from one place
or field to another, in order to prevent the machine from
being broken and deftroyed.

Thefe machines fhould likewife have great eafe and capa-
bility given them of being direfted and guided, while in
their work, by the exaft regulation of the fhare or fowing
parts only, or by thefe in conneftion with the other parts,
as where there is a want or any material incorreftnefs in
this refpeft, the after-culture of the crops may be greatly
impeded or wholly hindered from taking place.

There is, cor.fequently, a variety of points and circum-
ftances which fliould engage the attention and confidera-
tion of the agricultural artificer and mechanic, who is
anxious to fucceed in the conftruftion of ufeful machinery
of this fort, and particularly that of a general or univerfal
fowing-machine.

The article Drill Machine contains an account of fow-
ing

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ing-machines that are intended to fow the feeds in drills,
and a minute defcription of one invented by Mr. Salmon,
which is very fuperior to the others, as it is capable of
being guided, and thus laying the drills in exaft llraight
lines, a circumftance of the firft importance in the opera-
tion of drilling, that the horfc-hoe, which is to pafs in the
fpaces between the drills, may not cut the young plants.

The term foiving-machine is almoft exclufively confined
to fome implements lately introduced for fowing feeds in
the broad-caft manner, that is, for diftributing them equally
over the whole furface ; and this operation can be much
better performed by the aid of a machine, than by fcatter-
ing it abroad by hand, as in the ordinary method. The
moll approved fowing-machine is that of Mr. Bennet's,
which is extremely fimple : a flight wooden box, or trough,
of a triangular figure, about five inches each fide, and five
or fix feet in length, is held horizontally by the fower,
who carries it fufpended by a belt round his neck, fo that
the length of the trough is before his bread crofswife.
The trough is filled with the feed which is to be lown or
diftributed ; and at the bottom angle of the trough is
a flight wooden axle, extending the whole length of it.
This axle is turned round by an endlefs band and a wheel,
which is mounted in a frame upon the top of the trough,
and furnifhed with a fmall handle, conveniently fituated for
the fower to turn it round, and thus give motion to it. The
axle has feveral notches, or fmall cups, cut in it at various
places, and the bottom angle of the trough is open all the
length ; but the axle lying immediately beneath, clofes the
opening, and by hair-brulhes is made fo clofe, that no feed
can pafs, except when the axle is caufed to revolve ; the
cups or notches then become filled with the feed, which is
contained in the bottom of the trough, and they carry down
their contents of feed through the bottom of the box, and it
drops on the ground in a flight (hower before the fower.
The cups or notches are fo arranged at intervals round the
axle, that they will diitribute the feed in the moft equal
manner poflible, upon the whole breadth of ground over
which the trough moves, when it is carried forwards as
the fower walks in a llraight line from one fide of the field
to the other ; but the regular dillribution of the feed, in
the dircftion lengthwife of his walk, will altogether de-
pend upon the precilion with which he turns the handle of
the wheel with a regular motion. As this is rather difficult
to effeft, Mr. Bcnnet has made another machine, which
runs upon a wheel, like a wheel-barrow ; and the motion of
this wheel is communicated by wheel-work to the central
axle, fo that it turns regularly, and diilributes the feed
always in a given proportion to the diltance of land over
which it travels. The trough of this latter machine is the
fame as the former ; and the axle, with the notches, is fituated
at the bottom of it ; but, inllead of the belt, the trough is
carried, by being fixed tranfverfely acrofs two long rails,
which, at the fore-end, have the wheel between them, and
the other ends are formed into handles, by which the fower
fupportj the machine, and wheel-! it before him in the fame
manner as a wheel-barrow. A pinion is fixed on the axle of
the wheel clofe to the fide of it, and turns a wheel and
fpindle, extending to the wheel on the axis of the trough,
to keep the fame in conltant motion, and deliver the feed
regularly upon the ground, in proportion as the machine
advances ; and means are provided by which the rate at
which the axle delivers the feed can be increafed or di-
miniflied at pleafure, to dillribute more or lefs feed upon
the ground.

Another clafs of fowing-machincs arc called dibblers,
and are intended to make a fmall round hole to receive the
Vol. XXXII]^

feeds, and then to drop them into it. We have feen feveral
attempts to perform this operation by machmes, but they
have not fully fucceeded. One of them was by means of a
wheel provided with points projefting from its circum-
ference, and placed at fuch diftances from each other as the
holes were intended to be. The machine being wheeled along
in the fame manner as a whcel-barrow, the points of the
wheel were intended to dibble or pierce holes in the ground
over which it pafled, and the machinery in the feed-box,
which was fixed upon the handles behind the wheel, fol-
lowed, and let fall the intended quantity of feed into each
hole fo made. The objeftion to this machine was, that the
points of the wheel, in lifting up or drawing out of the
ground, drew up with them lumps of earth, and foon
clogged the whole.

An ingenious dibble or fowing-machine, for acorns,
was prefented to the Society of Arts by Mr. Waiftell in
1811, an account of which is publifhed m their Tranf-
aftiont for that year. The dibble, or piercer, which
makes the hole in the earth, is an iron rod, a quarter
of an inch in diameter, and about four feet in length,
round pointed at the lower end, that it may penetrate
the ground. At the upper end of the rod a handle
is fixed, to draw it up and force it down by. Thii
rod is contained within the hollow of a wooden tube or
ilaff, of the fame length as the iron rod, and about two inchet
in diameter externally, fo that the iron rod can be drawn up
and down therein in the fame manner as a rammer in the
barrel of a mufket : the lower end of the ftaff terminates
in an iron tube, to which the iron rod is clofely fitted, and
the tube is made taper on the outfide. The point of the
dibble, when put down into the tube, projefts a very fmall
quantity beyond the end of the tube, and the whole it
formed to a regular conical point, proper to pierce the
ground. On one fide of the ttaff a tin tube is united to it,
and communicates fideways with the interior paflage, or
bore of the ftaff, at about fix inches from the point.' Thii
tube is continued nearly up to the top of the ftaff, and
is withinfide of the fame bore as the aperture through
the ftaff.

The dibble is forced into the ground, to make the hole,
by two handles, which projeft from it crofsways, on each
fide, at the upper end ; and on each fide of its point, or
rather on each fide of the iron tube which contains the iron
rod, and forms the point of the dibble, are fixed two wings,
or leaves of iron, projefting on each fide about three
inches. The operation of fowing with this implement, '\t
to force the dibble into the ground by its handles, and thu»
make the hole ; then draw up the iron rod, fo that its
point rifes above the place where the tin tube communicate*
with the interior paffage of the ftaff, and drop the acorn
down the tin tube, and it will pafs through that communi-
cation, and drop into the hole ; the rod being preffed
in again, carries the acorn down to its place, in the bottom
of the hole made by the point of the dibble. In drawing
out the dibble from the ground, it miift be gently turned
round backwards and forwards, by which means the wings,
or leaves, projefting fideways from its point, will loolen
the furrounding earth, and cover up the acorn.

A great advantage propofed by the inventor of this im-
plement is, that acorns can be planted by it in the middle
of any bufti, without firft removing it. For this purpofe,
the dibble is to be preffed down into the ^ound through
the bufti ; then raifing up the rod, fo that its point will be
raifed above the point of communication between the inte-
rior of the tin tube and the cavity of the ftaff, an acorn i«
to be dropped into the tin tube, which will fall down
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through the tube into the holt- made by the point of the
dibble. In drawing up the dibble out of the ground with
the motion above-defcribed, the earth will be covered in
upon the acorn. Thorns, bullies, and thickets, fays Mr.
Waillell, are the natural guardians of young oaks from the
depredations of cattle of all kinds, m foreils and other
grounds where they pafture ; and by this means, acorns
may be depofited m the interior of buflies, as well as in
open grounds, with rapidity and accuracy.

Sov/ltiG- P/otigh, that inftrument of this kind which
is employed for the purpofe of fowing, or of forming the
land in a proper manner for the feed being put into it,
after it has undergone the necelTary ploughing. There are
many ploughs of this fort in ufe in different diftridls of the
kingdom, and they are conflruftcd in feveral different ways
in different places, and with very different numbers of fhares,
or contrivances for forming the little drills, or fmall furrow-
openings in the land, which are to receive the feed. They
are made with three, five, feven, and nine of thefe ihares or
parts, according to circumltances, and the intentions of
fowing which they are to ferve. Low iron wheels, in com-
bination with tines or teeth, are fometimes hkewife made to
anfwer the purpofe of forming tlic little openings for the
feed in thefe ploughs. And they have many other vari.itions
in thtir ftrufture in other parts. Thefe kinds of fowing-
pli iighs are now beginning to make their way, fomewhat
rapidly, in the mouldering chalky-land diftrifts of the country,
particularly where the foils are of a light, dry, friable na-
ture. They conltitute, in lome meafure, a plan between
the drill and broad-caft. methods of fowing, as the feed is
fown or fcattered over the land by the hand, after it has been
furrowed by the plough in a fuitable manner. The Berk-
ftiire mne-fhare fowing-plough ii faid to be ufed witli the
moll beneficial efFe£ls. After the land is properly prepared
and rolled, this plough is palled over it, and the grain or
other feed fown broad-calt and harrowed in ; by which
means it comes up, it is obferved, with as much regularity
as if it had been drilled. It is indeed fuggefted, that in many
foils and fituations this fowing-plough might undoubtedly
be found preferable to the belt: drill-machine. See Sowing.
The preffing.plough, and probably fome others, are of
this kind, though they may polfefs other highly ufeful pro-
perties, in different intentions. See Preffitig-FLOVGU.

The utihty and preference in favour of thefe forts of fow-
ing-ploughs, probably, in a great meafure, depend upon
their being attended with but little labour, trouble, or diffi-
culty in the performance of the bufinefs, and their requiring
little knowledge in the perfons who conduft and manage
them. There may alfo be fomething on fuch li^ht foils,
in their rendering the land more folid, in putting in fome
forts of crops, as thofe of the wheat kind, &c. See Tread-
ing and Wheat.

SoviiriG-Rol/cr, that fort of implement of this kind
which is conftrufted for the purpofe of fowing different
forts of grain and feeds. Implements of this nature have
been lately contrived, and formed in feveral different mo'les
and manners, in the view of effefting this intention in a more
complete and fatisfaftory manner than has been commonly
the cafe formerly. They are, however, for the moil part,
flill defedive in all or fome of the ways which have been
noticed in fpeaking of fowing.machines, and to be remedied,
moft probably, in the ways, and by the means, which have
been there fuggeft;ed and pointed out. See Roller.

In a fowing-roUer which has been lately invented, the
heavy expence commonly attendant upon conft:ruaing fuch
implements, and their being moftly applicable only to one
particular purpofe, has induced the inventor to fix and

I

attach a complete feed-diftributing apparatus to the commoB
field-roller, which is capable of feeding, it is faid, any given
number of little rows or furrows made in the ground by
itfelf, or of fowing the land broad-cait, if that mode (hould
be preferred. This fowing implement, which is wholly
formed on the above principles, from its very great powers,
the eafe with which it may be conllrudled, being fuch as
that any tolerable good village wheelwright may put toge-
ther, and the little liabihty there is of its being out of order,
warrant, it is fuppofed, the aflertion, that it is a more ef-
feftual fowing tool than any which has yet been offered to
the public. It is in this cafe calculated and conftrufted on
a narrow fcale, that is, with a roller of only four feet two
inches in length, and twenty-eight inches in diameter ; as
fuch a block of wood is eafily to be procured in almolt any
fituation, but it may be formed of much larger dimenfions.

This fowing-roUer confills of a roller-part, the gudgeons
of which pierce the ffiafts of the tool, and after pading
through them about two inclics, are bent at right angles,
fo as to form cranks, which, by means of parallel bars of
communication, give a rotatory motion to a tin cylinder,
which, for the fowing of fmall feeds, fuch as thofe of tur-
nips, rape, cabbage, clover, and others of the fame nature,
may be about a foot in diameter, but for different forts of
grain larger, and perhaps fomewhat differently modified.
This tin cylinder is to be fliut at each end, by means of a
piece of ftout board, turned fo as to fit exaftly, and to be
faftened in with very great nicety and firmnefs. The whole
furface of it is to be pierced witii fmall holes, fo that when
it is furnifhed with feeds, the revolutions of it may caufe
them to pafs through mto the funnel for their dillribution.
It is alfo internally divided and feparated by feveral dia-
phragms of the tin kind, by which the feed is prevented,
when the implement is on a declivity, from being thrown
all to one end of the cylinder, by the force of its own weight
or gravity. Each compartment is provided with a fmall
Aider, which moves in a groove internally, by means of
which it is fupplied with feed when it is wanted. The axis,
or axle-tree, is fquare, from the end or place of its entrance
into the cylinder, to that of its exit at the oppofite end.
Both ends of this axis, as well as thole of the gudgeons in
the ends of the roller, are turned for cranks ; but in order
that there may be no poffible check given to the motion of
the cylinder, the two cranks, that is thofe of the roller and
of the cylinder, on the right fide of the implement, are to
be fet at right angles with the direftion of thofe on the left
fide of it, fo that when the former are vertical, the latter
will be horizontal ; as is feen to be the cafe in many pieces;
and forts of machinery, as in thofe of windlaffes for pits
and wells, hand-mills, and fome others, where two perfons
are employed, one at each end of the power which gives the
motion.

There is a ftrong plank, about two inches in thicknefs,
and two feet at lealt in depth, which reaches all acrofs the
tool; the whole of it that is above the fhafts, refting upon
them by means of a (houlder at each end. It is fupported
by a ilrong iron ftay, as it is a part which mult be very
firm, on account of the whole ftrefs of the fhares bearing
upon it. All of it that is above the fhafts, which need not
be more than eight inches, ferves as a foot-board, while that
part which is under the (hafts forms the front part of the
feed-funnel. A ilrong wooden flip or llrap, for a fupport,
fhould be faftened firmly, at its upper end, to the fide of
the ftiaft, taking care that it be out of the way of the crank
on the axis of the roller. The other end may be fixed as
a buttrefs, at the back of the projefting elbow of the above
plank or board, fo as to ilrengthen and enable it to refill

the

sow

the prefTure occafioned by the aftion of the (hares. The
back part of the funnel is formed by a thin deal board,
which is fecured at its upper part to the (hafts. The fides
of the funnel are clofed under the (hafts with moderately
thin deal boarding. The funnel, when ready for direfting
the feed, reaches within four or (ive inches of the ground ;
it has no bottom, fo that when the implement is in motion,
it will, in this (tate, fow broad-call with much regularity and
exaftnefs. When thus employed, however, inllead of having
the chain which hangs in loops, at fix inches apart, all
along the bottom part of the back-board, for the purpofe of
covering in the. feed, and filling up the little furrows made
by the (hares in the bufinel's of drill-fowing, a broad but
fliort harrow is to be fixed to, and appended from, the
bottom part of the back-board, which, pafling before the
roller, covers the broad-call work, which is immediately
afterwards comprefled by the roller coming over it, and
finifiied. It mud be noticed, that the loops of the chain
ufed in drill-fowing hang in thofe parts of the back-board
that lie over the intervals between the fmall furrows. This
is managed by having a number of tenters, into which along
chain may be looped, as the occafion may require. The
(hares have each a ilandard, the latter being long enough to
meafure the whole deptli of the front board or plank noticed
above. The foot part of thefe fpreads a httle at the heel,
fo that it may (land open to about two inches and a half at
that part ; the length of the fole part may be (ive inches,
and the inftep about three inches, the point and the upper
part being lliarp. At the back part of each Ilandard are
two flit-fprings, which ferve to keep them tight, when they
are put into the groove in the front board or plank. At
the top, in the front part, for about eight inches downwards,
the (tandards are furrowed in an horizontal manner, fo as
to form teeth or cogs, which fit into the grooved bar that
pafles all acrofs the tool, whereby the feveral ftaudards, and

SOW

the fnares that are fixed to them, are capable of being either
raifed or lowered. This is efFeaed by means of the fmal!
winch handle. There are two rows of ilaples driven through
the front board or plank, and rivetted firmly within the funnel.
Thefe Ilaples (hould admit the ftandards to pafs up them from
below, when fitting into their places, and (hould fit them
exaftly in breadth ; but in depth fome allowances (hould be
made for the play of the two back fprings. The upper
row of Ilaples (hould be juil between the (hafts, the lower
one within four inches of the bottom of the board. Great
care (hould be taken to place thofe in the upper row per-
feftly in a line with thofe belew ; and both lines (hould be
in a correft parallel with the grooved bar, otherwife they
never will work up and down fo freely, or in fo proper a
manner, as they ought to do. The ftandards (liould be about
half an inch in breadth and nearly an inch in depth, from
front to back, exclufive of the flit-fprings, which are not
to be rivetted, but welded on, that they may not weaken
the ftandards, which muft alfo be perfeftly fmooth and
(Iraight. The number of the ftaples in each row is feven-
teen ; but as it is fuppofed that fix inches will be as fmall
an interval as will ever be wanted in this method of fowing
by means of drills, no more than nine (hares can ever be re-
quired for the purpole.

The tabular form and reprefentation which is introduced
below will give a clear view of the manner in which the
(hares (hould be diftributed in the feventeen fets of ftaples,
which are calculated for fowing any number of rows in this
implement ; confidering always that the tool, in returninsr,
muft pafs more or lefs diftantly from its preceding track,
according as the vacancies on the right of the row of (hares
may indicate : thus, for inilance, when fowing at a foot
interval, as both ends of the line will bear (hares, a foot
diftance (hould be allowed, as is exemplified in the third
column below.

Sowing-Diftance Table.

Staples.

I

2

3

4

5

6

1
/

8

9

10

II

12

'3 '4

IS

i6

'7

In return-
ing leave a
fpace of

Intervals of
fix inches.

+

+

+

+

+

+

4-

4-

4-

Six
inches.

Nine
inches.

+

+

+

+

4-

4-

Six
inches.

Twelve
inches.

-u

+

1
+

4-

4-

Twelve
inches.

Fifteen
inches.

■i-

+

\

+

4-

Nine
inches.

Eighteen
inches.

+

1
j

+

+

Three
inches.

Twenty-one
inches.

+

+

-h

Twelve
inches.

Twenty-four
inches.

+

+

4-

Twenty-four
inches.

It is to be noticed, that the crofTcs m the above table (hew
in which of the ftaples the (haies (hould be fet, in order to
fow at the diftanccs exprelled in the lirll column of it ; all

the other (hares may be drawn up, or wliolly taken out and
removed.

The ftaples arc counted from the left of the implement j
3 H 2 calling

sow

calline that which is neareft to the winch of the cylinder of
it the firft. The driver is alfo confidered as beginning on
the left of the field, and making up the broken parts, on
the right of the numbers, &c. by preferving about the
diftances fpecified in the right-hand column of the table,
taking the mark of the roUer for his guide. In broad-caft
work he muft return clofe to his former track.

It remains now to be (hewn how, or in what manner, the
grain is brought into the little furrows made by the (hares ;
for this purpofe, the funnel is divided into fixteen compart-
ments ; and for the very fame reafon, to make the feed fall
equally through the bottom, when the implement may be
working on a declivity. But all the partitions are made to
Aide out, they being formed in battened grooves. This is
for the purpofe of introducing the drill bottoms, as they are
called ; one of which is for nine rows, and another for three.
Each of them, it is faid, is nothing more than a wedge-hke
block, which being let down into the bottom of the funnel,
fits exaftly at the edges ; and by means of holes of a conical
form, which are fcooped out in it, and correfponding fmall
tin fpouts below to direft what feed they refpeftively re-
ceive, in a forward manner, (hooting it, as it were, under
the hollow heel of the (hare, diftribute the feed into the
number of furrows which are made for receiving it.

The middle hole or fcoop only, however, is of equal ex-
tent to the right and left of the tin fpout ; the other two
fcoops are neceffarily of a fomething (helving or flanting
form ; it being indifpenfable to allot to each fpout an equal
furface on the block ; and to flielve the fcooping to the fpot
where its fpout is fixed.

The drill bottoms may thus be changed at pleafure ; the
partitions will keep them duly in their places. But although
there are fixteen compartments in the funnel, no more par-
titions are to be ufed than may be necell'ary to correfpond
with the number of fcoops and fpouts in the drill bottom.
It is to be remembered, that, as there will be feed falling
from the whole length of the cylinder into the funnel, and
that as there will be occafionally a portion of the drill bot-
tom parted off, which has no fpout, fuch compartment
fhould when nece(rary be emptied, and the feed be put into
thofe divifions only of the cylinder which are over the
fpouts.

The two (hafts of the tool are connected firmly together
by a ftrong thwart or tie, and which, when the other parts
are united with it, render the whole completely fubftantial.
Under the hinder end or part of the (hafts, a fcraper is
carried quite acro(s, and is bolted in with the crofs piece,
which has an iron edge, and ferves to diveft the roller of the
adhefive foil that would otherwife accumulate about it. The
upper and under edges in the back part of the thwart are
completely rounded off, fo as to be femicircular. This
thwart (hould be inferted as clofe as pollible to the back of
the cylinder ; becaufe its purpofe is to aid a (heep-(kin
wrapper in lapping round under it, thus keeping the feed
in, when the cylinder (hould not fow. The wrapper ex-
tends the whole way acrofs, and (hould be about two feet
deep ; each edge, that is of the top and bottom, but not
of the fides, (hould be afExed to a lath, in order to make
it draw backward and forward in a ftraight line. The place
(hould be cut to about half an inch in length, by which means
it will, when pafTed under the cylinder with the wool fide
upwards, repel the feeds when they attempt to prefs through
the perforations. This wrapper (hould always be palled
under, while the implement is turning at the ends of the
lands ; but at other times it draws over the cylinder, the
fle(h fide uppermoll, and ferves to keep out wind and rain.
There are two little pullies affixed into the (hafts, clofe

SOW

under the fore-board, which ferve to paf* cords over, fo that
by the aid of the rounded back of the thwart, the wrapper
may ghde eafily, either over or under. When brought
round under the cylinder, its front lath hitches to two
hooks, under the half foot-board, in order to prevent it*
receding, and to keep it tight to the cylinder. It may be
noticed, that it is of more importance to keep the wrapper
tighter to the front than to the back part of the cylinder ;
becaufe the revolution of the latter being againft that of the
fun, the fame as that of the roller's when viewed from the
left fide, it is obvious, it is faid, the grain will call forward,
and have a tendency to rehnquilh the hinder part of the
cyhnder, as it rifes in that part. It is hkewife fuggefted,
that although the axis of the cylinder in this implement is
made to pafs through the (hafts, it would ride on them to
more advantage, and render it far eafier to (hift the drill
bottoms and the partitions in the funnel. Indeed, it i«
thought, that the former might be made to fit in by a flap,
made to open at the bottom of the back-board.

There is a fmall ftiff bolt affixed to a crofs-piece, for the
purpofe of Aiding into the grooves of the bar near the cylin-
der, fo as to keep it fixed, and prevent its turning either
way, when prefl'ed by the aftion of the (hares. In fetting
the (hares to any defired depth, by turning the winch, the
bolt mult be drawn back, otherwife the grooved bar cannot
turn ; but as foon as it is put to the proper depth, the bolt
is to be pulhed in again to its oppofite groove.

The ends of the cranks on the axis of the roller are fplit
like fpring keys, and have a catch, over which the hind end
of the parallel iron Aides, and is kept in its place. This is
more clearly evident in the terminations of the fame cranks.
When the cylinder of the implement is not to turn, as in
palling from one place to another, &c. the fprings are to be
pinched together, and the parallel iron to be drawn off;-
which is then to be hitched up to a hook at the fide of the
driver's feat, which feat is fupported by the ftandards which
are let into the (hafts. The ends of the cranks might, it is
fuppofed, be perforated and keyed, but thefe modes would
not be fo good as the plan which is here adopted.

It will be readily remarked, that by far the greater part
of the machinery in this fowing-roller relates to the drill
praftice of putting in the feed ; as when it is made only to
broad-caft, nothing but the cylinder and two thin boards,
forming a direAing funnel, will be neceflary. It is alfo
fuggefted, that the great Itrength of the fore-board, already
noticed, would hkewife be unnecelfary, as 'there would be
no (hares, no ftaples, nor grooved bar ; and t'nat there would
not be any occafion for a drill bottom, thoBgh an immenfe
faving of feed, and great facility of hoeing the young crops,
would arife, it is afierted, from adopting fuch a mode of
committing the feed to the foil. The t'm fpouts, in fuch
cafe, it is fuppofed, Aiould rather point', backwards than
forwards; for, if unprotefted by preceding (hares, they
might be liable to injury from clods, &t'.. ; their diameter
ought to be, it is (aid, about an inch for white corn, but
that for fmall feeds half an inch might anfvter better and in
a more perfeft manner. The harrow, prep ared with a fuf-
ficient number of (harp tines, fuited in leng'th to the kind
of feed, would cover it fufBciently ; and thi^ roller would
finilh the work in a complete manner. Thus, if corn were
fown at nine inches or a foot afunSer, it woui'd, it is con-
tended, be fo little difturbed by the harrow, as to come up
in rather broad lines, but with interval enough i'or the free
aftion of a fix-inch hoe. It is farther alfo to be well no-
ticed, that, as the roller and the cylinder each revolve in
the fame period of time, that the larger the cyliniler, the
more feed will be fown ; unlefs a fmall one be more pierced,
V that

sow

that is, have more holes in it, in proportion as it is fmaller
than the roller. In the proportions which have been made
ufe of in the above inltance, the roller being twenty-eight
inches in diameter, its circumference will be more than feven
feet, whereas the cyhnder is but one foot in diameter, there-
fore little more than a yard in circumference. Confequently,
as the roller will pafs over full feven feet of ground, while
the cylinder prefents only three feet of revolving furface,
the latter muft be fo much pierced as to allow the feed to
fall very freely, otherwife the ground will be but thinly fown,
and the bufinefs, of courfe, imperfeftly performed.

The one-foot cylinder has been already confidered, and
fuggefted as being the moil applicable to Imall feeds, and
which the confiderations jult Hated feem more fully to con-
firm. They likewife fecm to Itrengthen the fuggeilion, that,
for white corn, peas, and other fimilar forts of articles, the
cylinder would be more fuitable, if it were enlarged, ac-
cording to the number of pecks or other meafures required
to fow an acre. It is a neceffary caution that, in fowing
■with this implement, the cylinder be never filled too full ;
it ought indeed, in no cafe, to be more than three-fifths
filled, and, if only filled up to the axis of it, fo much the
better. While the feed is putting in, which fhould be done
by means of a (hort, broad, tin funnel, the wrapper fliould
be pafled under the cylinder to keep it in, as feen in defcrib-
ing the tool.

It is fuggefted further too, that, by previoufly fetting the
centre (hares of the implement rather higher than thole to-
wards the fides, which may be eafily done by taking out the
grooved bar, by unkeying the ftrap by which it is held down
into the box near the winch, it may be made to fow on nar-
row ridges, which is very neceffary and defirable in different
fituations, but it will then require that a fuitable roller fhould
be ufed ; or by fettinfr the middle (hares deep, pulling off
thofe towards the fides, the implement might be made to
work with a common furrow-roller. In either cafe the
points and tops of the (hares fhould, it is faid, form a curve
correfponding with the (hape of the roller, but more efpe-
cially where the ridges are very narrow, and much railed in
the crown.

It is obvious, the inventor fays, that the whole of the
above fowing apparatus is capable of being attached to any
common well rniAe Jield-rolkr which is of a good fize in the
barrel, and fitted into a proper frame, with a feat, and
other neceffaries ; and that every part of the broad-caft ma-
chinery may be connefted with it at very little expence.
Thefe are very important confiderations in fuch forts of
tools ; but, beiides, the roller will dill be a roller, and ufeful
as fuch ; while the fowing part, being only necedary when
that operation is to take place, may at other times either
be left at reft, or be altogether removed.

It is ilatcd in conclufion, that by means of this fowing-
roller, the work of fowing, harrowing, and rolling may go
on all at one time, and that, by a change of horfcs once in
the day, a field of ten acres may be cafily fown and finilhed
in that time. That in hot dry feafons, when farmers are
under the ncceffity of catching and taking the advantage of
fmart (howers, for the (owing of their turnip feed in par-
ticular, a tool that is capable of effefting fo much cannot
but be highly ufeful. The land will not only be better and
more expeditioufly fown, but be left in a more fuitable ftate
for preventing the effedts of the weather. It will probably
too not be much Icfs beneficial for the purpofes and inten-
tions of fowing in other cafes.

The great power, together with the ready and exlcnfive
application of the roller, hold out to the agricultural me-
chanic, means which ought not to be overlooked in the con-

SOX

flruftion of tools and machinery of this nature, as they
afford prodigious facility in forming and giving them
motion.

SOWINS, or Sowings, in the manufafture of linen-
cloth, are ufed in a rather coarfe and pretty thick but not
over thick ftate, by weavers, in dreffing and preparing their
yarn of this kind for the loom, or being woven into cloth.
It takes away, combines, and hardens, the loofe parts of the
threads ox Jlecfings, as they are called, and gives a fort of
body to the whole divided parts of the yarn before the ope-
ration of weaving begins to be performed, and confequently
greatly facilitates the work. In this procefs or pradice the
beft flour is likewife fometimes employed in the fame way,
as going farther and anfwering better, efpecially for fine
cloths.

SOWLEE, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 1 7 mile*
E. of Boglipour.

SOWNE, a term ufed in the exchequer ; feeming to be
a corruption from the Yrenchfouvenu, remembered.

Such eltreats and cafualties as the (herift by his induftry
cannot get or levy, are faid to be eftreats that foiune not,
that is, are not to be remembered, or are not in demand.
On the contrary, eftreats that fowne, are fuch as he may
gather.

SOWRAY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circarof Chanderee ; 40 miles S.S.E. of Chanderee.

SOWREE, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal ; 15 mile*
N.E. of Jellafore.

SOXALjE, or Camelobosci, in Ancient Geography, a
people of Germany, who inhabited the vicinity of the de-
ferts. Ptolemy.

SOXINI, or SocciNi, Mariano, in Biography, deno-
minated the elder, an eminent canoni(t, was born at Siena
in 1 40 1. He ftudied firft at his native place, and then in
Padua, in which laft univerfity, after he had taken his de-
gree, he was for fome years profelfor of the canon law. He
then returned to Siena, where he taught as a profedor dur-
ing the remainder of his life. He was very intimate with
Eneas Sylvius, afterwards pope Pius II., who has written
a panegyric upon him in one of his letters in the moll mag-
nificent terms, affigning to him almoft utiiverfal proficiency
in fcience and the arts, with the greateft excellence of moral
charafter. Soxini was fent by the ftate to compliment Syl-
vius when he afcended the papal throne, on which occafion
he was nominated confiilorial advocate. He died in 1467,
leaving behind him a confiderable reputation for learning
?nd integrity. His works, confifting of " Confultations,"
" Commentaries on the Books of Canon Law," and trafts
upon " Legal Subjefts," have been frequently reprinted.

SoxiNi, or SocciNl, Bartolomeo, a celebrated civilian,
fon of the preceding, was born at Siena in 1436. He
ftudied the law under different matters at Siena and Bo-
logna, and after he had been admitted to a doftor's de-
gree he became profeffor of the civil and canon law in
his native city. He was, in 1473, invited to Pifa, where
he taught both branches of law, and in this city he rc-
fidcd twenty years, with fome occafional abfenccs. He
took an aftive part in the civil didicntions of Siena, and
was, at one time, in the lift of the baniftied citizens. He
was employed in einbaffics from the Siencfc to the Florcn-
tines, and it is faid he engaged in a military attempt to
change the conftitution ot Siena. At Pifa the famoui
Jafon del Maino was his rival, and they held frequent public
dilputations, at one of which Lorenzo dc Medici wa« an
auditor. Jafon being hard prcffcd by the arguments of hi»
antagonill, quoted, in his own favour, a text which he had
invented tor the occafion. Sokioi, with equal readiuefs, in-
vented

SOX

vented another to oppofe it, and being afted by Jafon where
he had found it, " Next to that which you have juR now
quoted," he replied. The fame which he had acquired
caufed him to be invited to Padua in 1489, with the offer
of a large falary, which he determined to accept, but liis
intentions being known he was detained. For fome time he
was profelFor at Padua. He died in 1507, having been
three years deprived of the ufe of his fpeech. His works
as an author were " Confultations," " Comments on the
Code and Digeit," the " Rule of Right," and other pieces of
a fimilar kind. He was not eltimable as a praftical morahlt.
He was addifted to gambling, and would fometimes leave
his fcholars without a leffon, and pafs whole nights at the
gaming table, the confequence of which moll deftruttive
habit was, that he did not leave money enough behind him
to pay the expences of his funeral. He was extremely
greedy of money, charged very high for his opinion, which
he would fometimes give to both parlies in a fuit. He was
free of fpeech, farcaftic and jocular. His faults were borne
with on account of his high profeffional charafter. Angelo
Politiano, fpeaking of his intended correftion of the Pan-
defts, fays, " I muil have recourfe to the affillance and ad-
vice of that Angularly excellent doftor of Siena, Bartolomeo
Soxini, whom I may boldly denominate the Papinian of our
age."

Soxini, Mariano, denominated the younger, grand-
foii of the firll Manano, was born at Siena in 1482 : he
ftudied the law under his uncle Bartolomeo, and after tak-
ing his degree, taught alternately the civil and canon law at
his native city, till he removed to Paris in 1517- Return-
ing to Siena in 1524, he was employed as ambalfador to the
repubhc of Florence, and alfo to pope Leo X. He was
engaged in the following year by the republic of Venice, to
occupy a profeilorlhip at Padua. He remained at that uni-
verfity till the year 1542, when the offer of a higher falary
drew him to Bologna. Here he continued till his death,
though he received the moft flatterin" invitations, with the
promife of large falaries, from Cofmo, duke of Florence,
the king of Portugal, and other princes and dates. He
died in 1556, and his German fcholars in Bologna fliewed
their refpeft for his virtues and talents, by carrying his body
on their own (houlders to the tomb. He was author of
many works, which were once in confiderable etlimation,
though they are now forgotten.

Soxini, Lelio, fon of the preceding, was born at Siena
in the year 1525. He was deltined by his father for the
legal profefTion, but having in the courfe of his lludies at-
tended to fcriptural truths, he felt reafon to queftion the
vahdity of the doftrines of the Catholic church. For the
purpofe of farther enquiry, he made himfelf acquainted
with the languages in which the Old and New Teltament
were written, alfo with the Arabic and other oriental lan-
guages. About the year 1546 he joined himfelf to a fociety
attached to the principles of reformation in religion, and the
members of which fpeculated very freely on the mylteries
contained in the doftrines of the Trinity, and the atone-
ment. Their objefts being difcovered, lome were appre-
hended, and others gladly fled from the iron arm of perfe-
cution. Two of thofe who fell into the hands of the priells
Uiffered death as heretics, and thofe who remained concealed
themfelves, or withdrew into foreign countries. The fubjeft
of this article quitted Italy in 1547, and travelled during tiie
four following years into France, England, Germany, and
Poland. He then fixed at Zurich, where he maintained a
correfpondence with the reformers in various parts of Eu-
rope, by whom he was held in hic^h eiteem, till he fhewed a
leaning to the doftriiies of Arianiim. Calyia, who was ever

SPA

eager in detefting herefy, wrote him a letter of admonition,
which was followed by a ftiU ftronger warning, the burning-
of Servetus, and which was fufficient to "deter Lelio from
taking a very aftive part in propagating the doftrines to
which he adhered. On the death of his father, in 1556, he
obtained letters of legation from the king of Poland to
Venice and Florence, which enabled him to fettle the affair*
of his inheritance. He died in 1562. He was mild and
gentle in difpofition, averfe from all controverfy, and v/as
evidently led by confcience to differ from thofe with whom
he lived. Some writings have been attributed to him, but
critics are very doubtful as to what he really wrote. Bayle.

SOYDE, in Geography, a town of Norway; 36 miles
N. of Stavanger.

SOYDPOUR, a town of Bengal; 25 miles S.W, of
Silhet.

SOYLAND, a townfhip of the parifh of Halifax,
Yorkfhire. See Halifax.

SOYOLLA, the principal ifland of a duller in the Red
fea. N. lat. 14° 2'. E. long. 59° 38'.

SOYON, a town of France, in the department of the
Drome, on the Rhone ; 6 miles S. of Valence.

SOZ, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Dnieper, 16
miles S. of Bilitzi, in the government of Mogilev.

SOZO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the in-
terior of Media. Ptolemy.

SOZOMEN, Her.mias, in Biography, an ecclefiaftical
hillorian, contemporary with Socrates (fee his article), was
born of refpeftable parents, as lome fay at Salamis, in the
ifle of Cyprus, but according to others, at Gaza or Bethe-
lia, in Paledine. Having fludied the law at Berytus, he
praftifed as an advocate at Conllaatinople, devoting his lei-
fure hours to the compofition of his ecclefiaftical hiltory.
This work contains, in nine books, an account of the affairs of
the church, from the third confulfhip of Crifpus and Con-
ftantine, Cxfars, to the 17th confulihip of Theodofius the
emperor, in whofe time he wrote, and to whom he dedicated
his performance ; that is, from the year 324 to the year
4?9, or during a period of 1 15 years. Cave reprelents him
as flouriihing about the year 440. In his hiilory, which is
written in a more florid and elegant ityle, but with lefs judg-
ment, than that of Socrates, he has introduced many
eulogiuws of a monallic life, to which he was attached in
confequence of his education among monks, and he has
added many narrations of the aftions and manners of the
reclufe, and his tellimony to the early practice of public
penance in the Roman church, together with a detail of the
particular ceremonies of which it confilted. To the ortho-
dox, however, he has given offence by his commendations of
Theodore of Mopfuelta, with whom originated the herefy
of two perfons in Chriit. His hiilory is chargeable with fe-
veral notorious errors in the relation of fafts. He is fup-
pofed to have died about the year 450. Sozomen's hiilory
is printed with that of Socrates, and the other Greek, ec-
clefiaftical hiltonans. A work of Sozomen, not now ex-
tant, containing, in two books, a fummary account of the
affairs of the church, from the afcenfion of Chrift to the
defeat of Licinius, was written before his hiilory. In mo-
deration and candour Sozomen refembled Socrates ; and it
is true of the former, as well as the latter, that he always
fpeaks with great refpeft of the facred fcriptures. Dupin.
Lardner.

SPA, or Spaw, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ourte, belonging to the bilhopric of
Liege, in Germany, and fituated in the m.arquifate of
Franchimont, on a fmall river which runs into the Ourte.
It was formerly a fmall village, but fince the difcovery of

SPA.

its mineral water?, about the year 1326, and the celebrity
which they have acquired, it has been confiderably enlarged ;
and now confills ot two ftreets, joined by a bridge over the
rtream that runs through it, together with feveral fmaller
ftreets and rows of houfes ; thofe of more ancient date
being irregularly arranged, and conftrufted of wood and
plafter, and the more modern built with brick and ftone.
The foil about the town is rocky, gravelly, or loamy, in-
termixed more or lefs with iron ore. The country about
it abounds with hills and woods, fo that it is not fertile in
grain, but it has plenty of (heep, kine, and poultry, and
great quantities of game, and tlie Itreams furnifh an ample
t'.ipply of various kinds of filh. During the feafon in which
the waters are ufed, the town refembles a fair in its variety
of booths, toys, &c. Its vicinity affords pleafant and falu-
brious rides, and many agreeable and romantic walks : and
its vifitors are gratified with evening amufements in public
rooms adapted for this purpofe. Some have fuppofed that
the medicinal waters of this place are thofe that are men-
tioned by Pliny in his " Natural Hiftory," but others ap-
prehend that thofe were the waters of Tongres. Thefe
waters were at firtt the property of the community of Spa,
but they were after«'ards taken poffelTion of by a bifhop of
Liege, until an appeal was made to the imperial chamber,
which reltored them to the original proprietors, who impofe
a fmall duty on every fladv exported under their feal. In
the year 1794, Spa was taken by the French ; 16 miles S.E.
of Liege. N. lat. 50° 31'. E. long. 5° 30'. The waters
are furnifhed by various fprings. Thofe of the Pouhon
fpring have been preferred, by our chief phyficians, to any
others in or near the country of Liege ; particularly to the
waters of Bru, which they complain have been impofed
on the public, to their and their patients' frequent difap-
pointment.

However, as the Spa waters are impregnated with different
proportions of the fame ingredients, they may be chofen
differently, according to the intentions with a view to which
they are \ifed. The Pouhon is the itrongeft chalybeate.
This is in its molt perfeft and natural ftate in cold dry wea-
ther ; but in warm moid weather it lofes its tranfparence,
appears turbid or wheyifli, contains lefs fixed air, or car-
bonic acid gas (fee Cahbonic Add), and is partly decom-
pofed. This water, which is colder by many degrees than
the heat of the atmofphere, is fuppofed to contain the
greatelt quantity of fixed air of almoil any acidulous water ;
and in confcquence of this ingredient, it has a remarkable
fprightlinefs and vinofity, and boil;; by mere warmth ; but
this foon flies ofl if the water be left expofed, though it
may, in a great meafure, be preferved in well-corked bottles.
It IS capable of difiolving more iron than it naturally con-
tains, and of thus becoming a Itronger chalybeate, on ac-
count of the great quantity of fixed air which it contains :
and for the fame reafon an ebullition is raifed in it on the ad-
dition of acids, which difcngage its fixed air. This water
mixes fmoothly with milk, whether it be cold or of a boiling
heat.

The Tonnclct and Geronfterre waters are weaker chaly-
beate-, but brilker and more fpTrituous. The Groefbeck,
Sauveniere, and Wartmz, are Hill weaker chalybeates, but
highly impregnated with calcareous and fclenitical earths, and
contam alfo a greater proportion of the folTilc alkali. The
Geromont is likewife a weak chalybeate, but contains a
great deal uf calcareous and feleiiitical earths, and about three
times as much alkaline fait as any of the others. The four
laft waters, therefore, will be better in difonkr; arifing from
an acid caufe, and as diuretics, particilarly the Geromont.
The Bru, or Churon water, approaches to tljc nature of

the Tonnelet, and though it has been decried, is faid, iii
eonfequence of every trial, not to be inferior to any of the
Spa waters.

All the waters that are comprehended under this denomi-
nation, abound with fixed air ; they alfo contain more or lefs
iron, foffile alkali, and calcareous and felcnitical earths, to-
gether with a fmall portion of fea-falt, and an oily matter
common to all waters. All thefe ingredients are kept fuf-
pended, and in a neutral Hate, by means of the fixed air, on
which the virtues chiefly depend ; though they are probably
rendered more aftive and penetrating, both in the firll paf-
fages, and alfo when they enter the circulation, by means
of that fmall portion of iron, earth, fait, &c. with which
they are impregnated.

Thefe waters are diuretic and fomctimes purgative ; and,
like other chalybeate waters, they tinge the ftools black.
They exhilarate the fpirits much better than wineorfpirituous
liquors, and their general operation is by ilrengthening the
fibres. They cool and quench thirll much better than com-
mon water.

They are found excellent in cafes of univerfal languor or
weaknefs, proceeding from a relaxation of the flomach, and
of the fibres in general, and where the conftitution has been
weakened by difeafes, or by a too fedentary life ; in weak,
relaxed, grofs habits ; in nervous diforders ; at the clofe of
fits of the gout and rheumatilm ; in fuch afthmatic difor-
ders and chronic coughs as proceed from too great a relaxa-
tion of the pulmonary vellels ; in obftruftioiis of the liver
and fpleen ; in fcorbutic and other putrid diforders ; in hyf-
terical and hypochondriacal complaints; in paralytic difor-
ders ; in gleets ; in the fluor albus ; in fluxes of the belly ;
in the gravel and Itonc ; in female obftruftions ; in barren-
nefs ; and in moll other cafes where a Ilrengthening and brifk
ilimulating refolving chalybeate remedy is wanted : but they
are generally hurtful in hot, bilious, and plethoric conftitu-
tions, when ufed before the body is cooled by proper eva-
cuations ; they are alfo hurtful in cafes of fever and heat,
in heftic fevers, and ulcerations of the lungs, and of other
internal parts, and in moll confirmed obltruAions attended
with fever. The ufual feafon for drinking them u in July
and Augult, or from May to September. The quantity to
be drank is fuch as the ilomach can bear without heavinefs
or uneafinefs : but it is advifeabic to begin with drinking a
glafs or two feveral times in a day, and fo increafe the quan-
tity daily, as the ftomach can bear ; and during the courfe
to continue that dofe, and to diininini the quantity at the
clofc in the fame degree as it was augmented at the begin-
ning. Moderate exerciie is proper after drinking. Pre-
vious to the ufe of the water, the firil pafl'ages (hould be
cleanfed by gentle purges, and, if nccedary, an emetic
fhould be given ; and during the courfe, collivcnefs fhould
be prevented, by occalionally adding Rochelle falts or rhu-
barb to the firll glalles of water 111 the morning ; and a
cooling regimen fhould be obferved.

The Spu water is alio ufed externally, in a variety of
cafes, with good fuccefs. It is ufed as an injcftion in the
fluor albus, and in ulcers and cancers of the womb, and alfo
in the gonorrhoea ; it is ferviceable for walhing venereal
aphthae, and ulcers in the mouth, pliaga;denic ulcer.s, by
way of gargle for relaxed tonlila, and for fallening loofe
teeth, and in other cafes of relaxation. It is alfo laid to cure
the itch, and fimilar complaints, by wafhing and bathing,
an int<rn;il courl'e being ublerved at the fame time. Elliott's
Mineral Waters, p. 201, &C.

The town of Spa being rcfortcd to by perfons from all
paitsof Europe, on account of its waters, has always been
allowed a neutrality during the hottelt wars.

SPAAD,

SPA

SPAAD, or Sfalt, Spatum, a word ufed in feveral dif-
ferent fenfes ; fometimes for a fpecies of Englifh fibrofe talc,
or of gypfum ; and fometimes for fpar.

The various kinds of fpaad are found pretty frequently
in England and Germany, and fometimes brought from the
Levant : they are all foft, and eafily pulverized.

SPACE, Spatium, a fimple idea, the medes of which
are diftance, capacity, extenfion, duration, &c.

Space, confidered barely in length between any two bo-
dies, fuggefts the fame idea which we have of diftance.

If it be confidered in length, breadth, and thicknefs, it
is properly called capacity.

When confidered between the extremities of matter,
which fills the capacity of fpace with fomething folid, tan-
gible, and moveable, it is then called extenfion.

So that extenfion is an idea belonging to body only ; but
fpace, it is plain, may be confidered without it.

Space, therefore, in the general fignification, is the fame
thing with dillance confidered every way, whether there be
any folid matter in it or not.

Each different diftance is a different modification of fpace ;
and each idea of any different fpace is a fimple mode of this
idea. Such are an inch, foot, yard, &c. which are the
ideas of certain ftated lengths, which men fettle in their
minds for the ufe, and by the cuftom of meafuring. When
thefe ideas are made familiar to men's thoughts, they can in
their minds repeat them as often as they will, without join-
ing to them the idea of body, and frame to themfelves the
ideas of feet, yards, and fathoms, beyond the utmoit
bounds of all bodies ; and by adding thefe ftill to one
another, they can enlarge their idea of fpace as much as
they pleafe.

From this power of repeating any idea of diftance, with-
out being ever able to come to an end, we acquire the idea of
immenfity.

Another mode, or modification, of fpace, is taken from
the relation of the parts of the termination of extenfion, or
circumfcribed fpace, amongft themfelves ; and this is what
we call_^^ar^. This the touch difcovers in fenfible bodies,
whofe extremities come within our reach ; and the eye takes,
both from bodies and colours whofe boundaries are within
its view ; where, obferving how the extremities terminate,
either in ftraight lines, which meet at difcernible angles, or
in crooked lines, in which no angles can be perceived ; by
confidering thefe as they relate to one another, in all
parts of the extremities of any body or fpace, it acquires
the idea we call figure, which affords to the mind infinite
variety.

Another mode belonging to this head is that of place ;
which fee.

Another mode of fpace is the idea which we get from the
fleeting, and perpetually periftiing, parts of fucceffion, which
we ciM duration.

Space is ufiially divided into aljolute and relative.
Space, jibfohite, is that confidered in its own nature,
without regard to any thing external, which always remains
the fame, and is infinite and immoveable.

Space, Relative, is that moveable dimenfion or meafure
of the former, which our fenfes define by its pofitions to
bodies within it ; and this the vulgar ufe for immoveable
fpace.

Relative fpace, in magnitude and figure, is always the
fame with abfolute ; bnt it is not neceflary it (hould be fo nu-
merically : as if you fuppofe a (hip to be, indeed, in abfo-
lute reft, then the places of all things within her will be the
fame abfolutely and relatively, and nothing will change its
place ; but fuppofe the ftiip under fail, or in motion, and

SPA

(he will continually pafs through new parts of abfolute fpace !
but all things on board, confidered relatively, in refpeft to
the (hip, may be, notwithltanding, in the fame places, or
have the fame fituation and pofition, in regard to one an-
other.

The Cartefians, who make extenfion the eflience of mat-
ter, alTert, that the fpace any body takes up, is the fame
thing with the body itfelf ; and that there is no fuch thing
as mere fpace, void of all matter, in the univerfe ; but this
fee difproved under Vacuum.

The Cartefians, who do not allow of any dillinftion be« I
tween fpace and matter, were naturally enough led to the I
opinion, that fpace or extenfion was a fubllance. Others,
who admit a vacuum, and confequently an efTential dif-
ference between fpace and matter, adert alfo that fpace is a
fubftance. Among thefe we find s'Gravefande, Introd. ad
Philof. fea. 19.

Others put fpace into the fame clafs of beings as time
and number ; that is, they make it to be no more than a
notion of the mind. Hence, according to thefe authors,
abfolute fpace, of which the Newtonians fpeak, is a mere
chimera. See the writings of the late bilhop of Cloyne,
paffim.

Space and time, according to Dr. Clarke, are attributes |
of the Deity, and the impolTibility of annihilating thefe, |
even in idea, is the fame with the neceffary exiftence of the
Deity. See Watt's Phil. Eff. E(i. i.

Space, in Geometry, denotes the area of any figure ; or
that which fills the interval or diftance between the lines
that terminate it.

The parabolic fpace is that included in the whole parabola.

The conchoidal fpace, or the cijfoidal fpace, are what are
included within the cavities of the conchoid and cilToid.
By the new methods now introduced, of applying algebra
to geometry, it is demonftrated, that the conchoidal and
ciffoidal fpaces, though infinitely extended, are yet finite
magnitudes.

Space, Cycloidal. See Cycloidal.

Space, Elliptic. See Elliptic.

Space, in Mechanics, the line a moveable body, confidered
as a point, is conceived to defcribe by its motion.

SPADA, LiONELLO, in Biography, was born at Bologna
in 1576, in a very low condition of life ; and when a boy he
became the fervant of the Caracci, and ground and prepared
their colours. The conllant opportunity he poffefTed, whilit
with thefe great men, of feeing pidlures, and hearing difcuf-
fions on the principles of the art, roufed a latent difpofition
to ftudy and defign, which his matters faw and encouraged ;
and at length they admitted him into their academy, where
they had the gratification of feeing him become one of their
moil eminent difciples ; though he never arrived at any very
great degree of grandeur or purity of invention. His
Ityle is a compound of the Caracci and Caravaggio's
manners, and is wrought with great boldnefs. His prin-
cipal produftions are. The Miraculous Draught of Fifhes,
in the refeftory of S. Procolo at Bologna, and St. Dominic
burning the forbidden Books, for the church of that faint,
in the fame city. This laft is confidered as his very
greateit work. The latter part of his life was pafTed at
Parma, in ths fervice of the duke Ranuccio. He died in
the 46th year of his age, in 1622.

SpADA, in Geography, a cape of the ifland of Candia ; 24
miles N.W. of Canea.

SPADE, in j'lgriculture and Gardening, a well-known
fort of tool, employed in digging the land. There are
feveral forms and kinds of them in ufe for different purpofes,
as thofe of common digging, draining, and making of earth

fences.

SPA

SPA

fences and embankments of different forts, as well as many
others, in the former of thefe arts. The moll handy and
convenient form of them, for common work, is probably
that in which they are made llroiig in the back, and have
a flight bend or curve in the handle or fhaft, as by means
of this the labour is performed witii greater eafe and faci-
lity. Various forms, fhapes, and fizes of fpades are had
recourfe to in prrformmg the operations of draining, mound-
fencing, and embanking, according to circumltances ; as
well as in particular works of other kinds. See Spaue,
Draining.

The ipade is alfo an ufeful garden implement, which
is ufed for digging and preparing the foil for the receptiuu
of all forts of feeds and plants. Tiiere are feveral forts
and fizes of fpades occafionally employed in this art, though
the common large digging Ipade is, in moll places, almoll
commonly ufed for all kinds of digging and fpade-work,
which, however, in many inllances, cannot be fo conveniently
ufed as a middling or fmall (pade ; it is, therefore, eligible
for every garden to be furnirtied at lead with three different
fizes of fpades, to fuit every department of gardening the
more commodioufly ; fuch as the common large digging
fpade, for all common digging and fpade-work ; a middling
and a fmall fpade, for digging particular narrow compart-
ments, and between fmall plants clofely placed in beds and
borders, &c.

The firll fort is ufually from fourteen to fifteen inches
long in the plate, and nine broad, narrowing gradually half
an inch or an inch lefa at the bottom. The fecond fort
fhould be about a foot long in the plate, and feven or
eight inches broad. Tiie fmall fpade, which is about eight
or nine inches long in the plate, and five wide, is convenient
in pointing up or flight digging, and in frelh loofening the
furface between clofe-placed fmall plants, in beds and borders,
&c. where neither of the two former fpades can be readily
introduced : it is alfo ufeful in planting and potting many
lorts of fmall plants, taking up fmall roots, and other light
purpofes.

And other forts are likewifo in ufe for different purpofes,
as a very fmall narrow fpade, having the plate about feven
inches long, by three and a half or four wide, which is very
ufeful in fmall compartments of beds, borders, &c. contain-
ing fome particular clofe-placed, fmall plants of flowers, and
other8, both in occafionally flightly digging, or loofening
the earth between them with greater eafe and effeft, than a
larger fiz.ed fpade ; alfo fometimes in fimilar compartments,
in occafionally trimming round the bottom part of fome
ftraggling fibrous rooted plants ; and it is alio often ufeful
in taking up and tranfplanting fmall plants, and taking off
root offsets and flips, in particular forts, in which a larger
fpade would not be fo convenient. And farther, a femi-
circular or fcoopcd fpade is another fort of a finallifli
fize, having the plate made hollow, like a fcooped garden-
trowel, which is very ufeful in taking up fmall plants with
balls of earth, to preferve the ball more firmly about the
roots.

Proper gardcn-fpades have the plates wholly of iron, not
above a quarter of an inch thick upward, growing gradually
thinner from the middle downward ; the tree, or handle,
being generally of a(h, about two feet long, and an inch
and half thick, with a firm open iiandle at top, formed out
of the folid wood, jult big enough to admit of taking ready
hold.

Spade, Draining, that fort which is employed for the
purpofe of cutting out field drains. Spades for this ufe are
made of different breadths, fo as to follow each other, and
Vol. XXXIII.

cut the drains narrow at the bottoms. There are ufually a
top or upper, middle, and pointed bottom fpade made ufe
of in this work.

And there is a fort of fpade or fliovel, which is turned
up on the fides, that is ufeful in taking out the fmall pieces
of earth from the bottoms of the drains. Likewife a fpade
or tool of the fcoop kind.

Alfo a wooden fpade, employed in foft peaty foils, where
the common draining-fpades cannot be ufed. See String
and Surface- Z)>a(n/nj.

Spade, Paring, that fort of fpade which is made ufe of
in removing the tward from grafs-land. See Paring Spade,
and Shovel.

Spade, Tmjing. See Tuufinc.

Spade alfo denotes any gelded beaft, or a deer three
years old.

Si'ADE-i?iV, the quantity of earth raifed by the fpade in
one effort. Hence probably /pit. It alfo fignifies the
broad iron part of the fpade.

SpADE-5onc, a term provincially applied to the (houlder-
bone, probably from its being ufed formerly as a fpade.

Spade Land, To, provincially to pare ground, or breaft-
plough it.

SPADICEOUS, or Spath.\ceous Plants, in Gardening,
thofe the flowers of which are protruded or produced
from a fort of fcabbard, or fheath, which is burft open.
There is a great number of flower, as well as other garden-
plants, which are of this fort, as of the former, the narciffus
or daffodil and jonquil, the lily daffodil, the Guernfey lily,
the afphodel lily, the fea daffodil, the different varieties of
crocus, the meadow faftVon, the common fnow-drop, the
leucoium, or greater Inow-drop, and many others ; and of
the latter, the onion, the leek, the garlick, and fome others.

Thefe are, for the moft part, ufeful and valuable plants
in either the common or flower-garden.

SPADING, in Agriculture, a term applied, in fome
diftrifts, to the praftice of taking off the fward or furface
of grafs-land by means of the paring-fpade, in the view of
burning it. It is a method which is by no means unufual
in many diltrifts, though the paring-plough mode is by
far the mofl cheap and convenient. In the county of
Devon, when the fpading of the furface of a field or por-
tion of land is determined upon in this intention, it is pared
off, in a clean manner, to the extent of from three-fourths to
one inch in thicknefs ; the flices of which are then fet up
edgeways, and when dry, collefted into heaps, or what are
provincially termed beat-barrows ; and by the afliflance of
furze, fern, heather, hedge-row, and copfe faggots, or fome
other fimilar material, the whole pared fubflance fct fire to
and reduced to a mafs of afhes, which, when cool, are
fpread, either with or without being mixed with other
matters, fuch as lime, good mould, or the fcrapings of roads,
as tlje circumflances of the cafes may require, over the
land in an equal and exa^ manner. In this way coarfe
grafs-lands are fometimes brought into a ftate of cultivation,
and wheat, as well perhaps as fome other crops, in different
inllances, well prepared for and got into the ground. See
Paring and Burning, and Son-Burning.

It is, however, a tedious and laborious method of culti-
vating and preparing land, which can probably be only
praftifed in particular fituations and circumflances.

The paring-plough, which is dcfigned to be introduced
in the place of the tool employed in tliis fort of work, and
which is much fuperior in the facility, expedition, and
manner in which it performs it, has a wide-winged flat (hare,
that meafurcB about fourteen inches from the land-fidc to
3 1 the

SPA

the angular point of its right fide, or cutting wing. In
.the beam part of this implement, and preceding a (harp
comb, which is welded on to the coulter-margin of the
(hare, is a fliding-foot, fixed in fuch a manner as to regulate
the exaft thicknefs of the flice which is meant to be pared
off, with great precifion. And the fliare and comb of the
tool being kept very (harp by frequent grinding, enable it
to perform the paring of the grafiy, or other furface, in a
very perfeft manner. This implement is held in an
horizontal manner when at work, fo as to cut a fmooth
and even furrow at the bottom part ; whereas the tool
ufually made ufe of is held in an oblique direftion, fo as
to cut the fpine or green fward to a feather-edge on the
furrow fide, the whole of which is to be gradually lifted up,
and turned, with its green fide, perfectly underneath. The
work is performed, in thefe cafes, by what is commonly
called fplitting or dividing. See Splitting.

SPADIX, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiol'jgy, a flower-
(lalk, whether fimple or branched, included within a Spaiha,
or Sheath. Such occurs in the natural order of Palma,
which tribe Liiinsus principally had in view in the technical
ufe of this term. Indeed the word, which is Greek, T~xh^,
palmes of the Latins, is almoil exclufively applied by the
aiicients to the very fame thing, the branchtd fruit-ftalk
of the date-palm. Linnasus, however, extends it to the
Arum family, by a very fair analogy, though in that tribe
it is unbranched ; and by a further itretch of analogy, to
Acorus. In fome of the L'll'iacee, compofing his Spathaccae,
though he ufes the term Sputha, he does not employ that of
Spadix. Jufiieu and his followers have perhaps done well
in excluding the Spaiha itfelf from making a part of the
generic charafter, in the natural family laft-mentioned,
though they retain it, as well as Spadix, in the Palina.
The Spadix, like other flower-Ilalks, is folely dellined to
bear the flowers and fruit, and when the latter is perfedled,
the part in queftion withers and falls off. See Fkucti-
FicATioN, Caly.x, PalmjE, and Spatha.

SPADO, among the Romans, differed from an eunuch
only in this, that the latter was deprived both of the penis
and teftes, but the fpado of the teftes only.

SPAFFORD, in Geography, a town(hip of America, in
New York, fituated in the S.W. extremity of Onondaga
county, 13 nules S. of Onondaga; bounded N. by Mar-
cellus and Otifco, E. by TuUy, S. by Preble ni Cortlandt
county, W. by the Skeneateles lake, or the county of
Cayuga. It was ercfted in 1811, from the N.W. quarter
of the military townfhip of TuUy, and its population is in-
cluded in that of Tully. Its area is about five miles (quare ;
the central part has an extenfive valley of fine land, extending
N. and S., the eallern and wellern extremes being hilly.
The foil is chiefly a ftrong and produftive loam ; the
limber, maple, beech, bafs or tilia, butter-nut, and a variety
of other kinds. It is well watered by fpriiigs and brooks,
and has lome fmall dreams for mills, the largeil of which
is the inlet of Otifco lake. The firll fettlements were
made about the year 1806, and the inhabitants are tarmers
from the eaftern ftates. Here are two or three mills, and
as many fchool-houfes, in which are alfo held the meetings
for worihip. Spafford comprifes as much of the military
townfhip of Sempronius as lies E. of Skeneateles lake.

SPAGIRIC, an epithet given to cliemillry ; which is
called the fpagirk art, or medicina fpagir'ica ; and to che-
mical phyficians, who are alfo called_y^af!n/?j-.

It is chiefly rcftriftedto that fpecies of chemillry which
works on metals, and is employed in the fearch of the phi-
lofopher'e ilone. 6

SPA

Voflius derives the word from o-Tiv, to exiraS, and zysifin,
congregari, to eollefl ; which are the two principal offices of
chemifts. Paracelfus firfl: introduced the word.

SPAGIRIC AL Physicians. See Physicians.

SPAGNOLETTO, U, in Biography, the cognomen
of a Spanilh painter, a native of Xativa, in Valencia, whofe
real name was Jofef Ribera. He iludied for a (hort time
under Ribalta ; but, before he was fixteen, determined
upon vifiting Italy, to cultivate his tafte, and exercife his
talents in the art he had folicited for iludy, although he
had no other means of fupport than what he could obtain
by the exercife of his juvenile powers. It was in tlie lytli
year of his age, in 1606, that lie arrised at Naples, where
he was captivated by the (hiking and powerful ftyle of
M. A. Caravaggio, whofe favour he courted and obtained ;
and by whom he was encouraged and inftructed during his
refidence in that city. From Naples he went to Parma, to
fee and (tudy the works of Correggio, and thence to Rome,
attraftedby the reputation of Raphael and Michael Angelo ;
and although the influence of the ityle of Caravaggio (till
predominated in his productions, yet it was not without
confiderable refinement in feeling, obtained by contempla-
tion of the works of thofe great men.

After a fhort refidence at Rome, he returned to Naples,
where his profpeft of employment was much more favour-
able, partly from the number of excellent artifts then prac-
tifing in the former city, and probably more from the con-
nexion between the court of Naples and that of his own
country, and its natural partiality to Spaniard?. He was
there taken under the protedlion of the viceroy, and em-
ployed in feveral confiderable works, which were fent into
Spain. The principal among thofe detained at Naples are,
the Martyrdom of St. Jannarius, in the royal chapel ; St.
Jerome and St. Bruno, in the church of the Trinita delle
Monache ; and the taking down from the Crofs, at the
Carthufians.

The fubjeiEls he chofe for the employment of liis pencil
are generally of a fevere or gloomy nature, and his colouring
and execution correfpond with their charafter ; being free
and bold in ityle, and dirk and llrong in hue and arrange-
ment of light and (liade. He died in 1656, at the age of 67.
He fometimes indulged himfelf in engraving, and has left
about twenty plates of etchings, executed in very much the
charafter of his piftures.

SPAHIS, from the Perfian ejpaivbee, q. d. borfeman,
called alfo Spaogiam, horfemen in the Ottoman army ;
chiefly railed m Afia.

The great llrcngth of the grand feignior's army confids
in the janizaries, who are the foot, and the Ipahis, who are
the horfe. The aga, or commander of the fpahis, is called
fpahilar agafi. See Aga.

The fpahis are the flower of the Turkiih cavalry, and
make a part of the grand feignior's guard. They are com-
pofed of young men brought up in the feraglio, of foldiers
taken from among the janizaries, and others who have dif-
tingui(hed themfelves. The fpahis are (pread over all- the
towns, and more particularly in the country places ; they are
almod all married and fettled ; they exercife different pro-
feffions, or fometimes apply themfelves to the culture ot the
land ; they receive a daily pay, have their appropriate
officers, and aflemble at the firll order, armed and equipped,
under the colours of their dillrift. Thefe are a more ancient
corps than the janizaries ; their pay is greater ; and they
are underftood to be the fons of Muffulmans in a certain
degree of affluence ; they fight under the fame enfigns as
the ziamets and timariots, and ought to fucceed them in the

pofleffion

SPA

SPA

poflelTion of their fiefs, if the regulations of the firft fultans
were more refpetled, or the national intcrelt a little more
confulted. Under the firit fultans, the fpahis formed the
principal ftrength of the Ottoman armies. Almoil always
in the field, familiarized to military excrcifes, hardened to
the fatigues of war, ilimulated by intereil, glory, religious
tnnaticifm, and the example of the fultan, it is not fiirprifing
that notiiing (liould withftand their arms, and that the
modern Greek-, enervated by luxury and riches, folely
occupied by intrigues and idle fpeculations, fhould be as
foon fubjugatcd as conquered. Tlie " Timari-fpahis," who
afe much more numerous, ferve in confequence of their
pofleding a " timar," or fief, on condition of bringing into
the field a certain number of men, in proportion to the
Itrength of it. Tiiefe polfeffions defcend to their children
or heirs, when of an age to ferve ; otherwife, they are
given to others, and fometimes, as a recompence, to old
foldiers. See Timar, and Timariots.

SPAID, or Spayd, a term ufed by fportfmen for a red
male deer three years old.

SPAIN, in Geography, a country of Europe, fituated
between the 36th and 44th degrees of N. lat., and having
its weftern extremity about 9° W. long, from London.
Its greatell length from weft to ealt is about 600 mile?,
and its breadth from north to fouth is more than 500 ; fo
that it forms, if Portugal be included, almoil a compadl
fquare, and is furrounded on all fides by the fea, except
where the Pyrenxan range of mountains prefents a grand
natural barrier againil France. The precife weftern bound-
ary is formed by the river Bidafoa, and the ille of Pheafants
is near its mouth. The laft town in Spain is Irum, near the
Bidafoa. Excluding Portugal (which fee), the boundaries
betwixt thefe two kingdoms depend more on artificial conven-
tions than on rivers or mountains. The fuperficial contents
of Spain have been eftimated at about 148,000 fquare miles.
It lies between the fifth climate on the fouth, and half-way
between the fixth and feventh on the north ; the longeft
days are, therefore, 14^ hours in the fouthern part, and
Iji in the northern.

The firll known divifion of Spain, into Hifpania Citerior
and Ulterior, took place under the Romans ; but thefe were
foon denominated Lufitania, Boetica, and Tarraconeiifis.
(See Hisi'ANlA.) Lufitania comprehended the eaftern
part, and extended as far as the Atlantic ocean : its limits
were marked on the north by the Duero, on the fouth by
the Guadiana, and from one to the other by a ftraight line
drawn from Simancas to Puente de I'Arzobilpo, and from
thence as far as the country of the people called Orctani, in
which tiie town of Almagro at prefcnt ftands. It included
in its extent the towns <A Avila, Salamanca, Coria, the ter-
ritory of Plafencia, Truxillo, Merida and Portugal, the
kingdom of Leon, and part of Eftremadura. See Lusi-

TAN'IA.

Boetica was almoft furrounded on two of its fides by the
Guadiana, bounded on the fouth by the Mediterranean and
the ocean, and terminated on the caft by a line drawn from
Murgis or Muxacra, a village near the ancient promontory
of Charidemus, now called the Cape de Gatte, to the terri-
tory of Caftulo, which was nearly in the fame fituation as
tlie modern Cazlona, and to tlie country of the Oretani.
It formed what is called Andalufia, containing the king-
doms of Seville, Jaen, Cordova, and Granada ; it alfo in-
cluded a part of modern Eftremadura, and extended as far
as Badajoz, which was within its boundaries. Sec B(E-
TirA.

Hifpania Tarraconenfis comprehended all the other part*

of Spain, and was the fame with that called Citerior Spam.
See HiSPANlA.

The divifion of Spain, now ttated, underwent fome al-
terations under the laft Roman emperors, and was totally
changed after the invafion of the northern nations. It was
fubjefted by the Vandals about the year 41 j, after the
Romans had maintained poffeffion of it for about five cen-
turies ; and the Vifigoths, under Euric, fubducd the whole
of Spain, excepting Galicia, which was held by the Suevi,
who had entered into the country with the Vandals. With
this conqueft, which occurred A.D. 472, commence the
modern kingdom and hiftory of Spain. The Arabs, or
Moors, began their conqueft A.D. 709, and foon extended
it over the whole of Spain, except the mountains of Afturias,
where, as well as in Bifcay, king Pelagius maintained a
limited dominion. The defcendants of Pelagius, who fixed
the royal refidence at Oviedo, which was built in 761, de-
fended their own fmall territory, and recovered Gahcia,
and part of Leon and Caftile. In the year 914, the kings,
as their territory extended towards the fouth, began to refidc
at Leon, from which they took their title ; and in the i ith
century, ■v'fz.. A.D. 1 117, that of Caftile was added, the
kings of Czftile having become kings of Leon and the
Afturias A.D. 1037. In 1162 the county of Barcelona
was transferred to the king of Aragon, whofe royalty
commenced A.D. 1035. The fmall kingdom of Navarre,
the capital of which was Pampeluno, commenced, as fome
fay, A.D. 857, or, according to others, under Fortunio I.
A.D. 880. The reign of Alphonfo the Wife began A.D.
1252, and was diftinguiftied by the proteftion which it af-
forded to the arts and fciences. Neverthelefs, the Moors
mull be regarded as the chief poflefiors of Spain, until the
middle of the 13th century. Their government in Spain
was condnfted by governors deputed by the caliphs, until
the year 756, when Abdoulrahman feized the Iceptrc of
Spam, and became the Moorifti king of Cordova. This
dynafty, under which Spain extended its commerce, and
acquired very confiderable wealth and power, continued
until the year 1098, when the cahphate expired, and the
Moorilh governors of feveral provinces ufurped the royal
ftyle, in Cordova, Seville, Valencia, and Granada, and
rivalled the fmall Chriftian kingdoms, till the middle of the
13th century, when the latter became predominant, and
Spain refumed her fituation among the ftates of Chriltendom.
The laft of the Moorifli royalties wliich was fubdued, was
the kingdom of Granada ; .ind the crowns of Caftile and
Aragon' were united in the perfons of Ifabella and Fer-
dinand V. A.D. 1474. Charles V. emperor of Germany,
having married the heirefs of Aragon and Caftile, eftiiblirtied
the Spanidi monarchy on its prefent bafis, A.D. 15 16;
and in confequence of the accelFion of American wealth, the
power of Spain arrived at its zenith. In 1580 Portugal
was added to Spain by Philip II., the fon of Charles V. ;
but it revolted under Philip IV. A.D. 1640, and became
a feparate kingdom. The Auftrian dynafty terminated at
the death of Charles II., who died without idue, A.D.
1700; and tliis event was fuccecded by the accelTion of
Philip V. of the houfe of Bourbon.

From the preceding abftraft of the princip.al epociis of
Spain, it appear.'; that this kingdom arofc from the union
of the provmccs of the two crowns of Aragon and Caftile ;
the number being four for that of Aragon, and twenty-two
for Caftile, without including the lordfhip of Bilcay and
Navarre. The provinces of the crown of Aragon confift
of the kingdom of that name, the kingdom of Valencia, the
principality of Catalonia, and the kingdom of Majorca:
3 I 2 thofe

SPAIN.

thofe of the crown of Caftile confift of the kingdom of Gi-
licia, the provinces of Burgos, Leon, Zamora, Salamanca,
Eftremadura, Palencia, Valladolid, Segovia, Avila, Toro,
La Mancha, Murcia, Guadalaxara, Cuen^a, Jacn, Gra-
nada, and Seville. Although this divihon of Spar, is
the moft ancient, and ferves as the bafis for the impolition
and levying of the taxes, for the municipal laws, and the
nature of privileges, the modern divifion of Spain, with
refpea to the adminiftration, is limited to thirteen provinces,
kingdoms, or lordlhips, all of which have a captam-general,
except Navarre, the intendant of which has the title ot
viceroy

narch's reign, it fuffered a iUU greater diminution, fo that
the population of the whole kingdom could not then ha*e
exceeded 6,000,000. Under the pacific reigns of the
princes of the Bourbon family, the number ot people in
Spain greatly increafed. The enumeration made by royal
mandates, in the years 1767 and 1768, reported the popu-
lation at 9,307,804 perfons ; and by a ;iew cenfus, taken
in 1788 and 1789, by order of the king, the returns pre-
fented 10,061,478. The lateft eftimate, formed in the
year 1797, contains a much higher number, and is faid to
have exceeded 12,000,000.

The ftate of the Spanifh population, in the year 1788, is
exhibited in the following table.

eaft, it received large colonies of Carthaginians, and after-
wards of Romans. In the fifth century it was conquered
by the Vandals, and next by the Vifigoth.s from whom
feveral ancient families pretend even now to deduce their
origin. The Mahometan Moors were fo totally expelled,
tha° they may be confidered as almoft extinft ; and few
families of Arabian extraft now remain. We may, there-
fore, regard the modern Spaniards as defcendcd from the
African Iberians, the Celtiberian or German Gauls, the
Romans, and the Vifigoths. The population of this
country has varied much at different periods. In the time
of Julius Cxfar it has been faid, that it contained at one
period 40,000,000 of people, and at another period
52,000,000. This eftimate, though apparently exag-
gerated, derives fome degree of probability from the con-
fideration of the numerous armies wiiich Spain furnifhed for
a feries of years, during the Punic wars, in the time of the
Romans and Carthaginians. The population of the towns
(eems to give uj a very high idea of that part of the country
in which they were fituated. Merida afforded a garrifon of
80,000 infantry and lo,ooo cavalry; and at the fame
period, the population of Tarragona amounted to about
1,500,000 inhabitants. The population of Spain fuftained
but little diminution under the dominion of the Goths ; but
it very fenfibly decreafed during the Moorilh dynafty, on
account of the multitude of viftims that fell a facrifice to
the fanguinary fword of the conquerors, and of thofe who
voluntarily exiled themfelves, in order to avoid opprefTion.
Spain, however, was again repeopled by the Chriftians, who
retook from the Moors the lands which they had rapacioufly
feized. Navarre, wliich formed a leparate ftate, contained
about 800,000 inhabitants ; and near the fame period, the
ftates dependent upon the crown of Aragon, which confti-
tuted the kingdom of that name, with thofe of Valencia and
Cat.ilonia, furnifhed a very powerful army ; and the town
of Tarragona alone contained 80,000 famihes, or 350,000
inhabitants. The kingdom of Granada, fubjugated by the
Moors, had, at the fame era, a numerous population. The
city of Granada comprehended 70,000 houfes, occupied by
250,000 perfons, and furnifhed 50,000 foldiers. The king-
dom, of which it was the capital, reckoned the number of
its inhabitants at 3,000,000, on an extent of territory
70 leagues long by 30 in breadth. After the union of the
different parts of the Spanifh monarchy, in the reign of
Ferdinand V. and Ifabella, its population is faid to have been
10,000,000 ; but as this eftimate is exaggerated, it fhould be
reduced at leaft nne-third. In the year 1688 it amounted to
no more than 12,000,000 ; and on the death of Charles II.
and accelTion of Philip V., in the year 1700, its numbers
were reduced to 8,000,000. During the civil wars, which
defolated Spain in the firft 13 or 14 years of that mo-

BlSCAY.

Alava
Guipuzcoa
Lordlhip of Bifcay

Aragon

Catalonia

Afturias

Gahcia

Eftremadura

71.399
120,716
116,042

Andalusia.

Kingdom of Seville
Kingdom of Cordova
Kingdom of Granada
Kingdom of Jaen
Sierra Morena

Kingdom of Murcia
Kingdom of Valencia
Kingdom of Navarre
Mancha . . .

754.293
236,016
661,661
177,136
7,918

New Castile.

Jurifdidtion of Cuenga
Jurifdidion of Guadalaxara
Jurifdiftion of Toledo
Province of Madrid -
City of Madrid
Aranjuez, royal demefne -
Le Pardo, royal demefne -

266,182

144,370

334.425

58.943
156,672

2,655
611

Old Castile.

Jurifdiftion of Avila
Jurifdiftion of Burgos
Jurifdiftion of Old Caftile -
Jurifdiftion of Segovia
Jurifdiftion of Soria
Jurifdiftion of Valladolid -
S. Ildefonfa, royal demefne
The Efcurial, royal demefne

115,172

465,410

74,669

167.525

170,565

196,839

4.331

2.453

Kingdom of Leon.
Jurifdic^ion of Leon . . 250,134

Jurifdiftion of Palencia
Jurifdiftion of Salamanca
Jurifdiftion of Toro

112,514

210,380

92,404

308,157
623,308
814,412

347.776

1,345,803

416,922

1,837,024
337,686
783,084
227,322
206,160

933.865

1,196,964

665,432
10,143,975
According

SPAIN.

According to a ftatement publifhed at Madrid in 1802,
the whole population of Spain appears to be 10,409,879 ;
and ihofe who conftitute the different clafles as as follow :

Men
Women

Out of this number, the calculation gives

Offinglemen, religious, and widowers
Of nuns, widows, &c. . - . .

Total

Married perfons . . . - .

5,204,187
5,205,692

10,409,879

3,257,022
3,262,196

6,519,218
3,890,661

As to the proportion between the extent of territory and
the number of inhabitants, no ellimate fufficiently accurate
has ever been made in Spain. For want of a more exaft
eftimate, we (hall here fubjoin that of HafTel, publilhed at
Brunfwick, in the " Statiltique Europeenne," which is lup-
pofed to be pretty accurate. According to this, Spain
contains 25,145 fquare leagues, of 25 to a degree, and
10,730,000 inhabitants, which will allow 425 inhabitants
for every fquare league. It will hence be eafy to afcertain
the other numbers, by calculating after the proportion of 9
to 25. The equatorial degree is 25 French leagues, and 15
German miles ; then reckoning their furfaces as the fquares
of their lides, 9 fquare German miles are equal to 25 fquare
leagues of France.

Square
German

Inhabitants
in general.

Inhabit-
ants by
fquare

miles.

Miles.

The whole of Spain

9053

10,730,000

I185

Kingdom of Caftile

6628

7,278,000

1098

Provinces of Madrid, To-'

ledo, Guadalaxara, Cu- ■

•73'

1,162,000

602

en9a, and La Mancha

Burgos, Segovia, Soria, (
and Avila - \

740

915,000

1236

Leon, Valencia, Toro, Za- i

mora, Valladolid, and >

805

939,000

1042

Salamanca - J

Alhirias ...

240

348,000

1450

Galicia ...

640

1,350,000

2109

Ellremadura - . -

682

427,000

527

Seville

424

755,000

1780

Cordova ...

296

237,000

800

Jaen ....

240

118,000

491

Granada and Antiquera -

580

686, oco

I I 84

Mnrcia

250

360,000

1440

Kingdom of Aragon

2145

3,152,000

1469

Aragon

7 10

624,000

878

N.ivarre

180

190,000

1055

Catalonia ...

580

1,200,000

2068

Valencia

490

933,000

1904

Majorca

.85

205,000

I 105

Lordlhip of Bifcay, com-T

prifing Alava, Guipuz- >

280

300,000

1071

coa, and Bifcay - J

Others have ftated the population of Spain at 1 1 ,000,000,
and allow 74 perfona to a fquare mile. Of its ancient po-

pulation, numerous vedigcs exift in various parts of the
country. And among the caufes of its depopulation we
may reckon the contagious fevers frequent in the fouthern
provinces, incelTant inteftine wars, the emigrations to Ame.
rica, the invafion of the country by the Moors, the want
of encouragement to agriculture, the multitude of de-
tached farms, the effeft of the me/la, (which fee,) or wander-
ing flocks, the number of unmarried clergy and monks,
and, more efpecially, that fanatic and millaken zeal, which
profcribed, on account of their religious tenets, two dalles
of wealthy and induilrious people, the .lews and the Moors.
Thefe were peculiarly valuable, on account of their inti-
mate acquaintance with agriculture, arts, trade, and com-
merce. An edift idued at Granada, March 30, 1492,
againft the advice of the minillry, and many members of the
fupreme council, ordained, that every Jew who did not pro-
fefs Chriltianity within fix months, fliould be conllraiiicd to
quit all countries under the government of the Catholic
kings. Another equally impolitic edidl was publifhed in the
year 1614, by which numbers of Moors, who, after having
been fubdued, had remained peaceably in Spain, were expelled
the country. About 100,000 .lewifli families pretended to
be converted, and in the ilTue became victims to the inqui-
fition. More than 800,000 Jews left the kingdom, and
migrated to France, Italy, Africa, and the Levant, and
carried with them the wealth and other fpecies of property
which they had acquired by induilry and trade. All the
Moors, to the amount of 2,000,000, departed, leaving their
towns and villages delerted. We might add, as another col-
lateral caufe of the depopulation of Spain, the depredatory
cruifing of the Barbary pirates, for the fpace of 300 years,
by which they made numerous captives, both at iea and by
incurfions on the coalts.

Towards the end of the 8th, and commencement of the
9th century, Spain was inhabited by four principal nations ;
viz. the natives, then known by the name of Romans ; the
Goths, comprehending the remains of the Suevi, Alani, and
Vandals, feveral of whom were confounded with the natives
and Moors, though a confiderable part had taken refuge in
the Alturias and Navarre ; the Moors, with whom the na-
tives of Africa were mingled ; and the French, who occu-
pied a great part of Catalonia, Navarre, and the Pyrenees.
Each of thefe nations brought with it its own genius, man-
ners, laws, and cuftoms ; and befides, the cxpiilfion of the
Moors from Spain was fucceeded by the formation of feve-
ral independent fovereignties, each of which had its own
laws and particular form of government. Hence refulted
a diverfity of genius, temper, manners and cuftoms ; which,
thongh in fome degree modified by the profent uniformity
of government, Itill fubfiils ; fo tliat there are no two pro-
vinces exaftly refembliiig each other in manners and charadler.
Some cuftoms, however, and fome traits of character, cor-
refpoiid to one another in all the provinces. The national
pride is every where the finie, and this tlie Spaniard energe-
tically cxprelies by his gelUires, words, and adions. In
many cafes this is the pride of virtue, or a natural dignity of
fentiment, which foars above vice and folly. With this pride,
which is difcernible in all ranks of life, and in all claffes of
fociety, the Spaniards combine, in a very eminent degree,
temperance and valour. Of their valour in more remote
age.s, Thucydides, Diodorus SiculMS, 1-ivy, Strabo, and
Lucius Floriis, furnirti a variety of inllances ; nor have they
altogether loll this dillinguifliing quality of their aiicellors.
In tins refpeft, fome (hades of difference have been obferved
among the military of different provinces. The Galiciani
are accounted the bell foldiers in Spain. Strabo has (aid of
them, that tiiey were warlike, and that it was difficult to
9 fubjugate

SPAIN.

fubjugate them. The valour of the Catalonian is Taid to
be the mod intrepid ; that of the Aragonefe the molt con-
fiderate; that of the Andalufiaii the molt prefumptuous ;
that of the Caftiliaii the coolelt ; and that of tlie Bifcayan
more aftive amongll rocks than on the plain. The Spaniards
are reckoned to be, in general, very grave and relerved ;
and in their addrefs, cold and repulfive ; but blended with
tlieir gravity, they manifefl a degree of gaiety, particularly
fince the accefliin of the houfe of Bourbon, which is frank
and lively. Notwithftanding this occafional vivacity, the
.Spaniard is very tardy and (low in all his operations, refpeft-
ing not only bufiueis and politics, arts and fciences, but
eveti their amours and pleafures. That indolence and hatred
of labour which prevail in their national charafter, have pro-
duced an averlion for agriculture and commerce, the effefts
of which have been nationally injurious. It has been ob-
ferved, however, that this kind of apathy and indifpofition
to labour, folfly, or principally, prevail in thofe parts
where induflry is without a fpur, aftivity without an ob-
jecl, and commodities without a vent. The provinces near
the fea are all induHrious ; the inland provinces, deftitutc of
canals and navigable rivers, and, till of late, of roads, and
poflefTing no cheap or eafy mode of communication, have
no means of fupporting induftry.

The Spaniards were formerly very jealous of their wives
and millrefles ; the women were fhut up in their own houfes
as in a kind of prifon, where thick lattices concealed them
from the obfervation of impertinent curiolity. They re-
ceived few vifits in the apartments to which they were con-
fined, and which no man could enter without great difficulty
and many precautions. They were placed under the guar-
dianfhip of one or more duenna?, and could not take a Angle
Hep, either in their own houfes or abroad, which was not
fubjeft to their infpeftion. Whenever they went out, a veil
concealed the face from every paffenger.

Times are greatly altered ; hu(band.i are now much lefs
fufpicious — more reafonablc, or more eafy — and women
much more acceffible. Lattices and jealoufy have difap-
peared ; duennas only exifl in romances ; veils, under the
name of mantelas, have become an ornament which gives
effeft to beauty ; all houfes are thrown open ; the men," gal-
lant aud amorous as ever, are become lefs captious ; the wo-
men have recovered a liberty by which they are, perhaps,
lefs tempted to go altray than formerly, when their virtue
was entrutted to locks and grates, and to a fuperintendance
often faithlefs, and eafy to be corrupted.

Both the men and women have gained by the change ;
the former have become lefs morofe, more frank and agree-
able ; the women more attraftively difclofe the many eafy
graces with which they were endowed by nature.

Several of the games, diverfions, and public fpeftacles of
the Spaniards, are derived from the Moors, and to the fame
origin we may trace many of their cudoms, and even that
kind of drefs and mode of hving which were long prevalent
in this country. After the expuUion of the Moors, the
Goths and native Spaniards, blended together and forraino-
one nation, adopted the fame coltume and manners. On
the acceffion of Philip V. the Spanilh habit was neglefted
and difufed, and the French, which ftill prevails, fubilituted
for it. The Spaniards are now as luxurious in their drefs as
they wrere formerly fimple ; they make ufe of the richeft
fluffs and filks, as well as of embroidery in Clk, gold, and
filver. The mod varied and confpicuous colours have fuc-
ceeded to black, which was, for feveral centuries, the na-
tional coftume. The common people, however, in feveral
of the provinces, retain their ancient mode of clothing, with
ferae diverfity in different parts of the country. Different

profefTions have their peculiar coftume in .Spain. Uniforms
are very numerous, and are not confined to the military.
The Spauifh nobility have an uniform for the holy week ;
they wear it at court and in town, and the kin^r and royal
family wear the fame. The coat is of black velvet, hned
with crim.fon fatin, with gold, or gold embroidered buttons,
and facings of gold brocade on a crimfon ground, or of
fatin of the fame colour embroidered with gold. The
waiftcoat is the fame as the facings, and the breeches are
black. This drefs is handfome and dignified. Among
the amufements of the Spaniards we rnay reckon the
feifivals of the church, which in feveral of the provinces,
particularly in Aragon, are attended with very brilliant and
magnificent decorations ; the fire-works, which are very
common in Spain ; the mafquerades, which were formerly
much in fafhion in Spain during the carnival, particularly in
Aragon ; and the bull-fights, which were the true na-
tional fpeftacle ; but this amufement was fuppreffed feveral
years ago. The amufements of people of rank chiefly
confift in dancing and cards ; and the theatre is much fre-
quented, though the plays and mufic do not correfpond in
excellence with the national refinement.

The origin of nobility in Spain cannot be precifely afcer-
tained. Of this order of perfons no traces appear, whilft
the country continued under the dominion firll of the Car-
thaginians, and afterwards of the Romans. The rudiments
of it firll manifelled themfelves under the Gothic kings ; but
it was almolt totally annihilated by the Saracenic invafion.
After theexpulfion of the Moors, a regular order of nobility
began to grow up in the newly ellabliflied kingdoms of Spain,
with peculiar modifications in different dates. The only
method of acquiring nobility in this country is by a royal
grant, as it is not attached to the exercife of any office, civil
or military : and the price of a patent of nobility varies in
the different provinces. Of late years a didindlion has been
taking place, between the titled and untitled nobility. The
former are fo called becaufe they have obtained from the
king the title of grandee, of duke, of count, of marquis,
or of vifcount. Thefe titles of nobility are hereditary in
the families of thofe to whom they have been granted, and
defcend fird to the male^, according to feniority, and then
to the females, who have a right to transfer them to their
hufbands and to their children. The titled nobihty, unlefs;
they have been advanced to the dignity of grandee, enjoy
few privileges above thofe that are entitled. The gran-
dees, of whom there are feveral dalles, are at the head of
the Spanilh nobility, and at court take precedence of all
fecular dignities, except thofe of conllable and admiral of
Cadile. The mod valued privilege belonging to the gran-
dees is that of being covered in the royal prefence. The
number of titled nobility in the year 1787 was as follows ;
129 grandee.5, J35 marquifcs, counts, and vifcounts ; of
thefe latter, 142 habitually refided at court, and the reft in
the provinces.

The mihtary orders in Spain were formerly eleven, all of
which are become extintl. At prefent there are feven dif-
ferent orders, viz. thofe of the Golden Fleece, of San Jago,
or St. James of the Sword, of Calatrava, of Alcantara, of
Montefa, of Charles III., and of Maria Louifa. Of thefe,
the fird has palled by fucceflion to the Spanilh crown, the
four next are the military orders properly fo called, and the
two lad are of modern inditution. (See Goldex Fletce,
St. James of the Sword, Calatrava, Alcantara, St.
George of yllfama.) For the four lail named military or-
ders the qualifications at prefent necefl'ary are eight years of
active fervice in the Spanilh army, and proofs of nobility of
four degrees, on the fide of both father and mother. The

only

SPAIN.

only advantage that accrues of nec€fIity,on admifnoii into any
of thefe four orders, is the honour of wearing the crols,
bcfides a few unimportant privileges : the commanderies are
places of pecuniary profit, belonging to thofe who have
taken the vow of combating the infidels, of fidelity towards
the fovereign, and, of conjugal charity. The order of
Calatrava has 20 of thcie, valued at 71,250/. ftcrling ;
that of San Jago has 87, valued at 81,250/.; ihat of Al-
cantara has 37, worth 39,000/.; and that of Montefa 13, at
12,588/. To each of the orders belong monks, and leve-
ral convents of nuns. The order of Charles III. was
founded by the king of that name, on the 19th of Septem-
ber, 1771, and placed under the immediate proteiilion of
the Holy Virgin, under the title of the Conception. Of
this order the fovereign is chief ; he alone nominates the
grand croiles and knights. The order is compoled of fixty
grand crofles, two hundred penfioned knights, and an inde-
finite number of others ; of a grand chancellor and miniller,
who is always the patriarch of the Indies ; of a fecretary, a
mailer of the ceremonies, and a treafurer.

The crofs of this order is of eight points, furmounted by
a royal crown, with a figure of tlie conception in the middle ;
it is worn hung to a ribband of three equal Itripes, the two
outer of which are blue, and the inner white. The grand
crofTes wear this ribband much broader than the knights,
lalticrwife from the right (houlder to beneath tlie left arm,
with a conception of filver embroidery on the left iide of the
habit and cloak. On days of ceremony they wear along
cloak, and a collar, the links of which are formed alter-
nately of the king's cypher and the arms of Caftile. The
knights wear the crofs hung from the button-hole by a nar-
row ribband. The penfioiis of the knights (of which there
are 200) are each fixed at the fum of 4000 reals : they are
given to military men, to men of letters, to lawyers, to
gentlemen, and to thofe employed in the minillerial depart-
ments. This order has a fuprerae council, compofed of the
fovereign, of the grand chancellor of the order, who is alfo
vice-prefidcnt, of a fecretary, a fifcal, an accomptant, and
ten counfellors.

The order of Maria Louifa is very modern, having been
cftablifhed in 1792, by Charles VI., who named it after the
queen hie wife. Only ladies are admitted into this order.
The grand-maltcr(hij) is velted in the queen, and the number
of ladies is thirty. The crofs of the order is a medallion,
with a portrait of the queen, hung to a violet ribband, di-
vided in the middle by a white itripe, and worn fall lerwifc.

In Spain there is a delcription of perfons denominated
" Mayorazgos." The term, derived from the word nuiyor,
or firii-born, implies, (Irictly Ipeaking, the right polleiled
by the eldell-born of a family, to inlierit certain property,
on the condition of tranfmitting it entire and undiminiHied
to thofe who may be podefied of the fame right on his
deceafe.

The import of this term has, however, been much ex-
tended by ufe ; for, thojigli it properly means <inly tlie right
of fucceliiou to a perpetually entailed ellate, in virtue of
primogeniture, yet it now fignifies, in addition, the caule
which products the right, the pro])erty which is the objcdl
of It, the adlual poflellor of the property, and the perfou
who (lands next in fuccellion.

Of tlicfe mayorazgos there are five clafles or kinds, dif-
tinguidied by certain circumllance-; incident to the defccnt
or transfer of property. Many difadvantages have attended
the extenfive multiplication of mayorazgos ; cfpecially when
the fucceflion defcends to females. Inllead of perpetuating
families, far which purpofe the inditution was intended, it
very much contributes to tlitir extinftion ; it injures the ge-

neral progrefs of agriculture, and it encourages idienefs, to
which the Spaniards are very much addifted.

Literature, Sciences, the jirts, and Language. — Tiic Hate
of fcience in Spain, before the time of the Romans and
Carthaginians, is wholly unknown ; but when the Romans
introduced with their arms the arts of civilization, the
Spaniards began to cultivate literature and the I'ciefices,
and produced feveral writers who attradted diilinguilhed
notice: fuch were L. A. Seneca, a native of Cordova;
the geographer M. Pomponius Mela, of Andalufia ; and
J. M. Columella, ot Cadiz, whofe works on agriculture
and rural economy are even now held in high eltimation.
Under the Goths, when literature was rellrained and op-
preffed, Spain fun.ifhed perfons no lefs diilinguilhed by their
virtues than by their talents and writings. To this clafs we
may refer PJolius, bifiiop of Cordova; Gregorius Boeticus,
billiop of Elvira ; S. Ildefoiifo, archbiihop ot his native place,
Toledo ; S. Ifidore, a native, and afterwards archbiihop, of
Seville ; Prifcillianus of Galicia ; Petrus of Saragoll'a, a dif-
tinguilhed orator ; Aurelius Prudentius, of Calahorra, an
elleemed poet ; and Aquihus Severus, who wrote an account
of his travels in Africa. The invafion of the Moors intro-
duced a period of barbarifm ; but at this time we find, with-
out mentioning perfons of lefs note, king Alphonfo IV. of
Callile and X. ot Leon, wlio was celebrated tor his acquire-
ments in various departments of literature and fcience ; who
was a legiflator, orator, hillorian, poet, mathematician, and
altronomer ; and who merited the appellation of " El Sabio,"
the fage, which was conferred upon him by gcr.eral confent.
Although the native Spaniards were plunged in ignorance, the
Moors united with the moll romantic bravery, a pallionate love
of fcience and the arts. Belides their theatres, public lliows,
and touriianicnls, they eilablilhcd public Ichools in every town
under their dominion, of which tliole of Seville, Cordova,
and Granada, obtained a high degree of reputation. They
ellabliflied in various places colleges and academies, as well
as libraries, for the promotion of fcience and literature.
The fciences cultivated by them with eminei.t fucccfs
were, geography, experimental philofcphy, optics, botauy,
chemittry, medicine, natural hiltory. geometry, and other
branches of the mathematics. When the Moors were ex-
pelled, the fortunate and brilliant reign of the Catholic
fjvcreigns Ferdinand and Ifabella was the era in which
knowledge revived, and its boundaries were enlarged during
the reigns of Charles V. and Philip II. During the inaufpi-
cious period that fucceedcd the reign of Philip II., feveral
perfons ot didinguiihed genius and attaiRmenls exerted them-
lelves tor the protcttion and encouragement ol Icience ; and
it would be tedious to mention evm the names of thole who
excelled in various branches ot learning. We cannot, how-
ever, lorbear mentioning Benedict Eeyjoo, a BeiiediCline
monk, who died at Oviedo in 1762, and who did honour
to his country at a tune when literature, Icience, and the
arts, were almoll wholly neglected and unknown. To him
Spain was indebted tor tlie relloration of literature, good
talle, and the love ot lludy. We might alio eiuimirate
among its dillinguiflied poets and hillonans, Quevedo, Cer-
vantes, Saavedra, Lopez de Vega, Guevara, Mariana, Gra-
nada, Solis, Hcrrera, &c.

The number of umvcrlilies, or rather academies, in Spain,
was formerly twenty-tour, but the following leventeen are
all which now remain, via. that of Pampeluna, in Navarre ;
of Oviedo, ill the Allurias ; of San Jago, in Galicia; of
Seville, and ot Granada, in the provinces of tiie fame name;
of Hueica and Saragolia, in Aragon ; of Avila< OInia,
and Valladolid, in Old Callile ; of Toledo, Siguenza, and
Alcala de Ilamarez, in New Cullile ; of Cervera, in Cata-
lonia ;

SPAIN.

Ionia; of Orihuela and Valencia, in Valencia; and of
Salamanca, in the province of Leon. Several of thefc
fcarcely deferve notice. Thofe of Saragoffa, Alcala, and
Cervera, retain fome degree of importance ; but the moil
ancient and moll celebrated is that of Salamanca ; for an
account of which fee that article. The moll popular uni-
Terfity at prefent is faid to be that of Valencia. The con-
ventual fchools are numerous ; and Spain has four military
fchools, viz. at Barcelona, Zamora, Cadiz, and Segovia.
Public libraries are alfo numerous.

The native tongue of the ancient Spaniards was utterly
loft during the domination of the Romans, whofe language
in the corrupt form of the middle ages became that of
Spain. The Goths brought into the country their own
Teutonic dialed ; and as the natives continued to fpeak
Latin, their language became at length a mixture of Latin
and Teutonic. The Arabs, in their turn, iutroduced the
fpeech of their country, veitiges of which remained after
their expulfiou. Hence it appears, that the Spanifh lan-
guage was compounded from three different fources : the
Latin prevailed over the other two, and the Gothic Hill pre-
ponderates over the Moorifh. Within the la'.t two or three
centuries the Spanilh language has undergone confiderable
alterations ; it ftill, however, preferves the fame roots, the
fame turn of phrafe, and the greater number of its words,
but altered m their infleftions and terminations. The
Spaniards themfelves boaft, among other e.^cellencies, of
the facility with which it is pronounced ; it is founded, they
fay, exaftly as it is written, but this aflertion is too general.
In fome refpefts this language is very rich ; it abounds in
compound words, in fuperlatives, derivatives, augmentalives,
diminutives, and frequentative verbs ; it has many quite
fynonimous words, and others which well exprefs the dif-
ferent (hades of meaning. In the technical terms of arts
and fciences, it is, however, extremely poor ; a few of thefe
it has borrowed from the Latin, and almolt all the rell
from the French.

On the whole, the Spanilh is one of the fiiieft of the
European languages. It is dignified, harmonious, ener-
getic, and expreffive ; and abounds in grand and louorous
exprelTions, which unite into ineafured periods, whofe ca-
dence is very agreeable to the ear. It is a languaije well
adapted to poetry, but it alio inclines to exaggeration, and
its vehemence eaiily degenerates into bombaft. Though
naturally grave, it eafily admits of pleafantry. In the
mouth of well educated men it is noble and expreffive; lively
and pointed in that of the common people ; fweet, feduc-
tive, and perfualive when uttered by a female. Amongllthe
orators it is touching and impofin/, though rather diffufe ;
at the bar and in the fchools it is barbarous ; and is fpoken
by tiiofe about the court in a concife and agreeable manner.
The Spaniards articulate (Irongly, and fometimes with a
kind of guttural found, which greatly impairs the grace
and dignity of their fpeecli, but the pronunciation differs
materially in different provinces. In Catalonia it is harfh
and conitrained ; harfh alfo and dry in Aragon ; quick and
lively in Bifcay ; agreeably modified in the kingdom of
Valencia ; hoaltful and mouthing in Andalufia ; fofter,
fweeter, and more natural in Cailile.

The Spanifh language is not fpoken with the fame purity
in all parts of the kingdom. Befides the old provincial
dialeftp, which flill prevail in many parts, the Bafque is
ftill fpoken in Bifcay ; and the language is mixed with
French in Navarre, with Portuguefe in Galicia, and with
Arabic in Murcia and Andalufia. It is in New Cailile,
and efpecially in the ancient kingdom of Toledo, that it is
beft fpoken ; and there that a ftranger ought to learn it

who defires to become acquainted with nil its delicacies and
beauties. The ancient Limoufine or Proven9ale forms the
bafis of the dialefts of Catalonia and Valencia.

Bafque is fpoken in the lordlhip of B Icay, in Guipufcoa,
and in the greatetl part of Alava. This language is very
ancient ; it differs entirely from the Spanifh, either ancient
or modern ; it exilled before the arrival of the Romans,
and was then unlike what was fpoken in the other parts of
Spain ; it is mentioned by Strabo, Seneca, and Pomponius
Mela. It has been preferved to our days almofl without
alteration or corruption, particularly in the more moun-
tainous parts. It is very difficult to ftrangers, and appears
to thofe who do not underftand it a coarfe and barbarous
tongue, deititute of elegance aiid expreffion ; but fuch as
are verfed in it account it very Iwcet and expreffive.

The Spaniards, abhorring the Moors, difdained to apply
themfelves to the arts which they exercifed ; and hence
proceeded a general contempt for artifans, which has been
perpetuated to the prefent time, and has greatly retarded
their progrefs in Spain. The arts which are employed in
manufaftures are much advanced in Spain. The i6th cen-
turv was the moll brilliant period of the arts in Spain, as
well as of the fciences, of literature, and of the power and
grandeur of the monarchy. Many able architedls appeared at
once under Charles V. and Philip II., who erefted numerous
edifices, that will immortalize the reigns of thofe princes and
the names of the artills, fuch as John de Herrera, CepedeSj
Pedro de Uria, and John Baptilt Monegro of Toledo, the
latter of whom alfilled in the building of the Efcurial, and
of the church of St. Peter at Rome. The llrutlures of
this age are the finell in Spain. Architefture, however,
very much declined in the 17th century ; but about half a
century ago it began again to be cultivated with fuccefs.
Spain juftly boalls of a number of fculptors of diflinguifhed
merit, among whom we might mention Paul Cepedes of
Cordova, and Alonzo Cano of Granada. Of all the liberal
arts, painting is that which has been moll cultivated in
Spain ; and though the Spanifh fchool is little known, it
deferves notice, as occupying a middle place between the
Italian and Flemifh fchools, being more natural than the
firll, more noble than the fecond, and participating the
beauties of both. It has particularly excelled in facred
fubjefts. Mofl of the painters of Spain are of the 17th
or the end of the i6th century. In the i8th century paint-
ing wa6 almofl totally aiinihilated in Spain ; but the Spanifh
fchool was recovered about the middle of the fame century
by Antonio Raphael Mengs. Spain now pofTefles an aca-
demy of painting at Seville, and two academies of the fine
arts, one at Madrid, and the other at Valencia ; and public,
gratuitous fchools for drawing have not long ago been ella-
blifhed in various places. The Spaniards iiave a talle for
mufic, and liave cultivated it with fuccefs. They prefer
the Itahan to the French mufic, the latter being in their
opinion too languid and monotonous. The Moors were the
firfl in Spain who cultivated mufic fcientifically, and who efla-
blifhed fchools for teaching it : and the Spaniards have been
led to imitate them. The Moorifh mufic confifled chiefly
of foft and tender airs, fung by one or more voices, and
accompanied by the lute : and the modern Spaniards have
alfo their national mufic, refembhng that of the Moors,
and confined to detached airs, which are fung by one or
more "voices, and accompanied by the guitar. Spain has
alfo adopted the niufical infli uments generally ufed among
other nations, and it has fome that are peculiarly its own.
Different provinces have their appropriate inllruments.
For the hiflory of Spanifh mufic, fee the fequel.

We have already mentioned dancing as one of the amufe-

Dients

SPAIN,

ments to which the Spaniards are much addicted. Bcfides
thofe dar.ces which are provincial, they have three which
are national ; vix. the fandango, the bolero, and the fequi-
dilla. The fandango is very ancient ; it is probably re-
fen-ed to by Martial, and it i< defined by Baretti to be a
regular and harmonious convulfion of all parts of the body.
The bolero, which is quite modern, is an imitation of the
former, but (hortened and modified, and llrippcd of all
thofe acceflaries, which give to the fandango fo very free a
character. The feqnidilla is an imitation of the fteps of
the two others formed into a ballet. Thefe dances are
ufually performed to the found of the guitar, accompanied
by the voice of the player. The women very correSly
mark, the time with the heel, a motion which adds a new
grace.

Climate, Soil, and Agriculture. — The climate of Spain is
equal, if not l;;perior, to that of any country in Europe ;
it is in general very dry, and irrigation is rendered difficult
by the chains of mountains that interfeft it. The climate
is various in different provinces, and in thofe that lie to the
fouth the heat is infalubrious, and fometimes occafions epi-
demic difeafcs that are very fatal. Thefe are partly owing
to flagnant and undrained marihes, and to the negleft of
proper cultu.-e. The chains of mountains that interfe£t
the country at va'ious diftances from E. to W. ferve to
temper the climate, and fupply cooling breezes. In the
fouth the fea-brpeze, commencing about nine in the morning,
and continuing till five in the afternoon, moderates the heat
of fummer : and the feverity of winter in the northern pro-
vinces is allayed by the gales of the ocean, at no great
diftance. It has been obferved, that the temperature of
Spain is influenced by its peculiar configuration, and by
the Angular height of this country above the level of the
fea, infomuch, that although from the N.E. it gradually
becomes lower, yet the high plain, or table land of the
Caltiles, has an elevation of upwards of 300 fathoms. Ac-
cording to the obfervations of Humboldt, the interior of
Spain is an elevated plain, and the higheit of any of the fame
kind in Europe, which occupies a large extent of country.
The mean height of the barometer at Madrid, obferved
by Don Felipe Bauza, fhevvs that capital to be elevated
at 309^- fathoms above the level of the ocean, allowing the
barometer on the coafts to be at 338 ar.il 24 lines. Hence
it appears that the elevation of Madrid is 15 times greater
than that of Paris, three times greater than that of mount
Valerian, and alfo three times greater than that of Geneva,
which is 188 fathoms above the level of the fea. This
height of the plain of the Caftiles has an obvious effeft
upon its temperature. The mean temperature of Madrid
appears to be 59° of Fahrenheit, while that of Peterfbnrgh
Is 39° 52' 30" ; that of Berlin, 46" 57' 30" ; that of Paris,
53° 56' 15"; that of Marfeilles, 58^ 33'; that of Toulon,
61° I j' ; that of Naples, 63° 30' ; and that of the countries
fituated under the equator and on the level of the ocean,
from 79° to 81°. Genoa is four degrees more to the north
than Madrid, and yet the temperature of Genoa raifes the
glafs almoft two degrees higher than that of the capital of
Spain. Such is the influence of local caufes, of the eleva-
tion of fcite, the proximity to the fea, a chain of moun-
tains which keeps off the cold northerly winds, and a great
number of little circumllanccs, the combination of which
moderates the temperature of places.

if the mean temperature of the elevated plains of Spain
h 59° of Fahrenheit, that of the coalls from the 4iil de-
gree of latitude to the 36tli, is between 63!" and 68" Fah-
renheit. Thus we fee banana-trees, heliconias, and fugar-

VoL. XXXIII.

canes, growing upon thefe coafts in fituations that are fliel-
tered from the cold wind'..

Upon the whole, the face of the country is in moft feafons
delightful, abounding with excellent and fruitful pafturage,
vineyards, and groves of orange-trees ; and the hills (locked
with wild thyme and othT odoriferous plants. The rivers
and flreams are numerous ; and the chains of mountains af-
ford a great variety to the profpeft. The moft northern of
thefe chains is regarded as a continuation of the Pyrenees,
palling on the S. of Blfcay and the Afturias into Galicia ;
and it is varioufly denominated, as the mountains of Bifcay,
the Sierra of Afturias, and the mountains of Mondonedo in
Galicia. It is alfo known by the names of the mountains of
Santihana, of Vindo, and of the mountains of Oea. We here
obferve that the term " Sierra," peculiar to Spain, denotes
a chain of mountains, the fucceiTive peaks of which prefent
the refemblance of Zifaiv. The gypfeous and argillaceous
mountains of this country rarely exhibiting any fupreme ele-
vation, like thofe in the granitic chains, naturally fuggelled
this appellation. The fecond chain of SpanilTi mountains
extends from near Soria on the N.E., and purfues a S.W.
diredtion towards Portugal. This chain is called that of
Urbia, or Guadarania, and alfo the Montes Carpentanos.
The third is that of Toledo, or Guadalupe, running nearly
parallel with the laft. Thefe two central chains feem to
contain great quantities of granite. Next towards the S.
is the Sierra Morena, or brown mountains, which are fol-
lowed by the moil fouthern ridge, that of the Sierra Nevada,
On the E. there is a confiderable chain, which connefts the
two central ridges, and advances towards the Mediterranean
in the N. of Valencia. There are alfo confiderable ranges of
hills in this part of the kingdom, generally running from N-
to S. Near Barcelona is a remarkable folitary mountain, at
a diftance appearing like a fugar-loaf, and on a nearer ap-
proach jagged like a faw, with pyrainidal rocks ; compofed
of farcilite or pudding-itone, formed of limeltone gravel
united by calcareous cement ; and fo high, that from its fum-
mit may be feen the iflands of Majorca and Minorca, at the
diftance of 50 leagues. The circumjacent region confitts
of argillaceous fchiltus, with clay and fand. Not far from
this mountain, called Montferrat, liear the village of Car-
dona, is a hill three miles in circumference, whicli is a maff
of rock-falt, ufcd in the dry climate of Spain for vafcs,
fnuff-boxes, and trinkets, like our Derbyfliire ipar.

According to the dcfcription of the ingenious obfervcr,
Mr. Townfend, the northern fide of the Pyrenees (which
fee) is chiefly calcareous, furmouiited with argillaceous fchif-
tu? ; but the fouthern is granite, and of courfe barren. The
hills to the S. of Gcrona arc alfo granitic. The highcft
ridge in Spain, near Daroca, from which originate the Tajo
and the Ebro, feems to be compofed of argillaceous fchiftus,
and free-ftone, probably refling on granite. Near Anchu.ib
the mountains are limeftone with fhells, a:id m fome places
contain beds of redgypfum, with cryftab of the fame colour.
In general, gypfum is as abundant in Spain as chalk i^ in
England ; and the gypfum produces cryltals of fea-lalt and
Eplom fait, and abundance of nitre. The mountains or
the N. of Madrid, forming part of the central chain, ar ■
granite. Tlnfe to the N. of Leon arc chiefly marble or
limeftone, ' n a bafis of argillaceous fchittu?, rifing in bold
and rugged rocks, which afforded a barrier to the rcn.aiK.s
of Spanilh liberty. In returning towards the S. the foil of
I.,a Mancha is fandy, the rock gypfnni. The higher regions
of the Sierra Morena arc grauite : the lower, argilbceoui
fchiftus with gypfum and limeftone. The granite is of twi
kinds, the red aud the white. NearCord.>va the higheft hilii
3 K »re

SPAIN.

are covered with rounded maffes of granite, grit, and lime-
ftone. Near Malaga are branches of the Sierra Nevada, or
fnowy chain, an appellation which might be extended to the
central range between Old and New Caftile, which, accord-
ing to Mr. Townfend, may at feme times be vifible at the
diftance of loo miles: thefe branches prefent hmeftoiie and
marble, furmounted by argillaceous fchiftus. Near Alhama,
S E of the city of Granada, are found rocks, which, on a
bafis of fhingle or round gravel, prefent fand-llone with
fhells, furmounted with farcilite ; but m general the rocks
are gypfeoiis, with ttrata of the fame fubftance cryftalhzed.
Mr Townfend fuppofes that the power of the fun contri-
butes to impregnate chalk with vitriolic acid, thus forming
Cypfum. The S.E. part of Spain feems to be equally cal-
careous, and the cathedral of Murcia is built with pifolite,
a fort of free-ilone, refembhng the roe of fi(h. The aven-
turine is found in the mountain of Gata, towards the fron-
tiers of Portugal ; the Cape de Gata prefents alfo feme
fingularities, and appears to fome travellers to have been

volcanic.

The forefts, or rather chaces of Spam, are numerous
They are little cultivated, and are partly referved for the
pleafures of hunting ; fuch is that of the Pardo, which is
barren of trees, and extends about 30 miles. Some of the
forefts are haunted by fmugglers and banditti, who rob
travellers, and often commit murders.

Spain, including the whole country S. of the Pyrenees,
in relation to botany, and its vegetable produftions, has been
divided into the fea-fhore, the high mountains, the lower
ones, the arable lands, the grazing traSe and marfhes along
the rivers, and the vicinity of Lifbon and Oporto. The
fea-(hore, with refpeft to its vegetables, refembles for the
moft: part the northern coafts of the Mediterranean ; the flat
fandy trafts being occupied by the fea-daffodil, the Ihrubby
glafs-wort, and the falfola foda and fativa; and of the latter
there are extenfive plantations in the vicinity of Alicant and
Barcelona, the afhes of which yield the barilla, of which
fome thoufand tons are annually manufaftured : the rocks
on the coaft are chiefly calcareous, and abound with feveral
veeetables, and particularly with the ftipa tenaciffima, or
efparto grafs, ufed in making ropes, mats, chair-bottoms,
&c. The high mountains of Spain are covered vrith fnow
only for a fevf weeks in the year, and in thefe elevated
regions are found the fineft timber trees, and other vegetable
produftions of the fame kind with thofe that are met with
in the north of Europe. The long ranges of hills that
occupy the greateft part of Spain, confifl: either of extenfive
arid trafts of fand, arenaceous fand-ftone, and ferruginous
rubble forming the heaths, of dry calcareous dillrifts form-
ino- the flieep-walks, or of moift; rough granitic and marble
ridges, with a (hallow foil, forming the woodlands. The
Spanifli heaths are gayer and richer with plants than thofe
of any other European country. The fheep-walks are for
the mod part open downs, with little {helter, excepting oc-
calionally groves of chefnut-trees or evergreen oaks. In
the wood-lands the trees are neither fo hrge nor fo ample in
their foliage as thofe of the Gei^fnan ^-nd Engliih forefts.
The maritime provinces of Spain abound with wood ; but
in the interior provinces trees are rare, and plantations are
not fufiiciently encouraged. Portugal and Spain are de-
ficient in refpeft of water ; the rivers flow through rocky
channels, and therefore the marfhes and bogs are infrequent.
The vicinity of Lilbon and Oporto, and of a few other
towns on the coaft, afford a number of Indian, African, and
American plants.

In zoology, Spain is celebrated for its horfes and mulef,

the latter however being more regarded than the formeij
which are faid to degenerate, and particularly for its flieepf
which are fuperior to thofe of other countries with refpedt
to the delicacy of the mutton and the beauty of the fleece.
In mineralogy. Spam wa3 formerly more diftinguifhed than
it has been in later times. Pliny, Strabo, and Polybius,
fpeak in high terms of commendation of its precious metals;
fo that Britain and other maritime regions received their
gold and filver from Gaul and Spain, in return for cattle,
hides, and other products. At prefent the filver-mines arc
almoft wholly confined to Guadalcanal in the Sierra Morena,
though rich veins of the fame metal, in 1 fuliginous ftate,
exill in many places. The quickfilver mines of Almadan in
L.I Mancha furnifli America with mercury for refining its
more precious metals. Calamine, cobalt, antimony, copper,
tin, and lead, are found in Spain ; its iron is valuable ; and
coals are obtained in the diitridl of Villa Franca, in Cata-
lonia, where alfo occur gold, filver, copper, and lead.
Amber and jet are found in the territory of Betonica, in
the Afturias. The other minerals it is needlcfs to enume-
rate. Murcia produces a fine red earth, called" almagra,"
which is mingled with the Spanifh fnufl^. The aventurine
of Spain is a felfpir fprinkled with golden mica.

Few of the mineral waters of Spain are much celebrated.
The hot fprings near Oviedo refemble thofe of Bath ; and
thofe near Alicant are warm fprings of a chalybeate nature,
rifing like the fumes among calcareous hills.

We (hall now advert to the agriciillure of Spain. The
foil in Spain is generally light, and repofes on beds of gyp-
fiim ; nor is any country in Europe upon the whole fo fertile
as this, or pofl'cfling equal advantages at all feafons of the
year. It was, indeed, in this region that the ancients fixed
the fcite of the Elyfian fields, and the gardens of the Hef-
perides. When the Romans firft entered Iberia, they were
aftonilhed at the produftive and flounfhing ftate in which
many parts of it vi-ere found ; and they encouraged the exilt-
ing indnftry, fo that Spam became the granary of their em-
pire, and the nurfery of their armies. The northern nations,
when they took poflcflion of the' country, parcelled out the
lands, and turned their attention to the improvement of agri-
culture. They conftrufted fubterraneous buildings, or gra-
naries, in ufe before their time, for the prefervation of corn,
and encouraged the formation of canals and (luices, for the
irrigation of the land. Under the Moors agriculture was
in a ftiU more fiourifliing ftate ; and the era of their expul-
fion defignates the epoch of the decline of agriculture. The
Spaniards, deprived of their affiftance, pofiefled neither
talents, aftivity, nor perfevering induftry, for the cultiva-
tion of their lands ; and though they had an excellent foil,
and numerous rivers to counteraiSt its aridity, and nothing
but induftry and labour were wanting, fcarcely two-thirds of
the country were under cultivation : fo that they have been
under a neceflity of importing a large quantity of corn from
foreign countries. Many attempts were made by fuccelTive
Spanifh monarchs to roufe the fpirit and invigorate the fyftem
of agriculture ; but they proved, from various impeding
caufes, in a great degree inefFe£lual. A variety of circum-
ftances contributes to diminith the number of pcrfons that
are inclined to labour, as well as to contra£l the portion of
time that may be employed for this purpofe. Although
Spain has a population of 10,143,965 perfons, yet of thefe,
the women, children, and old and infirm men, conftitute
five-eighths of the whole, and reduce the population to
about 3,803,981 men. From this number muft be fub-
trafted the fecular and regular clergy, military and navy,
nobility, ttudents, counfellers, fcriveners, domeftics, and

tax-

SPAIN.

tax-gatherers, amounting to 1,221,799 perfons ; fo that
the number of thofe who might be aftively employed in
agriculture, fubjeft to a ftill further reduftion, amounts to
confidcrably lefs than 2,582,592. The number of working
days is much leflened by the multiplicity of fealts and holi-
days. The want of good roads and of convenient markets,
the high price of labour, and the " meda" (which fee), very
much impede agricultural improvement. Under all thefe
difadvantages, fo fertile is the foil and fo favourable the
climate, Spain produces a very confiderable quantity of
various forts of grain ; but different provinces are more or
lefs diltinguifhed in this refpeft. Flax, hemp, fugar-canes,
madder, foda, faffron, broom, honey, palms and dates, cork-
trees, kermes or gall-infefts, and different kinds of fruit, al-
monds, nuts, figs, carob-beans, olives, vines and dried raifins,
may be reckoned amongft its produflions. The common
courfe of hufbandry about Barcelona, as Mr. Townfend in-
forms us, begins with wheat ; which being ripe in June is
immediately fucceeded by Indian corn, hemp, millet, cab-
bage, kidney-beans, or lettuce. In the fecond year thefe
crops fucceed one another as before. In the next year they
fow barley, beans, or vetches, which being taken off the
ground before Midfummer, are followed, as in the former
year, by other crops, changing them according to the fea-
ion, fo as to have on the fame fpot the greateft variety.
Wheat produces a ten-fold crop, and in rainy feafons fifteen
for one. Near Carthagena, the courfe is wheat, barley, and
fallow. For wheat they plough thrice, and fow from the
middle of November to the beginning of December ; in
.July they reap from 10 to 100 for one, as the feafon hap-
pens to be humid. The Huerta, or rich vale of Alicant,
yields a perpetual fucceffion of crops. Barley is fown in
September, reaped in April ; fucceeded by maiz^, reaped
in September, and by a mixed crop of efculents which fol-
low. Wheat is fown in November, and reaped in June ;
ilax in September, pulled in May. In the vale of Valencia
■wheat yields from 20 to 40; barley, from 18 to 24; oats,
from ao to 30 ; maize, 100 ; rice, 40. In the more fouthern
provinces, the land is almoll equally fertile : and the fugar-
caiie is fuccefsfully cultivated near Granada. The Spaniffi
plough is generally light, and is drawn by oxen with the
yoke over the horns. All the provinces of Spain produce
wine. The eallern and fouthern provinces contain a vaft
number of vines ; but the northern and wellern not fo many.
But the wines vary in refpeft of quality in the different pro-
vinces, and in the feveral diltrifls even of the fame province.
The ordinary wines of the country arc red wines ; but many
diftrifts of Spain produce excellent fweet wines. The old
Iherry wine, " Xerez feco," is the fherry fack of Shakfpeare.
The dried grapes or raifins form in the kingdom of Valencia,
■where they annually produce 88,461^ cwt. and ufually ex-
port 36,538 cwt., and particularly in that of Granada, the
environs of Malaga fiirnifhing annually 288,4615 cwt. and
exporting 240,577 cwt., a very confiderable article of com-
merce. In the latter province, they are fimply dried in the
fun, without any other preparation ; in the former the grapes
arc iteeped in boiling water, (harpened with a ley made of
vine-Items, and then expofed to the air and fufpended in the
fun, till they are fcjfficiently dry. Thofc of Malaga are of
a fuperior quality, in greater eltimation, and obtain a higher
price than any other. They are naturallv larger, and of a
more delicate flavour than any others. The cultivation of
fugar-canes prevails on an extenfive fcale on tlie fide of Gra-
nada, where enough is grown to fuyply a confiderable ma-
nufafture of fugar. Formerly they had no fewer than
twelve fugar-mills between Malaga and Gibraltar, the four
principal of which were at Madrid, near which place the

bell canes were produced. But the cultivation of cotton
has been fubftituted there in the place of fugar. Olive-trees
thrive in almoft every part of the country. The olives grown
in the dillrifts of Alcala and Guadayra, in the kingdom of
Seville, are larger and finer than any in Europe, and the bett
adapted for pickling. The greatelt quantity of oil is pro-
duced in the kingdom of Valencia ; viz. 88,000 quintals, or
84,615 cwt. annually. Wood is fcarce in the two Caftiles,
Eftremadura and Leon. The cables of the Spanifii vcffelj
are often made of efparto from Murcia.

In Spain feveral economical focieties have been lately
ellabliffied,' particularly at Valencia and Saragoffa, with a
view to the encouragement of agriculture ; and in conneftion
with the fociety of the latter place is a charitable bank in
favour of diftreffed farmers. Money is advanced fufficient
to defray the expences of harvelt, and two years are allowed
for returning, by inftalments, the fums thus advanced. This
eflablilhment cominenced its operations in June 1805, and it
then dillributed 458/. 2s. fterling to no hufbandmen ; and
in the month of Auguft following it had furnifhcd fixty-two
horfes to an equal number of other indigent farmers. The
principal economical mftitution for the promotion of agri-
culture is that at Madrid.

ManufaHures and Commerce. — Spain, celebrated in remote
periods for the fertility of its foil, and the variety of its
produftions, was equally fignalized by the induftry of its
inhabitants. The Greeks and Romans found this country-
farther advanced in all kinds of ufeful arts than they could
poffibly have imagined. It was in the city of Zoeh, in the
dilfrift of Tarragon, that the firlt linen ftuffs were manu-
faftured ; and the cloths of Xativa, or San Felippo, the an-
cient Soetabis, were famous through Greece and Italy. At
Carthagena very fine ftuffs were fabricated from the bark of
trees ; and the manufafture of woollen cloth had arrived at
a high degree of perfection, and the Spaniards polieffed the
art of dyeing cloth of a very beautiful purple colour, which
they learned of the Phoenicians, fo that they fupplied all
Italy with this article. The Celtiberians knew the method
of tempering fteel, and nothing could rcfift the force of their
fwords. The manufaftures of Spain, however, were injured
by the invafion of the northern nations ; and were again
revived by the Moors, who exhibited to the Spaniards an
example of genius, aftivity, and induftry. The two nations,
■viz,, the Moors and the Spaniards, divided between them
the manufaftures of Spain : thofe of leather, linen, fiik, &c.
were almoft wholly in the hands of the Arabs ; and thofe of
arms, and articles fabricated of wool, were in the hands of
the Spaniards. When the Moors were expelled in 1614,
the manufaftures which had flourifhed under their direftion
funk into decay and ruin. The hillory of Spanidi manu-
faftures may be divided into three periods. The firft com-
mences with the re-union of all parts of the monarcliy, under
the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabclla,*in tlie year 1475 > ''"•'
extends down to the death of Philip II. in the year 159S.
The fecond comprifes the reigns of Phili[) HI. Philip IV.
and Charles II., that is to fay, during the whole oi the
17th century. The third includes the l8th century ; but
Itriflly fpeaking, it did not begin till the year i 720.

The firft was a brilliant period for Spain ; manufaftures
of every kind were much increafed, and for a time ihcy be-
came very famous. The fecond period witneilcd their de-
cline and decay, and their fall was as rapid as their elevation.
Spain then no longer employed foreign merchandize. The
third period furninies an intercfting index of the efforts
which wore ufed for a ferics of time to reinvigorate the na-
tional manufadures. During the firft, Spain was in a fiou-
rilhing ftate ; but it had not then arrived at that high degree
3 K 2 of

SPAIN.

of improvement defcribed by the greater part of modern
writers ; who have affeaed to believe that the country then
had attained the acme of its wealth and fplendour.

During the whole period that ejapfed, from the com-
mencement of the 14th to the clofe of the l6th century,
Spain was pcrfeftly independent of foreign nations ; manu-
fafturing the greatelV part of its filk and wool, and ex-
porting more manufadured than raw articles. But during
the progrefs of the 17th century, the manufaAures of cot-
ton, linen, and hempen cloths, gloves, and fwords, entirely
vanilhed, and by the clofe of this centui7, fcarcely the
fmallell veiligcs remained, fo that Spain was abfolutely
dellitute of trade. When Philip V. afcended the throne, the
inteftine wars during the firft. fourteen years of that mo-
narch's reign, and the low ilate of the national finances,
prevented tlie government from paying any attention to the
Itate of the country in this refped. Some meafures were
adopted for the revival of the manufaftures, when tranquil-
lity was rertored. Ferdinand VI. did more for this purpofe
than any of his predeceifors, and his fucceflor Charles III.
followed his example. The manufaftures of Catalonia were
the firft that revived fubfequent to the war waged refpefting
the right of fuccefllon. In a (hort period manufactures
were eftabliflied, and by a fpirit of rivalry quickly multi-
plied. By degrees new branches of manufafture were
adopted in various places, and the different ramifications are
numerous at the prefent day. Thefe are fo numerous in the
different provinces and towns of the country, that our limits
will not allow an enumeration of them in this place. Some
account of them occurs under the names of the refpeftive
provinces and towns, in the courfe of this work. The ftate
of Spanifh manufactures in the 15th and i6th centuries, will
lead us to conclude that commerce was then in a flonrifh-
ing condition; and its ramifications extended to all paics
of Europe. Almeria, Valencia, and Barcelona, no lefs im-
portant, in a mercantile view, than the Hanfeatic towns,
pufhed their commercial concerns into Syria, Egypt, Bar-
bary, and the Archipelago. The trade of the country,
however, was at this time very much, if not wholly, in the
hands of the Jews ; while the Spaniards were either en-
gaged in war, or indulging themfelves in a ilate of peace.
The Moors condufted their agricultural and manufafturing
concerns, and the Jews became their merchants and bankers.
The expuliion of the Jews, in the year 1492, deprived Spain
of its moft aftive merchants ; this was followed by the cx-
pulfion of the Moors, in 1614; fo that commerce was de-
prived of its aftive and intelligent agents, and ceafing to be
nourifhed by the produce of the foil, manufaftures inftanta-
neoufly difappeared. The Barbary pirates likewife infelled
the Mediterranean fea, and feized all the Spanifh (liips
which failed from the fouthern parts ; and Spain being
unable to defend commerce on the coaft, the whole trade
was carried on in foreign bottoms. The government alfo
had adopted a fyilem peculiarly calculated to paralyze com-
merce : it had reftrifted the colonial trade to entering by
one port only on the continent, Seville firft, and Cadiz
afterwards. Moreover, during the war about the fucceflion,
Philip V. prohibited the exportation of all the produce of
the country to the nations with which he was at war. The
country at different times made fruitlefs attempts for reviv-
ing its commerce. Philip was fcarcely in quiet poflelEon
of the throne, before he turned his attention to the revival
of commerce ; he encouraged manufaftures, and conferred
honorary rewards on trade ; he granted premiums to mer-
chants, and intlituted commercial boards. Charles III.
permitted a general trade, and moderated the duties impofed
upoQ imported merchandize. In 1764 he eftabhfhed pack-

ets, which failed regularly every month to the Havanna and
Porto Rico, and others every two months for Rio de la
Plata ; and allowed every packet-boat to take out half a
cargo of Spanifh produce, and return half freighted with the
produftions of America. The Spaniards themfelves dif-
played a fpirit of aftivity and enterprife, of which they
were thought to be altogether incapable. About the year
1728, the Caraccas company of Guipuicoa was eftabhfhed,
and this company produced prompt and extenfive advan-
tages. This company was fupprefied about the year 178 1
or 1782. In the year 1784, a new company was formed,
under the firm of " the Philippines ;" and the fhips belong-
ing to this concern failed from Cadiz ; but though its com-
mencement was piomifing, many unfavourable circuraftances
occurred, and it iuflained very heavy loffes ; neverthelefs,
at the clofe of the year 1796 it derived a profit of nearly
229,166/.' I3J-. 4^. flerling. The internal trade of Spain
is very incoafiderable, for want of fufficient means of com-
munication ; but it carries on a foreign trade with every
country in Europe. The prircipal tranfaftions, however,
are with England, Holland, Italy, France, and its American
colonies. The principal articles of foreign commerce are
wine, brandy, oil, foda, barilla, fine wool, tobacco, dried
raifins and figs, nuts, dates, fumac, anchovies, rice, kermes,
fait, madder, bar-iron, and anchors. Although Spain ex-
ports immenfe quantities of its agricultural produftions, it
fends abroad none of its manufaftured articles, but all
thofe it receives from foreign countries. The following
articles are imported into Spain, viz. from Holland, tapes,
linen-drapery, common lace, cutlery goods, and paper ; —
from Silefia, linen-drapery ; — from Germany, particularly
Hamburgh, quantities of haberdalhery ; — from England,
calicoes, iron ar.d fteel goods, fine cloth, cod-fifh, and ling ;
— from France, cahcoes, linen-drapery, filk-ftockings, filks,
camblets, and other kinds of worfted ftuffs, fine cloths,
gilded articles, jewellery, iron goods, fteel goods, haber-
dafhery, and perfumery : and Spain carries on 3 con-
fiderable trade with her American colonies. Bifcay is
the only province of Spain that is interdifted a free trade
with the colonies. The colonies fupply Spain with
coffee, fugar, fome cotton, tobacco, cocoa, leather, and
particularly gold and filver, both in ingots and coined into
money.

The manufaftures and commerce of Spain are confider-
ably checked by the royal monopolies, which comprehend
the following articles ; i>;3. broad-cloth, at Guadalajara and
Brihuega ; china, at the palace of the Buen Retiro ; cards,
at Madrid and Malaga ; glafs, at St. Ildefonfo ; paper, in
Segovia ; pottery, at Talavera ; faltpetre, at Madrid and
various other places ; ftockings, at V. Idemoro ; fwords, at
Toledo ; tapellry, at Madrid ; and tiflue, at Talavera. The
king has alfo the monopoly of brandy, gunpowder, lead,
quickfilver, fealing-wax, fait, fulphur, and tobacco. Moft
of the royal manufaftures may be regarded as monopolies,
as no private capital can vie with the treafury.

Gcnitrnment, Mil'ilary, and Revenue. — Spain was never
governed by a king who was not of foreign origin. Mo-
narchs either of a Gothic or Moorifh race, French or Auf-
trian, or of the royal houfe of France, have occupied the
Spanifh throne from the year 411 till the prefent day. The
Goths reigned in Spain from the year 411 till 71 1 ; the
Moors from 7 1 1 till 716 ia part of the Afturias, till 820 in
Catalonia, till 750 in Sobrarba, till 923 in Leon, till 1075
in different parts of the two Caftiles, till 11 18 in Aragon,
till 1236 in Cordova and .Taen, till F248 in Seville, till i 264
in Valencia, till 1265 in Murcia, and even fo late as 1493
in Granada. During the wars againft the Moors, the Goths
1 2 reigned

SPAIN.

reigned in the Afturias, Galicia, and finally in the kingdom
of Leon till 1038.

The houfe of Navarre defceiided from the French houfe
of Bigorre, which had previoufly reigned in Caltile for ten
years, united with it the crown of Leon till the year 1126.
This was fucceeded by the family of Bourbon, dcfcended
from the royal family of France, which reigned over thefe
countries till 1555. The houfe of Cliarlemagne, a French
family defcended from that prince, ruled over Catalonia
from the year 802 till 1 132. The Frendi family of Bigorre
fird reigned in Sobrarba, and afterwards in Aragon, from
the year 750 to 1162 ; at that period the French family of
Barcelona fucceeded to the government, and united to the
crown of Aragon that of Catalonia, and afterwards the king-
dom of Valencia, over which it reigned till the year 1430.
Thefe parts of Spain then came into the pofleftion of the
princes of the French branch of Navarre, which reigned in
Caftile, and continued in their defccndants to 1515; at
which time the different ftatesof the Spanifh monarchy were
under the government of Joanna the Foolifh, who reigned
over them till her death, which happened in IJ55. The
Auilrian family then polleil'ed tlie throne of Spain till 1700,
fince which time it was occupied by a branch of the houfe
of Bourbon, till the late revolution, which placed the crown
upon the head of Jofeph I., brother of Napoleon Buonaparte,
emperor of the French ; but this revolution has terminated
in the reftoration of Ferdinand VIL, who fucceeded on the
abdication of his father in 1808.

The Spanirti government, which was of a limited nature,
during the dynafties of the kings of Caftile and Aragon,
afterwards became an abfolute monarchy.

Philip V. lupprelled the ftates-general, their lall meeting
having been held at Saragoffa in the year 1720 ; and fince
that period no further power is left to the Cortes of Caftile
and Aragon, but the privilege of fending deputies to the
ftates-general, whenever they are fummoned by the mo-
narch. The whole authority centres at prefent in the king
and his minifters ; and the national affairs are condufted by
the different councils appointed by the crown, which deli-
berate and form their plans in tlie capital : fome of them
poflefs both legiilative and executive power, and exercife
the double funftion of advifing the king and adminiftering
the jullice. The council of Caftile, in this diftribution of
power, is paramount ; its decrees being decifivc in the courts,
but its judgments are under the controul of the king. The
chief councils in Spain are, i. That of difpalches, called
alio the Junto, or cabinet council, being compolcd of the
king and liis minifters of ftate. 2. The council of (late, in
which the king prefides, and of which the archbiftiop of
Toledo is always a member. 3. The royal council of
finances, called the Hazienda. 4. The fupremo council of
war. 5. The fupreme council of Caftile. 6. The fupremc
council of Aragon. 7. The fupreme council of the inqui-
fition. 8. Tlie royal council of the orders of knighthood.
9. The royal council of the Indies. 10. That of the cru-
fade, compofcd of a commiffary-gcncral, a member of the
council of Calhle, and another of that of Aragon, who ma-
nage the fale of little papal bulls, grartiiig certain indul-
gences to the purchafers. In Spain there are five minifters
of ftate ; corrcl ponding to our foreign fecietary, fccretary
for the home dbparlment, fecrctary at war, firft lord of the
admiralty, and chancellor of the exchequer, or prime minillcr.

The laws of Spain are contained in fcveral ancient codes ;
and recourfe is alfo had to the civil and canon law. The
" Efcrivanos," or attorneys, are numerous, but inllcad of
explaining the codes, they often impede the adminillration
of jufticc. Miltaken mercy frequently retains criminals

in long durance, fo that when they are executed their
offence is forgotten, and the example of punifliment has
no effeft.

With refpeft to the military of Spain we may obferve,
that when Philip V. afcended the throne, there were not
15,000 troops in the kingdom, and it had not a fingle fliip
of war fit for the fea. This prince diredled his attention to
military arrangement and difciphne ; and his fucceiibrs, by
following the fame courfe, have obtained a refpeftable
army ; and by the increafe and ftrength of its naval inftitu-
lions, Spain has alfo become a maritime power. In the
year 1807 the army If aff included 5 captains-general, 5 in-
fpedlors, 87 lieutenant-generals, 128 field-marfkalf, and
2 1 3 brigadier-generals, befides military intendants, military
commiffioners, trealurers of the army, military judges, ikc.
The military eflablifliment of the royal houfehoid confifts
of four companies of life-guards, a company of hai'iardiera
or fpearmen, a regiment of infantry called the Walloon
guards, and a regiment of cavalry called the royal cara-
biniers. The life-guards are divided into four companies,
the Spanifh, the American, the Italian, and the Walloon ;
and each confifts of natives of thefe refpecfive countries.
The militia is diftinguillied by the appellations of niihces
provinciales, or provincial militia, divided into 42 bat-
talions, and diftributcd through the different provinces,
and the milices urbanas, or civic mihtia, which neither re-
ceive pay nor are liable to be called away from their homes.
The Spanifh troopS all wear a red cockade, except the
Walloon and Swifs guards ; that of the former being red
and black, and that of the latter red and yellow. The
whole military force of Spain, in time of peace, is computed
at about 60,000. The naval forces of Spain confift of a
marine itaff, a corps of marine officer;-., a corps of naval cadet-
guards, and three corps of engineers, artillery, and infantry,
appropriated entirely to the fervice of the navy. The Ihips
of the line can fcarcely now be computed at more than 50.

The revenues of the king of Spain, on the continent,
confift in monies ariiing from his own landed cftates, cuf-
toms, all kinds of taxation, &c. ; which rewnues amount
at prefent, for the whole of Spain, to 8,097,813/. 6s. 4^.
Iterling, without including various confiderable turns from
different fources, which cannot be afcertained, for want of
accurate information. Tlie king of Spain alio derives con-
fiderable revenues from the two Indies ; but the expence of
coUefting, &c. is fo great as to abforb nearly two-thirds.
The total revenues of the Spanifh colonit-s amount ta
27,000,000 piaftres fortes ; and deducing cxpences, fcarcely
more than 9,000,000 piaftres arrive at the royal treafury.
The revenue of Spain has been ftatcd by fome writers at
5,500,000/. fterhng, fo that each perfon pays lOr. to go-
vernment for proteftion. Fi r the i.:ture of the taxes we
may refer to Laborde and Townfend's tables. The gabel
is one of the moft produdive ; and the clergy pay about
15,000,000 of rials. The expenditure now eq'ials, or ex-
ceeds the income ; and the n.itional debt .'.radually enlarges.
The colonies, as fome of the befl judges have eftimated
them, do not yield above i, 000.000/. Uerling, exclufive of
the duties. Bourgoing computes tlie revenues of Sp:un at
616,295,657 rials, and its money in circulation he flates
at 80,000,000 of dollai=s ; elHinating the rial at 5 f.nis of
France, and the dollar at 20 rials.

Religion and ecclefiajiical Govfinmenl. — The religion of
Spain IS the Roman Catholic, protedid with a degree of
fanaticifm which exceeds that of any Italian ftate, or even
the Papal territory. The inquifition, elfablifhed in I480,
by Ferdinand and Ifabella, and l.itely reftond with the re-
turn of the prefent fovereign, after its abohtion, has pro-
duced

SPAIN.

duced the moft injurious effefts ; and the number of monks,
under the obligation of celibacy, but under the influence of
exiiling paffions, has been very detrimental and even dellruc-
tive to morals. The number of the Spanifh clergy has
been varioufly ftated by different writers. Mr. Tov/nfcnd
dates it at 188,625 ! others compute the clergy at 400,000.
Laborde, in 2 table drawn up from the enumeration of them
in 1788, reckons the fecular clergy at 60,238, the minilters
of churches at 15,8^4, the monks of 1925 convents at
49,238, and the nuns of 1081 convents at 22,347; ^"^
reckoning the population at 11,000,000, the clergy of
Spain form one-ilxty-ninth of the whole. Spain is divided
into ecclefiallical provinces, over which prefides an arch-
biihop, with the rank of metropolitan : thefe provinces are
again fubdivided into diocefes, each of which is governed
by a bilhop. The archbifhoprics are eight in nurjibcr, and
the fuffragan billioprics are forty-four. The archiepifcopal
feat of Toledo is the firft in rank, and the wealthielt in
Spain : it confers on its poiieflbr the title of primate, and
a revenue of about 125,000/. fterling. The Mofarabic
ritual, adopted in Spain, ou the expulfion of the Arabs,
declined after the introduftion of the French princes, and
was finally fuperfeded by that of the Romilh church. It
JliU fubilfts, however, at Salamanca and Toledo, where are
two chapels ferved by a numerous body of clergy, in which
public worfhip is performed according to this ancient
form.

Tlie Spanilh nation recognizes no authority or jurifdiftion
of the pope in the temporal concerns of ecclefiallical bene-
fices. No briefs nor bulls are received, publifhed, or exe-
cuted in Spain, unlefs they have been examined by the
chamber of Caftile, and have received its exequatur, or
licence.

In confequence of the fame concordat, and of various
briefs and royal edifts founded upon it, the king at prefent
nominates not only to thofe benefices, the patronage of
which belongs to the crown, but alfo to all the benefices in
the patronage of the church, which become vacant during
any of the eight months formerly referved by the pope, as
well as to all thofe that become vacant, in confequence of
the former incumbents having been promoted by the king :
the crown alfo ifl'ues licences, to enable thofe who are nomi-
nated to take poireffion of their preferments. The revenues
of confiltorial benefices, during their vacancy, go to the
crown, on condition of their being applied to charitable
ufes. The annates, demi-annates, and quindennes, belong
to the king, who alfo has the right of granting penfions on
the archbifhoprics and bifhoprics, to the amount of one-
third of their entire revenue.

The, pope, however, ilill preferves in Spain two very
important privileges, namely, the fnpreme adminiflration of
the contentious juri/diSion over all cafes that are brought be-
fore the ecclefiaiUcal tribunals, and the free and independent
nomination to fifty-two of the befl benefices. The impofts
of various kinds and denominations, payable by the clergy
of Spain, amount annually to about 437,840/. iSs. 2d.
iterling, exclnfively of fome other charges. Burgoing.
Townfend. Fifcher. Laborde. Pinkerton.

Hijlory of the Mujic of Spain- — It feems as if a late mu-
fical hillorian had placed the Spaniards lower among
European muficians, in the 15th and i6th centuries, than
in equity they ought to have been, by imagining Morales
the firll praftical mufician of eminence in that country, and
Salinas the only theorifl that was produced there diu-ing the
16th century. (See Morales.) Indeed we know but
little of the ftate of mufic in the interior parts of that
-kingdom, during this period ; but, if we may judge by the

muficians it furnifhed to the Papal chapel, both compofers
and fingers, we may conclude, that the richeft and moft
powerful nation in Europe, as Spain then was, would not
breed muficians as the Africans do flaves, or the Circaflians
women, merely to tranfport them for the ufe or plcafure of
others ; they could doubtlefs then have afforded to keep a
few for their own amufement.

The Spaniards, fo far from neglefting mufic, feem to
have taken it very early into the circle of the fciences, in
their univerfities ; for Salinas tells us, that the mufical pro-
feflbrfhip, which was conferred upon him at Salamanca,
had been founded and endowed by Alphonfo, king of Caf-
tile, furnamed the Wife. And Bartolomeo Ramis, the
opponent of Franchinus, in 1482, was pubhc profeflbr of
mufic at Toledo, and afterwards at Bologna. Of Guillerm
de Podio, a prieft, we have likewife a work, entitled " Ars
Muficorum, five Commentarium Muficx Facultatis," pub-
lifhed 1495 ; and another written in the Spanifh language,
by Francefco Trovar, " Libro di Mufica Pratica," Bar-
celona, 1519; " Arte di Canto Llano," del Alfonfo de
Caflillo, Salamanca, 1504 ; " El Maeftro o Mufica de Vi-
guela de Mano," by Don Ludovicus Milan, a nobleman of
Valentia, 1534 ; " Silva di Sirenas," or a treatife on the
vitruela, or viol, by Henrico de Valderrabano, Valladolid,
1547 ; " Arte de la Mufica," by Melchior de Torres, al-
cala de Herrares, in New Caftile, 1554. At the fame
place likewife was pubhfhed, in 1557, " Tratado de Cifra
nueva para Tecla, Harpa y Vieguela Canto Llano, de Or-
gano y Contrapunto," by Lud. Venegas de Hineilroia.
There was likewife publillied at Alcala, by Cyprian de la
Huerga, a Cifttrtian monk, who died 1560, a treatife
" De Ratione Muficje et Inflrumentorum Ufu apud veteres
Hebraeos ;" and at Granada, 1555, "Libro de la De-
claration de Inftrumentos," by Joan Bermudo.

All thefe writers on the fubjeft of mufic, and many more,
appeared in' Spain before Salinas; of whom an account is
given under his biographical article.

Many more names of Spanifh theorifts and-praftical mu-
ficians might be enumerated here ; but as we have neither
feen nor heard any of their produdlioni, we are unable to
eftimate their worth. In 1613, however, a work was pub-
lifhed in Spanifh, by Cerone, in folio, which contains more
information concerni;jg every part of the art and fcience
then known, than any other elementary book which we
have feen in any language. The title of this treatife is the
following : " El Melopeo y Maeftro. Traiftado di Mufica
teorica y pratica," Napoli, 1613. Sec Cerone.

Andres Lorente was autlior of a treatife, now become
very fcarce, entitled " El Porque del la Mufica," 410.
1672. For a farther account of this book, fee Lorente,
and Dr. Worgav.

Pablo de Zaragoija NafTarre was author alfo of a treatife
on mufic, in Spanifh, entitled " Fragmentos Muficos," in
four parts, a dillintt treatife, 4to. Madrid, 1700. For a
further account of this work, fee Nassarre.

About the middle of the laft century was publifhed at
Madrid, in Spanifh, " An Efiay on Church Mufic," by
Feyjoo. We have never feen the book in the original, but
an anonymous tranflation into Englifh appeared in 1778.
The author begins with a heavy complaint againft the cor-
ruption and degeneracy of mufic, ancient and modern ; join-
ing with Plutarch in afierting, that mufic was at firft only
uied in the temples of Greece ; but pafTing to the theatre, a
new and lighter ftyle was invented, which being adopted in
the temple, rendered it unfit for the ferious fervice of re-
ligion. It was not till the latter end of the 17th century,
that fecular mufic, by additional refinements in finging, and

improvements

SPAIN.

improvements in inttrumental mufic at the opera, was
thought worthy of being introduced, on great feftivals, into
the church, in Roman Catholic countries : on other days,
canto fcrmo, and mades fet alia Paleftrina, were continued,
and are ftill continued in the cathedrals of Italy ; though,
even in the i6th century, maffes concertati, or accompanied
with a band of indruments, according to Montaigne,
(Journal d'un Voyage,) were common throughout Italy
and Germany.

We know not what the date of ecclefiaftical mufic may
fee in Spain at prefent ; but we have always underftood that
the mulic, a capella, i:i Spain, was more folemn and learned
than ellewhere. The poet Yriarte, w-hofe judgment and
tafte are correft and elegant, aiid who has no prejudices,
except in favour of good mufic of every kind and country,
Ipeaks highly of the mufic of the church in Spain.

But Feyjoo's Eday is conflant complaint and cenfure.
Yet from the time of Charles V., an excellent mufician
himfelf, the Spanifh monarclis have patronized mufic in a
;iiore dillinguilhed manner,, both in the church and the
theatre, than any other fovereigns in Europe, till the late
Charles VI., an amoufos, who fucceeded Ferdinand IV.,
and who turned Farinelli out of the kingdom, whofe good
conduft merited equal praife with his talents. See Fari-
nelli.

The author before us afl<s, whether all the mufic of the
church (hould not be grave ? We anfwer, no ; not invari-
ably. Are there not days and pfalms of jubilation and
thankfgiving, as well as of penitence, forrow, and fuppli-
cation ! As the Calviniits confine all mufic to fyllabic
pfalmody, this pious Spaniard would have no other mufic
tolerated in the church than canto fermo.

We own the impropriety, and have cenfurcd it, in the
admiffion ot fecular mufic in our cathedrals during the reign
of Charles II. and ais fucceflors ; when, in the compofitions
of Weldon and Dr. Greene, the divifions and ritornels
wanted due gravity and dignity, and were manifelUy intro-
duced to dilplay an active throat and a lively finger, for
want of judgment and decorum in the compofer, who forgot
the place and occafion of the performance.

The Spanifh writer very jultly cenfures the admitting into
the church tlie produftions of infipid pretenders to compofi-
tion, witliout genius or fcience ; and finds, as is found
every where clfe, that the number of bad compofers and
bad performers fo far exceeds the good, that men of true
genius and due cultivation are phenomena that rarely ap-
pear. Don Feyjoo has celebrated a Spanilh compofer,
Don Antonio de Litcres, whole name has never penetrated
into other parts of Europe, in the highell terms of pa-
negyric.

The Ell'ay on Church Mufic was written about the
middle of tiie lall century, when the general ftyle of Italy
was frivolous, and that of Germany rude, pedantic, and in-
elegant ; but fo many great compofers have appeared fince
in both countries, that Don Feyjoo's ftrifturcs have lolt
their force. There have been bad compofers in ail ages,
but perhaps never more good ones at any period of time,
than within the lalt 30 years.

Duron, the author, we fuppofed, meant Durante,
was not only one of the greatell mailers of harmony
himfelf, but formed difciples of the greatell abilities that
have ever itl'ued from the Neapolitan fciiool ; but we find
in Yriarte, that there had been among the mailers of former
times a Spanifh compofer of the name of Duron.

The relt of this Eflay is exaggeration of invcftive, either
to mortify Farinelli, and the great Italian compofers and
fingers whom he engaged for the court of Spam, or to

flatter the fucceflor of Ferdinand, who hated mufic, and
expelled all the Italian muficians from his court.

The fame anonymous gentleman has given us a tranflatioa
of a letter of the learned Benedi£line on the fubjeA of mufic,
entitled " The wonderful Etteas of Mufic, and a Parallel
between ancient and modern Mufic."

Here the author relates all the old (lories of the mira-
culous powers of ancient mufic. He, however, doubts of
the fadls ; and relates, per contra, what we have been told
of the power of modern mufic over difeafe and the paflions.

No new materials appear in this letter, or ingenious eon-
jetlures to determine the difpute, whether the ancients or
the moderns had cultivated mufic moll fuccefsfully ; and
the author leaves the fubjecl juft as he found it, without
clearing up his own doubts, or thofe of his readers. He is
always, however, inclined to give the preference to ancient
mufic, without any thing to guide him but his prejudice,
his determination to allow nothing that is new in mufic to
be right, and the afieitions by writers in favour of ancient
counterpoint, that have been long fince clearly confuted.

The lafl writer on mufic in Spain, that has come to our
hands, is the ingenious and agreeable poet, Yriarte, of
whofe charming poem, " La Mufica," we but lately pro-
cured the beautiful third edition, printed at the royal prefs
in Madrid, in 17S9, with elegant defigns well engraved.

As this is a work but little known in our country, and
does honour to the author, and to the art of praiftical mufic
in all its branches, we fhall be fomewhat difTufe in our ac-
count of it.

D. Tomas de Yriarte wTites like a man of the world,
with an enlarged tafte, and exteiifive knowledge of the fub-
jeft. He has illuftrated his dodlrines from the molt eminent
moderns. Canto I. gives ah outline of the general hillory
of the mnfical art ; calls on mufic itfelf to infpire and affifl
him, without applying to Apollo and his nine attendants, or
even repeating old fabulous accounts of the miracles per-
formed by Orpheus,, Amphion, Linus, Terpander, or
Olympus.

He defcribcs the importance of tone and time. The firll
includes the formation of the fcale, and it^ divifions into
intervals ; the fecond, the time-table, or mufical characters
for meafuring the duration of founds.

II. Mufical exprcflion ; its ufe in the church, the
theatre, the chamber, and to man alone ; its powers over
the paffions.

III. The dignity and ufe of mufic, particularly in the
temple, the theatre, in fociety, and in folitude ; enumera-
tion of celebrated ancient Spanilh compofers.

IV. Ufe of mufic in the theatre refumed ; Jomelli ;
dancing, architcilure, painting, poetry, decorations ; mo-
dern compofers for the lyric theatre celebrated.

V. Ufe of mufic in private fociety ; eulogium on filcnce
at concerts, and inveftivc againfl thole who attend not with
due refpeft for th» art and for talents ; of opera fcenes in
concerts ; of iiillrumcnt:d nmfic proper for a concert-room ;
fonata, concerto, duo, trii', quartitto, fymphony ; nccef-
fity of variety and foreign mufic to keep ofl languor, and
excite attention ; praile of tiie German compofers of inflru-
mental mufic, particularly Haydn for invention ; of the
utility and delight which mufic affords in folitinle, as well
to thofe that arc ignorant, as thofe that arc learned in the
art ; of the lludy neceflary for a good compofer in examin-
ing the fcorcs of celebrated authors, to deleft errors and
phigiarifm, as well as to difcovcr how good cftefts arc pro-,
duced ; cenfures the pedantry of dry fugues and canons,
that have no other merit than the difficulty of compofing
them ; extraneous modulation ; confufion of multiplied

parts

SPA

parts irt different ftyles and movements, which deftroy the
efFed of each other ; recommends the avoiding of all ex-
cefl'es of all kinds, as har.-ony, literally and liguratively,
implies juft proportion ; celebrates the good tafte which is
manifeft in the Royal Academy at Madrid, in the public
diftribution of premiums to artifts in painting, fculpture, ar-
chitefture, ard engraving ; to which I'.ave been added poetry
and eloquence. It is propofcd, in addition to all thefe arts,
to eftablifh an academy, or fcicntific body of muCc.

In the courfe of this lalt canto there is an animated cloge
on Haydn.

" Solo a ta mutr.er, Hayden prodigiofo," &c.

" To thee alone the mufes have confign'd
A genius ever fertile and refin'd ;
So new thy ftrains, fo copioiifly infpir'd.
That curiofity is never tir'd ;
Thy works a thoufand times repeated, ftill
With rapture nev/ experienc'd ears can. fill.

To footh, to calm, or noble deeds infpire.
Thy fancy ftill is fed with heaven's own lire.
In every trait a judge profound can find
Some erace or beauty of a higher kind ;
Exprtflion touching, modulation new.
In themes whicli none but gifted men purfue.

Surrounded by thy countrymen renown'd,
In thee alone the liftening world has found
A power to intereft, and render dear
Each fweet vibration of th' enraptur'd ear.
'I'o diftant climes the happy means convey,
As hght and heat fent forth from folar ray.
And while thefe infpirations wide expand.
Conferring honours on thy native land."

SPAITLA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis, anciently called " Sufetela," reprefented by Dr^
Shaw af. one of the moil remarkable places in Barbary for
the extent and magnificence of its ruins. Here are found a
triumphal arch of the Co'ir.thian order ; a pavement of large
black ftone, with a brea'.l-high parapet on each fide, which
leads from the arch to the city ; a beautiful portico at the
end of the pavement, opening into a fpacious court ; the
ruins of three contiguous temples, cf which the columns,
pediments, and entablatures are entire, &c. &c. Spaitla is
pleafantly fituated upon an eminence, (haded all over with
juniper-trees; no miles S.W. of Tunis. N. lat. 35" lo'.
E. long. 9° 10'.

SPALATRO, a fea-port of Dalmatia, fituated on a
peninfula, with a good harbour ; the fee of an archbifhop.
The harbour is large and deep, and well frequented by
foreign veffels, which come for merchandize from Bofnia,
fuch as iron, hides, wrought copper, wool, blankets, bees-
wax, orpim.ent, filk, cotton. Spalatro is built on the ruins
of Dioclefian's palace, for an account of which fee Salona.
Without the walls is a fulphureous fpiing, ef confidcrable
fervice in chronical difeales. N. lat. 43° 22'. E. long.

16= 45'-

SPALDING, an ancient and refpeftable market-toivn
in the wapentake of Elloe, parts of Holland, and county
of Lincoln, England, is fituated 8 miles W. from Holbeach,
4.1 miles S-E. from Lnicoln, and 101 N. from London.
Being in the midft of a fenny diftridt, and .almoft encompafled
by the river Welland, and an ancient drain called the Well-
lode, and having numerous other drains in its vicinity, Spal-
ding has been, with fome degree of propriety, compared to
a Dutch town. Though thus fituated, and not apparently

SPA

ccfngenial to healthfulnefs, its claim to antiquity is teftified
by many remains difcovered in and about the town. That it
certainly exifted before the foundation of CroylSnd abbey, is
evinced by king Ethelbald's charter to tbatmonattery,defcrib-
ing its bounds as extending " ufque ad aedificia Spaldeling."
Prior to the Conquell the manor was the property of Algar,
eail of Mercia ; but was granted by the conqueror, with the
whole of the divifion of Holland, to his nephew, Ivo Tail-
bois, who erefted a caltle here, of which the moat was to
be diilinguifhed in 1 746, in that part of the Caftle-fields
called Coney Garth. In the year 105 r, Thorold de Bu-
kenhale f(>unded and endowed a priory here, and made it a
cell to Croyland ; but the inhabitants were forced to aban-
don it after the Conqueft, through the oppreflion of Tail-
bois, who about 1074 gave the church and manor to the
abbey of St. Nicholas at Anglers, whence fome BendiAine
monks were fent over, and it became an alien pi lory. It
was in fucceeding times a monaltery of great confequence.
From this place Egelric, abbot of Croy-land, made a firm
caufeway, named Elrick-road, through the mailh called
Arundel foreft, to Deeping, being an extent of twelve miles.
It was formed by driving in piles of wood, which were
covered with gravel. This road is now diftinguifhedby the
name of " The Gravel." The conventual church not being
fufiiciently large, the prior pulled it down in 1284, and built
the prefent parifh church, winch is a light ftruilure, with a
handfome fpire, having crockets at the angles : the porch
appears to have been added about the end of the 15th
century. A free grammar-fchool was eredled in the reign
of Elizabeth, by the will of John Blanch. Another, called
the Petty fchool, was founded in 1682, by Thomas Wel-
lefley ; here is alfo a blue-coat charity-lchool. An alms-
houfe for twenty-two perfons was founded in 1590 ; and
another for eight widows in 1709.

For many centuries Spalding has been the principal feat of
jurifdiftion for the divifion of Holland. In the Saxon times
the courts of law were held here by the earls ; and fubfs-
quent to the Norman Conqueft, the priors were inverted with
thejudicial authority : even capital offences were cognizable
in the conventual court. But at the difiblution of religious
houfes, the power of deciding on life and death was removed
from all fuch inferior courts. Since that time a court of
feffions has been held here ; for which purpofe a town-hall,
or court-houfc, was erected, at the expence of Mr. John
Holftan, at the north-weft end of the market-place ; the
upper rooms are ufed for the quarter-fellions, the courts-
leet and baron, and the courts of requeft and fewers ; the
lower part of the building is let out for (hops, and the rents
appropriated to the ufe of the poor, conformably to the
will of the donor. Spalding, fince the river Welland has
been made navigabie to the town, has had a good carrying
and coafting trade. Barges of about 40 tons burthen come
up to the centre of the town, where are quays and fpacious
ftore-houfes : but velfcls requiring a larger draught come
only to Bofton Scalp, nine miles diftant. Attempts have
been made to introduce manufaftures into Spalding, but
without fuccefs : the town derives its chief fuppoit from
agriculture, and the extenfive grazing carried on in its neigh-
bourhood. Wool confequently form.s a very prominent ar-
ticle in its trade ; and fome of the manufacturing towns of
Yorkfhireand Norfolk are fupplied from hence. A market
is held on Tuefdays, and five fairs annually, befides two
ftatutesfor hiring fervants. In the population return of the
year 181 1, the number of houfes was ftated to be 951 ; the
inhabitants 4330.

A literary fociety was eftabhlhed at Spalding in the begin-
ning of the laft century, under the aufpices of Mr. Maurice

Johnfon,

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Johnfon, an eminent native of this town, on the principle of
that of the antiquaries of London ; to which tranferipts ot
the minutes and records were regularly fent for upwards of
forty years, till the death of Mr. Johnfon, which happened
in 1755.

In the vicinity of Spalding is Ayfcough Fee-Hall, the re-
lidence of Maurice Johnfon, D.D., a defcendant of Mr.
Johnfon above-mentioned. The manfion was built about
1420, but having been altered at different times, exhibits
fcarcely any thing of its original architefture. The prefent
poffeflbr has, however, endeavoured to reftore it to its ancient
charaAer.

At Pinchbeck, about three miles north of Spalding, are
lome confiderable remains of an ancient manfion, formerly
called Pinchbeck-Hall, from a family of that name. Being
afterwards pofleffed by the Otway family, it acquired the
appellation of Otway-Hall. It appears to have been an ex-
tenfive ilrudture, and to have been built about the time of
Henry VIH. It was moated round, and fome of the
windows have pointed lights with fquare heads. The chim-
nies are Angularly lofty, and the gable ends have at the fides
and centres, fpire-fhaped ornaments, crowned with ornamental
balls. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lincoln-
fliire, by J. Britton, F.S.A.

SPALES, Cross-spales, in Ship-Building, are deals or
Tir-planks, nailed in a temporary manner to the frames of
file fhip, at a certain height, and by which the frames are
kept to their proper breadths, until fome of the deck-knees
are faltened. The main and top-timber-breadths are the
heights frequently taken for fpahng the frames, but that of
the gun-declc ports ib much better ; yet this may be thought
too high, if the (hip is long in building.

SPALETHRA, or Spai.athra, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town of Greece, in Theflaly. Steph. Byz. Scy-
Jax Hates it to be a maritime town of Magnefia.

SPALMADORI, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
Grecian Archipelago, between the ifland of Scio and the
continent of Afia. N. lat. 38° 36'. E. long. 26° 7'.

SPALT, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Aich-
ilat ; 16 miles E.S.E. of Anfpach. N. lat. 49° 7'. E.
long. 10° 52'.

SPAN, a meafure taken from the fpace between the
tluimb's end and the tip of tiie little finger, when both are
flretchcd out.

The fpan is eftimated at three hands' breadths, or nine
inches.

Span, in Rigging, a fliort rope, having a block, thimble,
or eye, fpliced into each end : the middle is hitched round
a mad, yard, gaff, cap, or flay, from whence the ends
branch out. Spans are fometimcs fallcned at both ends, and
a block, &c. in the bight. They arc ufed to lead ropes
through, which pafs through blocks or thimbles, to incrcafe
power, or to prevent their fwinging about. Spanning of
booms, is confining them by fcveral turns of rope. Span-
ning of runners, is taking feveral turns with fmall rope round
both runners, abaft the mail, and frapping the turns.

SfAN-Shaci/e, a bolt having a large ring in the head
of it.

SPANANTHE, in Botany, a genus of umbelliferous
plants, received by Jacquin from die Caraccas, and fo
Banned by him, from o-Tavof, rare, and a»0o:, ajlower, becaufc
•f the fcarcity of this tribe in tropical countries. — Jacq.
Coll. V. 5. 248. Sprengfl Umbellif. Prodr. 34. — Clafs and
crder, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. UmlelUfert.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Umbel fimple, of feveral rays ; involu-
crum of fcveral lanceolate leaves ; perianth of five ovate,
acute, permanent leaves. Car. Untverfal uniform ; all the

Vol. XXXIII.

SPA

flowers perfe£l and fertile ; partial of five lanceolate, in.
flexed petals, channelled at the back. Stam. Filaments five,
awl-fhaped, ereft, about as long as the petals ; anthers
roundifh, of two lobes. Pijl. Germen inferior, ovate, ra-
ther comprefled, with two lateral furrows, prominent, blunt
and divided at the fummit ; ilyles two, awl-fhaped, divari-
cated, fhorter than the ftamens ; lligmas fimple. Peric,
none ; fruit ovate, folid, tranfverfely divifible into two
parts. Seeds two, five-ribbed, contracted at their conjunc-
tion, convex at their fides.

Eff. Ch. Umbel fimple. Involucrum of many leaves.
Perianth of five permanent leaves. Petals undivided. Fruit
oblong-ovate, folid. Seeds five-ribbed ; contrafted at their
conjunftion ; convex at the fides.

I. S. paniculata. Panicled Spananthe. Jacq. Coll. v. 3,
247. Ic. Rar. t. 350. (Hydrocotyle Spananthe; Willd
Sp. PI. v. I. 1363, Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 118.) — Native
of the Caraccas, according to Jacquin. It was alfo found
in moift places near Lima, by Dombey, one of whofe fpe-
cimens, under the name of Phellandrium ciliatum, was given
to the younger Linnaeus. We received a living one from the
flove at Kew, in Oftober 1790, an earlier period by five
years, than- is marked for the introduftion of this curious
plant by Mr. Aiton. The root is biennial, confifting of
many fibres. Stem from one to tiiree feet high, eredt,
branched, leafy, round, ftriated, fmooth, hollow ; fome-
times partly zigzag. Leaves alternate, on long Ifalks, fim-
ple, triangular, or fomewhat heart-fliaped, from one to three
inches broad, pointed, copioufly ferrated ; entire at the
bafe ; reticulated with numerous veins, which, on the upper
fide efpecially, bear a greater or lefs number of brillly
hairs ; the under fide is paler and nearly fmooth. The in-
fertion of the footflalk is marked with a tuft of briftly hairs.
Stipulas oblong, membranous, fringed, united to the bafe of
the footftalk. Umbels fimple, fmall, on long fl;alks, va-
rioufly coUefted into branched panicles, or fometimes irre-
gular compound umbels, accompanied by ovate, or lanceo-
late, ferrated bra&eas. Petals white, inflexed, and partly
heart-lhaped ; by no means fo flat and fpieading as in Jac-
quin's figure, from whence his defcription feems to be taken.
We have not feen the ripe fruit, and have therefore been
obliged to form our defcription thereof from Jacquin and
Sprengel. The latter, in the Prodromus of his new arrange-
ment of the Umbelliferx, of which we hope to fpeak here-
after, in its proper place, has widely feparatcd this plant
hovR Hydrocotyle ; and we have already, fee Hyukocgtvi.k,
n. 13, hinted a doubt on this fubjcdt, which was fuggellcd
by the very different habit of Spananthe. But furely the
learned author lalt named has widely erred, in clafling Hy-
drocotyle among the genera with comprefled flat fruit, like
Tordylium, Herackum, &c. Its fruit indeed is comprefled,
but tranfverfely, not laterally, fo as not to differ in tliat re-
fpedt from the prefent genus ; which, however, appears to
us fufficiently marked by its large and permanent perian-
thium, to fay nothing of the more oblong, and not femi-ur-
bicular, fliape of its feeds. If we were furninicd witfi thefe
in a perfeft ilate, we fhould probably find othiT dillinftive
charatters.

SPANCEL, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a
rope to tie a cow's hinder legs while milking, &c.

SPANDAU, in Biography, a very pleafing and extraor-
dinary performer on the Frencii horn, in the fervice of the
lladtholder at the Hague in 1772, who in 1773 came t<i
England, where he was lieard with the greattll pleafurc.
He contrived 'n his performance fo to correft I lie natural
imperfedtions of the horn, as to make it a chamber inflru-
ment. He played in all keys, with an equality of tone, and
3 L »»

SPA

as much accuracy of intonation in the chromatic notes, aa
could be done on a violin ; by which mean?, and his deli-
cacy, tafte, and exprelhon, he rendered an inllrument which,
from its force and coarfenefs, could formerly be only fup-
ported in the open air, in theatres, or fpacious buildings,
equally foft and pleafing with the fweetelt human voice.' In
1783 fome exquifite pieces for the horn of his compofition
were circulated in MS. from the German and Dutch mufie-
Ihops ; but we believe they were never printed.

Span'DAU, in Geography, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Middle Mark, fituated on the Havel, at its union with the
Spree. This town, though not large, is both tlouriftiing
and populous, with a confiderable foundery of arms ; 1 1
miles N.E.of Potfdam. N. lat. 52° 33'. E. long. 13° 11'.
SPANDEN, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ; 14 miles
E. of Holland.

SPANDONCEA, in Botany, a genus fo called by pro-
feflbr Desfontaines, in honour of M. van Spaendonck, botani-
cal draughtfman at the Royal Garden of Paris. This genus
had previoufly been named in Italy Panciatica, and originally
by ForflidU Cadia ; which lad appellation, though of Ara-
bian origin, has been retained. See Cadi.4.

SPANDRIL, in Architeduri, the open fpace between
the outward moulding of an arch, from its impoft to the
horizontal member or line which furmounts it.

SPANGENBERG, in Geography, a town of the prin-
cipality of Helle CafTel ; 17 miles S.E. of Call'el. N. lat.
51° 8'. E. long. 9° 36'.

SPANGLES for Paper-hangings. See V AP^R-hangings .
SPANHEIM, Frederic, in Biography, an eminent theo-
logical profeflbr, was born in 1600, at Amberg, in the Upper
Palatinate, where his father held an office in theeleftoral court.
He ftudied at Heidelberg and Geneva, and in 1621 engaged
himfelf as preceptor in the family of the governor of Am-
brun, in Dauphine, where he remained three years. From
thence he pafTed to Paris, and afterwards paid a vifit to
England, and returning to Geneva, he obtained a chair of
philofophy in the college in 1626. Soon after this he was
admitted a miniftar, and in 1631 he fucceeded M. B. Tur-
retin in the profedorfliip of theology at Geneva. The re-
putation which he acquired in the exercife of this office pro-
cured him various invitations, and having accepted one from
the univerfity of Leyden, he removed thither in 1642. In
this fituation he augmented his former reputation, as well by
his leftures and fermons, as by the works which he compofed.
He paiTed a very laborious life, and died in the 50th year of
his age. He was fuppofed to have (hortened his days by
the greatnefs of his labours, which are thus defcribed.
" He gave public leftures in theology four times a week,
and private lectures of different kinds to his pupils ; he
examined candidates, and preached in two languages, viz.
the German and the French : he was accuftomed frequently
to vifit the fick, wrote a vail number of letters, and would
compofe, at the fame time, two or three books on different
fubjedls : he aflilled every Wednefday at the prince of
Orange's council at the Hague, and was reftor of the uni-
verfity. Amidft all thefe various occupations, he found
leifure to keep the accounts of his houfe, which was always
well filled with boarders." Spanheim was a man of great
learning and capacity, and he is thus charafterized by Sau-
maife, who felt no love for him. " He had a ilrong head,
well filled with erudition : he was fitted for bufinefs, firm,
ardent, and induftrious. He was a rigid opponent of all
that he regarded as innovation in doftrine ; and readily en-
tered into controverfy, not only with the enemies, but with
the friends of the church, w^hen he fufpedled that they de-
viated from orthodoxy." He never, it is faid, fuffered phi-

SPA

lofophy to intrude into the myfteries of theology, but ex-
erted all efforts to keep the latter uncontaminated. His
works were very numerous, and on divers fubje&s : fomc
were political, as " Le Soldat Suedois," compofed at the
requelt of the Swedifh ambaffador ; " Mercure Suilfe ;"
" Commentaire hillorique de la Vie et de la Mort de Chrif-
tople, Vicomte de Dhona ;" " Memoires fur la PrincefTe
Louife Juliane, Eleftrice Palatine." Thefe were all pub-
lifhed without his name : of his theological works, the prin-
cipal is one on " Univerfal Grace ;" "Dubia Evangelica ;"
" Epiftola ad Buchananum de controverfiis Ecclefia: Angli-
cans ;" " De Autore Epiltolse ad Hebnos."

Spanheim, Frederic, fecond fon of the preceding, was
born at Geneva in 1632, was likewife a profefTor of theo-
logy of high reputation. He lludied under his father at
Leyden, and began his career as a preacher in 1652, and by
his overbearing eloquence, excited the jealoufy of Alexan-
der More, then famous in the L^nited Provinces. Receiving
an invitation from the eleftor-palatine to occupy the chair of
theology at Heidelberg, he took the degree of D.D. at
Leyden in 1655, and then took poffeffion of his port. He
acquired the elteem and confidence of the eleftor ; and it is
tothe honour of both, that he did not forfeit them when he
was the only perfon who ttrongly and firmly oppofed that
prince's defign of divorcing his wife, and remarrying. He
received invitations from ieveral other univcrfities, and ac-
cepted that from Leyden in 1670, when he was made pro-
fellor of theology and facred hiltory, in performing the du-
ties of which he acquired a very high reputation. His life
was difquieted by fome controverfies in which he engaged,
and into which none fliould enter who have not ilrong nerves,
that will bear to be ailailcd by the weapons of an enemy.
For feveral years before his death he was allowed to omit his
duties as letlurer, in order that he might devote his whole
time to learned writings. Thefe were fo numerous, that
when coUefted, they filled three volumes in folio, which
were printed at Leyden in 1701-3 ; in the former of thefe
years the learned profeflor died. Among his works the
moft erteemed is a fummary of ecclefiaftical hiftory of the
1 6th century.

Spanheim, Ezekiel, an eminent fcholar and ftatefman,
eldell fon of Frederic, was born at Geneva in 1 629. He
accompanied his father to Leyden in 1642, when he was
already far advanced in the knowledge of the learned lan-
guages, and he foon acquired the efleem both of Saumaife
and Helvetius, who at this period were refidents in that
univerfity. In 1651 he was nominated profefTor of the
belles lettres at Geneva, and in the following year was ad-
mitted into the great council. His high reputation caufed
him foon after to be invited by the emperor to fuperintend
the education of his only fon, and in this fituation he ap-
phed himfelf to gain a thorough knowledge of the public law
of Germany. Having obtained leave to travel into Italy, he
was charged by his mailer to watch over the political in-
trigues of the Catholic eleftors at Rome ; and at the fame
time he made himfelf acquainted with the fcience of medals
and clafTical antiquity. While out on this tour he was intro-
duced to the celebrated Christina (fee her article), then
refiding at Rome, who favoured him with a gracious recep-
tion, and alfo to the ftill more illuilrious lady Sophia, eleftrefs
of Hanover, who brought him back with her to Heidel-
berg in 1665. The eleftor-palatine, then engaged in va-
rious other projefts, permitted Spanheim to enter into the
fervice of the eleftor of Brandenburg, for whom he refided
nine years in the quahty of envoy-extraordinary. On his
return to Berlin he was made one of the minifters of tha
ftate, and at the peace of Ryfwick, he was deputed again

to

SPA

SPA

to France. The eleftor, being now acknowledged king of
PrufTia, conferred upon M. Spanheim the title of baron,
and fent him in the charafter of extraordinary minifter to
queen Anne of England. He was received at her court
with all the refpeft and honour due to his merit, and was, on
account of liis talents, clefted fellow of the Royal Society.
He died in this country, at the age of 8i. It is faid of this
author, that he filled his diplomatic charafter as if he were
entirely detached from letters, and his literary charafter as if
he had no concern with politics. His erudition was folid
and extenfive, of which he gave various proofs in his
writings. The earlielt of thefe were either theological or
juridical ; but he is bed known as an antiquarian and critic.
" His work," fays his biographer, " entitled ' De Ufu et
Preftantia Numifmatum Antiquorum,' in two volumes folio,
is accounted one of the bell treatifes that ever appeared on
the medallic fcience." His tranflation into French of the
" CKfars," of the emperor Julian, with illuftrations ; his edi-
tion of the fame work, with a preface and notes ; and his ob-
fervations on Callimachus and other authors, with fome dif-
fertations on^fubjefts of antiquity in the colleftion of Grx-
vius, are reckoned extremely valuable contributions to criti-
cal literature. The wife of this learned profeffor, who died
the year before him, was worthy to be his partner, from her
extraordinary acquifitions, being miftrefs of various Ian-
guages, and well acquainted with the philofophy of the
ancients.

SPANIARD'S Bay, in Geography, a bay on the E.
coaft of the ifland of Cape Breton. — Alfo, a bay on the N.
coall of the fame ifland. N. lat. 46" 15'. W. long.
60° 20'.

SPANIEL, HiSPANiOLUS, or Canis A-vlcularhts of Lin-
naeus, a variety of the Canis famUiaris, a fpecies of dog ufed
in fowling. See Dog.

From the name, it may be fuppofed that we were in-
debted to Spain for this breed. There are two varieties
of this kisd ; the firll formerly ufed in liawking to fpring
the game, the fame with our Itarters ; the others ufed
only for the net, and formerly called index, or fetter.
This kingdom has been remarkable for producing dogs
of this fort, particular care having been taken to preferve
the breed in the utmoft purity. They are diltinguiflied by
the name of Englifh fpanicls ; fo that, notwithllanding
the derivation of the name, it is more than probable they
are natives of Great Britain.

The pointer, which is a dog of foreign extraftion, was
unknown to our anceltors.

The aquaticus, or finder, in Dr. Caius's fyftematic ar-
rangement (fee Dog), was the fame with our water fpaniel,
and ufed to find or recover the game that was loll.

The fpaniel is of great ufc, but fubjeft to many dillem-
pers ; among thefe the mange is a very frequent one, and
is the moll pernicious of all others to his quiet and his
beauty ; and is very apt, when one dog has it, to (pread to
others that come in its way. As a remedy for tiiis dilcafe,
fome have recommended a decoftion of a large quantity of
brimllone, with fome common fait and wood-alhes, in water
and urine, of each equal quantities : this is to be ufed three
or four times a day, walhing the creature well with it before
the fire, or in the warm fun. If this is not llrong enough,
the lame ingredients, with the addition of a confiderable
quantity of wood-foot, are to be boiled in ftrong vinegar,
and the liquor uled in the fame manner; but this mull
never be ufed in cold weather, as it would then endanger
the creature's life.

Wlrcn this difeafe is not in a violent degree, it may be
cured by the herb agrimony internally taken. The method

is to pound the roots, leaves, and feeds of this plant in a
mortar, and mix them with a large quantity of wheaten-
bran ; they are to be then made into dough in the common
way, and baked in an oven ; the dog is to have no other
bread but this for fome time, but he is to eat of this as
often and as much as he will : this, without any further care,
has cured many. See Difeajes of Dogs, under Dog.

Another very troublelome diforder in this creature, is
what is called \.\k formica : this in fells only the ears, and
is caufed by flies, and by the dog's fcratching for tliem.
The bell medicine for the cure of thefe is this ; take a
quantity of pure and clean gum tragacanth, infufe it in
white-wine vinegar ; let as much vinegar be ufed as will
ferve to foften it, and when it has lain a week in it, let it
be taken out and ground on a marble, as the painters grind
their colours, adding to it rock-alum and galls, reduced to
powder, of each two ounces ; all this is to be well mixed
together, and the matter, if it grows too llift in the grind-
ing, is to be moillened with fome of the vinegar in which
the gum was foaked : when all is thoroughly mixed, and
ground fine, it is to be put in a pallypot, and a fmall
quantity of it applied to the creature's ear every night, till
the complaint is removed.

The fwelling of the throat is another difeafe very com-
mon to fpaniels, but the cure of this is eafy ; there needs
only to bathe it well with oil of chamomile, and afterwards
wa(h it with a mixture of vinegar and fait ; this done night
and morning, will, in a fe^v days, wholly remove the com-
plaint. Spaniels will fometimes, when they have much reit
and good food, lofe their fenfe of fmelling, but this is reco-
vered by a brillv purge and repeated airings ; a very common
dole, on this occafion, is a drachm of jalap, and two draclmis
of fal gem, mixed up into a bolus with oxyracl of fquiUs :
this is to be rubbed over with fome butter, and will be got
down in that manner pretty eafily, and will work brilkly.
Spaniel, Gentle. See Lap-doo.

SPANISH jlcademy, Bible, Black, Brown, Coinage,
Coins, Epocha, Inquifilion, Language, Meafures, Order,
Plough, Silk, Soap, Wax, and ll/'hite. See each article, and
Spain.

Spanish, or Lijhon, Bean, in /IgricuUure, the common
name of a particular fort of bean, which is fmallcr than the
long pod kuid, but which ripens about the fame time, and is
very produftive. See Bean.

Spanish Broom, in Botany. See Spartium.
Span'isu Chefnut, in Planting, a tree of the deciduous
timber kind. See Ciie.sni;t-'/>(v.

This is a moll valuable fort of tree, as it afford-, in a
quick, fpeedy, aiid abundant manner, the bell fort of hop.
pole that has yet beeii met with, and which far furpades
that of the afli, being confiderably more durable,
Spanish Elm, in Botany. See Cokdia.
Spanish Flits. See Canthahides.
Spanish Juice. See Liquorice.

Spanish Potatoes, in Gardening, the common name of a
plant producing white, tuberous, eatable roots, fomewhal
like large kidney potatoes of the fame colour, and of a
fwcetilh talle. 'I'hey are ufually brought here from Spain.
See CoNVoi.vi.LUS.

Spanish Sheep, in ylgriculture, a breed of very fine (hort-
wooUcd Iheep, originally imported into this country from
Spain. Sec Sheep.

Spanish IVindlafs. See Windlass.
Spanish IVool. See Sheep and Wool.
Sp.vnisii Cove, in Geography, a creek at the weftern ex-
tremity of the county ot Cork, Ireland, between Crook-
havcji and Mizcn Point.

3 L 2 Sfanish

SPA

Spanish Cnci, a river of Florida,, which runs into the
river St. Mary.

Spanish Main, that part of the Atlantic ocean which
wafhes the N. part of South America, from the Leeward
iflands to the ifthmus of Darien. The term is alfo applied
to the coaft.

Spanish Point, a cape on the N.E. coaft of the iflandof
St. Vincent. N. lat. 13° 24'. W. long. 61° 12'.

Spanish River, a river and fettlement on the ifland of
Cape Breton.

Spanish Town, or St. Jago de la Vega, a fea-port town
of Middlefex county, and capital of the ifland of Jamaica,
fituated on the banks of the river Cobre, about fix miles
from the fea, and containing between 500 and 600 houfes,
and about 5000 inhabitants, including free people of colour.
It is the refidence of the governor, or commander-in-chief,
who is accommodated with a fuperb palace; and here the
legiflature is convened, and the court of chancery and the
fupreme court of judicature are held. N. lat. iS'" l'. W.
long. 76° 44'. See Jamaica.

Spanish Town, or Virgin Gorda, one of the Virgin
iflands in the Weft Indies, called alfo Pennilton, belonging
to the Englifh, and having two good harbours. N. lat.
iS'' 20'. W. long. 63° 48'. See Virgin JJlands.

SPANN, in Commerce, a corn-meafure of Sweden ; two
fpanns being equal to a Tunna ; which fee.

SPANNBERG, in Geography, a town of Auftria ;
5 miles S. of Zifterzdorff.

SPANNER, in Rural Economy, the name of a wrench or
nut fcrew-driver, which is often very ufeful for the farmer.

SPAR, in Mineralogy, a name given by working miners
in England to all cryllallized minerals which have a fliining
lultre : it is fynonimous whh /path, from the German.

The obfervation that fpar is continually formed at this
time in caves and grottoes under ground, has given birth
to many different conjeftures as to the origin of that fub-
ftance. We have accounts from Switzerland, and other
places, that the fnow, by long lying on the earth, and
being fubjeA to repeated freezing, is at length hardened
into fpar : this is much of the nature of that opinion of the
ancient^s concerning cryftal, that it was water frozen by
fevere colds to a fort of ice, much harder than the common
kind : both are equally erroneous and abfurd. But more
rational conjeAures, as to its original, are, that it is pro-
duced either by effluvia alone, or by the joint force of
effluvia iffuing up from the depths of the earth, and mixing
with water oozing out of rocks into their cracks and
cavities, or by the fame water or effluvia pafling through
beds of this fparry matter contained in clay. In the firft
place, we are to obferve, that fpar is capable of being
diffolved cither by water or vapour, and fufpended im-
perceptibly in either ; and that though it remains fufpended
a long time, yet there are occafions of its feparating itfelf
from either of thefe vehicles ; fuch are long ftanding ftill,
and evaporation. What is called the growth and formation
of fpar, therefore, is properly perhaps only the change of
place in this fubltance ; and all that thefe agents, waters
and vapours do, is only to wafli it out of the itrata of
earth or (lone, in which it lay in fcattered particles, and
bring it together into the cracks and crevices of ftones,
where it may again feparate itfelf, and become more pure
and perfeft.

The operation of nature, in this cafe, is very like that of
art in extrafting of falts from the various bodies they
are mixed with ; and fpar, in its two ftates, when blended
in the ftrata of ftone. Sec. and when pure, and in form of
cryftals in the cracks, may be compared to alum, for

SPA

inftance, in its bed, and when purified. The alum, in th*
common ftones from which it is made, is not perceptible
to the eye, but lies in fcattered particles ; water being
added to this, takes up the fait, and when it has been
managed by evaporation and reft, yields it again purified
and alone, and it forms fuch cryftals on the fides of the
veflel as the other does on the fides of the fiftures of
ftone, which are the veffels where the water, out of which it
was formed, was fet to evaporate, and to reft a proper time.

That fome fpars grow from vapours alone is evident,
from the ftalaftitse, or ftony icicles, hanging down from
the roofs of our caverns, which, though they grow down-
wards, yet have many times little plants of the fame fub-
ftance growing out at their fides, and ftanding upwards,
contrary to the growth of the other, and evidently formed
of the matter feparated from the vapours in their afcent,
as the ftalaftitx themfelves are from fuch as have afcended
to the roof, and there been condenfed into water, and fent
down again in drops. Nor is the fparry matter alone thus
raifed in vapour, for even the metals, and other bodies as
little likely as thofe to be thus raifed, yet are found to form
ftalaftitx.

The mundics, in general, though they never form regular
ftalaftito?, yet often are found adhering to the fides of them,
and the metals, particularly iron and lead, form regular
ftalaftitEE ; the iron ones very common and very perfett ;
the lead lefs perfeft and more rare ; and Dr. Brown gives us
abundant inltanccs of fpars growing entirely from vapours
in the baths of Buda in Hungary.

Mr. Beaumont is of opinion, that earth by degrees will
ripen into fpar ; but this is an error. He founds his opinion
on certain ftalaftits, and ftalagmits, found in caverns,,
partly earth, and partly fpar, and fuppofes that the whole
would in time become fpar ; but there is nothing in nature
to warrant this conjefture. Phil. Tranf. N° 129.

M. de Juflieu has given us, in the Memoirs of the Paris
Academy, a very remarkable account of the recryftalliza-
tion, or reproduftion, of the parts of fpar, after iolution.
Mem. Acad. Paris, 17 19.

The denomination of fpars, fays the editor of the Che-
mical Diftionary, is given to many ftones of different pro-
perties and appearances, which do not poffefs conftantly
any one common charafter or mark, by which they
may be certainly diltinguifhed from other ftones. In
general, we may obferve, that they are moft frequently
found in mines, and that they generally confift of fmooth
and fliining plates or laminx ; that fome are tranfparent,
and others opaque ; that fome are colourlefs and others
coloured ; that they are cryftallized in various determinate
figures, or poffefs no determinate Ihape ; and, laftly, that
they differ fo much in hardnefs, denfity, degree of fufibility,
and in their moft eflential chemical properties, that they
cannot be eonfidered as forming a diftinft clafs of foflile
fubrtances.

The feveral ftones to which the name of fpar has been
given are, the calcareous, the gypfeous, the fluors, and felt-
fpar. Calcareous fpars are foft heavy ftones, which have
the common chemical properties of calcareous earth. The
texture is laminated, fome of them have no determinate
figure, and others from their form are called rhomboidal.
Some fpars, called dog's-tooth fpars, have a pyramidal
figure ; but when thefe are broken, their fragments ftiew
that they alfo confift of rhomboidal particles. Some rhom-
boidal fpars are tranfparent, others are opaque ; fome are
colourlefs, and others are coloured ; and fome of them have
a property of doubly refrafting the rays of light : this fpar
has been called refrafting fpar, or ifland cryftal. Its figure

SPA

SPA

is that of an oblique parallelepiped, contained within fix pa-
rallelogrammic fides, and eight folid angles. Each of the
obtufe angles of the parallelograms is I0I°52'; and each
of the acute angles is 78' 8'. Thefe calcareous fpars may
be diilinguifhed from others by effervefcing with acids.

The gypfeous, or felenitic fpars, are gypfeous earth,
dillinttly cryilallized. The form of the cryftals is rhom-
boidal. They are alfo called felenites and glacies Mariae.
Thele fpars fometimes aflume other forms, and are very

'leavy.

Mr. Margraaf has fliewn, that under this clafs are to be
comprehended thofe white opaque fpars, which by calcina-
tion with inflammable matters are capable of receiving a
phofphoric quality, fimilar to uiat of the Bolognian ilone,
which he alfo (hews is a gypfeous fpar. For the fpars called
fluors, fee Fluou.

The feltfpar, or fpatiim fc'tniUlans, differs from all the
preceding, in being fo hard as to be capable of ftriking
ignited Iparks from Iteel. For which reafon it is referred
by Croniledt to the filiceous clafs of earths, and by him
called rhombic quartz, becaufe the particles of which it con-
iill feem to be parallelepipeds, each of which is contained
\vithin fix rhomboidal fides. Its colours are various, white,
i^rey, and red.

Several other foflile fubftances confift of large plates, and
are, therefore, faid to have a fparry texture. Such are fome
kinds of talcs, of hornblende, of quartz, of amianthus, and
fome calciform ores of metals.

Spars, in Medicine, have from the earliefl; times been
recommended in nephritic complaints. Some have ufed one
kind, fome another, as the lapis judaicus, the fparry in-
crultations of caverns, petrified oyiter-fhells, and water in
which large quantities of fpar are fuilained. After all,
the nephritic virtues of fpar want fufficient proof; fome
even fufpeft its ufe to be more hurtful than beneficial. See
Crystal.

SPARADRAP, Spauaduapom, in Pharmacy, &c. an
ancient name for a kind of lear.cloth ; or a linen-cloth
fmeared on both fides with fome kind of plafter, or un-
guent.

The fparadrap is fometimes alfo called tela Gualteriana, or
tela Gualterl ; fometimes lela emplajl'tca.

It is prepared by melting a lufficient quantity of fome
plafter or unguent, and dipping a linen-cloth therein, till
fuch time as it hath imbibed its fill. It is then taken out,
cooled, and polifhed on a marble.

SPARAGUS, or Asparagus, ^/i^z-iTf?, in Botany. See

AsPAK.'VGUS.

SPARAXIS, fo named by Mr. Gawler, now Ker Bel-
lenden, from i77rotf x|i , a tearing, or plucking, in allufion to
the torn appearance of the (heath, which makes a principal
part of the generic charaftcr. — Ker in Sims and Kon. Ann.
of Bot. V. I. 225. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 85. — Clafs and
order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Knfatic, Linn.
Irides, .lulT.

Gen. Ch. Cut. Sheath inferior, of two membranout,
dry, unequal, clalping valve?, torn and (hrivelled at the ex-
tremity. Cor. of one pet.il, fuperior ; tube funnel-(haped,
(lender at the bale ; limb dilated, in fix fegments, either
regular or irregular, fpreading or partly ercft. Slam. Fila-
ments three, inferted into the upper part of the tube, thread-
fliaped, ftraight, a little incliniHg, rarely afcending, much
(horter than the limb ; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pijl.
Germen triangular; (lyle thread-(hapcd ; (ligmas three,
fpreading, recurved, oblong, downy. Peric. Capfuleroundifli-
oblong, full of unequal Iwcllings, thin, of three ceils and
three valvc3. Seeds numerous, globofc.

E(r. Ch. Sheath of two valves, membranous, dry,,
jagged. Corolla tubular. Stigmas three, oblong, recurved.
Capfule roundilh-oblong, tumid.

Obf. The charafter of this genus chiefly depends on its

/heath, which is large, and exhibits its dillinftive marks, as
above defcribed, fufficiently clearly. The limb of the corolla
is cither regular and fpreading, or converging downwards,
or two-lipped, with an eredl nood ; in which lalt cafe the

Jlamens z.nAJlyle are upright, otherwife fpreading, or inclin-
ing. The tulb is folid, ovate, pointed, clothed with reticu-
lated fcales. The_y?fmmoft frequently bears axillary bulbous
buds. Leaves from fix to ten, fword-fhaped, with fine pa-
rallel ribs. Flowers rather large, and fomewhat diftant
from each other ; never crowded or numerous. Ker.

1. S. anemonijlora. Large White Sparaxis. Ker n. i.
(Ixia amemoniHora; Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 200. Jacq. Ic.
Rar. t. 273.) — Stem lingle-flowered, as tall as the leaves.
Corolla regular ; its fegments obovate, four times as long
as the tube. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Culti-
vated by Jacquin. Tlie^y^i-m is about a foot high, fimple,
oblique, with five or fix leaves at the bottom only, which
are linear and glaucous, the longed of them nearly equal to
the ftem. Flower two inches in diameter, pure white, with
yellow anthers ; its tube equal to ihejheath, which meafuret
about a quarter of an inch.

2. S. .fragrans. Sweet Yellow Sparaxis. Ker n. 2.
(Ixia fragrans; Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 197. Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t. 274.) — Stem ufually two-flowered, Ihorter than the re-
curved leaves. Corolla regular ; its fegments elliptic-lanceo-
late, thrice as long as the tube. — Native of the Cape. Cul-
tivated by Jacquin. Stem a fpan high, leafy. Leaves linear,
narrow, green, about twice the length of the ftem, all more
or lefs recurved. Flowers about half the fize of the fore-
going, yellow, with white trany-c\ehjheaths.

3. S. tricolor. Three-coloured Sparaxis. Ker n. 3. Ait.
n. I. (Ixia tricolor; Curt. Mag. t. 381. Schneevogt. Ic.
t. 39. Redout. Lihac. t. 129.) — Stem two or three-
flowered, taller than the ereft lanceolate leaves. Corolla
regular ; its fegments obovate, twice the length of the tube.

Sheath corrugated, (potted Native of the Cape, from

whence it was introduced into the Dutch gardens, and
thence into ours. It flowers, like the reft of its family, in
the frame or greenhoufe, about May. The foliage is green.
Flowers peculiarly fplendid, as large as the firft fpecies ;
their tube and bafe of the limb yellow ; middle of the limb
marked with an angular, or arrow. fliaped, dark purple, or
chocolate-coloured, fpot ; all beyond it of an orange Icarlet.
The Jheaths arc wrinkled, furrowed, brown, copioully dotted
with a darker tint.

4. S. guleala. Hooded Fle(h -coloured Sparaxis. Ker
n. 4. (Gladiolus galeatus ; Jacq. Coll. v. 4.. 167. Ic. Rar.
t. 258. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 1. 212, excluding moft of the
fynonyms.) — Corolla irregular; its upper fegment fpread-
ing. Leaves elliptic-oblong. — Native of the Cape : culti-
vated by Jacquin. Thcjhm is leafy, a fpan high. Leaves
equitant, vertical, broad, many-ribbed, and obtufe. Flowers
about three, flefll-colourcd or pale purphdi ; the lower lip
yellow : the upper legmeiit, or hood, is remarkably divari-
cated. Perhaps the irregularity of the corolla would rather
authorize the referring this and the following, as moft au-
thors have done, to Gladiolus, near our fourth fpecies of
that genus. See Gladioi.ls.

5. S. iicolor. Purple and Yellow Sparaxis. Ker n. J.
Alt. n. 2. (Ixia biculor; Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 348. Gladio-
lus bicolor ; Thunb. Did. n. 16. t. 2. i. i. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. I. 216. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 240.) — Corolla irregular; its
fegmente converging. Leaves lanceolate, — From the fame

country.

SPA

country. Introduced at Kew in 1786, by Mr. Mad'on.
The leaves are narrower, and more acute, than in the latt.
Flowers three or four, with ipolteAfieaths ; their tube, and
two lateral fegments, pale yellow, or whitift ; hood purple ;
lip deep yellow. ■ -.r e:

6. S. trandtflora. Large-flowered Sparaxis. Ker n. 6.
Ait n. 2. (Ixiagrandiflora; DelaRocheDiff. 23. Curt.
Ma<r. t. ?4I. Redout. Lil'.ac. t. 139. I. ariftata ; Thunb.
Diff. n, 15. Ait. ed. :. v. i. 57. WiDd. Sp. PI. v i
203. Andr. Repof. t. 87. I. folns gladiolatis, &c. ; Mill.
ic. t. 237. f. 3. I. uniflora ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 283. I. ho-
lofericea; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. i. 9. t. 17.)

(S. Curt. Mag. t. 779.

Corolla regular ; its fegments obovate-oblong, tour times
the length of the tube. Stamens and ilyle inclining. Sheath
with many awl-lhaped fegments. Leaves ereft, lanceolate.
Native of the Cape. Long fince cultivated in the gar-
dens of Europe. The Jlem is about a foot high, bearing
ufually three or four hzudhme powers ; fometimes but one.
Leaves equitant, fcarcely glaucous, ufually much fhorter
than the ftem. Sheaths Uriated, ending in many lax taper
feijments, of their own length. Corolla full two inches
wide ; ufually of a rich deep fatin-like purple, edged with
white, aiid paler beneath ; but in the variety-/?, it is whitifh,
or fulphur-coloured, with fome central fpots, on the upper
fide ; violet beneath. It mud be allowed that authors have
multiplied figures of this fpecies in a molt blameable manner.

7. S. luliifera. Bulb-bearing Sparaxis. Ker n. 7. Ait.
n. 4. (Ixia bulbifera; Linn. Sp. PI. 51. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 1. 204. Andr. Repof. t. 48. Curt. Mag. t. 545. Re-
dout. Liliac. t. 128. Ixia foliis linearibus glabris, caule
foliofo bulbifero; Mill. Ic. t. 236. f. 2.) — Corolla regular;
its fegments elliptical, acute, four times the length of the
tube. Stamens inclining. Sheath deeply torn. Leaves
ereft, lanceolate. Stem bulbiferous, fomewhat branched. —
From the fame country as the laft, and knovi'n as long in
our gardens. It is taller than that fpecies, with paler leaves.
The Jlem is generally branched and leafy, bearing a few
bulbs at each joint, by which the plant may be increafed.
Each branch ufually bears two iiiizntjlo'zvers, rather fmaller
than the foregoing, but with the fame filky afpeft, though
their colour is an uniform pale yellow, or white ; and their
fegments are more acute.

8. S. Jimbrhita. Fringed Sparaxis. Ker n. 8. (Ixia
fimbriata ; Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 339. I. foliis gladiolatis
nervofis, &c.; Mill. Ic. t. 237. f. I, 2.) — Corolla regular;
its fegments elliptical, obtufe, four times as long as the tube.
Stamens ereft ? Sheath deeply torn. Leaves ereft, bluntifh,

about as tall as the fimple, zigzag, three-flowered ftem

Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Cultivated by Miller.
We adopt this fpecies, (though omitted by Mr. Dryander
in Ait. Hort. Kew.) on the authority of the authors quoted,
for we have had no opportunity of inveftigating it. Its
humble growth, and the abruptnefs of the leaves, feem to
indicate a fpecific difference from the two lait. The Jlem
bears no bulbs, and is quite fimple ; leafy at the bafe only.
Floiuers large ; white or yellowifli above ; tinged with violet
beneath. Miller reprefents holh Jlyle znA Jlamens ereft, but
we dare not implicitly rely on this. The Jbealhs are fplit
into numerous very long and fiender fegments.

Mr. Ker merely mentions an eighth fpecies, under the
name of S. lacera, feen by him in fir Jofeph Banks's herba-
rium, with which we are unacquainted.

SPARENBERG, in Geography, a town and citadel of
Weltphalia, in the county of Ravenfberg ; 2 miles S.E. of
Bielefeld.

SPARGANIUM, 'in Botany, crraj^ajiov of the Greeks,

SPA

a very exprefTive ancient name, derived from a-vx^yxwi, a
flld, or bandage, and alluding to the long flat linear form,
and pliant texture, of the ribband-like foliage — Linn. Gen.
480. Schreb. 621. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 199. Mart.
Mill. Dift. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 961. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 5. 235. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. T. 338. Purflx
V. I. 33. .Tulf. 26. Tourn. t. 302. Lamarck lUuftr.

t. 748. Leers Herborn. t. 13. f. ir. Gsertn. t. 19

Clafs and order, Afonofcw 7V/an^Wa. Nat. Ord. Calamaria,
or rather Piperita, Linn. Typhtt, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Male flowers numerous, coUefted into a head.
Cal. Perianth of three linear, coloured, ereft, deciduous
leaves. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments three, capillary,
longer than the calyx ; anthers oblong.
• Female, Cal. as in the male. Cor. none. Plfl. Germen
ovate, tapering into a fliort awl-fhaped ttyle ; iligma ob-
lique, undivided, downy, channelled along the upper fide,
permanent, ufually fimple, rarely double. Perk. Drupa
dry, turbinate, pointed ; angular at the bafe. Seed. Nut
hard, oblong-ovate, angular, ufually folitary ; occafionally
there are two.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of three leaves. Corolla none.
Female, Calyx of three leaves. Corolla none. Drupa dry,
with a folitary nut.

1. S. ramofum. Branched Bur-reed. Hudf. 40T. FI.
Brit. n. I. Willd. n. i. Purfli n. i. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5.
t. 66. Engl. Bot. t. 744. Bauh. Theatr. 228. Ger.
Em. 45. (S. ereftum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 137S.) — Leaves
triangular at the bafe ; concave at the fides. Common
flower-ftalk branched. Stigma linear. — Common in ditches,
and about the banks of ponds and rivers, throughout
Europe ; more rare, according to Mr. Purfii, in North
America. It appears to be the o-rajyanoy of Diofcorides,
being the only fpecies Dr. Sibthorp obferved in Greece. It
is perennial, flowering in July and Auguft. Root creeping.
Stem ereft, about a yard high, round, leafy, fmooth, alter-
nately branched at the top in a panicled manner. Radical
leaves triangular at the bile, with concave fides ; their upper
part ereft, fword-fiiaped, fmooth, much taller than the
hem ; Jlem-leaves gradually fliorter, flat, clafping at their
bafe. Partial Jlowerjlalks T7i.cemo{e, many-flowered; zig-
zag in the lower part. Heads alternate, feffile, globofe ;
the lower ones female, brown ; upper male, clofer and more
numerous, with yellow anthers. Calyx-leaves fpatulate,
brown. Germen of two cells. Stigma elongated, linear,
ufually folitary ; when there are two ftigmas, there feem to
be two feeds alfo. The Sparganium of Morifon, feft. 8.
t. 13. f. 2, feems an Alifma or Sagitlaria.

2. S. JImplex. Unbranched Upright Bur-reed. Hudf.
401. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Willd. n. 2. Purfli n. 2. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 5. t. 67. Engl. Bot. t. 745^. (S. ereftum ,9 ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 1378. S. n. 345.* Linn. Fl. Lapp. ed. i.
271. ed. 2. 280. S. non ramofum; Bauh. Theatr. 231.
S. latifolium ; Ger. Em. 45. S. alterum ; Bauh. Hift.
V. 2. 541. Lob. Ic. So.) — Leaves triangular at the bafe;
flat at the fides. Common flower-ttalk fimple. Stigma
linear. — Native of ponds throughout Europe, efpecially on
a gravelly foil, flowering in July and Auguft. More fre-
quent in North America, according to Mr. Purfli, than the
ramofum, from which Hudfon and Curtis firit well diftin-
guifhed this fpecies. It is a fmaller plant, and never
branched or panicled. The lowermoft head of powers is
generally ftalked ; the reft being fedile. Calyx green, or
whitifh, not brown. Stigma elongated, moftlv fimple.

3. S. natans. Floating Bur-reed. Linn. Sp. PI. 1378.
Willd. n. 3. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Purfli n. 3. Engl. Bot.
t. 273. Fl. Dan. t. 260. — Leaves drooping, flat. Com-

I of men

SPA

SPA

tnon flovver-ftalk fimple. Stigma ovate, very Ihort. Head
of male flowers nearly folitary. — Native of rivers, pools,
and lakes, in Europe and North America, chiefly on a
muddy or clay foil, flowering in July. The roat is long,
perennial, creeping widely. Herb floating, with long flat
leaves, half the fize of the lail ; the upper ones flieathing.
Clujler of few heads oi Jlo'wers, of which the lop one only,
with fometimes a portion of the next, is male ; the lower-
moll is fl:alked. The fliort, broad, ovate, always folitary,
Jligma beft diftinguidies this from S. fimpLx. Willdenow
perfilts in citing the Fl. Lapp, for this, though he refers to
it properly under the preceding, except that in both cafes
he omits the afterifk.

4. S. anguJlifoUum. Narrow-leaved Bur-reed. Br. n. I.
(S. angultifolium ; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 189?
S. natans p ; Purfh n. 3 ?) — " Leaves flat, lax, longer than
the ftem. Heads of male flowers numerous. Stigma oval.
Drupa obovate, even; depreffed at the fummit." — Found
by Mr. Brown near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. If
the fynonyms be right, it is alfo a native of rivulets in
Canada.

SPARGANOPHORUS, from crr«fy=c»«, a filet, and
(fifii, to hear, becaufe the feed is crowned with a mem-
branous band, or border. — Vaill. Aft. Parif. ann. 17 19.
Ga:rtn. v. 2. 395. t. 165. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2.
95. Purfh v. 2. 518. — We have already fpoken of the
plant of Vaillaiit and Gasrtner under Ethulia, (fee that
article,) of which, in our opinion, it conftitutes a genuine
fpecies. Perhaps that of Michaux and Purfli may belong
to the fame genus, but we dare not, without examination,
aflert this. The word Sparganophorus, though not exaftly
compounded of Sparganium, may be thought rather too near
to that name, and we, on many accounts, prefer Ethulia.

SPARGANOSIS, from Trafyai, to fivell, in Surgery,
an abfcefs of the brealt ; a milk-abfcefs.

SPARGUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gaza to
the common fparus, \vhich he calls 3U0 futa.

Artedi calls it the plain yellow fparus, with an annular
fpot near the tail. See SpARUs.

SPARHAWK Point, in Geography, a cape on the
north coaft of the mouth of the river Pilcataqua.

SPARKS'.s Island, a fmall ifland in the bay of Hon-
duras, at the mouth of the river Roman. N. lat. 15° 54'.
W. long. 86'= 9'.

SPARLING, ui Ichthyology. See Smelt.
Si'AitLiNG-FoW, in Ornithology, a name given in fome
places, by the country people, to the female merganfcr,
called more uiually the eluudiver.

SPARNECK, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Culmbach ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Munch-
berg.

SPARRE, Eltic, ill Biogmphy, chancellor of Sweden,
was born in 1550; but from this time we have no account
of him till 1578, when he was appointed fuprcme judge of
Wcllmanland and Dalecarlia ; and in 1582 he became a
fenator, governor of thcfe provinces, and vice-chancellor of
the kingdom. In 1 583 he was knighted by king James VI.
of Scotland ; and in 1587 he went as envoy to Poland, re-
fpefting the elevation of Sigifmund to tiic Polirti throne.
Within about two years from this time he fell in difgrace,
was deprived of his employments, and thrown into prifon.
He was likewife accufed of high crimes againit the fove-
reign, John III. On this occafion his letter of knighthood
was taken from him by the king, and torn to pieces before
his face. He was, however, pardoned, on the interceflion
of king Sigifmund ; but was again arraigned, in 1592, be-
fore a court at which the king himfelf prefidcd, on a cliai'jjQ

of having promifed the ceflion of Elthonia, in direft con-
tradiftion to the inftruftions which he had received, whea
envoy of Poland. He defended himfelf with great boldnefs
againft all his accufers ; which fo incenfed the fovcreign,
that he drew his fword, exclaiming, that it was given him
by God to punifh traitors and breakers of their oath.
Duke Charles brought forth other accufations againft him;
but the court broke up, after coming to this conclufion,
tiiat Sparrc, and the other fenators who had been accufed
with him, were neither condemned nor acquitted. Sparre
fell again under the duke's difpleafure, on account of a
celebrated book which he wrote, entitled " Pro Lege,
Rege, et Grege ;" which fcemed to be direfted againft the
authority exercifcd by that prince. Having, however,
taken an oath of fidelity to the duke, and made a folcmn
promife of obedience in writing, he was reflored to hij em-
ployments ; and, as chancellor of the kingdom, fubfcribed,
in 1593, the reconciliation between him and Sigifmund.
Notwithftanding this, he was afterwards delivered up to the
duke, and fullered under the hands of the executioner,
during the bloody fcenes that took place at Linkoeping, in
1600 ; but he maintained his innocence to the laft, and read
a protefl againft thofe who had doomed him to punifhmcnt.
He was author of many books, befides the one already re-
ferred to, " Pro Lege," &c. among which are the fol-
lowing : " Account of the Coronation of king Si^jifmund
at Upfal, February 19, 1594;" " Sententia Ordinum
Rcgni Succix in quofdam de CoUcgio Senatorum," &c. ;
" Adverfus Infimulationes et Proteftationes a Regis Sigif-
mundi legato Polono, Oratione prolata, Defenfio." Gen.
Biog.

SPARRING, among Cock-fghters, is the fighting a
cock with another to breathe him. In fparring, they put
hotts on their fpurs, that they may not hurt one anotlier.

To /par the cock, imports in general to breathe him, in
order to embolden him to fight. See HoTTS.

SPARRMANNIA, in Botany, fo named by the
younger Linnxus, in honour of his diflinguiflied country-
man, Andrew Sparrmann, or rather Sparrman, the friend
and pupil of his father, and the companion of the voyage
of the Forflers, round the world. This gentleman is well
known in England by the account of his travels in fouthcra
Africa, which difplay great candour and love of truth, as
well as the true fpirit of Linnian philofophy and accuracy.
He is, we believe, flill living in Sweden. — Linn. Suppl. 41.
Schreb. 355. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1160. Tliunb. Nov.
Gen. 88. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 3. 298. Juff. 290. Lamarck lUultr. t. 468 — Clals
and order, Polyandria Momgynia. Nat. Ord. Columr.ifere,
Linn. Tiliacex, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four lanceolate,
undivided, fpreading, nearly equal, deciduous lenvcs. Cor.
Petals four, equal, wcdgc-fhapcd, flat, undivided, twice
the length of the calyx. Neftary ? of feveral thread-ihaped,
tumid, corrugated, or toothed, bodies, more properly to
be efteemed imperfeft filaments, or flamens, partly changed
to petals. Stam. Filaments numerous, thread-lliaped, in-
ferted into the receptacle, about half the length of the pe-
tals ; anthers ov.ite, incumbent. Pijl. Germen fuperior,
roundifli, hilpid, with five angles; ilyle thread-fliaped,
longer tlian the flamens; fligma in many minute legmciKs.
Peric. Capl'ule five-fided, with five cells ; its angles armed
with long, flraight, rigid, fpreading thorns, each tipped
with a iharp tranlparent point. Seeds two in each cell, ob-
long, fmooth, keeled at one fide.

EfT. Ch. Calyx of four leaves, deciduous. Petalt four.
Barren filaments numerous, toothed. CapfiJc of five cells,

angular.

SPA

angular, armed with ftraight pungent fpines. Seeds two
in each cell.

Obf. Ventenat has juftly remarked that the fuppofed
nedaries are, as well as the perfeft ftamens, inferted into
the receptacle, and not, as Schreber after Thiinberg afferts,
into the germen, and that they are properly to be confidered
as imperfect ftamens.

1. S. africana. African Sparrraannia. Lmn. Suppl.
265. Wiild. n. I. Ait. n. i. Retz. Obf. fafc. 5. 25.
I. 3, (but the fynonym, habitat, and all that foUoTis, be-
long to the preceding Lagerjlromia.) Curt. Mag. t. 516.
Venten. Malmaif. t. 78. — Native of woods and thickets,
on the fides of hills, at the Cape of Good Hope, flowering
from Oftober to January. It was introduced at Kew, in
1790, by Mr. Mafibn, and makes a moft elegant and
fplendid appearance in the colleftion of greenhoufe (hrubs,
in the fpring, and early part of the fummer. The whole
plant is clothed with fine, filky, fpreading hairs. Stem
fhrubby, ereft, two to fix feet high, with round, alternate,
leafy branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked, dependent, large,
heart-lhaped, pointed, crenate, llightly lobed, veiny, re-
fembling thofe of fome Mallow, Slda, or HWifcus. Stipulas
awl-fhaped, lateral, in pairs near the bafe of each footjlalh.
Flowers in large, terminal, hairy umbels, like thofe of a
Cape Geranium, with awl-(haped hraBeas. Calyx downy,
pale brown, not quite an inch long. Petals white, wrinkled,
often emarginate. Filaments yellow, partly crimfon. yfn-
thers brown. This (hrub is propagated, virithout much dif-
ficulty, either by cuttings or feeds ; but we know not
whether the latter are often perfefted in Europe.

SPARROW, Passer, in Ornithology, the name of a
large order of birds. See Passbres.

Sparrow, Common, or Houfe, the Fringilla tlomejlica of
Linnaeus, is a well-known bird, and needs no defcription.
Sparrows are proverbially falacious : they breed early in
the fpring, often in the nefts of the martin, after expeUing
the owner ; the martin, however, in revenge, is faid to
aflemble its companions, and to afllll in plaftering up the
entrance with dirt, and thus leaves the invader to perifh.
See Fringilla.

Sparrow, Hedge, Curruca, or MotaclUa modularis of
Linnaeus, a bird of the fize of the red-breaft, or of the tit-
lark. Its beak is longifh, flender, and black ; its head is
of a deep brown, mixed with afh-colour ; the cheeks are
marked with oblong fpots of dirty white ; the back and
coverts of the wings are dufky, edged with reddifh-brown ;
the quill-feathers and tail dufky ; the rump brown, tinged
with green ; the throat and breail are of a dull afh-colour ;
the belly of a dirty white ; the fides, thighs, and vent-
feathers are of a pale tawny brown ; and the legs of a dull
flefh-colour. This bird frequents low hedges, particularly
thofe of gardens ; making its neft in fome fmall bufh, where
it lays four or five eggs of a fine pale blue colour ; and
during the breeding-feaion it has a remarkable flirt with its
wings. The male has a (hort but very fweet plaintive note,
which it begins with the firft frotty mornings, and continues
till a little time in the fpring.

The bird which Linnaeus fuppofes to be our hedge-
fparrow, which he defcribes under the title of motacilla
curruca, and to which he applies the denomination of canna-
varola, differs in colour of plumage as well as eggs. Pen-
nant.

It is in the neft of this bird that the cuckoo hatches her
eggs for the moll part, though not always, the nefts of
turtle and wood-pigeons being fometimes ufed by her for
that purpofe. Hence it was that the ancients made the
cuckoo an emblem of fuch men as made bold with the mar-

SPA

riage-bed of others, who, on that account, were called
currucs. See Mot.icill.v.

Sparrow, Reed, Pajfer arund'maceus, t]\c Emberizafchoe-
niclus of Linna;us, a bird that lives moll commonly among
reeds in tnarfliy places, and known among authors by the
name of junco.

Its netl is curioufly contrived, being faftened to four
reeds, and fufpended by them like a hammock, about three
feet above the water. It lays four or five eggs of a blueifh-
white, marked with irregular purplifh veins. This bird is
much admired for its fong, and like the nightingale it fings
in the night. In the male, the head, chin, and throat, are
black ; the tongue livid ; at each corner of the mouth com-
mences a white rmg, which encircles the head ; at appi-oach
of winter the head changes to hoary, but on return of
fpring refumes its jet colour ; the whole under fide of the
body is white ; the back, coverts of the wings, and the
fcapular feathers, are black, deeply bordered with red ; the
two middle feathers of the tail are of the fame colours, the
three next black ; the exterior web, and part of the interior
of the outmoft feather, are white : the head of the female is
ruft-coloured, fpotted with black ; it wants the white
ring round the neck, but in moft other refpcfts refembles
the male. Pennant. See Emberiza.

Sparrow, Lejfer Reed, IVilloiu Lark, or SedgebirJ,
Pajfer arund'maceus minor, the Motacilla falicaria of Lin-
njeus, is a fpecies of a flender elegant form ; the head brown,
marked with duflcy llreaks ; over each eye a line of pure
white, over that another of black ; cheeks brown ; throat,
breaft, and belly white, the two laft tinged with yellow ;
hind-part of the neck and back of a reddifh-brown ; the
back fpotted with black ; coverts of the tail tawny ; coverts
of the wings duflcy, edged with pale brown ; quill-feathers
dufky ; tail brown, and in the form of a wedge, and mak-
ing a circle when fpread, and legs duflcy. This bird i«
common in low wet grounds, fits on the top of fome fpray
with its wings difhevelled ; its fong confifts of but two
notes, which are loud, querulous, and harfh. Pennant.

Ray obferves, that the leller reed fparrow fings fweetiy,
and fome have called it cannavarola. See Motacilla.
Sparrow, Solitary. See Passer Solitarius.
Sparrow, Tree, Pajfer montanus, the Fringilla montana
of Linnaeus, is inferior in fize to the common fparrow ; the
bill is thick and black ; the crown of the head, hind part
of the neck, and lefler coverts of the wings, are of a bright
bay, the two firft plain, the laft fpotted with black ; the
chin black ; the cheeks and fides of the head white, marked
with a great black fpot beneath each ear ; the breaft and belly
of a dirty white ; juft above the greater coverts is a row of
feathers, black edged with white ; the greater coverts are
black, edged with a rufl-colour ; the quiU-feathers diafky,
edged with pale red ; lower part of the back of an olive-
brown ; the tail brown, and legs of a itraw-colour.

Thefe birds are common in Lincolnfhire, among trees,
and colleft, Hke the common kind, in great flocks. Pennant.
See Fringilla.

Sp-ARrow, Water, Pajfer aquaticui, a bird defcribed by
Nieremberg, which, he fays, the Indians call acototlequichitl.
It fings all day long without ceafing, but with no very
pleafing note. It is, however, a well-tafted bird. It lives
among fedge and bufhes, and is of the fize ai:d fliape of a
fwallow, but has a black bill and yellow legs ; its breaft
and belly are white, and its back is of a browniih-yellow,
variegated with fpots of black and white. This bird much
refembles our reed fparrow. Ray.

Sparrow, in jigriculturf, a mifchievous deftruftive bird
in corn-fields, and which fhould moftly be deftroyed. It

SPA

SPA

.5 obferved, that were all the farmers in a neighbourhood
to agree to their deftruftion, by oftering rewards for their
heads, their numbers might be leflened ; and that were the
practice general, furcly the whole race might be extirpated.
It is fuppofed, that fixpence a dozen the firft year, nine-pence
the fecond, and a fhilling the third year, would nearly reach
their complete extirpation. To enforce which, it (hould
be confidered how foon twelve fparrowa deftroy twelve
lenny-worth of wheat.

In Kent, they ufe a fpecies of trap, which is very effec-
tual in taking them. It, according to Mr. Marfliall, con-
filts of a fmall wicker baflcet, refembling the fruit-fievc of
the London markets, with a cover of the fame material
fitted to it, and formed on the principle of the fi(h-pot,
and the vermin trap, into which the entrance is eafy, but
the return difficult. Thefe traps, which are an ordinary
article of fale in the markets of the diftritt, are conllituted
of brown unpeeled ofiers. The diameter about two feet ;
the depth nine inches ; the cover is fomewhat difhing, with
\ tunnel, or inverted cone, in the centre, reaching to
vithin an inch of the bottom of the baflcet ; the aperture
r entrance, formed by the points of the twigs, of which
the tunnel is conilrudled, being about an inch and a half
in diameter. And the ufual bait is wheat fcattered in
the balket. The number caught at once, is frequently
more than theory would fuggeft ; the contentions of a few
that have entered, feldom failing to bring others to the
combat.

Thefe mifchievous birds, however, foon grow too cun-
ning to be taken in any fort of trap to any extent, which
has a chance of extirpating and deltroymg the race ; con-
fequently fome more effeiStual and certain plan, fuch as that
fuggefted above, or fome other, which is better and more
fully adapted to the purpofe, muft be had recourfe to in
order to completely exterminate them, and prevent the in-
jury they do annually to the farmer, in the deftruftion of
his wheat and other crops. Though thefe are only fmall
birds, they deftroy valt quantities of grain, much more
than has indeed been commonly fuppofed. It is ftated to
have been calculated to have amounted to a hundred facks
of wheat, befides the oats and barley, in the courfe of only
one feafon, in a townfhip of no very great extent in the
north-weltern part of the kingdom. Where rewards or
fums of money are paid for the taking or dcitroying them,
no advantages are gained, except wliere there are fufficiently
ample and proper regulations entered into and enforced,
the whole diftrift, parilh, or townlhip becoming partakers
in the bufinefs. No languid or half meafures will do
any thing ufeful, or to the purpofe, in this fort of under-
taking.

It is not improbable, but that thefe deftruftive birds
might be greatly extirpated and thinned down in their
numbers, by the ufe of fome taftelefs infufion of a ftrongly
poifonous nature, either to the ears of the grain at the time
of harvcd, or to the naked grain in the winter feafon, when
they are extremely eager for food, as they are conftantly
found to remain hovering about houfcs or other buildings,
where the effedts of fuch trials might eafily be afcertained.
If fuch a method (hould iucceed, the whole race might
readily, and with great facility and certainty, be exter-
minated.

SpAniiow-Gra/r, in Botany. See Asparagus.

SpARRow-//rtw/E. See Hawk.

Spauiu)vv-^o/V, in Botany. See Passerina.

SPARRY, in Mineralogy, having a confufed cryftalline
ftrufture, fynonimous with fpathofe.

Sparry Iron Ore, denominated alfo broiun /par and
Vol. XXXIII.

pearl /par, is a mineral compofed of the oxyd of iron com-
bined with about thirty-five ^fr fcn/. of carbonic acid, and
a variable portion of manganefe, lime, and magnefia. (See
/ro« Ores.) As pearl fpar, this mineral may be chfled
among the earthy minerals. It has a white colour, palling
by various gradations into brown, with a pearly lultre ; in
the pure white fpecimens the luftre is briUiant. It occurs
in fmall curved rhomboidal cryltals, which do not melt be-
fore the blow-pipe, but didolve with efFcrvefcence in mu-
riatic acid. This mineral is generally found in veins, ac-
companying metallic ores, but is never worked as an ore
of iron.

SPARS, in Rural Economy, a name often applied to
thatching rods, or the Ipelks or rods by which thatch is
bound on the roofs of buildings.

Spars, in Ship-BuUding, fmall fir-trees ; called cant,
which are from 33 to 35 feet long, and five hands circum-
ference ; barling, fiom 30 to 28 feet long, and four hands cir-
cumference ; boom, from 24 to 20 feet long, and three hands
circumference ; middling, from 20 to 16 feet long; and fmaU,
from 1 6 to II feet long.

SPARSE-Leaves, Spar/a folia, among Botani/ls. See
Leaf.

SPARTA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated city of
Greece, in the Peloponnefus, and the capital of Laconia.
It was fituated at the foot of mount Thamax, on the banks
of the Eurotas, and to the W. of it.

According to Strabo, this city was founded by Patrocles ;
but the moft common opinion attributes its origin to Leles,
in the year i j 16 B.C. Some maintain that it originated at
Lacedxmon in the year 400 B.C. However this may be,
it was known alfo by this name. However, the appellation
of Spartans is applied to the inhabitants of Sparta and its
territory, and that of Lacedaemonians to the inhabitants of
the whole country of Laconia. (See Laconia, and Lace-
D^ffiMONiANS.) This country was not equal in extent to
Athens, containing only 48 fladia ; but it was adorned in
a very eminent degree. At firfl it had no walls, the Spar-
tans confiding in their own valour for its defence. In pro-
cefs of time, however, they conftrufted walls about it, when
the ambition of Callander, and the violent afl'aults of fome
tyrants, had wearied out and almolt exhaulted their fortitude.
Paufanias fays, that it was fortified on occafion of tlie wars
of Demetrius and Pyrrhus, and he mentions in terms of
high commendation fome pieces of fculpture, for which this
city was dilUiiguifhcd. Sparta was famous for a variety of
public inllitutions, among which were the fenate of th«
aged, the fenate of the confcrvators of the laws, the
fenate of the ephori, and that of the magillratc?, denomi-
nated Bidiians. The firfl of thefe was the fovereign tri-
bunal of the Lacedxmonians, which regulated the afl'airs
of the flate ; the other fenators were, properly fpeaking,
archons ; the ephori were five, and the Bidincans of the
fame number, whofe province it was to diretl and fuper-
intend the exercifes of the youth. The public edificej,
temples, itatiies, and monuments of Sparta, were fo numerous
and various, that we (hould far exceed our limits in recount-
ing them. It is not cert.iin at what time this celebrated
place was deftroyed ; but it was fuccecded by the modern
town of Mifitra, which is fituated about four miles from
ancient Sparta.

Sparta was alfo the name of a town fituated in the
environs of the Euxine fea. Steph. By/.

Sparta, in Geography, a poll-town of America, in
Sparta county. North Carolina ; 541 miles from Walhing-

toD Alfo, a poll -town of New .lerfcy, in Sulfex county ;

117 miles from Philadelphia. — Alfo, a poll-town of Han-
3 M cock

SPA

eock county, Georgia, with a court-houfe and gaol, fitu-
ated in a fertile and populous country, and a place of con-
fiderable trade.

Sparta, a poft.town(hip of New York, in the S.W.
corner of Ontario county, 25 miles S.W. of Conondaigua ;
bounded N. by Genefeo and Livonia, E. by Livonia and
Naples, S. by Steuben and Allegany counties, and W. by
Genefee countv. It comprifes three townfhips. The
alluvial lands are fine, and the territory is in general good
and well fettled, principally by emigrants from Pcnnfyl-
vania. Hemp is raifed in confiderable quantities. In i8lo
the whole population was 1397, with 65 fenatorial eleftors ;
and the houlehold looms, of which there are 56, produced
iy,7y2 yards of cloth. The whole number of famihes k
232.

SPARTACUS, in Biography, one of the fcourges of
Roman tyranny and cruelty, a native of Thrace, was born of
very low parents, entered the army, then became a deferter,
and a robber. Being taken, he was confined as a gladiator
in a receptacle at Capua for thofe unfortunate men whofe
lives were devoted to the pleaf\ire of the Roman people.
He efcaped the horrid den, and placing himfclf at the head
of a body of gladiators and fugitive flaves, he took a forti-
fied place in the year B.C. 72, whence he made predatory
excurfions throughout Campania. His force daily increafed,
and he defeated feveral commanders who were fent againlt
him. He marched into Cifalpine Gaul, in order to give the
flaves in his army, who mere mollly Thracians and Gauls, an
opportunity of returning home. Part of them, however,
greedy of pillage, feparated themfclves from their com-
mander, and were cut to pieces. The conful Lentulus, upon
this fuccefs, which was extremely partial, purfued Sparta-
cus, who turned about and gave him a total defeat ; and then,
in his turn, becoming the aggrefTor, he marched againlt the
other conful, Gellius, drove him from the field, and obliged
him to take (helter in the walled towns. He retaliated the
cruelty of the Romans towards the gladiators, by obliging
a number of his captives to fight with each other round the
funeral pyre of one of his commanders. He was now at
the head of 1 20,000 men, and with thefe he ravaged moil of
the provinces of Italia, and (truck fuch a terror at Rome,
that CrafTus, at that time the man of the greateft confe-
quence in the city, was fent againft him. He foon con-
fined Spartacus in Lucania, and cut off fome of his detach-
ments, fo that he would gladly have crolTed over to Sicily,
but being prevented, he took poll in a peninfula near Rhe-
gium, where CrafFus enclofed him by a rampart drawn from
lea to fea. Spartacus, however, found means to break
through this barrier, and gain the open country, but he was
here deferted by a large body of his followers, who became
the yiiftims of Crad'us. Spartacus now retreated towards
the mountains, and repulfcd with lofs fome of his purfuers.
This fuccefs wae, however, his ruin ; for his men infilled
upon his return to give battle to Crallus in the open field.
Before the commencement of the engagement, Spartacus
ftabbed his horfe, exclaiming, " If I am vitloriouE, 1 can
eafily get another ; if vanquilhed, I fiiall not want any."
After a long conteft, the Roman difcipline prevailed.
Spartacus, during extraordinary exertions of valour, was
furrounded, and fell pierced with a multitude of wounds.
He was unqueitionably a brave man, and fomething more
than a courageous barbarian. He had, fays Plutarch, not
only llrength and elevation of mind, but a difcernment and
civihty much fuperior to his fortune. It is faid that his wife
accompanied him into the field, pretended to the gift of
prophecy, and probably infpired him with a fanatical con-
fidence in viftory.

SPA

SPARTANBURG, in Geography, a diftria ©f SoOtb
Carohna, containing 12,122 inhabitants, of whom 14.7 are
flaves.

SPARTEL, Cape, a cape of Morocco, W. of Tan-
gier, being a headland, which divides the ftraits from the
Weftern ocean. After doubling this cape, at the dillance
of 15 miles Hands the little town oi Arzilla ; which fee.

SPARTIANUS, .Elius, in Biography, a Latin hif-
torian, fiouriihed in the time of Diocletian, to whom he
dedicated the lives of Adrian, iElius, Verus, Didius Ju-
lianus, Severus, and Pefcennius Niger, which, as well as his
lives of Caracalla and Geta, are come down to our times.
He is one of the writers of the " Hiftorias Auguftae Scrip-
tores," but his merits are not very great.

SPARTINA, in Botav.y, a name borrowed from Spar-
turn, a kind of broom, or ot hard grafs, both ufed in ancient
as well as modern times, to make bafltets, cordage, &c. —
Schreb. Gen. 43. — Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume fingle-flowered, comprefled, of
two boat-like, comprefled, keeled, converging valves ; the
inncrmoft longeft ; the broader one itriated at the back, and
pointed. Cor. fhorter than the inner valve of the calyx, ot
two nearly equal, linear, comprefled, bluntifli valves, clafp-
ing each other, the inner one rather the longelt. Neftary
none. Slam. Filaments three, capillary, very fliort ; an-
thers linear, fquare, fliarpifli, cloven at the bafe. Plfl. Ger-
men fuperior, linear, acute ; Ityle thread-fliaped, ereft»
longer than the Itamens ; ftigmas two, villous. Perk, none,
except the calyx, v.'hich enfolds the feed, and at length
drops it. Seed oblong, comprefled.

This is all the account we have found of the prefent
genus, of which its author has left nothing concerning the
fpecies, whether one or more, nor its native country. Thefe
points can only be alcertained from his herbarium ; and as
yet Spartina has not been adopted by any writer that has
fallen in our way, though it feems to have the fanftion of
Schrader in his Flora Germanlca, v. 1. 169. That author,
fo learned in gralTes, ttrongly objefts to Roth's having re-
ferred to Spartina by the name of phleoides, the Crypfis fche-
noides of Schrader, Lamarck, and others ; as being, he fays,
widely different, both in habit and the ftruClure of its flow-
ers. Spartina however does not find a place in his Flora
Gtrmanica, and is, therefore, perhaps not of European
growth.

SPARTIUM, (sx3.(mi of Diofcorides, fo called from
arrxfin, a rope, becaufe of the ufe of the long, flender, tough

branches, or bark, in making cordage Linn. Gen. 368.

Schreb. 487. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 926. Mart. Mill. Dit^.
V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kcw. v. 4. 254. Sm. Fl. Brit. 753.
Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. V. 2. 53. Gxrtn. t. 153. (Geniita;
Jufl". 353. Tourn. t. 411. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 619. f. i.)
— Clals and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papi-
lionacett, Linn. Legumiitof^, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
fomewhat heart-fliaped ; its margin at the upper fide very
fliort ; at the lower furniflied with five httle teeth towards
the extremity ; coloured, fmall. Cor. papilionaceous, of
five petals ; ilandard inverfely heart-fhaped, very large, en-
tirely reflexed ; wings ovate-oblong, fliorter than the ftand-
ard, attached to the filaments ; keel of two petals, lanceo-
late-oblong, longer than the wings, inferted into the fila-
ments, the lower edges of its petals connected by fine hairs.
Stam. Filaments ten, combined all together at the bafe, ad-
hering to the germen, unequal, gradually longer ; the upper
one very fiiort, the remaining nine in one fet ; anthers rather
oblong. Pyi, Gernaen oblong, or roundifli ; ftyle awl-

ftiaped.

SPARTIUM.

Ihaped, afcerdin^ ; ftigma united to the upper fide of its
fummit, oblong, villous. Penc. Legume cylindrical, long,
obtufe, of one cell and two valves. Seeds feveral, kidney-
fhaped, fomewhat globofe.

Efl'. Ch. Stigma longitudinal, villous above. Fila-
ments monadelphous, adhering to the germen. Calyx ex-
tended downward.

The Linncean genus of Spartium is, by Juflieu, funk,
partly in Geni/la, after Tournefort, and partly in Cyti/us.
The Ipecies in the fourteenth edition of Svjl. l^eg. are fix-
teen ; Willdenow has twenty-five ; three of the Linnxan
ones being referred to Thunberg's Lebeckla. They are all
flirubby, with yellow, rarely white, ftill more rarely purplifh,
Jloiuers, and either fimple or ternate leaves. One only is
a native of Britain, though all the reft are of European
growth ; fixteen are enumerated amongft our garden plants
by Mr. Alton ; fome of them bearing the open air, others
requiring the (helter of a greenhoufe ; but none of them
very tender. As fome of the others promife to be well
worthy the notice of cultivators, and are eafily propa-
gated, we fhall take a brief view of the whole, introducing
one nondefcript fpecies, and offering a few corrcftions re-
fpefting fome of the reft.

Sedlion l. Leaves fimple.

\. S.jurueum. Spanifh Broom. Linn. Sp. PI. 99 J. Willd.
n. I. Ait. n. I. Curt. Mag. t. 85. Sm. Fl. Gra;c.
Sibth. t. 671, unpublifhed. (S. macrolobium ; Renealm.
Spec. 34. t. 35. Genifta hifpanica ; Ger. Em. 1313.
Genifta; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 574.) — Branches oppofite,
round, flowering at the extremity. Leaves lanceolate. Le-
gume linear. — Native of the fouth of Europe. Frequent,
according to Dr. Sibthorp, on dry hills throughout Greece
and the Archipelago, where it is known by the name of
o-'!rix(Jo, being unqueftionably the o-n-a^liov of Diofcorides.
This (hrub was one of the firft exotics introduced into
cultivation in England, where it is quite hardy, flowering
moft part of the lummcr, and much cfteemed for the
beauty, and fweet lulcious fcent, of its large yellow
bloffoms. Its height is ufually fix feet or more, and the
copious, long, twiggy, tnugh tranches, bearing a few elliptic-
oblong leaves, make a fingular appearance. The jloivers
are fometiraes double, but are not improved in beauty by
that change.

2. S. aphyllum. Leaflefs Siberian Broom. Linn. Suppl.
320. Willd. n. 2. Pallas Voyage, v. 3. append. 742. t. V.
f. 2. — Branches round, ftraiglit, wand-like, fmooth, fub-
tended by very (liort, linear-lanceolate, clofe-preded, wither-
ing leaves. Petals all fmooth. Legume ovate, with two
feeds. — Found by Pallas in blowing fand of the defarts about
the river Wolga, flowering in June. Tlie Jlenis, though
(hrubby and often fix feet high, die down every year.
They arc flendcr and much branched, with a fmall, incoii-
fpicuous leaf under each branch. Floivers fcattered along
the ultimate branches, folitary, on fliort ftalks, fmall, dull
violet ; yellowiih at the bafe. Legume a quarter of an inch
long, gibbous, comprclfcd, filky, as well as the calyx, jlower-

Jlalhs, and younij branches.

3. S. monofpermwn. White fingle-feeded Broom. Linn.
Sp. PI 995. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Curt. Mag. t. 683.
(Pfcudo-jpartum album aphyllum; Ger. Em. 1318.) —
Branches round, furrowed. Clufters lateral, of a few rather
crowded flowers. Seeds folitary. Leaves lanceolate, filky,
as well as the wings and keel. — Native of dry barren hills
in Spain, Portugal, and Morocco. A hardy greenhoufe
plant with us, flowering in June and July. 'V\\^Jlem is five
or fix feet high, with numerous fleiulcr, pliant, glaucous,
furrowed branches, beuring, while young only, a few fimple,

linear-lanceolate, obtufe, filky leaves. Flowers in fhort,
lateral, denfe cluders, white, with a dark-red fmooth calyx.
The Jlandar J is itreaked minutely with crimfon, and filky at
the back, about half an inch long. IVings and ieel partly,
but denfely, filky. Seed folitary.

4. S./phierocarpum. Yellow fingle-feeded Broom. Linn.
Mant. 571. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n, 3. (S. hypofphaero-
lobium ; Renealm. Spec. 35. t. 33. Pfeudo-fpartum hif-
panicum aphyllum ; Ger. Em. 13 18.) — Branches round,
furrowed. Clufters lateral, many-flowered, folitary or ia
pairs. Seeds folitary. Leaves lanceolate, downy beneath.
Wings fmooth. Keel fomewhat filky. — Native of the
fouth of Europe. A greenhoufe plant, cultivated in Mil-
ler's time, flowering in June and July. Of more humble
growth than the preceding, with more erciS, llraighter
branches, and yeWowJlo'wers, not half fo large, though more
numerous in each clufter. Though the two plants are very
diftinft, their fpecific definition is not eafy. We agree
with Mr. Curtis, as to the probability of Clufius's wooden
cuts, and confequentlv thofe of Gerarde above cited, (which
are the fame blocks as thofe of Chiuus,) being tranfpofed.
Yet we cannot fay they are fo, for though the injlorefcence
of Gerard's f. i, applied to this yellow fpecies, is more like
the former, and vice verfa ; the iize of xhejlowers in f. 2 is
too large for the prefent.

5. S.lrl/permtim. Yellow Three-feeded Broom. — Branches
round, ftriated, racemofe. Leaves very fliort, fpinous-
pointed. Wings fmooth. Keel filky. Legume half-ovate,
with three feeds. — Gathered on mount TEtna, by the baron
Bivona, from whom we, laft year, received fpecimens. This
is allied to the two laft, though eflentially diftindl in its/ruiV,
which more refemblee that of S. aphyllum, n. 3, but is nearly
fmooth, not filky, and contains three roundilh feeds. The

jloivers, moreover, are difpofed as in that fpecies, being
loofely fcattered along the young branches, not compofing
lateral clufters : but they are thrice as large, yellow, and
fragrant, with more oblong petals, and the Ieel is filky, in
which laft character this Ipecies agrees with fphttrocarpum.
We have not feen the young leaves, but thole under the
flowering branches are fmall, thick, fliort, furrowed, with a
ftrong fliarp point. — The figure of Spartium, Matth. Valgr.
V. 2. 573, anfwers well to our plant, except that iUc/owers:
are reprefcnted much too fliort, and the legumes too hairy, in
which latter circumftance it anfwers better to S. purgans,
though, in other refpefts, not like that fpecies ; ftiU lefs
does it refemble the following.

6. S. cinereum. Grcy-branched Broom. " Villars Pro-
fpeft. 40." Willd. n. 5. (Genifta fcoparia ; Villars
Dauph. V. 3. 420. Bellardi Append, ad Fl. P^dem. 34.)
— Branches round, with ton furrows. Leaves lanceolate;
filky beneath. Flowers axillary, folitary ; their ftalks not

longer than the calyx. Keel filky. Legume hairy Native

of funny hills in the fouth of France and in Piedmont. The
branches are much more leafy than in any of the foregoing.
Leaves nearly feflile, about three quarters of an inch long ;
fmooth above. Flowers yellow, much longer than the
leaves, on fliort filky ftalks. The talyxMo is filky, deeply
divided. Keel filky, efpecially toward the lower edge.
Legume hairy, with from three to five feeds. Gerard, from
whom, as well as from Bellardi, we have fpecimena, miftook
this plant, as many others have done, for S. purgans ; but
Willdenow well remarks, that the more eredt and flraight
branches, and elpecially the fliortnefs of X.\v: foiuer-Jlalks,
diftinguifli it from that fpecies. Villars thinks it may have
been confounded with S.fcoparium, which fcems hardly pof-
fiblc. He conceives the figure of Matthinlus, Valgrifian
edition, v. 2.573, l^^dly copied in Bauhin's Matlhiohis, 852,

3 M ' f. I.

SPARTIUM.

f, I, may have been done for this plant ; but it more refembles

our trtfpermum. .

7. S. virgatum. Long-twig'd Broom. Ait. n. 4.
Willd. n. 6. (Cytifus tener ; Jacq. Coll. v. 1.40. Ic.
Rar. t. 147. Linn. Syft. Veg. cd. 14. 667.)— Branches
round, furrowed. Leaves obovate, rather filky. Flowers
axillary, folitary, fomcwhat racemofe. Petals aU Wky.
Legume denfely hairy.— Found by Mr. Maffon in Madeira,
whence it came to Kew garden in 1777. It is a greenhoufe
ftrub, flowering in fpring. The copious ilender tranches
bear numerous alternate /eaves, half an inch long. Ihe
flowers are vellow, very filky in every part, and form cluf-
ters at the end of each branch, two or three of the lower
ones only being axillary. Legumes lanceolate, pointed,
clothed with fhort denfe hairs, and containing three or four
round feeds, which are feldom all perfefted.

8. S. ramofiffmum. Branching African Broom. Desfont.
Atlant. V. 2. 132. t. 178. Willd. n. 7 — Branches round,
fan-owed, itraight. Leaves obovato-lanceolate, villous.
Flowers axillary, on Ihort ftalks, fomewhat whorled. Petals
all filky. — Native of mount Atlas, near Tlemfen. A (hrub,
two or three feet high, leaflefs when old, flowering early in
the fpring. The_^owfrj are yellow, ereft. Legume not
obferved, but the germen is villous. Desfont.

9. S. purgans. Purging Broom. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. j.
But not Linn. Syfl:. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 474. (Genitta pur-
gans ; BuUiardt. 115. G. five Spartium purgans; Bauh.
Hifl;. V. I. p. 2. 404.) — Branches round, furrowed.
Leaves obovato-lanceolate ; filky beneath. Flowers axil-
lary, folitary ; their italks thrice the length of the calyx.
Petals all fmooth. Legume fliaggy. — Native of the fouth
of France. We received it from the late Dr. Brouflbnet.
The flem is woody, very much branched, and itrongly fur-
rowed, not fpinous. Leaves chiefly on the young branches,
fmall, ftalked. Floiver-flalks filky, as long as the leaves, or
longer. Calyx partly filky. Petals yellow, (horter, and
more rounded, than in 5. cinereum, quite fmooth, except
the villous hairs, which knit thofe of the keel together.
Legume curved, denfely clothed with long ihaggy hairs.
Linna;uB was really unacquainted with this fpecies. His
Gen'ifia purgans, Sp. PI. 999, is a very fpinous fhrub, to-
tally different from Bauhin's plant, and may be S-fcorpius-
His S. purgans, adopted from Gerard in the 12th edition of
Sylt. Nat. is our cinereum, n. 6 ; yet we do not judge it
right to interchange the fynonyms, merely to countenance,
ftill lefs to conceal, a blunder of our great niafter, or of his
learned correfpondent, Gerard. The two plants can never
again be confounded.

10. S. umhellatum. Umbellate Broom. Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. 133. t. 180. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 6. — Branches
round, Itriated, leafy. Flowsrs capitate. Corolla filky,

as well as the legume, and lanceolate leaves Native of the

fea-coaft of Barbary. Sent to Kew by the late Dr. Brouf-
fonet. It is a greenhoufe fhrub, flowering from April to
June, very much branched, and readily known by its yel-
low, filky, capitate, rather than umbellate, ^/oTOfrj. Le-
gume oblong, comprefTed, denfely villous, containing from
three to five feeds. The leaves are often ternate, fo that this
fpecies ought rather to ftand in the next feftion, near
linifolium.

11. S. Scorpius. Scorpion Broom.. I^inn. Sp. PI. 995.
Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 7. Prodr. Fl. Gi;\-c. n. 1644.
(Genifta purgans ; Linn. Sp. PI. 999 ? G. fpinofa minor ;
Ger.Em. 1319. Afpalathus alter terttus ; Clid". Hiil. v. I.
106.) — Branches round, Itriated, fpreading, fpinous. Flower-
ftalks axillary, aggregate. Leaves oblong, hairy, with a
Spinous point. — Native of Spain, the fouth of France,

6

Greece, and the Archipelago. Each of the tranches ends
in a fliarp thorn, and the young ones fpread horizontally.
The leaves are fmall, oblong or obovate, loofely covered on
both fides with filky hairs. F/otvers yellow, their ttalk'
about as long as the leaves, and fituated, like them, on the
young branches only. We know nothing of the legume
Lamarck fays it is fmooth. The modern Greeks call this
plant A3a,'»v«.

12. S. afpalathoides. Tubercular Thorny Broom. Def-
font. Atlant. v. 2. 136. Willd. n. 11. (Genilta afpala-
thoides ; Lamarck- Di6t. v. 2. 620. ) — Branches angular,
tuberculated, fpinous. Flower-ftalks axillary, aggregate.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, filky, unarmed. — Difcovered by
Poiret, on the coaft of Barbary, near Tunis. The flem is
much branched, two or three feet higli ; the branches befet
with fcattered tubercles, and ending in ftiarp thorns. Leaves
in fmall tufts upon the tubercles ; alternate on the young
(hoots ; fmall, narrow, covered with fliort, depreflcd, filky
hairs. Flowers twice the fize of the laft, pale yellow, axillary,
ilalked, two or more together ; their Jlalks, calyx, and cr-
rolla filky. Germen covered with white hairs.

Seftion 2. Leaves moflly ternate.

13. S. multiflorum. Portugal White Broom. Ait. n. 8.
Willd. n. 12. (S. album; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 132.
S. difpermum ; Willd. in Rom. and U(l. Mag. fafc. 11,
35. t. 2. Geniitaalba; Tabern. Kreuterb. 1509.) — Leaves
ternate or fimple, elliptic-lanceolate, filky. Branches
ilraight, llriated, covered with flowers. Legume filky,
with two feeds. — Native of Portugal and Barbary. A
hardy (hrub in our gardens, flowering in May. The Hem is
from four to fix feet high, with copious, ereft, long, itraight,
wand-like tranches, covered from top to bottom with elegant,
fnow-white, (talked, axillary flowers. The leaves are but
feldom ternate. The legume is ovate-oblong, comprefl'ed,
dark brown, clothed with whitifh hairs.

14. S. angulatum. Angular-branched Broom. Linn.
Sp. PI. 996. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 9. Sm. FI. Grsc.
Sibth. t. 672, unpubli(hed. (S. parviflorum ; Venten.
Cels. t. 87.) — Leaves moftly ternate, liaear-oblong.
Branches with fix angles. Flowers terminal, racemofe.
Legume elliptical, acute at each end, with one or two
feeds. — Native of the Levant. Hardy with us, flowering
in May and June. Its afpeft is that of a Mehlot, but the

flem is (hrubby, with numerous ftraight upright tranches,
marked with three decurrent angles from the infertion of
each leaf. The leaflets are more or lefs obtufe, nearly equal,
(lightly hoary, not an inch long. Flowers fmall, yellow,
numerous, compofing long, folitary cluiters, at the end of
each branch. Legumes pendulous, (lightly hairy, com-
pre(red, thick-edged, three quarters of an inch long, having
an annular appearance at each fide from the projection of
the ufually folitary y^fj/.

15. S. perficum. Perfian Broom. Willd. n. 14. (Cy-
tifus perficus ; Burm. Ind. 163. t. 51. f. i.) — Leaves ter-
nate, linear- lanceolate, ftalked ; the middle leaflet twice
as large as the others. Branches divaricated, roundi(h.
Flowers terminal, racemofe. — Native of Perfia. A fmall
fpecies, whofe genus feems uncertain, and of which neither
we nor Willdenow have feen any fpecimcn. There appears,
hovi'ever, fome affinity between it and the laft. T)\tflowers
evidently compofe terminal clufters. The branches, flalhs,
and caly:^ are downy.

16. S. patens. Woolly-podded Broom. Linn. Syft.
Veg. ed. 13. 535. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 10, excluding
the fynonyra of Cavanilles. (Cytifus patens ; Linn. Syft.
Veg. ed. 13. 555. C. pendulinus ; Linn. Suppl. 328. C.
lufitanicus, medicse folio, floribus in foliorum alis ; Tourn.

Ink.

SPARTIUM.

Inft. 648.) — Leaves ternate, ftalked, obovate. Branches
round, ftriated. Flowers lateral, droopinp. Calyx two-
lipped, broad, filky. Germen very woolly- — Native of
Portugal and Spain. Hardy in our gardens, flowering
in June and July. The branches fpread widely, and are
clothed with numerous, ftalked, iiYky leaves, ufually fhorter
than the large, tumid, pendulous, yeW.ow Jloivers, which are
moftly folitary, fometimes in pairs, by the fide of each tuft
of leaves, on fimple filky ftalks. The calyx is deeply di-
vided, (hallow, fpreading widely, befprinkled with filky
hairs. Petals very large, fmooth, rounded and obtufe.
Germen clothed with extremely long, woolly hairs, and
iheathed in the ^ervaz'asntjlamens, but at length becoming
an oblong, comprefled, wavy, very hairy legume, containing
feveral feeds. Whatever the plant of Cavanilles' Icones,
t. 176, may be, its unequal leaflets, terminal corymbofe
tnflorefcence, long (lender calyx, and fmooth germen, are all fo
totally unlike the prefent fpecies, that we wonder how even
the molt cafual perufal of its name could caufe it to be
quoted by Willdenow for fuch.

17. S. nuiigena. Cluller-flowered White Broom. Ait.
ed. I. v. 3. 13. ed. 2. n. 11. Willd. n. 16. (S. fupranu-
bium ; Maffon in Linn. Suppl. 319.) — Leaves ternate,
ftalked, lanceolate, hairy. Branches round, furrowed.
Flowers lateral, aggregate. Upper lip of the calyx abrupt.
Germen fmooth. — Difcovered by Mr. Mailon, very high
on the peak of Teneriffe, above the clouds, as he meant to
exprefs in the fpecific name. It is a greenhoufe plant at
Kew, flowering moft part of the fummer. The bufhy

Jlem, with its copious furrowed tranches, much refembles
5. junceum, but the leaves are ternate, fmall, and the

Jlonuers very much fmaller than in that fpecies, white and
fragrant, ranged in lateral tufts along the branches, on filky
ftalks. The calyx is hairy or filky, cup-fhaped ; its lower
lip elongated ; upper ftiort and abrupt. Legume an inch
and a half, or two inches long, curved, comprefted, wavy,
quite fmooth.

18. S. biflorum. Two-flowered Terminal Broom.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 133. t. 179. Willd. n. 17. — Leaves
ternate, linear-lanceolate, ftalked, fomewhat hairy. Flowers
terminal, often in pairs. Calyx villous, its lips nearly
equal. Legume fmooth. — Native of mount Atlas, near
Tlemfen. Stem bufhy, from one to two feet high, with
(lender, angular, leafy branches. Leaves fmall, ftalked,
rather filky. Flowers yellow, ereft, one, two, or three at
thefummitof each branch, rather fmaller than thofe of the
common S-fcoparium.

19. S. imifolium. Flax-lcavcd Broom. Desfont. At-
lant. V. 2. 134. t. 181. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 12. (Ge-
nifta linifolia ; Linn. Sp. PI. 997. Curt. Mag. t. 442.
G. tinftoria hifpanica ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. loi. Geniftella
infeftoria ; Ger. Em. 13 16.) — Leaves feflile, ternate, linear-
lanceolate, revolutc ; filky beneath. Clufters terminal.
Branches angular, furrowed. — Native of Barbary, Spain,
and the fouth of France. A hardy greenhoufe plant in
England, flowering moft plentifully in May and June. The

Jlem is ftirubby, much branched, and very leafy. Leaves
about an inch long, rendered very beautiful by the (ilvery
filkinefs of their under fide, in which they agree with the
calyx and young branches. Flowers of a beautiful golden
yellow, in denfe tufted cluftcrd. Legume ftiort and broad,
clothed with fliaggy hairs. S. umbcllatum, n. 10, having
frequently many ternate leaves, and agreeing nearly with
the prefent fpecies in habit, legume, and viflorcfcencc, would
perhaps have been better placed here.

26. S. fcoparium. Common Broom. Linn. Sp. PI.
996. Willd. n. 19. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 1339.

Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 52. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 89.
Fl. Dan. t. 313. Dreves Bilderb. t. 48. Ehrh. Arb.
56. (Genifta; Ger. Em. 131 1.) — Leaves chiefly ternate,
ftalked, obovate. Branches angular. Flowers lateral, fo-
litary. Calyx two-lipped, broad, fmooth. Legume
fringed. — Cotimon on fandy or gravelly dry hills, princi-
pally in the north or middle of Europe. Abundant in Bri-
tain, flowering copioufly in May and June, when it makes a
highly ornamental appearance. The Jlem is very buftiy,
from three to eight feet in height, with innumerable,
afcending, angular, fmooth, evergreen twigs. Leaves
deciduous, Imooth or fomewhat hairy ; the upper ones
generally fimple. Flowers axillary, loofely pendulous,
folitary, on long ftalks, large, ufually of a golden yellow;
fometimes orange at the outfide ; very rarely of a pale uni-
form lemon-colour : their petals fpread widely in hot funny
weather. Calyx bell-ftiaped, fmooth, glaucous and purphfh,
with two widely-fpreading lips, whofe teeth are minute and
downy. Legume comprefted, two inches long, fmooth,
fringed at the margin with denfe deciduous hairs. Seeds
numerous.

21. S. arboreum. Tree Broom. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2.
131. t. 177. Willd. n. 20. (Cytifus foliis fubrotundis
glabris, floribus amplis glomeratis pendulis ; Shaw Phyt.
Afr. n. 191.) — Leaves ternate, ftalked, obovate. Branches
round, furrowed. Flowers lateral, aggregate, drooping.
Calyx two-lipped, fpreading. Legume filky, with clole-
prefled hairs. — Found by profeftbr Desfontaines on mount
Atlas, and in vallies near Algiers. From eight to twelve
feet high, with a truni often as thick as the arm. It feems
akin to the laft, but more to S. patens, n. 16, of which
Desfontaines fufpeCted it might be a variety. 'YheW foliage
indeed appears much the fame, but the powers of the pre-
fent are more aggregate. The legume however leems to aft^ord
the moft certain fpecific difference, being twice as long as
that of the patens, and covered with deprefled filky hairs,
not long and fliaggy ones. Nothing is mentioned of the
pubefcence of the calyx, nor have we feen a fpeciinen : but
its teeth are reprefented like thofe of patens, much more
confpicuous than in fcoparium.

22. S. radiatum. Starry Broom. Linn. Sp. PI. 996.
Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 14. (S. ramis oppofitis angulatis, fo-
liis oppofitis fubulatis ; Mill. Ic. v. 2. 173. t. 259. S. mi-
nimum montanum triphyllum ; Column. Ecphr. 295. t. 294.
f. 2. Genifta radiata, five ftellaris ; Bauh. Hill. v. i. p. 2.
399.) — Leaves ternate, oppofite, linear; with Ihort, dilated,
permanent footftalks. Brancht-s oppofite or aggregate,
angular. Clufters capitate, terminal. Legume ovate,
hairy. — Native of Italy and Carniola. Hardy with us, in
mild winters at lead. Flowering in June and July. The
great abundance of naked radiating branches, crowned with
tufts of handfome ycWov/ Jlowers, readily diftinguifli this
fpecies. The broad, fliort, permanent, concave footjlalks,
hardening into fpinous-tipped fcalcs, under the branches, are
very remarkable. The linear filky leaves, being oppofite
and ternate, look as if whorled. The cdlyx is tubular, filky
as well as the keel. Legume ftiort, broadly ovate, pointed,
covered with long filky hairs, and containing feveral fmall

feeds.

23. S.ferox. Sharp-thorned Broom. Desfont. Atlant.
v. 2. 136. t. 182. Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 15. (Cytifus
foliis oblongis feffilibus glabris, filiquis comprcflis iiicanis ;
Shaw Phyt. Afric. n. 194.) — Leaves partly ternate, elliptic-
oblong, pointed. Branches ftriated, with Ipinous points.
Chillers terminal. Legume linear, hoary. — Native of Bar-
bary. The Jem is tliree or four feet high, with numerous
Uraight leafy branches, wliich, after bearing each a terminal

fflie.

SPARTIUM.

Jpile, or chpr, of yeWo^foivers, become very (harp thorns.
The Uanies are moll of them fimple, on (hort Italics, nearly
fmooth ; fome of the lower ones ternate. Corolla fmooth,
ohlontj and flender, fomewhat like Genijla tinSona. Calyx
eloneated. Germen filvery. Legume about an inch and a
half "long, linear, (lightly curved, clothed with (hort, clofe-
prelTed, lioary hairs. Seeds numerous.

24. S./finofum. Prickly Broom. Linn. Sp. PI. 997.
Wiiid. n. 23. Ait. n. 16. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 135.
(Acacia altera Diofcoridis ; Lob. Ic. v. 2. 95. A. altera
trifolia; Ger. Em. 1330. A. altera; Matth. Valgr. v. i.
176.) — Leaves ternate, ftalked, obovate. Flowers axillary.
Calyx fmooth. Branches Itriated, with alternate, Ipread-
iiig, angular, furrowed thorns. Legume oblong, fmooth. —
Native of Italy, Spain, and Barbary. Gerarde appears to
have cultivated it in 1 596, and it is marked by Mr. Aiton, as
a greenhoule (hrub, flowering in June and July ; but we have
feldom met with it in coUeftions. The whole bufh is armed
with very (trong, long and (harp thorns, fpreading in every
direiSion. Leaves on long (talks, each of three equal,
broadi(h-obovate, fometimes emarginate, leaflets ; rather
hairy beneath. Floiuers half the iize of S. fcoparium, foli-
tary or aggregate, (talked. Calyx membranous, with ob-
folete teeth. Legume pendulous, comprelfed, thick-edged,
(lightly tumid, fmooth, an inch and a half long, with from
two to (our feeds.

25. S. villo/um. Hairy.podded Thorny Broom. Vahl
Symb. V. 2. 80. Willd. n. 24. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth.
t. 673, unpubliflied. (S. lanigerum ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2.
135. Cylifus fpinofus creticus, filiqua villis denfiHtmis lon-
gilhmis et incanis obdufta ; Tourn. Cor. 44.) — Leaves ter-
nate, (talked, obovate. Flowers axillary. Calyx hairy.
Branches furrowed, fpinous, downy. Legume linear-oblong,
very hairy. — Native of Gibraltar, Barbary, and Crete. Dr.
Sibthorp found it every where in Greece and the ifles of the
Archipelago, where it is known by the names of ao-TaXolo,-,
or ctT-^aAxiinx, and he judged it to be the ajTry.Xaii; of
Diofcorides. This fpecies flowers in its native country in
April. We have never met with a garden fpecimen. The
habit of the whole plant is like the la(f, but the /pines are
all terminations of branches, which are finely downy, and
neatly ftriated. In the Jlowers we fcarcely obferve a dif-
ference, except the denfe hairinefs of the calyx; but the
germen is excefTively hairy, and the legume di{fers effentially
in its narrower, more linear, form, and its denfe cloathing,
of long (haggy hairs.

26. S. horridum. Many-thonied Broom. Vahl Symb.
V. I. 51. Willd. n. 25. Sm. Fl. Gra;c. Sibth. t. 674, un-
publiihed — Leaves ternate, linear, folded, filky. Branches
oppoiite, aggregate, furrowed, fpinous. Flowers lateral.
Legume ovate, hairy as well as the calyx. — Native of Spain,
as well as of hills in Greece and the Archipelago. This is
a very denfely branchedyjrui, like a furze bufh, befet with
innumerable, thorny, cluitered, fomewhat hairy, branches,
bearing a very few and fmall leaves. The Jlowers are yellow,
but half the fize of the laft, placed two or three on each
young branch, near its point. Calyx pale, two-lipped,
hairy, as well as the ieel, and little, tawny, ovate or rhom-
boid, pointed legume, which fcarcely contains more than one
feed.

The 5. complicalum, lAnn. Sp. PI. 996, is now Cyli/us
divaricatus, Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 11 19. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 4. 319. Curt. Mag. t. 1387. Sm. Fl. Grsec. Sibth.
t. 704, unpubhihed. — Cylifus dilfers from Spurtium in having
the Jilaments feparated to the very bottom, into two diltinft
fets, and the germen (talked. There is a general refemblance
in habit between fome of the fpecies to each other. More

difficulty exids in diftinguifhing Spartium and Genijla ; the
latter being charafterized chiefly by the deprelFn n of it*
organs of impregnation along with the keel, while the Jlandarit
is ftrongly divaricated. The involute_/?/^ma, and the Jlament
not being attached to the germen, are lefs obvious dillinc-
tions. See Genista.

Three Linnasan fpecies of Sparlium, as we have already
hinted, named conlaminatum, fepiarium, and cytifeides, with
one from the firft edition of Alton, fericeum, all natives of
the Cape of Good Hope, are removed by Thunberg from
hence, and eftablifhed, with four other (hrubs from the fame
country, as a didinft genus, named Lebeckia, in Thun-
bcrg's Prodromus, and in Willd. Sp. PL v. 3. 946. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 4. 261. This ranges next after Geni/la, and
i< defined as follows.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep acute fegments, w^ith rounded
finufes. Filaments monadelphous. Legume cylindrical, with
many feeds.

Seftion I. Leaves Jimple.

1. L,. contaminata. Narrow-leaved Lebeckia. Willd. n. i.
Ait. n. I. (Spartium contaminatum ; Linn. Mant. 268.) —
Leaves fimple, linear-thread (haped, fmooth, ftained at the
bafe. Flowers racemofe. — Native of fandy ground at the
Cape. Stem flirubby, branched, fmooth and round. Leaver
alternate, an inch and a half or two inches long, acute,
glaucous ; flattilh above ; purple at the bafe. Flowers in
a long, fimple, terminal clufter, orange-coloured, with 3
yellow keel. The Jlamens are defcribed as all equally com-
bined. We know not by what accident Thunberg calls the

Jletuers umbellate, which Willdenow copies, in direft con-
tradiftion to the Linnxan defcription fubjoined.

2. 'L.fepiaria. Capillary Lebeckia. Willd. n. 2. (Spar-
tium fepiarium ; Linn. Sp. PI. 995. Lathyroides, vel la-
thyris congener, linarias foliis, aithiopicum ; Pluk. Mant.
114. Amalth. t. 424. f. I. Yellow Cape Broom, with
fennel leaves ; Petiv. Gazoph. t. 83. f. 3.) — Leaves fimple,
capillary, fmooth. Flowers racemofe.— Native of the Cape,
like all the reft of the fpecies. This has more copious,
longer, and much (lenderer leaves than the foregoing, with
larger^^ow^rj, whofe tenthjlamen is feparated, in its upper
part at leaft, from the reft.

3. L. pungens. Spinous Downy Lebeckia. Thunb.
Prodr. 122. Willd. n. 3. — "Leaves fimple, obovate.
Branches downy, all becoming fpinous at the end. Flowers
folitary."

SeAion 2. Leaves ternate.

4. L. armata. Tliorny Grey Lebeckia. Thunb. Prodr.
122. Willd. n. 4. — " Leaves ternate. Branches hoary,
round, becoming thorny. Flower?! racemofe."

5. L. denfa. Denfe-leaved Lebeckia. Thunb. Prodr.
122. Willd. n. 5. — " Leaves ternate, villous ; leaflets con-
volute, oblong. Flowers racemofe, diftant."

6. L. humilis. Dwarf Lebeckia. Thunb. Prodr. 122.
Willd. n. 6. — " Leaves ternate. villous ; leaflets linear-
oblong. Flowers racemofe, reflexed. Branches incurved."

7. \^. fericea. Silky Lebeckia. Thunb. Prodr. 122.
Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 2. (S'pa.tium fericeum ; Ait. ed. I.
V. 3. 12.) — « Leaves ternate. filky; leaflets linear. Flowers
racemofe. Branches angular." — Sent by Mr. MalTon to
Kew, in 1774. It flowers in the greenhoufe, in April.

8. L. cytifoides. Cytilus-kaved Lebeckia. Willd. n. 8.
Ait. n. 3 (Spartium cytifoides; Linn. Suppl. 320. Ebe.
nus capenlis ; Linn. Mant. 264. Trifolinni africa"um fruti-
cans, folio anguftiore, flore rubicante ; Commel. Hort. v. 2.
213. t. 107.) — Leav- s ternate, filky; knftets linear-lanceo-
late. Flowers racemofe. Branches round. — Communicated
by Thunberg to Linnxus. Maffon fent it from the Cape to

Kew

SPA

Kcw garden in 17741 where it flowers in the greenhoufe, in
April. We prefume this to be nearly akin to the lalt. The
leaves in the original fpecimen are lilky, not villous ; each
ieaflet above an inch long. Flowers large, in terminal foli-
tary clujlers. Calyx bell-fhaped, fmooth, coloured. Petals
reddifti. Legume long, with the rudiments of mzny feeds,
only one of which is faid to come to perfeftion.

Spartium, in Gardening, contains plants of the deciduous
and evergreen kinds, among which the fpecies cultivated are
the common broom (S. Icoparium) ; the Spaniih broom
(S. junceum) ; the ftarry broom (S. radiatum) ; the white-
flowered fingle-feeded broom (S. monofpermum) ; the yel-
low-flovvered fingle-feeded broom (S. fphaerocarpum ) ; the
fcorpion broom (S. fcorpius); the angular-branched broom
(S. angulatum) ; and the prickly broom (S. fpinofum).

In the firft fpecies there are feveral varieties, fome of
which merit a place among flowering (hrubs ; as that with a
purple calyx, and the flowers ftrongly tinged with orange,
as well as that which is very hoary.

The fecond fpecies has alfo a variety with double flowers.

Method of Culture. — The three firft forts are hardy, but
the others more tender, efpecially in their young growth.
And they are all capable of being raifed from feeds, and the
double-bloffomed forts alfo by layers and cuttings. The
feeds fliould be fovvn in the early fpring, as about April ;
the hardy forts in beds of common earth, either in drills, or
by bedding in to the depth of an inch : but in the tender
ferts, in pots or beds hooped over to proteft them in frofty
weather. In the following fpring they (hould be removed
into nurfery-rows or larger pots, according to the kinds,
fhortening their tap-roots, and fetting them out in rows two
feet apart, at the diftance of one in the rows, to remain two
or three years, when they may be planted out in the flirub-
bery, or other places where they may be wanted : the tender
forts in pots, being removed to the greenhoufe or garden for
proteftion in winter, and managed as the hardy forts of
plants of this kind.

But the layers fliould be laid down in the autumn or
fpring, and the cuttings may be planted out in the fpring
or fummer, fome in the open ground, and others in pots
plunged in the hot-bed, to promote their itriking root.
They may be managed afterwards as the other forts. This
is the only certain mode of preferving the varieties.

All the hardy forts are very ornamental in the borders,
clumps, and other parts, and the tender kinds in greenhoufe
coUeftions, and among other more hardy potted plants.

It is conilantly proper, as a precautionary pradlice, to have
fome of the tender forts of thcfe plants always in pots,
under the greenhoufe management, with the view of more cer-
tainly preferving them, in cafe thofc which are planted out
in the flirubberics or other parts of the open grounds fliould
fuffer much or be wholly dcdroyed by the too great feverity
of very fevere winter feafons. And as the long roots of the
plants which are naked or but tliinly fct with fibres, are not
unfrequently difpofed to run downwards with a long tap-
root, they fliould be planted out when young as much as
poffible where they arc to remain and grow, as tliey do not
fucceed well, where they are tranfplantcd or removed into a
new fituation when of a large or old growth.

Spartium Scoparium, Common Broom, in the Materia
Medtca. The tops and feeds are dircdlcd for uie : the tops
and leaves have a nauleous bitter tufte, imparted by infufion
both to water and fpirit. They arc commended for their
purgative and diuretic qualities, and have therefore been fuc-
icelsfully employed in hydropic cafes. Dr. Cullen ordered
half an ounce of frefli broom-tops to be boiled in a pound

SPA

of water till one half of this is confumed, and gave of
this decoftion two table-fpoonfuls every hour, till it ope-
rated by ftool, or till the whole was taken. It fcldom
failed, he fays, to operate both by ftool and urine ; and
by repeating this exhibition every day, or every fecond
day, fome dropfies have been cured. It is affirmed,
that a patient, by taking half a pint of a decoftion of
green broom-tops, with a fpoonful of whole muRard-
feed, every morning and evening, was cured, after being
tapped three times, and trying the ufual remedies given
in dropfies. The aflies of broom have alfo been much
ufed in dropfies, and principally on the authority of Syden-
ham, whofe account of their good eff"efts has been confirmed
by the teftimony of Dr. Monro, who gave a drachm divided
into three dofes every day, and by other writers ; the efiicacy
of this medicine depending entirely upon the alkaline fait,
and not at all upon the veget-ible from which it is obtained.
The feeds and flowers of broom are faid to be emetic and ca-
thartic ; but the evidence upon which this aflertion rells is
not wholly to be relied upon, as the former, when roafted,
have been ufed as a fubftitutc for coffee, and the latter em-
ployed as a pickle. Ray informs us, from the MS. of Dr.
Hulfe, that the flor. genilt. given in the form of eledluary,
with honey of rofes, were found very efficacious in fcro-
phulous aff^eftions. Woodv. Med. Bot.

SPARTOPOLIAS Lai-is, in Natural Hi/lory, a name
given by fome authors to a whitifli agate, variegated with
long and flender ftrcaks of grey, difpofed in a varioufly un-
dulated order, and rcfcmbling grey hairs.

SPARUS, in Ichthyology, a genus of fiflies of the order
Thoracici, of which the generic charafler is ; teeth gene-
rally ftrong ; the grinders fomewhat obtufe and crowded ;
the lips are doubled ; gill-membrane five-rayed ; the cover
fcaly ; the body comprefled ; the lateral line curved on the
hind part ; the peftoral fins are rounded.

The mme fparus is of Greek origin, being derived from
the verb a-trKijsr., to palpitate or tremble ; and was given to
this fifli from its remarkable quality of trembling or pal-
pitating all over the body, as foon as taken out of the
water.

There are, according to Gmelin, about forty fpecies,
feparated into divifions, and claflcd according to tlieir co-
lours ; but Dr. Shaw has enumerated nearly four times
that number. Tiie greater number of fpecies being exotic,
little is known of their hiftory ; they are evidently allied
to the Labri. See Labrus.

Species.
J A. Marked with a hlacl Spot.

*AuRATU.s ; or Lunated Gilt-head. The fpecific
charafter of tliis is, that between the eyes there is a femi-
lunar fpot. The general length of this lifli is about fifteen
inches ; but occafionally it is found of a far larger fize : the
body is broad and tliin ; tlie back nfing into a cjrina.
Dr. Shaw gives the fpecific charaAer m filvery-blneifli, with
gold-coloured brows, and a purple ipot beyond each fide
the head ; but foinetinics, lie fays, with tiie addition of
leveral brownifli longitudinal llripes. It is a native of the
Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indian fcas, and held in con-
fiderable elliinatuin as food. It was much admired by the
ancient Greeka and Romans ; by tlie former it w.is confe-
crated to Venus. It feeds on fliell-fifli, which it grinds
with its (trong teeth before it fwallows. It is fometimes
found of the weiglit of eight or even ten pounds.

Annui-AKIS. YcUowidi, with a black ocellatc fpot near
2 the

SPARUS.

the tail. This is found chiefly in the Adriatic. The co-
lour of this fpecies refembles that of the common perch :
at a certain dlllance from the bafe of the tail a round black
fpot is f.tuated at the bottom of the laft dufty bar of the
body ; tiie pedoral fins and tail are red, the reft blackilh.
Native of the Mediterranean, and not at all in efteem for the

Sargus. The body of this is marked with black
bands, and a black ocellate fpot near the tail. It inhabits
the fouthern coafts of Europe. The body is oval, broad ;
the teeth are equal, obtufe ; and the tail forked. It is
nearly of the fizc of the auratus, and the fhape very like that,
but deeper in proportion. It is much efteemed as food.

Melanurus. Body with longitudinal' lines and a black
ocellate fpot near the tail. This fpecies is found in the
fouthern European feas. It is defcribed by Shaw as fil-
rery, with a blue back ; the fides have a ftripe, fpotted lon-
gitudinally with brown, and a black fpot at the bafe of the
tail.

Smaris. a black ocellate fpot on each fide ; peftoral
fins and tail red. It inhabits the Mediterranean.

McENA. Body variegated ; a blackifh fpot on each fide.
This is alfo found in the Mediterranean.

Saxatilis. Body vvhiti(h ; a black ocellate fpot at the
bafe of the tail. This is found on the coafts of Surinam.
The fnout is deprelfed ; and the tail rounded.

Orphus. a black ocellate fpot at the tail ; the head
IS reddiih ; the tail is entire.

Punctata. Mouth cufpidate ; the tail entire ; in co-
lour it is partly black. It inhabits the (hores of Sardinia.
In fize and colour it is nearly allied to the S. fargus.

Argentatus. This has a black fpot behind the gills.
It is found on the coaits of Japan ; is fix inches long ; the
body is covered with filvery fcales ; before the eyes are
two noftrils.

NoTATus. Dorfal fin divided ; the gill-covers and tail
fpotted with black. It is found at Japan. The head is
coated with filvery fcales, nearly as long as the fingers.

§ B. Body moflly red.

Erythrinus. The tail of this fifh is nearly entire ; the
body red. It inhabits the European, American, and Japan
feas. It is often eaten, but is not held in any great cftima-
tion ; and it has fometimes proved poifonous : the iris is
filvery.

Insidiator. Body red, yellowilh at the fides ; tail a
little forked. It inhabits the Indian ocean ; is about ten
inches long ; catches aquatic infetls, like the Chsetodon
roftratus, with its fnout, which it can lengthen out into a
tube ; the body is rather broad, fat, coated with large
fcales of a metallic-green colour at the edge ; when dead it
becomes brown ; the flefti is eatable. It is defcribed as
having a comprefTed head, and fcaly ; the eyes are lateral ;
jaws divided, each with two large ftraight conic teeth in the
middle ; gill-covers very entire ; firft lateral line nearer the
back, bogiuning at the end of the dorfal fin, the other
ftraiglu ; the vent is nearly in the middle ; the fins are
yellowilh ; the dorfal and anal fins are marked with green
bands ; the laft ray but one of the anal is very long.

* FoHMCSL'S. Red ; longitudinal marks on the body and
tip of the tail blue. This firti is figured in Dr. Shaw's
Naturalift's Mifcellany, and he fufpefted that it was a Britifh
fifh ; hence it is marked with an afterifk. The fore-part
of the dorfal, and edge of the anal fins, are blue.

*Pagrus; the Red Gilt-head. This is reddifh; the

flcin, at the end of the dorfal and anal fins, gathered up, aad
hiding the laft rays. It is found in the European feas. la
fliape, teeth, and fize, it relembles S. auratus. The iris is
filvery ; infides of the gill-covers, mouth, and tongue, are
of a fine red ; at the bafe of the peftoral fins is a ferruginous
fpot ; the fcales are large ; and the tail is forked.

Spinifer. Dorfal fpines recumbent ; the five middle
ones filiform and longer. This inhabits the muddy deeps
of the Red fea ; is about a fpan and a half long. The body
is filvery, but with a reddifh hue ; the back is marked with
darker lines ; the fcales are broad, very entire, obfcurely
ftreaked, and the flefh is reckoned excellent.

Palpebratus. This is of a chefnut-red ; the eyes are 1
of a pale yellow, covered with a loofe yellowifh membrane.
This is found on the coafts of Amboina. It refembles a
perch ; but the head is more obtufe.

§ C. Body marked •with Lines.

BooPS. Longitudinal lines duflty ; the four lower ones
are gold and filvery. It inhabits the fea round Japan.

Cantharus. The tail is without fpots ; the body is
marked with longitudinal lines. It inhabits the coaft of
Tufcany. The iris is filvery.

Chromis. The tail is bifid ; the fecond ray of the ven-
tral fin is fetaceous. It inhabits fouthern Europe.

Salpa. Tail bifid ; the body is marked with eleven
tawny longitudinal lines. It is found in the Mediterranean.

Sarba. This is of an oblong oval fhape, filvery, with
numerous obfolete ftripes ; the ventral fins are yellow, with
a golden hne on each fide near them. It inhabits the
Mediterranean, and along the coafts of Arabia. The body
is broad, and covered with broad entire fcales ; there are
feveiiteen longitudinal brownifh ftripes on each fide; the
flefh is reckoned pleafant.

Synagris. The tail is bifid, red ; the body is purplifh,
with feven gold hnes on each fide. It inhabits South
America.

Rhomboides. The tail is entire ; the back is caniculate ;
the body with yellow lines. It inhabits America, and is
there called the falt-water bream. The teeth are obtufe ; be-
tween the roots of the peftoral and dorfal fins a black fpot }
the ventral, anal, and caudal fins are tawny.

Latus. Yellowifli ; the head is filvery ; the fcales lon-
gitudinally imbricate. It inhabits about the coafts of
Japan ; is three inches long, and one and a half broad.

ViRGATUS. The tail is forked ; the body is depreffed,
oblong, ftriped with fcales. This is found on the coaft of
Japan.

Haffara. Silvery, with fourteen obfolete yellowifh-
brown lines on each fide ; the tail is bifid. It inhabits the
muddy fhores of Arabia ; is about a fpan long j and the
flefh is reckoned good.

Berda. Whitifh-afh ; lateral fcales with each a tranf-
verfe brown band in the middle ; the dorfal fpines are re-
cumbent. It is found in the Red fea. The body is oval ;
the back is gibbous, with obfolete bands ; beneath it is
white ; the fcales are broad, round, and entire.

Chilensis, The tail is bifid ; the body is marked vnth
tranfverfe brown lines on each fide. It inhabits, as its
fpecific name denotes, Chih, in South America. It grows
to full fix feet long ; in fhape it is oval, depreffed, coated
with large rhomboidal margaritaceous fcales, fpotted with
white ; the flefii is good.

§ D. Variotis.

Chhysops. The tail is femi-lunar ; the back is grooved ;

the

SPA

the iris is golden. It inhabits Carolina. The body is
blueifh.

Argykops. Tail femi-lunar ; the back is grooved ;
iris is filvery. It inhabits Jamaica and Carolina. It re-
fembles the laft. The three firft rays of the dorfal fin end
in a long bridle.

Dentex. The tail is bifid ; the body is variegated ;
four of the teeth are larg-er. It inhabits many parts of
Europe, and the Cape of Good Hope.

Spinus. Tail bihd ; dorfal fpine recumbent. It inhabits
South America and India. The body is apparently
painted with blue recurved blotches.

Radiatus ; Pudding-fifh. The tail is entire ; lateral
line compofed of linear fcales, divided into tliree bifid
branches. This is found on the coaft of Carolina. Above
it is a green purple at the fides ; beneath rufous ; head
varied with blue, yellow, and green ilreaks.

VlRGlNrCL's. The tail is bifid ; the body with two
black tranfverfe bands, and numerous longitudinal lines. It
inhabits North America.

MoRMYRUS. The tail of this fpecies is bifid ; body
with numerous filvery and black bands. It inhabits
Tufcany.

Capistratus. The tail of this is entire ; the body is
reticulate with white. It inhabits America. Body ob-
long ; fcales loofely imbricate, with a white band bent into
a right angle before the edge.

Galil^us. The tail entire ; body above is greenifh,
beneath white. It inhabits the lake Genezareth, in Galilee.

FuscESCENS. Brownifti ; fcales golden ; near the pec-
toral fins a black fpot. It inhabits Japan, and is about
four inches long.

* Niger ; Toothed Gilt -head. The back is black ; the
fides brighter ; belly filvery. This is found on the coafts
of Yorkfhire. It is defcribed in Pennant's Britifh Zoology.
The body is twenty-fix inches long, and ten broad ; eyes
large ; teeth in the lower jaw flender, Iharp, and on each
fide a flender canine tooth, in the upper jaw a fingle row ;
the firft feven rays of the dorfal fin high, the reft low ; this
fin and the anal covered with imbricate fcales.

Sparus, among the Romans, a kind of ruftic weapon,
bent backwards like the foot. It was likewife ufed for a
fmall dart, or miffive weapon.

SPASA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Archangel ; 40 miles S.W. of Mczen.

SPASK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Kazan,
on the Volga ; 40 miles S. of Kazan. N. lat. 55°. E.
long. 49° 14'. — Alfo, a town of Rufiia, in the government
of Tambov ; 92 miles N.N.E. of Tambov. N. lat. 54® 2'.
E. long. 42" 58'. — Alfo, a town of Rufiia, in the oovern-
ment of Riazan, on the Oka ; 32 miles E.S.E. of Riazan.
N. 1st. 54° 32'. E. long. 39° 50'.

SPASKAIA, a town of Rufiia, in the country of the
Colfack", on the Don ; 52 miles S.S.W. of Arkadinflfaia.
— Alio, a town of Rufiia, in the government of Upha ;
8 miles S. of Verchouralflc.

SPASKOI, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Kolivan. N. lat. 55° 38'. E. long. 86° 14'.— Alfo, a town
of Rulfia, in the government of TobolH< ; 36 miles N. of
Tomfl<. — Alfo, a town of Rufiia, in the j^overnmcnt of
Tobolflc ; 20 miles W. of Narim. — Alfo, a town of
Rufiia, in the government of Olonetz ; 60 miles N.E. of
Pudora.

S'-'ASM, in Medicine, (r-^xTfio:, from o-Tas;, I draiu, or
contraB, a cramp, in its modern fenfe, fignifies a continued
and painful contraftion of a mufcle, or any portion of muf-
cular fibres ; in which fignification it Hands in oppofition to

Vol. XXXIII.

SPA

eonvulfion- This, however, appears to have been an arbi-
trary determination of its acceptation, which does not
ftriftly accord with the original ufe of the word. For
Celfus has diftinftly defined fpafm, as meaning convulfive
motion, and applies the word tetanus to the rigid and fixed
contraftion, as we have Hated in another place. " Mode
nervorum dillentionem, niodo rigorem ; illud o-racj-jixo:-, hoc
if.-a.io-, Graece nominatur." (De Medicina, lib. ii. cap. 1.)
See Convulsions. Some writers, however, have applied
the term, fpafm, to both thefe forms of difeafe ; ufing the
epithet of tonic to fignify the ttate of rigid contraftion, and
clonic to denote the violent contradlions and relaxations of
convulfion. Others again have applied tiie word to every
irregular attion of the mufcular or moving fibres, in any part
of the body. (See CuUen, Firft Lines, par. 1251.) This
latitude has led the celebrated author, jult quoted, to bring
together difeafes, which have very little refemblance in the
morbid atlions which conftitute them ; as, for inftance,
hyfteria, diabetes, colic, and hydrophobia, which are clafled
together as fpafmodic affeftions of the natural fun&ions, in
his fyftem of nofology.

The various funftions of the animal body are performed
by certain contraftions of the moving or mufcular fibres, in
which alone that power is inherent. Thefe contradlions are
excited either by the will, in thofe mufcles which obey the
faculty of vohtion ; or by certain llimuli or caufes of irrita-
tion, appointed by nature for that purpofe, in thofe which
are not under the influence of the will. The blood, for in-
ftance, excites the motions of the heart ; the pafling ali-
ments produce the periftaltic contraftions of the bowels ;
and fo forth. In a ftate of health, the contraAions are re-
gulated in force and velocity by the will, or by thefe natural
irritations ; and whether produced by the one or the other,
they are always foon fucceeded by a ftate of relaxation, and
are not repeated, until the will or thefe natural excitement*
operate again. But in a morbid ftate, the contraftions of
the moving fibres, ordinarily depending on the will, are ex-
cited without the concurrence of the will, or contrary to
what it intends ; and in the other funftions, they are excited
by the aftion of unufual and unnatural caules, or, from too
ereat mobility, are rouled to more violent and continued
contraftions by the ordinary caufes. When the contrac-
tions are more violent in degree than is ufual in health, and
are neither fucceeded by a fpbntaneous relaxation, nor even
yield readily to an extenfion, either from the adtion of anta-
gonift mufcles, or from other extending powers applied,
this Itate is called a tonic fpafm, or fimply z fpafm. For an
account of the fucceflive violent contraftions and relaxations
under this morbid excitement, fee Convulsions.

The prefence of fpafm, in any mufcular part, is indicated
by intenfe/iain, (and it muft be obvious, from what has juft
been ftated, that thofe pathologills, who fpeak of fpafmodic
affeftions of nerves, membranes, and fuch uncontr;.ftiblc
parts, ufe an erroneous language;) a fymptoin, however,
which occurs alfo in inflammation of the fame parts : and
as the remedies for inflammation are injurious in Ipafm, and
vice verfii, it is always important to afcertain the real origin
of fuch pain. The pain arifing from fpafm commonly at-
tacks very fuddcnly, or even inftantaneoufly ; it generally
comes and goes, or is intenfe for a while, and then fiibfides
at intervals, as the fpafm reci'.s and relaxes; it very often
fiiifts its feat, as difiercnt portions of the mufcular fibres of
any part are fi'ccefiively contrafted ; and, above all, it is
not attended with general fever, and the pulfe is neither
accelerated, nor increafcd in hardnefs. The pain connected
with inflammation of any organ is commonly more flow and
gradual in its attack ; it is accompanied or preceded bf
3 N fiiivering ;

SPA

/hivering ; it is fixed both in refped to the intenfity and to
the feat of it ; and it is attended by fymptoms of fever, heat
of (kin, a quick and hard pulfe, third, &c. The kind of
pain, too, is defcribed as different : that of fpafm being ac-
companied by a fenfe of conttrittion ; while that of inflam-
mation is combined with a fenfe of itabbing or cutting, and
often of throbbing, burning, &c.

Of thefe painful fpafmodic difeafes, the tetanus is the
moft formidable and fatal, in which all the voluntary mufcles
are rigidly contrafted, and the body and limbs ftiffly ex-
tended ; in ftort, an univerfal .cramp exifts, and the pain of
fuch a condition may be conceived, if we confider the fuf-
fering produced by a partial cramp. Sometimes the anta-
gonill mufcles of the back are mofl affefted, when the body
is rigidly bent backwards, like a bow, and rells upon the
back of the head and the heels, when it is called cpijlhctonos ;
and fometimes the anterior mufcles are moll contrafted, and
the bend is forwards, which is called emprqfthotonos. ( See
Tetanus.) The jaw is firmly locked in this complaint ;
and when the fpafm is confined to that part, it is called
Trismus, or locked-jaw ; which fee. Lefs formidable,
though very painful, fpafms occur in the mufcular coat of
the inteftines, conftituting colic ; or in that of the ftomach,
which is ufually called cramp In the Jlomach. In hyiterical
women, various cramps of thefe parts, and of the voluntary
mufcles, are liable to occur. The fit of fpafmodic eifthma
is principally produced by a fpafmodic contraftion of the
mufcular fibres about the larynx, and of the mufcles fub-
fervient to refpiration.

In the pathological doftrines of Dr. Cullen relative to
the nature of fever, fpafm holds a diftinguiflied place, and is
confidered, indeed, as the eflence of fever. This hypo-
thetical fpafm was fuppofed by him to take place in the ex-
tremities of the arteries, and efpecially of thofe on the iurface
of the body, and to be demonftrated by the palencfs and
fhrinking of the external parts, and the fuppreflion of the
excretions, conftituting the cold fit ; and the hot fit, which
enfues, was believed to be an effort of the conftitution, a re-
aftion of the powers of hfe, and of the heart and arteries in
particular, to overcome and to relax this fpafmodic con-
ftriftion of the extreme veflels ; and this reaftion, or fever,
therefore, is fcen to continue until the relaxation of the
fpafm is effefted. ( See Firit Lines of Praft. of Phyfic,
par. 4c. et feq.) We have confuted this hypothefis at
confiderable length, in another place, (fee Feveh, Dr.
Cul/en's Theory,) and (hall not dwell upon it here. It is
altogether gratuitous, and uhfupported by fa£ls ; but it has
had confiderable influence in modern pradice.

The caufes of fpafm may be reduced to two heads : de-
tility, and its concomitant irritability, in the whole fyftem,
or in particular organs, whic!i are, therefore, excited to in-
ordinate aftions by the ordinary ftimuli ; and irritation, that
is, the aftual operation of unufual and extraordinary ftimuli.
If thefe two caufes are combined, it is obvious that any ex-
citement, very little greater than ordinary, may produce
violent fpafm, or very inordinate adlions : whence it hap-
pens, that in conftitutions of particular irritability, very
flight irritations will occafionally produce the moit fevere
fpafmodic diforders. Thus the moit violent of all, the te-
tanus, is often occafioned by a fcratch or flight wound of
the fkin ; and the locked-jaw of new-born infanta appears to
originate in the irritation of the meconium retained in the
bowels. If the irritation of worms, and even morbid fecre-
tions, in the inteftines are fufficienl, in children, to produce
aftual convulfions, it need not be matter of furprife that
colic and cramp of the ftomach fliould be occafiooed, in
irritable adults, by undigelted food, and hot ftimulating

SPA

drinks. Very flight irritations, both external and internal,
excite fpafms in fuch habits ; even the punfture of a needle
(Mem. of the Med. Society of Lond. vol. ii.); and the
preffure of a tumour on a nerve, irritation from diftended
veffels, or bony excrefcences in the cranium, have all given
rife to fpafm.

The chief remedies for fpafm are thofe which lelTen irrita-
bility, or which excite increafed power of aftion, or produce
a fudden and confiderable commotion, and thofe which re-
move the irritating caufe. The firft mentioned are ufually
called antifpafmodic medicines. The moit effeftual of thefe
are anodyne or narcotic fubftances, efpecially opium, hyof-
cyamus, and conium, which tend to lefTen the fenfibility
of the whole frame, and, therefore, to render it lefs liable
to be afted upon by irritants. The term antifpafmodic,
however, has been much applied to medicines of a llimulant
quahty, and efpecially to fome ftrong-fmelling fubftances,
which alone are much lefs efficacious in relieving fpafm than
the narcotics. Of the latter clafs are mufk, caflor, cam-
phor, and afTafcetida ; and of the more ftimulant clafs are
alcohol, xther, ammonia, the eflential oils, &c. Perhaps
the moft efficacious remedy is compofed by uniting the
latter with the anodynes ; for we know of no relief to vio-
lent fpafmodic pain mere effeftual than that produced by a
combination of laudanum with sether. Among the ftimu-
lants that are often remedial in cafes of fpafm, heat is not
the leaft important. Fomentations, hot water, a hot brick,
a bag of heated bran, S:c. applied externally near the feat
of fpafm, will often aflford fpeedy relief ; and a large draught
of hot water, taken as warm as the ftomach will bear it, has
produced a ilmilar good effeft.

It is probably chiefly from the ftimulant effeft of violent
emotions that relief is obtained from them in fpafmodic
pain ; but fudden terror, or furprife, or apprehenfion, have
fucceeded in removing it. The influence of mental emo-
tions, indeed, both in producing and curing fpafm, and
even convulfions of the moft violent nature, is equally cu-
rious and inexplicable. See Imit.a.tion and Convul-

SION.S.

Where fpafm depends upon irritation, the caufe muft be
inveftigated, and, if poffible, removed by appropriate re-
medies, if within their reach. Thus clearing the bowels,
where there i^ an obvious irritation from worms, undigefted
aliment, morbid bile, &c. will fometimes entirely remove
the fpafms. In order to prevent a recurrence, by in-
vigorating the fyftem, and thus leflening its irritabihty,
after the ipafms have been fubdued, it is often neceffary to
refort to the ufe of tonic remedies. Of thefe a great va-
riety has been employed, at different periods, with various
reputation. Cold bathing, the ufe of the (hower-bath, or
tepid bathing, as at Buxton, may be confidered as one of
the moft efleftu.il tonics ; after which may be mentioned
fome of the metallic tonics, fuch as the various preparations
of iron, copper, zinc, and filver, all of which are often
efficient remedies. The cinchona, columba, cafcarilla, gen-
tian, and other vegetable aromatic bitters, with or without
an addition of the mineral acids, have alfo their value as
tonics, and contribute to reilore vigour and lefFen irritability
in debilitated habits.

SPASMODIC, fomething belonging to a fpafm, or
convulfion ; as fpafmodic medicine, fpafmodic difeafe, &c.

Hunger, according to M. Hecquet, is a fpafmodic affec-
tion of the fibres of the ftomach ; unlefs it arife from the
fibres being too much moiftened by the liquors thereof, fo
as to incapacitate them for their office See Hunger.

SPAT, a terra ufed by the fifhermen for the fpawn of
oyfters, which is caft, iu the month of May.

X SPATA-

SPA

SPATAGOIDES, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a
sfenus of the echini marini, the charafters of which are,
tiiat it has the aperture for the anus on one fide of the upper
furface, and has a large furrow on the back, which makes
it of a cordated form ; but has no furrows on the vertex,
but only four or five fmooth rays, made of a number of
night tranfvcrfe ilrix.

SPATALLA, in Botany, a name of Mr. Salifbury's. —
Browu Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. lo. 143. Ait. Hort. Kevv.
V. I. 203. — Clals and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Proteacea, Juli. Brown.

Efl. Ch. Corolla four-cleft. Stamens in the concave
tips of the fegments. Nettary four fcales beneath the ger-
men. Stigma oblique, dilated. Nut fuperior. Involucrum
of from two to four leaves, containing one, or a very few,
llovvers. Common receptacle naked.

An occafional irregularity in the corolla, and the oblique
Qigmd, are the only charafters which diftinguilh this genus
from Sorocephalus ; for in habit they Itriftly accord. We
cannot but, tlierefore, advife their union, under the latter
name, whofe derivation is the beft.

The fpecies of Spalalla, defined by Mr. Brown, are 15,
one of which only finds a place in Mr. Alton's work. They
are difpofed in two feftions, of each of which we (hall give
an example or two.

Section l. Involucrums fingk-Jlowered. Stigma concave,
fpO'jn-Jl:aped. Corolla unequal. Ten fpecies.

5. mollis. Soft Spatalla. Br. n. I. — " Involucrum of
two entire leaves. Leaves ftraight, villous, as well as the
young branches." — Native of hills at the Cape of Good
Hope. Communicated by Mr. John Roxburgh, to Mr.
Lambert. An uprightyZi/ti, with copious reddilh branches ;
the young ones flender, ereft. Leaves (lightly fpreading,
ieven or eight lines long, filky with moderately fpreading
iiairs, and tipped with a very (harp callous point. Spike
iefTile, erefl, folitary, denfe, racemofe, of an oblong cy-
lindrical fliape, hardly an inch in length. BraBeas leafy,
twice as long as the partial flower-llalks. Invohicral leaves
ovate, villous, the outer one broadett. Corolla denfely
bearded, purplilh ; the marginal hairs of its larger fegment
inflexed. Scales under t!ie germen linear permanent.

6. prolifera. Proliferous Spatalla. Br. n. 8. (Protea
prolifera ; Thunb. Did. n. 27. t. 4. Linn. Suppl. 118.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 518.) — Involucrum of four leaves,
withered at the points. Spike in .1 conical head. Flowers
nearly feflile. Stem proliferous. — Native of hills at the
Cape of Good Hope. An upright Jhruh, from a foot and
a half to two feet high, much branched in a prohterous and
umbellate manner ; the young branches fomewhat filky.
Leaves clofely imbricated, hardly three-quarters of an inch
long, awl-lhaped ; filky on the younger branches. Spikes
fediie, folitary, terminal, but furmounted by fnbfequent
branches from their bafe. Corullu very denfely filky ; its
outer fegment twice as large as the others. Stigma flattifh,
with a central tubercle.

Section 2. Involucriims •with three or four Jlo'wers.
Stigma rather convex. Corolla alniojl equal. Five fpecies.

S. incurva. Incurvcd-leaved Spatalla. Br. n. 11. Ait.
n. I. (Protea incurva ; Thunb. Dill. n. 22. t. 3. Willd.
Sp. PI. v. I. 516.) — Spikes racemofe, fomewhat (talked.
Involucrum downy, longer than the bratteas, with about
four flowers. Leaves incurved. Corolla unequal. — Native
of moid, fandy, rather (liady fituations at the Cape of
Good Hope. Mr. Malfon fent it, in 1789, to Kcw, where
it flowers in May and June. The haves are numerous, (len-
der, above an inch long, fpreading, afccnding al the points.

SPA

Spikes generally aggregate, oblong, lax. BraBeas nearly
the length of the partial ftalks. Mr. Brown notices a va-
riety, or perhaps diltinft fpecies, whofe leaves are (liorter
and more crowded, /pikes folitary, and l/radeas longer than
the partial (talks. 6^ incurva bears a clofe refemblance to
fome fpecies of Conospermum. See that article.

The defcriptions of the genera of Sorockphalus (fee
that article), and Spatalla, fuggeil to us a doubt whether
the (pecies of thefe genera may not, in fome inltances at
leaft, differ fexually only from each other. Not having
feen many of them, we cannot examine critically into each
fpecies, but, in a general view, the male organs feem moft
perfect in Sorocephalus, the female in Spatalla. The re-
gularity or irregularity of the corolla does not feem, in this
cafe, to conllitute a fufficient generic difference.

SPATANGI, in Natural Hi/lory, tlie name of a genus
of the echini marini, including all thofe which are marked
in the (hape of a heart, and have the aperture for the anus
in one of the fides of the upper fuperficies. Thefe have all
a remarkable furrow on the back ; their bafe is nearly flat,
and they have feveral furrows on the vertex. By thefe
charaders they are diltinguilhed from the brilTi, with which
they have in common the marks of two lips to their mouth,
and want the teeth which the other kinds have.

SPATAREI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Samos ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Cora.

SPATARO, Giovanni, of Bologna, in Biography,
the difciple of Ramis, a Spaniard, the firfl modern who
fuflained the neceifity of a temperament ; which gave birth
to a controverfy among muficians in Italy, that continued
with gre.-it warmth during many years, and which has been
revived in France during the latter end of the la(t century,
with due polemic heat, by the writings of the abbe Rouflier.
(See PyxHAGORAS. ) Spataro publifhed a work in defence
of his matter's opinion, in which he treated the venerable
Franchinus, and even Guido himfelf, with great obloquy,
for not having difcovered the neceflity of a temperament.
See R.VMis.

SPATHA, is a word ufed by different authors in va-
rious fenfes : fome exprefs by it a rib ; others the in(lru>
ment called by furgeons a fpatula, and is ufed for fpreading
ointments and platters ; and Celfus calls a fort of incifion-
knifc by this name. It is alfo ufed for the external covering
of the fruit of the palm-tree, and by others for a fword.
This lafl is indeed its proper fignification, and all the others
are only metaphorical applications of it to different things,
which bear fome refemblance to a fword.

Spaiha, in Botany and Fegetaile Phyfiology, a Sheath,
is a fort of Calvx, according to Linnxus, (lee that article,)
more or lefs remote from the flower, of which, tlierefore,
it does not, like the perianthium, properly make a part. If
of one valve only, it burlts longitudinally, as in the Nar-
ciilus and Snow-drop ; but it often coniilts of many mem-
branous valves, leaves, or fcales, as in Soweriaa, Pancratium,
&c. The natural order of Palme exhibits various kinds of
Spathx, in great perfcAion, each enclofing a branched many,
(lowered Si-adix. (See that article.) Perhaps, nevcrthe-
lefs, this organ migiit more corrcAly be etteemcd of the
nature of a BraBea, or floral leaf, not conftituting, in any
cafe, a part of the fructification, nor aftbrding any (hare
of the generic characters. We cannot but confels, that the
more clofely the definitions of genera are reflridtcd to the
real organs of the flower and fruit, without recurring to the
inflorcicence, or any of its accompaniments, the more cor-
rect and philofophical the fcience of Botany has always
appeared in our eyes. Linnxus, led by Artedi, fwervcs
3 N 2 from

SPA

from this correftnefs in the Umbelllfera ; and for want of
fufficient information refpeaing the flowers and fruit ot all
the Palma, he was obliged to advert to other parts, to
found any thing like plaufible genera. Such aberrations
from his own laws fliould rather be reformed, by thofe who
have the means, than ferve as examples for laxity of pnn-
ciple in other mftances. The greateft artiits ever require
the feweft tools, and moft fimple materials ; and the human
intelled never makes fuch attainments as when neceffarily
put to its utmoft exertions. Natural hittory, when ftudied
with all the accuracy and intenfity of which it is capable,
becomes as inftruaive and philofophical a fchool for the
mind as any fcience whatever ; nor does any one require
more deep judgment, as well as precife ohfervation.

SPATHALIUM, among the Romans, an ornament
which the women wore about their hands, not unlike the
coral ones of the moderns.

SPATHELIA, in Botany, altered from Dr. Patrick
Browne's name for the fame plant, Spathe, and alluding to
the fimple undivided Item, crowned with a tuft of luxuriant
leaves, like the Palm tribe ; o-TrxGn being a palm-tree, or
palm-branch.— Linn. Gen. 148. Schreb. 198. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 1. 1496. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 2. 171. Jufl'. 371. Lamarck lUuitr. t. 209.
Gsrtn. t. 58. (Spathe; Browne Jam. 187.) — Clafs and
order, Pentandria Trigyn'm. Nat. Ord. Terebintac£(C, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five oblong, co-
loured leaves. Cor. Petals five, oblong, equal. Stam.
Filaments five, awl-(haped, afcending, furnifhed with a
tooth at the bafe ; anthers ovate. Pijl. Germen ovate,
fhorter than the ilamens ; ftyles three, very (hort ; ftigmas
three, roundilh. Peru. Capfule oblong, triangular, with
three wings, of three cells, not burfting ; each cell fur-
nifhed with a lateral channel, full of refin. Seeds folitary,
oblong, prifmatic, or nearly cylindrical, tapering at
each end.

EfT. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Capfule
with three winged angles, and three cells. Seeds folitary.

Obf. Gaertner remarks, that the capfule is fometimes
comprefTed, with two oppofite wings only, and two cells ;
but this feems to arife merely from a failure of impregnation
of one of the ftigmas.

1. Q. /implex. Sumach-leaved Spathelia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 386. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. 1. (Aceri aut paliuro
affiiiis arbor, caudice non ramofo, foliis forbi fylveltris,
floribus pentapetalis racemofis fpeciofis purpureis, fruau
ficco tribus membranulis extantibus alato ; Sloane Jam.
V. 2. 28. t; 171.) — Plentiful by the fides of riverj, among
the rocky hills of Jamaica, accordinir to Sloane and Browne.
The latter erroneoufly calls it the Maiden-plum tree. This
very handfome plant is faid to have been introduced into the
ftoves of England, in 1778, by Dr. William Wright.
The root is ot a fpreading nature, not ftriking deep. Stem
quite fimple and erea, an inch thick, naked, round, rifing
like a palm-tree, Sloane fays, to the height of 40 feet, and
crowned at the fummit with a large tuft of pinnate, crenate,
fpreading leaves, furmounted, in the flowering feafon, with
a vail com^!-.AxxiA panicle, many feet in height, of handfome
purple fi'jivers. The capfules are about an inch long.

SPATHESTER, the name of a chirurgical inftrument
ufed to draw the prepuce over the glans.

SPATHINUS, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by the
Greeks to the ftag or deer, when in its fecond year.

In the firft, it was cilled nebrus ; in the third year, di-
crotus ; and after this cerajles, as long as it lived.

SPATHIUM, in Botany, fo denominated by Loureiro,

SPA

from avaQiov, a little Jheath, alluding to the form of its
calyx. — Loureir. Cochinch. 217. — Clafs and order, Hex-
andria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Jnundata, Linn. Ndiadet,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Sheath flalked, of one leaf, roundilh,
fpreading, fmgle-flowered. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments
fix, fhort, inferted into the receptacle ; anthers roundifh,
of two cells. Pi/l. Germen (fuperior) roundilh, with four
horns ; flyle none ; ftigmas four, oblong, reflexed. Peric.
Berries four, ovate, pointed, fingle-feeded. Seeds roundifh.

Efl". Ch. Sheath roundilh, ftalked, fingle-flowered. Co-
rolla none. Berries four, with fingle feeds.

I. S. chinenfc. Thong pin ngau of the Chinefe. — Native
of marfhy places, near Canton in China. The Jlem is ereft,
three feet high, herbaceous, with fpreading, flaccid, fur-
rowed branches. Leaves heart-fhaped, lanceolate, five-
ribbed, fmooth, fcattered, with clafping footjlalks. Spikes
linear, nearly terminal. Such is the defcription of Loureiro,
who conceives the above plant to be fomewhat akin to the
Linnaean Aponogeton, and alfo to Potamogeton. We have no
acquaintance with it.

SPATHODEA, a genus founded by Palifot de Beau-
vois, in his Flore d'Oware Cif de Benin, on feme of the
Linnsan Bignonia, and named from the Iheath-like form of
their calyx. It is adopted by Mr. Brown, in his Prodr.
Nov. HoU. v. I. 471, under the following charader.

Calyx fheatli-like, cloven down one fide, either toothed
or entire at the end. Corolla fomewhat funnel-fhaped,
with a five-lobed, rather unequal, limb. Stamens two Icmg
and two fhort, with a fifth abortive filament. Capfule pod-
like, falcate, imperfeaiy four-celled. Partition tranfverfe,
corky.

The genus is (hrubby or arboreous ; with oppofite, rarely
alternate, pinnate leaves, fometimes fimple. Flowers moltly
panicled.

Bignonia fpathacea, fee BiGNON'iA, n. 18, is an example
of Spathodea, as is alfo S. heterophylla, and perhaps alterni-
folia, of Brown.

SPATHOMELE, a word ufed by fume to exprefs the
fpatula, ufed by the apothecaries and furgeons in mixing and
fpreading ointments ar.d plafters.

SPATHOSE, in Mineralogy, having a cryftalline
ftruaure.

SPATHULARIA, in Botany, from the fpatulate Ihape
of its head, a genus of Fungi, confifting of only one fpecies.
— Perfoon Syii. Fung. 610. — Clafs and order, Cryptogamia
Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi. Sea. Gymnocarpi, helvelhidei.

Eii. Ch. Club-fhaped. Head comprefTed, membranous,
decurrent at each fide.

I. S.Javida. Yellow Spathularia. Perf. Difp. Meth.
36. Comment. 34 — 36. (Clavaria Spathula ; Dickf.
Crypt, fafc. i. 21. Fl. Dan. t. 658. C. fpatulata
glabra ; Schmid. Ic. t. 50. Eivela fecunda ; SchaefT.
Fung. t. 149. Helvella fpatulata; Sowerb. Fung. t. 35.)
— Found in fir woods, in autumn. Mr. Crowe firft dif-
covered it at Coffey, near Norwich, where, in the planta-
tions of fir George Jerningham, it is very abundant, grow-
ing erea, in tufts. The Jlali is about a finger's length,
half an inch iu diameter, hollow, rather uneven, whitifh.
Head vertical, obtufe, hollow, fomewhat obovate, or in-
verfely heart-ftiaped, pale buff, or yellowifh, difcharging
innumerable minute feeds, in the form of fmoke, from mar-
ginal pores. See Clavaria, n. 17.

SPATIUM, Lat., fpace, is applied to the void be-
tween the lines of the ftaff, upon which raufic is written.
Spaces at firft were not ufed, but there was a line for every

foHnd.

SPA

found (fee Notation); but when the lines were reduced
to four, as in the canto fermo of the Romidi ritual, and
afterwards increafed to five, as in the prefent fecular mafic,
the fpaces came into ufe ; and the hiweft was called the firll,
and fo on to the fourth, fifth, and fixth, which unites the
bafe with the treble. See Riga, Lines, and Staff.

SPATLING-Poppy, a name given to the common
field-lychnis, a fpecies of cucubalus, from the white froth
found on it in the fpring. See FROTH-Spil-

SPATOLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala-
bria Ultra; I4miles S. of Squillace.

SPATTERDASHES, a kind of covering for the
legs, made of leather, &c. Thofe of foldiers are made of
coarfe linen, waxed over and buttoned tight.

SPATTS, a fmall fort of fpatterdafhes, reaching only
a little above the ankle.

SP.'^TULA, or Spathula, formed from fpaiha, of
the Greek, j-tkOioj, which figiiifies the fame ; an initrument
ufed by furgeons and apothecaries ; made flat at one end,
and round at the other ; ferving to fpread their plafters and
unguents.

The furgeons have little fteel fpatulas. And the apothe-
caries have alfo large ones of wood, to ftir their drugs in
diluting, tempering, or boihng them.

The fpatula is ufed by furgeons to deprefs the tongue,
in order to examine the ilate of the tonfils, uvula, and
fauces, when they are affefted with any diforders. It is alfo
ufed to fufpend the tongue, when the frcenum is to be di-
vided ; for which purpofe it has a fifiure at its extremity,
and fiiould rather be made of filver than of any other metal.
Thefe fpatulae are made of different {hapes.

SPAVIN, formed from the French efparv'm, which
fignifies the fame ; a difeafe in a horfe : being a fwelling or
ftitfnefs, ufually in the ham, which caufes him to halt.

There are two kinds of fpavins, -viz. the ox, which is a
callous tumour, at the bottom of the ham, on the infide,
hard as a bone, and very painful. AVhile it is yet young,
fome horfes only halt with it at the firll coming out of the
liable. The dry fpavin is more eafily perceived, by the
horfe's raifing one of his hind-legs, with a twitch, higher
than the other : but fometimes it is found in both legs.

This kind, which fome alfo call Jlring-halt, frequently
degenerates into the ox fpavin ; for which there is no re-
medy, but to apply the fire ; and even this is not always
fuccefsful.

There are two other kinds of fpavin, which have their feat
in the hoof, m's;. the blood fpavin, winch is a foft tumour,
that grows through a horfe's hoof, and is ufually full of
blood ; and the hone fpavin, or crufty fubllance growing on
the infide of the hoof, under the joint.

SPAWDER, in Rural Economy, a term provincially
fignifying an injury, by the legs of animals being forced too
far afunder on ice, or flippery road^, &c.

SPAWN, m Gardening, the progeny or offspring of
plants or other vegetables ; but which is molUy applied to
fuch fmall offsets, fuckers, and Iprouts, as rife numeroufly
from the roots, "Sec. of certain plants, ft-rving for the
purpofe of nicreafe, which, as being parts fimilar to the
whole plant, when feparatcd from the parent vegetable and
planted out, readily grow, and commence proper plants,
and thereby renew or increafe their refpeftlve kinds with
great facility and abundance. Some plants produce them
in large quantities, others fcarcely at all. (See Suckers.)
And \x\ a more general acceptation, it is likewifc peculiarly
applied to the progeny of muflirooms, being an offspring
from the root of thofe fungi, confiding oi minute wliitc
parts, (hooting and running in the earth or dung, like

SPA

fmall white thready fibres, affuming the appearance of
flender white Itrings, which are produftive of numerous
minute white knobs, appearing at firil of the fize of fmall ,
pm- heads, the whole fmelling itrong of tlie mufhroom ; and
thole little knobs being infant plants, they gradually in-
creafe in fize to proper mufhrooms, which are quick of
growth, and of very fliort duration ; but the fame fpawn
running in the earth, &c. furnilhes a plentiful fuppiy of
mufhrooms from the bottom in regular fucceffion for a
confiderable time, fometimes feveral months. See Aga-

RlCtJS.

This fort of mufhroom fpawn may be procured at all
feafons of the year, but more plentifully towards the end
of fummer and in autumn, from the places of its growth
and produclion ; fuch as old mufhroom-beds, old horfe-.
dung hot-beds, and horle-dunghills that are moderately dry,
and which have remained undillurbed feveral months ; alfo
fometimes in old compoll heaps, confining chiefly of horfe-
dung ; in all of which the fpawny fubllance difcovers itfelf
in dry lumps of dung and earth, which lumps fhould be
taken up entire : likewife in ilable-yards, where any quan-
tity of horfe-dung has lain dry and undillurbed any con-
fiderable length of time, lumps of fpawn are often obtained.
It is alfo found in great perfedlion in the horfe-rides belong-
ing to great inns, livery-ftablei', and horfe-dealers, efpecially
on the fides next the waDs ; hkewife in horfe-mill trade,
where horfes are contlantly employed in working and drop-
ping their dung, which is fwept together on the fides, there
to remain ; alfo in kitchen-gardens, where any piece of
ground has been dunged in the fpring with new, or but mo-
derately rotted ftable-dung, or old dry hot-bed dung, &c.
and only flightly turned in, as already fhewn under the head
of making thefe beds. And fometimes it is produced
naturally all over the furface of an old cucumber or melon
hot-bed, both in the dung and earth, in autumn or winter,
where the frame and lights have been continued over the
bed; and where the earth of the bed is of a loamy nature,
the fpawn in which is often remarkably fine and llrong ; for
in this kind of earth, of a moderately light quality, it is
generally of a fuperior quality, and very produAive ; fo as
fometimes, in fuch old beds, where the frames and glaffcs
remain, and the furface of the bed is covered thickly with
dry flraw, litter, or hay, under the glaffcs, to produce a full
crop of good muflirooms towards the fpring. Mufhroom
fpawn is alio obtained in meadows and paftures towards the
end of fummer and in autumn, before the rain and cold
commences, as in the months of Augull and September,
when the mufhrooms rife naturally, ferving as a diredion to '
the place where to find it ; but that found in the other
places is nit)llly the bell in quality. Some caution is alfo
neceflary in coUeding fpawn from fields to have it of the
right fort.

On this fubjed it is neceffary to obferve, that there
is alio a fruitful and barren fort of mufhroom fpawn ; the
former is dillinguilhed by the fubllance of the fibry or
ilniigy white flioots. Sec. and mulhroom-like fmell, as be-
fore obferved ; but in the latter fort, the thready fibres are
far more abundant, fine, and downy, often appearing like
a fine white down, and, being of no fubftance, produce
only a flalh of fmall white fungi, dcflitute of the flefhy part,
and which, by the mulhroom-men, is commonly called
•white -cup.

Methods are fometimes pradifcd to obtain mufhroom
fpawn more abundantly by art, by the effcds of horfe-
dung, both in hot-beds and compoll heaps ; fometimes, in
the former cafe, by planting frnjU pieces of Ipawn, or
fpawny earth, along the top edge of the later cucumber

hoi-

SPA

hot-beds in fummer, or in the fides of any horfe-dung heaps,
having a little warmth remaining ; fo that the moderate heat
of the dung in the bed or heap may fet the fpawn a-nmning,
fo aj fometimes to produce a few mullirooms in autumn,
and increafe it confiderabiy for future ufe in fpawning pro-
per mudiroom-beds : and in the fecond cafe, by a compoll
of dung and loamy earth together ; procuring in fpring,
or early in fummer, a quantity of fielh horfe-dung, con-
filting of plenty of /hort ftufF, and a due proportion of
long ; and calling the whole into a heap to ferment a fort-
night or a month, that the rank burning vapour may pafs
away ; then having fome loamy earth, or other good fubltan-
tial mould, or any fpawny foil from old beds, form the dung
into a long narrow ridge, mixing fome of the earth occa-
Conally towards the outfide ; and in a fortnight or three
week?, when the heat becomes quite moderate, covering the
whole with dry long litter to defend it from the wet, per-
mitting the whole to remain a coniiderable time, when good
fpawn will often be produced. The heaps for this ule are
beft formed in dry (heds, &c.

In collefting it from any of thefe places, the lumps of
dung and earth in which it appears Ihould be taken up as
entire as poflible, put into a bafket, and carried into fome
dry fhed, or other place, when the heaps are made out of
doors, till wanted, or it may be immediately ufed in making
the beds.

The praftice of introducing this fort of fpawn, in a
fuitable manner, into beds properly formed and couitrucled
for the reception of it, is the bell and moft convenient me-
thod, which has' yet been found, of raifing crops of mu(h-
rooms in garden cultivation. The beds for this ufe are,
as ha:) been feen, conftantly prepared with new frefh horfe-
dung which has undergone the procefs of fermentation,
by being thrown into a heap, in order to take off the firll
violent coarfe heat, and then formed in the long narrow
ridge manner, fomewhat in the rtiape of a roof, for throwing
off moillure, and left expofed in that Hate until it becomes
in a proper Hate of heat, when the portions of fpawny
matter are infcrtcd all over the furface, but only jult within
it, the whole moulded over an inch or two in thicknefs, and
then covered clofely with dry htter to a proper depth. The
parts of the fpawn are confequently planted in a fort of hot-
bed, by means of which they rapidly advance in growth,
and foon furnifh fupplies of good mulhrooms for ufe. The
fpawn, being forced into aftiou in this way, is often not
longer than fix or eight weeks in producing plentifully ; the
fame bed frequently continuing to afford a fupply for five
or fix month?, or longer ; but new beds are to be made every
year, and fometimes two or three times in that fpace of
time, in order to furnilh a conftant fuccelfion of good mulh-
rooms. See Ac.\Ricus, and SpaWxVing Mitjliroom-Beds.

Where there is plenty of this frefh liable littery dung and
the (hort fluff in mixture, mulhrooms are fometimes not
only abundantly fupplied, but plenty of fpawn for future
beds.

No proper feed of the mufhroom has hitherto been dif-
covered by vvluch crops of it can be raifcd by the gardener,
though It is well known that it produces feed like other
plants, and is naturally produced in that way, as well as by
ipavvn. The extremely minute feeds are faid, in this cafe,
to be fituated and contained in the lamiFu or gills, which,
when full grown, and the feeds become quite ripe, difcharge
and difperfe them upon the furrounding ground, from which
they are conveyed by the wind and other means to other
dillant fituations, where the foils are fuited to their growth.
In thefe they fix therafelves and grow, their roots increafing
rapidly fo as to produce proper fpawn.

SPA

The fituatioHS in which proper fupplies of good fpawn
are to be met with, as well as the formation of it, will in
fome meafure be feen from what has been faid. That whick
is produced in the horfe-dung methods is, however, con-
llantly to be preferred to fuch as is procured from the field,
for all the purpofes of cultivation in the garden, as pro-
ducing thicker, firmer, more flefliy, and richer flavoured
mulhrooms. All old worn-out fpawn (hould, of courfe, be
rejetfted, as improper and unfit for being made ufe of in this
culture, and the new virgin fpawn, as it is termed, or fuch
as has not been in production of mufhroom crops, be em-
ployed, as in lome inftances, even the young offspring fpawn
of fuch as has been long wrought from bed to bed, will de-
generate ; there being not unfrequently a very material dif-
ference in the goodnefs of that which is frefh and full of
heart, and that which has been long in ufe, the former pro-
ducing fine and abundant crops, while the latter only fends
up a flafh of fmall trifling heads at firll, of none or very
little fubflance, and perhaps no more of any confequence
afterwards.

New littery and plenty of fhort horfe-dung, efpecially
when mixed with a httle loamy earth, are the moft remark-
ably and abundantly produdlive of good fpawn. When
they have lain together for a confiderable length of time,
they are mollly in a peculiarly fit Hate for producing it in
large quantities.

Spawn of this fort keeps well when laid up clofe in a dry
place, or when put up in hampers or bafl-cets, and covered
in a clofe thick manner by dry litter or mats. The drier
it is put up and kept within moderate limits the better, as
the more it will improve in its produflive properties, and
take more freely in the beds wlien planted, retaining its
vegetative qualities for many months.

As this fort of fpawn is of great importance and value
in many places, where large quantities of mulhrooms are
raifed for fale in the markets, certain perfons in fuch fitua-
tions often employ themlelves at particular feafons of the
year, but efpecially in the autumn, in going about to
different parts and coUefting it, which near large towns
mollly pays them well, being of ready fale at a high price,
as fix or fevcH fhillings the bufhel, and more in fome
cafes.

When it is to be provided in the vicinity of the metro,
polis, it will commonly be met with in the moil ready man-
ner at the neat-houfe gardens on the different fide of it,
at the different markets in it, where vegetables are expofed
for fale, and in the principal nurfery garden grounds.

It is capable of being packed up and fent to any diftance
when necellary.

Spaw^n, Fijh, in Rural Economy, the oviparous or egg.
like granulated fubllance whicli is depofited by female
fifhes, in order to its being impregnated by the more liquid
feminal matter of the malJs, and be thereby rendered pro-
duftive of the young progeny or fry of the particular fort
or kind.

Each fort of fifh has its peculiar habit or economy in the
performance and mode of depofiting this material, as may
be ieen in the following article. Some forts of fifh are
likewife much more produftive of it than others, confe-
quently more prolific. This is the cafe with the her.
ring and the falmon, the former of which is only a fifh
that weighs from five to ten ounces, according to Harmer,
but in which the fpawa weighs 480 grains, and has the
amazing number of 36,960 eggs, when examined about the
month of Oftober : the latter, though a much larger fifh,
13 produftive of fpawn in a very high degree, the number
of its ova being almofl countlefs. And there are other

forts

SPA

iorts of fi(h, which probably equal or out-number either of
thefe, as the mackarel, fprat, and fome others. It is necef-
fary that fi(h ihould be as little as poflible difturbed at the
time of their depofiting their fpawn in the rivers, and on
the banks of the fea-fhores, or other places, as it may not
only be prejudicial to them, but injurious in preventing the
male fifh from impregnating it in a proper manner.

SPAWNING of Fiflj, the ad of depofiting the raw,
fpawning, or oviparous matter of the female, and of its
being impregnated by that of the male, for the purpofe of
breeding or producing their young. Moll forts of river-
tifh, and many of thofe of the fca kind, produce their young
progeny in this way. This operation or work of impreg-
nation is accomplifhed in different manners as to the mode
of its depofition, according to the nature and habits of the
fifh, and the feafons at which the fpawning takes place.
In thofe fifties which fpawn in the more ftill and fhallow
waters during the fpring and fummer feafons, fuch, for in-
Itance, as thofe of the pike, bream, carp, perch, and fome
other kinds, it would feem to be moll commonly the habit
to depofit their fpawny material on the leaves and vege-
tables which lie jufl below the furface of the water, which
13 in all probability the moft favourable fituation for it in
different refpefts. While in thofe fifhes which call their
fpawn in the winter feafon, fuch as the falmon, trout, her-
ring, and many other forts, fpots and places very near the
fources or beginnings of rivers and ftreams, or the more
rapid frefh-water currents, are moftly fought for and fixed
upon in this intention, where there is a conftarit flow of
frefh water, where all ftagnation is prevented, and where
the water is the moft fully aerated, either in its natural fitua-
tion or during its fall in rain, as being probably the moft
fuitable and favourable for the purpofe. A proper and fuit-
able degree of warmth may alfo be necelFary in this bufi-
nefs.

In all other cafes the fifhes probably depofit their fpawny
oviparous matters in fuch fituations as are the moll fuitable
to their particular economies, and where there is the necef-
fary heat, as well as where the water is the moft fully fatu-
rated and impregnated with air, as it is now well afcertained,
that their impregnated fpawny oviparous matters do not
produce young ones, any more than feeds vegetate, except
where they are freely fnpplied with air. The fifh in the
egg or fpawn, derives its oxygen from the air which is dif-
folved in the water that furrounds or flows over it, which,
in the firft of the above cafes, is much fupplied to the water
by the leaves of the plants on which it is depofited, in jK-r-
forming their healthy funftions ; which alfo probably afford
a better and more fuitable fituation for the male fiflics im-
pregnating it upon than any others : and in the latter cafe,
it 15 gained from the perpetual flowings of fuch frefh and
fully aerated waters over it, after it has been the moil con-
veniently and effcdtually impregnated in fuch fhallow parts,
currents, and ftreamlets. It has indeed been fuggeflcd,
that in this latter cafe, it is the inltinft leading the fifhes
to provide a proper fupply of air for their fpawny ovi-
parous material, which is to be depofited, that carries or
forces them from the feas, lakes, and other fimilar fitua-
tions, into mountainous countries ; and which impels and
induces them to move againfl the ftreams, as well as to en-
deavour and make efforts for overleaping weirs, catarafts,
mill-dams, and other fimilar ere^ions and works. See
Sked.

The fpawning and generation of fifh was however for-
merly confidered as of a very different nature, and as being
performed in a very different manner. It is ftatcd, in fpeak-
iog of the Itcrringi by the writer of a paper Id the third

SPA

volume of tlie " Tianfaaions of the Highland Society of
Scotland," that a very fingular and feemingly unphilofophi-
cal notion had been held with regard to the impregnation of
tlie ova or eggs of fifh, and which is not by any means the
doftrine or hypothefis of yefterday, but which has pre-
vailed, in a greater or lefs degree, for upwards of two thou-
fand years ; that is, from the days of Herodotus, who in
treating and fpeaking of the fifh in the Nile, makes the
following obfervation. " At the feafon of fpawning they
move in vail multitudes towards the fea, the males lead the
way, and emit the engendering principle in their paflage ;
this the females abforb as they follow, and in conlequcnce
conceive, and when their ova are depofited, they are con-
fequently matured into fry." Beloe'e Herod.

And Itrange and abfnrd as this fuppofition and procefs
feem to be, it is afierted, it is faid, to be the cafe by Lin-
naeus, the moft learned of all others in the fcience of animal
hiflory : he tenacioufly affirms, it is maintained, that there
can be no impregnation of the eggs of any animal out of the
body, and that as fifh have no organs of generation, that
deficiency is made up for by adopting the ^-flem or notion
of Herodotus. This abfurd and unfounded notion has
likewife, it is added, been attempted to be fupported by
Kalm, the friend and countryman of the ab.ive celebr.ited
naturalifl, on a llory fuppofed to have been told by Franklin
about two rivers in his province (New England in North
America,) which fell into the fea nearly together; in one
of which no herrings were ever taken, while in the other
they were abundantly caught ; the fifh, when they come to
depofit their fpawn, always pafTing up that river without
ever entering the other. In order to try to make the fifh
take to the other river, this perfon is faid to have put out
his nets and taken fome of them, as they were coming up
for fpawning in the produftive river. He is faid to have
taken " ihe^awn out of them, and to have carefully car-
ried it acrol's the land into the other river, where it ixias
hatched, and tlie confcquence was, that every year after-
wards tiiey caught more herrings in that river ; and this is,
it is faid, flill the cafe." But on inquiry in that country,
the writer of the above paper remarks, both the river and
the ftory were unknown to all who were inquired of about
the matter.

The fame ftory is fince fuppofed to have been trumped
up by a French writer of the name of Nouel, with this
Itrong fhade of difference; that the former cuts the ova out
of the belly of tlie herring, while the latter fays, that the
fpawn was colleftcd from off plants, where it had been de-
pofited. At one of the fittings of the National Inftitute in
France, in the year 1799, a memoir was read by this member
of inltruftion at Rouen, on the means and advantages of
n-ituralizing the herring, a falt-wator fifli, in the water of
the Seine, near its mouth, &c. ; in which, after noticing
the various means by which this may be accomplilhcd, it is
obferved, that " herrings having been found afcending
from the fea into one river of the American province,
(noticed above,) while a fingle individual was never fcen m
another, feparated from the other by a narrow tongue of
land, and which alfo communicated with the fea, this phi-
lofopher (Dr. Frankhn) took the kavts off fome plants on
■which the herrings had depofited their ovj, already fecundated,
and conveyed them to the river which was deprived of the
annual vifit of thefe filh. The fucccfs of the experiment
furpaffed his cxpeit.ition, the ova was completely produc-
tive, and the following year the river was peopled with a
numerous Ihoal of herringi, which, fiiicc that time, con-
tinued to frequent it." Phil. Mag. vol. x. p. 163.

This account the writer of the above p.ipcr confiders as

evidently

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evidently founded upon the former, and both, he thinks,
come in a very queilionable (hape ; however, the theory of
the latter is fiippofed more rational, and not entirely againtl
eftablilhed (a&s ; though it fhould be confidered, he con-
ceives, that the European herring is not a native of frefh
water, and, as he thinks, never will be naturalised in fuch
waters ; but that the fpawn of fifhes, being fecundated in
their own waters, may be tranfported •, and when placed
in the fame homogeneal element upon leaves, fand, or otlier
matters, where the fun and air, as we have feen above, can
have free accefs, or a proper heat, with oxygen air, as has
been Ihewn already, received, fuch ova, ravy, or eggs, will
be animated and become fry in the fame time they would
have done in their parent beds, cannot be doubted. This
is a praftice, it is faid, which is well known in China ;
the Miffionaries to which have noticed two or three things
about it which are Angular enough ; the firlt of which is,
that in the great river Yangtfe Kyang, not far from the
city Kyus-king-fu, in the province of Kyang-fi, a prodi-
gious number of barks meet every year to buy the fpawn
of fifhes. About May the people of the country dam up
the river for nine or ten leagues together, in feveral places,
with mats and hurdles, leaving only room enough for barks
to pafs, in order to Hop the fpawn, which they know how
to diftinguifh at firft fight, though the water is fcarcely
altered ; with this water mixed with the fpawn, they fill
feveral vefl'els to fell to the merchants, who, at this feafon,
arrive in great numbers to buy and tranfport it into divers
provinces, taking care to have it llirred up from time to
time : this water is fold by meafure to fuch as have fi(h-
ponds and pools belonging to their houfes. The manner
of propagating the gold-fifh from fpawn is likewife de-
ferving of attentive confideration. Du Halde's Defcrip. of
China.

It is fuppofed by the writer of the paper, that herrings
which caft their fpawn in the winter months, without doubt
depofit it on our (hores ; but whether upon gravel, fand,
ftones, fuci, or other plants, is not well afcertained ; but
thus far we know, it is faid, that it cannot be in deep
water, unlefs we fuppofe it to have fuch a buoyancy as to
be within reach of the fun's genial influence, and, as has
been fince fhewn, that of the free aftion of the air.

It is beheved, and the fame writer thinks with reafon,
that it is impregnated by the male after it is emitted by the
fpawner or fpawning-fifli. The raw fpawn, or eggs, of thefe
fifh, become animated, it is faid, in the month of April. It
is noticed, that the fucus palmatus, and indeed all the nume-
rous fpecies of fuci which grow upon our coails, it is
hardly to be doubted, harbour the fpawn of filhes ; but that
the opinion may readily be either confirmed or confuted by
the affiftance of a glafs of moderate magnifying power.

It is fuggelled, likewife, that the caufe or reafon of the
herring's quitting the deep feas, is unqueftionably that of
its calling its fpawn in its native water, as the banks and
mouths of the rivers where it was produced. And the
fame is the cafe with the falmon, the (had, the pilchard,
and fome others ; all of which prefer their natal waters for
the purpofe of fpawning in ; and though the herring and
pilchard fometimes deviate from this courfe, the falmon
and (had Jo it very feldom, being more fober and Heady
in their attachment to their parent haunts. The heavieil
falmon are met with in the large rivers, and the largeft
herrings in the deep waters, each coaft and river pro-
ducing fi(h which are different in tafte, fize, and ap-
pearance, as is remarkably feen in the fhads and falmons
of different rivers, and the iierrings of different fituations.
The fry of the herring, as well as of the falmon, when

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they have attained fufficient fize and ftrength, quit the
fhaUows and make for the deeps : when the (hoals of the
former enter the bays, and other fimilar places, the young
ones are noticed to take their final departure from them.

The fecundity of different kinds of fiihes is very different ; .
but that of the herring and fome others is very great. See
Spawn, Fi/h.

Spawning or Laying OyJ}er-Beds, the manner of pre-
paring, diftributing, and managing them, in the mouths of
the breeding-rivers in particular counties and dillrifts, as in
Eifex, and probably fome others. The exaft method of
performing the bufmefs has not been defcribed ; but they
are fpawned or laid fomewhat in the bed-manner. The
principal rivers in the county of Eliex, where this fort of
work, or that of breeding oylters, is carried on, according
to the Corretled Agricultural Report of that diftriS, are
thofe of the Crouch, the Blackwater, and the Coin ; but
the firlt is by far the mod certain in produce of any of
them. The beds, or layings, are made in the creeks, and
other fimilar places, on the fides or parts which adjoin the
mouths, openings, or beginnings of thefe rivers. It is
from thefe rivers that the oylter-layings, or beds, are ufually
Hocked ; though fome are conftantly fupplied from Portf-
mouth, or places in its neighbourhood, being brought in the
largeft fort of oyfter-veffels, not only into this county, but
Kent, where they are laid for the enfuing feafon. The
. Colchefter oyfter-beds are chiefly at Wivenhoe, being partly
fupplied by the Kentidioyller-fmacks. The beds, or layings,
in thefe different fituations, are likewife, in all probability,
fupplied or furnifhed with oyfters from feveral other places
on the fouthern coaft of this country, as well as the
northern one of France.

The breeding-rivers in the county of Effex are faid to be
very uncertain as to the quantity of oyfters they produce ;
as in fome feafons they afford a great quantity, while at
other times they only produce what is called a good
fprinkling, and fometimes there is none at all. But they
feldom all produce or fail, it is obferved, in the fame feafon.
See Oyster and 0)'/?fr-FisKERY.

The oyfter-fifheries, in different places, are of very great
importance to the country at large, as well as to particular
counties and dillritts, efpecially that of Edex ; as they
employ great numbers of fmall veffels, require the labour of
many men, and afford confiderable profit in the produce of
food which they fupply, as being principally an article of
luxury. In the county juft mentioned there are feveral of
thefe oyfter-fifheries. In the Blackwater river and neigh-
bouring parts, there is a confiderable fifhery of this nature ;
and Wett-Merfea is one of the principal ftations of the
dredgers : above thirty boats, it is faid, belong to the
ifland, and are almoft conftantly at work in this bufinefs.
Vedels come from Kent to purchafe the oyfters, and they
fell fome to Wivenhoe, where what are called the Col-
chefter beds are fituated. They are fold by the tub of
two bufhels, and are generally from 4J-. to Gs. a tub ; but
at prefent (1807) 6s. A dredging-boat is from fourteen
to thirty or forty tons burthen : all are decked and built
at Wivenhoe, Brightlingfea, and places thereabouts. The
price is 10/. a ton for the hull of the veffel only ; the fitting
out of one of twenty tons requiring the amount of 150/.
From two to four men are required for each veffel, who
are paid by (hares ; and the mafter has a (hare for the
veffel. In the fpring feafon they go to dredge on the
coafts of Hants and Dorfet. Sometimes one hundred and
thirty vedels have been counted at work within fight of
Mcrfea. This oyfter-fifhery is, it is faid, an objeft of con-
fiderable confequence to the country, from the earnings
9 being

SPA

SPA

being great, and fome other circumftances : but when the
men die, their families, it is faid, come to the parifti, greatly
increafed by the number of apprentices which they have
taken. Nothing, however, the writer of the report thinks,
can be fo prepofterous as a police of the poor, which per-
mits the benefits of commerce and manufaftures to load the
land with rates to the amount of 8j-. in the pound, when
;i very fmall contribution by a box-club, or benefit fociety,
would readily prevent the evil. See Societies, Friendly.

The following interefting account of the oj'i'.er-bulinefs
in the fame diftridt, is from Mr. Bennet Hawes of Merfea,
given as from his own local knowledge of the places where
it is carried on, in the above report. The number of
veflels which are employed in it, of from eight to forty
or fifty tons, is nearly two hundred, in which are em-
ployed from four hundred to five hundred men and boys.
A reflel carrying three men has one ihare and a half of all
the earnings, and the men one (hare each. Large veflels
have generally, it is faid, two (hares ; but none, it is be-
lieved, more than this.

It is faid that the vefTels which are built at Eaft Dony-
land, Wivenhoe, Brightlingfea, Burnham, and Merfea, for
this bufinefs, will lall from thirty to forty years, when
proper care is taken of them. The writer was informed
by a perfon then living at Wivenhoe, that he had, within
the laft twenty years, built one hundred veflels for the
oyfter bufinefs alone.

There has been an increafe of boats, and of courfe of
men, of more than one half within the laft thirty years.

At Burnham they have feven dredging fmacks, belonging
to the company that hire the river of fir Henry Mildmay,
hefides four other private ones, and fome fmaller veffels.
The Imacks are from eighteen to twenty toni. And there
are only about one hundred fidiermen and failors about the
place, which are much too few, it is thought, for fo fine a
river.

Moft of the vefTels of fixteen tons and upwards, go, it is
faid, to Portfmouth, or places adjacent, in the month of
March, to catch and carry oyilers ; thofe under twenty-
five tons being employed in catching them, and the larger
ones in carrying them into this county and Kent, to be
ufed as noticed above ; they generally return from tlience
in the month of June, when the large ones go after mac-
karel, herrings, and fprats, during the latter part of the
funimer, and in the enfuing winter, the fmaller ones to
the catching of oyltcrsin the breeding rivers, as above.

The oylters are fold to London, Hamburgh, Bremen,
and, in time of peace, to Holland, France, and Flanders.

The price has varied but little for tliefe lalt ten years.

The quantity confumed in a feafon is fcarccly to be cal-
culated ; but it is fuppofed that it cannot be lefs than
12,000 or 15,000 bufhels.

This fort of fifhery is fo much blended with the others,
that it is almoft impolTible to (late the capital which is em-
ployed in it, but it is fuppofed to be from 60,000/. to
80,000/.

SpawninCt Mujliroom-Beds, in Gardening, the praftice
of planting or putting the mufhroom fpawn into the beds
or ridges formed for railing crops of this fort. It is per-
formed in feveral different manners, as by putting it into
the dungy matter immediately below the furfacc of the
beds, which is called fpawning in the dung ; by dcpofiting
It upon the furface of the dung, which is termed Ipawiiing
on tlic furface ; and by placing it in the mould by which
the beds have been previoufly covered, which is denomi-
nated fpawning in the earth. In all tliefc modes of per-
forming the work of fpawning the beds, they arc afterwards

Vot, XXXIII.

to be earthed or moulded over in a neat even manner, with
finely reduced rich, loamy, mellow, dry, mouldy earth, fo
as to perfeftly cover hi the planted fpawny fubllance, tliis
being done in the two firfl methods of planting, to a much
greater depth than in the laft mode, where an earthy coat,
or cafing, has been before fupplied ; an inch and a half,
or two inches in depth of mould, being neceffary in the
former cafes, while an inch or lefs may be fully iufficient
in the latter cafe. The fpawn is properly divided into
pieces, and put into the beds in all thefe modes in a regular
manner, at narrow diftances, both in the rows and fpaces
between them, as about fix or feven inches in each, over the
whole of the different fides and ends of them. There is
little difference in thefe modes of putting in the fpawn,
except that in the two firfl, and efpecially in the fecond, it
can be laid in rather more clofely than in the laft, by which
means, fometimes, a more forward and plentiful fupply of
mufhrooms is produced.

After the earthing has been properly accompliflied in
thefe different cafes, the beds are ready for the reception of
the flraw coverings, as no light is ever requilite in the
growth of thefe crops. Thefe flraw coverings fhould in-
variably be applied as foon as ever the flate of the beds, in
regard to the lieat they produce and retain, will permit,
after the fpawning of them is finiflied. It fhould be done
to a confiderable thicknefs, efpecially where the beds are
not in fheds, but expofed to the effefts of the weather, in
order to aflbrd the fpawn a proper degree of heat and full
protection. Such ftravvy littery materials may be gra-
dually fliook upon them, from the thicknefs of half a loot,
to fuch depths as are fufficient to produce a fuitable warmth
for promoting the growth of the fpawny material. They
are to be ligiitly and regularly (hakcn on over the whole,
and to remain conftantlv, having in fome cafes other forts
of coverings laid over them, as no fort of moilture muit
come near the fpawn in thefe cafes.

As little expofure to the full air as pofTible, after fpawn-
ing the beds, fhould take place in performing any fort of
work about them, as there is much injury and check pro-
duced by it in the growth of the fpawn, and, of courfe, in
the crops to be raifed by it.

The proper running and knitting of the fpawn, which
may be feen by turning up a little of the flrawy coverings,
fhews the fpawning of the beds to have been fuccef^fuTly
performed ; but this fhould not be jmlgcd of too haflily,
as this fort of fpawn is fometimes flow in coming into
an active flate of vegetation. There is alfo a fine full
fmell of the mufliroom in all fuch cafes. See AcAnicus.

SPAWS, mineral waters arifing out of the earth; im-
pregnated with nitre, fulphur, alum, bitumen, copperas, or
other mineral matter, in pafling through the Itrata thereof;
and hence endued with fome medicinal (in.-ilities, cathartic,
diuretic, emetic, alterant, or the like. See Mineral Wa-
ters and Sp.a.

SPAX, a name given by fome authors to the common
taenia, a fmall fifh of the anguilliform kind, "frequent on the
fhorcs of Italy.

SPAYING, in Rural Economy, tlie operation of cutting,
caftrating, or removing the female parts of dilfercnt kinds
of animals, as fows, heifers, marcs, &c. in order to prevent
any future conception, and promote their fattening. It is
ufnally performed by cutting them in the mid flank, on the
left fide, with a fharp knife or lancet, in order to extirpate
or cut off the parts delUncd to conception, and then Hitching
up the wound, anointing tlie part with tar-falvc, and keep-
ing the animal w.irm for two or three days. The general
way is to make the inciCon in a llopiiig manner, two inches
7, O and

SPAVING.

and a half long, that the fore-finger may be put in towards
the back, to feel for the ovaries, which are two kernels as
big as acorns, one on each fide of the uterus, one of which
being- drawn to the wound, the cord or ftring is cut, and
thus both taken out.

It may be noticed, that in the Annals of Agriculture,
Mr. Frot has fuggefted the praftice of fpaying old cows and
heifers ; as it is a method, he apprehend?, that might be
performed with fafety, and prove of general ufe in grazing ;
as cows, when they grow old and fail in their milk, are
often attended with difficulty, where the bull goes at large,
to keep them from him, efpecially on commons, during the
fummer, which put him on trying the experiment on a cow
of fmall value, whofe profit for the pail was fo far over, that
(he would not milk for about three months before fhe be-
came dry. After flie had calved about a month, he had her
cut ; the operator was an ingenious perfon, and performed
the bufincfs well, that with a little care of keeping her from
the cold (being early in the fpring) for about a fortnight
he thought her out of danger ; and continued milking her as
ufual all the time. She foon began to thrive, gaining flelh,
and before the fummer was over, by the time the was quite
dry, was much improved, though kept no better than the
other part of the dairy on very middling pafturage. At
Michaelma", had (he been put to turnips, or good rouen,
(he would have been fat by Chridmas, or foon after. When
killed, file fold at 3^. 6d. a (lone, about half fat at that time,
which he laid at one (hilling a (lone more than (he would
have done had (he not been cut. And afterwards he had
two others cut, that continued to be milked, and grazed
well ; one he had killed, the other he fold alive, which
improved and paid beyond expeftation. And though little
has yet been done in this way, he is perfuaded it will be
found uf general utility, if attended to. But, however,
lately he accidentally met the perfon that performed the
operation, who informed him that he had been fent for
within twelve months, or thereabouts, to cut near forty in
like m.anner, which having all done well, none failed ; that
there appears little or no danger in the cafe ; and he believes
it may be found of great advantage to the grazier and farmer,
if they are inclined to praftife it, as well as to the public at
large. In confirmation of the above, the perfons who have
tried the experiment are, he is informed, William Colhoun,
efq. Norfolk, who has cut eight ; Mr. Martin, Exning,
Suffolk, who has cut fix ; Mr. Cayfon, Chippenham, who
has had the operation performed on twenty ; and Mr. Ro-
binfon, ErifA-ell, wiio has performed it on four or fix.

And he may further add, that mod of thefe were young
h^fers between two and three years old (fome old cows),
that had not taken bull ; the young itock appears to thrive
apace, and grow in fize, as well as to be likely to anfwer
(or the butcher foon ; they may be fattened with turnips in
the winter, or kept on another fummer, as the grazier pleafes.
And in Yorkfliire it is very common to fatten their heifers
at three years old, which anfwer as great a purpofe for
grazing, and are more profitable than older iteers or heifers,
&c. but thofe are kept from the bull.

Farther, although there is a method generally praftifed
in fpaying calves that are intended for heifers of that name,
which are ufually cut about fix weeks or two months old,
yet this other metliod of treatment, he thinks, is preferable
and not fo dangerous, for the two-years old bealts may be
fiippofed Itronger and more fit to undergo the opera-
tion ; and, in the next place, it is performed quite differently ;
what is cut away, is only the ends of what is termed the
lujs, or generative partF, which are not, when feparated from
the other parts, bigger than the end of a man's thumb to the

firft Joint, that makes the operation lefs painful and dan.
gerous when rightly performed. But he would not advife
every butcher, or inexperienced artill, to undertake what
they do not underftand. He thinks this obfervation is due
to the operators, who have cut upwards of forty head of
cow- (lock in this manner, (as they informed him,) which
have all done, and are doing, well, and he recommends them
to public encouragement in an art that is likely to be at-
tended with general utility to the public. They are Wil-
liam Bailey and fon, Lakenheath, Suffolk. He may fur-
ther obferve, that a heifer at two or three years old may
be defeftive in the bag, in the lofs of teats, or thofe of
fmall fize, not larger than an ewe's, which feldom are pro-
fitable for the pail, which may be cut after this mode and
grazed.

And Mr. Marlhall, in his Rural Economy of Yorkfhire,
remarks, that it is a faft well eftablifhed m the common
practice of that dillrid, that fpayed heifers work better,
and have, in general, more wind, than oxen ; and it is not
doubted that fpayed maros would have an equal preference
to geldings. The reafon held out againd this praftice,
though formidable at firft fight, proves a mere (hadow on
examination. The fpaying of fillies would undoubtedly
fpoil them for brood mares. But does not the gelding of
a colt fpoil him for a ftallion ? What breeder, when his
mares foal, wilhes for fillies ? and what dealer would not
give 2s. 6d. for each, to have his marcs changed into geld-
ings, or perhaps into animals fuperior to geldings I Belides,
in the fpring of the year, open mares are faint and trouble-
fome. The only requifites appear to be a fafe cutter, and
a man of fpirit to fet him to work, to bring the fpaying of
female foals into common praAice ; and it does not foUow
that, becaufe a part of the female foals (hould be cut, there
would not be open mares to breed from ; more than it does,
that becaufe fome heifers are fpayed for the yoke, or for
fattening, there are not cows fufficient for the purpofes of
breeding, and the dairy. He does not mean, however, to
recommend a praftice of which he has had no experience ;
but if the experiment has not been tried, it ftrikes him
forcibly, that it is worth the trial ; and that it is more
than time it were fet about. Since this, he however (tates,-
that it had been tried in the fouthern dillrifts, as he faw a
mare in 1 791, then rifing five or fix years old, which had
been fpayed at eight days old by a colt-cutter in the neigh-
bourhood of Petworth ; and that fhe was a well-bred mare,
and of a fize proper for hunting. The farmer to whom (he
belonged aiked feventy guineas for her, a proof that in his
eflimation, at leaft, fhe had not been injured by the operation.
And it is probable, that this praftice had been attempted long
before that period. See Cattle.

There can be no doubt but that the notion of injury being
done by the fpaying of female animals is wholly erroneous,
and without any foundation in truth or correft obfervation,
as the experience of every day fiiews it to be fo in the moft
full and fatisfaftory manner. The chief reafon why a prac-
tice, which is beneficial in fo many points of view to the
interefts and advantages of the farmer, has been fo little
attended to, is the difficulty which is conftantly experienced
from the want of a fufficient number of expert and proper
perfons for performing the operation. Such perfons are far
from being common in any, much lefs in every dillrift, as
fome knowledge of a nature which is not readily acquired,
and much experience in the praftice of cutting, are indif-
penfably neceflary to the fuccefs of the undertaking. When-
ever, however, the utility and benefits of the praftice become
better underftood and more fully appreciated by the farmer,
and the operators more numerous, much greater attention

and

S P E

S P E

»nd importance will be beftowed upon it, as it is capable of
relieving him from much trouble, of greatly promoting his
proiits, and of benefiting him in a variety of ways. The
fafts are long fince well proved and afcertained, that ani-
mals which have undergone this operation, are more dif-
pofed to feed or take on flcfli, more quiet in their habits,
and capable of being managed with much greater eafe and
facihty in any way whatever, than they were before it was
performed. It may alfo have advantages in other ways, in
different forts of animals ; it may render the filly, in the
horle kind, nearly equal to the gelt colt for icTeral different
ufes ; and the heifer, in the neat cattle kind, nearly equal to
the ox, for all forts of farm-labour. The females of fome
other forts of animals may likewife, by this means, be made
to nearly equal the callratcd males in ufefulnefs for a. variety
of purpofes and intentions ; and in all cafes be rendered a
good deal more valuable, or manageable, than they are in
the prefent cultom which prevails with them.

Spaying of Fi/h. See Cajlratlon o/"Fish.

SPEAKER of the Houfe of Commons, a member of the
houfe, elefted by a majority of the votes, to aft as chair-
man, or preiidenty in putting queftions, reading briefs or
bills, keeping order, reprimanding the refraftory, adjourning
the houfe, &c.

The firll thing done by the commons upon the firft meet-
ing of a parliament is to choofe a fpeaker, who is to be ap-
proved of by the king ; and who, upon his admiflion, begs
his majeity, that the commons, during their fitting, may
have free accefs to his majefly, freedom of fpeech in their own
houfe, znA fecurily from arrefls. See Parliament.

The fpeaker is not allowed to perfuade, or diffuade, in
pafling of a bill, but only to make a fhort and plain narra-
tive ; nor to vote, unlefs the houfe be equally divided.
The lord chancellor, or keeper, or any other appointed by
the king's commiflion, is ufuallyy^faicr of the houfe ef lords ;
and if none be thus appointed, the houfe of lords (it is faid)
may eleft. The fpeaker of the houfe of lords, if a lord
of parliament, may give his opinion, or argue any qu^ftion
in the houfe.

The fpeaker of the convocation is called prolocutor.

Speaker is ufed by rhetorical writers in the fame fenfe
with orator. See Oratory. See alfo Elocution, Pro-
NUNCiATioN, and Action.

As to the charafter and addrefs of an orator, it is neeef-
fary that every thing appear eafy and natural, and the dif-
pofition of the fpeaker be difcovered by his words : thus
would he exprefs what Quintilian callt a propriety of man-
ners : accordingly, the ancient rhetoricians made it a neccf-
fary qualification m an orator, to be a good man ; fince he
ihould always be confiltent with himfelf, or, as we fay,
talk in charafter. There are four qualifications more efpe-
cially fuited to the charafter of an orator, which fhould
always appear in his difcourfes, in order to render what he
fays acceptable to his hearers ; thefe are wifdom, integrity,
benevolence, and modefly. See an illullration and inforcc-
ment of them in Ward's Oral. vol. i. left. lo.

SPEAKING, theart, or aft, ofexprciTing onc'sthoughts
in articu4ate founds or words.

Pliny, ./Elian, Plutarch, and other authors, make mention
of feveral beads that have fpokeii : and Pliny himfelf fpeaka
with afliirance, in his hiltory, of an ox that fpoke. Philo-
ftratus, in his life of ApoUonius, gives the like quality lo an
elm, and even to fhips. Homer makes Xanthos, one of
Achilles's horfes, fpeak ; in which he has been followed by
Oppian. But thefe are all fabulous ftories ; we have much
better authority for a ferpewt and an afs's fpeaking, un-

lefs the cafes here referred to be allegorical. See Lan-
guage.

SpEAKiNG-TVum/irf. See Trumpet, and Stevtoro-

PHOMC.

SPEAN, in Geography, a riyer of Scotland, which forme
a communication between loch Laggan and loch Lochly.

SPEAR, in Armoury. See Lance.

Spe.'VR, in the Manege. The feather of a horfe, called the
flroke of the f pear, is a mark in the neck, or near the Ihoulder
of fome Barbs, and fome Turkey and Spanifh horfe*, repre-
fenting the blow or cut of a fpear in thofe places, with
fome refemblance of a fear. This feather is an infallible
fign of a good horfe.

SPEAR-Hand, or ftuarj-hand of a horfeman, is his right
hand.

SpEAR-Foot, of a horfe, is the far-foot behind. See Far.

Spear, King's, in Botany. See Asphodelus.

SPEAR-Tht/lle, in Agriculture, a plant of the weed kind,
which is often troublefome in land. It is a biennial, and of
courfe readily deftroyed by taking care to have it mown
down or cut over before the time of its perfefting its feeds.
It is not unfrequently termed the bur-thillle.

SPEARMINT, in Botany. See Mentha.

SPEAR WORT, the Englifh name of the ranunculu*
flammeus.

This is vnth us generally efteemed a poifon, but the Scot*
ufe it as a medicine. They beat it, and fqueeze out the
juice, which they take as a purge, drinking a little melted
butter or oil before and after it, to prevent its taking the
!\dn off from the throat. It operates very violently, but
with robuft conftitutions it does very well.

They ufe it alfo externally in cafes of pain in the head,
or any other part of the body. They bruife the leaves to
a fort of pafte, and apply them to the part ; they foon raife
a blifter, and a large quantity of water is difcharged, after
which the pain goes off. This is a fhort way of bliftering,
and anfwers as fafely and as well as our's by the canthan-
des : but it is a wonder that people, who fee this quality
in the plant, fhould dare to take it into their mouths and
ftomachs.

Spearwort is very prejudicial to fheep, as caufing the rot.
It is alfo troublefome in lands of the more wet kinds.

SPECIA, in Geography, an ifland in the Grecian Archi-
pelago, about lo miles in circumference, at the entrance of
the gulf of Napoli. N. lat. 37° 15'. E. long. 23^ 2_V-

Specia Poulo, a fmall ifland near the fouth coaft of
Specia.

SPECIAL, fomething that is particular, or has a par-
ticular defignation ; from the LaUn fpecies : in oppofition
lo general, oi genus. See GENERAL, Particular, Species,
and Genus.

The king, in his letters, frequently fays, of our fpccial
grace, full power, and royal authority.

Special AJJife, Attorney, Bail, Cafe, Fee-tail, Iffue.
Jury, Plea, S^ton, Statute, Verdia, and Warrant. See
the articles.

SPECIALTY, in Laiv, is moft commonly taken for a
bond, bill, or other inllrumcnt in writing. Accordingly,
debts by fpecialty, or fpccial contraft, are fuch by wliicli
a fum of money becomes, or is acknowledged to be, due by
deed or inftrument under feal : inch as by deed of covenant,
by deed of fale, by leafc rcferving rent, or by bond or obli-
gation. Thefe arc looked upon as the next clafs of debts
after thofe of record, being confirmed by fpecial evidence
under feal.

SPECIE, in Commerce, gold and filver coin, dillin-
3 O 2 guifhed

i

S P E

,uifhed from paper-money ; but in Germany, the word
pecie is applied to the rix-doUar, and its divifions, as coined
after the rate of the empire.

SPECIES, an idea, wliich relates to fome other more
general one, or is comprifed under a more univerfal divifion
of a genus ; as in the definition of any thing, we obtain its
general nature or genus, by comparing it with other things
that are mod like to itfelf, and obferving wherein its elience
or nature agrues with them ; fo we obtain the eflential or
fpecific difference, by confidering the moft remarkable and
primary attribute, property, or idea, in which this differs
from tliofe other things that are moft like it : and this attri-
bute, or fpecific difference, diflingnilhes each fpecies from
one another, wiule tliey itand ranked under the fame genus.

Tiie word is Latin, formed from the ancient verb /pecio,
I fee ; as if a fpecies of thirds were a colle6lion of all the
things feen at oi.e view.

Species i= a mere term of relation : and the fame idea may
be a fpecies, when compared to another more general one ;
and a genus, with regard to a more particular one. Thus
body is a genus, with regard to an animate and inanimate
body ; and a fpecies, with regard to fubltance.

The laft fpecies is that which can only be divided into
individuals.

Animal is a fpecies, with regard to body ; and man is a
fpeciep, with regard to animal. God dellroyed mankind by
the deluge ; but he preferved the fpecies.
.'■ Species, in Logic, is one of the five words^ called by
Porphyry, univerfals.

Species, in Rhetoric, is that which comprehends under
it all the individuals of the fame nature. From hence, we
may argue ; he is a man, therefore he has a rational foul.
And orators fometimes take occafion to defcend from the
thefis or genus, to the hypothefis or fpecies ; that is, in
treating upon what is more general to introduce fome par-
ticular contained under it, for the better illullration of the
general.

Species, in the Ancient Mufic, denotes a fubdivifion of
one of the genera.

The genera of mufic were three, the enharmonic, chro-
matic, and diatonic ; the two lalt of which were varioufly
fubdividcd into fpecies : nor was the firft without fpecies,
though thofe had not particular names, as the fpecies of the
other two had. Thefe fpecies were alfo called the chroai,
colours of the genera. See Genus.

Species is alfo applied, by ancient muficians, to the dif-
ferent difpofitions of the tones and femitones in a fourth,
fifth, or oftave. Hence they fay there are three fpecies of
fourths, four of fifths, feven of oftaves. Wallis's Append.
Ptolem. Harm. p. 171.

The Grecians expreffed this fenfe of the term fpecies by
iiJoc, or by ax«i^^- The Latin word, Jigura, has alfo been
taken in the fame fenfe. Arillox. p. 6, 74. Ed. Meib.
WaUis, ibid. p. 170.

Species, in Optics, the image painted on the retina by
the rays of light reflefted from the feveral points of the fur-
face of an objeft, received in at the pupilla, and collefted
in their paflage through the cryflalline, &c.

Philofophers have been in great doubt, whether the fpecies
of objefts, which give the foul an occafion of feeing, are an
efFufion of the fubltance of the body ; or a mere impreflion
which they make on all ambient bodies, and which thefe all
refleft, when in a proper diflance and difpofition ; or, laflly,
whether they are not fome other more fubtile body, as light,
which receives all thefe impreffions from bodies, and is con-
tinually fent and returned from one to another, with the

S P E

different figures and impreflions it has taken. But the mo-
derns have decided this point by their invention of artificial
eyes, in which the fpecies of objefts are received on a paper
or linen cloth, in the fame manner as they are received in the
natural eye. The ancients have diitinguilhtd the fpecies,
by which objefts become vifible, into impnjfa and exprejfts.
The former are fuch as come from without, or are fent from
the object to the organ j fuch are thofe we have already been
fpeaking of. And the latter are thofe, on the contrarj',
which proceed from within ; or that are fent from the organ
to the objeft.

Le Clerc, in his fyltem of vifion, by one of thofe revolu-
tions very frequent in philofophical opinions, has called
upon the ftage again the fpecies expreffe of the ancient phi-
lofophers. For, according to him, it is not by fpecies or
images impreffed on the optic nerve, that the foul fees ob-
jefts ; but by rays, which fhe herfelf direfts to them, and
which fhe ufes as a blind man does his ftafl, to grope out
objefts.

The Peripatetics account for vifion, from a kind of inten-
tional fpecies, thus : every objeft, fay they, exprefles a
perfeft image of itfelf on the air next to it. This expreffes
another lefs one on the air next to that ; and this a third ftill
lefs. Thus are the images continued from the objeft to the
cryflalline, which thefe philofophers hold the principal or-
gan of feeing. Thefe they call /pedes intentionales ; and to
account the better for their generation, they affirm, that
objefts exhibit them in the fame manner, as mirrors do a
man's face. See Vision.

Species, in Theology, denote the appearances of the bread
and wine in the facramcnt after confecration. Or, as the
Romanilts define them, the accidents remaining in the bread
and wine, by which they become fenfible to us, after their
fubftance is deitroyed.

The fpecies of the bread, &c. are its vvhitenefs, quantity,
figure, friablenefs, &c. Of wine, its flavour, quicknefs,
fpecific gravity, &c.

The generality of Romifh divines hold, that the fpecies
are abfolute accidents. And the Cartefians, who are bound
to deny any fuch things as abfolute accidents, are greatly
puzzled to explain the fpecies, without incurring the cen-
fure of herefy. F. Magnan is forced to aflert, that the
fpecies are mere delufions and appearances, which God im-
preffes on our fenfes.

Species, in Commerce, are the feveral pieces of gold,
filver, copper, &c. which, having paffed their full prepara-
tion and coinage, are current in public.

Species, Decried, or cried down, are fuch as the fove-
reign has forbidden to be received in payment.

Species, Light, are thofe which fall fliort of the weight
prefcribed by law.

The weights of the current coins, as coined, are now as
follow ; the ffandard of gold being 3/. 17/. lo^d. per oz. the
mint price of gold ; and the llandard of filver being jj. zd.
per oz. mint price of filver.

dwt. gra.
Gold, guinea ...... 5 95

half-guinea - - - - - 216^

Silver, crown - - - - - - 198^

half-crown - - - - - g \6^

fhilling ...... 4 20

fixpence ...... 2 10

The current weight of gold :

Guinea ....... 58

Half ditto 2 16

Under

^

S P E

Under this weight no gold was allowed to pafs by pro-
clamation.

Species, Falfe, are thofe of different metal or alloy from
what they fhould be, &c.

Species, in Algebra, are the fymbols, or chara£lers, by
which quantities are reprefented.

Species Aromatlcis, a new name given in the late London
Difpenfatory to the compofition ufually called /pedes diam-
br<e. The College obferved, that the intention of this medi-
cine was beft anfwered, bv compofing it of fucli Ipioes as the
daily experience of the table (hews were moll grateful to the
Itomach, and by avoiding all ingredients which, though of
the aromatic kind, are accompa-.;ied with any thing naufeous
and difguftful in their flavour ; and, therefore, have or-
dered it to be now made in the following manner. Take
cinnamon two ounces, cardamom-leeds, ginger, and long
pepper, of each an ounce ; make all together into a fine
powder.

Species e Scordto, the ingredients of the diafcordium
eleftuary in a dry form. The recipe is fomething altered in
the late London Pharmacopeia, and Hands thus : take bole
armenic, four ounces ; fcordium, two ounces ; cinnamon,
an ounce and half; ftorax, roots of torinentil, biltort, gen-
tian, dittany of Crete, galbanum, and gum arable and red
rofes, each an ounce ; long pepper and ginger, each half an
ounce ; opium, three drachms ; this may be left out at plea-
fure ; and all arc to be beat to a fine powder.

Species, in Gardening, has fome which confift only of
one, as the flowering rufh, the hop, and fome more ; while
in others they are numerous, as in the fun-flower, the ge-
ranium, the honeyfuckle, the willow, and a great many
more. There is often, too, fome degree of fimilarity in the
culinary or domeftic and economical ufes, as well as the
medicinal properties, in the fpecies of cultivated garden and
other plants, which belong to the fame g^enus or family, as
in the cafes of garlick, onion, leek, ftiallot, and chives ;
cabbages, favoys, brocoli, and cauliflower ; parfley and
celery ; the bay-tree, benjamin-tree, faflafras, and cinna-
mon ; mugwart, wormwood, tarragon, and fouthernwood :
and the fame takes place in many other inllances.

The fpecies likewife, in fome cales, ferves to denote the
mode of culture and management which are neceffary in the
raifing and growing of different plants, in the garden mari-
ner, as well as their habits of growth and production.

Species of Plants., in Syjlematic Botany, appear, as far
as can be afcertained from the umverial exper'enre of thofe
who are converfant with them, as well as from every thing
that can be gathered from the records of remote antiquity,
to remain diftindl from each other, marked by their appro-
priate charafters and qualities, and renewing themfelve'!
periodically by fexnal generation. Such being the cafe
with all the p'ants of which we have any knowledge, wc
conclude it to be fo with the rcit, as well as with animals.
The White Blackbird of Arillotle Hill inhabits the Cyl-
leiiian groves and copies of Arcadia, undillurbed by the
revolutions of two thoufand years ; and we doubt not that
the banks of the Alpheus have been fringed witli the fame
violets and primrofes, through uncounted ages, as thofe
with which they are now, every ipring, adorned.

Various plants indeed, and rfpecially domeilic ones, like
domeftic animals, are found liable to fome variations of
colour, luxuriance, and fenfiblo qualities, which have led
curious inquirers to doubt whether any fpecies are certainly
permanent. This doubt could arife only from a flight view
of the fubjeft. Whatever cafual aberrations there may be
in the feminal offspring of cultivated plants ; a little obferva-
tion will prove how tranfitnt fuch varieties are, and how

II

S P E

uniformly their defcendants, if they be capable of producing
any, refume the natural charafters of the fpecies to which
they belong. Nothing can better exemplify this fadt, than
the feries of experiments inftituted, on a moft extenfive
fcale, upon the Apple-tree, by the celebrated prefident of
the Horticultural Society, Mr. Andrew Knight. They
prove that every thing but fexwal propagation is only the
extenfion of an individual, whofe corporeal frame has but a
certain limited exiftencc ; the period of which is indeed
much longer in fome varieties than in others ; and hence the
valuable Golden-pippin and Nonpareil have enriched our
orchards for a long courfe of years, while numerous new
varieties of apples are found to endure but for a few feafons.
Some, however, promife to be more lafting, and to fupply
the place to our defcendants, of thofe kinds, of which we
can tranlmit to them only the names. When varieties ori-
ginate in the crofs impregnation of plants of different
fpecies, they partake of tlie inability to procreate which be-
longs to mule animals, and are moreover feldom capable of
being long increafed by cuttings, budding, or other me-
thods. For confirmation of this, fee the article Pel.ir-

GONIUM.

The technical difcriminalion of the fpecies of plants, but
vaguely and fuperficially attended to by the ancients, makes
an interelling part of the philofophy of modern botany,
which confiders their differences as indifputably founded in
nature, and for the mofl part extends that opinion, even to
thofe afl'emblages of fpecies which we term genera. On this
fubjefl the reader may confult the article Genus.

Although the dillnitlive charaftcrs of genera are wifely-
limited, by the moft philofophical botanifts, to the part8 of
fruftificatioii, ttiofe of fpecies are allowed to be taken from
any part of the plant. Some charafters are found more im-
portant or coiiftant in one tribe, others in another; none
are abfolute, or invariably conftant, in any. Number,
which in the natural orders i.f Caryophyllete and Rofiiceis will
fometimes afford even a generic di'tinction, in others, and
even in what regards the llamens of the Caryophyllee them-
felves, 'will hardly be found to limit a fpecies. The dif-
ferences between fimple or compound leaves, entire or in-
dents d, opjjofite or alternate ones, arc ufually llriking and
unchangeable ; but exceptions may be found to all thefe.
Colour of flowers is, on the other hand, feldom to be relied
on as a fpecific difference. It appears fo in Mefentbryanthe-
mum, but to prove it the fpecies mult be cultivated from
feed. Yet the yellow difk of a compound flower has never
been known to change hues with its blue or white radius,
nor does fuch a variation feem within the bounds of pof-
iibility. Pubelcence is found variable both in itrudlure and
quantity ; but lefs, or not at all, fo in direftion. Hence
the fpecific charafters of Mcnthjt, and more recently of the
genus Myofotis, have been determined better than by any
other means.

The inflorefcence, or mode of connection of the flowers,
is pointed out by Linnseus, as yielding the beft fpecific cha-
rarters ; though he, in theory at leaft, excludes it from all
authority in founding genera. In graffes, neverthelefs,
every body recurs to this mark ; though perhaps founder
principles may hereafter be difcovered for arranging even
thefe.

The root almolt invariably affords good and unchangeable
fpecific charatters ; but it is not always acceffible, wor rea-
dily prelerved in a herbarium. Some grades moreover change
their fibrous roots into bulbous ones, in confequence of a
fludluation of foil or nutriment ; and the bulbs of other
plants very much alter their t*xture or appearance from
fimilar caufes.

Great

S P E

Great experience and fagacity, with perhaps a peculiar
talent, are requifite to form a good judge of fpecific cha-
rafters. To convey a prccife idea of them to others, re-
quires a clearnefs of dcfmition, and a command of lan-
guage, granted to very few. Linnieus, with good reafon,
limits filch characters to a certain number of words, hardly
exceeding twelve. However narrow thefe bounds may ap-
pear, we believe them to be in general, if not always, fuf-
ficient ; and every pcrfon will perceive that the confequence
of their tranfgreffion is ufually feeblenefs, if not confnfion,
of definition. It mull always be remembered that fpecific
charafters are differences, not Jeferiptions. Hence a fpecific
charafter for a lolitary fpecies of any genus, is an abfurd-
ity. It cannot contrail fuch a fpecies with what are un-
known, or perhaps do not exill. A fhort defcription may
be very commodious or fatisfaftory to give an idea of the
plant, efpecially if the author miftrufts his genus or its defi-
nition ; but if the genus b« good, the very charadcrs which
he will feleft to delineate the habit, or prominent peculiari-
ties, of the only known fpecies, will, moft likely, be com-
mon to any new ones that may fubfequently be difcovered.

Linnaeus remarks, that the deteftion of genuine fpecific
dillinftions is the fummit of botanical (kill. To which we
may add, that thofe have moft excelled in this department
who have caught the greatell Ihare of the genius of this
great man, whofe definitions come as near to perfeftion as
art can come to nature.

SPECIFIC, in Philofophy, that which is proper and pe-
culiar to any thing ; or that charaClerizes it, and diftin-
guifhes it from every other thing. See Proper, &c.

Thus, the attrafting of iron is fpecific to the load-done,
or is a fpecific property of the load-ftone. A juft definition
Ihould contain the fpecific notion of the thing defined, or
that which fpecifies and dillinguifties it from every thing
elfe.

Specific, in Medk'mi, fuch articles in the materia me-
dica as have the fpecial power of curing particular difeafes,
in all perfons, and under all circumftances, without demand-
ing any attention to particular indications. In other words,
2. fpecific is a certain antidote againft a given difeafe. Not-
withftanding, however, the multitude of fuch fpecifies,
which are every day announced by boalUng quacks, and
teftified to by all ranks of people, who are their dupes, it
unfortunately happens that no fuch remedies exift. As
found fcience has extended, all thefe vaunted fpecifies have
fucceflively been banifhcd from the confidence of men of
fenfe and information ; and almoft every remedy has fome
obvious aftion upon the animal fyftem, fo that the principles
of its operation in particular difeafes may be pointed out.
Peruvian bark was formerly fuppofed to be a fpecific for in-
termittents and agues ; but it is now known to fail in many
cafes, and not to be more efficacious than other medicines of
a tonic power, fuch as arfenic, and fome combinations of
bitters with aromatics, which are popularly ufed in agucifii
countries. The two medicines which approach the neareft
in their qualities to the charafter of fpecifies, are mercury, as
the antidote to the venereal poifon, d.x\A fulphur, to that of
the itch. Indeed it is only in cales of the aftual exiftence
of a morbid poifon, that any dillinft antidote can poflibly
exift. But even with refpedt to thefe two medicines, it is
well afcertaiiicd that there are cafes of difeafe, fo accurately
refemblmg lues venerea, as not to be diftinguiftiable by the
moll acute and experienced eye, which neverthelefs recover
without the aid of mercury (fee Mr. Abernethy's " Ac-
count of Difeafes which ftrikingly refemble the Venereal
Difeafe") : and we know that the powers of fulphur in
curing the itch are confiderably augmented by the addition

See Specific Gra-
Mr. Robertfon, in

S P E

of other fubftances, fuch as hellebore, muriate of ammonia,

the white oxyd of mercury, &c. All other inftances of

pretended fpecifies are impofitions.

Specific Gravity, in Hydrofiatiei.

VITY.

Specific Gravity of Living Men.
order to determine the fpecific gravity of men, prepared a
ciftern, 78 inches long, 30 inches wide, and 30 inches deep ;
and having procured 10 men for his purpofe, the height of
each was taken, ar(d his weight ; and afterwards thev
plunged fucceflively into the ciftern. A ruler, graduated
to inches and decimal parts of an inch, was fixed to one end
of the ciftern, and the height of the water noted before each
man went in, and to what height it rofe when he immerfed
himfelf under its furface.

The following table contains the feveral refults of his ex-
periments.

No.

of

Men.

Height.

Weight.

Heii;ht
of Water

before
imiiierfeJ.

Height
of Water
when im-
merfed.

Water
ralfcd.

Sut'idity.

Weight

of
Water.

Ft. In.

Pounds.

In.

In.

In.

Founds.

I

6 2

i6i

19.30

21.20

1.90

2-573

160.8

2

5 lOr

147

19.25

21.16

1.91

2.586 ;i6i.6

3

5 01

156

19.21

21.06

,.85

2.505 ii56.6

4

5 6^

140

19.17

21.21

2.04

2.763 [172.6

5

5 Si

158

>9-i3

21.21

2.08

2.817 ii76.o

6

5 5t

158

19.09

21.26

2.17

2-939 ;i83-7

7

5 4J

140

19.05

21.06

2.01

2.722 ,170.1

8

5 31

132

19.01

20.S6

..85

2.505

156.6

9

5 4i

121

18.97

20.76

1.79

2.424

151.5

10

5 3t

146

18.93

20.66

1-73

2.343 1 146.4}

One of the reafons, Mr. Robertfon fays, that induced
him to make thefe experiments, was a defire of knowing
what quantity of fir or oak-timber would be fufBcient to
keep a man afloat in river or fea-water, thinking that molt
men were fpeeifically heavier than river or common frelh
water ; but the contrary appears from the trials above re-
cited : for, excepting the firlt and laft, every man was
lighter than his equal bulk of frefh water, and much more fo
than his equal bulk of fea-water : confequently, if perfons
v^'ho fall into water had prefence of mind enough to avoid
the fright ufual on fuch accidents, many might be preferved
from drowning ; and 3 piece of wood, not larger than an
oar, would buoy a man partly above water as long as he had
fpirits to keep his hold. Phil. Tranf. vol. 1. art. 5.
Specific Gravity of Metals. See the feveral metals.
Specific Heat. See Heat.

Specific Names, m Natural Hi/lory, are thofe epithets
compofed each of one or more terms, and placed after the
generical name, in the denomination of any fpecies of plant,
animal, or mineral, expreffing thofe charaAers by which it
differs from all the other fpecies of that genus.

The more accurate of the modern naturalilts have, in their
feveral provinces, fct about the reformation of the fpecific
names of things. They firft obferve, that many of the
fpecific names of the ancients no way anfvvered the intent of
their formation, but expreffed the more trivial diftinftions,
or accidents, while they omitted the realities, and more
effential grounds of diftinttion. On this foundation the
critical writers of our times diftmguifh the old fpecific
names into the genuine or true, and the fpurious or falle
ones.

The genuine names are thofe which exprefs thofe charac-
ters,

S P E

S P E

ters, by means of which the thing becomes a different fpe-
cies ; thefe are invariable, and by thefe names the thing is,
in fome fort, defcribed. The falfe ones are thofe fpecific
names which do not, and cannot di(lingui(h the fpecies
called by them from the others of the fame genus, which
may as well belong to fome other fpecies as to that, and
which therefore are of no ufe to the lludent. The true
formation of thefe names is on the real characters of the
body to be named ; but iiiftead of this, thefe falfe ones are
often formed from accidental or variable diftinftions.

Specific Waters. See Water.

SPECIFICATION, a term expreffing the engineer's
ttatement of the particulars of width, depth, flopes, &c.
which a certain length of canal is to have, when the exca-
vation is to be made by contraft.

Specification is likewife a term ufed in obtaining pa-
tents. See Patent.

SPECILLUM, a probe, one of the moll common in-
ftruments of furgery. See Surgical Plates.

SPECIOUS Arithmetic. See Arithmetic.

SFECKHAVEN, in Geography, a harbour on the W.
coaft of Weft Greenland. N. lat. 64°. W. long. 49° 40'.

SPECKLED Beans, in Agriculture, a term applied to
fome forts of the kidney-bean, which are occafioiially cul-
tivated in the field, in fome diftridts. The principal va-
rieties which are grown and cultivated in this way in fome
parts of the county of Kent, are the black fpeckled and the
red fpeckled ; but many others may be employed for the
tame purpofe.

The tillage preparation of the land for field-crops of this
fort's the fame as that which is made ufe of for the growth
of the common pea and bean ; and the manure, which is
>.ommonly ploughed in before the feed is put into the ground,
i', of the more rotten dung kind. See Pbas and Beans.

The time of planting crops of this nature in the field is
m the early part of the fpring, as from about the eighth to
tiie twentieth of May, as when it is done earlier, the crops
are in danger of being injured, or wholly dellroyed, by the
occurrence of a frolly morning, which is then liable to take
place.

In fetting, the feed-beans are dropped by the hand into
holes, or fmall furrows or drills made for the purpofe m the
land, in the quantity of from five to ten gallons to the acre,
in proportion to the fize of the fort which is employed ;
the fmaller the fort of bean, the lefs the quantity which is
neceflary.

The crops are repeatedly hoed while growing, fo as to be
kept perfedtly clean and free from weeds of all kinds ; and
in their more early growth the fine moulil is a little drawn
up to the rows, in order to promote the advancing of the
young plants.

The harvciling of the crops is by pulling up the
plants by the roots, as the beams become ripe, dunng the
beginning of the autumnal fcalon. The more early forts
are comn:only ready and fit to be pulled about tlic end of
Augull ; but the late ones are often not ripe and ready for
pulhiig until the month of Oftobcr. Thofe which ripen fo
late in the feafon, and arc in danger of being injured by
v;ct weather, are frequently tied up in fmall bunches, and
hung upon poles to finidl their ripening, and, when
thoroughly dry, are threlhcd out and fcnt to market, as
they IcTdom keep well.

Thele forts of bean-crops arc much cultivated and at-
tended to about the town of Sandwich, and in the Ifie of
Thanet, in the fame county, as well, perhaps, as in fome
other fouthcrn parts of the ifland, for the purpofe of fup-

10

plying the London feedfmen with thefe kinds of beans. See
Phaseolus.

This is a profitable fort of culture in fome cafes and fea-
fons, but liable to much uncertamty.

SPECTABILES, among the Romans, a title of honour
given to the fecond rank, or degree of nobility, under the
Roman emperors, being unknown in the time of the re-
public. There were two other degrees ; the firll had the
title of illuftres, and the third that of clarij/lmi.

SPECTACLE, Spectaculum, Show ; fome extraor-
dinary objeft, which draws the view and attention ; and is
not beheld without fome emotion or palTion of the mind.

The term is chiefly ufed, by the ancients, for theatrical
and amphitheatrical performances ; for comedies, combats
of gladiators, and of beafts ; and even for folemn proceflions,
as thofe of the Circus, &c.

The people of Rome were extremely fond of fpeftaoles ;
and the Roman hiftorians obferve, that there was no furer
way of gaining their affeftions, and making parties to in-
troduce tyranny and oppreflion, than by the ufe of fpec-
tacles.

SPECTACLES, an optic machine, confiding of two
lenfes fet in a frame, and applied on the rofe, to affilt in
defeftsof the organ of fight.

It is well known, that parallel rays, or fuch rays as pro-
ceed from a very diftant luminous point, will be coUefted,
by the refraftions of all the humours through which they
mutt pafs in the eye, to a focus on the retina, which is the
true place of the image. But at the fame time it is evident,
that if that be the focal diftance for parallel rays, it cannot
be the focal dittance for diverging rays ; or, in other words,
when the objects are fituated at a few feet dillance from the
eye, their true images muit be formed farther back ; con-
fequeiitly their miages upon the retina mult be imperfeft,
unlefs the retina be fituated farther back by an elongation
of the axis of the eye, or the focal diftance be (liortentd
by the alteration of fome other part. But fince we may
perceive either diftant or near objefts diftindly, it is evident
that fome fuch alteration does adtually and necefiarily take
place. This is called the adjuftmcnt, or accommodation of
the eye fordillintt vifion ; but the difficulty is to determine
how this adjuftmcnt is effefted.

By fome perfons it has been attributed to a change in the
length of the eye, and by others to a change of curvature
in the cornea ; but fome very recent experiments render
thofe alterations unlikely, at leaft to the full amount of
what may be required. Other ingenious perfons have
attributed the alteration to a change either of the fiiape of
the cryftaUine lens, or of its fitnatii^n, or of both ; and this
opinion feems upon the whole to be nearer the truth.

That the eye cannot fee both near and remote objedls
diltindtly at the fame lime, may be cafily proved. Let a
tree, a houfe, or fome other objeft, be upwards of fifty
feet from you ; (hut one eye, and whilft you are looking
uith a fingle eye at the tree, &c. hold a pin, a pencil, or
fome other objeit, in the fame direftion, at about a foot
diftance from tlie eye ; and it will be found, that whilft
you fee the pin diftindtly, the tree will appe.ir indiftiiift ;
but if you adjnft your eye fo as to lee the tree dilliiiAly,
then the pin will appear indiftinft.

The eyes of fome perfons arc more capable i,f adjuft-
mcnt than thofe of others. In old perfons the humours
grow tliickcr, and the parts lefs pliable ; hence their cye;i
are lefs capable of adjuftmcnt than thofe of young perfons.

The eyes of lome perfons can be adjufted for diftant
cbjeds better than for near objeft?, and vice verfa. When

the

SPECTACLES.

the eye is defeftivc, snd by its fize or other conformstion,
parallel rays form their foci before they arrive at the retina,
then the perfon can fee very near objefts only. Such perfons
are faid to be near-fighted, or they are called myopes.
When the eye is flatter than ordinary, then the foci of
rays from pretty near objeft? are formed beyond the retina.
Perfons with fuch eyes are czAeA preJlyU ; they can adjuit
their eyes for objefts beyond a certain diitance only. The
latter is generally the cafe with old perfons ; but the eyes
of old perfons fometinies are incapable of adjuftment both
for very near and for very diftant objefts. This comes from
a rigidity or want of pliabihty in the parts. Thofe defefts
are frequently brought on or increafed by habit, as by the
conftant cuilom of viewing objefts either from too near
or from too great a diftance ; as alio by the ufe of improper
glalTes.

Thofe imperfeftions may in a great meafure be remedied
by the ufe of proper glades or fpeftacles ; for fince, in near-
fighted perfons, the rays of light converge to a focus too
foon, 11/2. before they come to the retina, concave lenfes,
which diminifli the convergency, mult remove the imper-
fcftion. And for thofe who can fee diftant objefts only
with tolerable diltinftnefs, to'k. in whofe eyes the rays do
not converge foon enough, convex lenfes, which increafe
the convergency, muil remove the imperfeftion.

When the defeft comes from rigidity, as in fome old
perfons, then thofe perfons require concave glafles for view-
ing diltant objefts, and convex glades for viewing near
objefts ; for their eyes want both adjuftments.

The capability of adjuftment is greater or lefs in different
eyes, and it is frequently different in the two eyes of tlie
very fame perfon ; but in all eyes there is a limit, within
which vifion is not diftinft. This is called the limit of diJlinEl
•oifton ; and with fome perfons it is as diort as one inch, whilft
in others it exceeds twenty inches ; but in common it will
be found to lie between fix and ten inches.

In Spain, and at Venice efpecially, fpcftacles have been
ufed with a different view from either of thofe above dated ;
all the people of note and fafliion there have them con-
tinually on their nofes : a fully, that has its fource in the
natural pride of thofe people, who value themfelves on a
profound wifdom ; and affeft to ftare very near at every
thing ; as if their eyes were weakened, and worn out with
excefs of attention. Vign. de Mary.

F. Cherubin, a Capuchin, dcfcribes a kind of fpeftacle
telefcopes, for the viewing of remote objefts with both
eyes; hence called binocuU ; though F. Rheita had men-
tioned the fame before him, in his " Oculus Enoch et Elis."
See BiNocLE.

- The fame author invented a kind of fpeftacles, with three
cr four glades, which performed extraordinarily.

Speftacles were certainly unknown to the ancients.
Francifco Redi, in a very learned treatifc on fpeftacles, will
have them to have been invented in the 13th century, be-
tween the years 1280 and 131 1, (probably about the year
1299 or 1300,) and adds, that Alexander de Spina, a monk
of the order of Predicants of St. Catharine, at Pifa, firft
communicated the fecret, which was of his own invention ;
upon learning that another perfon had it as well as himlelf.
This hiftory is written in the chronicles of that convent.

The fame author tells us, that in an old manufcript ftill
preferved in his library, compofed in 1 299, fpeftacles are
mentioned as a thing invented about that time : and that a
famous Jacobin, one Jourdon de Rivalto, in a treatife com-
pofed in 1305, fays exprefsly, that it was not yet twenty
years fince the invention of fpeftacles. He likewife quotes

Bernard Gordon in his " Lilium Medicins," written the
fame year, where he fpeaks of a coUyrium, good to enable
an old man -o read without fpeftacles.

Mufchenbroeck, Introd. vol. ii. p. 786, obferves, that it
is infcribed on the tomb of Salvinus Armatus, a nobleman
of Florence, who died in 1317, that he was the inventor of
fpeftacles.

Du-Cange, however, carries the invention of fpeftacles
farther back ; alluring us, that there is a Greek poem in
manufcript in the late French king's library, which (hews,
that fpeftacles were in ufe in the year 1 1 Jo ; neverthelefs,
the Diftionary of the Academy dellaCrufca, under the word
occhiale, inclines to Redi's fide ; and quotes a padage from
Jourdon's Sermons, which fays that fpeftacles had not been
twenty years in ufe : and Salvati has obferved, that tbofc
fermons were compofed between the years 1330 and 1336.

It is probable that the firft hint of the conllruftion and
ufe of fpeftacles was derived from the writings either of
Alhazen, who lived in the 12th century, or of our own
countryman Roger Bacon, who was born in 1214, and died
in 1292 or 1294. The following remarkable paffage occurs
in Bacon's " Opus Majus," by Jebb, p. 352. " Si vero
homo afpiciat literas et alias res minutas per medium cryf-
talli vel vitri, vel alterius perfpicui fuppofiti litcris, et fit
portio minor fpherx, cujus convexitas fit verfus oculum
et oculus fit in aere, longe melius videbit literas, et appare-
bunt ei majores. — Et ideo hoc inftrumentum ell utile fenibus
et habentibus oculos debiles : nam literam quantumcunque
parvam podunt videre in fufficienti magnitudine." Henee,
and from other padages in his writings much to the fame
purpofe, Molyneux, Plott, and others, have attributed to
him the invention of reading-glalies.

Dr. Smith, indeed, obferving that there are fome miltakes
in his reafoning on this fubjeft, has difputed his claim. See
Molyneux's Dioptrics, p. 256. Smith's Optics, Rem.
86—89.

The elfential and extenfive ufe of fpeftacles, which
affords comfort to fo great a number of individuals, who
would otherwife be a burden to themfelves and to fociety,
is an inftance of the great ufefulnefs of the fcience of
optics.

No pains have been fpared to render fpeftacles as perfeft
as poffible, and a variety of contrivances have been from
time to time offered to the public. Speftacles have been
made with two lenfes for each eye ; alfo the lenfes have
been made plano-convex, or plano-concave, or of other
fhapes ; but, upon the whole, fingle lenfes, either double
concave, or double convex, of clear glafs, well polilhed and
regularly formed, are the bell.

When the eyes of perfons firft begin to be affefted by
age, the opticians furnidi them with fpeftacle lenfes, of
about forty inches focus, which glades are therefore called
number i!t, or glades of the firlt fight; inz. for the fight
when it firft begins to be impaired by age. But there is
confiderable difference between the focal diftances of fpec-
tacles. N° I, made by different opticians. When the
focal length is about fixteen inches, the lenfes are called
N' 2. About twelve inches are the focal length of N° 3.
Ten inches are what they call N° 4. Nine inches are thofe of
N" 5. Eight inches give the focal length of N° 6. Seven
inches are the focal length of N° 7. Six inches are the focal
length of N° 8. And fometimes they make fpeftacles of a
focus Ihorter ftill. Concave fpeftacLs are alfo named by
fimilar numbers.

In choofing fpeftacles, aftual trial is the belt guide;
but care muft be had to ufe fpeftacles that do not magnify

more

SPECTACLES.

more than is juft fufficient either for reading, or for other
necefTary purpofes.

When a variety of fpeftacles cannot aftually be tried,
the defeft of the fight may be exprefled by mentioning the
diftance from which the perfon can read, or other pecu-
liarities, from which the neceflary glaffes may be deter-
mined pretty nearly. For an account of the inftrumcnt
for meafuring the exadt limits of diftinft vifion, invented
by Dr. Porterfield, and improved by Dr. T. Young, fee
Optometer.

Huygens conceived, that the glafles of fpeftacles, inftead
of being equally curved on both fides, (hould have the curva-
tures of their oppofite furfaces in the proportion of 6 to i,
and the moft convex fide turned towards the objeft, becaufe
he had demonllrated that fuch a form was bell luited to the
objeft-glalTes of telefcopes, as having lefs aberration than
any other form of lens.

Dr. Wollallon obferves, that although it may be true that
fuch a form of glafs was bell calculated for the objeft-glafs
of a telefcope, previoufly to the celebrated difcovery of the
achromatic objedt-glaf<! by the late Mr. DoUond, yet what-
ever advantages might at any time be expetled from the
telefcopic objeft-glafs fo (haped, thefe were not to be ob-
tained by a fimilar conltruftion in fpeftaclcs, as may eafily
be feen by confidering the different ufos of the rcfpcftive
iiiftruments.

In a telefcope, in the firrt; place, our view is nccellarily con-
fined to a very fmall diftance on each fide of the axis ; and,
iecondly, every part of the objedl-glafs contributes to the
diftinftnefs of any objeft viewed.

It is under thefe circumttances alone, that the proportion
of the curvatures above-mentioned might be proper for a
fingle objedl-glafs, as beincj capable of colledling into the
fame focus the rays that fall on every part of it parallel to
the axis. But by fpedlacles, on the contrary, objedls are to
be viewed, if poffible, in every diredlion in which they might
be feen by the naked eye, which is often removed from the
centres of the glafles ; confequently, a conllrudlion that is
calculated to reprefent corredlly central objccls alone cannot
be the moft advantageous.

In fpedlacles alfo the portion of the glafs employed at
once is fcarcely larger than the pupil of the eye ; fo that
any endeavour to procure the concurrence of all parts of a
glafs in any one effedl is evidently fuperfluous, and may alfo
be (hewn to be prejudicial.

Mr. B. Martin, fo well known by his numerous writings
upon philofophical and mathematical fubjedls, made fpedla-
cles fixty years ago, which he called vifual glafles, and in
which the two glades were not fituated in the fame plane,
or with their axes parallel to each other, but were placed
inclined to each other, in the fame angle as the pencils of
rays muft proceed from the objedls which are viewed, and
come to the two eyes. Refpedling the common glaffes, this
writer obferves, in his trcatifc upon fpedlacles, that he con-
fidered the two glades of a common pair of fpedlacles, when
placed both in the fame plane, and with their axes parallel to
each other, as being moll adapted to view objedls at a very
great diftance, where wc can fee no objedls with them at
all ; for, when we ufe fpedlacles, the axes of both eyes are
always turned to the objedl which we view, and meet in a
point in it, as in reading, writing, working with a needle,
&C. ; confequently the axes of the eyes, and of the glades,
are fo far from coinciding, that they make a confiderable
angle with each other, by which means the eye is deprived
of the principal pencil ef rays, viz. thofe rays which be-
long to the axes of each of the glades, and which will

Vol. XXXIII.

make the moft perfeft part of the image on the retina of
the eye, and which rays alone can produce perfedl vifion.
Thofe rays alone can enter the eye from the objedl we
look at, which come on one fide of the glafs, or obliquely
to its axis, and are therefore regularly refrafted to the eye,
fo as to make the vifion in proportion imperfedl.

As the adlion of light upon the eye tends gradually to
weaken it, no more of fuch an adlive principle (hould be
admitted into fo delicate and fine a llrudlure as that of the
eye, than what is quite neceflary to illuminate the objedl,
and make it fufficiently viCble. But the common fize of
fpedlacle-glaffes pours in upon the eye-balls three times as
much as is neceflary for this purpofe, and, therefore, it
very prejudicial to the eyes in that refpedl, for in time it
makes them weak and watery. Furtlier, it is well known
that only a particular quantity of light is proper for perfedl
and diftindl vifion ; and that a greater or lefs degree of it
always impairs and confufes the image, and confequently
the vifion of the objedl. For this purpofe, in microfcopes,
telefcopes, and other optical inftrumenti, provifions are
made tn regulate the quantity of light by proper apcrturen
and diaphragms ; but in fpedlacles, where the quantity of
light diould be in the higheft, degree regulated and adjufted,
no provifion at all has been made, but the tender fyltem of
the eye has been left defencelefs from the fuperfluous and
injurious particles of light.

In common fpedlacles, only thofe rays of light which fall
near the axis of tlie glafles, can be regularly refradled to the
eye, and confequently only fuch can make the image, or
vifion of the objedl, in any degree perfedl : and, therefore,
confidering the unreafonable area or diameter of the glafles
of common fpedlacles, there muft neceffarily be a great
quantity of light that will not only annoy the image by
fuffufion, but greatly affcdl the eye, and render the image
imperfedl by an irregular refradlion from all the extreme
parts of the glafs.

The lenfes of Mr. Martin's fpedlacles were fo fixed in
their frame, that the axes of the two glafles were inclined
to each other, and met in one point, fituated at the fame
diftance from the glafles as the focus of each glafs refpec-
tively ; or, in other words, the foci of the two glaffes were
brought into one common point : whereas in the common
fpedlacles, the axes of the two glades being parallel, the
two foci are at the fame diftance apart as the centres of the
glaffes are. Mr. Martin alfo recommended opticians to
make the glaffes fmaller ; an alteration which was attended
with confiderable advantages : for, before his time, the lenfes
were frequently made an inch and a half in diameter.

Dr. Franklin ufed a pair of double or bifedled fpedlacles,
which he thus defcribes in a letter to one of his friends.
" The fame convexity of glafs, through which a man fees
cleareft and beft; at the diftance proper for reading, is not
the beft for greater diftances. I, therefore, had formerly
two pairs of fpedlacles, which (hiftcd occafionally ; as in
travelling I fometimcs read, and often want to regard the
profpedls. Finding this change troublcfome, and not al-
ways fufficiently re.idy, I had the glaffes cut out, and half
of each kind aflbciatcd in the fame circle ; the leaft convex,
for viewing diftant objedls, in the upper half of the circle ;
and the moft convex, proper for reading, in the lower half
of the frame. By this means, as I wear my fpcdlaclet
conftantly, I have only to move my eyes up or down, as I
want to fee diftindlly far or near ; the proper glafles being
always ready. Although I cannot diftinguifh a letter, even
of large print, by the naked eye, with the affiftance of this
invention, my eyes arc as ufeful to me as ever they were ;

3P and

SPECTACLES.

and if all the other defefts and infirmities of old age could
be as eafily and cheaply remedied, it would be worth while
to live a good deal longer."

Mr. John Richardfon, an optician of London, obtained
a patent in 1797 for an improvement in fpeftacles, which
confiils in applying extra glafles before the common fingle
lenfes, and fitted with joints, fo that the extra glafles can
at pleafure be turned up out of the way, either on one fide,
or upwards. Tiie advantage of this plan is Hated to be,
that It precludes the neceffity of two pairs of fpeftacles for
different views, but that any two different powers of fight
may be inftantly obtained : for inftance, the fpeftaclcs may
be fitted with fuch lenfes as are moft proper to enable the
wearer to fee a profpeft in walking or riding ; but by turn-
ing down the extra lenfes, the fpeftacles will magnify in a
greater degree, and be proper for reading or writing ; and
by the fame means, coloured glaffes may be applied, to be
occafionally turned down over the lenfes of the fpeftacles,
to walk in the luii-diine.

Mr. John Ifaac Hawkins fome years ago introduced a
new kind of fpeftacles, provided with extra arms or joints,
which pafs upwards over the temples, in addition to the
ufual jointed arms which hold the fpeftacles, by palhng
horizontally round the head. By thefe additional arms the
fpeftacles are borne altogether from the head, without rell-
ing upon the nofe, which occafions an unpleafant fenfaticn
to thofe who firft begin to ufe fpeftacles, although it
wears off in a few days ; but the advantage of Mr. Haw-
kins's plan is, that the glaffes, without occafioning any
preffure on the temples, can be placed at any diflance from
the eye, and inclined in any direftion, as is found moft con-
venient for the view.

Dr. Hyde Wollafton's perifcopic fpeftacles are now
much in ufe, and are fo called from the facility which they
afford the wearer of looking round at various objefts. This
invention, for which he obtained a patent in 1804, is in-
tended to obviate that defeft of the common fpeftacle-sflaffes,
which we have before mentioned, iiiz. that no objects ap-
pear diftinft through them, except fuch as are feen through
the centre of the glafles, or nearly fo, and that the vifion is
indiftinft, in proportion as the part of the glals through
which the rays pafs is farther from the centre": this is moft
particularly obfcrvable in glafles of fliort focal diftance, and
confiderable magnifying power. It is on thi^ accomit that
opticians have lately made and recommended fpeftacle-glafles
of lefs diameter than thofe formerly in ufe, thinking that
the extreme parts of the field of vifion, which from indif-
tinftnefs were of little ufe, might be fpared without much
inconvenience. But this alteration in the fize of the glaffes
can fcarcely be called an improvement, fince for one defeft
it only fubitituted another fcarcely lefs objeftionable.

Dr. Wollafton, having confidercd that the portion of
any glafs employed in any one pofition of the eye is but
fmall, perceived, that by making the fubftance of a glafs
curved, in the manner of a hollow globe, each portion of it
might be fituated nearly at right angles to the direftion of
the fight, and would thereby render lateral objefts diftinft,
without impairing the diftinftnefs at the centre.

To illuftrate this ; fuppofing the eye to be placed in the
centre of any hollow globe of glafs, it is plain, that ob-
jefts would then be feen perpendicularly through its furface
in every direftion : confequently, the more nearly any
fpeftacle-glafs can be made to furround the eye, in the man-
ner of a globular furface, the more nearly will every part of
It be at right angles to the line^of fight, the more uniform
will be the power of its different parts, and the more com-

pletely will the indiftinftnefs of lateral objefts be avoided.
It is evident, that no other rays than thofe which pafs
through the centre of a lens can be at right angles to
both furfaces ; but it is equally clear, that when any fmall
oblique pencil of rays makes equal angles with the two fur-
faces of a thin lens, its inclination to each furface will be
fo fmall, that its focal length will not fenfibly differ from
that of a central pencil. Upon this principle Dr. Wollaf-
ton's fpeftacle.glaffes are made, of a form not heretofore
ufed for that purpofe ; the outer furface of each glafs, or
that which is fartheft from the eye, being fpherically con-
vex, and the inner furface of the fame glafs, or that which
is neareft the eye, fpherically concave. A glafs of this
fort, adapted for a fhort-fighted perfon, will have the interior
and concave furface of each glafs more curved than the ex-
terior and convex furface of tlie lame glafs, by which the
rays of light palling through the fame are diverged, and the
degree of curvature of the interior and concave furface is
to be increafed in proportion as the perfon who is to ufe
the glafles is more Ihort-fightcd. On the contrary, forlong-
fighted pcrfons, the form of each glafs mull be fuch as tf>
have the exterior and convex furface thereof more curved
than the interior and concave furface of the fame glafs,
by which means the rays of light pafTing through the famx-
are converged ; and the degree of curvature of the exterior
and convex furface of the glafs is to be increafed in. propor-
tion as the perfon to ufe the glafs is more long-fighted.

With a view of obtaining the fame effefts as Dr. Wollaf-
ton's perifcopic fpeftacles, a new fpecie? of glaffes have been
lately introduced at Paris, made by Chamblant, optician.
Rue Baffe, Porte St. Denis ; they are CaWed con/erves : thefe
glaffe.s are ground to cylindrical furfaces, inftead of the
fphericai furfaces which have hitherto been employed for
fpeftacles and lenfes of all kinds : the oppofite furface? of
each glafs are fegments of two different cylinders, inclined
to each other at riglit angles ; that is, the axes of the two
cylinders are fituated in parallel planes, but in direftion
they lie at right angles to each other, and in confequence,
the direftion in which one furface of fuch a glafs is curved,
is at right angles to the direftion in which the other fide is
curved. On making trial of a pair of thefe glaffes, we
found them very perfeft in the field of view, prefenting a
very diilinft vifion of objefts viewed through the outer
parts of the glafs, as well as thofe viewed through its cen-
tral parts : and the magnifying power of the whole field as
nearly equal as the eye could judge.

The inventor has obtained a patent in France for this in-
vention, and makes fpeftacles of all degrees of magnifying
power. He propofes to apply iimiiar lenfes to telefcopes,
microfcopes, and other optical inflruments, but we have not
had an opportunity of examining any of them.

Speftacles are made in great varieties of forms, and orna-
mented according to fafhion, or to the fancy of the wearer.
The frames are made of all kinds of materials, fuch as gold,
filver, fleel, pearl, tortoife-fhell, ivory, bone, and wood.
The lenfes are ufually made of glafs, but the better forts
are made of natural cryftal, and are known by the name of
pebble-fpeftacles, but in reality moft of the fpeftacles fold
under that name are made of a hard fort of glafs.

It is obferved by Mr. Ware (Phil. Tranf. for 1813, I
part I.) that (hort-fightednefs ufually comes on between the ■
ages of ten and eighteen. This defeft of fight, as foon as
it is accidentally difcovered, is little regarded by perfons in
the inferior ftations of fociety, and no means are ufed for
correfting it; hence by increafed exertions that are made for
diftinguifhing diftant objefts, the imperfeftion is not unfre-
II q'lently

SPECTACLES.

quently overcome. But when perfons in the higher ranks of
life difcover that their difcernment of diftant objefts is lefs
quick or lefs correft than that of others, however fliglit the
difference may be, fuch perfons, influenced perhaps by
fa/hion more than by neceflity, recur immediately to tlie ufe
of a concave glafs ; and thus their eyes become fo fixed in
the Itate requiring its afliftance, that the recovery of diltant
vifion is rendered afterwards extremely difficult, if not quite
impuflible. The number of perfons who aftually need this
adiflance, is comparatively very inconfiderable ; and there-
fore it fiiould more generally be avoided. The misfortune
refulting from the ufe of concave glaffes is this, that the
near-fightednefs is not only fixed by it, but from a liabit of
inquiry with regard to the extreme perfeftion of vifion,
frequent changes are made for glaffes that are more and more
concave, until at length the near-fightednefs becomes fo
confiderable, as to be rendered ferioufly inconvenient and
afflifting. It ought to be remembered, that, for common
purpoles, every near-figiited eye can fee with nearly equal
accuracy through two glaffes, one of which is one number
deeper than the other ; and though the fight be in a flight
degree more aflilted by the deepeft of thefe than by the
othei', yet on its being firft ufed, the deepeft number always
ccafions an uneafy fenfation, as if the eye were ftraincd.
r, therefore, the glafs that is moft concave be at firft em-
noyed, the eye, in a httle time, will be accommodated to
'., and then a glafs one number deeper may be ufed with
iiuilar advantage to the fight; and if the wifh for enjoy-
ing the moft perfeft vifion be indulged, this glafs may foon
be changed for one that is a number ftill deeper, and fo ni
fucceflion, until at length it will be difficult to obtain a glafs
fufficiently concave to afford the affiftance which the eye
requires. Mr. Ware obferves, that molt of the near-fighted
perfons whom he has known, have had the right eye more
near-fighted than the left ; and he thinks it rot impro-
bable, that this difference between the two eyes has been
occafioned by the habit of ufing a fingle concave hand-glafs ;
which, being commonly applied to the right eye, contributes
to render this eye more near-fighted than the other. In
fome, cafes children have manifelted near-fightednefs almoft
as foon as they begin to take notice of furrounduig objcdls ;
but this, which is occafioned by feme degree of opacity in
the tranfparent parts of the eye, is very different from that
ftate of the eye to which the term myopic, or near-fighted-
nefs, is ufually applied ; and by which is fimply meant too
great a convexity either in the cornea or in the cryftaUine,
in proportion to the dillance of theie parts from the retina.
So far from difcouraging the ufe of fpeAacles in fuch cales,
it is neceilary to recur to them, as without them eiiildren
could not profecute their learnmg with eafe or convenience.
Extreme near fij^htednefs is fometimes occafioned by an evi-
dent change in the fpherical figure of the cornea, and its af-
fumption of a conical fhape. This morbid ftate of the
cornea admits of no amendment by any glafs. The cornea,
in moft cafes of this kind, is preternaturally thin ; and it is
not unfrequently accompanied with fymptoms of general
debility, under which laft circumftance, chalybeate medicines,
and bracing applications to the eye, have afforded confider-
able benefit. Near-fightednefs, our author fays, is fcldom
alike in the two eyes, and he has obfervcd a few cales, in
which one eye of the fame perfon has had a near, and the
other a diftant fight. Dr. Porterfield has fuggelttd, that
the pupils of near-fighted perfons are more dilated than
thofe of others ; but this does not accord with Mr. Ware's
obfervations in fuch cafes. This ingenious writer, whofe
remarks on all circumllances relating to tlie eye merit pecu-
liar attention, obferves, that near-fight«dnel8 has no de-

pendence on the greater or Iraaller degree of convexity pof-
feffed by the cornea, when this circumftance is confidered
alone ; fince the length of the axis of the eye from the cor-
nea to the retina, and the greater or fmaller degree of con-
vexity in the cryftalline humour, muft be alio regarded
before the diftance of accurate vifion can be determined. It
is alfo no lefs evident, that near-fightednefs is not neceffarily
occafioned by a morbid protruCon of the whole eye ; fince
fome perfons are born with eyes of this defcription, and
others acquire the peculiarity, when further advanced in hfe,
in confequence of a morbid accumulation of adeps at the
bottom of the orbit, without either of them being more
near-fighted than thofe who are free from this imperfeftion.
It is a faft often noticed, that old perfons, who have been
long accuftomed to ufe convex glaffes of confiderable power,
have recovered their former fight, even at the advanced age
of 80 or 90 years, and have then had no further need of
them. Tliis amendment is afcribed by Dr. Porterfield to a
decay of adeps at the bottom of the orbit ; but Mr. Ware
attributes this remarkable revolution in the fight of old per-
fons to an abforption of part of the vitreous humours ; in
confequence of which, the fides of the fclerotica are preffed
inward, and the axis of the eye, by this lateral preilure, is
proportionably lengthened. This kind of alteration is alfo
fufficieiit to explain the reafon, why fuch aged perfons re-
tain the power of diftinguifhing objects at a diftance, at the
fame time that they recover the faculty of feeing thofe that
are near ; fince the lengthened axis of the eye leaves the
power by which it is adjufted to fee at different diftances,
precifely in the fame ftate in which it was before the lengthen-
ing of the axis took place. The faculty, fays Dr. T. Young,
of feeing at different diftances, is produced by a power in the
cryftalline humours to become more or lefs convex, accord-
ing as the object is more or lefs diftant from the eye.

Although old perfons lofe the power of diilinguifhing
corredtly near objefts, and require for this purpofc the aid
of convex glafies, they ufually retain the figlit of thafe that
are diitant as well as when they were young. Inftances,
however, occur of perfons advanced in life, who require the
aid of convex glaffes to enable them to fee near, as well as
diftant objefts. From the cafe of perfons who have had
the cryftalline humour removed, Mr. Ware infers, that this
humour is indifpenfably neceffary to enable the eye to fee at
different diftances. Such perfons alfo have lefs power to
afcertuin the diftance of an object when they look through
a convex glafs than when they view it without this affiftance ;
and accordingly fuch perfons feldom make ule of glaffes
when they are walking ; and the inconvenience of glaffes is
particularly experienced when tiiey defcend a fliglit of fteps,
or pafs over uneven ground. Our author obferves, that
near-fighted perfons do not appear to poffefs the fame extent
of vifion that is enjoyed by thofe vvhd have a diftant fight,
and he verifies the obfervation by a ftatemtnt of his own cafe,
whofe range of diftinft vifion did not extend further than
an inch and a quarter in either eye, and within thefe dillances
lie always held a book when he read. He recommends the
following rule for determining the concavity of a glafs that
is beft adapted for near-fighted perfons, to thofe wlio are
unable, from diftance or any otlier cauic, to fuit themfelves
at the fhop of an expert optician. The rule is this : multi-
ply the diftance at which the perfon reads with eafo, (which
in our author's cafe, with his left or beft eye, was five inches,)
by that at which he wiflics to read, which may be ftated at
12 inches ; divide the produdt, 60, by 7, the difterence be-
tween the two, and it leaves nearly 9 inches for the focus of
the concave glafs that Ihall produce the defired eftedt. Tliis
glafs anfwers to that fold under the name of N" 6 ; and this
3P 2 is

S P E

is a double concave glafs, ground on a tool of 8 inches
radius on one fide, and ii inches on the other, the mean
between which is very nearly 9 inches. From the whole
ftatement of our author, he infers, i. That near-fightednefs
it rarely obferved in infants, or even in children under ten
years of age. It affefts the higher clafles of fociety more
than the lower ; and few inftances occur, if any, in which,
if the ufe of concave glaifes has been adopted, increafmg
years have either removed or leflened this imperfeftion.
2. Although the ufual effeft of time on perfeft eyes is that
of inducing a neceflity to make ufe of concave glades, in
order to fee near objefts diltinftly, yet foraetimes, even after
the age of 50, and after convex glaffes have been ufed many
years for this purpofe, the eyes have not only ceafed to de-
rive benefit from them, when looking at near objefts, but
they have required concave glafies to enable them to diftin-
guifh, with precifion, objefts at a diftance. 3. Although
the caufe of this change be not always known, yet fome-
times it has been induced by the ufe of evacuating remedies,
particularly of leeches apphed to the temples ; and forae-
times by looking through a microfcope, for a confiderable
length of time, on feveral fuccefTive days. 4. Initances are
not uncommon, in which perfons far advanced in life, (vix.
between 80 and 90,) whofe eyes have been accuftomed for
a long time to the ufe of deeply convex glaflcs, when
they have read or written, have ceafed to derive benefit from
thefe glades, and they have become able, without any af-
fiftance, to fee both near and diftant objefls almoil as well as
when they were young. This change is probably owing to
an abforption of part of the vitreous humour, by which the
axis is lengthened ; and thus its length, from the cornea to
the retina, is brought into the fame proportion to the flat-
tened ftate of the cornea, or cryftalline, or both, which it
had to thefe parts before the alteration took place.

SPECTATOR, a perfon prefent at a fpeftacle.

Among the Romans, fpeftators, fpeftatores, more par-
ticularly denoted a kind of gladiators, who had received
their difcharge ; and were frequently hired to be prefent as
fpeftators at the combats of gladiators, &c. with which the
people were entertained. See Rudiarius.

SPECTER, in Conchohgy, a name given by the French
naturalilts to a fpecies of voluta, on which there are feveral
reddifh broad bands, compofed of loofe and irregular figures ;
the ground colour is a fine white. They are called by Lutin
writers concha fpeSrorum.

SPECTRORUM Candela, in Natural Hiftory, a name
by which fome have called the belemnites.

SPECTRUM, Ocular, in Optics, a name given by Dr.
Darwin (Phil. Tranf. for 1786) to an image, refembling
in f )rm the objetl to which the obferver was attending, and
which continues for fome time to be vifible, on clofing his
eyes or covering them, after having been long and atten-
tively looking at a bright objeft, fuch, c. g. as the fetting
fun. Thefe ocular fpeftra, he fay?, are of four kinds";
i»;s. I. Such as are owing to a lefs fenfibility of a defined
part of the retina, or " fpeftra from defeft of fenfibility."

2. Such as are owing to a greater fenfibihty of a defined
part of the retina, or " fpeftra from excefs of fenfibility."

3. Such as refemble their objed in colour as well as in form,
which may be termed " direft ocular fpeftra." 4. Such as
are of a colour contrary to that of their objeft, which may
be termed " reverfe ocular fpeftra." The author, from ex-
periments which he has detailed, concludes, that the retina is
in an aftive, not in a paffive ftate, during the exiftence of
thefe ocular fpeftra ; and hence he infers, that all vifion is
owing to the aftivity of this organ. In the firft cafe, the
retina is not fo eafily excited into aftion by lefs irritation,

S P E

after having been lately fubjefted to greater. In the feconcf,
the retina is more eafily excited into aftion by greater irrita.
tion, after having been lately fubjefted to lefs. In the third,
a quantity of llimulus greater than natural excites the retina
into fpafmodic aftion, which ceafes in a few feconds : and a
quantity of ftimulus fomewhat greater than the laft excites
the retina into fpafmodic aftion, which ceafes and recurs
alternately. In the fourth cafe, the retina, after having been
excited into aftion by a ftimidus fomewhat greater than the
lall mentioned, falls into oppofite fpafmodic aftion. The
retina, after having been excited into aftion by a llimulus
greater than the laft mentioned, falls into various fucceffive
fpafmodic aftions. With a greater ftimulus, the retina falls
into a fixed fpafmodic aftion, which continues for fome
days ; and a quantity of ftimulus ftill greater, induces a tem-
porary paralyfis of the organ of vifion. For the illuftration
of the cafes, with mifcellaneous remarks, we muft refer to
the author's paper, ubifupra.

SPECULA, among the Romans, were places whence a
good view might be had of what was doing at a diftance.
The word is particularly ufed to fignify watch-towers and
beacons.

SPECULARES, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a
genus of fofGls of the clafs of the talcs.

The word is derived from the \^zi\n fpeculum, a looiing-
glafs ; the bodies of this kind being naturally of bright,
gloffy, and poHlhed furfaces, and in the thicker maffes not
tranfparent, but reflefting the images of things.

The fpeculares are talcs, compofed of vifibly feparate
plates of extreme thinnefs, and each fiflile again into a num-
ber of others yet finer.

The bodies of this genus are the common Miifcovy talc ;
the fpccularis lucida fufca, or brown talc, a fpecies little in-
ferior to the former in beauty, and found in Germany and
England ; and the Jpecularit amethyjlina, called talc rouge, or
red talc, by the French. This is found in Mufcovy and Per-
fia, and no where elfe, as far as is yet known, and is often
imported into France in maffes, which are of a beautiful
purple : we have of it brought into England, but only in
thin flnkes, fit for the covering of miniature piftures. In
thefe flakes it has none of the rednefs natural to it in the
lump, but is the fineft and moft tranfparent of all the talcs.

Pliny, and other of the ancient writers, as well as feveral
of the moderns, ufe the ieirm fpecularis lapis for that fpecies
of talc commonly known by the name of iftnglajs, or Muf-
covy glnfs.

This has been a fubftance in great ufe among mechanics,
from the earlieft times of which we have any account. It is
found in broad flat mafles of ten or twelve inches in breadth,
and from half an inch to three inches in thicknefs ; and is
compofed in thefe of an almoft infinite number of broad and
beautifully even plates, or flakes, laid with a perfeft regu-
larity on one another, and feldom parting naturally from
each other, though by art they may be divided, almoft
without end, into broad and extremely thin laminz. Thefe
are very flexile and elallic, and make no effervefcence with
aqua fortis. By the laft of thefs properties they are diftin-
guifhed from the plated fpirs which fome have confounded
with them, and by their elalticity from all other foffile
bodies.

It is found in many parts of the world. The ifland of
Cyprus abounds with it. It is very common alfo in Ruflia,
and has of late been difcovered to abound in the Alps, the
Apennines, and many of the mountains of Germary. It
IS imported in large quantities into England, and is ufed by
the lanthorn-makers inftead of horn, in their nicer works ;
by the painters to cover miniature piftures ; and by the mi-
crofcope

i

S P E

crofcope makers to preferve fmall objeAs for viewing by
., glafles. The ancients ufed it inllead of glafs in their win-
dows. Hill's Hid. of FofTils, p. 72.

Some take the lapis fpecularis to have been a fpecies of
gypfum, and compofed of the acid of vitriol and calca-
reous earth. It came into ufe at Rome in the age of
Seneca (Ep. 90.), and foon after its introdiiiition, was ap-
plied not only to give liglit to apartments, but to protert fruit-
trees from the feverity of the weather ; and it is recorded,
that the emperor Tiberius was enabled, principally by its
means, to have cucumbers at his table during almolt every
month in the year.

Dr. Watfon apprehends it is ftill ufed in fome countries
in the place of glafs ; however, it is well known that it
was fo ufed in the time of Agricola, for he mentions (De
Nat. Fof. lib. v. p. 257.) two churches in Saxony which
were lighted by it. Agricola elleemed it to have been a
fpecies of plailer-Ilone, and in fpeaking of it he remarks,
that though it could bear, without being injured, the heat
of fummer and the cold of winter, yet the largell malfes of
it were wafted by the rain. However, it differs from
plaller-ftone in this property, that it does not, after being
calcined and wetted with water, fwell and concrete into
a hard llony fubftance. Watfon's Chem. Efl". vol. ii.
p. 297, &c.

SPECULARIA, among the Romans, a kind of win-
dow cafements, which were ufed before glafs was intro-
duced for this purpofe. They confided of tranfparent
ftones, called lapides fpeculares.

Specularia, the art of preparing and making fpecula,
or mirrors : or the laws of mirrors, their phenomena,
caufes, &c. called alfo catoptrics.

SPECULARIS Lapis, in Natural Hiftory. See Spe-

CULARES.

SPECULATION. — Certitude of Speculation. See
Certitude.

Speculation Shell, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given
by the French writers to a very beautiful fpecies of the
voluta, ufually called by us the Guinea-ihell, from its be-
ing brought from that part of the world.

SPECULATIVE Geometry, Mathematics, and Philo-
fophy. See the fubflantives.

Speculative Mufic. By this expreflion is ufually un-
derftood fcientific mufic, harmonics, the ratio or propor-
tions of found ; in oppolition to praSical mufic, which
implies mufic compofed or performed.

SPECULUM, in Catoptrics, is a metallic refleftor made
ufe of in catadioptric telefcopes, inftead of the objedt-
glafs ufed in dioptric telcfcopes.

Newton. — Mr. Newton, afterwards the celebrated fir
Ifaac Newton, had difcovcred that light conjijls of rays ,lif-
ferently refrangible, and that confequently no figure, which
could be given to a fingle piece of glafs, would make ail
the tranfmitted rays concentrate in the focus of that glals
ufed as an objcft-glafs : he n-linquifhed his glafs-workii, and
immediately turned his mmd to the confidcration of what
could be done in the condruftion of a tcleicope, where
the rays of light were made to concentrate by reflcdtion ;
having prcvioully difcovercd and proved, that the angle ot
refleftion of all forts of rays was equal to the angle of in-
cidence, without tile lead perceptible difpeition. Uniler
an imprefiion that an inllrument, founded on this bafis,
migiit be made more perfctl than could be made with
glalles alone, when ufed in the ufual way, he tried luch
metallic fubttances as promifed to prjiUice a hard and
bright texture, and to admit of a good polifh, and in

SPE

February, 1672, laid before the Royal Society an account
of a telefcope of an entire new condruftion, that gave a
didnift image, and magnified or increafed the vifual angle
thirty-eight times. It is fomewhat remarkable, though not
fo much to be wondered at, when we confider the genius
of the inventor, that this fird attempt detefted not only
the bed materials, but the bed mode of fufing and mixing
them, if not in the bed proportions ; and left fucceeding
indrument-makers little more to do than to vary the pro-
portions, and to exemphfy the theory which he pomted out
by a fucceflion of nice and flcilful manipulations. Copper,
tin, and a portion of arfenic, with fometimes a little filver,
were then, as they are at this time, the eilential ingredients
of the compound metal that condituted the bed fpeculum.
The ingenious Huygens was no fooner informed of the
occafion and fuccefs of this projeft, than he calculated and
candidly acknowledged the advantage that a good con-
cave fpeculum mud have over convex glafles in concen-
trating all the different rays of heterogeneous light. With
this fird indrument the fatellites of Jupiter, as well as the
lune of Venus's difc, were clearly perceived. The fecond
telefcope, however, was more perfedf, and a page of the
Philofophical Tranfaftions could be didindly read with it
at the didance of ico feet. In this condruftion, which
has obtained the name of the Newtonian conftruAion, there
were two fpecula : one fpeculum, which was ground to a
given radius of curvature, was placed at the end of the
tube, which was remote from the objeft to be viewed, and
the other, which was fmall, was plane, and was fixed in an
angle of 45° in the axis of vifion, fo as to refleft the con-
verging rays to a focus, at the focus of a fmall eye-glafs
placed at the fide of the tube, not far from its anterior end
or aperture where the eye was fituated to view the objeft,
that aftually lay to the left hand. Cad'egrain in the fame
year communicated to the Royal Society the figure of a
reflefting telefcope, where a perforation in the large fpecu-
lum admitted the eye-piece to be placed as in the dioptric
telefcope, which he thought had feveral advantages, but he
did not detail any procelTes he had ufed towards attaining
fuch a condruftion ; in reply to which fir Ifaac informed
him, that Mr. Gregory had defcribed a fimilar condruftion
in his " Optica Promota," in the year 1663, from which
reply it fhould feem, that refieSion had been confidered by
Gregory before fir Ifaac condrufted his telefcope, fo that
the Gregorian condruftion mud be confidered as preceding
the Newtonian, fo far as relates to the arrangement of its
parts ; but we are not to conclude from thence, that the
bell compofition for the fpeculum was not fir Ifaac New-
ton's. During the correfpondcnce that Huygens had with
our author, on the fubjeft of a metallic fpeculum, he took
occafion to obferve, that no doubt the fuperiority of a
parabolic curve for the face of the reflefting metal over a
ipherical one mud be known to him, and fir Ifaac was of
opinion that fome mechanical device might be found out,
to produce the dclired curvature, belter than any of the
conic ftUions ; that is, as we fuppufe, better than any tool
formed agreeably to one of the conic feftions : and with
this view Mr. Stephen Gray, we find, prefented a projedt of
forming a grinding tool of a concatenary fhape to be fub-
ditutcd for the parabola, which, however, did not anfwer
in praftice. The projeft was this ; a piece of clay was
formed thin, when foft, into an cxaft circular cake, and
laid on a fufpended horizontal rim or ring of a fmaller dia-
meter, fo as to allow the cake to aflnme the fhape of the
required curve, which it appeared to do ; but on baking
this convex cake, it was found to have altered its figure,

and

SPECULUM.

and to have become fiat at the vertex, fo as to be incapable
of becoming a proper bed for the bituminous coat that
was intended to receive the emery.

In the telefcope vvliich fir Ifaac Newton firft made, the
focal length of the concave fpeculum was 6 ' inches, that
of the eye-piece, which was a plano-convex lens, being juft
^th ; but as the metal was neither perfeft, nor very highly
polilhed, he thought that the power ought not to be fo
highly charged for opaque objefts, particularly as the aper-
ture was only i id of an inch. Suppofing the performance
of any inftrument to be knowo and approved, the author
propofes the fubjoined table to (hew what ought to be the
apertures, lengths, and powers or charges of other inftru-
ments to perform equally well. In the firft column the
length of the telefcope is expreffed in feet ; wliich quantity
doubled gives the femi-diameter of the fphere on which the
concave metal is to be ground ; in the fecond column are
the proportions of the apertures for thefe feveral lengths ;
and in the third column are the proportions of the charges
or diameter of the fpheres, on which the convex fuperficies
of the eye-glafles are to be ground.

I^engtlis.

Apertures.

Charges.

X

lOO

100

I

1 68

119

2

2S3

141

3

4
5
6
8

476
562
645

800

157
168
178
186

200

lO
12

946
1084

211
221

i6

1345

238

20
24

1591
1824

2JI

263

Suppofe, for example, that a half-foot or fix-mch tele-
fcope will magnify diftinftly 30 times with one-inch aper-
ture, and that it be required to find the dimenfions of an
analogous four-feet telefcope ; then oppofite 4, in column i,
we fee 476, in column 2 ; and if 100 at the top of this
column be confidered i.oo, then 476 will be 4.76 for the
correfponding aperture; alfo 168, in column 3, will be
1.68 for the charge, producing a magnifying power of
I45 times ; for if the telefcope of fix inches magnify 30
times, the focus of its eye-glafs muft be 4^th of an inch,
and .^^4 = 1 nearly will be the focal length of the eye-
glafs for 4 feet or 48 inches, and confequently this number
divided by J will give 145 nearly for its power. " But
what the event will really be," fays Newton, " we muft
wait to fee determined by experience." And experience,
we may add, has fliewn, that a four-feet refleftor, as now
made, with the fmall fpeculum alfo concave, will do much
more.

Hadley. — From this time we do not find that much, if
any, improvement took place in the manipulation of the
metallic fpeculum, till about the year 1719, when Mr.
Hadley fucceeded in making two refleAing telefcopes of
5 feet 3 inches long ; one of which he prefented to the
Royal Society of London, and defcribed in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaftions of March and April, 1723. But
though Mr. Pound and himfelf made good obfervations on
Saturn, Jupiter, and their refpeftive fatellites therewith,

nothing is faid about the means ufed ia catting, grinding,
and polilhing either of the fpecula in queUion. Dr. Ro-
bert Smith, in his " Complete Syltem of Optics," has,
however, fupplied the omiflion we have juil noticed, and
has ftated at coufiderable length how Hadley 's method of
proceeding was praftifed fuccefsfuUy by Dr. Bradley and
himfelf at Kew, where, after many trials, they produced
their firft fpecimen, of 26 inches focal length, i» May,
1724. The different procefFes were now made known to
Hauklbee, Scarlet, and Hearne, mathematical-inftrument
makers in London, who, from that period, continued to
raanufafture this inftrument for fale, which before had been
made only by and for private individuals.

We will give here only a fhort detail of the proceffes
ufed by Hadky, Smith, and Bradley, in cafting, pohlhing,
and figuring their fpecula ; becaufe the modern improve-
ments in this curious art claim our more particular notice.
Having fixed on the radius of curvature, and propofed dia-
meter, of the large fpeculum, two arcs were Itruck with a
beam-compafs on two flips of brafs, large enough to re-
ceive the curves of the fame radius as that of the fpeculum ;
and when the metal was filed away, fo that one of the curves
was convex, and the other concave, they were ground
within one another with fine emery, till they exaftly fitted
each other, and then became gauges for forming the wooden
patterns by, which were next made in a lathe, of fomewhat
larger dimenfions than were required for the fpeculum, that
the rough edges of the cail-metal might be reduced, as the
cafe (hould require. From this wooden pattern another of
pewter, containing about one-tenth of regulus of antimony,
was caft in the ufual way, and turned in the lathe to fit the
convex brafs gauge, and to exceed the propofed fpeculum
by one-twentieth of an inch in thicknefs, and double that
quantity in diameter. The flalks for receiving the pewter
pattern, for cafting the fpeculum by, were of iron, and two
inches wider, and one inch deeper, than the pattern, in
order that the fand might be every where an inch thick ; and
the ingates for receiving the fluid metal were fo made as to
allow four or five ftreams over the face of tiie fand, which
was obtained at Highgate. This fand was neither much
wetted, nor rendered too adhefivc by an admixture of clay ;
and when the liquid niet.il was poured in, the flaflis were
fuffered to remain expofed to the fun, fo as to cool gra-
dually, before the metal was taken out, in order that it
might neither warp nor crack. With refpeft to the com--
pofition of the metal, abcve 150 different mixtures were
tried before one was determined on, which was preferred '
to fome of the reft. One of the inetals was three parts of
copper and one and a quarter of tin, which was hard and
white, but found to be porous, efpecially if great heat was
ufed. Another was fix parts of Hamburgh plate brafs, caft
and milled, with one part of tin only ; but the fumes of the
calamy itone left fcabrous ftreaks on the lurface. A third
metal, therefore, compofed of two parts of the former of
thefe compofitions, and one of the latter, was adopted, as
being fuperior to either ; but it was found neceflary that
the copper and brafs ftiould be melted together feparately,
before the tin was melted and poured in. And much im-
portance was attached to the immediate pouring out of the
whole mixture, as foon as it could be well llirred : for after
cooling, lefs heat was neceffar)' to melt the whole mixture,
than was fufficient to fufe one of the ingredients alone ; and
the lefs heat was ufed in bringing the mafs into a hquid
ftate, tiie lefs porous the fpeculum was found to be, wheo
polifhed. After the metal thus caft had become cool, it was
firft ground ou a common grinding-ftone a little concave, till

all

SPECULUM.

all the fand-holes and inequalities were taken off; and then
a fmaller grinding-ftone, or a piece of one, was fhaped fo
convex as to fit the brafs co'^cave pattern, on which the
metal was again grouiid, when fixed upon a block, with a
little emery and water, till the gauge fitti d it. The dia-
meter of the rough ftone was to the diameter of the fpe-
culum as 6 to 5. When the ilrokcs in grinding were made
in a circular direftion, they diminifhed the edges of the
ftone ; but when made acrofs, they made it flatter, fo that
it might be made a portion of either a fmaller or larger
fphere, by the mode of working, and coiifequently mi^ht
be made to grind the cor.cave fpeculum accordingly. But
care was taken that as little of the external hard cruft was
ground away as pofiible, when the figure was once com-
plete, and the furface even. When the rough grindmg was
finifhed, various other tools were ufed, not only with the
fpeculum, but with each other, to infure an uniformity of
fhape. A brafs concave tool, fhaped like the fpeculum,
but of larger diameter, was worked on a marble convex
tool, on which were bedded by cement a number of fmall
blue hones, like a pavement ; fo that the working of the
brafs concave tool on this pavement made a convex curve
over the furface of the pavement, which was thus prepared
to fmooth the fpeculum ftill further, as well as to improve
its figure, by varying the mode of applying the grinding
ftrokes. Again, a polilhing tool made convex, of glafs or
fine marble, and brought to its figure by the brafs concave
tool, was covered with a piece of fine even farcenet, and
laced tight behind, on which a folution of pitch in fpirits
of wine was fpread evenly with a varnifh brufli, till its con-
fidence was uniform, and thick enough to receive a portion
of fine putty powder, when another tool, made concave of
brafs, called a bruifer, was ufed to rub down the gritty
matter of the putty occafioually, as well as to grind fome-
times the bed of hones, when its figure began to alter too
much. During the grinding, a wooden handle was ce-
mented on the central part of the fpeculum, to move it by.
It would be tedious to detail all the variety of precautions,
with the fucceffion of circular, fpiral, and crofs Itrokes, re-
commended for giving perfcftion to the figure and polifh of
the metal ; all which the reader may find in Smith's Optics,
from page 301 to page 312, together with the author's
mode of examining both the exaft length of the focus,
and the figure of the curve, by the rcfleftcd light of a
candle.

In reflefting telefcopes of various lengths, a given nbjeft
will appear equally bright and equally diftinft, when their
linear apertures, and alto their linear amplifications, or mag-
nifying powers, are as the Iqnare-fquare roots of the cubes
of their lengths, agreeably to both fir Ifaac Newton and
Dr. Smith. For example, fuppofe that a reflefting tele-
fcope, with an aperture of 2.448 inches, have a fpccuhim of
two feet focal length, and an eye-glafs of .-jVijth-of an inch
focus, wlicre the power will be -3?,,V = 102, and that it be
required to have another made of three feet focal length,
that fhall produce the fame brightnefs and diitinftnefs in the
objeft viewed ; firlt we fliall have 2 X 2 x 2 = 8 for the
cube, and the fquarc root of 8 = 2.83, and again the
fquare root of 2.83 = 1.68 ; then 3 X 3 X 3 = 27 is the
cube of the new focal length, and 5.2 its fquare root ; and
again, the fquare root of 5.2 will be 2.28 ; hence, as 1.68
: 2.28 :: 102 : 138 ; therefore 138 will be the magnifying
power of the enlarged telefcopc, 0.261 the focua of its eye-
piece, and 3-312 inches its corrcfponding aperture; for as
1.68 : 2.28 :: 2.448 : 3-3l2> &c.; and alfo ,:',V ~ O.261.

The following table, couftrufted on this propoCtion,
was calculated by Dr. Smith, which we infert, as being in

a form more intelligible to a common workman, than the
one we have before inferted from the calculation of fir Ifaac
Newton.

Focal
D'.JUnrc of

Focal
Diftanre of

Maiinifving
Power.

Aperture.

Sp''culum.

Eyc-Glafs.

Fct.

Inches.

Indies.

I

2

0.167

36

0.864

I

0.199

60

1.440

2

0.236

102

2.448

3

0.261

138

3-3'2

4

0.281

171

4.104

5

0.297

202

4.848

6

0.31 I

232

5.568

7

0323

260

6.240

8

0-334

287

6.888

9

0-344

3'4

7-53'5

10

0-353

340

8.160

1 1

0.362

3'''5

8.760

12

0.367

390

9.360

13

0-377

414

9-936

14

0.384

43"7

10.48S

15

0.391

460

11.040

16

0-397

483

11.592

17

0.403

506

12.143

Continued by Edwards.

18

0.409

528

12.67

19

0.414

550

13.20

20

0.420

571

J3-7I

21

0.425

593

1423

23

0.430

614

14-73

23

0'435

635

15.21

24

0-439

656

15-73

This table is adapted for telefcopes of the Newtonian
conltruftion, in which the figure of the great metal is fup-
pofed to be truly fpherical ; but it is prefumed, tiiat when
tliis table fuppofes the conftruftioii to be of the Gregorian
kind, the focal length is the fum of the focal lengths of
both the fpecula, or the diltance that the rays pals after
both refleftions, before they come to the eye-glafs; and
that the large fpeculum is parabolical.

Short. — We do not find that any optician didinguifhed
himfelf in tlic art of making fpecula for reflefting telefcopes,
after Dr. Smith's time, till we come to Mr. James Short,
whofe compofition was beautiful, and whofe ])olilh, as well
as parabolic figure, were excellent ; nay, have been con-
fidered as llandards of perfeftion for even fublequent opti-
cians to imitate. We have, however, to regret that this
confummatc workman not only kept his procels a fecret
from the other opticians, but, in order to fecure to himfelf
the fame he had acquired of being the firlt in his line of
mainifaftory, fome little time before his death, as we arc
credibly informed, he employed his founder, Mr. .lurticc
Blackburgh, to deftroy all hi* tools, lell they (hould fall
into fome perfmi's hands, who might avail himfelf of their
ufe ; and accordingly they were all melted into a liquid mafs :
and his long and luccelsful experience has no further bene-
fited polterity, than as it left fpccimons of workmanfhip to
(hew what Ikilful perfevcrance could cflcft.

Short Ibft beliind him, however, a table of the apertures,

powers.

SPECULUM.

powers, and prices, of reflefting telefcopes, conftrucled by
him in the Gregorian form ; which, not being generally

known, we (hall fubjoin, by way of effacing the blot on

his memory.

Numbers.

Fecal Length
in Inches.

Diameter
of .\periure
in Inches.

Magnifyinc Powers.

Price in
Guineas.

I

3

I.I

I power

of 18 limes.

3

2

4^

1-3

I

25.

4
6

3
4

7

1.9

I

40.

9i

2.5

2

40, and 60.

8

5l

12

3-0

2

55, and 85.

10

4

12

3-°

4

35. 55' ^5' a"d no.

H

7

i8

3-8

4

55» 95. 13O' an'l 200.

20

8

24

4-5

4

90, 150, 230, and 300.

35

9

36

6-3

4

100, 200, 300, and 400.

75

lO

48

7.6

4

120, 260, 380, and 500.

100

II

72

12.2

4

200, 400, 6co, and 800.

300

12

144

18.0

4

300, 600, 900, and 1200.

800

In this table Mr. Short always overrated the higheji
power of his telefcopes, according to the authority of the
Rev. John Edwards, of whom we (hall have occafion to
fpeak hereafter ; and to this circumilance alone, we are
alTured by an ingenious and candid optician, it is to be
afcribed, that all following opticians have been obliged, by
way of fatisfying the expeftations of their cuftomers, to
overrate the higheft power of their telefcopes, in order to
obtain a price adequate to their refpeftive values. Experi-
mental meafurements, indeed, foon detect this falfe repre-
fentation ; and it would be to the credit of opticians, if
they would agree to fix a true meafure to each power of
their telefcopes, and to fell them, notwithftanding, at their
accuttomed prices : for then their purchafers would not ex-
perience difappointment.

Short made two or three Gregorian telefcopes of 1 8 inches
focus, with 4.5 inches aperture, and power 170; and half
a dozen of 24 inches focus, with 6 inches aperture, with
the ufual magnifying powers ; but one of a CalTegrain form,
with a convex fmall fpeculum, of the fame dimenfions, in-
tended to have a power of 355, was not diltinft, and would
bear only a power of 23 1.

Mudge. — In the year 1 777, Mr. John Mudge produced
a paper to the Royal Society, which is printed in their
67th volume, entitled " Direftions for making the bed
Compofition for the Metals of refleding Telefcopes ; to-
gether with a Defcription of the Procefs of grinding, po-
li(hing, and giving the great Speculum the true parabolic
Curve." It will be fufficient for our prefent purpofe, if
we (hew in what refpefts Mr. Mudge's metal difiFers from
that which we have juft defcribed, and in what his improve-
ments in calling confift. In the firft place, Mr. Mude^e
attempted to afcertain what metals, and proportions of
thofe, will produce a compofition that has the three requi-
fites of extreme hardnefs, whitenefs, and compaftiiefs, or
exemption from porofity. The firft two quaUties, after
many experiments, he found were united in a mixture of
14! ounces of grain-tin with two pounds of good Swedi(h
copper ; but the quahty of compaftnefs was not to be ac-
quired from the mixture fimply confidered : it was pro-
duced principally from the manner in which the mixture
was made. It had been ufual to melt the copper firft, and
then to add the tin, and to pour the liquid mixture, with
the fcoria firft taken o(F, into the fla(ks, to form the fpe-
culum in the firft melting ; but the metal generally turned
out to be porous, when poliftied. Mr. Mudge, on con-

fidering that putty is tin calcined, began to think, that part
of the tin melted in a high heat might be converted into
putty, and that the pores might arife from this caufe ; he,
therefore, poured out the liquid compound to form an in-
got, which would fufe wi:h a lower heat than the copper
alone required ; and on ufing this metal a fecond time, fufed
with a moderate heat, it was generally, if not always,
found compaft. Thus melting a fecond, or even a third
time, proved to be a remedy againft porofity ; and it was
afterwards found, that if an ounce of the tin was referved
to be put into the mixture at the final melting, the bril-
liancy of the metal was thereby increafed. If a fpoonful
of charcoal duft be thrown into the crucible, before the
metal be ftirred with a wooden fpatula, and poured into the
moulds, Mr. Mudge fays that the metal will be found to
have a cleaner furface, than when no fuch duft is ufed.
For Mr. Mudge's method of grinding, poliihing, and
figuring his fpecula, fee our article Gkixding.

Edwards.— In the Nautical Almanac of the year 1787
is printed a memoir, entitled " DireAions for making the
beft Compofition for the Metals of reflefting Telefcopes,
and the Method of cafting, grinding, polifhing, and giving
the great Speculum the true parabolic Figure," by the
Rev. John Edwards, B.A., of Ludlow. Thefe direftions
having been confidered an improvement on Mr. Mudge's,
in feveral refpefts, were pubhfhed firft in a pamphlet,
which was foon bought up by the trade ; but at the requeft
of the compofer of the prefent article, they were reprinted
in Nicholfon's Philofophical Journal, vol. iii. 8vo. Series,
p. 490, et. feq., in the year 1800; but with the omilfion
of a portion of the appendix.

After what we have already faid on this fubjeft under our
article GniNDtNG, as well as in the preceding part of our
prefent article, it will not be neceffary to give the whole of
Mr. Edwards's memoir, but to dwell more particularly on
thofe methods of proceeding which are peculiarly his own,
and which conftitute his acknowledged improvements. The
firft objeft that Mr. Edwards had in view was, like that of
his predecelTors, to afcertain, by a number of trials of va-
rious mixtures, made from the metals and femi-metals, what
compofition is, on the whole, to be preferred : for which pur-
pofe he tried filver, platina, iron, copper, brafs, lead, and
tin, crude antimony, regulus of antimony, martial rcgulus
of antimony, arfenic, bifmuth, zinc, and antimony com-
bined with cawk-ftone ; and in the appendix to his memoir
he gave the refult of 71 mixtures, which we will here
9 tranfcribcj

SPECULUM.

tranfcribe, in erder that the fame experiments may not be
fruitlcfsly repeated by future mechanicians.

1. Copper and grain-tin, equal parts ; very bad, foft, and
of a blue colour.

2. Copper with arfenic i ; but little different from the
firlt.

3. Tin z, copper i ; much worfe than the preceding
ones.

4. Copper 32, tin 16, arfenic 4, fixed with nitre ; black
and brittle.

5. Copper 6, tin if, arfenic I ; very indifferent.

6. Copper 32, tin 14, arfenic 2 ; a very good metal.

7. Copper 32, tin 13I, arfenic I ; not quite fo good as
the fixth.

8. Copper 32, tin 13!, arfenic i^ ; a good metal.

9. Copper 32, tin 15, arfenic 2 ; mueh better than any of
the above.

10. Copper 6, tin 2, arfenic i; compaft, but very yellowr
vphen polifhed.

11. Copper 3, tin i^; compaft, and whiter than the
tenth.

12. Copper 32, tini4i; a pretty good metal, but polilhes
too yellow.

13. Copper 32, tin 15, arfenic 2, flint-glafs in powder 3 ;
very bright, but rotten.

14. Brafs 6, tin i ; compaft, but too yellow.

I J. Two parts of the eleventh compofition, and one part
of the fourteenth compofition ; compaft, but much too
yellow when polilhed.

i6. Brafs 5, tin i ; fomewhat whiter than the fourteenth.

17. Brafs 4, tin I ; a good metal, but rather yellow.

1 8. Brafs 4, tin i, with arfenic Vt ; whiter than the fe-
venteenth.

19. Brafs 3, tin i ; will not polifli well.

20. Brafs 2, tin i ; of a fparry nature.

ai. Tin 3, brafs i ; too foft, being only a kind of hard
pewter.

22. Brafs and arfenic, equal parts ; a dirty white colour.

23. Brafs, copper, and arfenic, equal parts ; a dingy
white.

24. Brafs and platina, equal parts ; very difficult to fufe
and mix well toirether, is then malleable, and of a dingy
white colour, like the twenty-fecond compofition.

2j. Copper 32, tin 14, crude antimony 4; black and
rotten.

26. Copper 32, tin 14, crude antimony i ; blueifh, and
rough-grained.

27. Copper 32, tin 15, arfenic 4, bifmuth 2 ; much too
rotten.

28. Copper 32, tin 15, arfenic 3, bifmuth i ; much too
yellow when polifhed, and appears alfo porous.

29. Copper 2, zinc I ; a pale malleable metal.

30. Copper and zinc, equal parts ; flill malleable and
rough-grained.

31. Copper 32, tin 15, arfenic 4, zinc 4; a good metal,
but does not take a high lultre.

32. The thirty-fird compofition, fluxed with corrofive fubli-
mate ; a compaft and hard metal, but rather yellow when
polilhcd.

33. Copper 32, tin 16; a moft beautiful brilliant compofi-
tion, but much too brittle and ?otten.

34. Copper 32, tin 17; blueidi and rough-grained.

35. Copper 32, tin 18; blucidi and rough-grained

36. Brafs 2, zinc i ; nearly of a gold colour.

37. Brafs and zinc, equal parts ; a pale gold colour, and
rough-grained.

Vox.. XXXIII.

38. Spelter 4, tin I ; very rotten.

39. Copper and crude antimony, equal parts ; of a fparry
nature.

40. Copper 32, tin i j, arfenic |;th of the whole ; a very
beautiful and brilliant metal, but tarnilhes when expofed
for fome time to the air.

41. Silver and bifmuth, equal parts ; a yellowifh-white me-
tal, and not much harder than filver itfelf.

42. Silver and tin, equal parts; a white metal, almoil like
filver itfelf, and much too foft for fpecula.

43. Silver, tin, and bifmuth, equal parts ; a dingy white
colour, but much harder than the two preceding compo-
fitions.

44. Copper 32, tin 15, filver i ; a beautiful compaft raetali
but polifhes rather too yellow.

45. Copper 32, tin 15, filver 2 ; not fo white as the
preceding.

46. Copper 32, tin 16, brafs 4, arfenic 2 ; rather too much
tin, as the compofition was of a blueiih complexion, and
rough-grained.

47. Copper 32, tin 15, brafs i, filver i, arfenic l; a
molt excellent metal, being by much the whitell, hardeft,
and the moft rcfleftive I have ever yet met with.

48. Common bell-metal ; polifhes very yellow.

49. Common bell-metal 4, regulus of antimony i ; blueifil
and rough-grained.

50. Common bell-metal 6, regulus of antimony i ; ftill
blueifh and rough-grained.

51. Copper 32, tin 14, regulus of antimony i^, •u'lz. 1 oz.
to I lb.; too much antimony, it being of a blueifh colour,
and rough-grained.

52. Copper 32, tin 13, regulus of antimony Vt ; blueifh
and rough.

53. Copper 32, tin 13, regulus of antimony -J-^, viz. i oz.
to 2 lb.; a very fine metal, in appearance like thirty-
three.

54. Copper 32, tin 13, regulus of antimony -^j viz. I or.
to 25 lb.; a beautiful metal, not much unlike forty-feven,
but not quite fo white.

^^. Crude antimony 16, cawk-ltone i or 2 oz. ; a very
bright glaffy metal, like the common vitrum aiitimonii,
but by no means fit for mirrors.

56. Copper 32, tin 16, vitrum antimonii made from the
cawk-ftone i oz.; a very indifferent compofition, as the
vitrum antimonii did not differ in its effefts from crude
antimony.

57. Copper 32, tin 14, lead 2 ; no art can make this com-
pofition mix intimately, as the lead will always feparate
from the copper and tin.

58. Copper 32, tin 16, regulus of antimony 3 ; black, and
much too rotten.

59. Copper 32, tin 16, iron-filings 8 ; a blueifh-grey co-
lour, and rough-graiitcd, and appeared fomewhat like
tteel when broken through.

60. Fifty-ninth compofition 8 0/.., tin i oz.; a little whiter
than the fifty-ninth, but flill too blue.

61. Equal parts of fifty-nine and fixty ; ftill of too blue a
colour, and not clofe-graincd.

62. Copper 32, tin 16, arfenic 3, iron-filings ^ of an oz.; a
pretty brilliant compofition, but much inferior to forty-
feven.

63. Platina l 07,., brafs i oz., cawk-ftone red-hot J oz. ;
exceffivr'.y difficult to fufe, and of a dirty light brown co-
lour, and fomewhat malleable.

64. Copper 32, tin 16, iron-filings 4, regulus of antimony 4,
and fluxed with corrofive fublimate ; an exceeding hard
and compaft metal, but of too blue a colour.

3 Q <>5- Copper

SPECULUM.

65. Copper 20Z., tin i oz., iron-filings 1 dr., regulus of
antimony l dr.; too blue a colour, and rough-grained.

66. Regulus of antimony and tin, equal parts ; fparry, and
not fit for mirrors.

67. Cail-fteel; will not polifh upon pitch, either with putty,
or colcothar of vitriol.

68. Steel I, tin ;J ; very rough-grained and blueifh, and not
much different from Reel itfelf.

69. Steel I, tin 1 ; rough-grained, and of a blueifh colour.

70. Steel I, and forty-feventhcompofition 20 parts; rough-
grained, and not near fo good as forty-feven.

71. Steel I, and forty-feventh compofition 30; not much
different from the forty-feventh compofition, but not lo
beautiful and clofe-grained.

" Many other mixtures," fays Mr. Edwards, " were
tried, by combining the foregoing compcfitions in more than
3. hundred varieties of proportions ; but none of them were
found equal to N' 47, as that mixture forms a metal that is
the whitefl, hardefl, moft refleftive, and takes the higheft
luflre of any tiling I have yet feen."

The mixture, therefore, wiiich was at laft chofen from
thefe various experiments, was 32 ounces of pure copper,
with 15 or 16 of grain-tin, juil enough to faturate the
copper, I of brafs, and I of arfenic ; which compofition
will be ftill further improved, it is faid in a note, but we
believe not correflly, by i of filvcr. The \ife of the copper
was to leffen the extreme brittlenefs of the mixture ; the
arfenic rendered the metal clofe and free from pores ; and
the filver, it was thought, improved the brightnefs, with-
out injuring the hardnefs, when ufed in a fmall quantity.
This mixture, it will be remarked, very much refembles
Mr. Mudge's, who ufed 14^ of grain-tin to 32 of copper,
but without arfenic, or other addition : he found 15 too
hard for the blue ilone to take hold of ; but Mr. Edwards
availed himfelf of another itone, procured at Edgedon, in
Shropfhire, fituatcd between Ludlow and Bifhop's CalUe,
which was keen enough to bite a metal with from 15 to 16
of tin to 32 of copper, which compofition Mr. Mudge con-
fiders to poffefs ^'maximum of whitenefs as well as of iiard-
nefs. Mr. Mudge, however, fays, that one of his beil work-
men, called Jackfon, found a flone that would cut a metal
of one-third tin and two-thirds copper, but the difcovery of
fuch ftone, which he always kept a fecret, colt h:m the ex-
pence of a journey of two hundred miles ; which dillance
exceeds th.it of Edgedon from London, by about fifty miles ;
and, therefore, the Rones of Jackfon and of Mr. Edwards
were probably not from the fame quarrv, if they were fimi-
lar in kind. Edwards's mode of caftmg is nearly the fame
as Mudge's, both as to a firll fufing for the ingot, with a
fecond fufing for the fpeculum at a lower heat ; and as to
his flaflcs and fand (procured from Highgate), a fmall por-
tion of the tin was alfo referved to be put into the crucible
at the fecond melting, when alfo the arfenic, tied up in
paper, was put in ; and after the, fumes of this ingredient
had ceafed to afcend, the mixture, itirred with awooden
fpatula, while no breath was inhaled into the lungs, was
poured into the flafks, the moment that about an ounce of
powdered refin, or refin and nitre, had been thrown in and
melted, to give a good face, as Mudge did with the char-
coal dull. The principal difference from Mudge's procefs
is, that in the firit melting;, after the brafs is made as fluid
as poffible, the brafs and filver mufl be added with the com-
mon black flux, of two parts of tartar to one of nitre, or
by ftirring the melted mixture with a fpatula of bircli ; after
which the tin mufl be added, and the whole poured out into
an ingot, as foon as it is found to be in a hquid ftate ;
and after the fecond melting, when the arfenic has Lieen

added, and alfo the refin, the flaflcs receive tht metal, witli
the face downwards ; the ingate having been made on the
back of the metal near its edge, and its breadth increafing
to half the diameter of the metal at the place of joining.
The upper part of the ingate fhould contain as much metal
in weight as the fpeculum and the flaflcs fhould be opened,
and the fand cleared out, while it remains red-hot, with the
face ftill downwards, and then removed by a pair of tongs
into an iron pot, containing a large quantity of hot afhes or
fmall coals, fufficient to bury the metal, where it mufl re-
main to cool by degrees with the aflies. We mufl not,
however, omit to mention one precaution, on which fome
ftrefs feems to be laid, viz. that when the pattern, with its
ingate, or git, is taken out of the fand, ten or a dozen fmall
holes muft be made through the fand at the back of the
mould, with a fmall wire, or common knitting-needle, to
permit the air to efcape while the liquid metal is fiUing the
mould, which are fafer than one large hole : alfo at the
fecond melting, the flaflcs mufl be jogged with a flight ftroke
or fhake, as foon as tiie fluid metal is poured in, to prevent
flakes or air-bubbles being formed on the face of the metal.
The git may be taken off, when the metal is quite cool,
with a common fine half-round file, to make an incifion,
after which a gentle blow will remove it. If, however, the
metal i> cafl from a mould too thick, it will not take the
parabolic figure. For a fpeculum of 4^ inches diameter,
and 18 inches focal length, the thicknefs fhould be -r\,ths of
an inch at the edge, and the back lliould be convex, fo as to
allow the whole metal to be of uniform thicknefs when
ground, in order that it may not yield to the preffure, or in-
cumbent weight, during the grinding and polifliing. The
handle fhould be made of the fame concavity and convexity
as the metal, but double its thicknefs, and only three-fourths
of its diameter ; it fiiould alfo have a hole through the
centre, to receive a fcrcw going into the chuck of a lathe,
in order that the edge of the metal may be formed, firll by
a file, and then by a flone from Edgedon, while it is re-
volving.

The fpeculum being cafl by thefe diretlions, is next
rough-ground on a common grinding-flone, formed by a
bar of iteel, while revolving, to the radius of convexity
fuitable for making the defired concavity of the m.etal ; after
this rough-grinding, two tools are all that are requifite ; a
convex tool made of lead and tin, or elfe of pewter, and a
bed of hones, of the fort already mentioned ; for the con-
vex tool ferves alfo for a pol;fher, in conjundlion with its coat
of pitch and colcothar of vitriol, which is preferred to putty :
the polifh from the latter is indeed of a white filvery hue,
but that from the former gives a fine dark luflre, like the
complexion of polifhed fleel, which is deemed preferable.
The colcothar, to be good for this purpofe, mud be of a
deep red or purple colour, mufl diffolve m the mouth with-
out gritty lumps, and feel foft and oily to the touch. It
may be levigated with a little water between two bars of
polifhed fleel, and worked with two or three additions of
water, till it acquires a dark and nearly black colour, when
it will be fine enough to be put into a bottle with water for
ufe. We will not repeat all the proceffes to be attended to
in the ufe of the convex tool, and of the bed of hones, which
we have fufiiciently detailed under our article Grinding,
but remark only on their dimenfions and fhape, which form
cflential confiderations in Mr. Edwards's mode of grinding,
pohfhing, and particularly of giving the requifite figure with-
out a fucceffion of tentative operations. The bed of hones
fhould be of a circular figure at the circumference, and m
every refpeft the fegment of a fphere, with a diameter juil
i-Tjths of an inch wider than that of the metal, when it is

four

SPECULUM.

four or five inches in diameter ; and the reafon is, that if it
is much larger, it will enlarge the circle of concavity of the
metal worked on rt. The convex tool mull not, however,
exceed the fpeculum in diameter more than -rVth of an inch,
otherwife it will enlarge the radius of concavity too much.
Much water ufed with the bed of hones is detrimental to the
figure, and therefore mull be avoided in bringing out the
fcratches of the grinding-llone, and in producing a true
fpherical face. We have faid nothing hitherto of the fiape
of the rough grinder, or convex tool, to be ufed alfo as a
pohlher ; this mull be elliptical at its circumference, and
the longer diameter mull be to the Ihorter exaftly as lO to 9,
the latter being jull equal to the diameter of the fpeculum to
be ground and pohlhed by it. This proportion has been found
by experience to give the parabolic figure in fpecula of or-
dinary dimenfions, by the common mode of ufing the tool
in all direftions ; which diicovery by Mr. Edwards gives
him a claim to originality of method, as vcell as of fimplicity
and certainty in the operations, independently of fuperior
flcill in the operator. This elliptical tool is ufed firll after
the grinding-llone with fine emery and water, before the
bed of hones, and again with the colcothar and water as a
polilher, and during the latter operation, it is faid to give
alfo the parabolic figure. The preparation of this elliptical
convex tool, as a pohlher, is thus effefted. The pitch is
made by boiling tar in a ladle or crucible over a very flow
fire, till it is very hard when tried cold, and with this an
equal quantity of refin is melted, which prevents too much
brittlenefs, and makes a good, hard, unelaltic coat for the
reception of the colcothar. With regard to the requifite
hardnefs of the pitch, Mudge and Edwards feem to differ
in opinion ; but as the metal of Edwards is harder than that
of the other, and as he ufes a different powder for the polifh,
each opinion may be well founded, fo far as relates to his
own mode of polilhing. The pitch, or pitch and refin,
being melted in a crucible, is poured on the heated elliptical
tool, and fpread to the thicknefs of a half-crown, with an
iron fpatula ; when it is cooled a little, a Iheet of writing-
paper is laid on it, and is prelTed equably with the concave
face of the fpeculum itfelf, which does the work of Mudge's
concave tool in this refpeft ; and when the paper is removed,
it will be fecn, by the fine furrows of its face made thereby,
whether or not the impreflion of the fpeculum has, at the
firll trial, given its counterpart to the pitch all over ; if not, a
fecond imprcfTion mull be taken in like manner, after the
pitch has been foftened a little before a fire ; otherwife the
face of the fpeculum might have been dipped in water, to
prevent adhefion, and then the paper might have been dif-
penfed with. The fiiperfiuous pitcli mull now be removed
from the edge of the elliptical polillier, and a cone of wood
inferted into its central ball, to make it perfeftly round,
like the hole of the metal before the coating was poured on.
The pitch is next faturated with the colcothar and watev,
and then polifliing commences, and is continued, without any
particular attention to the Itrokes, more than is necellary for
giving the polilh, and when that is finifhed by crofs flrokcs
given in all directions, as ufual, the parabolic figure is cn-
fured by the variable dimenfions of the polilher'a diameter.
Laftly, the final polilh is nearly attaint-d when black mud
is generated quickly on the furface of the nutal, which mull
be partially, but not entirely, wiped of! at intervals, till the
bufinefs is finiflied, when the truth of the figure and good-
nefs of the metal may be put to the proof that we have de-
fcribed in our former article, as recommended by Mr. Mudge ;
or may be tried by Edwards's more convenient tell, which
we fhall prefently defcribe.

Since we made the preceding abridgment of Edwards's

diredlions, we have feen an extraft from one of his letters
to Dr. Maflcelyne, containing an addition to his former direc-
tions, which, as it is fhort, we will here fubjoin. " Make
the brilliant compofition firll of copper and tin. Melt the
proportional quantity of filver and brafs in a fmall crucible
by itfelf. When you put the brilliant compofition the
fecond time into the crucible, add alfo the lump of brafs
and filver melted together before in a feparate crucible ;
and when the whole is now fluid, add the proportional
quantity of arfenic, and then pour it oft' into the flafks,
after the fcoria is taken off, and a httle powdered refin it
thrown into it." The reafon afTigned is, that as copper
requires more heat to melt it, than either filver or brafs
does, if the brafs were put into the high heat of melting
copper, its lapis calaminaris would calcine, which wiU
not be the cafe when the ingot is made liquid by the
lower heat of the fecond melting. The bell fuel that
Edwards found for melting the metal was coal-coke, a$
prepared by the malt Hers, which calls no fmoke, and is
more lalling than charcoal : he alfo found, that the blueifh
hue of crown-glafs ufed for the eye-piece, befl corrects the
yellowilh colour of objedls, as fhewn by a fpeculum, and
particularly when N° 47 is the compofition chofen. In
trying the figure of the great fpeculum, Mr. Edward,; rejefts
the diaphragms of Mr. Mudge as unnecefl'ary, and adopti
a more fimple method, thus ; when the fpecula and eye piece
are in their places, he fixes a circle (uf white paper pro-
bably) of half an inch, or an inch in diameter, at the
dillance of from fifty to one hundred yards, and gives it
a broad black annular margin, by way of contrail ; then,
when the telefcope is adjufled nicely to dillinft vifion there-
by, the fcrew that moves the fmall mirror mull be turned
either way, until a dark haze furrounds the circle, (or field
of view,) which will become broader and broader the fur-
ther the fcrew is turned ; now, if the haze is more diltinft,
and the edge of it better defined when the fcrew turns to
the right hand, or brings the fmall fpeculum nearer, from
the point of dillinft vifion, than when the motion is in a
contrary direftion, the figure of the great fpeculum is
fpherical ; but if, on the contrary, the edge of the haze is
better defined by the oppolite motion, then the figure is
hyperbolical ; and, lallly, if at equal dillances on each fide
of^ the true focal point the appearance of the haze is the
fame, the figure is known to be properly parabolic, and fit
for its office. The fmall fpeculum, in the Gregorian con-
ftrudlion, being placed to receive converging rays from the
large one, is required to be fplierical, as we have before
faid ; but in the Newtonian conllruftion it is made plane,
and of an oval fliape, to relledl the rays to the eye, placed
at an angle of 90°. Mr. Edwards fays, he received his in-
llruftion how to grind and polifli one of thefe from his
friend, Mr. (now Dr.) Herlchel, when he lived at Bath. To
grind one of ihc rllipiiral hi.'cuh Jlal, a fmall tool of lead
with emery is firll ufed, and then two or more confiderably
larger ones are ufed ; both the tools and bed of hones
fhould not be lef's than fix inches in diameter. Tlie figure
of the tools is not conlideied to be completed, till the
fpeculum can be firll highly finifhed upon one of them, and
afterwards be applied to another, without receiving any
change : the lail half dozen llrokes fhould be in the direc-
tion of the longer axis of the ellipfis. When this is per-
fetted, it mull be poliflied upon the pitch-polilher, of a
circular form, the diameter of which is greater tlian the
tianfverfc axis of the fpeculum by one-trnlh. As Mr.
Edwards fpeaks of Mr. (Dr.) Herfchel as his friend ; and
as tlie doftor has not, that we know of, yet publifhed the
compofition of liis metal and mode of grinding, poliihinir, and
3Q 2 4'guriug

S P E

figuring it ; we may conclude that hepraaifes Mr. Edwards's
procefs, and particularly as Mr. Edwards gives us the fol-
lowing information in the poftfcript of his pamphlet. " Mr.
Herfchel chiefly makes ufe of a Newtonian refleaor, the
focal diitance of whofe great mirror is feven feet, us aper-
ture 6.25 inches, and powers227 and 460 times, though fome-
times he ufes a power of 6450 for the fixt ftars. Note, it
the metals of a Newtonian telefcope are worked as exqui-
fuely as thofe in Mr. Herfchel's feven-feet refledors, the
higheil power that fuch a telefcope fhould bear, with
perfea diftinanefs, will be given, by multiplying the dia-
meter of the great fpeculum by 74 ; and the focal diftance
of the Jingle eye-glafs may be found, by dividing the focal
diftance of the great mirror by tiie magnifying power :
thus, 6.25 X 74 = 462, the magnifying power ; and

7 X 12
462

0.182 of an inch, will be the focal length of the

fingle eye-glafs required." When we arrive at our article
Telescope, we truft that we (hdl be able to lay before our
readers more minute information refpeaing the fpecula, as
well as other parts of Dr. Herfchel's wonderful inltruments,
than we have room for in our prefent article.

Suppofing now Mr. Edwards's fpecula to be finiftied, it
remains that we fay a few words refpeaing his mode of
fixing them in his tube, to give a diftinft image of the ob-
jea to be viewed, without which they would be ufelefs.
When the large fpeculum is made to reft againft the inner
end of the tube for which it is adapted, the arm which car-
ries the fmall fpeculum muft be firft adjufted : in order to
do this properly, extend firft two fine threads, or wires,
acrofs the aperture of the tube at right angles, fo as to
interfea each other exaaiy in the axis of the tube ; before
the arm is finally fattened to the fiider, place it in the tube,
and through the eye-piece, without glaffes, let the eye be
direaed to the fcrew-hole in the end of the arm, and if the
point of interfeaion of the crofs-wires be at its centre, the
hole is in the axis, but not otherwife. When this exaanefs
is obtained by mechanical means, the arm may be there
made faft to the Aider. In the next place, the fmall fpe-
culum muft be placed parallel to the large one, thus ; cut
a piece of card into a circle about one-half or two-thirds of
the diameter of the mouth of the tube, and fix it concen-
trically at the mouth with a piece of ftick, that fhall bifea
the tube, to the middle of which the circular cord may be
tied, fo as to exclude all the light, except an annular por-
tion at the circumference of the tube ; this being done,
turn the telefcope to the iky, and the annular light that
falls on the great fpeculum will be refleaed on the little
fpeculum, on which it will form an annular light alfo of
fmaller dimenfions. Now, if the breadth of this fmall ring
of light is obferved to be equally broad at every fide of the
fmall fpeculum, the pofition thereof is parallel to that of
the large one, but if not, it muft be adjufted till this is the
cafe. But it may fo happen, that this adjuftment may
put the centre of the fmall fpeculum out of the axis of the
tube, which may be deteaed thus ; examine again the
annular light, and take notice whether or not the ring is
concentric with the circumference of the metal ; if not, it
muft be made fo by the fcrews of adjuftment, or otherwife.
In order to be certain that thefe adjuftuients of the fmall
fpeculum are accurate, turn the telefcope aijain to the fmall
circle of paper with a black margin, with the tube quite
open, and having made its image concentric with the fmall
fpeculum at the point of diftina vifion, alter the focus by
moving the fmall fpeculum gradually, till the black margin
becomes a black fpot, or point ; and if this fpot lie on the

S P E

centre of the fmall fpeculum apparently, the two adjuft'
ments, for the axis of vifion, and for parallelifm, are both
correa. Again, if a ftar of the firft magnitude appear
perfeaiy round and well defined ; and alfo if the fmall
itars, in the double ftars, are well fsen, thefe are proofs
of the excellence not only of the figure and polifh of the
metal, but likewife of all the adjuftments.

We have only to add further to what we have faid of Ed-
wards's metal and procefs, that on conferring lately with fome
of the moft eminen; opticians of the prefent day, their opinion
is, that refl?aing telefcopes are brought as near to perfedion
as art and experience can effea, by Watfon, TuUey, and
others, but that it is not neceifary to adiiere rigidly to Mr.
Edwards's, any more than to Mr. Mudge's direaions ; the
Edgedon ftones, for inftance, do not anfwer the defcription
given of them for cutting the hardeft metals, which are
always the beil when the colour is proper ; (the denfity of
which, we underftand, may be determined by their fpecific
gravity, without the trouble of previous polilhing) ; neither
is a bed of hones indifpenfably necefTary ; as the fineft
emery, that wafhes off^ in grinding, may be again ufed to
give a fmooth furface before poliihing, as the TuUeys, father
and fon, have fometimes done, perhaps more out of curiofity
than choice, and have thus begun and finifhed the procefs
with only one tool, unlefs the fpeculum itfelf be called a tool
for equalizing the pitch. Lord Stanhope, and his operator,
Mr, Varley, who are engaged in making experiments in
polilhing fpecula, have uled Welih flate with fuccefs for
compofing a bed of polilhing materials ; and no doubt there
are various ftones not tried that may hereafter prove fuperior
to thofe hitherto ufed for this purpofe. The brafs and
filver recommended by Edwards are, moreover, now gene-
rally omitted by the beil opticians, as tending to diminilh
the hardnefs of the metal more than is requifite ; but the ar-
fenic is ftill retained. And, laftly, the property of the eUip-
tic tool, afcribed to it by Edwards, is difallowed by feveral
of the moft fl<ilful opticians ; fo that, after all, each work-
man fucceeds bell when he praaifes the methods of grinding,
poliftiing, and giving the requifite figure, in which his own
(kill and experience have rendered him moft expert, and
confequently molt confident.

Speculum, Horizontal. See Horizontal.

Speculum. This name is given to feveral inftruments
employed in Surgery, for gaining a view of tumours, or
ulcers, fituated within cavities. Thus, there are fpecula ani,
fpecula auris, &c. The fpeculum ocuh is an inftrument for
opening the eye-lids, and keeping them apart, fo that the
furgeon may have a good view of the eye.

Speculum Mtiftci, the title of a mufical treatife, written
in Latin by John de Mnris, (fee MuRis,) and only to be
found among the MSS. in the late king of France's
library, at Paris. It is a treatife fo ample, and fo fcarce,
that, having procured large extraas from it, and a com-
plete table of its contents, we (hall be the more minute in
our account of it, as it feems to have been the ground-work
of all the mufical treatifes that were produced by other
writers, till the time of Franchinus Gaforius, in the latter
end of the 15th century.

This work, which is written on vellum, in folio, contains
fix hundred pages. The firft fentence of the original is,
" Libro tertio de Philofophica Confolatione Boetius volens
reddere Caufam," &c. It is divided into feven books : the
firft of which treats of the invention of mufic, and of its
divifions, and contains 76 chapters ; the fecond, of mufical
intervals, 123 ; the third, of harmonics, or mufical propor-
tion, 56; the fourth, of concords and difcords, 51 ; fifth,
of the ancient tetrachords, divifion of the monochord, and

doarines

S P E

doftrines of Boetliius, 52 chapters ; fixth, of the modes and
notation of the ancients, of the chai.ges made in their fydem
by Guido, and of the ecclefiallical tones, 113. Book the
7th, of meafured mufic ; of difcant, in treating of which he
has the chapter " de ineptis Difcantoribus," part of which
has been given in the preceding chapter ; of the time-table,
moods or divifions of time ; of the follv of placing a tail to
the femibreve, by which he feems to mean the minim, with-
out naming it ; of perfeft and imperfeft meafures ; and
laltly, a parallel between ancient and modern mufic, which
occupies the laft five of the 45 chapters into which this book
is divided, the concluding fentence of which is, " Exempli
caufa defcribere tibi volo quorum figurse funt in hoc ordine
confequentes.

Explicit Traftatus Muficae, Magiftri
Johannis de Muris."

Notwithftanding all the nice and fubtle divifions and fub-
divifions of his feven books into 917 chapters, the practical
mufician would at prefent profit but little from the ftudy of
them, as almoft all the doftrines contained in the firlt five
books are fpeculative, and fuch as may be found in Ptolemy,
Boethius, and other ancient authors, whom almoll all the
mufical writers of later times have copied in pure pedantry,
without underllanding themfelves what they read, and con-
fequently without conveying any ufeful fcience to their
readers by what they have written. It is only in the two
laft books that De Muris condefcends to fpeak of the prac-
tical mufic of his own times : in the fixth book he treats of
the ecclefiallical tones, notation, and chants, which John
Cotton and Walter Odington had done before ; and in the
feventh he defines cantus menfurabilis, difcant, moods, cha-
rafters of the different duration of founds, as the long,
breve, femi-breve, and their perfeftion and imperfeftion.
Here he employs feveral chapters in refutmg fuch as have
difputed his doftrines ; and laftly, he draws a parallel be-
tween the mufic of the ancients and that of the moderns,
in order to afcertain their feveral degrees of perfeftion.

It is in mere charity to tiie curious in mufical antiquities
that we have bellowed fo much pains in examining and de-
fcribing this book ; vJhich, though of difficult accefs, and
more difhcult perufal, might tempt them, from the celebrity
of the author, to explore its dark regions, and impair their
eyes and patience in fearch of fcientific treafures which it
does not contain.

Speculum Veneris, in Botany, a name borrowed from the
Flemings, given by Gerarde to an annual fpecies of Campa-
nula, common in gardens, and remarkable for the brilliancy
of its deep blue flowers with a white centre. Linnxus has
retained this as a fpecific name, and the plant is commonly
called Venus's Looking-glafs. See Campanula and Pen-

TAGOhflA.

SPEEAN, in Rural Economy, provincially ufed to fig-
nify to wean from the dams, as calves, hogs, lambs, and
other animals. ^

SPEEAVE, provincially to fay or cut young animals.

SPEECH, the aft, or art of exprefling a man's thoughts,
by certain figns invented f )r that purpofe.

Thefe figns are principally founds made by the voice, and
letters. See Languagk.

Speech, in Grammar, denotes an affemblage of feveral
words ranged in order.

The grammarians generally make eight parts of fpeech,
». e. eight kinds of words ufed in difcourfc ; wz noun, pro-
noun, verb, participle, adverb, conjuntJion, prepoftlion, and in-
terjedion ; each of which fee under its proper article.

F. Bufficr, one of the lall writers on grammar, only
admits of three parts of fpeech, viz. noun, verb, and

S P E

modtficative ; which kit includes the adverb, conjunBlon, and
prepofition.

The ingenious Mr. Harris, after Ariftotle, diftribute»
all words into four fpecies, v'fz.. fubitantives, or nouns ; at-
tributives, or verbs ; definitives, or articles ; and conneftives,
or conjunftions ; the two former are principals, or fignificant
from themfelves ; and the two latter are accellories, or figni-
ficant by relation. Under thefe four fpecies are included
pronouns, adverbs, prepofitions, and interjeftions. Hermes,
P-3'-

SPEED, John, in Biography, a confiderable clucidator
of the geography and hiltory of Great Britain, was born
in 1552, at Farrington, in Chefliire. He was brought up
to the trade of a tailor, and was, by apprenticefhip, a free-
man of the company of Merchant Tailors in London, when
that patron of learning, fir Fulk Greville, difcovering his
attachment to the antiquities of his country, gave him an
allowance to enable him to quit his employment, and devote
himfelf to ftudy. His firlt publication was entitled " The
Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain, prefenting an
exaft Geography of the Kingdoms of England, Scotland,
and Ireland, and the adjacent Ifles." This work confilled
of a fet of maps of all the counties, witii the ichnography
of the principal towns, and brief defcriptions, moftly copied
from Camden's Britannia. His greateft work, the labour
of fourteen years, entitled " The Hittory of Great Britain,"
appeared in the year 1614. It is chiefly a compilation from
preceding authors and manufcript records, comprifing all the
events in Britifli hiltory, from the invafion of Julius Cxfar
to the reign of king James I.; and though rude in ftyle, yet
it contained more valuable matter, and is better arranged,
than the preceding chronicles. Speed, it is faid, was the
firft Enghfli writer who, flighting Geoff'rey's tales, fell upon
more folid matter. He was aflilted by fir Robert Cotton,
who revifed and correfted the whole. Mr. Speed was author
of a work entitled " A Cloud of Witnefles, or Genealo-
gies of Scripture," prefixed to the new tranflation of the
Bible in 161 1, and to feveral fubfcquent editions of it.
This ufeful and indultrious man pafled 57 years in the mar-
riage ftate, with a wife, by whom he had twelve fons and
fix daughters. He died at London in 1629, and was buried
in the church of St. Giles, Cripplegate.

SPEEDWELL, in Botany. See Veronica.

Speedwell, Female. See Elatine.

SPEEDY-CuT, a term ufed to lignify a kind of cut
which happens to a horfe when put to his fpced. See
Shoeing of Horfes.

SPEEN, or Speenham Land, in Geography. See New-
bury.

SPEGEL, Haquin, in Biography, a Swedifh arch-
bifliop, diftinguilhed for great learning, was born in 1645.
After acquiring the rudiments of a good education, he was
fent to the academy of Greipfwald ; made a tour to Ger-
many, Holland, England, Denmark ; and on his return
took his degree of mailer of arts at Lund, in 167 i. The
fame year he was appointed chaplain to Charles XL, whom
he accompanied in his campaigns during the whole Dutch
war. In 1685 he was made bifliop of Skara, was lr.uiflated
thence to Linkciping in 1691, and in 1711 wasrailcd to the
archiepifcopal chair. After the fire which took place at
Linkciping in 1 700, he contributed by his aftivc exertions
towards rebuilding the Gymnafium, a fervice of fo much im-
portance, that the remembrance of it is ttill prellrvcd by an
iiilcription on the front of the building. He augmented the
library with a great number of excellent books, ,ind on the
death of his fon, prefrntcd to it a coUcftion of medals and
coins. He di«U ^t Upfui, in 1714. Among his workf,

which

S P E

which were numerous, are the following : «' A Hiftory of
the Swedi(h Church ; or a Chronicle of the Bifhops, in two
Parts ;" " Sermons on Chrift's Sufferings ;" " GlofTarium
Lingu'x Gothics ;" befides a great number of hymns, and
various fermons.

SPEIGHT'S Town, in Geography, a fea-port of the
ifland of Barbadoes, fituated on the weft coaft, near the
northern part of the ifland, formerly much frequented by the
Brillol traders, and thence called Little Briftol. It is a
handfome town, containing about 350 well-built houfes,
difpofed into four regular and fpacious ftreets, of which the
longeft is called Jews'-llreet, and, with the other three,
leads down to the water fide. The planters in that part of
Barbadoes called Scotland, ufcd to (hip off their goods here
for England, which occafioned the building of ftore-houfes,
and a concourfe of people, to the great advantage of the
town; but mod of the trade is now removed to Bridge-town.
It has a fpacious church, dedicated to St. Peter, which gave
name to its precinft, and is the place where the monthly
feffions are held. The town is defended by two forts, befides
another in Heathcote's bay, fome diftance fouth of the
town. One of the above forts ftands in the middle of the
town, and is mounted with 14 guns ; the other, which hath
32, Hands at the north end of it : but there are, befides
thefe, feveral platforms on the fea-(hore. N. lat. 13° 15'.
E. long. 58° 31'. Edwards's Weft Indies.

SPEISSE, in Mineralogy, a name given by the Germans,
and other workers on cobalt, to a fort of impure regulus of
bifmuth, fometimes occurring in their procefles.

It is not uncommon for ores of bifmuth to be mixed with
the cobalt in the fmalt-works. Both this ore and the cobalt
yield the blue vitrifiable earth of which fmalt is made ; but
in one of them it is blended with arfenic, and in the other
with the bifmuth. The feparation of it from thefe two mine-
rals requires different proceifes, and the workmen, therefore,
feparatc the two minerals, and work each by itfelf ; but it
fometimes happens that the ore of bifmuth is fo like to the
true cobalt, that it cannot be diftinguilhed by the eye, and
fo intimately mixed with it, that it cannot be feparated from
it ; in this cafe the whole is expofed to the lire toorether,
and after the arfenic is fublimed in form of meal, there re-
mains a coarle and impure regulus of bifmuth, which having
mixed itfelf with the earth of the cobalt, and other extra-
neous fubftances, is of a reddilh-white colour, and very im-
pure and friable. This gives them the trouble of a fecond
operation, by which they feparate the pure regulus of bif-
muth, and the remainder being a mixture of Us earth and
that of the cobalt, is run together into the blue glafs called
ftnalt, the earth of bifmuth ore being of the fame nature
with that of cobalt. Phil. Tranf. N° 396, p. 199.

SPEL, in Rural Economy, a term provincially ufed to
fignify a bar. It alfo fignities the thin ftraight or bent ribs
in the work of ba(l<et or fieve-making in fome places.

SPELE, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Candy ;
15 miles S.E. of Candy.

SPELK, in Rural Economy, a fmall thin rod, or piece
of wood uled in thatching. Small hazel rods are moftly em-
ployed in this way.

SPELL, a kind of charm, to drive away a difeafe, by
hanging a word or fentence written on a paper about the
neck. See Charm.

Spell, in Sea Language, the period in svhich a failor,
or gang of failors, is employed in a particular exercife,
from which they are relieved as foon as the limited time ex-
pires. Such are the fpcUs to the hand-lead in founding, to
the pump, to look out on the maft-head, &c. and to Iteer
the ftiip, wliich laft is generally called the trick.

S P E

Spell alfo implies the relief or return of duty to thofe
fervices : thus it is faid, fpell the pump, fpell the lead,
&c.

SPELLING, that part of grammar properly called or-
thography.

Dr. Jones gives the following rules, or maxims, of
fpelling.

1. That all words were originally pronounced as fpelt.

2. That in all words whofe iounds have been fince altered
(the origin of the difficulty of fpelling), the alteration was
made for the fake of eafe and pleafure.

And hence, 3. All words that can be written feveral ways,
mult be fpelt according to the hardeft, harftieft, and moft
unufual found.

SPELLO, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in
the duchv of Spoletj. This was anciently Hifpellum, and
being made a Roman colony by Julius C^far, was by liim
named Colonia Julia HilpeUa. In the year 1529, it was
facked by Philibert de Chalons, prince of Orange, general
of Charles V. ; and three years afterwards the walls were or-
dered to be pulled down by pope Paul III.; 10 miles S.W.-
of Nocera.

SPELMAN, i'/V Henry, in Biography, an eminent an-
tiquary, was defcended from an ancient family fettled in
No'f Ik. He was born in 1562, at Congham, near Lynn,
and having received a common education, he was fent at an
early age to Trinity college, Cambridge. Owing to his
father's death, he was called from tiie univerfity before he
had completed his 17th year, and he was afterwards entered
of Lincoln's-Inn. in ordc-r that he might ftudy the common
law, but his inclination was not favourable to legal purfuits :
he feems to have given a decided preference to polite litera-
ture and antiquities, but thefe purfuits were cut (hort by an
early marriage, which induced him to fettle upon his eltate,
and take the management of it in his own hands. He did
not, however, abandon his antiquarian purfuits, and while
he was yet a very young man, he drew up a treatiie in the
Latin language, entitled " Af^pilogia," relative to armorial
bearings, and made tranfcripts of feveral charters of mo-
nafteries in Norfolk and Suffolk. He was alfo affociated to
the original fociety of antiquarians, and became the intimate
friend of Cotton, Camden, and other favourers of that clafs
of ftudies. In 1604 he was elefted high flieriff of the
country, and about the fame time communicated to Spwd a
defcription of Norfolk, for his work entitled " The Theatre
of Great Britain." In 1607 he was nominated by the king
one of the commiflioners for fettling the titles to lands and
manors in certain counties of Ireland, and on this occafion
he went thrice to that country. Farming now became irk-
fome, becaufe he probably found it unprofitable : he fold
oft his ftock, let his ettates, and came with his family to
London, and he chofe as the particular objeil of his ftudies,
the antiquities of Englifii law, as deducible from Enghfti
records ; but he was diverted from his objeft by an inciden-
tal fubjett. During his refidence on his ellatc, he had pur-
chafed the lands of two fupprefled monafteries, and being
involved in a troublefome law-fuit in order to defend his title,
he began to entertain fcruples concerning the fecuhrization
of property once belonging to the church. When, there-
fore, an uncle of his complained to him of difficulties which
he had met with in building upon the glebe of an impropriate
parfonage, he plainly gave his opinion, that it was a token of
divine difpleafure for keeping the parfonage in lay hands,
and he drew up a work in 1613, with the title " De non
temerandis Ecclefiis ; Churches not to be violated ; a TraA
of the Rights and Refpefts due to Churches, &c." He
praftifed what he had pleaded for in theory, and being pof-

feffed

S P E

S P E

lefTed of an impropriation in Norfolk, he devoted the pro-
fits of it to the augmentation of the vicarac^e.

By king James he was knighted, and on the revival of the
fociety of antiquarians in 1614, he attended as one of the
old members ; on which occafion he wrote " A Difcourfe
concerning the Original of the four Law Terms of the
Year." His zeal for the honour of the church and the au-
thority of the canons, induced him to write a traft in anfwer
to an apology for archbifliop Abbot, who had accidentally
killed his game-keeper, in which he maintained that the pre-
late by that act had ceafed from his office, and could not be
reinftated without a new confecration. Having in the mean
time continued his enquiries into legal antiquities, he found
that the knowledge of the Saxon language was abfolutely
necefiary to his purpofe, which he accordingly fet about
obtaining, and in 1621 he printed a fpecimen of his propofed
work, which was fo much approved, that feveral eminent
fcholars urged him to its completion. In 1626 he publilhed
the firft part, under the title of " Archeologus, in modum
GlofTarii ad rem antiquam pofteriorem." Notwithftanding
the applaufe of the learned, the author was not encouraged
by the fale of his work to pnblidi the fecond part during
his life, which he had fully prepared for the prefs. It was,
however, given to the world after his dcceafe, and the whole
was entitled " Glollarium Archaiologicorum." The objetl
of this work is the explanation of obfolete words occurring
in our laws ; and it is not a mere glolTary, but contains va-
rious entire diflertations. He next employed himfelf in a
coUeftion of Englilh laws and ftatutes, from the Conqucft
to the ninth yeur of Henry III., which was printed in 1617.
Having been appointed, on the recommendation of arch-
bifhop Laud, one of the commiffioners for enquiring into the
cxaftion of fees in the courts and offices throughout Eng-
land, he publidied, in 1628, a traft " De Sepultura," or
concerning " Burial Fees." Before our author had finirtied
his gloflary, he engaged in another confiderable work,
which was " A Hiftory of the Englilli Councils." Of
this he publiihed in 1639 the firll part, which included the
period from the firll introduftion of the Chriftian religion
into England to the Norman Conqueit. A fecond part,
only a fmall portion of which was ot his own compofition,
was printed feveral years after his death. In the fame year .
he inflituted a Saxon ledlure in the univerfity of Cambridge,
which he intended to have rendt-red perpetual, but his defign
was defeated. In 1639 alfo he publifhcd a treatile on " The
original Growth, Propagation, and Condition of Tenures
by Knights' Service in England," in which he difplayed an
extent of learning that proved his faculties to be perfcft,
notwithltanding liis advanced age. He lived to complete
his 80th year, and died at London in 1641. By the king's
order, he was interred in Weftminfter Abbey. After his
deceafe, two polthumous works of his were publifhed, viz.
" A Treatife concerning Tytiies," printed m 1647 ; and
" A Hiftory of Sacrilege," which was dellroyed at the
printer's by the great fire of London, and a plan of it only
prcferved. In 1698 birtiop Gibfon pubhihed a folio volume,
entitled " Reliquia; Spclmanniae," containing a number of
his polthumous trafts relative to the Englilh laws and anti-
quities. He wa."!, fays his biogi-apher, a very relpedlable
promoter of antiquarian learning, and a man of great pri-
vate worth.

Spei.man, Edward, great-grandfon of the preceding,
refided at High-Houfe, near Rougham, Norfolk, where he
died in 1767. He had devoted himfelf to literature, and
made himfelf known by feveral publications of confiderable
worth. The firit of thefe was a tranflation of Xcnophon's
" Cyropedia," in two volumes, 8vo. A more elaborate
12

work was entitled " The Roman Antiquities of Dionyfiug

Halicarnaffenfis," tranflated into Englilh, with notes and
diiiertations, in four volumes, quarto, a work which Hands
high among our tranflations from the Greek language.
One of thefe diflertations was a verfion of a fragment of Po-
lybius on government, particularly that of Rome, to which
the tranflator prefixed a preface, applying the i'yftem of Po-
lybius to the Englifh government. This was printed with-
out his name in 1743. He alfo printed for the ufe of his
friends, and for private diilribution only, " A DifTertation on
the Prefence of the Patricians in the Tnbuta Comitia :"
and after his death the Rev. Mr. Lemon publifhed in 1775,
a pofthumous work of this writer, entitled " Additional
Obfervatioiis on the Greek Accents." Gen. Biog.

SPELT, in Agriculture, a. term applied fometimes to
wheat-grafs, a fpecies of triticum, or wheat. It is fome-
times -wrhtcn Jpe/ta.

SPELTA, in the Materia Medico, a name ufed for the
grain of the zea dicoccos, commonly czWed Jpelt-corn.

SPELTER, or Speltre, a name fometimes given to
zinc.

SPELUNCATO, in Geography, a town of the ifland
of Corfica ; 12 miles E. of Corte.

SPENAZZOLA, a town of Naples, in Bafilicata ; 13
miles E. of Venofa.

SPENCE, Joseph, in Biography, was educated at New-
college, Oxford, of which he afterwards became a fellow.
He took the degree of M.A. in 1727, and in that fame year
made himfelf known by " An Ellay i^n Pope's Tranflation
of the Odyfi'ey." This work difplayed a cultivated tafte,
as well as a fenfibility to the beauties of poetry, and was fo
favourable to the tranllator, that he fought his acquaintance,
and admitted him to a famihar intimacy. In the following
year he was elefted profeflbr of poetry of the univerfity of
Oxford, an ofHce which he held for ten years. After this
he travelled with the young duke of Newcadle, and in
1742, having quitted his fellowlhip, he was prefented by
his college to a reftory in Buckinghamihire. He refided,
however, at Byfleet, in Surrey, at a manfion lent iiim by
the duke his pupil, and thus performed the duties of reftor
merely by an annual vifit, attended with liberal charities.
In the fame year he was eleftcd king's profeilor of modern
hillory, at Oxford : this was a duty a= eafy to be performed
as the other, but he did not devote that leifure which his
preferments offered him to indolence, for in 1747, he
brought to the prefs his principal work, entitled " Poly-
metis, or an Enquiry concerning the Agreement between
the Works of the Roman Poets and tlie Remains of an-
cient Artills, being an Attempt to illullrate them mutually
by each other." This was a folio work, with plates. The
performance was extremely well received by the public,
and Hill Hands very high in the literary world, though it
has been flighted by fome few, who perhaps hallily con-
demned, before they liad given proper attenlioM to it. In
1754 he was prefented with a prebendary of Durham, and
he continued to amufc himlelf with a variety of mifcella-
neons compofitions that appeared in different forms. His
lad publication was an edition of " Holdlworlh's Remarks
on Virgil," with notes, and additional obfervations of hisown.
In the month of Augult, 1758, he was found drowned in a
piece of water in his own garden at Byfleet, into wiiich it
is fuppofed he had fallen in a fit, the water being too Ihal-
low to cover liim. He is charaderifed as being of a focial
benevolent difpolition, and being very much beloved by his
friends. He was Itudious to draw obfcure merit into
notice, of which he gave evident proofs by liis printed ac-
count of Stepiicn Duck ; Robert Hill, tiie learned tailor;

and

S P E

and Mr. Blacklock, the blind poet. Several of his de-
tached and mifccllaneous compoiitions were inferted in the
« Mufxum," and in Dodfley's " Fugitive Pieces." He
had colleaed feme MS. volumes of anecdotes of eminent
writers, communicated by Pope and others, which are ftill
in the polieffion of the duke of Newcaftle's family, and
from which Dr. Johnfon was permitted to make extrafts
for his hvcs of the poets. Gen. Biog.

SPENCER, John, a learned divine of the church of
England, was born in 1630, at Boaon-under-Bleane, in
Kent. His father dying while he was an infant, the care
of educating him was undertaken by an uncle, who fent
him to the free-fchool of Canterbury. His proficiency in
learning procured for him a recommendation to a fchoiarfhip
in Caius college, Cambridge, where he was admitted in
1 645. Pafling through the ufual gradations in that uni-
verfity, he was chofen fellow of his college in 1655, and
took orders : of courfe he muft have complied with the
requifitions of the ruling powers at that time. He became
diftinguifhed for his pulpit compofitions, and was appointed
univerfity preacher, in which capacity he took an oppor-
tunity of hailing the event of the Reltoration by a thanf-
giving fermon, which was printed under the title of itie
" Righteous Ruler," which, in reference to the profligate
character of the reitored fovereign, mull have been regarded
as extremely appropriate ! Some enthufiafts having, in a
periodical paper entitled " Annus Mirabilis," brought to
notice a number of pretended prodigies, as portending
future changes in the llate, Spencer conceiving it to be of
dangerous confequence thus to unfettle the minds of the
people, pubUfhed in 1663, " A Difcourfe concerning Pro-
digies," wherein a variety of prefages by them is repre-
hended, and their true and proper ule is aiierted and vindi-
cated. A (hort extract from the preface will fhew the
nature of the work : " We have," fays he, " of late been
perfuaded by three or four feveral impreffions of books, that
England is grown Africa, and prefents us every year, fince
the return of his majefty, with a new fcene of monilrous
and ftrange fights ; and all held forth to the people, like
black clouds behind a Itorm, the harbingers of fome llrange
and unuf6arplagues approaching to the ftate ; and this by
perfons pretending an intimacy with fcripture, and the
fathers, Greek and Latin, ancient and modern writers."
The work difplayed a freedom from creduhty and fuper-
ftition very laudable at that time. To a fecond edition, in
1665, was added " A Difcourfe concerning vulgar Pro-
phecies ;" in which the vanity of receiving them as the cer-
tain indications of any future event is difcovered, and fome
charafters of diftinftion between true and pretended pro-
phets are laid down. This attempt to bring down the public
to reafon and fobriety was not Icfs timely than the former,
and might have been ufefuUy renewed in many other in-
ftances and at much later periods. The author in the fame
year proceeded doftor in divinity. He was, in 1667, pre-
fented to a living by his college, and in a very (liort
time after was elefted to the mailerfliip of that lociety,
an office which he held with high reputation during
twenty-fix years. Several preferments were bellowed upon
him, of which the lail and molt confiderable was the deanery
of Ely in 1667. He had p'cvioully been chofen vice-chan-
cellor of the univerfity of Cambridge, and in that quality
he made a fpeech to the duke of Monmouth, when he was
jnftalled chancellor, which was printed by Hearne, in his
work entitled « Vindicias Thorn, Caii." It was particularly
as a mailer of Hebrew literature and antiquities he is known
in the learned world. His firft work was written in the
tatin language, a diflertation " De Urim et Thummim,"

6

S P E

which was publifhed in the year 1678. This was a fore-
runner of his great work, " De Legibus Hebraeorum Ritu.
alibus, et earum Raiionibus, Libri Tres," 2 vols. fol.
1685 ; a performance confidered fo valuable and important,
that It was reprinted at the Hague in 1686, and at Leipfic
in 1705. The grand objecl of this work is to prove, in
detail, that the rites and ceremonies of the Jewith religion
were inftituted in direft oppofition to the praftices of the
furrounding idolatrous nations, and in order to eltabhlh the
ftrongeft dillinftion between the Jews and them. The fame
hypothelis has been maintained by feveral learned men, and
has been oppofed by others, without aftedling on either fide
the authority of that rehgion. Spencer's work is ilill con-
fidered as the moll complete and judicious treatife in that
view of the quellion. The author died at the age of fixty-
three, and he was interred with great folemnity in the chapel
of his college, to which fociety he was a liberal benefaftor.
He left behind him many MS. additions to his great work;
which were entrufted to the care of bifhop Tennifon, by
whom they were bequeathed to the univerfity of Cam-
bridge, and were eventually publifhed in four books, under
the care of profellor Capellow, in two vols, folio. Biog.
Brit.

Spencer, in Geography, a townlhip of America, in Wor-
celter county, Mafiachufetts, taken from Leicefter, and in-
corporated in 1733, containing 14.53 inhabitants; 11 miles
S.W. of Worccfter.

Spencer, a large poft-townfhip of New York, the capi^
tal of Tioga county, is fituated near the centre of that
county, JO miles S.E. of Bath ; bounded N. by Cayuta
and Danby, E. by Candor, S. by Ofwego, and W. by
Chemung. Spencer was divided in 181 1 ; and Cayuta,
Danby, Caroline, and Candor, erefted into feparate towns
from the N. and E. parts. The popialation of Spencer in
18 to was 3128. It is well fupplied with fmall creeks and
mill-ftreams. The Catetant winds acrofs the northern part
with numerous branches ; the Cayuta forms the weftern
boundary ; and fome fmaller dreams fpread over the central
part. The foil is of various qualities, and the furface has
a confiderable hilly afpeft, covered with a great variety
of forell-trees. The feat of juilice for the county has
been lately removed from Elmira to this townfhip, and the
county buildings are within Drake's fettlemcnt, as it is
called, fituated on the Catetant creek ; where is a fmall vil-
lage, denominated Spencer; and as its filuation is pleafant
and healthy, and it is the centre of county bufinefs, it pro-
mifes to become a flourifhing county village.

SPENSER, Edmund, in B'wgmphy, one of the moft
diftinguifhed Enghfh poets, was born in London about the
year 1553. His parents were in humble hfe, though in his
works he claims kindred with the noble family of the Spenfers
of Northamptonfliire. Of his early education nothing is
known, but it appears that he was, in 1569, a fizer in Pem-
broke college, Cambridge. He, in proper time, took his de-
grees, and in 1576 he was candidate for a fellowfhip, but was
not fuccefsful. This difappointment was probably the caufe
of his quitting the univerfity, which he left for a refide;ice
among his relations in the north of England. Here, it
appears, he fell in love, and the objeft of his affection,
whom he has commemorated under the name of Rofalindo,
after leading him through the ufual viciflit udes of a love adven-
ture, finally deferted him. This circumftance is faid toh.ive
given him a turn to paftoral poetry, fince his " Shepherd's
Complaint," which is devoted to amorous complaining, was
his firft publication. It was publilhed in 1579, and dedi-
cated, under the fignature of Immerito, to Mr. afterwards
fir Philip Sidney. He was introduced to the acquaintance

oi

S P E

S P E

o\ this celebrated pcrfon by his friend, Mr. Gabriel Harvey,
previoufly to his publilhing his " Shepherd's Calendar,"
which fufficiently refutes a tale concerning his being firll
made known to fir Philip Sidney by a paffage in the
Faery Queen, and the munificent reward which he re-
ceived on the occafion. He was, howcTer, patronized
I)y fir Philip, who introduced him to his uncle, the
tavourite Leicelter, who engaged him as an agent for his
fervice in foreign countries, but it is uncertain whether he
ever actually travelled abroad ; at any rate he could not
have been long in that employ, fmce, in 1580, he was at-
tending lord Grey of Wiltr.n, appointed lord-deputy of
Ireland, as his fecretary. In this fituation he difplayed
thofe talents for bufinefs, which are ufually, though often
very unjullly, reprefented as incompatible with a poetic
genius. He returned with lord Grey in 1582, and was
probably fome years an attendant at court, and in 1586 he
had a grant from the crown of upwards of 3000 acres of
land in the county of Cork, out of the vait forfeited pro-
perty of the earl of Defmond. In 1587 Spenfer went over
to take pofleflion of this eltate ; his refidencewas the caftle
of Kilcolman, near Doneraile, where, in the ftyle of paftoral
poetry, he defcribes himfclf as keeping his fheep " under
the Mole, that mountain hore," and frequenting the coolly
fhade of the green alders by the MuUa's fhore. Here it
appears he received a vifit in 1589 from fir Walter Raleigh,
who had been a commander in Ireland under lord Grey,
and had obtained a large grant of land from the crown.
Spenfer celebrates him in a poem under the title of the
♦' Shepherd of the Ocean," and highly extols his courtefy
and elegant accomphfhments. At this period Spenfer was
engaged in the compofition of his " Faery Queen," of
which he had written the three firll books ; and accompany-
ing Raleigh the next year to England they were publifhed,
with a dedication to queen Elizabeth, and an introductory
letter addred'ed to Raleigh, explaining the plan of the whole
projected work. Elizabeth rewarded his poetry and dedica-
tion by a penlion of 50/. per annum, granted in 1 J91, and he
has been termed her laureat, thougii the title was not formally
conferred upon him. Spenfer returned to Ireland in 1591,
and married a country lafs of low degree, but the diiturb-
ances in that country forced him to return to England in
1595. Here he printed fome poems, and drew up a plan
for the entire reduction of that ifland in the fpace of two
winters, which work he completed in the next year, giving it
the title of " A View of the State of Ireland." This piece
remained in MS. till it was printed in 1633 by fir James
Ware, who beftmvs much applaufe on the information and
judgment difplayed in it, though he intimates, that it was
deficient in moderation : and it is generally admitted, that in
what he fays concerning the hiltory and antiquities of t)ie
country there are many errors, and the fanciful turn of a
poet is more confpicuous than the fobriety of a judicious
enquirer. In 1596 he publifhed a new edition of his
" Faery Queen," with additional books, which only com-
pleted halt his original defi^n. It was currently reported,
that the remaining fix books were loft by a fervant, who
was entruded to carry them to England, which certainly
would be one of the greateft difaflers that a poet could
poflibly fuffer, and might greatly contribute to break his
ipirits : the fa6t, however, is very queitionable, and cer-
tainly docs not Ikand on good authority : it is moll probable
that they were never finifhed. He retu rned to Kilcolman
'" '597> but Tyrone having in the next year broken out
in rebellion, and overrun the county of Cork, Spenfur was
■obliged to take refuge with his wife >n England, leaving
>»11 iris property to the fpoil and ravages of tne infure:eots.
Vut. XXXIII. ^5 5

His houfe was burnt, and with it, it is faid, an infant who
had not been removed. Reduced to a ftate of indigence,
he funk under his misfortunes in the fame year, or in the
beginning of the next. He was interred in Wellminfler
Abbey, at the expence of the earl of Eflex, feveral of his
brother poets attending, and throwing into his grave copies
of panegyrical verfes. A monument was afterwards erected
to his memory by Anne, the celebrated countefsot Dorfet.
Of his family and pollerity nothing is known, except
that one of his defcendants was rellored in the reign of
Charles II. to fo much of the cilatein Ireland, as he could
prove had belonged to his anceftor ; and that another, or
perhaps the fame, came to England in the reign of Wilham
with a fimilar claim, which was allowed. The works of
Spenfer are animated with a fervent fpirit of piety, and a
pure and exalted morality ; and though he certainly paid an
affiduous court to the great, he was not guilty of that mean-
nefs of adulation, which was too much praftifcd even by
fome eminent perfons of that age. The homage paid to
the queen was great, but it was deemed impoflible to carry
this too far.

The poetical reputation of Spenfer is chiefly fupported
by his great work the " Faery Queen," for his palloraU
will fcarcely pleafe a correft tafle ; and though critics ad-
mit that there is much occafional beauty of fentiment and
harmony of verfification in his fonnets, hymns, and other
mifcellaneous pieces, yet on the whole they are fcarcely
diflinguifhed from the effufions of tedious pedantry commoa
in that age. But the " Faery Queen" is julHy regarded at
one of the great compofitions in Englifh poetry, and hat
loll none of its value by antiquity. " If its plan is Angu-
larly involved, its allegories often defective and obfcure, and
its adventures extravagant, it is, however, abfolutely un-
rivalled for the fertility of its conceptions, and the vividnefg
of its painting. Its great length, and want of interefl at
a fable, deter readers, in general, from a complete perufal,
but it will always be reforted to by the lovers of poetry
as a rich ftorehoufe of invention, efpecially of that kind
which confills in the perfonification of moral ideas." Biog.
Brit.

SPENT, at Sea. The feamen fay a ftiip hath fpent any
mafl or yard, when it is broken down by foul weather, or
any fuch accident ; but if it be done by an enemy's Ihot
in a fight, they fay, fuc/j a yard, or majl, was Jhot by the
board.

SPERA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in
Dobruzzi Tartary ; 40 miles S. of Ifmail.

SPERAGE, Asi'AUAGUs, in Botany. Sec AfiTARAGUS.

SPERDILLEN, in Geography, a lake of Norw;iy, i»
Aggerhuus, 32 miles long and 12 wide; 4 miles N. of
Chriltiania.

SPERGULA, in Botany, a word which Dodonzus,
who is cited as its author, exprefsly fays was latinized from
the name of this herb in Brabant, Spuerie, whence its Eng-
lifii appellation, Spurrey. Whether <rz\(\, a modern Greek
name for Verhafcum Blattaria, has any common origin with
this Flanders word, or whether both may allude to the
copious difperfion of feeds in both cafes, and have been de-
rived from the ancient Greek orrufii, to foiv, or fcatlcr, we
can only propofe as a conjedure. Linnxtis, however, fccms
to have had fome fuch etymology in contemplation, when
he, in Phil. Bot. p. 167, explains Sprrgiila by "a/cattering
of feed ;" though probably he looked no further than the
Latin, ^aryo. — Linn. Gen. 232. Schreb. ^12. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. 8i8. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit.
502. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. V. I. 317. Ait. Hort. Kew,
V. 3.. IJ7. Furfh V. 1. ?»o. Dill. Gen. J^i. t. 7. f. 3.
3R " 'u(l

3-

SPERGULA.

Jufl". 301. Lamarck lUuflr. t. 392. Gsrtn. t. 130. —
Clafs and order, Decandrin Penlagynia. Nat. Ord. Caryo-
phyllei, Linn. CaryophylUa, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, obtufe,
concave, fpreading, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five,
ovate, concave, fpreading, undivided, larger than the calyx.
Stam. Filaments ten, rarely but five, awl-(hapcd, (horter
than the corolla ; anthers roundilh. Pi/i. Germen fuperior,
ovate; ftyles five, fomewhat reflcxcd, thread-fhaped ; iligmas
thicki'lh. Perk. Capfule ovate, covered partly by the calyx,
of one cell, and five valves. Seeds numerous, globofe, but
deprefled, furrounded with more or lefs of a notched or
dilated border. ,. . . ,

EfT. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five, undivided.
Capfule fuperior, ovate, of one cell, with five valves.

Obf. Linnseus remarks, that tliis genus differs from
Cerajlium in having undivided petals. Their general habit
alfo differs more than is the cafe with molt genera of this
natural order, that of Spergula nearly according with various
jlrenarlte, from which the five ftyles only diftinguilh it.
S. pentandra has but five llamens.

1. S. arvenfis- Rough-feeded Corn Spurrey. Linn. Sp.
PI. 630. Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 1535.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 31. (Sagina fpergula ; Ger. Em.
1125.)— Leaves whorled. Stalks of the fruit reflexed.
Seeds kidney-fliaped, angular, rough. — Native of corn-fields
and watle ground, on a fandy foil, throughout Europe,
flowering from July to September. Root annual, fmall.
Herb more or lefs downy and vifcid, very various in luxu-
riance, fomewhat fucculent and brittle, with a branched,
round, loofely fpreading _/?<ot, whofe joints are befet with
copious, whorled, linear, obtufe leaves. Panicles terminal,
forked, divaricated, level-topped. Flonuer-Jlalks downy ;
ftrongly reflexed, from the bafe, as the fruit ripens. Calyx
membranous at the edge, nearly as long as the vihite petals.
Stamens generally ten ; fometimes five, or fome intermediate
number. Capfule almoft twice as long as the calyx. Seeds
numerous, kidney-fhaped or roundifh, fwelling, angular,
with an obfolete, not dilated nor membranous, border ;
when ripe they are black, and rough all over with minute
tubercles or briftles. In Flanders, Germany, and the north
of Europe, this herb ferves as fodder, and poultry are fed
with its feeds. With us it is a troublefome weed, on a light
foil.

2. Si. pentandra. Smooth-feeded Corn Spurrey. Linn. Sp.
PL 630. Willd. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1536. (S. annua,
femine foliaceo nigro, circulo membranaceo albo cineto ;
Dill. Giff. 46. ) — Leaves whorled. Stalks of the fruit re-
flexed. Stamens five. Seeds lenticular, fmooth, with a
membranous border. — Native of Germany, England, and
probably other parts of Europe, in fandy ground, flower-
ing in July and Auguft. Mr. Shepherd, curator of the
botanic garden at Liverpool, firft obferved this plant about
that neighbourhood, growing along with the preceding
fpecies, with which it altogether agrees in general ap-
pearance, but the Jloiuers are perhaps rather fmaller, and
t}it\T Jlamens are rarely more than five in number. The mofl
remarkable difference is found in ihe/eeds, which are com-
prelTed and lenticular, always fmooth, and bordered by a
very confpicuous whitifh membrane. Such is the difference
likewife between Arenarla marina and rubra. We cannot
but feel a miftruft of this charafter, however ftriking, con-
fidering the clofe relemblance between thefe two Spergula,
at lealt, in other rcfpects. The plant found about Liver-
pool is certainly what Linnxus and Dillenius intended, and
therefore the uncertainty expreffed in Fl. Brit, refpefting
S. pentandra, is now removed.

10

3. S. nodofa. Knotted Spurrey. Linn. Sp. PI. 630,
Willd. n. 3. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 694. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 4. t. 34. Fl. Dan. t. 96. (Saxifraga paluitris
alfinefolia ; Ger. Em. 567.) — Leaves oppofite, avvl-fhaped,
fmooth ; the upper ones cluftered. Calyx withr>i.t ribs. —
Native of wet fandy heaths and commons, in the colder
countries of Europe, flowering in July and Auguft, but
not very common with us. Mr. Goodyer, an accurate and
ingenious contributor to the fecond edition of Gerarde's
Herbal, firft detefted this fpecies in England. Its habit is
that of an Arenaria, efpecially the pure vih^le Jlotucrs . The
fibrous perennial root produces feveral fpreading or proftrate

Jlems, three or four inches l:ing, flightly branched, befet
with many pairs of awl-lhapcd, fhort, fmooth, dark-greea
leaves, accompanied by axillary tufts of fmaller ones, giving
the herb a knotty or jointed afpeA. Flowers large, ftalked,
about the extremities of the items. Styles five, as well as
the valves of the capfule, by which alone this plant is fepa- '
rated from Arenaria.

4. S. laricina. Larch-leaved Spurrey. Linn. Sp. PI. 631.
Willd. n. 4. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 18. (Alfine n. 6i : Gmel.
Sib. v. 4. 15J.) — Leaves oppofite, awl-fhaped, fringed,
cluftered. — A rare fpecies, found by Steller in Siberia. It
differs from the laft in being fomewhat larger, with longer,
acute leaves, fringed at the bafe. Englifh botanifts had been
accuftomed to confider the following as the true S. laricina,
till the Linnxan herbarium taught them to correft this
error.

5. S. faginoides. Smooth Awl-fhaped Spurrey. Linn.
Sp. PI. 631. Willd. n. 5. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot.
t. 2105. (Abine n. 64; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 157.) — Leaves
oppofite, awl-fhaped, pointlefs, naked. Flower-ftalks foli-
tary, very long, fmooth. — A rare inhabitant of the Sccttifh
highland mountains, flowering in June. Gmelin found it in
Siberia. The perennial fibrous root refembles that of S.
nodifa, but the herb is fmaller, more branched and ereft>
without any axillary clufters of leaves, and having more re-
femblance to a Sagina than an Arenaria. Every part is quite
fmooth, by which, and the want of a briftly point to the
leaves, this Spergula effentially and conftantly differs from
the more common one next defcribed. The flowers are ter-
minal, rather drooping, on long, folitary ftalks. Petals
white, roundifh, hardly fo long as the calyx. Stamens ten.
ProfefFor Swartz defcribes but five, which makes us doubt*
ful of his plant. Seeds kidney-fhaped, without any edge or
border.

6. S.fubulala. Ciliated Awl-ftiaped Spurrey. Swartz
in Stockh. Tranf. for 1789, 45. t. i. f. 3. Willd. n. 6.
Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 1082. (S. laricina; Hudf.
203. Fl. Dan. t. 858. S. faginoides ; Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. .
t. 35. Sagina procumbens J ; Linn. Sp. PI. 185. 1 — Leaves
oppofite, awl-fhaped, fringed, tipped with a briftly point.
Flower-ftalks folitary, very long, fomewhat hairy. — Native
of fandy barren heaths in the north of Europe, flowering
with us from June to Auguft. It is perennial, and re-
fembles the laft in general habit, but the leaves are conftantly
fringed with glandular hairs, and tipped with a briftly point.
The Jloivers too are fmaller, with generally hairy glutinous
ftalks, and ufually but fi\ejlamens. Seeds fmall, compreffed,
pale brown, encircled with a black line, but no dilated
border.

7. S. glabra. Smooth Capillary Spurrey. Willd. n. 7,
(S. faginoides; AUion. Pedem. v. 2. n8. t. 64. f. i, ex-
cluding the fynonyms.) — Leaves oppofite, thread-fhaped»
fmooth, cluftered. Flower-ltalks folitary, very long, Imootb.
— Common in the graffy alpine paftures of Savoy, accord-
ing to AUioni, by whofe work alone we have any knowledge

«f

S P E

of this plant. It vies in magnitude with S. laric'ma, but is
much mor; flender in Xhefoliiige, as well as quite fmooth.
Petals white, twice as long as the calyx. Stamens ten.

SPERGULASTRUM, (fo called from its releinblance
to Spergula,) a genas of Michaux, Flora Bofeali-Ainerkana,
V. I. 27y. The author fpeaks of it as a doubtful genus,
differing from Spergula chiefly in having but four Jligmas, or
rather _^^/i,f, which in one fpecies vary to three. Perfoon
and Purlh have publifhed this genus under the appellation of
Micropetalum, the original name being equally contrary to
fenfe and ulage, becaufe it is formed of another ellablifhed
one, merely varied in termination.

SPERILEN, in Geography, a lake of Norway, in Ag-
gerhuus ; 35 miles N. of ChrilUania.

SPERLING, Otto, in Biography, fon of a perfon of
the fame name, was born at Chriitiania, in Norway, in 1634.
He received the early part of his education at Copenhagen ;
he afterwards Itudied at the gymnafium of Bordcftiolm, and
then at the academy of Helmftadt. In 1655 he became
private tutor to the fon of M. Wrangel, governor of Swedifh
Pomerania, and in 1658 made a tour to Holland, France,
and England. In 1662 he went to Hamburgh, as tutor to
the youngeft fon of Corfits Ulfeld, and in 1674 took the
degree of doftor of laws at Kiel. In 168 1 he travelled
with the fons of J. A. Von Bachwald, and fpent fome time
at Paris, where he was -employed in arranging the library of
the celebrated Colbert, for which fervice he received a pen-
fion of 200 rix-doUars as long as that noble-minded man
lived. On his return he proceeded to Hamburgh, where he
praftifed the law : he was afterwards afleflbr in the court of
Glucklladt, and in 1690 he was invited to Copenhagen,
where he was employed in various important aftairs. In
1692 he was elefted profeflbr of jurifprudence and hiftory,
and afterwards of oratory and hiftory, in the new knights'
academy at Copenhagen. In 1698 he obtained leave to re-
ilgn, on account of \\h age, but in 1701 he refumed his
former ftation as profelibr of hiftory and oratory, in which
he continued till the fuppreffion of the academy in 17 10. He
became a member of the Royal Society of London in 1700,
and died in 1715. He was author of a great many works,
among which were the following : " Monumentum Ham-
burgenfe Benedidlinum ;" " De Danicae Linguae ac Nomi-
nis antiqua Gloria et Praerogativa inter Septentrionales,"
&c. Gen. Biog.

Sperling, in Geography, a town of Pruflia, in the pro-
vince of Natangen ; 15 miles E. of Angerburg.'

SPERLINGA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of De-
mona; 10 miles S. of Miftretta.

SPERLONGA, a town of Naples, in Lavora ; 7 miles
S. of Fundi.

SPERM, Speu.ma, a-xifi^K, the feed of which an animal
is formed.

Si'ERMACETI, or Parma.sitty, in Pharmacy, is a
whitifti, flaky, unftuous (ubftaiice, prepared from oil ; prin-
cipally from that of a cetaceous fifli, called by fome the male
•whale, by others cachalot, and by the Latins crga ; diftin-
guifhcd from the common whale by its having teeth in lieu
of whale-bone, and by a bunch on its back. See Piiyseter.

The ancients were ftrangers to the nature of this prepara-
tion ; and even Schroder feems io doubt, whether to reckon
it an animal or mineral fubftance.

It had its name Jperntaceti, feed or fpcrm of whale, given
it, no doubt, to raiie it^ value, by a notion of its fcarcity.
The fpongy oily mafs from wliich it is made, is found in a
large triangular trunk, four or five feet deep, and ten or
twelve long, filling almoft the whole cavity of the head, and
feeming to be entirely different from the proper brain of the

S P E

animal. The oil is leparated from it by dripping. In this
ftatc it has a yellow unftuous appearance, and is brought
to England in barrels. An ordinary fized whale, it is faid,
will yield upwards of twelve large barrels of crude fperma-
ceti. The mode of purifying it in the large way is as fol-
lows : the mafs is put into hair or woollen bags, and prefled
between plates of iron in a fcrew-prefs, until it becomei
hard and brittle. It is then broken in pieces, ard thrown
into boiling water, where it melts, and the impurities, which
rife to the furface or fink to the bottom, are fl<immed off or
feparated from it. After being cooled, and fcparated from
the water, it is put into frefli water in a large boiler, and a
weak ley of the potalh of commerce added to it by degrees.
This part of the procefs is thrice repeated, after which the
whole is poured into coolers, when the fpermaceti concretes
into a white femitranfparent mafs, which, on being cut into
fmall pieces, affumes the flaky appearance which it has in the
fhops. Some of our druggifts, it is faid, pofiefs the art of
makmg it from the fediment or fices of any kind of oil.

Some fophiiticate it with wax ; but the deceit is dif-
covered, either by the fmell of the wax, or by the dulnefs of
the colour. Some alfo fell a preparation of oil gained from
the tail of the whale, iuftead of that from the brain ; which
laft kind turns yellow, as foon as opened to the air. In the
general, there is no merchandize that fhould be kept clofer
from the air than fpermaceti.

Purified fpermaceti is an almoft filvery white, friable,
femitranfparent, unAuous fubftance, inodorous and infipid,
or having very little flavour, and only a flight tallowy odour.
It is fofter and more brittle than white wax ; and it is dif.
tinguifhed from every other fpecies of concrete oil, by itt
fuperior tranfparency, high luftre, and cryltalline texture.
Its fpecific gravity is 9.433, and it melts at 112^ Fahr. ;
and at a higher temperature evaporates, with little altera-
tion. By the afTiftauce of a wick, it burns with a clear
white flame, fuperior to that of tallow, and without any
difagreeable odour ; and this conftitutes its excellence as a
material for candles. By repeated diltillation, the fperma-
ceti becomes permanently fluid at the common temperature.
According to the experiments of Crell, its diilillation requires
a greater heat than fat ; and the coagulated oil, thus pro-
cured, partly white and partly brownifh. By repeated dif-
tillation it affords a yellowifh acid, and becomes more fluid,
but coagulates in the cold. The acid, redified by diftilla*
tion, is entirely colourlefs, and affords tlie fame falts with
earths and alkalies as Crell's fubacic acid. The oil unites
with ammonia into a faponaceous emulfion. It may be
diffufed in water by means of the yolk of egg or mucilage.
It is fparingly foluble in boiling alcohol, 150 parts of the
menftruum being neceffary for this purpofe ; and as the fo-
lution cools, the fpermaceti is again precipitated. Pure
ether very copioufly difTolves it, but feems to retain none
of it when cold. Oil of turpcnlijie has the fame eftefl.
With cauftic potafh it combines into a fo.ip, foluble in warm
water. Fluid ammonia, when cold, has no a£lion upon it ;
but when warm, very eafily diflolves it, forming an emul-
fion, which is not decompofcd either by fimple cooling, or
by mixture with water ; but the addition of an acid inttantly
precipitates the fpermaceti. Willi concentrated fulphuric
acid it forms a brownifh folution, wliich, dropped into wa-
ter, gives up its fpermaceti, apparently unaltered. Like
the other fat oils, it diifolvcs fnlphur. By long cxpofure
to the air, it acquires a yellow tinge, and becomes rancid ;
but it may be again purified, by being waOied in a warm
ky of potafs. The great ufc of fpermaceti is for making
candles ; and it is alfo employed in medicine.

Spermaceti candles are of modern manufadturc : they are
3 R 2 made

S P E

S P E

made fmooth, with a fine glofs, free from rings and fears,
fuperior to the fined wax candles in colour and luftre ; and,
when genuine, leave no fpot or ftain on the fined filk, cloth,
or linen.

In medicine, fpermaceti is demulcent and emollient ; but
for internal ufe it poflefTes no advantages fuperior to thofe
of the bland oils. It is ufed in dyfentery and irritations of
the alimentary canal, and alfo in catarrh and phthifis ; but
in the latter cafes it is lefs beneficial than the bland oils.
Some imaginary virtues have been afcribed to fpermaceti,
which have occafioned the life of it by women in child-bed.
In its combination with water by means of the yolk of egg,
it is a pleafant vehicle for opium, when the after-pains are
troublefomc. It forms a part of the compofition of feveral
ointments. The dofe is from jfs to 3jfs, rubbed with
fugar, or in the form of emulfion. It poflefl'es a property,
which is that of foftening the Ikin, which has occafioned its
being ufed by the ladies in pades, waflies, &c. Its officinal
preparations are the " ceratum fimplex" of the Edinb. Ph.,
formed of fix parts of oUve oil, three parts of white wax,
and one part of fpermaceti ; the " ceratum cetacei" of the
Lond. Ph. (fee Ceratum); the " unguentum cetacei,"
or fpermaceti ointment, of the Lond. Ph., formed by melt-
ing together, over a flow fire, fix drachms of fpermaceti
and two drachms of white wax, and dirring them condantly
till they be cold ; and the " unguentum fpermatis ceti," or
ointment of fpermaceti, of the Dubl. Ph., formed by mak-
ing half a pound of white wax, one pound of fpermaceti,
and three pounds of prepared lard, into an ointment. Thefe
ointments conditute the ordinary dreflings for blidered fur-
faces and excoriations.

SPERMACOCE, in Botany, fo named by Dillenius,
in his Horlus EUhamenfis 369, from <nrt^i^cc, feed, and axwKn,
a Jharp paint, in allufion to the little ercft beaks of the cap-
fules.— -Linn. Gen. 50. Schreb. 66. Willd. Sp. PJ.
V. I. 568. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. I. 232. Purdi loj. Julf. 197. Lamarck Illudr. t. 62.
Gaertn. t. 25. — Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Stellatte, Linn. Rubiacex, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fmall, fuperior, with four
teeth, permanent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube
cyhndrical, flender, longer than the calyx ; limb in four
deep, obtufe, widely fpreading, fomewhat reflexed feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, diorter than the
corolla ; anthers fimple. Pifl. Germen inferior, roundidi,
comprelfed ; dyle fimple, divided in the upper part ; dig-
mas obtufe. Perk. Capfules two, combined, oblong,
gibbous externally, flat on the inner fide, obtufe, each
with two beaks. Seeds folitary, roundidi, rolled in at the
edges.

Ed. Ch. Corolla of one petal, funnel-diaped. Capfules
two, combined, each crowned with two teeth.

A genus of extra-European weeds, not recommended by
any beauty of afpeft, or known utihty, chiefly the produce
of the Wed Indies, or the warmer parts of North America,
a few fpecies only being found in the Ead Indies. The
plaHts are generally herbaceous, in many indances annual,
often rough, with oppofite, fimple, entire /eaves ; ftieathing,
membranous, jagged or hr'Aly, Jiipulas, like many of the
fame natural order ; and numerous, fmall, white, reddifti,
or blueifti, whorled or capitate, foivers.

Eight fpecies are enumerated in Linn. Syji. Veg. ed. 14,
of which the fevcnth, 5. procumbens, is the" fame as Hedyotis
frutlcofa of Linnaeus. Willdenow has twenty fpecies, to
which three new ones are added by Purfh. Five find a
place in the Hortut Keiuenjis. We (hall feleft a few ex-
amples, fafficient to give a general idea of the whole.

S. tenu'ior. Slender Button-weed. Linn. Sp. PI. 147,
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. i. (S. verticillis tenuioribus ; Dill.
Elth. 370. t. 277. f. 359.) — Stem fmooth, ereft. Leaves
lanceolate ; rough on the upper fide. Flowers whorled.
Stamens fhorter than the corolla. Fruit hairy. — Native of
the Wed Indies. Found alfo, according to Purfli, in dry
gravelly fituations, from Virginia to Carolina, flowering
from June to Augud. Root annual. Stem fquare. Leaves
an inch and a half long, lanceolate, acute. Flowers very
fmall, white.

S. glabra. Smooth Button-weed. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. v. i. 82. Purfli n. 2. — Stem fmooth, procumbent.
Leaves ovato-lanceolate, fmooth on both fides. Flowers
whorled. Fruit fmooth.— On the banks of rivers in mod
of the wedern territories of North America, flowering in
July and Augud. The plant is annual. Flowers white,
longer than in the former.

S. verticil/ata. Denfe-whorled Button-weed. Linn. Sp.
PI. 148. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 4. (S. verticUhs glo-
bofis ; Dill. Elth. 369. t. 277. f. 358.) — Hairy. Leaves
lanceolate. Whorls globofe, many-flowered. — Native of
Africa. Cultivated by Sherard. The Jlem is flirubby,
ereft, branched, with numerous, narrow, fomewhat cluf-
tered leaves, and denfe whorls of fmall, white, very copious
powers. Such is the Senegal plant, defcribed by Dillenius.
The Jamaica fpecimen from Brown, which is fmooth, and
which led Linnxus to admit that circumdance into his fpe-
cific definition, may poflibly be a diiferent fpecies, but we
have not fufficient materials to decide this point. Svvartz
fpeaks of this lad as having, when in flower, the fmell of
Meblot.

S. hirta. Rough Hairy Button-weed. Linn. Sp. PI.
148. Willd. n. 12. Swartz Obf. 4J. (S. n. 3 ; Browne
Jam. 141.) — Stem branched, hairy. Leaves ovato-lanceo-
late, rough with callous points. Flowers axillary, crowded, ,
feffile. Stamens prominent. — Native of dry grafly places
in the Wed Indies. Root annual. Angles of the Jlem
rough with recurved bridly hairs. Leaves ftslked, an inch
and a half or two inches long, rough like a file, efpecially
on the upper fide. Stipulas fringed with long taper bridles.
Flowers fmaU, whitidi, with blue anthers. Fruit hairy.

S. villo/a. Shaggy Button-weed. Swartz Prodr. 29.
Ind. Occ. 1943. Willd. n. 13. (Pulegium fruticofum
ereftum, verticillis denfiflimis ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 170.) —
" Stem ftiaggy, flightly branched. Leaves ovato-lanceo-
late, downy ; the uppermod four together. Flowers
whorled. Stamens diorter than the corolla." — Native of
fields and meadows, in the fouthern part of Jamaica, flower-
ing all the year round. The Jlem is herbaceous, a foot
high, but little branched, fquare, clothed with foft hairs.
Leaves obtufe, with bridly ribs. Flowers white, with
whitidi, nearly feffile, anthers. Swartz.

S. procumbens. Procumbent Corymbofe Button-weed.
Linn. Syd. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 115. Willd. n. 19. (S.
corymbofa ; Linn. Sp. PI. 149.) — Stem procumbent.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire, fmooth-edged. Corymbs
lateral, dalked, many-flowered. — Native of the Ead or
Weit Indies. Of this we have feen only an imperfeft fpeci-
men, in the Linnasan herbarium, which we diould rather
guefs to belong to Hedyotis, but the fruit is not in a date
to decide that quedion. The leaves are an inch long.
Flowers in roundirti corymbofe heads, compofed of crowded
leafy whorls, on axillary compreded dalks. Calyx re-
curved, downy. Corolla hairy within. Stamens pro-
minent.

S. hyjffopifoUa. Hyflbp-leaved Button-weed. Sm. Inf.
of Georgia, v. i. 75. t. 38. — Stem decumbent. Leaves

linear-

S P E

hnear-lanceolate, fringed with briitly teeth. Whorls of
few flowers. — Native of Surinam and Geor£;ia. A fpeci-
men was fent by Rolander to Linna;us, who marked it S.
Jlr'igofa, but afterwards effaced that name, nor does tins
fpecies feem to have been any where defcribed, till it ap-
peared in the Natural Hiitory of the Infefts of Georgia,
with the plants on which they feed, publilhed by the writer
of this article, from the drawings and papers of Mr. John
Abbot. This work is never cited by Willdenow, nor
perhaps had it fallen in his way. The fpecies before us has
woody, wavy, decumbent, flightly branched, fmoothiflj
jhms. The haves are an inch long, remarkable for being
bordered with fine cartilaginous teeth, pointing forward,
like thofe of many fpecies of Galium. Briltles of ihejlifulas
numerous, long, and ilout. Flo-wers reddirti, three or four
in each whorl. Calyx fringed. Fruit obovate, roughifh,
red even in an early Hate, though the calyx is green. We
fhould fufpeft this to be the S. diodina of Michaux and
Purfh, found in dry barren foils, on iron ore hills, from
Virginia to Carolina, but the Jlowers of that fpecies are
defcribed as white, and very fmall, iolitary and alternate,
the _^em and feeds hairy, which charafters do not anfwer
to our plant, though the edges of the leaves appear to be
fimilarly rough in both.

S. involucrala. Long-flowered Button-weed. Purlh
n. 4. — " Stem alternately branched, very hifpid. Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, pointed, hairy on both fides. Stipulas
with many bridles. Heads terminal, brafteated. Stamens
prominent." — Found in Carolina by Mr. Frafer. About
a foot high. Leaves broad, rather oblique. Flowers
white, with a very long tube.

Spermacoce, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba-
ceous, annual, and (hrubby kinds ; among which the fpecies
cultivated are, the flender button-weed (S. tenuior) ; and
the whorl-ilowered bulton-weed (S. verticillata).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are increafed by fowing
the feeds on a moderate hot-bed, early in the fpring, or in
pots to be plunged in it. When the plants have attained
fome growth, they (hould be removed into feparate pots,
filled with good friable mould, replunging them in the bed.
They fhould afterwards be managed as other plants of the
exotic ftove kind.

They afford variety in hot-houfe and ftove coUeftions.

SPERMATIC, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to va-
rious parts belonging to the telticle, as the artery, veins,
nerves, cord, &c. See the defcription of the teilis in the
article Generation.

Spermatic Chord, Difeafe of, in Surgery. See Hy-
drocele.

SPERMATOCELE, a kind of rupture, occafioned by
a diltenfion of the fcminal veffels, by which they are let fall
into the fcrotum.

SPERMATOP(EA, a name given to fuch medicines
as are fuppofed to increafe the femen.

SPERMATOSIS is a term fometimcs ufed for the
formation of feed.

SPERONE, La, in Geography, a cape at the fouth-eaft
extremity of Corfica ; 4 miles E. of Bonifacio.

SPERONI, Si'EHO.NE, in Biography, a diftinguiflied
Italian writer of the 16th century, was the fon of Ber-
nardino Speroni, a noble of Padua, in which city he was
born in the year 1500. He lludied under the famous
Pomponazzo, in Bologna. He took iiis degrees in medi-
cine and philofophy, and was appointed at an early age
reader in logic, and profcffor of philofophy, in the univer-
fity ; but being greatly attached to his former preceptor
Pomponazzo, he returned to Bologna, which he did not

S P E

quit till the death of that eminent man. He then refumed
the profeflbr's chair at Padua, which he held till the death
of his father in 1528, and his own marriage. After this he
was employed by his fellow-citizens in public bufinefs, and
was entrufied with feveral honourable commifTions. But he
was not lefs intent upon literature than diligent in aftive
bufinefs, and became one of the molt learned men of his
time. When refiding as an envoy at Venice, his fpeeches
before the fenate were fo much admired, that it has been
af5rmed, that the judges and advocates belonging to other
courts would leave their own places, to hear his pleadings.
Neverthelefs he was not a lawyer by profefTion, but only
took up, occafionally, the caufes of his friends. In 1560
Speroni went to Rome, as agent to the duke of Urbino at
the Papal court. He obtained the friendfliip of the prin-
cipal men of letters at that capital, and was on terms of
particular intimacy with Charles Borromeo ; and on that
account he was induced to add theology to his other iludies.
Pius IV. conferred on him the honour of knighthood ; and
the dukes of Urbino and Ferrara fent for him to their dif-
ferent courts, where he was treated with the greatefl refpeft.
Almolt all the princes of Italy followed the example of
thofe fovereigns, intreating him to take up his abode with
them ; but he preferred the tranquillity of private life to
the honours that might have been fhowered upon him. He
died at the great age of 88, and was interred with every
kind of funeral honour. As a writer, his ftyle is fpoken
of with fingular approbation : it is faid to be entirely free
from the affefted elegance and the prolixity which charac-
terize many authors of that country and period. It rather
feems purpofely to fhun the mofl ornamented expreflions,
and yet it is inferior to none in true pohfh, and unites gravity
and precifion to harmony and eloquence. One of the molt
celebrated compofitions of Speroni was a tragedy, entitled
" Canace and Macareus," which was much applauded by
the Paduan academy degli Inflammati. Some copies of it
having got abroad without the knowledge of the author, an
incorreft edition was printed at Venice in 1546, but with
the imprint Florence. Before, however, this furreptitious
publication, there appeared in MS. a criticifm upon it,
in which it was treated with fingular feverity. This being
afterwards printed, Speroni thought it necoffary to defend
his compofition, and a long controvcrfy cniued. The
author, no doubt, improved his work before he gave it to
the public, fanftioned by his own authority ; and when it
thus appeared, it was regarded as oi;e of the belt produc-
tions of that clafs which the age exhibited. Of the other
writings of this author, many are moral trcatifes in the
form of dialogue, in which he was one of the firtt compofers
in Italian, and in which he is faid to have had few equals.
The reft related to polite hteraturc, eloquence, poetry, hii-
tory, &c. ; all difplaying an extenfivc knowledge of books,
and a curreft judgment. His works have been colletted
and publiflied at Venice, in 5 vols. 4to.

SPERVERIUS, in Ornithology, a name by which Bel-
lonius, and fome other autliors, have called the fparrow-
hawk, more commonly known by the names of nifus, and
accipiter fringillartus .

SPESSART, in Geography, a Lvge foreft of Germany,
to the right of the Mayiie, extending from Wurzburg to
Afchafienburg.

SPETKER, a river of Switzerland, belonging to the
abbey of St. Gal ; 4 miles E. of St. Gal.

SPEUSfPPUS, in Biography, an Athenian philofopher,
fon of Eurymcdon, by a filter of Plato, fuccceded his uncle
in his fchool, over which he prcfidcd during eigiit years,
commencing from the death of that illuitriouo philofopher,

S P H

in the year B. C. 348. He placed the ftatues of the
Graces in the fchool built by Plato in the academy, and
clofely adhered to the doftrines of his mafter. His manners,
however, were not conformable to his philofophy : he was
vindiftive, and a lover of pleafure. He was likewife ava-
ricious, and, contrary to the praftice of Plato, exafted a
gratuity from his difciples. He was admitted to the
friendfhip of Dion while he refided at Athens ; and it was
by his iniligation that Dion, invited by the malecontents of
Syracufe, undertook his expedition againft Dionyfius.
(See Dion, in Vit. Corn. Nep.) Becoming paralytic in
his limbs, he was conveyed to and from the academy in a
carriage of fome kind. Upon one of thefe occafions he
met Diogenes, and faluted him ; but the cynic, inftead of
returning the civility, upbraided him for enduring to live
under fuch an infirmity. To which Speufippus replied,
«' that he did not live in his limbs, but in his mind." At
length, overcome by his maladies, and wearied of life, he
put an end to his exiftence, having firft conilituted Xeno-
crates his fuccelTor in the academy. He was author of
feveral philofophical treatifes, which have perilhed ; though
it is faid that they were held in fuch eftimation by Ariftotle,
that he gave three talents for them.

SPEY, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which rifes in
the loch of that name, about eight miles S.W. from Fort
Auguftus, in the county of Invernefs, and runs into the
North fea, in the frith of Murray ; 3 miles N.W. of
Fochabers. N. )at. 57° 4.0'. W. long. 2° 59'.

SPEYERSBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberix ; 1 1 miles N. of Bamberg.

SPEYMOUTH, a pariih of the fhire of Elgin, Scotland,
\\ mile N.W. from Fochabers.

SPEZZA, or SpETiA, a fea-port town of the Ligurian
republic, fituated on a gulf of the Adriatic, to which it
gives name, and anciently called " Portus Lunae." At the
entrance of the gulf is a fmall ifland, called " Palmaria,"
which makes the harbour fafe and large ; 35 miles S.E. of
Genoa. N. lat. 44° 9'. E. long. 9° 40'.

SPEZZANO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Panaro ; 5 miles S. of Modena. — Alfo, a town of
Naples, in Calabria Citra ; 4 miles E.N.E. of Cofenza.

SPHACELUS, from o-ifafi., to dejlroy, implies, in Sur-
gery, the complete mortification of a part of the body.
See Gangrene.

SPHACHIA, in Geography, a diltrift or province of
the ifland of Crete, lying towards the fouth, and extending
to the eaft much more than Cidonia, or Kidonia, which is
fituated to the north ; it is confidered as making part of
the pachalic of Candia ; though the interior police and
adminillration belong to the inhabitants themfelves, called
•< Sphachiots." The firft chain of the high mountains of
Sphachia, comprifed in the province of Kidonia, is covered
with fnow for four or five months. It is, in general, ftony
and deftitute of earth ; but it has a few narrow vallies
which are fufceptible of culture. Barley is fown here in
May, and gathered in September. As foon as the fnow is
melted, the flocks are brought to thefe mountains ; and
though the ground appears' almoft naked, cattle find a
food, vphich, if not abundant, is very relilhing, and very fit
for giving to their milk and fle(h a quality, unattainable by
thofe that are bred in the moft fertile places. The
Sphachiots inhabit the high mountains, which extend from
E. to W., from the province of Selino, as far as that of
Arnari. Independently of a great number of villages,
which are fituated on thefe mountains, fome are found
towards the fouth coaft, and among others " Sphachia,"
their chief place, which is a fmdl harbour that contains

S P H I

feven or eight large boats, which the Sphachiots ufe for
their trade, and fometimes alfo for the piracies which they
praftife in imitation of their anceftors. The Maltefe for-
merly frequented this harbour, and were furnifhed by the
inhabitants with provifions, and all the affiftance which
they wanted. Sphachia produces fcarcely any oil ; but it
affords a fmall quantity of wheat, and barley in greater
abundance : it alfo furnifties honey and wax. The prin-
cipal produftion confifts in little cheefes made with ewes'
milk, which are exported to Conftantinople. In winter
the Sphachiots drive their flocks to the fea-fide, in order
to obtain plenty of grafs ; but in fummer they remove
them back to feed on the rich paftures, which the milder
temperature and gradual melting of the fnow always main-
tain in a Itate of verdure. With the wine which thefe
Greeks make on the firfl link of the chain of their moun-
tains, they indulge themfelves fo freely, that they confume
their whole ftock during the three or four months that
fucceed the vintage, and in the remainder of the year they
are obliged to drink pure water. The inhabitants of the
Sphachian mountains are diftinguifhed by their induftry
and aftivity ; they are fliepherds, agriculturifts, and artifans ;
they occupy their land to advantage, and breed a great
number of cattle ; and manufafture with tolerable (kill the
cloths which they ufe, as well as the utenfils and imple-
ments which they employ. Upon the whole, the Spha-
chiot has preferved the energy of the independent man,
and the aftivity of a perfon who enjoys, without moleitation,
the fruit of his labour.

The Sphachiots, who are confidered as the real defcend-
ants of thofe famous Cretans who were fo long mafters of
the country, are diftinguifhed from the other Greeks by
their tall ftature, their comely appearance, their love of
liberty, their courage, their (kill, and, above all, the hatred
which they have vowed againft the ufurpers of this ifland. i
Under the Romans, the Saracens, the Venetians, and the •
Turks, the Sphachiots found means to preferve their law*
and their cuftoms. They annually appointed their magif-
trates in the general affemblies of the people. Obliged by
the Turks to tranfport, in fummer, from the top of their
mountains, the ice neceffary for the confumption of the
inhabitants of Canea and Retimo, they paid no tax, no
impoft ; they had no agas ; they never faw among them
the agents of the Turkilh government ; they formed, in a
word, a republic in fome meafure independent. When, in
1769, fome Ruffian emiflaries came to difturb the peace,
and impair the happinefs, which thefe privileged Greeks
enjoyed on their mountains, the Sphachiots recurred to
arms ; and fome hundreds of the braveft of them went and
joined the Mainots, their friends, and proceeded together
to offer their fervices to count Orloff, at a time when they
apprehended the Ruffians were preparing to deliver the
Greeks from the Ottoman yoke. The paflia of Candia,
informed of the conduft of the Sphachiots, refolved, in
the fame year 1770, to march againft them with all the
forces of the ifland. He wifhed to exterminate thsm, and
thus to afford a terrible example of feverity to all the
Greeks who might be tempted to imitate them. The
Turks foon united under their colours. The Sphachiots,
taking advantage of their rocks and mountains, defended
themfelves againft the attacks of the Turks, and flieltered
themfelves amidft their crags and precipices. Notwithftand-
ing their refiftance, the Turks perfevered, though tired of
a painful and difagreeable war, and loudly demanding to
return home, reduced the Sphachiots to the laft extre-
mity. Almoft all their villages were fet on fire ; many of
their women and children were carried off, as well as their

flockf.

S P H

S P H

flocks, and their provifions were exhaufted. In thefe circum-
ftances they received with pleafure the firft propofals that
were made to them, contented to pay their annua! tribute,
and obtained permifiion to return to their habitations, and
continue their barter with the maritime towns. The Turks
treated them in the mcfl ipfulting and cruel manner, load-
ing 3000 or 4000 Greeks with their baggage, and m their
different battles placing them in front, fo as to 1 ake a
rampart of their Dodies. This cowa'dly and barbarous
treatment greatly diftrefled thefe brave mnunt;i' leers ; and
frequently prevented their firing on their enemies, foi- fear
of injuring thofe whom they confidered as their brethren,
ftill more unfortunate than themfelves. Although the
Sphachiots pay their karatch with the greatell repugnance,
and are difpofed to avail themfelves of the firft favourable
moment for (haking off the yoke, which hangs heavy on
their necks, they took care, during the laft war of the
Rufllans againft the Turks, to refill the folicitations ad-
dreffed to them for taking a part in any hoitile armaments.
By this wary conduft, they have preferved the few pri-
vileges which they have remaining. Olivier's Travels.

SPHjECULjE, amone the Romans, were tickets of
wood, tejfcre lignea, by which the emperors fcattered their
prefents to people of both fexes in the theatre, or circus.

SPH.ffiRANTHUS, in Botany, derived from o-rai^a,
afphere, or globe, and a»9o?, ajlower, from the aggregation
of its florets into globular heads. — Linn. Gen. 452.
Schreb. 591. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 2394. Mart. Mill.
Did. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v, 5. 184. .luff. 176.
Lamarck Did. v. 7. 321. lUuftr. t. 718. Gartn. t. 164.
Loureir. Cochinch. 509. Vaill. Mem. de I'Acad. des Sc.
I719. t. 20. f. 12. — Clafs and order, Syngeriefta Polygamia
Segregata. Nat, Ord. Compqfita Capitata, Linn. C'ma-
rocephaltc, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx globular, imbricated with
pointed, permanent fcales, clothing the general receptacle
on all fides ; partial one to each fcale of the common
calyx, many-flowered, of five linear, equal, ereft leaves.
Cor. partial comprifing about three pcrfeA florets in the
difk, and mollly five female ones in the radius. Perfefl
Aorets of one petal, funnel-fhaped, with a five-cleft, fpreaJ-
ing limb ; female awl-fhaped, tubular, with a trifid, very
fmall, clofed mouth. Stam. (in the perfcdl florets) Fila-
ments five, capillary, very (hort ; anthers cylindrical, tu-
bular, longer than the corolla. Pijl. (in the perfect
florets) Germen flirivelled ; llyle long and rather thick ;
ftigma quite fimple : (in the female florets) Germen ob-
long ; ttyle fetaceous, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma
cloven. Peric. none, except the unchanged calyx. Seeds
(in the perfedl florets) none; (in the female) folitary, ob-
long, naked. Recept. common fcaly ; partial naked.

Eff. Ch. Partial calyx eight-flowered. Florets tubular,
perfeft ; fome imperfeftly female. Receptacle fcaly. Down
none.

1. S. indicus. Indian Sphseranthus. Linn. Sp. PI. 1314.
Fl. Zeylan. 312. Willd. n. 1. (S. purpurea alata fer-
rata ; Burman. Zeylan. 220. t. 94. f. 3.) — Leaves lan-
ceolate, ferrated, decurrent, fmooth. Peduncles winged.
Wings of the flem and llalks ferrated. — Native of the Eaft
Indies. It flowers at Kcw, in the ftove, from Auguft to
December. Root perennial. Stems herbaceous, branched
above and below, fmooth. Leaves alternate, feflilc, lan-
ceolate, naked, ferrated, remarkably decurrent, involute,
having the fragrance of oil of lavender. Flamiers folitary,
terminal, globular, of a blue or purplifli colour.

2. S. rnurocephalus. Small-headed Spliajranthus. Willd.
n. 2. — Leaves obovatg-lanceolatc, flighily pointed, ferrated.

decurrent, fmooth. Peduncles winged. Wings of the
ftem and Italks entire — Native of Java. — WiUdenow, upon
whofe authority thi? and the following fpecies are adopted,
fays, that this is very hke the preceding, but that its <wings
are entire, notferr?ted. Leaves obovato-lanceolate, obtufe,
with minute, very dillant, pointed ferratures. Flowers in
oblong, not fpher.cal, heads, about habF as big as thofe of
the lail fpecies.

3. S. hirtus. Hairy Sphaeranthus. Willd. n. 3. La-
marck Illuft^r. t. 718. f. I — Leaves obovate, ferrated,

hairy, decurrent. Peduncles winged Allied to the firll

fpecies, but diltinft 1 having obovate haves, and fmaller
heads ofjlotuers, as well as in the hairinefs of all its parts.

4. S. africanus. African Sphaeranthus. Linn. Sp. PI,
1314. Thunb. Prodr. 169. fScabiofa minor, alato caule,
maderafpatenfis ; Pink. Aim. 335. t. 108. f. 7.) — Leaves
decurrent, ovate, ferrated. Peduncles round. — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope and Madras, flowering at Kew ia
July and Auguft. Stem herbaceous, about ten inches high.
Leaves alternate, ovate-lanceolate. Peduncles fullaining
three or four globular heads of Jlowers of a pale yellow
colour.

y. S. chinenfis. Linn. Mant. 1 19. Willd. n. 5. — Leaves
fefTile, pinnatifid. — Native of India. Why then (fays pro-
feffor Martyn) is it named chinenfis? — It is extremely like
S- indicus, but a much fmaller plant, with pinnate, fiiiuated
leaves, and, if we miltake not, is the very fame as the Lin-
nsean Artemifia maderafpatana.

6. S. cochinchinenjis. Loureir. Cochinch. 5 i o. — Leaves
decurrent, oblong, undivided. Flowers in heart-fliaped,
ovate, nearly fefiile, terminal heads. — Native of Cliina and
Cochinchina, among corn, and in gardens. — Stem herba-
ceous, a foot and half high, ereft, round, fmooth, whitifli,
with a few afcending branches. Leaves alternate, feffile,
undulated, rugofe, woolly. Flotuers white, tinged with a
little purple. Loureiro obferves, that the laft fpecies (.?.
chinenfis) differs from this only in having pinnatifid leaves.

SPH.£RIA, a genus of the fungus tribe, defined by
Micheh, but properly named by Haller, in allufion
to the fpherical fhape of tlie fced-veffels. — Hall. Hift.
V. 2. 120. Schreb. Gen. 770. Perl. Syn. i. Lamarck
t. 879. (Lichcn-agaricus ; Mich. Gen. 103. t. 54, 55.)
— Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi,
angiocarpi.

Eir. Ch. Capfules roundifh, immerfed, filled with jelly,
which becomes a mafs of minute, volatile, feeds.

Perfoon reckons up 184 fpecies, diitnbuted in eight fec-
tions, of each of which we (hall exhibit examples.

Seft. I. Caulefcent, elongated or cluh-fhaped ; their fuhflanct
either fleffjy or corky. Ten fpecies.

5. militaris. Scarlet Club-(haped Sphasria. Perf. n. I.
Obf. Mycolog. fafc. 2. 66. t. 6. f. 3. Sowerb. Fung,
t. 60. (Clavaria militaris; Linn. Sp. PI. l6c2. Hudf.
638. With. V. 4. 361 ? C. militaris crocca ; Vaill. Parif.
39. t. 7. f. 4. C. granulofa ; Bulliard t. 496. f. i-)— -
Tawny red, or fcarlet, flefhy. club-lhaped. Head granu-
lated with the promii^eiit leed-vcirels. Perfoon mentions
this as found in autumn, after great rains, in wet grafly
places, always growing out of fome dead caterpillar or
chryfalis. The only fpecimen we ever faw was gathered on
a dry gravelly bank al ove Thorpe, near Norwich, and
meafured about an inch in height, the head being ovate, of
a beautiful fcarlet, granulated like orange-peel ; the ftalk
paler and Imooth. The figures above cited are rather taller,
and generally more yeliowifli. Withering appears to con*
found various diftinft fpecies under the above name.

S. etitomorhiza. SlcnUer-ftalkcd Sphxna. Dickf. Crypt.

fafc.

SPHiERIA.

fafc. I. 22. t. 3. f. 3. Perf. n. 4. With. v. 4. 389 —
Stalk elongated, flender, fimple or divided, fomewhat com-
prefled. Head roundifti, brown. — Found by the late Rev.
Mr. Lightfoot, in the woods of the duchefs dowager of
Portland at Bulllrode, in autumn, but rarely, growing
out of fome dead infeft. The Jn/i was ufually two or three
inches high, wavy, (lender, blackilh ; fometimes deeply
cloven. HenJs fohtary, globular, granulated, brownilh, the
fize of a fmall pea.

S. oph'wglojfoideu Fibrous-rooted Club Sphaeria. Perf.
n. 5. (Clavaria radicofa ; BuUiard t. 440. f. 2. C. para-
fitica ; Willden. Berolin. 40J. t» 7. f. 17. With. v. 4. 361.)

Stalk fimple, yellovvifh, with a branched fibrous root.

Head oval, turgid, black. — Native of fandy heaths, or fir
woods, in autumn. Mr. Pitchford found it near Norwich,
many years fince, nor can there be any doubt refpefting the
above fynonyms. His fpecimens, like thofe of Willdenow,
grew parafitically, on the Tuber cervinum, one or two on
each individual, to which they were attached by their long
and much-branched fibrous roots. The Jlali, about two
inches high, is wavy or curved, roundifh, of a dirty yellow,
as well as the root. Head an inch long, when full grown,
granulated, of a glaucous black, folid ; pale yellow
within.

S. Hypoxylon. Horned Black Sphaeria. Perf. n. 7.
Obf. Mycolog. fafc. I. 20. t. 2.f. I, a,f. Sowerb. Fun^.
t. 5 J. (Clavaria Hypoxylon ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1652. Hudf.
639. With. V. 4. 369. C. cornuta ; BuUiard t. 180.) —
— Cluftered, branched, comprefled ; black and hairy below ;
whitifh and dilated at the fummits. — Common on rotten
ftumps or polls, in woods and gardens, making a confpi-
cuous appearance. Its ufual height is three or four inches.
The hairinefs is moll copious and coarfe on young plants.
In winter the fummits of the branches are plentifully covered
with white powder, but deftitute of the fpherical feed-
veffels. The latter, according to Perfoon, are perfefted in
fummer. His obfervations contradift the opinion reported
by Withering after Dr. Waller, that the prefent fpecies is
the male of the following. Indeed that opinion is much in-
validated by the aflertion that Clavaria ophioglojfoides of
Linnaeus, (fee Geoglossum,) is only a variety of the digi-
iata. Such a miftake is no otherwife accountable, than by
fuppofing the perfon who made it took the fpecies laft de-
fcribed for the Geoglojfum, and even then his accuracy of
judgment could not rank high.

S. digitata. Finger-lhaped Black Sphxria. Sowerb.
Fung. t. 69. (S. polymorpha; Perf. n. 10. Clavaria di-
gitata; Li:in. Sp. PI. 1652. Hudf. 639. With. v. 4.
368. BuUiard t. 220. Lichen-agaricus terreftris digi-
tatus niger, &c. ; Mich. Gen. 104. t. 54. ord. 2. f. 4.)
— Cluftcred, club-ftiaped, obtufe, tumid, coal-black. Fre-
quent on old rotten Humps in beech woods, as well as on old
polls of different kinds, into which its long perennial roots
deeply infmuate themfelves, the fungus fpringing up every
autumn, in the (hape of numerous, fimple or divided, hard,
black, rough, finger-hke bodies, whitilh at the fummit while
young, and tapering below into very flender ftalks. Per-
haps S. digitata, Perf. n. 9, may be a variety only ; but the
Linnaean fynonym belongs to what we have defcribed.

Seft. 2. Roundi/h or diffufe, -without a Jlem. Thirteen
fpecies.

S. concentrica. Concentric Black Spha:ria. Perf. n. 11.
Bolt. Fung. t. 180. (S. fraxinea; With. v. 4. 393.
Sowerb. Fung. t. 1 60. Lycoperdon fraxineum ; Hudf.
641 ; excluding the fynonym of Micheli.) — Roundiih, tu-
mid, firm, fmooth, with numerous concentric intenial
Jayers. Frequent on the decayed ftumps of Afh, Willow,

and other trees. Ufually coal-black, fomewhat fhining, in
globular maffes, the fize of a chefnut, or larger, and of the
fubftance and lightnefs of charcoal.

S. fragifonnis. Orange Sphaeria. Perf. n. 13. (Lyco-
perdon variolofum ; Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 3. 234.
Hudf. 645. Sowerb. Fung. t. 271.) — Cluftered, fomewhat
confluent, of a rufty red ; black and (hining within. Seed-
veflels minutely papillary, in the deciduous coat. — Frequent
on rotten branches and ftumps in damp woods. Each plant
is the fize of a pea, more or lefs, bright red when young.
In an advanced ftate they become confluent, of a brick
colour, and the coat, in which the minute feed-veflels are
lodged, fcales off, leaving a black central mafs, millaken by-
Mr. Sowerby for the feed.

Seft. 3. Shape roundi/h, but various and indeterminate,
Capfules fcattered horizontally, luith prominent orificet, often
fpinous. Twenty-three fpecies.

S. poronia. Dotted Cup Sphaeria. Perf. n. 24. (S.
punftata ; Sowerb. Fung. t. 54. Peziza punAata ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 1650. BuUiard t. 252.) — Stalked; cup-fhaped,
fhallow, white in the diflc, with black fcattered funk cap-
fules.— Found in fandy countries, chiefly on horfe-dung,
rarely on that of cows. It looks like a ftalked Peziza,
fcarcely half an inch broad, confpicuous for its white difl{,
dotted with the black feed-veflels. The fubftance is firm,
or leathery.

S. deujla. Large Spreading Sphaeria. Perf. n. 25. (S.
maxima; Web. Goett. 286. Dickf. Crypt, fafc. i. 23.
S. verfipellis ; Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 55. t. 17. f. 129.
Hypoxylon uftulatum ; BuUiard t. 487. f. i. Lichen-agari-
cus cruftaceus craflus, bovinum renem veluti reprxfentans,
niger et quafi deuftus ; Mich. Gen. 104. t. 54. f. i.) —
Broad, indeterminate, thick, wavy and tumid ; at firll grey
and powdery ; finally black and rigid. Capfules lunk. —
Not uncommon on old rotten Humps, over which it fpreads,
to the extent of two or three inches, in thick, diff^ufe, un-
equal mafles, finally coal-black, and of the texture of S. con-
centrica, (fee the preceding feftion,) with which Hudfonand
fome other botanifts have confounded it. The ftiape, how-
ever, is not globofe, nor is the internal fubllance formed of
concentric layers. The capfules moreover are larger, and
very confpicuous in a vertical feftion of the plant, bemg
clofely ranged, in a fimple feries, under the external coat,
through which their feeds are difcharged by a flender tube
belonging to each capfule. — Perfoon remarks, that this
fpecies fometimes acquires a kind of ilalk, whew grow-
ing on very rotten wood, or on the ground near an old
ftump.

S. ceratofperma. Horn-feeded Sphsria. Perf. n. 38.
(S. Ceratofpermum ; Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 53. t. 17.
f. 131. Ceratofpermum nigi'um minimum difcoides, e di-
verfarum arborum ramorum emortuarum corticibus, et pra»-
cipue corylo erumpens ; Mich. Gen. 125. t. 56. f. i.) —
Roundifli, convex, fcattered, black. Capfules with long
prominent beaks. — Found by Micheli in woods near Flo-
rence, chiefly on dead branches of hazel, in the winter.
Tode obferved it in July, on the dead bark of Rofa canina.
Each plant is lefs than a fplit pea, feated on the dead wood
or bark, under the cuticle, and foon becomes dillinguiflied
by the protrufion of numerous little black horn-like ex-
crefcences, which appear to be the prominent beaks of the
funk capfules. Tode's figures, however, do not precifely
accord with thofe of Micheli. We once examined the ori-
ginal fpecimens of the latter writer, but the horn-like pro-
cefl'es had difappeared ; nor have we met with any thing in
England anfwerable to this fpecies, though many which
belong to Perfoon's eighth, or laft, feftion are fufficiently
4 fimilar

SPHiERlA.

fimilar in their mode of growth to explain the nature of that
before us.

Seft. 4. Shape Indeterminate. Capfules horizontal; atjirjl
marginal, and feparatt ; afterwards confluent. Twenty-four
fpecies.

Perfoon himfelf doubts the certainty of this fe£lion, fome
of the fpecies feeming rather to belong to that immediately
preceding, others perhaps to the eighth.

S. gram'mis. Grafa Sphacria. Perf. n. 50. Obf. My-
col. fafc. I. 18. t. I. f. I and 2. — Linear-oblong, forming
fhining black fpots upon leaves. Capfules globofe, without
prominent beaks. — Obferved by Perfoon on the leaves of
Elymus eitropaiis and Lolium perenne, in the fhape of oblong,
black, (lightly prominent fpots, various in length, which,
when cut vertically, difplay a feries of funk globular cap-
fules, not projefting above the furface.

The reit of this feAion are fimilarly parafitical on the
leaves or italks of various plants.

Seft. 5. Capfules croiuded into an elevated tuft, on a com-
mon cruflaceous receptacle ; their beaks converging. Fifteen
fpecies.

S. ferruginea. Rufty-crulled Sphjeria. Perf. n. 62.

Obf. Mycol. fafc. i. 66. t. 5. f. i, 2 Capfules black,

with taper ftraight beaks ; their bafes furrounded with rufty
powder. — Gathered by Perfoon, on dry branches of hazel.
It burfts from under the cuticle in little oblong tranfverfe
prominent malles, of which nothing appears but the taper
Ipine-Uke beaks of the little black capfules. When laid
bare, a powdery rufty mafs, like a cruft, is found to ac-
company the capfules, but Perfoon fufpefts this may pof-
libly originate from the wood. His figure is admirable, aj
uf'jal with all that he has pubUfhed.

Seel. 6. Capfules ranged circularly, vwflly decumbent,
ivithout a crufl, lodged uniler the cuticle of plants, their orifices
generally croiuded together. Fourteen fpecies, which might
perhaps have been comprehended in the laft feclion.

S. convergens. Converging Sphieria. Perf. n. 86. Tode
Mecklenb. v. 2. 39. t. 14. f, iii. — Aggregate, flightly
prominent. Capfules black, ovate, with llraight beaks,
all meeting in a point. — On the branches of trees, efpecially
between the bark and cuticle of beech when dry. It con-
fifts of little black tubercular fpots, each formed of a few
minute capfules, ranged circularly, whofe beaks, about their
own length, meet in a conical point. There are no traces
of any crult, or common bafis.

S. falicina. Aggregate Willow Sphaeria. Perf. n. 88.
Obf. Mycol. fafc. i. 64. (S. cancellata ; Tode Meek-
lenb. v. 2. 34. t. 13. f. 107.) — Aggregate, circular.
Mouth of tlie capfules concreted into a rugged perforated
diflc. — Not rare on dead dry branches of Willows, according
to Tode and Perfoon, giving them the roughnefs of a file
when handled. The minute black capfules are fo combined
at their orifices, eight or ten in each circular allemblage, as
to form one body, united by a rugged or reticulated, woody
or fungous, fubltance, of a grey or dirty white.

Seft. 7. Capfules di/lind, forming a roundifh tuft, on a
common receptacle, and burfling through the cuticle of plants.
Eleven fpecies.

S. coccinea. Scarlet Sphaeria. Perf. n. 92. (S. de-
cidua ; Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 31. t. 13. f. 104.) — Tufted,
pale red. Capfules ovate, finooth. — Said to be not unfre-
quent on dead branches of beech ; confifling of fcattered
oval tufts, half the fize of a pea, bordered by the reflcxed
torn cuticle of the branch. The capfules are minute, half
funk in the tumid receptacle, each with a ihort beak.
There is a larger and brighter-coloured variety, found by
Dr. Roth on the elder.
Vol. XXXIII.

S. populma. Poplar Sphaeria. Perf. n. 54. Obf. Mycol.
fafc. 2. 67. t. 5. f. 10, U. — 7Wted, black. Capfule.
numerous, ovate, fmooth, fomewhat fpreading, feated on
a denfe receptacle.— On the branches of poplars, but not
common. It forms little black fcattered tufts, each com-
pofed of 25 or 30 ovate, pointed, fefTile capfules, divaricated
at the points, and, though crowded, quite unconneded at
the bafe.

S. aatuparia. Mountain-alh Sphaeria. Perf. n. 96. (S.
caefpitofa; Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 41. t. 14. L 113.)—
Tufted, black, powdered with white. Receptacles aggre-
gate, palmate, each bearing feveral cylindrical capfules.

On dead branches of the mountain-alh in May. This
burfts in round, black, hard mafles, from under the cuticle
of the tree, each the lize of a vetch-feed. When magnified,
each tuft appears to confilt of many hand-fhaped ered por-
tions, whofe finger-hke points are fuppofed to be the cap-
fules ; but the whole feems a very obfcure produdion, nor
has it ever fallen under our obfervation.

Seft. 8. Capfules foUtary, difiinff, deflitute of a receptacle.
Eighty-three fpecies, fubdivided according to the fhape or
proportion of the mouths, or beaks, of the capfules.

S. pileata. Cap Sphseria. Perf. n. 102. (S. raacro-
ftoma, var. E, pileata; Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 13. t. 9.
f. 78.) — Simple, globofe; its mouth inverfely conical, flat
at the top, with a hnear orifice. — Found funk in the bark
of dead branches of trees, in the early fpring. Tode. The
fize of poppy-fccd, black and fmooth, crowned with a dif-
coid dilatation, in which the mouth is feated.

S. dehifcens. Wide-mouthed Sphaeria. Perf. n. 106.
(S. macroftoma, var. a, ,S, y ; Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. I2.
t. 9. f. 76.) — Simple, globofe, immerfed ; its mouth com-
preiled, with tumid lips. — Found funk in the wood itfelf of
rotten branches of trees, in the month of April. Very near
the laft, from which Tode confidered it as not fpecifically
diftinft. The only difference confifts in the lefs prominent,
and not conical, form of the lips of the capfule.

S. roflrata. Needle-beaked Sphaeria. Perf. n. 112.

Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 14. t. 9. f. 79 Simple, naked,

globofe, granulated, with a very long taper-pointed beak.
— Found more or lef? immerfed in rotten beech wood. Each
plant confifts of a globular, rugged, black, thickly coated
capfule, the fize of coarfe fand, with a curved, fharp, (lender
beak, four or five times its own length.

S. acuta. Sharp-mouthed Sphxria. Perf. n. 122. Obf.
Mycol. fafc. 2. 70. Sowerb, Fung. t. 119. — Scattered,
naked, black, (hining, depreticd, with a cylindrical (harp
beak. — Found on the dead ftalks of nettles more efpecially,
in the Ipring. Firft obferved in England by the Rev. Mr.
Relhan. It grows in a rather fcattered manner ; each plant
like a minute bottle, vertically flattened.

S. Peziza. Scarlet-cup Sphxria. Perf. n. 129. Tode
Mecklenb. v. 2. 46. t. 15. f. 122. (S. miniata ; Hoffm.
Germ. v. 2. t. 12. f. I. Peziza hydrophora ; Balliard
t. 410. f. 1. Lycopcrdon liydrophorum ; Sowerb. Fimg.
t. 23.) — Crowded, dull red, globole, fomewhat hairy; at
length deprefled and concave. — Frequent in the hollows of
rotten trees in autumn, conipolinj< broad patches, of a dull
fcarlet hue. Each plant is fmallcr than a muftaid-feed, ex-
ternally roughilh or hairy. If Mr. Sowerby be riglit, the
feeds appear to form a white ball, whicli ii protruded out
of the capjule, after which the latter becomes deprcllcd and
hollow, as all authors defcribe it when advanced. See
ioniewtial fimilar in the character of SpilfiionoLUS in its
proper place.

S. hifpida. Briftly Splixria. Perf. n. 144. Tode

Mecklenb. v. 2. 17. t. 10. f. 84 — Simple, fcattered, pear-

3 S fltaped.

S P H

Ihaped, black, clothed with Tcattered fpreading biiftles.— -
Found by Tode on oak branches, ftripped of their bark, in
September. Each individual is about half a line long, ereft,
ovate, tapering into a (hort thick mouth ; the outfide befet
with fpreading bridles, which well mark the fpecies.

S. herbarum. Fiat Common Sphxria. Perf. n. 153.
(S. complanata; Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 21. t. 11. f. 88. )
— Simple, fcattered, orbicular, more or lefs depred'ed,

fmooth, brown, with a nipple-fliaped mouth Copious on

the dried llalks of various herbaceous plants. Each fpeci-
men is about the iize of the fmalleft pin's head. See S. Sa-
turnus, Sowerb. Fung. t. 218.

S. moriformis. Mulberry-fhaped Spha-ria. Perf. n. 168.
Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 22. t. 11. f. 90, 91. — Simple, fcat-
tered, elliptical or roundifh, clofed, tuberculated, black. —
Said to be not un frequent on dead branches, efpecially of
firs. This, like all the following, belongs to a tribe cf
fpecies dellitute of a beak, or any perceptible orifice. Its
fize is about equal to muftard-feed. The whole furface is
tuberculated. The Ihape elliptical, or globular. Perhaps
this may be S. c/a-viformis, Sowerb. Fung. t. 337.

S. comata. Tufted Sphxria. Perf. n. 170. Tode
Mecklenb. v. 2. 15. t. 10. f. 81. — Simple, crowded, glo-
bofe, crowned with a converging tuft of capillary fibres,
twice its own length. — Obferved by Tode on the dead Hems
and ftalks of plants after rain. This is a very remarkable
fpecies, on account of the denfe tuft of fibres, invariably
found to crown the fummit of each fpeciraen, and which,
therefore, has no appearance of being of an extraneous or
parafitical nature. Indeed there are inftanccs of briftles or
hairs, either generally or partially clothing fome other
fpecies. The general colour is black, but a brown variety
has been noticed, though rarely, on rotten wood of willows.

S. cjUmlrica. Cyhndrical Ball-bearing Sphxria. Perf.
n. 180. Tode Mecklenb. v. 2. 42. t. 15. f. 1 14. — Simple,
fcattered, cylindrical, black, bearing a globe of white feeds.
— Found by Tode on rotten willows, protruding from the
wood in the form of minute, fcattered, black points, hardly
villble to a cafual obferver, each crowned by a little white
ball oi feeds, which betrays fome analogy to that of 5. Pe-
ziza ; infomuch that one might almoll think fuch a cha-
rafter, if well afcertained in fome other fpecies, might form
a generic diftinftion. We know, however, too little of the
different changes, which the friidlification of many of the
reft undergo, to draw a line between them, and thefe pow-
dery balls, being doubtlefs liquid in an early Hate, come
under the efl'ential definition of Spharia. The charafter of
Ntemafpora of authors, confifting in the permanently gela-
tinous nature of what its capfules difcharge, feems to keep
that genus fufficiently diilintl from the prcfcnt.

SPHjERISTERIUM, o-^aifirtpiov, in ytntiquity, the fe-
venth part of the ancient gyranafium ; being that in which
the youth praftifed tennis-playing.

The fphxrifterium, or tennis-court, was between the
place named paUJlra, and that where they ran races, which
was between the porticoes and the outer wall, though
Vitruvius does not make mention of it in the defcription he
gives of the ancient gymnafium.

The exercife here performed was called o-iaifiriit>;, fphie-
rijlica, and ■j^cufofj.axtoi; fphnromachia, which fome will have
to have differed from the modern tennis ; but it is not
known in what the difference confiiled.

The Milefians were particularly averfe from this exercife ;
and the Athenians were as remarkably fond of it. Thefe
latter frequently gave the freedom of their city to the
fphariftic, or mailers in this art, by way of compliment.

SPH.£ROBOLUS, in Botany, fo named by Tode,
12

S P H

from a-i^M^ct, a globe, and /So^o«, a cajl, or throw ; becaufe thrf
feeds are forcibly ejefted, in the form of a little round ball.
— Tode Mecklenb. v. i. 43. Perf. Syn. 115. (Carpo-
bolus ; Mich. Gen. 221. t. loi- Willd. Berol. 414.) —
Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi,
angiocarpi.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle nearly globofe, at length fplitting
iiito rays, and difcharging elaitically the globofe feed-veffel.

I. S.Jlel/attis. Starry Projeaile Puff-ball. Perf. n. i.
(Lycoperdon Carpobolus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1654. Hudf.
644. Sowerb. Fung. t. 22.) — Found in various parts of
Europe, in autumn, upon rotten wood or branches of trees,
heaps of faw-duft, or in the tan-pits of hot-houfes. In an
early ftate each plant confills of a pale yellow globe, larger
than a muttard-feed. Several fuch grow crowded together
in patches, bound down, as it were, with a fine cottony
web. After a while, each plant burfts into feveral ftarry
rays, and, by a momentary explolion, projefts, to the dillance
of fix or eight inches, a whitifh globular mafs of powdery
feeds from its internal cavity. Sometimes this ball o{ feeds
remains flicking to the points of the rays. When fallen to
a diltance, the fliin of the ball is found empty, the feeds
having flown out in its paflage through a hole at the bafe,
which is ufually bordered by an inner layer of the outer
itarry cafe, or volva, torn away by the ball.

W^e do not perceive the neceffity of changing the original
generic name, given by Micheli, whofe figures and defcrip-
tion of this curious little fungus long excited the curiofity
of botanifts, before the plant was known to be fo frequent
as it is. Mr. Sowerby gives the belt reprefentation of it.
Tode defcribes a fecond fpecies, which can fcarcely belong
to the fame genus, and which is figured under the name
of Peziza marginata, in Sowerby's Fungi, t. 1 6, and under
that of Patellaria excavata, in Hoffmann's Plantae Lichenofx,
t. 23. t. 3. Albertini and Schweiniz mention this produc-
tion with doubt, in their learned work on the Nifkian
Fungi, p. 346. n. 1034 ; but it feems not as yet well under-
ftood.

SPH^ROCARPUS, fo named by Micheli, from
uZm^a, a globe, and xapTof, fruit, in allufion to its fpherical
feed-vefl'el. — Mich. Gen. 4. Sm. Engl. Bot. v. 5. 299.
Relh. 441. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 4. — Clafs and order,
Cryptogamia Alge'^ or perhaps Hepaticit'^ Nat. Ord.
Hepatiae ?

Efl'. Ch. Calyx inferior, of one leaf, inflated, entire.
Seeds very numerous, colleAed into a globe, at the bottom
of the calyx.

I. S. terrefiris. Reticulated Sphasrocarpus. Engl. Bot.
t. 299. (S. terreftris, minima ; Mich. Gen. 4. t. 3. Dill.
Mufc. 536. t. 78. f. 17. Targionia Sphasrocarpus ; Dickf.
Crypt, fafc. 1. 8. With. v. 3. 814.)— Micheli firlt ob-
ferved this lingular little plant in gardens about Florence,
in the ,winter and fpring, growing in patches on the ground.
The Rev. H. Bryant, Mr. Crowe, and Mr. Woodward,
found it, fince the publication of Hudfon's 2d edition,
chiefly in the clover and turnip fields of Norfolk, efpecially
on ftrong land, covering the earth copioufly in the winter
months, in patches of a pale glaucous green. The whole
habit is delicate and membranous. Fronds fimple, roundifli
or ovate, crowded, wavy, each attached by a fibrous, pro-
bably annual, root. The difk of each frond is nearly covered
by an affemblageof pear-fhaped, reticulated, pellucid, bottle-
like calyces, each a line long, contrafted at the mouth, and
lodging a little ball of green feeds at the bottom of its
cavity, clothed with a fine fkin. This plant feems to us
effentially dillindl in genus from Targionia, (fee that
article,) and more allied to Blajxa and Jungfrmannia.

SpHiEKO

S P H

S P H

Sph.erocarpus is alfo applied by fome authors to de-
fignate a genus of Fungi, the Trichia of others. See that
article.

SpHjErocarpus of Gmelin, in his faulty edition of Linn.
Syft. Nat., is a fcitamineous genus, the Hura of Koenig,
now confidered as a Globba.

SPH^ROLOBIUM, was fo named by the writer of
this article, from o-?aif«, a globe, and XoSm, tie diminutive of
?io0o;, apod, to exprefs the roundifh form of its very fmall
legume. — Sm. in Sims and Konig's Ann. of Bot. v. i. 509.
Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 13. — Clafs and order,
Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn.
Leguminofd, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, permanent,
bell-fhaped, two-lipped ; tube angular ; upper lip in two
abrupt oblique fegments, united about half way up ; lower
in three deep, lanceolate, equal ones ; without any lateral
appendajjcs. Cor. Papilionaceous, of five petals, with
claws which are fhorter than the calyx ; Itandard kidney-
ihaped, emargiiiate, afcendrng ; wings two, half obovate,
rather (borter than the ilandard, converging at the upper
margin ; keel equal to the wings, of two oblong cohering
petals. Stam. Filaments ten, Imear-awl-ihaped, feparate,
declining, (liorter than the keel, the two uppermoft with
a fpace between them ; anthers roundith, two-lobed. Pijt.
Germcn (talked, roundifh; ftyle linear, keeled, rigid, ob-
liquely rolled inward, about equal to the keel ; ftigma
fmooth, with a membranous dilatation at each fide. Peric.
on a (talk half its own length, obhquely orbicular, turgid,
pointed, of one cell and two coriaceous valves. Seeds one
or two, kidney-fhaped.

Efl. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, two-lipped. Corolla papi-
lionaceous. Stigma keeled, with a membranous border.
Legume (talked, fpherical, turgid, oblique. Two upper
(tamens di(tant.

1. S. "uimineum. Yellow-flowered Sphasrolobium. Sm.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 261. Sims is Curt. Mag. t. 969.
Ait. n. I. — " Tube of the calyx rather (horter than the
lips. Style curved from the very bafe, included in the
keel." Brown. — Native of New Holland and Van Diemen's
ifland. Our fpecimens were originally fent, in 1793, from
Port Jackfon by Dr. White. Sir Jiifeph Banks is (aid to
have introduced the plant at Kew in 1802. It flowers
during fummer, requiring the flielter of a greenhoufe in
winter. The Jlfm is ereft, flirubby, branched, round,
fmooth, modly naked, the youngell branches only bearing
a few fcattered, fmall, lanceolate leaves. Flowers numerous,
in long (Iraight cluiter;, rather fmall. Calyx fmooth, a
little glaucous. Corolla yellow, the diflc o( ihe JlanJard
marked with a tranfverfe row of red dots. Legume the
(ize of a vetch-feed.

2. S. medium. Small Red-flowered Splixi'olobium. Ait.
n. 2. — " Tube of the calyx half the length of the lips.
Corolla red." Drown. — Oblcrved by Mr. Brown, on the
foutii-wetl coalt of New Holland, from whence it was fent
to Kew, by Mr. Peter Good, in 1803. We know nothmg
of this plant, except the above particular.i, borrowed from
the Horlus Kewenjis. The name lecms to imply the exiltence
of a third fpccifs, of which we have no account.

SPHjEROMACHIA, (T^xifofx:i.xi'x, ill Anliquily, a par-
ticular kind of boxing, in which the combatants iiad balls
of (tone or lead in their hands, which were called o-^aijat.

SPHVEROPHORON, in Botany, from T<^Mfu., a globe,
and i?f{a, to bear, becaufe of the globular (ruiftilicatioii. —
Ach. Metli. 134. Lichenogr. 116. t. 12. f. 5,6. Syn.
286. (Sphirophorus; Perl, in Ult. Annal. fafc. 7. 23.)

— Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Alge. Nat. Ord. Alge,
Lichenes.

E{f Ch. Receptacle nearly globular, without a border,
cartilaginous, with a torn orifice. Seeds compofing a black
powdery ball.

This molt elegant genus of the natural family of Lichens,
is at once known by its branched, bufhy, fmooth habit,
like that of a coral or coralline. Three fpecies are known.

1. S. coralloidts. Coral-branched Globe-Lichen. Ach.
Syn. n. I. (Lichen globiferus ; Linn. Mant. 133. Engl.
Bot. t. 1 1 J. L. fruticofus coralloides, non tubulofus, cine-
reus ramofilfimus, receptaculis florum fphsericis concolo-
nbus ; Mich. Gen. 103. t. 39. f. 6. Coralloides cupref-
fiforme, capituhs globoCs ; Dill. Mufc. 117. t. 17. f. 35.
C. globiferum ; Hoffm. PI. Lich. v. 2. 25. t. 31. f. 2.) —
Stem pale brown, cylindrical ; its lateral branches elongated,
divai-icated, forked, with flender white tips. Receptacle!
globofe, fmooth. — Native of mountainous rocky heaths,
and fir woods, in the cooler parts of Europe. Abundant
in Scotland, Wales, Derbyfliire, &c. The fmooth poliflied
brownifh Jlems coinpofe lax tufts, an inch or two high,
foil and pliant when wet, very brittle when dr)', refem-
bling little groves of coral. The flowering^fmj are llouter,
more fimple, and rather taller than the rell, their (trongefl
branches each terminating in a fmooth ball of their own
fubrtance and colour, fmaller than a pea, opening by a torn
mouth at the fummit, and containing a denfe ball of very
black powderyyWj.

2. S. fragile. Brittle Globe-Lichen. Ach. Syn. n. 2. Meth.
135. t. 3. f. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 2474. (Lichen fragilis ; Linn.
Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 425. Fl. Lap. ed, 2. 351. t. 1 1. f. 4. Ehrh.
Crypt. 128. Coralloides fragile; Ho(fm. PI. Lich. v. 2.
34. t. 33. f. 3.) — Stem greyilh ; its branches crowded,
forked, round. Receptacles obovate, rugofe. Natire of
molFy rocks and mountains in the north of Europe. We
have found it on the Pentland hills, near Edinburgh, but
without fruftification. In this Itate it forms broad patches
of denfe, pale grey, branching T^emj-, whole branches are
round, lomewhat annular, obtule, level-topped. In fome
German and Swedifli fpecimens, larger and llouter branches
bear obovate or pear-lhaped receptacles, or feed-veffels, of a
dark brown, whofe furfacc is cracked or corrugated, their
fize about equal to the preceding.

3. S. comprejfum. Comprcded Globe-Lichen. Ach n. 3.
(Lichen fragilis; Linn. Sp. PI. 1621. Jacq. Mifc. ». 2.
92. t. 9. f. 6, c. Engl. Bot. t. 1 14. L. mclanocarpuE ;
Swartz Prodr. 147. Coralloides alpinum, corallinx mi-
noris facie ; Dill. Mufc. 1 16. t. 17. f- 34.) — Stem white ;
its branches comprelled. Receptacles fonicwiiat lateral, de-
prefied, fmooth. — Found in moill places, ui.der the fhadi»
of rocks, on the mountains of Germany, Switzerland, and
England, as well as in the Weft Indies, and at the Cape of
Good Hope. This beautiful fpecies, in the polilhed white
of its furface, and its fl.it palmate ramifications, exceeds the
elegance of the foregoing, and dill more refembles a coral-
line. The height of the branching fan-like flem is two or
three inches, and the frudtification, when prefent, is copious,
ufuallv turned to one fide, fl.iiteiied, often bordered with
granulations or (hoots ; the powder inteniely black, mixed
with fibres of the fame colour. — In the account given in
Englifh Botany, the idea of the lafl. fpecies, in a barren
(late, was comprehended under this.

SPHAGITIDES, a name given by fome authors to
the jugular veins.

SPHAGNUM, ill Botany, a name ufed by I'linv (or

fome fort of mof« that grows upon trees, adopted by Dil-

382 leniu:

S P H

Sanius and Linnseus, for the genus now called Bog-mofs. —
Dill- Mufc. 240. Linn. Gen. 562. Schreb. 758. Mart.
Mill. Dia. V. 4. Hedw. Fund. v. 2. 85. Theor. t. 12.
Sp. Mufc. 27. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1145. Jufl. 12. Lamarck
lUuftr. t. 872.— Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Mu/ci. Nat.
Ord. Mu/ci.

Efl'. Ch. Capfule feffile, without a fringe. Veil cut
round, its bafe remaining on the bafe of the capfule.
Anthers each furrounded with a ring.

Obf. Weber and Mohr have juftly remarked, that this is
the only known genus of moffes in which the germen and
capfule are truly feffile, not at any ftage of growth elevated
en 2.ped'tcdlus, or partial ttalk, above the bafe of the flower.
The whole flower indeed, and confequently the ripe capfule,
is ftalked, which being rarely the cafe with other modes,
vihofe pi:Jia//i are very long, the two different kinds of ftalk
have been confounded together.

1. S. latifolium. Broad-leaved Bog-mofs. Hedw. Sp.
Mufc. 27. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1405. Turn.
Mufc. Hib. 5. (S. paluitre a ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1569. Fl.
Dan. t. 474. S. paluftre molle deflexum, fquamis cymbi-
formibus ; Dill. Mufc. 240. t. 32. f. i.) — Branches tumid,
deflexed. Leaves ovate, obtufe, concave. This mofs oc-
cupies the furface of watery turfy bogs throughout Europe,
bearing capfules in fummer. Its pale whitifli-green hue,
often tinged with red, makes the plant confpicuou?. The
large mail'es it compofes are moftly filled with water, like a
fponge, and are not firm enough to be walked upon.
Drofera, Erica tctralix, and the Cranberry, are the chief
plants that grow amongft it, often without being rooted in
the ground. The Jiems are various in height, foft and
flexible, befet with numerous, fliort, tumid, tapering
branches, flightly bent downward ; the uppermoft crowded.
Leaves imbricated, pellucid, broad, obtufe, entire, in-
curved, reticulated, without rib or veins. Capfules about
the tops of the ftems, ereft, brown, fmooth, on flovver-
ftalks not an inch long. /,;</ almoft flat. ^«7 thin, more
orlefsof its circular bafe remaining round the capfule. The
foftnefs and elafticity of this mofs render it very fit for
packing.

2. S.fquarrofum. Prominent-leaved Bog-mofs. Mohr
Ind. 2. Sm. Compend. ed. 2. 159. Engl. Bot. t. 1498. —
— Branches deflexed, tapering. Leaves ovate, acute, with
recurved, prominent, keeled points. — Native of Germany,
Sweden, and England. Mr. Turner gathered this fpecies,
which the late Mr. Mohr only had previoufly mentioned,
not defcribed, on bogs at Belton, near Yarmouth, bearing
fruit in June and July. It differs from the foregoing in the
more taper terminations of the branches, and efpecially in
the fpreading recurved points of its leaves, which have a
central fold hke a keel, and give the fquarrofe charafter of
the plant. The capfules have a prominent beaked lid.

3. S. capillifolium. Slender Bog-mofs. Hedw. Sp.
Mufc. 28. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1406. Turn.
Mufc. Hib. 6. (S. paluitre^; Linn. Sp. PI. 1569. S.
paluftre molle deflexum, fquamis capillaceis ; Dill. Mufc.
^43- ^' 32' f" 2» A.) — Branches {lender, deflexed. Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, pointed, flattilh, clofe-preffed, with
ftraight points. — Abundant on bogs, efpecially in rather
mountainous fituations, bearing capfules in fummer, and
often tinged with red. Its much fmaller fize, and narrower
flatter leaves, diilinguilh this from both the preceding. The
reticulations of the foliage are obferved by Mr. I. D.
Sowerby to be peculiar, the little tranfverfe veins running
in pairs. Sometimes » fold, or keel, refembling a mid-rib,
is difcernible.

S P H

4. S. cufpiJatum. Long-leaved Floating Bog-mofs.
Hoffm. Germ. v. 2. 22. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot.
t. 2092. Ehrh. Crypt. 251. Turn. Mufc. Hib. 6. (S.
palullris mollis deflexi, fquamis capillaceis, varietas fluitans;
Dill. Mufc. 244. t.' 32. f. 2, B.I — Branches fpreading,
rather downwards. Leaves lanceolate, long-pointed, wavy,
lax. — Mod frequent, in pools or rivulets, among bogs in
mountainous countries, but Mr. Turner found it near Yar-
mouth, bearing fruit in fummer. This refembles the com-
mon latifolium in colour, but the more elongated floating
flems, diltinguifli the fpecies before us. The branches are
loofely direfted downward, pointed, often very flender.
The reticulations of the leaves moft accord with thofe of
our laft fpecies ; but their points are more elongated, and
edges wavy. Capfule fliort, and rather bell-lhaped when
fully ripe.

We have thus brought together four fpecies of the pre-
fent genus. Hedwig has but two, befides the 5. alpinum
of Linnseus, figured in Dillcnius, t. 32. f. 3, which is
founded in an error of the laft-mentioned author. What
he defcribed and delineated, prove to be nothing more than
luxuriant bog fpecimens of Dicranum jltxuofum of Hedwig
and Fl. Brit., Engl. Bot. t. 1491, among which fome ex-
traneous bodies had fallen, and thefe were mittaken for
capfules.

SPHENE, in Mineralogy, a mineral compofed of nearly
equal parts of oxyd of titanium, filex, and lime. Its
colours are generally a dark brown, inclining to red or
yellow. It occurs cryftallized in various forms, and alfo
fometimes in maffes. The cryftals are more frequently four-
fided prifm?, either oblique or reftangular, or fix-fided prifms,
with two oppofite fides broader than the reft, or elongated
oAohedrons. The edges of the cryftals are frequently
bevelled, and the apices of the oftohedrons are fometimes fo
flattened as to prefent a lenticular form.

The fraftiire of fphene is imperfeftly conchoidal ; it
fcratches glafs, and is brittle. The internal luftre is ftiin-
ing, inclining to refinous. The fpecific gravity is frem
3.480 to 3.510. It is fufible by the blowpipe into
a blackifk-brown enamel. This mineral is found imbed-
ded in fienite and granite in various parts of Scotland, and
alfo in Sweden, Norway, France, Switzerland, and in
North America. The name fphene was given to this
mineral by Haiiy, from the wedge-hke fliape of fome of the
cryftals.

Foliated fphene differs from the above in colour, which
is various (hades of yellow, inclining to a ftraw or cream
colour, and in the ftrufture, which is foliated, with a double
cleavage parallel to the fide of an oblique four-fided
prifm. The crofs frafture is foliated. Both tiiefe vari-
eties of fphene pafs from different degrees of tranflucency
to opacity.

SPHENOCLEA, in Botany, fo denominated by Gaert-
ner, from o-pm, a -wedge, and xMtu, tojhut up., becaufe of the
wedge-ftiaped feed-veffel — Gasrtn, v. i. 113. t. 24. f. 5.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 927. (Gsrtnera ; Retz. Obf. fafc. 6.
24. Rapinia ; Loureir. Cochinch. 127. Pongatium ; Juff.
423.) — Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Lyfimachiit, Jufl. ?

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five roundilh, per-
manent leaves, broad at the bafe. Cor. of one petal,
fliortcr than the calyx ; tube very fhort ; limb in five lanceo-
late, equal, ereft fegments. Stam. Filaments five, capil-
lary, very ftiort, inferted into the tube of the corolla ; an-
thers roundifti, two-lobed. Pijl. Germen inferior, com-
preffed at the bafe ; ftyle very fliort ; ftigma capitate, per-
manent.

S P H

S P H

manent. Pir'u. Capfule comprefled, wedge-fiiaped, quad-
rangular, obtufe, of two cells, buriting all round near the
top. Seeds very numerous, minute, oblong, affixed to a
pendulous receptacle in each cell.

E(r. Ch. Corolla five-cleft, fmaller than the calyx.
Capfule comprefled, of two cells, burltinjr all round. Seeds
numerous. Receptacles curved downwards. Stigma capi-
tate, permanent.

I. S. zeylanica. Willd. n. I. (Pongati ; Rhccde Hort.
Malab. V. II. 47. t. 24.) — Native of moilt fituations in
the Eaft Indies, Cochinchina, Ceylon and Guinea. The
root IS fibrous and annual. Stem eretl, one or two feet high,
fimple or branched, leafy. Leaves fcattered, llalked, lan-
ceolate, entire, fmooth, fomewhat flelhy, about two inches
long, of a pale rather glaucous green. Flowers grecnifh-
white, in denfe, terminal, ereft, cylindrical fpikes, of no
beauty, nor do we know that the plant has any valuable
properties. Its general afpeft is that of fome kind of Re-
fecla, particularly the R. Luteola. It was originally chofen
by fir Jofeph Banks to commemorate the eminent botanical
merits of Gasrtner, for which the Itriking peculiarities of
Its feed-veflTel made it very eligible ; but there is now an-
other G/^RTNERA, of equal fingularity and more beauty.
See that article.

SPHENOGYNE, apparently from o-?itiv, a luedge, and
yvn, a female, in allufion to the wedge-fhaped ftigmas. —
Brown m Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 142. — Clafs and order,
Syngenefia Polygam'ia-fruftranea. Nat. Ord. Compofttx d'lf-
coidea, Linn. Corymbiferat, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx roundilh, imbricated ; its fcales
rounded or awl-fhaped, concave, with a membranous dilated
border, mod confpicuous on the inner ones. Cor. compound,
radiated ; florets of the difk numerous, funnel-rtiaped, five-
cleft, equal, all perfeA ; thofe of the radius about twenty,
ligulate, longer than the diameter of the diflc, toothed at the
end imperfeftly, female. Stam. in the florets of the diflc,
filaments five, capillary, fhort ; anthers united into a tube,
nearly as long as the corolla. Pifl. Germen fcarcely dif-
cernible in the florets of the radius ; in thofe of the diflt
oblong, quadrangular ; ftyle thread-lhaped in both ; Itigmas
in the florets of the radius obfolete ; in thofe of the difk
dilated upwards, rather abrupt at the fummit. Perk, none,
except the permanent dry calyx. Seeds in the diflc only,
angular. Down of five rounded, membranous, horizontal
fcales. Recept. chafly, flattifli.

Efl. Ch. Scales of the receptacle diftinft. Seed-down of
five fimple membranous leaves. Stigma dilated upwards,
abrupt. Calyx imbricated ; its inner fcales with a mem-
branous border.

1. S. anthemoides ■ White-crowned Sphenogyne. Ait.
n. I. (Arftotis anthemoides ; Linn. Sp. Pi. 1307. Willd.
Sp. PI. v. 3. 2361. Curt. Mag. t. 544. Chamxmelum
pumilum, fohis anguftis pinnatis ; Burm. Afr. 174. t. 63.
f. 2.) — Herbaceous, fmooth. Leaves fimply or doubly
pinnatifid, linear-lhread-fliaped. Seed-down white, with
brown awl-fhaped ribs. — A native of the Cape of Good
Hope, which proves a hardy annual in our gardens, flower-
ing from July to September. Mr. Mallon introduced it in
1774. The roo/ is fibrous, ^/t'm branched. Leaves [ome-
what like chamomile. Floivers terminal, folitary, (talked,
an inch and half or more in diameter ; yellow above ; their
rays purple underneath. The pure white chzKy feed-cro-wn,
radiated with brown, forms the moil Itriking part of the
plant, and may be preferved witheverlalling flowers through
winter.

2. S. eritbmifolia. Samphire-leaved Sphenogyne. Ait.
11.2. (Aritotis paleacea ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1307. Willd.

I

Sp. PI. V. 3. 2359. After foHis integris angufti«, flore
magno luteo ; Burm. Afr. 176. t. 65. f. i.) — Shrubby,
fmooth. Leaves pinnatifid, linear-thrcad-fhaped. Outer
fcales of the calyx awl-fllaped — Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. A greenhoufe (hrub, cultivated by Miller,
flowering throughout the fumraer. The Jlem is bulhy.
Floivers large, yellow. Inner fcales of the calyx very
broad and rounded, while the outer are awl-fhaped, and
fcarcely membranous.

3. S. fcariofa. Scaly-cupped Sphenogyne. Ait. n. 3.
(Araotis fcariofa ; Ait. ed. i. v. 3. 274. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. 3. 23G0. ) — " Leaves fimply or doubly pinnatifid, linear-
thread-fliaped, fmooth. All the fcales of the calyx mem-
branous, obtufe, fliiiiing ; the outermoft fefiile." — Sent by
Mr. MafTon from the Cape in 1774. A greenhoufe (hrub,
flowering from April to Augull. Differs from the laft in
having all its calyx-fcales dilated and membranous.

4. S. alrotantjolia. Southernwood-leaved Sphenogyne.
Brown MSS. Ait. n. 4. — " Shrubby. Leaves twice or
thrice pinnatifid, downy as well as the calyx." — A green-
houfe flirub, fent by Mr. Maflbn from the Cape in 1789, and
flowering alt fumrner long.

5. S. dentata. Small-leaved Sphenogyne. Ait. n. 5.
(Arftotis dentata; Linn. Sp. PI. 1307. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. J. 2359. Chryfanthemum foliorum pinnis breviflimis,
dentatis ; Burm. Afr. 175. t. 64.) — Shrubby. Leaves pin-
natifid, nearly fmooth ; each fegment with two or three di-
varicated hair-pointed teeth. Outer fcales of the calyx
ovato-lanceolate. — From the fame country. A greenhoufe
fnrub, flowering in June and July, introduced in 1787, by
Mr. John Hunnemann. The ha-ues are copious, (hort, and
crifped. Floivers hardly an inch broad, yellow. Points of
the calyx-fcales downy ; the inner ones bearing a very thin,
pellucid, orbicular appendage.

6. S. odorata. Smooth-ieeded Sphenogyne. Ait. n.6,
(Anthemisodorata ; Ait. ed. i. v. 3. 238. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. 3. 2186.) — " Shrubby. Leaves fl.it, fmooth; cut or
pinnatifid at the extremity. Outer calyx-fcales membranous
at the point. Seeds fmooth, with a flight crown." — Sent
by Mr. MafTon from the Cape in 1774. A greenhoufe
fhrub, flowering from April to June. The branches are
downy. Leaves fmall, half an inch long. Floivers on very
long, almod naked, (talks.

SPHENOID, in /Inotomy, one of the bones of the head.
See Cranium.

SPHENO-MAXILLARY Fissure, a large interval,
in the lower and outer part of the orbit, between the
fphenoid and upper jaw-bones. See Cranium.

SPHENO-PALATINE Fora.men, an opening be-
tween the fphenoid and palate bones, leading into the nofe.
The fame epithet is alfo given to certain nerves which go
through that opening, and to the levator pahtti mufcle.

SPHENO-PHARYNGEUS, a name applied to a
part of the conltriftor pharyngis fupcrior mufcle. Sec
Deglutition.

SPHENO-PTERYGO-PALATINUS, a name given
by Cowper to the circumflexus palati mufcle. See Deglu-
tition.

SPHENO-SALPINGO-PHARYNGEUS, a fmaU
portion of the fupeiior conttriitor of the pharynx, defcribed
under this name by Winflow.

SPHENO-SALPINGO-STAPHYLINUS, a name
given by Window to 11 pDrtion of the circumflexus palati.

SPHENO-STAPHYLINUS, the levator palati mollis,
according to Drake and Cowper.

SPHERE, Srii.T^RA, o-faij-x, in Geometry, a folid body
contained under one fiiigle furface, and having a point io

the

SPHERE,

tlie middle, called the etntre, whence all lines, drawn to the
furface, are equal.

The fphere is fuppofed to be gfenerated by the revolution
of a femicircle ABC [Plate XIV. Geometry, Jig. 2.) about
its diameter A C, which is alfo called the axis oj the fphere ;
and the extreme points of the axis, A and C, are caUed the
poles of the fphere.

Sphere, Properties of the. I. A fphere is equal to a
pyramid, whofe bafe is equal to the furface, and its height
to the radius of the fphere.

Hence, a fphere being efteemed fuch a pyramid, its cube,
or folid content, is found like that of a pyramid.

2. A fphere is to a cyhnder, Handing on an equal bafis,
and of the fame height, as 2 to 3. Hence, alfo, may the
cube, or content of the fpiiere, be found.

%. A fphere is equal to four times the cone, the bafe of
which is equal to the generating circle, and the height of
which is equal to the r:idius. Or, a hemifphere is equal to
twice the cone of the fame bafe and height. And a cylinder,
of the fame height and bafe, being a triple of the cone, it
follows, that the hemifphere is two-thirds of the cylinder,
and confequently the wliole fphere two-thirds of the circum-
fcribing cyhnder. Archir.i. de Sph. et Cycl. Apud
Opcraper Rivaltum, p. 67.

4. The cube of the diameter of a fphere is to the folid
content of the fphere, nearly as 300 to 157 : and thus, alfo,
may the content of the fphere be meafured.

5. The fnrface of a fphere is quadruple the area of a
circle defcribed with the radius of the fphere. For fince a
fphere is equal to a pyramid, whofe bafe is the furface, and
its altitude the radms of the fphere ; the furface of the
fphere is had, by dividing its folidity by a tiiird part of its
femi-diameter, or one-fixth ot the whole diameter.

But the folidity of the fphere is the produft of ids of
the greatefl circle by the diameter ; and if this product be
divided by ^th of the diameter, the quotient, or \' of the
greatell circle, i. e. four times the greateft circle, will be the
lurface of the fphere.

Otherwife : the furface of a fphere is equal to the pro-
duct of its diameter, and the periphery of its generating
circle ; but the area of this circle ts equal to the produA
oi tlie femi-diameter and half the periphery, or one-fourth
of the produiSl of the diameter and periphery ; and, there-
fore, the furface of the fphere is equal to four times the
area of its generating circle.

Hence, 6. The furfaces of fpheres are to one another as
the fquares of their diameters ; becaufe thefe furfaces, being
four times their generating circles, are as thefe circles, i. e.
as the fquares of their diameters.

7. Spheres being ;d parts of cylinders of equal bafe and
altitude, and cylinders being as the cubes of their alti-
tudes, are as the cubes, or in the triplicate ratio of their
diameters.

8. The furface of any portion of a fphere, greater or iefs
than the hemifphere, is equal to the area of a circle, whofe
radius is a line drawn from the vertex of that portion to the
circumference of the circle which is its bafe. Arcliimedes,
ubifupra, pp. 84, 85.

Spiieuk, the diameter of a, bei?!g given, to find its furface and
fulidity. Find the periphery of the circle defcribed by tlie
radius of the fphere, or of the generating circle.

Multiply this, found, into the diameter, or the fquare of
the diameter, by 3.1416, the produft is the furface of the
fphere. Multiply the furface by a fixth part of the dia-
meter, or the area of the generating circle by jds of its dia-
meter j or, again (becaule the area of fuch circle is to the
Square of the diameter as .7854 to i), the cube of the

diameter by .5236 {= 4 of -7854) ; and the produft la the
folidity of the fphere.

Thus, fuppofing the diameter of the fphere 56, the peri-
phery will be found 175.9, which multiplied by the dia-
meter, the produtt 9852 is the furface of the fphere ; which
multiplied by ^th part of the diameter, gives the folidity
91623.6. Or thus :

Find the cube of the diameter 175616 ; then to 300,157,
and the cube found, find a fourth proportional. This is the
folidity of the fphere required.

For finding the furface and folidity of the fphere by the
method of fluxions, fee Superficies and Solidity. For
fegments and feftors of fpheres, fee Frustum, Segment,
and Sector.

Sphere, DoBrine of the. See Spherics.

Sphere, Projeaion of the. See Projection.

Sphere of Jlaivity. See Activity.

Sphere, in AJlronomy, that concave orb or expanfe which
invelts our globe, and in which the heavenly bodies, "uiz.
fun, itars, planets, and comets, appear to be fixed at an
equal diilance from the eye.

This is alio called the fphere of the world ; and is the fub-
jeft of the fpherical aftronomy.

This fphere, as it includes the fixed ftars, whence we alfo
occafionally call it the fphere of the fixed Jlars, is immenfely
great. Tlie diameter of the earth's orbit is fo fmall, in re-
fpeft to the diameter of this, that the centre of the fphere
is not fenfibly changed by any alteration of the fpeftator's
place in the feveral parts of the orbit ; but Itill, in all the
points of the earth's furface, and at all times, the uihabit-
ants have the fame appearance of the fphere ; that is, the
fixed liars feem to poifefs the fame points in the furface of
the fphere. For our way of judging of the places, &c.
of the liars, is to conceive right lines. drawn from the eye,
or the centre of the earth, through the centre of the ftars,
and continued thence till they cut the forefaid fphere ; the
points where thefe lines terminate in it are the apparent
places of thofe ftars.

The better to determine the places of the heavenly bodies
in the fphere, feveral circles are imagined to be defcribed
in the furface thereof, hence called circles of the fphere.

Sphere, in Geography, &c. denotes a certain difpofition
of the circles on the iurface of the earth, with regard to one
another, which varies in various parts of it.

The circles originally conceived on the furface of the
fphere of the world, are almoil all transferred, by analogy,
to the furface of the earth, where they are conceived to be
drawn direftly underneath thofe of the fphere, or in the fame
planes with them ; fo that, if the planes of thofe of the
earth were continued to the fphere, they would coincide
with the refpeftive circles upon it. Thus we have an ho-
rizon, meridian, equator, &c. on the earth.

As the equator in the heavens divides the fphere into two
equal parts, the one north, and the other fouth, fo does the
equator on the furface of the earth divide the globe in the
fame manner.

And as the meridians in the heavens pafs through the
poles of the horizon, fo do thofe of the eartli, &c.

With regard, then, to the pofition of fome of the circles
in refpecl of others, we have a right, a parallel, and an oblique
fphere.

Sphere, Armillary, or Artificial, is an aftronomical inllru-
ment, reprefenting the feveral circles of the fphere in their
natural order ; ferving to give an idea of the office and po-
fition of each of them, and to folve various problems relating
to them.

It is thus called, as confifting of a number of fafciz or

rings

I

SPHERE.

rings of brafs, or other matter, called by the Latins armilU,
from their refemblance to bracelets, or rings for the arm.

By this it is diflinguiflaed from the globe, which, though
it hath all the circles of the fphere on its furface ; yet is not
cut into armillx or rings, to reprefent the circles fimply and
alone ; but exhibits alfo the intermediate fpaces between
the circles.

Sphebe, The ylrm'tUary, of Mr. Fergufon, conftrufted
after the model of the glafs fphere of Dr. Long, is repre-
fented Plate XX. Ajlronomy.,Jig. 5.

The exterior parts of this machine are a compages of brafs
rings, which reprefent the principal circles of the heavens,
wz- I. The equinoctial A A, which is divided into 360
degrees (beginning at its interfeftion with the ecliptic in
Aries), for (lie wing the fun's right afeenfion in degrees ;
and alfo into twenty-four hours, for (hewing his right afeen-
fion in time. 2. The ecliptic B B, which is divided into
12 figns, and each fign into 30 degrees, and alfo into the
months and days of the year, in fuch a manner, that the de-
gree or point of the ecliptic in which the fun is, on any
given day, ilands over that day in the circle of months.
3. The tropic of Cancer C C, touching the ecliptic at the
beginning of Cancer in e; and the tropic of Capricorn DD,
touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn iny";
each 235 degrees from the equinodlial circle. 4. The arftic
circle E, and the antardlic circle F, each 23! degrees from
its refpeftive pole at N and S. 5. The equinoftial colure
G G, paffing through the north and fouth poles of the
heaven at N and S, and through the equinoftial points
Aries and Libra, in the ecliptic. 6. The folftitial colure
H H, palling through the poles of the heaven, and through
the foUtitial points Cancer and Capricorn, in the ecliptic.
Each quarter of the former of thefe colurea is divided into
90 degrees, from the equinoftial to the poles of the world,
for (liewing the declination of the fun, moon, and Itars : and
each quarter of the latter, from the ecliptic at e and/, to its
poles b and d, for {hewmg the latitudes of the ftars.

In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut /;, to which is
fixed one end of a quadrantal wire, and to the other end a
fmall fun Y, which is carried round the ecliptic B B, by
turning tiie nut : and in the fouth pole of the ecliptic is a
pin at d, on which is another quadrantal wire, with a fmall
moon, Z, upon it, which may be moved round by hand : but
there is a particular contrivance for caufing tlie moon to
move in an orbit which croflcs the ecliptic at an angle of 54^
degrees, in two oppofite points, called the moon's nodes ; and
alfo for fhifting thofe points backward in the ecliptic, as the
moon's nodes (hift in the heaven.

Within thcfe circular rings is a fmall tcrrellrial globe I,
fixt on an axis K K, which extends from the north and fouth
poles of the globe at n and s, to thofe of the cclcftial fphere
at N and S. On this axis is fixt the flat celeftial meridian
L L, which may be fet direftly over the meridian of any
place on the globe, and then turned round with the globe, fo
as to keep over the fame meridian upon it. This flat me-
ridian is graduated the fame way as the brafs meridian of
the common globe, and its ufe is much the fame. To this
globe is fitted the moveable horizon M M, fo as to turn
upon two llrong wires proceeding from its eaft and well
points to the globe, and entering the globe at oppofite
points of its equator, which is a moveable brafs ring let into
the globe in a groove all round its equator. The globe
may be turned by hand within this ring, fo as to place any
given meridian upon it, direftly under the celcltial meri-
dian L L. The horizon is divided into 360 degrees all
round its outermofl edge, within wliich are tlie points of
the compafs, for fliewing the amplitude of the fun and

moon, both \n degrees and pomts. The celeftial meridian
I^ L paffes through two notches in the north and fouth
points of the horizon, as in a common globe : but here, if
the globe be turned round, the horizon and meridian turn
with it. At the fonth pole of the fphere is a circle of
24 hours, fixt to tlie rings, and on the axis is an index
which goes round that circle, if the globe be turned round
its axis.

The whole fabric is fupported on a pedcftal N, and may
be elevated or dcprefled upon the joint O, to any number
of degrees from o to 90, by means of the arc P, which is
fixed into the itrong brafs arm Q, and Aides in^o the up-
right piece R, in which is a fcrew at r, to fix it at any pro-
per elevation.

In the box T are two wheels (as in Dr. Long's fphere),
and two pinions, whofe axes come out at V and U ; either
of which may be turned by the fmall winch W. When the
winch is put upon the axis V, and turned backward, the
terreftrial globe, with its horizon and celeltial meridian, keep
at reft ; and the whole fphere of circles turns round from
eaft, by fouth, to welt, carrying the tun Y, and the moon Z,
round the fame way, and caufing them to rife above and fet
below the horizon. But when the winch is put upon the
axis U, and turned forward, the fphere with the fun and
moon keep at reit ; and the earth, with its horizon and me-
ridian, turn round from welt, by fouth, to eaft ; and bring
the fame points of the horizon to the fun and moon, to
which thefe bodies came -wlien the earth kept at reft, and
they were carried round it ; fliewing that they rife and fet in
the fame points of the horizon, and at the fame times in the
hour-circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in the
heaven. If the earthly globe be turned, the hour-index goes
round its hour-circle ; but if the fphere be turned, the hour-
circle goes round below the index.

And fo, by this conftruftion, the machine is equally fitted
to ftiew either the real motion of the earth, or the apparent
motion of the heaven.

To reftify the fphere for ufe, firft flacken the fcrew r in
the upright ftem R, and taking hold of the arm Q, move
it up or down until the given degree of latitude for any
place be at the fide of the Item R ; and then the axis of the
fphere will be properly elevated, fo as to ftand parallel to
the axis of the world, if the machine be fet north and fouth
by a fmall compafs : this done, count the latitude from the
north pole, upon the celeftial meridian L L, down towards
the north notch of the horizon, and fet the horizon to that
latitude ; then turn the nut b until the fun Y comes to the
given day of the year in tlie ecliptic, and the fun will be at
its proper place for that day : find the place of the moon's
afcending node, and alfo the place of the moon, by an Ephe-
meris, and fet them right accordingly : lallly, turn the
winch W, until either the fun comes to the meridian L L,
or until the meridian comes to the fun (.iccording as you
want the fphere or earth to move), and fet the hour-mdex to
the XII, marked noon, and the whole machine will be rec-
tified. Then turn the winch, and obfrrve when the fun or
moon rife and fet in the horizon, and the hour-index will
(hew the times of them for the given day. See Fergufon's
Leftures, p. 194, &c.

Armillary fphcres are of diflercnt kinds with regard to
the polition of the earth in tht-m ; whence they become dif-
tinguifticd into Ptolrniaic and Copernican fphcres : in the firit
of whieii the earth is in the c-cntre, and in the latter near the
circumference, according to tlie pofition which that planet
obtains in thofe fyftems.

Sphere, The Ptolemaic, ii that commonly in uCc, and is
reprcfcnted {Plate XX. /Ijlrunomy, fi^- 6.) with the samcs

S P H

S P H

ac, and B C = i ^ ; then will A = «, B = J, and C = c :
the demonitrations of which coincide with thofe of the like

of the feverai circles, lines, Sec. of the fphere, infcribed on
them. In the middle, upon the axis of the fphere, is a ball,
T, reprefenting the earth, on whofe furface are the circles, properties in plain triangles ; the theorems of the congruencjr
&c. of the earth. The fphere is made to revolve about the of reftihnear triangles extending to all other curvilinear,
faid axis, which remains at reft ; by which means the fun's
diurnal and annual courfe about the earth are reprefented ac-
cording to the Ptolemaic hypothefis ; and even by means
of it, all problems relating to the phenomena of the fun and
earth are folved, as upon the celeftial globe, and after the
fame manner, which fee defcribed under Globe.

Sphere, The Copernlcan, (reprefented Plate XX. /IJlro-
nomy. Jig. 7- ) is very different from the Ptolemaic, both in
its conititution and ufe ; and is more intricate in both. In-

Its

deed, the inftrument is in the hands of fo few people, and
its ufe fo inconfiderable, except what we have in the other
more common inftruments, particularly the globe and Ptole-
maic fphere, that we (hall be eafily excufed the not taking
up room with any defcription of it.

Spheres, Harmony of the. See Harmony.

Spheres, Obliquity of the. See Obliquity.

Sphere, Rea'ifying of the. See Rectifying.

Sphere, Dialling. See Dialling.

Spheres, polifhed fpherical maifes of a mixed metalline
compofition, ufed in optics. The manner of making them
is as follows.

Take of pure tin, three pounds ; copper, one pound ;
melt thefe two metals together, and when in fufion call upon
the mafs fix ounces of burnt tartar, and an ounce and half
of faltpetre ; and laftly, a quarter of an ounce of alum, and
two ounces of arfeuic : let all thefe matters evaporate and
burn away, and then cail the pure metal into the figure of a
fphere, and it will be capable of a high and elegant polifh.
Neri's Art of Glafs, p. i66. See STEEL-G/a^/.

SPHERICAL Angle, is the mutual inclination of two
planes, by which a fphere is cut.

Thus, the inclination of the two planes C A F and C E F,
{Plate II. Trigonometry, Jig. i.) forms the fpherical angle

The meafure of a fpherical angle, ACE, is an arc of
a great circle A E, defcribed from the vertex C, as from a
pole, and intercepted between the legs C A and C E.

Hence, i. Since the inclination of the plane C E F to
the plane C A F is every where the fame, the angles in the
oppofite interfeitions, C and F, are equal.

2. Hence the meafure of a fpherical angle A C E is de-
fcribed by the interval of a quadrant A C or E C from the
vertex C, between the legs C A, C E.

If a circle of the fphere A E B F {Jg. 2.) cut another,
C E D F, the adjacent angles, A E C and A E D, are equal
to two right ones ; and the vertical angles, A E C and DEB,
are equal to one another. The former likewife holds of fe-
verai angles formed on the fame arc C E D, at the fame
point E. Hence, any number of fpherical angles, as A E C,
A E D, D E B, B E C, &c. made on the fame point E, are
equal to four right angles. See Spherical Triangle.

Spherical Triangle, a triangle comprehended between
three arcs of great circles of a fphere, interfering each other
in its furface.

Spherical Triangles, Properties of. I. If in two fpheri-
cal triangles {Plate II. Trigonometry, Jig. 3.) A B C and
aic, A —a, BA — in, and C A = c a; then will B, i,
and the fides including the angles, be refpeftively equal ;
the whole triangles are equal : that is, BC = ic, B = i,
and C = f .

Again, if in two fpherical triangles A = o, C = <:, and
A C = ar; then will B z= 6, AB = ab, and B C = 6c.

Laltly, if ia two fpherical triangles AB — ab, AC =

circular, paraboHcal, Sec. provided their fides be fimilar.
See Triangle.

2. In an equicrural triangle ABC (Jig. 4.) the angles at
the bafe, B and C, are equal ; and if in any triangle, the
angles B and C, at the bafe B Q, are equal, the triangle is
equicrural.

3. In every fpherical triangle, each fide is lefs than a femi.
circle : any two fides taken together are greater than the
third ; and all the three fides together are lefs than the peri-
phery of a great circle ; and a greater fide is always oppofed
to a greater angle, and a lefs fide to a lefs angle.

4. If in a fpherical triangle B A C (^^■5-)^two legs,
A B and B C, taken together, be equal to a femicircle ;
the bafe A C being continued to D ; the external angle
BCD will be equal to the internal oppofite one B A C. If
the two legs together be lefs than a femicircle, the external
angle BCD will be greater than the internal oppofite one
A ; and if the legs be greater than a femicircle, the external
angle BCD will be lefs than the internal oppofite one A ;
and tjie reverfe of all thefe holds, viz. if the angle BCD
be equal to, greater, or lefs, than A, the fides A B and
B C are equal to, greater, or lefs, than a femicircle.

5. If in a fpherical triangle ABC, two fides, A Band BC,
be equal to a femicircle, the angles at the bafe, A and C,
are equal to two right ones : if the fides be greater than a
femicircle, the angles are greater than two right ones ; and
if lefs,'lefs; and converfely.

6. In every fpherical triangle, each angle is lefs than two
right ones ; and the three together are lefs than fix right
angles, and greater than two.

7. If in a fpherical triangle BAC [Jig. 5.) the fides
A B and A C be quadrants, the angles at the bafe, B and
C, will be right angles. And if the intercepted angle A
be a right angle, B C will be a quadrant : if A be obtufe,
B C will be greater than a quadrant ; and if acute, lefs ;
and converfely.

8. If in a fpherical reftangular triangle, the fide B C
(Jig. 6.) adjacent to the right angle B, be a quadrant, the
angle A will be a right angle ; if B E be greater than a
quadrant, the angle A will be obtufe ; and if B D be lefs
than a quadrant, the angle A will be acute ; and converfely.

9. If in a fpherical reftangular triangle, each leg be either
greater or lels than a quadrant, the hypothenufe will be lefs
than a quadrant ; and converfely.

10. If in a fpherical triangle ABC {Jig. 7.) reftangular
only at B, one fide, C B, be greater than a quadrant, and the
other fide, A B, lefs, the hypothenufe, A C, will be greater
than a quadrant ; and converfely.

11. If in a fpherical oblique-angular triangle A C B
(Jig. 8.) both angles at the baie, A and B, be either obtufe
or acute ; the perpendicular C D, let fall from the third
angle C, to the oppofite fide A B, falls within the triangle :
if one of them. A, be obtufe, and the other, B, acute,
the perpendicular falls without the triangle.

12. If in a fpherical triangle AC, all the angles. A, B,
and C, be acute, the fides are each lefs than a quadrant.
Hence, if in an oblique-angular fpherical triangle, one fide
be greater than a quadrant, one angle is obtufe, -viz. that
oppofite to this fide.

13. If in a fpherical triangle A C B, two angles, A and
B, be obtufe, and the third, C, acute ; the fides, A C and
C B, oppofite to the obtufe angles are greater than a qua-
drant ; and that oppofite to the acute angle, A B, is lefs than

a qua-

I

S P H

a quadrant. Hence, if the two fides be lefs than a qua-
drant, the two angles are acute.

14. If in a fpherical triangle the feveral fides be each
greater than a qua Irant ; or only two of them greater,
and the third be equal to a quadrant, the feveral angles are
obtufe.

I J. If in an oblique-anoular fpherical triangle two fides
be lefs than a quadrant, and the third greater ; the angle
oppofite to the greateft will be obtufe, and the reft
acute.

Spherical Triangles, Refolution of. See Triangle.

Spherical Afironomy, th.U part of aftronomy which
confiders the univerfe fuch as it appears to the eye. See
Astronomy.

Under fpherical aftronomy, then, are comprehended all
the phenomena and appearances of the heavens and hea-
venly bodies, fuch as we perceive them, without any enquiry
into the reafon, the theory, or the truth of them. By which
it is diftinguilhed from tbcor'ical aftronomy, which con-
fiders the real ftrufture of the univerfe, and the caufes of
thofe phenomena.

In the fpherical aftronomy, the world is conceived to be
a concave fpherical furface, in whofe centre is the earth, or
rather the eye, about which the vifible frame revolves, with
ilars and planets fixed in its circumference. And on this
fuppolilion all the other phenomena are determined.

The theorical aftronomy teaches us, fr^.m the laws of op-
tic?, &c. to correft this fcheme, and reduce the whole to a
jufter fyllem.

Spherical Compajes. See Compasses.

Spherical Excefs, in Trigonometry, is the excefs of the
)uni of the three angles of any fpherical triangle above three
right angles ; which excefs in fcconds, multiplied by the
radius of the fphere, is equal to the area of the triangle, as
was firft ftiewn by Albert Girard.

It is extremely defirable, in geodetic operations, to be
able to afccrtain the fpherical excefs from other principles
than thofe of the obferved angles ; thefe being very fubjeft
to fmall inaccuracies, from the effeft of refraftion near the
horizon : and nothing feems bettter calculated for this pur-
pofe, than the foregoing property of the area of the triangle ;
for this being, as we have ftated above, equal to the excefs
multiplied by the radius of the fphere, therefore, converfely,
the area being known or computed on other principles, the
excefs may thence be determined, and the accuracy of the
obferved angles fubmitted to the tell thence obtained.
Now as fuch triangles as occur, even in the molt extenfive
lurveys, differ but little from reftilinear ones, their areas
may be computed as if they really were fuch, with fcarcely
any perceptible error ; and hence this important objeft is
at once obtained.

The application of Albert Girard's theorem was firft
made by general Roy, or rather by Mr. Dalby, his afiiftant,
and publifticd in the Ptiilofophical Tranfadlions for 1790,
p. 171, where we have the following rule : " From the area
of the logarithms of the triangle, computed as a plane one,
in feet, fubtract the coiiftant logarithm 9-3267737, and the
remainder is the logarithm of the excels above 180° in fe-
conds nearly." This rule is very general, and, being the
firft application of this principle to geodetic computations,
is highly creditable to its inventor ; but it is not always the
moft concifc ; and other rules have fince been given by dif-
ferent authors, which are applicable to every variety of data.
We can, however, in this place only enumerate fome of the
principal ones, and muft refer the reader for their invefti.
gations to the works from which they have been felefted.

Vol. XXXIII.

S P H

I. The fpherical excefs may be found in feconds by the

R"S
expreflion E = ; where E is the excefs ; S^is the fur-

iar.fin. B = ia- "" ~^ "^T ; r is the radius of the

face of the triangle = i i c . fin. A = | a i . fin. C =
fin. B . fin. C
^''" fin. (B + C)'
earth, in the fame meafure as a, b, c, the fides of the triangle ;
and R" = 2o6264".8, the feconds in an arc equal in length
to the radius.

If this rule be applied logarithmically, then log. R" =:

2. Hence is readily deduced general Roy's rule, as above
given, TOz.

log. E" = log. (area in feet) — 9-3267737.

3. Since S = iif . fin. A, we fiiall manifellly Hstc

R"

E = b c . fin. A. Hence, if from the vertical aHgle

2 r' *

B, of- a fpherical triangle ABC, we demit the perpendi-
cular B D, upon the bafe AC, dividing it into two feg-
ments a and /3, we (hall have b ^^ 01, ■\- ^\ and hence,

R"

2r'
R"
2r'

f (a -f- |S) fin. A

«c fin. A + /3 c fin- A.

But the two right-angled triangles being in all praftical
cafes nearly redlilinear, gives <x = /i cof. C, and ^■=.c cof. A ;
whence we have

R" R"

E = -^— a c fin. A . cof. C + ■ <:' fin. A cof. A.

2 r' 2r'

In like manner, the triangle ABC, which is itfelf fo
fmall as to differ but a little from a plane triangle, gives
c fin. A = a fin. C, alfo fin. A . cof. A = i fin. 2 A, and
fin, C . cof. C = I fin. 2 C ; therefore, finally,

R" R"

E = -^— a' . fin. 2 C -F -— - c'- fin. 2 A.
4r- 4r'^

From which theorem a table may be formed, whence the
fpherical excefs may be found ; entering the table with each
of the fides above the bafe and its adjacent angle as argu-
ments.

4. If the bafe b, and height h, of the triangle be given,

R"
then we have evidently E = i** — —. Hence refuitt

the following fimple logaritiimic rule : Add the logarithm
of the bafe of the triangle, taken in feet, to the logarithm
of the perpendicular, taken in the fame meafure, and dcduft
from the fum the conftaiit log. 9.6278037; and the re-
mainder will be the common logarithm of the fpherical
excefs in feconds and decimals.

5. Again, when the three fides of the triangle are given,
then

log. E = i ( log. t -»- log. (j - <7) 4- log. (/ - *) -f- log.

(/-<:)) -9 32'57737;
where x — 5 fum of the fides, or .f = (a -f i -| f) -r- I.

The two latter formula- are in faA only pirticular cafes
of Roy's general theorem.

' 3T 6. When

S P H

6. When any two fides, a, b, and their contained angle C,

are given, then we have

cot. i a . cot. ^b + cof. C
cot. 1 E = -^^

7. When the three fides are given, we may alfo, inftead
of the formula in art. ;, make ufe of the following elegant
theorem, djfcovered by Simon L'HuUier, viz.

tan. i E = ^/ (tan.

J + 4 + f

tan.

+ *■

tan.

~a^b + c-
tan.

)•

One or other of thefe rules will apply to all cafes in
which the fpherical excefs will be required.

We (hall conclude this fhort article with one or two ex-
amples of its application, as given by general Roy, Phil.
Tranf. 1790, p. 172.

Names of Stations.

Hanger-hill Tower (a)
Hampton Poor-houfe (i)
King's Arbour \c)

Obferved Angles.

42° 2' 32"

67 55 39
70 I 48

179 59 59

Diflance in Feet.

(a) from {b) = 38461.12
{a) from (c) = 27404.7

Hence, making the diftance from (a) to (f ) the bafe of
the triangle, the perpendicular on that bafe will be equal
to 38461.12 X fin. 42° 2' 32"; and, therefore, the area of
the triangle =

bafe X perp. ^ r 011/
J— ^ = 24704.7 X 19230.56 X fin. 42' 2' 32".

Computation.

Log. fm. 42° 2' 32" =

Log. 24704.7 =

Log. 19230.56 =

9.8258661
4.3927761
4.2839906

18.5026328

Taking away 10 for radius, we have 8.5026328 for the
log. of the area in feet.

Whence from
Take conft. log.

Correfp. numb. .14992

8.5026328
9-3267737

1.7158591

Whence the fpherical excefs in feeonds is .14992", or
«>''. I 5 nearly.

Again, as a fecond example.

Names of Stations.

Hundred Acres {^)

Hanger-hill Tower (e)
St. Anne's Hill (/)

Vbferved Angles,

5f5^'3S"-7S
68 24 44

57 36 39-5

179 59 59.25

S P H

Diftance in Feet.

id) from {e) = 7 '934-2
(d) from (/) =: 79211.22

Log. fin. 53° 58' 35".75
Log. 35967.1
Log. 79211.22

Sum minus radius
Subtraft conft. log.

= 9-9078237

= 45559054

= 4.8987866

= 9.3625207

== 9-3267737

Correfp. numb. 1.0858 = 0.0357470

Whence the fpherical excefs is i".o858.

In this manner the computed fpherical excefs will enable
the obferver to examine the accuracy of his obfervations,
and in fome degree to correft them ; after which he may
proceed to calculate the fides of the triangles by the rules
of fpherical trigonometry, or by Legendre's theorem, viz.
" a fpherical triangle being prupofed, of which the fides
are very fmall, relatively to the radius of the fphere ; if,
from each of the angles, one-third of the excefs of the fum
above two right angles be fubtrafled, the angles fo dimi-
nifhed may be taken for the angles of a reftilinear triangle,
the fides of which are equal in length to thofe of the pro-
pofed fpherical triangle."

Spherical Geometry, the doftrine of the fphere ; parti-
cularly of the circles defcribed on the furface thereof, with
the method of projefting the fame on a plane ; and meafuring
their arcs and angles when projefted.

Spherical Numbers. See Circular Numbers.

Spherical Trigonometry. See Spherical Trigonome-
try.

SPHERICITY, the quality of a fphere; or that by
which a thing becomes fpherical or round.

The fphericity of pebbles, fruits, berries, &c. as alfo of
drops of water, quickfilver, &c. and of bubbles of air under
water, &c. Dr. Hook takes to arife from the incongruity
of their particles with thofe of the ambient fluid, which
prevents their coalefcing ; and by prefling on them, and
encompafling them all round equally, turns them into a
round form.

This, he thinks, appears evidently from the manner of
making fmall round fhot of feveral fizes, without cafting
the lead into any moulds ; from drops of rain being formed,
in their fall, into round hail-itones ; and from drops of
water faUing on fmall duft, fand, &c. which foon produce
an artificial round mafs ; and from the fmall, round, red-
hot balls, formed by the collifion or fufion of flint and fteel,
in ftriking fire.

But all thefe cafes of fphericity fecm better accounted for
from the great principle of attraftion ; by which the parts
of the fame fluid drop, &c. are all naturally ranged as near
the centre as poffible, which necefiarily induces a fpherical
figure ; and, perhaps, a repelling force between the par-
ticles of the drop, and of the medium, contributes alfo not
a little thereto. See Attraction and Cohesion.

SPHERICS, the doSrine of the fphere, particularly of
the feveral circles defcribed on its furface ; with the method
of projefting the fame in piano.

The principal matters (hewn here are as follow :

I . If a fphere be cut in any manner, the plane of the
feftion will be a circle, whofe centre is in the diameter of
the fphere.

Hence, i. The diameter HI {Plate 11. Trigononutry,
Jig' 9.) of a circle, pafling through the centre C> is equal

to

S P H

S P H

to the diameter A B of the generating circle ; and the dia-
meter of a circle, as F E, that does not pafs through the
€entre, is equal to fome chord of the generating circle.

Hence, 2. As the diameter is the greateft of all chords,
a circle palling through the centre is the greateft circle of
the fphere ; and all the relt are lefs than the fame.

Hence alfo, 3. All great circles of the fphere are equal
to one another.

Hence alfo, 4. If a great circle of the fphere pafs
through any given point of the fphere, as A, it muft alfo
pafs through the point diametrically oppofite to it, as B.

Hence alfo, 5. If two great circles mutually interfeft
each other, the line of feftion is the diameter of the fphere ;
and therefore two great circles interfeft each other in points
diametrically oppofite.

Hence alfo, 6. A great circle of the fphere divides it
into two equal parts or hemifpheres.

2. All great circles of the fphere cut each other into two
equal parts ; and, converfely, all circles that thus cut eacli

■ other are great circles of the fphere.

3. An arc of a great circle of the fphere, intercepted
between another arc H I L [Jig. 10.), and its poles A and
B, is a quadrant. That intercepted between a lefs circle
J) E F, and one of its poles A, is greater than a quadrant ;
and that between the fame, and the other pole B, lefs than
a quadrant ; and converfely.

4. If a great circle of the fphere pafs through the poles
of another, that other pafles through the poles of this.
And if a great circle pafs through the poles of another, the
two cut each other at right angles ; and converfely.

5. If a great circle, as A F B D, pafs through the poles
A and B of a lefler circle D E F, it cuts it into equal parts,
and at right angles.

6. If two great circles, AEBF and CEDF, (fg. 11.)
interfeft each other in the poles E and F, of another
great circle A C B D ; that other will pafs through the
poles I and i, H and h, of the circles AEBF and
CEDF.

7. If two great circles, AEBF and CEDF, cut each
other mutually ; the angle of obliquity, A E C, will be
equal to the diftance of the poles H, I.

8. All circles of the fphere, as G F and L K (fg. 12.)
equally diftant from its centre C, are equal ; and the far-
ther they are removed from the centre, the lefs they are.
Hence, fmce of all parallel chords, only two, G F and
L K, are equally diftant from the centre ; of all the circles
parallel to the fame great circle, only two are equal.

9. If the arcs F H and K H, and G I and I L, inter-
cepted between a great circle I M H, and the leftcr circles
G N F and L O K, be equal, the circles are equal.

10. If the arcs F H and G I, of the fame great circle
A I B H, intercepted between two circles G N F and I M H,
be equal, the circles are parallel.

11. An arc of a parallel circle, I G, (fg- i.) is fimilar
to an arc of a great circle, A E ; if each be intercepted be-
tween the fame great circles C A F and C E F.

Hence, the arcs A E and I G have the fame ratio to
their peripheries ; and, confequently, contain the fame num-
ber of degrees. And hence the arc I G is lefs than the
arc A E.

12. The arc of a great circle is the fliorteft line which
can be drawn from one point of the furface of the fphere
to another ; and the lines between any two points on the
fame furface are the greater, as the circles of which they
are arcs are the lefs.

Hence, the proper meafure, or diftance, of two places
*n the furface of the fphere, is an arc of a great circle intw-

cepted between the fame. Sec more on this fubjeft in
Theodofii Elem. Sphxr. apud Dechales Curfus Mathema-
ticus, tom. i. p. 145, &c.

SPHEROID, Sph^roides, 2ipaiposiJfl;, formed from
o-ifiaifa, fphxra, and ulv, Jhape, in Geometry, a folid ap-
proaching to the figure of a fphere, though not exaftly
round, but oblong ; as having one of its diameters bigger
than the other ; and generated by the revolution of a femi-
ellipfis about its axis.

When it is generated by the revolution of the femi-cUipfis
about its greater or tranfverfe axis, it is called an oblong or
prolate fpheroid : and when generated by the revolutiop.
of an ellipfis about its lefs or conjugate axis, an eblatc
fpheroid.

The contour of a dome, Daviler obferves, fliould be half
a fpheroid. Half a fphere, he fays, is too^low to have a
good effeft below.

For the folid dimenfion of a fpheroid, multiply con-
tinually together the fixed axis, the fquare of the revolving
axis, and the number -52359877, or -^ of 3.14159, and the
laft produft will be the fohdity : i, e. ^pttc = the oblate,
and iptcc =z the oblong fpheroid, where /> = 3.14159,
/ =: the tranfverfe, and c = the conjugate axis of the gene-
rating elh'pfis. Or, multiply the area of the generating
ellipfe by i' of the revolving axis, and the produft will be
the content of the fpheroid : i. e. \tA = the oblate, and
I c A. = the oblong fpheroid ; where A is the area of the-
ellipfe. E. g. Required the content of an oblate, and of an
oblong fpheroid, the axes being 50 and 30. Thus, 50 x
30 X .78539816 — 1178.09724 = the area of the ellipfe.
And 1 178.09724 X ! X 30 = 23561.9448 = the oblong
fpheroid: and 1 178.09724 x 4 X 50 = 39269.908 = the
oblate one.

Dr. Hutton has demonftrated the rule above given in
the following manner. Put / = B I the fixed femi-axis,
{Plate XIV. Geometry, fg. ■^.) r = I M the revolving
femi-axis of the fpheroid, d = S I any femi-diameter of the
feftion N B M, b — IK its femi-conjugate, j> = A E an
ordinate to the diameter SI, or a femi-axis of the elliptic
feftion AFC parallel to K L, and 2 = E F its other
femi-axis, alfo x = E I, j = the fine of the angle A E S,
or of the angle K I S, to the radius I, and p = 3.14159.
Then, by the property of the ellipfe K S L, aa: bb

, , aa — XN ry

:: a a — X X : b 0 x = J' J' 5 ^nd * : r : : y : -,-

aa b

= 2. But the fluxion of the folid K A C L '\% psyt.x

psryyx , . . r • , "'y . i

^- — Y^—t by writing for z its value y, = pbsrx x

aa — XX , -,„. - , t, aa — XX
-, by fubftituting forjjj' its value** x ,

= pfrrx X - — ~ * , by putting for abs its value rf;

aa — ^ XK
and hence the fluent pjrr x x » or t^PJ '''^ >■

laa-

-, will be the value of the fruftum K A C L ;

which, when E I or x becomes S I or a, gives \pfrr for
the value of the fcrni- fpheroid K S L ; or the whole Iplioroid
= 'cp F R R, putting F and R for the whole fixed and re-
volving axes. Q.E.D.

Coral. 1 From the foregoing demonftratioD it appear*

^ T 2 that

SPHEROID.

that the value of the general fruftum KAECL is ex-
preffed by ^pfrrx x — —-

And if for/r be fubftituted its value abs, the fame

taa — X s
fruftum will alfo be expreffed h^ ipbrsx x —

Alfo, if for 3 a be put its value ^7^ 1 the laft ex-

■^ bb — yy

„ , ibb 4- yy
preffion will become ^prsx x IT^' o^ ' P ' ^ x

(iir H — il' which, by writing z inftead of its value

— , gives I psx X {ibr + yz.) for the value of the fruf-
tum, viz. the fum of the area of the lefs end, and twice
triat of the greater, drawn into one-third of the altitude or
diflance of the ends.

And out of this lait expreflion may be expunged any
one of the four quantities b, r, y, z, by means of the pro-
portion b : r :: y : z.

When the ends of the fruftum are perpendicular to the
fixed axis, then a is =r /, and the value of the fruftum

becomes ^prrx x ^=^^-r- — for the value of the fruftum

whofe e»ds are perpendicular to the fixed axis, its altitude
being X.

And when the ends of the fruftum are parallel to the
fixed axis, a is = r, and the expreflion for fuch a fruftum

fegment, refpeftively correfponding or parallel to/, r, the
femi-axes of the generating ellipfe, when parallel to the

bafe of the fegment, and for "^ and r fubftitute their

r

F ^ RR + */- . r „ r ,1

values -ir and j , the laid trultum will be ex-

becomes -J pfx X

3>-r — XX

R

2h

Carol. 2. — If to or from \pfr r, the value of the femi-

fpheroid, be added or fubtrafted ^pfrrx x '^,

aaa

the value of the general fruftum K A C L, there will refult

-J pfr rhh y. for the value of a general fegment,

either greater or lefs than the femi-fpheroid, whofe height,
taken upon the diameter pafling through its vertex and cen-
tre of its bafe, is A = a + x.

When a coincides with/, the above expreflion becomes

iprrhh X — for the value of a fegment whofe bafe

is perpendicular to the fixed axis. — And here, if we put
R for the radius of the fegment's bafe, and for rr its

value J 2 t> the faid fegment will become ipRRh x

2/- f,-

And when a coincides with r, the general expreflion will

-J. L

become -ipfh h x for the value of the fegment

whofe bafe is parallel to the fixed axis. And if we put
F, R, for the two femi.axes of the elliptic bafe of this

prefledby4/FA x ^ , in which the dimenfions

of itfelf only are concerned.

Carol. 3. — A femi-fpheroid is equal to ?ds of a cylinder,
or to double a cone of the fame bafe and height ; or they
are in proportion as the numbers 3, 2, i. For the cy-
linder is = 4 nfr r = ',- nfr r, the femi-fpheroid := ? nfrr,
and the cone = ■; nfr r.

Carol. 4. — When/= r, the fpheroid becomes a fphere,
and the expreflion ^fnrr for the femi-fpheroid becomes
^nr^ for the femi-fphere. And in like manner,/ and r be-
ing fuppofed equal to each other in the values of the fruftums
and fegments of a fpheroid, in the preceding corollaries,
will give the values of the like parts of a fphere.

Coral. 5. — All fpheres and fpheroids are to each other
as the fixed axes drawn into the fquares of the revolving
axes.

Corel. 6. — Any fpheroids and fpheres, of the fame revolv-
ing axis, as alfo their like or correfponding parts cut off by
planes perpendicular to the faid common axis, are to one
another as their other or fixed axes. This follows from the
foregoing corollaries.

Carol. 7. — But if their fixed axes be equal, and their re-
volving axes unequal, the fpheroids and fpheres, with their
like parts terminated by planes perpendicular to the com-
mon fixed axis, will be to each other as the fquares of their
revolving axes.

Carol. 8. — An oblate fpheroid is to an oblong fpheroid,
generated from the fame ellipfe, as the longer axis of the
ellipfe is to the fliorter. For, if T be the tranfverfe axis,
and C the conjugate ; the oblate fpheroid will be =
; n T ' C, and the oblong = 4 n C^ T ; and thefe quantities
are in the ratio of T to C.

Coral. 9. — And if about the two axes of an ellipfe, be
generated two fpheres and two fpheroids, the four folids
will be continual proportionals, and the common ratio will
be that of the two axes of the cUipfe ; that is, as the
greater fphere, or the fphere upon the greater axis, is to
the oblate fpheroid, fo is the oblate fpheroid to the oblong
fpheroid, fo is the oblong fpheroid to the lefs fphere, and fo
is the tranfverfe axis to the conjugate. For thefe four
bodies will be as T^ T^C, TC , C^ where each term
is to the confequent one as T to C.

To find the content of an univerfal fpheroid, or a folid
conceived to be generated by the revolution of a femi-
ellipfe about its diameter, whether that diameter be one of
the axes of the ellipfe or not. i. Divide the fquare of
the produft of the axes of the ellipfe by the axis of the
fohd, or the diameter about which the femi-ellipfe is con-
ceived to revolve : multiply the quotient by -5236, and

T C *

the produft will be the content required. That is, — j—

d

X .5236 =: the content ; T and C being the tranfverfe and
conjugate axes of the ellipfe, and J the axis of the folid.

Or, 2. The continual produft of .5236, the diameter
about which the revolution is made, the fquare of its con-
jugate diameter, and the fqtiare of the fine of the angle

made

S P H

Itiade by thofe diameters, the radius being I, will be the
content. That is, dc ess x -5236 = the content ; c being
the conjugate diameter to d, and s the fine of the angle
made by the diameters. For the demonltration of this
rule, fee Hutton, ubi infra.

Hence, if d=T, the rule becomes |/>TC'' for the
oblong fpheroid : and it d—C, it will be ^^pCT' for
the oblate fpheroid : and if T, C, and d, be all equal, the
rule will be ^pd'' for the fphere. See Mensuration.
Hutton's Menl'uration.

For the method of finding the fuperficies of a fpheroid,
fee Superficies ; and for the folidity, fee Solidity, and
the preceding article.

Dr. Halley has demonftrated, that in a fphere, Mercator's
nautical meridian line is a fcale of logarithmic tangents of
the half complements of the latitudes. But as the earth
has been found to be a fpheroid, this figure will make fome
alteration in the numbers refulting from Dr. Halley's theo-
rem. Mr. Maclaurin has therefore given us a rule, by
which the meridional parts to any fpheroid may be found
with the fame exaftnefs as in a fphere. We have alfo an
ingenious treatife of Mr. Murdoch's on the fame fubieft.
See Phil. Tranf. N°2I9.

Mr. Cotes has alfo demonftrated the fame propofition,
Harm. Meuf. p. 20, 21. See Meridional Parts.

SPHEX, in Entomology, a genus of infefts of the order
Hymenoptera, of which the generic charadler is as
follows. The mouth is formed with an entire jaw ; the
mandibles are horny, incurved, and toothed ; the lip is
horny and membranaceous at the tip ; it has four feelers ;
the antennae have about ten articulations ; the wings in
each fex are plane, incumbent, and not folded ; the fting
is pungent, and concealed within the abdomen. The
infefts of this genus are faid to be the moft favage and rapa-
cious of this clafs of beings : they attack whatever comes
in their way, and by means of a poifonous fling, overcome
and devour other; far beyond their own fize. Thofe of
divifion B, hereafter to be defcribed, are found chiefly on
umbellate plants ; the larvx are without feet, foft, and
inhabit the body of fome infeft, on whofe juices they exilt ;
the pupa has rudiments of wings.

" As the infefts," fays Dr. Shaw, " of the genus Ich-
neumon depofit their eggs in the bodies of other living
infefts, fo thofe of the genus Sphex depofit their's in dead
ones, in order that the young larvae, when hatched, may
find their proper food." There are more than a hundred
fpecies of the genus Sphex, which are feparatcd into
divifions.

Species.
A. Antennt fctaceous i Lip entire } and no Tongue.

ApPENDlGASTER. This fpecies is black ; the abdomen
18 petiole, very fhort, and placed on the back of the thorax ;
the hind-legs are very long. This is found in divers parts
of Europe, Africa, and New Holland.

* Maculata. Thorax fpotted ; firll fegmcnt of the
abdomen with a white dot on each fide ; the fecond is
edged with white. It is, as the afterifk denotes, an Englifli
infeft. There is a fpecimen of it in fir Jofcph Banks's
mufeum.

Fasciata. Black ; abdomen with two wliite bands,
the firft interrupted ; and the tail is white. It is found in
different parts of Italy. The thorax is black, covered
with filvery down on the fore-part ; the fore-margin is
marked with a white hne ; the wings arc white, but tipped
with brown.

S P H

Sessilis, fo named on account of its (hort, cylindrical,
fefTile abdomen. The infeft is black. It inhabiis France ;
is very like the S. appendigafter.

Punctum. This is black ; but the tail is marked with
a white dot. It is an Italian infcft.

NiGRlTiA. This alfo is black ; the upper wings arc
marked with a brown band.

B. /Intennit JUiform ; Lip emarginate ; luith a Rrijlh on each
fide ; the Tongue is inJleSed and trifid.
Of this feftion there are two fubdivifions ; the one has
a petiolate abdomen, that of the other is fefTile.

a. Abdomen petiolate.

LuTARlA. Black ; fecond and third fegmcnts of the
abdomen rufous ; the lip is filvery. It inhabits Kiel.

Thom.*:. Black ; abdomen rufous ; the petiole, and
fpot on the back, black. It inhabits St. Thomas's ifland.

Fervens. This is likcwife black ; the abdomen is fer-
ruginous ; the wings are brown. It inhabits India.

Cyanipennis. Villous, blue ; fore-part of the thorax
and abdomen grey ; the wings are blue. It inhabits
Cayenne, and is large. This is a very beautiful infcdl ;
the head is blue ; the mandibles and antennx are black ;
the abdomen bluei(h-grey ; the petiole black ; legs black ;
the joints yellowifh.

H.JEM0URHOIDALIS. Black ; lip, tail, and legs, ferru-
ginous. Inhabits Africa. A fpecimen is preferved in the
mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.

Argentea. Glofiy-black ; front villous, filvery; the
wings are white, but tipt with brown. It inhabits Coro-
mandel, and is a large infeft.

RuFiPENNis. Black; wings ferruginous, tipt with brown.
It inhabits Tranquebar, and is large.

Flavipennis. Black ; front golden ; abdomen rufous ;
the petiole and tips are black. It inhabits Italy.

Penn&ylvanica. This is of a blackilh hue ; the ab-
domen is of a full black ; but the wings are inchning to 3
violet. It inhabits America and New Holland.

ViOLACEA. Blue ; wings white, tipt with brown ; the
antenna; are black. It is found at the Cape of Good
Hope.

Cyanea. Blue ; wings azure, tipt with brown ; the
antennas are black. It inhabits North America.

AuRULE.\TA. Head and thorax covered with gold down ;
the abdomen is black ; the bafe and legs rufous. It is an
inhabitant of Tranquebar.

ToMENTOSA. The head and thorax of the infe^fts of
this fpecies are covered with a gold down ; the abdomen
is black ; the bafe and legs are rufous. It inhabits Sierra
Leone.

Femorata. This is blue ; the abdomen is black ; the
hind-thighs are rufous. It inhabits Italy.

Tibialis. Hairy, black-blue; hind-ihanks ferruginous ;
wings black. It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. A
fpecimen is preferved in the mufeum of fir Joleph Banks.

Flavipes. Villous, bhick, with a yellow dot before the
wings ; the legs are yellow ; the thighs black. It inhabits
America.

Atr.'V. This is quite black, excepting the lip, wliicli is
filvery villous ; wings as long as the abdomen. It ijihabits
Italy.

FiouLUS. Smooth, black ; fcgmcnts of the abdomen at
the edges and lip hicid. It inhabiis Upfal, in the holes
and crevices of wooden partitions, abandoned bv all other
infcde. According to Dr. Shaw, this inletl, when it has
found a convenient cavity for the purpofe, fcizes on 3
2 fpidcr,

SPHEX.

fpider, which it kills, and depofits it at the bottom ; then
laying her egg in it, (he clofes up the orifice of the cavity
with clay ; the larva, which refembles the maggot of a bee,
having devoured the fpider, fpins itfelf up a duflcy filken
web, and changes into a chryfalis, out of which, within a
certain number of days, proceeds a complete infeft, which is
black, with a (lightly foot-ftalked abdomen, the edges of
the feveral fegmcnts being of a brighter appearance than
the reft of the body. Tlie female of this fpecies prepares
feveral feparate holes, or nets, in each of which (he places
a dead infeft and an egg ; each cell coiling her the labour
of about two days.

LuNATA. The abdomen of this infeft is black ; the
firll feo-ment is marked with a yellow lunule. It inhabits
America, as does the next.

Affinis. Villous, black ; the firft joint of the antenna?,
fcutel, and (hanks, are yellow.

Jamaicensis. This, as its name implies, is found in
Jamaica. The abdomen is black ; the firll fegment, and
edge of the others, are yellow.

Erythrocephala. Black ; head, bafe of the petiole,
and legs, ferruginous. It inhabits Malabar. A fpecimen
is kept in the mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.

* Spirifex. Black ; thorax hairy, and immaculate ;
petiole of one joint, yellow ; as long as the abdomen.
There is a variety, of which the petiole and joints of the
legs are half yellow. It is found in this country, in divers
parts of Europe, and alfo in Africa, particularly in
Egypt, in cylindrical cavities wrought within like a honey-
comb, on the fides of cUtfs, and in the mud walls of
cottages.

Madraspatana. Black ; thorax hairy, and fpotted
with yellow ; the petiole is yellow, and as long as the
abdomen. It inhabits Malabar.

Clavus. Black ; thorax fpotted ; abdomen blueilh ;
the petiole long, rufous, with a black band. This is an
inhabitant of New Holland.

Holosericea. Black, with a filvery down ; abdomen
ferruginous ; the petiole is black, and the tail blue. It
is found in Barbary.

PuBESCKNS. Black, with filvery down ; the abdomen is
ferruginous, with a black petiole. It inhabits Guinea, and
is found among the grafs.

Cincta. Black, with filvery down ; the fegments of
the abdomen are edged with white. This, like the laft, is
found in Guinea.

Lobata. Green-blue ; thorax with a diftinft fore-lobe ;
the wings are fub-ferruginous. It is an inhabitant of
Africa.

Ciliata. Teftaceous ; abdomen blue ; mandibles elon-
gated and ciliate. This is an Indian infeft.

CoMPRESSA. Shining green ; the hind-thighs are com-
prelTed, ferruginous. It inhabits Malabar.

SiBlRiCA. Polilhed brafly-grcen ; the abdomen is blue.
An inhabitant of Siberia.

IcHNEUMONEA. Fulvous ; abdomen black, with a fer-
ruginous bafe. It is found in divers parts of America.

HiRTiPES. Hairy, duflcy ; abdomen (hining black ;
wings teltaceous. It inhabits Guinea.

Albifrons. Glabrous, black ; front covered v/ith a
filvery brown ; wings white, with a black bafe. This alfo
is found in Guinea.

Maxillosa. Black, with filvery down ; abdomen fer-
ruginous at the bafe ; the mandibles are projefted, curved,
and toothed. It is a large infeft, and is found in Barbary.

Unicolok. Du(ky-brown, with cinereous down. It
ij found in Spain, on umbellate flowers.

Indostanee. Black ; wings blueilh-black, with a hya.
line thinner margin. Found in Europe and India.

Clavipes. Black ; petiole ferruginous, clavate, of one
joint ; legs clavate. This is a fmall infeft, and is found in
feveral parts of Europe.

Austriaca. Black ; bafe of the abdomen with a ful-
phur-coloured band and two dots ; the legs are varied with
fulphur ; the hind-thighs are thickened. It inhabits, as
its name denotes, Auftria.

BiDEXS. Black ; head and antenna: ferruginous ; the
abdomen is marked with four yellow fpots ; the thorax is
two-fpined. It inhabits Mauritania, and is a large infeft.

Insubrica. Black ; front, mouth, fcutel, and two
bands on the abdomen, of a pale yellow. It inhabits
Padua ; breeds in chimneys and windows, in the fame neft
with the Ichneumon feduftor.

b. Abdomen fejfilc.

MoRio. Black, immaculate ; wings dark brown. It
inhabits New Holland.

CoLLARis- Black-blue ; fore-lobe of the thorax ful-
vous. It inhabits New Holland.

Froxtahs. Black ; front and fore-lobe of the thorax
yellow. It inhabits New Holland.

Analis, Glabrous, black ; abdomen ferruginous at the
tip ; wings white. It inhabits India.

SiMiLis. This infeft is glabrous, black, abdomen fer-
ruginous at the tip ; the wings are white.

AssiMiLls. Black ; antennae, tail, and legs, rufous ;
wings blue ; the bafe and tip white. This is found at Tran-
quebar.

DiMiDiATA. Black ; the head and fore-part of the tho-
rax dull ferruginous ; the wings are black. This is an in-
habitant of Barbary.

* FuscA. Black, glabrous ; bafe of the abdomen ferru-
ginous. This inhabits gravelly places in Europe : after
having deftroyed the larva of a moth, it depofits its eggs in
its carcafe, and then digs a hole and buries it.

Viatica. Black, downy; fore-part of the abdomen fer-
ruginous, with black belts ; wings brown.

Ursws. Black, hairy ; fecond fegment of the abdomen
ferruginous ; wings black.

Amethystina. Blue ; antenna; and legs black. It in-
habits Santa Cruz.

Cingulata. Black ; front ftreak on the fore-part of the
thorax, and edges of the abdominal fegments, cinereous. It
inhabits New Holland.

Nigra. Blfick ; fegments of the abdomen with lucid
margins.

Labiata. Black ; fegments of the abdomen edged
with cinereous ; the wings are teftaceous, tipt with brown.
It inhabits the South American iflands.

VARlEGAT.t. Black, fpotted with white ; thorax rufous
under the fcutel ; the wings are tipt with brown. This is
found in Saxony.

Sanguinolenta. Black ; thorax rufous before and be-
hind ; fegments of the abdomen lucid at the margin. This
is a very fmall infeft, and is found in feveral parts of Ger-
many.

Mixta. Black, varied with yellow ; abdomen yellow,
ivith three black bands. This is an American infeft.

Mauka. Black j hind-thighs rufous j inhabits Tran-
quebar.

Hyalinata. Black ; four hind-thighs rufous ; wings
hyaline. Found in Saxony.

FuscATA. Black ; abdomen with a white tranfverfe dot

on

SPHEX.

on each fide ; hind-thighs rufous ; wings tipt with brown.
It inhabits Saxony.

Sex-/'UNCtata. Black, with two white dots under the
fcutel, and four on the abdomen ; wings tipt with brown.

Bl-FASCIATA. Black, immaculate ; wings with two
black bands. This is an inhabitant of Paris.

GiBBA. Black ; abdomen ferruginous, tipt with brown ;
upper wings brown at the tip. This is found in divers parts
of Europe.

Fasciata. Black; antennae rufous ; wings white, with
two brown bands. This is found in New Holland, as is the
next.

CiNEREA. Cinereous ; fegments of the abdomen black
at the bafe, and brown at the tip.

Tropica. Black ; fecond fegment of the abdomen fer-
• uginous. This is found in different parts of America.

Fugax. Thorax covered with gold down ; abdomen fer-
ruginous ; wings yellowifh, with a brown band.

AuRATA. Head and thorax with gold down ; abdomen
black, the edges of the fegments cinereous. This is found
in the Eaft Indies.

NiTiDA. Ferruginous ; thorax golden behind ; wings
yellowifh. It inhabits New Holland.

* RuFiPss. Black ; the fegments of the abdomen are
marked with a white dot on each fide ; the wings are tipt
with brown. Found in England, and on divers parts of the
European continent.

Bi-PUNCTATA. Black, glabrous ; abdomen marked
with two white dots and a band behind ; the wmgs arc tipt
with brown. This is an European infeft.

NiGRicoRNls. Black ; head and thorax rufous. It is
found in New Holland.

ExALTATA. Bkck ; abdomen rufous, tipt with black ;
wings brown at the tip, with a white dot.

Maculata. Black ; thorax fpotted with white ; (irft
fegment of the abdomen rufous, the refl with a tranfverfe
white line on each fide. It inhabits Kiel.

Tricolorata. Black ; abdomen with filver lunules on
each fide, the bafe is rufous, the tip black. This is a Bar-
bary infeft.

Guttata. Black, glabrous; thorax fpotted with
white ; abdomen rufous, with tranfverfe dots, and black
before the tip. This is very like the S. maculata, and is
found in Italy.

Abdominalis. Black ; thorax with a cinereous band
before; abdomen rufous ; wings tipt with brown. It inha-
bits Brafil.

Cai'knsis. Black ; antennae, thanks, and wings teftaceous,
the latter tipt with brown. It inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope.

NiGKlTA. Black ; wings blue. Inhabits Malabar.

Turcica. Black ; thorax with a cinereous band before ;
abdomen rufous ; wings black. It is an inhabitant of
Brafil.

NiGRlPES. Black ; abdomen ferruginous ; wings duflfy ;
legs black. It inhabits Africa.

ViLLosA. Black ; abdomen villous, tellaceous ; wings
deep black ; legs rufous. It is found at Malabar, and is
very fmall.

Discolor. Black, glabrous ; wings yellow, tipt with
black. It is found in Barbary.

Flava. Black; head, thorax, and tail, ferruginous;
wings yellow, tipt with brown. It is found in the Eall
Indies.

Bicolorata. Black ; head, tip of the abdomen, and
wings, yellow, the latter tipt with brown. Tliis is a New
Holland infect.

Specio.sa. Deep black ; wings rufous, tipt with
white.

FuLVlPENNls. Black; head, fore-part of the thorax,
tail and legs, rufous ; wings fulvous, tipt with blue. This
is an inhabitant of India.

NoBiLis. This fpecies ia varied with filver and black ;
wings white, with two black bands. It inhabits Cayenne.

Brevicornis. Black ; thorax ferruginous ; abdomen
with fix white fpots. It is found in Barbary : in a variety
the abdomen is immaculate.

OcELLATA. Black ; legs teftaceous > wings black, with
an ocellar ferruginous fpot on the upper pair. Found in
Africa.

Ruficornis. Blue ; antcnm rufous ; legs black.

QuADRl-PUNXTATA. Black ; antennas, ftreaks on the
fore-part of the thorax and fcutel ; there are four dots
on the abdomen, and the wings are ferruginous. It is found
in Spain.

CxRVL^A. Blue ; wings ferruginous, upper pair
whitifh at the tip. It inhabits South America, as does
the next.

Stellata. Blue ; wings black, upper pair with a ru-
fous fpot in the middle, and whitifh at the tip.

Plumbea. Lead-colour ; antenna* black ; upper wings
tipt with brown. It is found in Spain, and is very
fmall.

Pectinipes. Black, glabrous ; fore-part of the abdo-
men ferruginous ; fore-legs ciliate.

Variegata. Entirely black ; wings fpotted with
white. Seen in divers parts of Europe.

Antarctica. Black ; antennns and legs ferruginous ;
is about the fize of a wafp, and is found at the Cape of
Good Hope.

Palmipes. Black ; thorax with two yellow dots at the
tip, and one at the bafe ; the fore-legs are palmate. It in-
habits Sweden.

Ephippica. Black ; front blueifh ; abdomen with a
double ferruginous band. It is the fize of a gnat, and in-
habits Sweden.

Stigma. Wings angular, grey-brown and reddifh be-
neath, with white fpots. It is an inhabitant of the Cape.

Indica. Black ; antennas and legs ferruginous ; wings
blueifh-black. It is found in South America.

Colon. Black ; antennae and legs rufous ; thorax
green ; wings with two black fpots. It inhabits Sweden.

Mauritanica. Black; head, antenna?, and legs, ferru-
ginous, with a black border. It inhabits Mauritania, and
is reckoned among the large infcfls of this genus.

CoLLARis. Black; wings brown, with a white band in
the middle and at the end ; antcnnx and legs teftaceous.
Inhabits Spain, and is the fize of a common ant. Its neck
is yellow.

CoRONATA. Abdomen black, with two yellow belts
and dots ; head and thorax fpotted with yellow. It inha-
bits Switzerland.

* Xantiiocephalu.s. Black ; front yellow ; abdomen
and legs fpotted with yellow. It inhabits England.

* Spinosa. Black ; thorax with a fpine on each fide be-
hind ; the lip and breaft are filvery. It inhabits England.

Albomaculata. Black ; abdomen ferruginous at
the bafe ; wings brown, with a white fpot at the tip.

Tricolor. Black ; fegments of the abdomen very
varied in number, fiimc of them arc teftaceous, and others
dotted with white.

Boot's. Black ; three fegments of the abdomen and tarfi
teftaceous. It is an Auftrian infcft.

Tom£NIOsa. Black, downy ; autcnnx tliick at the
6 bafe;

S P H

bafs ; tVie three firll fegments of the abdomen are ferru-
ginous ; the bafe and tip are black.

CocciNEA. Black ; antenna, jsws, tip of the abdo-
men, and (hanks, fcarlet ; thorax with a tooth on each fide
behind ; wings yellow, the hind margin brown.

SpiNiPES. Black, hairy; wings yellow; the hind mar-
gin brown, with a black fpot at the bafe of the upper pair ;
fegments of the abdomen vary from two to four, which are
yellow on the hind margin of each fide. Its abode is not
known.

Guttata. Black ; with white lines and dots ; wings
pale yellow ; legs rufous.

Leucomellis. Black ; wings white towards the hind
margin ; firit fegment of the abdomen white on each fide ;
the third with an ovate white fpot on the back ; the four
hind-legs are rufous.

Melanochlora. Black ; abdomen ferruginous at the
bafe. This is an European infedl.

Testacea. Black ; legs and abdomen teftaccous, the
latter brown at the tip.

Caspa. The abdomen of this is black, with four yellow
elevated bands ; the three upper ones mterfe£led by a trian-
gular black fpot. It inhabits near the Cafpian fea.

SPHINCTER, m Anatomy, a name given to mufcles
which furround, and have the office of clofing, certain
openings.

Sphi.vcter v/n/, the mufcle furrounding the extremity of
the large inteltine. See Intestine.

Sphikcter Lahhrum, the fame as the orbicularis oris.

See DEGLtTITlON.

Sphincter Ir'idh. See Eye.

Sphincter CEjb^ha^i. See Deglutition.

Sphincter Vagimt. See the defcription of that canal
under Gener.^tion.

Sphincter Vefut. See the defcription of the urinary
bladder under Kidney.

SPHINX, a-iiyl, in Sculpture, &c. a figure or reprefent-
ation of amonfter of that name, famed among the ancients,
now moftly ufed as an ornament in gardens, terraces, &c.

It is reprefented with the head and breafts of a woman,
the wings of a bird, the claws of a lion, and the reft of the
body like a dog or lion.

It is fuppofed to have been engendered by Typhon, and
fent by Juno to be revenged on the Thebans. Its office,
they fay, was to propofe dark enigmatical queltions to all
pafTers by ; and, if they did not give the exphcation of them,
to devour them.

It made horrible ravages, as the ttory goes, on a mountain
near Thebes, and could not by any means be deitroyed, till
after CEdipus had folved the following riddle : What animal
is it that in the morning walks on four legs, at noon on two,
and at night on three ? The anfwer was, Man.

Among the Egyptians, the fphinx was the fymbol of reli-
gion, by reafon of the otjfcnrity of its mylteries. And, on
the fame account, the Romans placed a fphinx in the pronaos
or porch of their temples.

Sphinxes were ufed by the Egyptians to fhew the begin,
ning of the water's rifing in the Nile : with this view, as it
had the he4d of a woman and body of a lion, it fignified that
the Nile began to fwell in the months of July and Augult,
when the fun pafTes through the figns of Leo and Virgo.
Accordingly it was a hieroglyphic, which taught the people
the period of the mod important event in the year, as the
fwelling and overflowing of the Nile gave fertility to Egypt.
Accordingly they were multiphed without end, fo that they
were to be feen before all their temples, and before all their
remarkable monuments.

S P H

There are feveral of thefe ftill to be feen ; one in particular,
near the pyramids, facing the fecond pyramid on the eaftem
fide, much fpoken of by the ancients, being of a prodigious
fize, and cut out of the rock ; the head and neck only ap-
pear at prefent, the reft of the body being hid in the fand.
The top of its back only is vifible, which is more than too
feet long. It is of one fingle ftone, making part of the
rock on which the pyramids are placed. Its head rifes about
twenty-nine feet above the fand. This, according to Theve-
not, is twenty -fix feet high, and fifteen feet from the ear to
the chin ; but Pliny affures us, the head was no lefs than
one hundred and two feet in circumference, and fixty-two
feet high from the belly, and that the body was one hundred
and forty-three feet long, and was thought to be the fepul-
chre of king Amafis.

Some have fuggefted, that the well of the great pyramid
led to this monller, and that the priefta reforted thither at
certain times to pronounce their oracles; alleging, that a
hole placed at the top of the fphinx's head anfwered their
purpofe ; but this hole is only five feet deep, and commu-
nicates neither with the mouth nor with the infide of the
monfter. The Arabs, infpired by Mahomet with a horror
for all reprefentations of men and animals, have disfigured
its face with arrows and lances. Some have urged, without
fufficient reafon, that the fphinx countenances the opinion
that the Egyptians were black, the face of that ftatue having
been faid to refemble the negro. The itatues of the Nile,
it is faid, were made of black marble, in allufion to his
coming from Ethiopia. If the fphinx was a fymbol that had
any relation to this fubjeft, might not the negro face be
given to it for a fimilar reafon ? It would hardly have been
thought neceflary to explain why the figure of the Nile wa»
black, if the complexion of the natives had been generally
acknowledged of the fame tinge.

The fmall ftatues of Ifis, &c. frequently found among the
ruins of Egypt, are far from refeinbling thofe of the negro :
the fame obfervation is applicable ti the figures in alto
relievo and bafib relievo, on the walls of Thebes, in the caverns
of Gebelel-Silfili, &c. Of the coloflal ftatues at Thebes,
the features are too much damaged to be adduced in proof
of the pretended faift.

The learned Mr. Bryant (Anc. Mythol. vol. iii. p. 532.)
obferves, that the fphinx feems to iiave been originally a
vaft rock of different ftrata ; which, from a fhapelefs mafs,,
the Egyptians falhioned into an objeft of beauty and
veneration.

The Egyptians ufed this figure in their building ; from
them the Greeks derived it, and afterwards improved it into
an elegant ornament.

Sphinx, the Hawk-moth, in Entomology, a genus of infefts
of the order Lepidoptera, of which the generic charafter is as
follows : Antennx fomewhat prifmatic, tapering at each
end ; the tongue is exferted ; feelers two, reflefted ; the
wings are deflefted.

The infefts of this genus, of which there are nearly two
hundred fpecics, fly abroad only in the morning and evening;,
they are very flow on the wing, and often make a humming
kind of noife : they extract the neflar of flowers with the
tongue. The generic name, fphinx, is applied on account of
the potture afTuraed by the larvae of feveral of the larger
fpecies, which are often feen in an attitude much refembling
that of the Egyptian fphinx, viz. with the fore-parts ele.
vated, and the reil of the body applied flat to the furface.

The larva has fixteen feet, and is pretty aftive ; that of
the Zygnna, a divifion of this genus, is thick and flat, and
covered with (hort hairs ; that of the Sefa Is generally naked,,
unarmed, and thinner towards the head ; the others have a

fharfj

SPHINX.

Iharp, ereft, ftifFhorn behind ; the pupa is quiercent : that of
the zygaenae folliculate, and a little tapering forwards, tlie
reft naked and fmooth ; that ef the fefije pointed at each
end, of the others very obtufe behind.

There are three divifions of this genus ; -viz. A, of which
the antenna are fcaly ; feelers hairy; tongue fpiral ; B, in
which the antennx are cylindrical ; the tongue is exferted,
truncate, and the wings entire ; and C, in which the antenna;
are thicker in the middle ; tongue exferted, Cetaceous. Of
the principal fpecies of thefe divifions we fliall proceed to
zive a brief account.

Species.

A. Antenna fcaly ; Feelers hairy ; Tongue fpiral.

* OcELLATA. Wings angular, lower ones rufous, with
a blue eye. This is reckoned a very beautiful infedl ; its
upper wings and body are brown, the former finely clouded
with different fhades, while the lower wings are of a bright
rofe-colour, each marked with a large ocellated black fpot,
with a blue interior circle and a black centre. This infeft
proceeds from a green caterpillar of a rough or ftagreen-like
furface, marked on each fide by feven oblique yellovvifli-white
itreaks, and furniflied, like the preceding, with a horn at the
tail. It is chiefly found on the willow; retires under ground,
in order to undergo its change into the chryfalis Itate, in the
month ol Auguii; or September, and in the following June
apppears the complete infe£t.

Myops. Wings angular ; upper pair with a yellow fpot
at the tip and pofterior angle ; lower ones yellow, with a
blue eye.

QuERCUS. Wings angular, indented,cinereous, with dark
llreaks ; lower ones ferruginous, white at the angle of the
tail. This inhabits Germany. The larva is iolitary andof
d. green colour, with oblique lateral ftripes and rufous ftig-
mata ; pupa chefnut, with rufous margin.

LuscA. Wings angular, dufliy, with a black dot ; lower
ones black, with a fulvous band. It inhabits the South
American iflands. The upper wings are cinereous, with
brovj'n flexuous bands ; lower wings cinereous at the angle of
the tail, with a fulvous blotch ; beneath it is a dull grey, and
immaculate.

* PopULi. Wings indented, reverfed, grey ; upper pair
with a white central fpcit ; lower ones ferruginous at the
bafe. This is found in England and many parts of Europe.
It is figured by Donovan, and other writers on natural hif-
tory. The larva is Iolitary, rough, green, with oblique
white ftripes on the fides ; the pupa is of a dull brown, but
ferruginous behind.

* TilIjE. Wings angular, with grcenifh clouds and
darker bands ; lower ones beneath yellow, teftaceous. The
larva is folitary, rough, green, with oblique red and yellow
ftripes on the fides ; the pupa is brown.

Pylas. Wings fcalloped, indented, variegated ; lower
ones fulvous, yellow at the bafe, and black at the tip. It
inhabits Surinam. Lower wings with a marginal black
band, and contiguous fmaller one ; the edge itfelf is yel-
lowilh.

Cacus. Wings indented, black, with three approximate
pale ftreaks ; lower ones are yellow, ilriate with black. The
abdomen is marked with cinereous and black belts.

Dentata. Wings indented ; lower ones brown, with a
white llreak ; the abdomen is annulate with white. It is an
Indian infeft. The head and thorax are blueifli, Ipeckled
vfith brown ; the upper wings are blueifli, with brown fpecks
and bands.

Alope. Wings indented, brown ; lower ones yellow,
tipt with black ; abdomenblack, with interrupted pale belts.

Vol. XXXIII.

This is found in divers parts of America. The larra of thi»
fpecies is tailed and glabrous, cinereous on the back, with a
broad brown ftreak before ; ocellate in the middle, and end-
ing in a black fpot ; pupa brown, with rufous rings and
ftreaks.

JatropiIjE. Wings (lightly indented ; lower one black,
with a rufous bafe and hyaline band ; the head is two-
horned. The larva is green, with a monihform tail ; the
pupa is brown, with an inflefted cylindrical tail.

* Atropos. The wings of the infefts of this fpecies are
entire ; the lower ones are yellow, with two brown bands ;
the abdomen is yellow, virith belts. This is faid to be the
largeft and moft remarkable, if not the moft beautiful, Euro-
pean infed of this genus. It is thus defcribed by Dr. Shaw :
the upper wings are of a fine dark grey colour, with a few
flight variations of dull orange and white ; the under wings
are of a bright orange colour, marked by a pair of tranfverfe
black bands ; the body is alfo orange-coloured, with the fides
marked by black bars, while along the top of the back, from
the thorax to the tail, runs a broad blue-grey llripe ; on the
top of the thorax is a very large patch of a moft fingular
appearance, exactly reprefenting the ufual figure of a Scull,
or death's head, and is of a pale grey, varied with dull ochrs
and black. When in the leaft difturbed or irritated, this
infeft emits a ftridulous iound, fomething like the fqueak-
ing of a moufe ; and from this circumftance, as well as from
the mark above-mentioned on the thorax, it is held in much
dread by the vulgar in feveral parts of Europe, its appear-
ance being regarded as a kind of ill omen or harbinger of
approaching fate. Reaumur mentions, that the members of
a female convent in France were thrown into great confter-
nation at the appearance of one of thefe infefts, which hap-
pened to fly in during the evening at one of the windows of
the dormitory. The caterpillar from which this curious
fphinx proceeds, is in the higheft degree beautiful, and far
furpafles in fize every other European infeft of the kind,
meafuring fometimes nearly five inches in length, and being
of a proportional thicknefs ; its colour is a bright yellow ;
the fides are marked with a row of feven moft elegant broad
ftripes or bands, of a mixed violet and Iky-blue colour ; the
tops of thefe bands meet on the back in fo many angles, and
are varied on that part with jet black fpecks ; on the laft joint
of the body is a horn orprocefs, not in an ereft pofition, but
hanging or curving over the joint in the manner of a tail,
having a rough furface and a yellow colour. This caterpillar
is principally found on the potatoe and the jeffamine, which
are its favourite food. It changes into a chryfalis in the
month of September, retiring for that purpofe deep in the
earth ; the perfcft infeft emerging in the following June or
July. Individuals have been oblerved to change into the
chryfalis in July or Auguft, and then produce the complete
infeft in November, fo that there appear to be two broods
or races in a year.

The S. atropos is generally confidered as a rare infeft, and
as the caterpillar feeds chiefly by night, concealing itfelf
during the day under leaves, &c. it is not often detefted ;
yet from fome fingular circumftances favourable to its breed,
there are fe.ifons in which it is even plentiful, as was the cafe
in the autumn of 1 804, in which the caterpillar was fo
common in fome counties, as to be prejudicial to the po-
tatoe-plantb, particularly in fome parts of Cornwall and
Surry.

" The alteration of form which the whole of the papilio-
naceous tribe undergo, and in a particular manner the changed
of the fphinx genus, aflord a fubjcft of the moft pleafing
contemplation to the mind of the naturalift, and though a
deeply philofophical furvey demonllratcs that there is no
3 U rf»l

SPHINX.

real change produced in tke identity of the creature itfelf,
or that it is in reality no other than the gradual and pro-
greflive evolution of parts before concealed, and which lay
mafked under the form of an infed of a wdely different ap-
pearance, yet it is juftly viewed with the highefl admiration,
and even generally acknowledged as in the moa hvely manner
typical of the laft eventful changes." .

Chionanthi. Wings variegated, with a white dot in
the middle ; abdomen with three pair of fulvous eyes, i his
is an American infeft. The antenna; are hooked, ferrugi-
nous, with a white Ihaft ; lower wings blackilh, fpotted with
white. Larva tailed, with yellow and black bands ; the
head and tail are red ; the pupa is brown.

* PiNASTRi. Wings entire, grey, with three ihort black
lines in the middle of the upper pair ; the abdomen is white,
with black bands. The larva is tailed, and greenilh, with
a ferruginous dorfal line, a lateral yellow one, and ferruginous
fubocellar ftigmata : the pupa is reddilh-brown, with white

eyes.

* EuPHORBiiE. Wings entire, with two dark olive bands;
lower ones with a black bafe, and marginal ftreak ; the an-
tennae arc fnowy. It is found in this country, and divers
parts of Europe. Donovan has given a figure of it. The
larva is black, dotted with white ; it has a red line down the
back, and lateral yellow fpots ; the pupa is brown, with
black itigmata.

* LiNEATA. Wings greenifti-olive, with a white band,
crofled with white ftreaks ; the lower ones are black, with a
red band. It is generally defcribed as having a greenifh
head, with a lateral white line ; the thorax is marked with
three double white ftreaks ; abdomen with a white line dovvn
the middle, and lateral black and white dots ; the hind margin
of the upper wings is of a purple colour. Beneath it is
cinereous, fpeckled with green.

* Celario. Wings entire, grey, with filvery-white
ftreaks ; the lower ones are brown, with fix red fpots. The
larva is tailed, brown, with two lateral pale lines, and two
eyes on the neck, on each fide ; the pupa is brown before
and reddifh behind.

* Elpenor. Wings entire, with tranfverfe greenifh-
brown and red bands ; the lower ones are red, with a black
bafe. The larva is tailed, with brown fpots and two blue
eyes on each fide of the neck ; the pupa is grey before, be-
hind brown, with darker ftigmata.

* PoRCELLUS. Wings entire, varied with yellow and
purple ; the abdomen is beneath fanguineous, dotted with
white. The larva is without a tail, brown, with three blue
eyes on each fide of the neck ; the pupa is blackilh.

* CoNVOLVULl. Wings entire, clouded ; lower ones
flightly barred ; abdomen with red, black, and white belts.
This is found in our own country, and other parts of
Europe. The larva is tailed, with oblique white lines on
the fides ; the pupa is brown, with a reflefted involute
horn. The eyes of this infeft are faid to be flightly phof-
phorefcent.

* LlGUSTRi, or Privet Hawk-moth. Wings entire ;
lower ones rufous, with three black bands ; the abdomen is
red, with black belts. The larva is tailed ; in colour it is
green, with oblique lateral ftreaks, which are of a flefh-
colour before, and white behind ; the pupa is brown ; the
tail is four-toothed.

Grantor. Wings entire, brown, fpotted with black ;
lower ones red, edged with black. It inhabits India.
The upper wings are marked with a pale fpot at the bafe ;
the lower wings are fpotted with black at the angle of the
tail.

LABRUSCiE. Wings greenifti, with a white dot on the

lower furface of the upper pair ; the abdomen is marked
with five white dots at the fides. This is an American
infeft. The lower wings are marked with a black difk,
barred with a blue rufous fpot at the angle of the tail.
The larva is tailed, varied with brown and black ; on the
tail is a white poliftied moveable dot.

B. ulntenmc cylindrical; tongue exferted, truncate; n:'in^:
entire. This alvlfton Is named

Sesia.

Tantalus. Abdomen bearded, the third fegnicnt
fnowy. It inhabits Europe and India. The abdomen is
marked with a white and rufous ftreak ; upper wings varie-
gated with three white dots.

HvLAS. Wings femi-tranfparent ; abdomen bearded,
green, with a purple belt. It inhabits Cliina. The tail is
marked with a white dot at the bafe ; the fides of the bafe
are black.

* Stellatarum. Abdomen bearded, the fides are
varied with black and white ; the lower wings are ferru-
ginous. The larva is pale rofy, dotted with white ; the
tail blue, ferruginous at the tip ; the pupa is pale, with a
brown tip.

Pandora. Abdomen bearded, with fulvous fpots on
the fides ; the lower wings are ferruginous at the bafe, and
tipt with black.

FuciFORMis. Abdomen bearded, blackifh, with a yel-
low band near the tail ; wings diaphanous, with a darker
brown border ; beard of the abdomen black on each fide.
The larva is green, with a yellow lateral line ; the horn
is ered ; pupa folliculate, black, with yellow ftreaks
before.

* BoMBYLiFORMls. Abdomen bearded, greenifti, ful-
vous, with a black band ; the wings are tranfparent, with
a fine black edge.

* Apiformis. This fpecies is of an afpcft at firft fight
more refembling that of a wafp, or hornet, than of a fphinx,
the wings being tranfparent, with merely a flight edging of
brown, and the thorax and abdomen varied with black and
yellow. The caterpillar inhabits the hollows of poplar,
fallow, willow, and lime-trees, feeding on the fubftance of
the bark ; changing to a chryfalis in April, and the fly ap-
pearing in the month of June.

* Crabroniformis. Wings tranfparent ; abdomen yel-
low, with black belts ; thorax black, with obfolete yellow
fpots; the head is black, with a yellow ring at the bafe.
The larva is yellow ; the pupa is reddifli-brown. The male
has two black bands near the bafe of the abdomen ; the ie-
male is marked with irregular black Hhcs.

* CuLiciFORMis. Wings hyaline, with a black band
and margin ; the abdomen is bearded, with a fulvous belt y
the antennae are white before the tip.

* TiPULiFORMis. Wings tranfparent, with a black
band and margin ; the abdomen is bearded, black ; the al-
ternate incifures are edged with yellow. This is figured by
Donovan. The thorax has a yellow hne on each fide ; tip
of the upper wings marked with a brown fpot. The larva
is folitary, a little hairy, whitifti, with yellow bead and
legs, and a darker dorfal line ; the pupa is brown -

* ZoNATA. Wings tranfparent, with a black band and
margin ; the abdomen is bearded, black, with a fingle belt.
It is found in divers parts of Europe, as well as in this
country. The head is marked with a thin red margin > on
the thorax are two oblique lateral red lines.

IcHNEUMONiFOR.Mis. Wings tranfparent, with a black

njargin and band, in which is a fulvous dot ; the abdomen is

4. marked

S P H

S P H

■iiiarked with alternate black and white belts. It inhabits
Auftria.

* Vespiformis. Wings tranfparent, with a black mar-

Ein and band ; abdomen bearded, black, the lecond and laft
:gments edged witli yellow. It is found in this country,
and many parts of Europe.

' * CHRYSORRiiffiA. Wings tranfparent, with a black
margin and band ; abdomen black, with four yellow belts ;
the beard is yellow, with a black hne in the middle. This
is an Englifh infeft, and is figured by Donovan.

C. ylntenna thicker in the middle ; tongue exferted, fetaeeous.
Zycsna.

* FiLrPENDL'i-^. Upper wings blue-green, with fix red
fpots in pairs ; the lower ones are red, with a greeniih bor-
der. It is found in England, and other parts of Europe.
The larva is flat, tailed, fulphur-coloured, with four lines of
black dots ; the pupa is brown, but in the middle it is of a
fulphur-colour.

Sedi. Blue ; upper wings with three connefted red
fpots ; the lower ones are entirely red. It inhabits fouthem
Ruflia. The fpots on the wings are furrounded with a yel-
low ring, and the lower wings with a fine black edge.

Phegea. Green-black ; the upper wings are marked
with fix tranfparent dots, the lower ones with two ; the ab-
domen with a yellow belt. It is found in many parts of
Germany. The larva is brown ; the head and legs are red-
difli ; the back is marked with fafciculate white plume?.

Caffra. Black ; wings brown, with five red dots ; the
lower ones are red, edged with brown. It is found in
many parts of Africa. The head is black ; feelers and or-
bits red ; thorax black, with two red dots on each fide ;
dots on the wings furrounded with a black ring.

Cassandra. Brown ; abdomen with five blue fpots on
each fide ; tail, mouth, bafe of the thighs, and abdomen,
fcarlet.

Andromacha. Black ; wings hyaline, with a black
margin and band ; the tail is red. It inhabits America.

Lethe. Wings black, with two yellow fpots ; abdomen
with red, black, and blue belts, and a white one. This is
an African infeft.

Pecticoknis. Brownith ; wings violet, with two white
bands a little interrupted ; the collar is red. It is found in
South America.

Sypilus. Wings black ; upper pair with an interrupted
teilaceous band ; lower ones teftaceous at the bafe ; the
abdomen is dotted with blue. It inhabits different parts of
Araeriea. The abdomen is black, with teitaceous belts at
the bafe ; the tip is dotted with blue.

Capistrata. Wings black, with two tranfparent bands
on the upper pair ; the lower ones have a tranfparent didi ;
the abdomen is red and black on the back. It inhabits
America.

CoLUMBiNA. Wings tranfparent, with a black fpot,
and border marked with red. It inhabits South America.
The antennx are peftinate ; the head is black, with two
red dots ; the thorax is marked with white lines ; the ab-
domen is black, the firll fegment is red, the others are
marked with white and red belts.

C.tUDATA. Wings yellow, hyaline, tipt witli brown ;
body fpottcd with gold. This inhabits South America.

DiPTERA. Wings brown ; upper pair with five tranf-
parent fpots ; lower ones very fhort, with a yellow fpot.
This inhabits the Eail Indies.

Tibialis. Upper wings brown, lower ones hyaline ;
hind-legs long and very hairy. It inhabits Africa.

Capys. Black ; upper wings tipt with white. Inhabit^
Surinam.

* Statices. Upper wings green-blue ; lower ones
brown. Inhabits divers parts of Europe, as well as this
country.

ACHARON. Blue ; wings brown ; tail rufous. It in-
habits New Holland.

Sty-x. Body and wings blue; thorax rufous. It is
found in Africa.

Thoas. Upper wings brown ; lower ones black, with
femitranfparent diflc ; collar red.

SpHlN.x, a name given by Reaumur to a very fingular
fpecies of caterpillar, defcribed in the fecond volume of his
Hiftory of Infeds.

The reafon of the author's having given it that name is,
that when it is not eating it erefts its head, and with it more
than a third part of its body, into a perpendicular fituation
upon the leaf on which it was before laid all along ; it keeps
itfelf a long time in this fituation, looking around it with a
feeming air of fiercenefs. There is alfo a feries of broad
belts upon the body, which contribute fomething towards
its refemblance to the figure of that imaginary monfter.

This caterpillar has a horn on the hinder part of its body,
which feems to be of no fort of ufe, but merely a trouble to
the creature. It is hollow, and inclofes, in the manner of
a flieath, the new horn which is to appear when the creatur*
changes its (]<in. This the author found to be the cafe, by
cutting it feveral times, and always finding within it the new
horn cut off alfo at the fame place, and had often obferved
the great difficulty the animal had in changing its (kin,
when it came to the horn.

Sphinx, Simia. See Simia.

SPHONDYLIUM, in Botany, <r^6vJt/^.ov of Diofco-
rides, the Cow-parfnip. See Heracleum.

SPHONDYLOCOCCUS, fo called, by Mitchell, from
the whorled appearance of the berries, is the Linnsan Cal-
licarpa. See that article.

SPHONDYLUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by
Pliny, and others of the old authors, to a peculiar fpecies
of the fyngnathus, or acus jlriftotelis. It is the fpecies,
called by Artcdi fyngnathus corpore medio hexagono tauda
pinnata ; and by other authors the acus ftcundt fpecies ; and
by Bellonius and Gefner typhle marina.

Sphondylu.s is alfo ufed by fome autliors, for the (tones
or bones found in the head of a mullet.

SPHRAGIDE, or Lemnian Earth, in Mineralogy, a
name given by Werner to a fubltance nearly refcmhling
fuUers'-earth, found in the ifland of Lemnos, in the Medi-
terranean. It is of a greyifh or yellowilh-white colour ; it
has a dull afpeft and a meagre feel, in which relpetl it dif-
fers from fullers'-earth ; it adheres llightly to the tongue,
and falls to pieces when immerfed in water. Tlio con-
ftitucnt parts of this mineral, a;- given by Klaprotli, are.

Silex

Alumine

Magnefia

Lime

Soda

Oxyd of iron

Water -

66

14.50
0.25
0.25

6

Thii earth is dug but once a year, on the 15th of Au-
gult, in the prefencc of the clergy and magiftratcs of the
ifland, after the reading of prayers. 'J'lie clay is cut into
long pieces of an ounce weight, and each of them is after-
wards llamped with a feal, having on it the Tiirki(h name
of the mineral. It u in great repute in the Eall, as an anti-
^ U 7 dote

S P I

tdote againft poifon and the plague ; and even in the time of
Homer was valued on the fame account. It was then
ftamped as at prefent, and none but priefts were allowed to
handle it. Severe punifhments were alfo inflifted on thofe
who prefumed to dig for it at any other but the ftated
period. The geological pofition of this mineral is un-
known. See FuLLERs'-£arM, and Lemnian Earth.

SPHRAGIS, the feal-ftone, a name given by fome
authors to the fingle joints of the afteriae, when found loofe,
not joined into a column. See ^•xw.-Stoiie.

Sphragis is alfo ufed by fome of the old Greek na-
turalifts, to exprefs the fpots on the back and fides of a
panther.

The llcin of this creature is of a pale colour, and thefe
fpots are all dark and round, and look like fo many regular
impreffions of a feal, whence the name fphragis.

The Romans called any thing that was variegated in this
manner pantherina ; and we meet with the plirafe men/a pan-
thermit, ufed to exprefs tables found of fome wood, which
was variegated with round fpots, in the manner of thofe
fphrages on the back of the panther.

SPHYGMICA, in Medicine, a term ufed by fome for
that part of the judgment of a phyfician, which regards the
differences of the a-(pvy^x,:, or pulfe.

SPHYR.(ENA, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome
authors have called the fuHis, or lucitis marinus, the fea-
pike.

Sphyr/i;n.i Altera, a name given by Appian, and fome
other of the old Greek writers, to the cfox, or common
pike.

SPICA, in Botany and Vegetable Phyjiology, a fpike, is
a mode of inflorefcence, very general in the natural order of
Orchideiz, and frequent among many other tribes of plants.
It is compofed of feveral flowers, ranged along a common
flower-ftalk, without any partial ones, each individual
flower being fcfTile. The fpike is generally ereft at the
time the flowers expand, and the latter are lefs crowded
than in a Racemus. See tliat article, ar.d Inflorescence.

Spica Bandage, in Surgery, is a kind of bandage thus
called from its interfeftions, which are fuppofed to rcfemble
an ear of corn. It is either fimple or double. The fimple
fpica, applied to the clavicle, when fraftuved near the flioul-
der, confifts of a fimple band, about five elh long, and three
fingers breadth, rolled up either with one or with two head?.
The double fpica, which is ufed when the oiia humeri of
each arm are diflocated, is a band about feven or eight ells
long, and three or four fingers breadth, rolled up with two
heads : the middle is fixed under the axilla, and the two
heads crofs each other upon the fhoulder, and go over the
bread and back to the oppofite axilla; here they crofs
again, and then rife up over the other Ihoulder as before,
from whence they go acrofs the brealt, and back again to
the left axilla, where they began, forming an X, by tra-
verfing each other upon the ilernum and back. See Ban-
dage.

Spica Virginis, a ftar of the firft magnitude in the con-
ftellation Virtro.

SPICCAtO, Ital., diftinft, detached, feparated, in
Mujie, as if half the note were cut off by a re(t. This term
is nearly of the fame fignification as fciolto and Jlaccalo ; ex-
cept that, on the violin, when fpiccato is written over or
under a group of notes, they are to be touched lightly with
the vibration of one bow ; and fciolto and Itaccato paffages
and movements require a ftrong bow to every note.

SPICE, any kind of aromatic drug, that has hot and
pungent qualities : fuch are pepper, nutmeg, ginger, cin-
namon, and cloves. Some alfo apply the word to divers

S P 1

other medicinal drugs brought firom the Eaft ; as fenna,

callia, frankincenfe. Sec. See each under its proper article.

Spice, ylll. See Pimento.

&VICY.- Wood, in Botany, a fpecies of Laurut ; which fee.

Spices, Garbler of. See Garbler.

SPICHEROEG, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
German fea, near the coall of Friefland. S. lat. 53° 43'.
E. long. 7° 32'.

SPICULUM, in Roman Antiquity, a kind of weapon
which fome will have to be the fame with the hafta, or
fparus.

SPIDER, in Entomology, is the trivial name by which
the large genus Aranea is generally known : under that
term we promifed to give an account of the fpecies in their
alphabetical order ; this, from a change in the plan, having
been negleAed, we (hall take the opportunity which the
wordjplder affords, of enumerating thofe fpecies in as brief
a manner as the fubjeft will allow. We (hall, however, be
under the neceflity of giving in this place the generic cha-
rafter, which is as follows : Mov.th with fhort horny jaws,
the lip rounded at the tip ; two feelers, incurved, jointed
and very fliarp at the end ; thofe of the male are clavate ;
they have no antennx, generally eight eyes, but fometimes
only fix. Eight legs ; the abdomen is ovate, villous, fur-
nifhed at the tip with textorial papillx.

Much intereiling matter on the fubjeft of fpiders will be
found in the article Aranea ; here it may be obferved, that
in ever)' ftage of their exiftence, thefe animals prey with the
utmoll ferocity upon all other infetts that they can over-
come, and even upon one another : from the papilla; at the
end of the abdomen, they throw out at pleafure a number
of fine threads, which they unite in various ways, for the pur-
pofe of entangling their prey. They every year caft off
their old {[<w, which is performed by fufpending themfelves
in fome folitary corner, and creeping out of it. The
younger ones have the power of flight, and in the autumn
mount in the air to a great height ; to perform which, they
probably afcend fome lofty eminence, and are wafted about
by the winds, filling the atmofphere with their fine threads.
The fpider is infefted by the Jphex and ichneumon ; which
fee refpeftively.

Gmehn has enumerated more than a hundred and twenty
fpecies of this genus, which are feparated into diftinft fec-
tions, according to the number and pofition of their eyes.

Species.

A. Eyes placed \\\\

* Extensa. Abdomen long, filvery-greenifh ; legs lon-
gitudinally extended. This fpecies is found chiefly in the
woods of this country, and other parts of Europe. The
head, thorax, and legs, are reddifli ; the abdomen is greenilh
down the back ; the firft pair of legs very long ; the third
very fhort.

Pallens. Pale teflaceous ; mandibles ferruginous, with
black claws. It inhabits the American iflands.

Lobata. Abdomen ovate, lobed, white, with double
brown lines at the tip. It inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope.

Longimana. Ferruginous ; abdomen long, cylindrical,
brown. It inhabits Jamaica. The fore-legs very long,
hence its fpecific name ; third pair very (hort.

Regia. Villous, cinereous, with a yellow band on the
front ; the legs are fpinous. It inhabits Tranquebar, and
is large.

Virescens. Green, with a black cylindrical abdomen ;
the fore-legs very long. It inhabits Zealand.

Cancki-

SPIDER.

Canchipokmis. Abdomen globular, gibbous, with fix
Tpines round the margin. This is found in Jamaica.

Venatoria. GlofTy-black, with a blackifh hairy abdo-
men. This is an American infeft, which fpins a large cy-
lindrical web under ground, which is covered with a lid ;
its bite is very painful, and frequently occafions fever, and
even delirium, which are however quickly removed by
fudorifics.

13-GuTTATA. Black; abdomen rounded, and fpotted
with red. This is an Italian infeft. Its bite is faid to be
very pernicious ; it preys on crickets, which it encompafles
and ep.tangles in a web.

* Latens. Black ; abdomen greyifh, with a black
interrupted dorfal line. It inhabits England, and fecietes
itfelf under a fmall web on the under furface of the leaves
of plants, and is a fmall infeft.

SiGNATA. Greenifh ; fides of the thorax black ; abdo-
men with two black lines. It inhabits Kiel, in Germany.

Mactans. Abdomen ovate, black, with a fcarlet dorf«l
line. This is an American infeft. There is a variety whofe
abdomen is diftinguilhed with two pair of fcarlet dots, and
a tail.
, CicuREA. Pale red, with a cinereous ovate abdomen.
This inhabits Germany, and is found in houfes.

BicoRNis. The uifefts of this fpecies are yellowifh ; the
abdomen is deprelied, with fix imprefled dots ; the head is
two-horned. It inhabits Tranquebar.

NiGRiTA. Black ; abdomen with two teftaceous dots
beneath. It inhabits Saxony, and is middle-fized.

CoRNUTA. Brown ; abdomen oval, cylindrical, above
yellowifh-white, with four pair ef impreiled dots and four
parallel grey lines behind. This is found in America. It
ie about the fize of a man's finger ; the legs are long ; the
thorax truncate on each fide, and ending in two fmall horns
behind.

B. Eyes placed • \

* Globos.\. Black ; abdomen globular, with crimfon
fides. It is found in the woods of England and other Eu-
ropean countries. The body is very fmall : the abdomen
with an interrupted white band in the middle ; the legs are
black ; the hind ones are the longer.

C. Eyes placed •'..'•

HouRiDA. Abdomen nearly triangular, the tip truncate
and obtuie, the four front legs are the longer. It inhabits
Germany, under the leaves of plants, and has a retrograde
motion ; it is of a fingular formation.

Maxillosa. Ferruginous, with a greenifh abdomen ;
the legs are pale ; the mandibles large and projefling. Ic in-
habits the ifland of Santa Cruz.

Smaragdula. Green ; abdomen paler, with a green
dorfal line at the bafe. It inhabits France.

Latro. Thorax villous, cinereous ; abdomen acute,
black, with ferruginous fpots. It inhabits America.

* Viatica. Brown, with a roundifh flat obtufe abdo-
men ; four hind-legs very fliort. It inhabits Europe, in gar-
dens and meadows, and is fmall.

* DoMESTiCA. Abdomen ovate, brown, with five black

I and nearly contiguous (pots, the anterior ones larger. It
inhabits Europe, is very common in lioufes and about win-
dows ; it preys chiefly on flies.

Dorsata. Green ; abdomen brown on the back. It
inhabits Kiel.

TtsTACEA. This is teilaceous ; the abdomen is fub-

globular, dull greenifli. It is found in divers of the South
American iflands.

* Trilineata. Abdomen ovate, whitifh, with three
longitudinal lines of blackifh dots.

IdiPRESSA. Black ; abdomen ovate, with fix imprefled
dots, and two yellow dots beneath. It inhabits Norway, on
rocks.

* L«viPES. Abdomen rhomboid, deprelied, and fpotted
with black ; the legs are extended and variegated. It is
found on walls in this country, and other parts of Europe.

Tricuspidata. Greenifh ; abdomen white, with a red-
difh tail. It inhabits Saxony. Head, thorax, and legs,
greenifh ; eyes, efpecially the latter ones, elevated.

D. Eyes placed ' ' '

Argentata. Abdomen white, and brown behind; the
margin fix-toothed. It inhabits America and the Ealt
Indies. Thorax filvery, the margin of the abdomen is
armed with three flrong fpines on each fide.

E. Eyes placed

Fasciata. Silvery ; abdomen with a yellowifh band ;
legs annulate with brown. It inhabits Madeira.

* Angulata. Abdomen ovate, the fides angular and
acute on the fore-part ; the thorax has an excavated centre.
It inhabits our own country, and divers other parts of Eu-
rope, in trees, and fpins a web, which is perpendicular in its
pofition, and which varies very much in colour.

*Diadema. Reddifh-brown ; abdomen gibbous, and
marked with white drop-fhaped fpots in the form of a crofs.
This is found in our own country in trees, and is reckoned a
very beautiful infeft. The body varies much in colour from
a darker to a lighter rcddilli-brown ; the legs arfr annulate
with brown.

Marmorea. Brown; abdomen ovate, varied with white
and brown ; found chiefly on the European continent. Spins
its web on the ground ; the legs are yellow, annulate with
brown.

Reticiil.vt.'V. Abdomen globular, reticulate, above pur-
plifli, clouded with brown, found chiefly in the gardens in
Europe.

* CucuRBlTiNA. Abdomen fubglobular, yellow, with
a few black dots. It belongs to this and other European
countries, is found in trees, and fpins a lax web.

Calycina. Abdomen globular, pale yillowifli. This
is an European iufcdt, and is found in the calyces of flowers
from which the coral has fallen, and fattens on bees and fliea
that come to extradt the ne<3ar.

8-Punctata. Abdomen roundifh, yellow, with four
black railed dots on each fide ; tail rufous. It inhabits
Sweden, and is thought by fome writers not to belong to
this divifion.

Bl-PUNCTATA. Abdomen globular, black, with two
hollow dots. It is found chiefly in windows in European
countries.

RiPARiA. Abdomen ovate, black-bronze ; tail pale
yellow, and two-horned. It inhabits Sweden, on gravelly
fhores.

* QuADRATA. Abdomen fubglobular, yellowifh-rufous,
with a white line at the bafe and lour fpots. It inhabits the
woods of Europe. It is fomewhat Icfs than the diadema,
and perhaps only a variety of it.

LrruHATA. Teilaceous; abdomen pale black, with a
white margin and marks. Inhabits France.

QuADUi-PUNCTAT.\. Abdomcu oblong ; the back black

and

SPIDER.

and flat, with four excavated dots. It inhabits Europe, in
houfes.

MiLiTARis. Black. ) with four i'pincs, the hind ones
longer and fpreading. This is an American infeft, as are
the three following.

Spinosa. Back with eight fpines, the two hind ones
fpreading ; abdomen beneath conic. The body is brown,
and of a triangular (hape.

AcuLEATA. Back with fix fpines, the hind ones
fpreading.

Tetracantha. Abdomen globular, with four fpines
round the margin. The head and lliorax are ferruginous ;
abdomen with imprefl'ed dots at the bafe.

Hexacantha. Abdomen tranfvcrfe, with fix fpines
round the abdomen. This inhabits Jamaica, and is fup-
pofed to be the fame, or at moil a variety of the cancri-
formis.

FoRNlCATA. Sides of the abdomen a httle vaulted, with
two fpines, the poiterior one longer. It is found in New
Holland. A fpecimen exifts in the mufeum of fir Jofeph
Banks.

* Labariuthica. Abdomen ovate, brown, with a
whitifli pinnate line. It fpins an horizontal web on the
ground, with a cyhndrical cavity.

Quadri-lineata. Abdomen roundiih, yellow, with a
purplilh line on each fide, and four dots. It inhabits Swe-
den. It is hyaline, with a yellow front.

* Rediusita. Abdomen oval, pale yellow, with a
crimfon oval crown or ring on the back. It is found in
gardens. The legs are long, white, and tranfparent.

Corollata. Abdomen oval, bhck, with a white oval
ring on the back. It inhabit? Europe, on plants.

* Montana. Abdomen oval, white, with grey fpots.
It inhabits Europe, on trees. The thorax and legs are
pale ; the fore-legs are long and extended.

Sanguinolenta. Abdomen ovate and fcarlet, with a
longitudinal black line. It inhabits Spain.

Nigra. Abdomen ovate, and fcarlet above. This is
an inhabitant of Calabria.

NoTATA. Abdomen ovate, brown, with white tranf-
verfe curved lines. Found in divers parts of Europe, as are
the three following.

RuFiPES. Abdomen brown ; legs rufous. Found
chiefly on nettles.

NocTURNA. Abdomen black, with two white dots, and
a white lunule at the bafe.

Se-x-punctata. Abdomen oblong, with three pair of
excavated dots.

Palustris. Thorax and abdomen with a fnowy line on
each fide. Found in the reedy marfhes of Germany. The
tip of the thorax before the eyes ends in a white line.

* Aquatica. Brown ; abdomen ovate, cinereous ; the
back brown, with two imprefied dots. This is found in
cur own and other European countries, in frelh-water lakes,
where it dives to the bottom in fearch of food, within a
globule of air formed by itfelf. It takes up its winter quar-
ters in a forfaken Ihell, the aperture of which it clofes up
with a web. Its jaws are large, ftrong, black, with fcarlet
nails.

Obscura. Abdomen fubconic, dufliy, with a whitifli
dorfal line. It inhabits France, in woods, as does the
next.

Scalaris. Thorax teftaceous ; abdomen fnowy on the
back, with an oblong indented fnowy fpot at the tip.

Trigutta. YeUowifh ; abdomen black, with three
white fpots. Found in Alface.

ScOKPiFORMis. Black ; abdomen whitifli, with two

black lines ; fore-legs very long. Found in gardens at
Leipfic. It is fmall and retrograde.

* Carnifex. Ferruginous ; abdomen grey, with a dorfal
line. It inhabits England.

Flavissima. Abdomen oblong, of a fine rich yellow
colour, and fraooth. Four.d in Egypt.

Bimaculata. Abdomen roundifli, chefnut-brown co-
lour, with two white dots. It inhabits Europe, and is lefs
than a flea.

Trukcorum. Black, with white dots on the back. It
fprings to a great diftance on its prey. It is an European
infeft, and found on walls and the trunks of trees.

Rui'ESTRis. Abdomen with a black fpot, edged with
red, and white in the middle. It fprings on its prey, and
is found chiefly on old walls.

ViREscENS. Abdomen oblong, yellow-green, with lateral
white lines.

Spinipes. Pale, with fpinous legs. A variety has
fpinous legs, with ferruginous joints. Found in divers
parts of Europe.

Opilionoides. Grey, with very long and extremely
flender legs. It inhabits Germany and France ; fpins a
very lax irregular web, the threads crofling each other ; and
is gregarious.

O-sbeckii. Pale yellow ; abdomen with imprefl'ed dots
in pairs, with an odd one ; the fore-legs are longer. It in-
habits Aultria, as does the next.

WiLKii. Varied with black and grey ; legs cinereous,
annulate with black ; the hinder ones are fliorter.

Speciosa. Thorax grey, with two brown fpots; the
abdomen is oval-oblong, with tranfverfe black curves ; be-
neath it is reticulate with black, with two yellow bands.
It inhabits Calabria and Siberia, and is domerticated in the
houfes of the ColTacks. It is a very beautiful fpecies.

F. Eyes placed .., ,

Clavipes. Abdomen oblong, yellow, dotted with
white; all the flianks, except the third pair, clavale and
hairy. It inhabits South America, in trees and out-houfes ;
fpins a ftrong fpreading web, and is a beautiful fpecies.

* Saccata. Abdomen ovate, rufty-brown. This is
found in gardens, and it carries its bag of eggs behind it.

Fumigata. Abdomen ovate, brown, with two white
dots at the bafe. Tiiis is found in Sweden. It lives in
meadows, and watches before the nelts of larvae, which it
catches as they come out, one after another, and fucks out
their vitals.

G. Eyes placed \ , ,\.

FlMBRiATA. Black ; abdomen oblong, with a white
line on each fide. It is found in many parts of the continent
of Europe, in reedy marflies.

* DoRSALi.s. Black ; thorax comprefled, with a white
dorfal hne. It is common in England. The abdomen is
ovate, whitifli at the bafe ; the legs are livid.

Sanguinolenta. Black ; abdomen red, with a black
dorfal line. It is found in divers parts of Europe, and
fprings on its prey.

PuPiLLATA. Teftaceous ; abdomen brown on the back,
with fubocellar fulvous fpots. It inhabits China.

* ScENiCA. Black ; abdomen fubcylindrical, with three
femicircular white lines on each fide. It fprings on its prey.
It inhabits this and other countries of Europe, on old walls
and windows. The body is covered with filvery hair ; the
legs are fl^ort, hairy, black and white.

FULVATA.

SPIDER.

FuLVATA. Black ; hind margin of the thorax fulvous ;
abdomen with three fulvous bands. It inhabits Cayenne.

PuBESCENs. Abdomen ov.ite, brown, with four cine-
reous fpots, the hind ones larger. It inhabits Leipfic.

ClNEREA. Cinereous ; abdomen brown on the back,
with eight cinereous dots. It is found on the fhorcs of the
Baltic.

Trilienata. Brown ; thorax with a paler margin, and
lateral dorfal line ; abdomen ovate, cinereous ; beneath
brown. It inhabits Naples.

Tarantula. Abdomen with triangular black fpots on
the back ; the legs are fpotted with black. This is found
in the foulhern parts of Europe, but chiefly in Italy, and
likewiie in Barbary, in cool caverns, and is the infeft whofe
bite was long fuppofod to be curable by mufic only. It
is generally admitted to be partially poifonous, but never
fatal. Sec Tarantula.

H. Eyes placed

AvictJLARlA. Thorax orbicular, convex, with a tranf-
verfe central excavation. Found among trees in South
America, where it preys upon larger infefts, and even upon
fmall birds, dropping into their nefls, and fucking their
blood and eggs. It is faid to be of fo enormous a fize,
that its fangs are equal to the talons of a hawk ; and its eyes
are capable of being fet in the manner of glaffes, and ufed
as microfcopes.

I. Eyes placed . . : : . .

PuLCHRA. Oval-oblong ; thorax villous, white ; ab-
domen and legs black, with yellow bands. It inhabits
Helvetia.

K. Eyes placed \ \

GoEZll. Black ; abdomen ovate ; front white. It
fprings on its prey, and is ufually found in the woods of
Vienna. The abdomen is marked with two imprelleddots.

L. Eyes placed \\ , ,

TruncatA. Grey, ferruginous, (lightly clouded ; tho-
rax globular, and (lightly hcart-fhaped ; the abdomen is
fomething triangular, and marked with an obfolcte longi-
tudinal crofs. It is found in Germany, on oak and other
trees.

M. Eyes placed .'.'.'.

CoNicA. Abdomen ovate, obfcurely conic behind, va-
ried with brown and whitifh, and black beneath. This,
like the laft, is found in the woods of Germany, and fpins
a labyrinthical web.

N. Eyes placed :

Albifrons. Hairy; body ovate, and variegated with
black and chefnut-brown. It inhabits Luface.

O. Eyes placed "'.'.'

Taurus. Abdomen flat, with two very long curved
fpincs. Found chiefly at St. Domingo.

Arcuata. Brown ; abdomen with fix fpines, the middle
ones curved, and lix times as long as the body. This is
found in the Fall Indies, and is a fmall infeft.

Makulata. Tiiorax filvery ; abdomen cylindrical;
legs very long and black. It inhabita China.

PiLiPES. Brown ; abdomen cylindrical, with filvery
lines ; legs very long and hairy. It inhabits the Fall Indies,
and is a large infeft.

Mvoi'A. Greenifh ; abdomen red on the back, with a
few black dots ; the fides are yellowifh. It inhabits Kiel.
This is a beautiful infeft ; the mandibles are tipt with
black ; the thorax with two darker lines ; abdomen ovate,
pubefcent ; textorial papilla: tipt with black ; legs long,
pale greenifli ; the forc-fhanks tipt with black.

LoNGiPES. Black ; abdomen cylindrical, brown, with
fix imprelled dots ; the legs are very long. It inhabits
Auftralafia.

RuFiPES. Ferruginous ; abdomen ovate, pale cine-
reous ; legs rufous. It inhabits Morocco.

* Senoculata. Abdomen greenifh, with black dots,
and a yellow line on the fides. It is found in gardens and
on walls.

ScoPULORUW. Abdomen brown, with a pinnate white
dorfal line. It inhabits Norway, and is found on rocks.

Lusea. Pale ; abdomen filvery, with black branched
lines. It inhabits Tranquebar.

Parallela. Brown; fides of the thorax and abdomen
white ; mandibles projcfting and parallel. It inhabits the
American iflands.

ScROFA. Hairy, brown ; abdomen femiorbicular ; man-
dibles black, cxfcrted, and hooked at the tips. It inhabits
under ground at Chili, and is about the fize of a pigeon's

BicoRNis. Abdomen two-horned. It inhabits Siberia.

Caspia. Thorax fubglobular ; abdomen oblong, varied
with yellow and black bands. This fpccies inhabits the
deferts of Ural, and is regarded by the Calmucks as ve-
nomous.

Argentea. Thorax orbicular, deprefled, white, with
two black fillets ; abdomen is ovate, lobed, filvery, with
two pair of dots in the middle, and four rows behind. It
inhabits the deferts of Ural, and is accounted poifonous by
the Calmucks. It fpins a perpendicular web.

P. Number and Pofition of the Eyes untnoivn.

NoBiLis. Thorax orange, with fix black fpot~ ; ab-
domen yellov.', with feven black fpots. It inhabits Su-
matra.

Calceata. Hairy, grey ; legs with two black fpots at
the tip above ; beneath lilky, with a green glofs. It in-
habits Guinea, and is a very large infeft.

* Holoserkea. Abdomen ovate-oblong, filky, hvid
brown, with two yellow tubercles beneath.

Spinimobilis. Abdomen roundifli, yellowifli-brown,
with four rows of bhckilh dots ; thighs with black move-
able fpincs. This is found at Surinam.

Cruentata. Black, with a yellow band at the bafe
of the abdomen ; the bread is of a deep red. It inhabits
Brazil.

Sex-cuspidata. Brown ; back of the thorax fix-
toothed, with a lateral fulvous fpot. It inhabits the Cape
of Good Hope.

HiRTiPics. Bhck ; feelers and legs hairy, and pale tef-
taceous. It inhabits Cayenne.

Tribulus. Head tlirce-toothcd on the fore-part, ab-
domen covered with numerous fpines. It inhabits the
Cape of Good Hope.

Elegant. Black, with two white curves on the fore-
part of the thorax, and a white dorfal line on the abdomen.
This is ail American infeft.

Ocellata. Pale ; abdomen clouded, with a black
ring ; the thighs are marked with tlircc doubled ocellatc

fpots.

SPIDER.

fpots. It inhabits China, and is the fize of the taran-
tula.

Alba. White ; abdomen with five imprefled dots ; two-
horned and deprefled at the bafe, and globular at the tip.
It inhabits Siberia, under the bark of trees.

The eggs of fome fpiders are a very pleafing microfcopic
objeft ; they are round at one end, and flattilh at the other,
with a depreffion in the centre of the flattift end, and a yel-
lowifh circle round it. The colour of thefe eggs is a pearly
or blueifh-white, and when the young fpiders hatch, they
come out in their perfecft form, and run about very nimbly.

The female fpider depofits her eggs, to the number of live
or fix hundred, in a bag compofed of her own web, which
(he either carries under her belly, or hides in fome very fafe
recefs. Philof. Tranf. N° 272.

The young fpiders are always very beautiful objefis for
the microfcope. The current of the bloed may be eafily
difcovered in their legs, and part of their bodies ; and many
other curious particulars occur in their dili'eftion. There
are two or three fpecies of this animal particularly worthy
the attention of the curious in microfcopic difcoverics. I. A
little white field fpider with ihort legs. This is found plen-
tifully among new hay, and its body appears hke white am-
ber with black knobs, out of which grow Ihort but (harp
prickles. The eyes of thefe may be very dillinftly feen,
being very briflc and lively, and fome have fix, fome eight of
them ; each eye has a pupil of a violet blue, which is beau-
tifully clear and tranfparent, and is furrounded by a circle
of pale yellow. 2. The wandering, or hunting fpider, that
fpins no webs, but runs and leaps by fits. This has two
tufts of feathers fixed to its fore-paws, which make a very
beautiful appearance before the microfcope. The variety
and beauty of colouring alfo, all over this Lttle creature,
afford a very pleafing fight. 3. The long-legs, or (hepherd
fpider. This is a moil wonderful creature : it has two fore-
claws at a great dillance from the head, tipped with black,
like thofe of a crab, and opening and ftiutting hke the
fcoi-pions ; tliefe are ferrated or indented on their infide.
When all the legs are cut from this fpider, and it is exa-
mined by the microfcope, it will be feen that the pro-
tuberance on the top of its back is furniihed with two fine
black eyes. Power's MicroC Cfbf. p. 13. Hook's Mi-
crogr. p. 200.

The venom of many kinds of fpiders is greater than ufually
fuppofed : we have, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, an
account of a perfon in New England who was bitten by a
fmall fpider a little above his ankle ; he perceived the crea-
ture biting, aad crulhed it to death upon the wound, be-
tween his Hocking and his leg ; in half an hour he felt a
pain in that leg, which in another half hour extended itfelf
to the groin, and at the fame time he had a creeping pain in
the calf of his other leg ; and in a quarter of an hour after
this it affefted his ftomach, his back, and his head. The
pains were not conftant and fixed, but erratic, and very
acute, and his pulfe was extremely low and heavy. He was
relieved, by taking internally fpirit and fait of hartftiorn in
viper-wine, and applying a cataplafm of garlic to the part,
and in three or four days wholly recovered.

Boccone mentions a fpecies of large fpider, common in
the ifland of Saidinia, whofe bite proves mortal within the
fpace of a few hours ; the whole body ufually fwells almoft
immediately, in confequence of this bice. The cure is per-
formed by oil of olives, in which the creature is infufed over
the heat of a ftove. This is a medicine they always keep
ready in the houfe, and while they ufe this externally, they
give large dofes of Venice treacle inwardly, diflblved in
Itrong wine : but many die of this bite, either from the

II

want of power in the remedies, or from their being ufed
too late.

There is hardly any fubjeft on which there has been a
greater difference of opinion than the fuppofed poifon of
fpiders. To the obfervations that occur in this article and
alfo under Akanea, we fliallhcre add fome further remarks,
with which we are furuiflied by Dr. Amoureux, jun. a late
French writer. Our fpiders in France, fays this author, (in
his " Notice des Infeftes de la France reputfes venimeux,")
are in general rather ugly than formidable. If any are
fufpeAed of being poifonous, it ought not to be the domeilic
fpider with long claws, aranea phalangiodes, Linn., nor the
m.ower of the fields, phalangium opilio, Linn., the only kinds
of the phalangia mentioned by Geoffroy ; nor the mafon
fpider, nor the orange-coloured fpider, and that entirely
white aranea viatica, and the aranea citrina, Linn., found
commonly among vegetables or fruit, and chiefly grapes,
nor many others, which we fee daily, and of which we
have no caufe to complain. Swammerdam did not believe
that the fpider emitted through the ftings or darts with which
it pierces the animals whofe blood it fucks, a venomou..
liquor. Liller, on the other hand, who fays that he had
certain proofs of fpiders being venomous, exprefied the poi-
fon from thefe inftruraents. Leuwenhoeck alfo advances,
that the venom of the fpiders is contained in the cavity of
the (harp pincers which proceed from the mouth of the in-
feft. Others have faid tliat thefe forceps are not hollow,
but that the venom proceeds from a fmall trunk which ill'ues
from the mouth at tht- moment when the infecl feizes its
prey. (See Aranea.) Although it be a certain fatt, that
many fpiders, and perhaps all of them, throw out from their
mouth a certain liquor, with which they moiiten their prey,
we may reft'aflured, fays Amoureux, that our fpiders have
nothing in them of a venomous nature ; and this is proved
by their being often touched without danger, and by their
being eaten without injury. Redi faw people who ate fpi-
ders, and from the experiments which he made, he does not
believe them to be poifonous. Clark and Roefel maintain,
that fpiders are not fo venomous as is fuppofed, fince many
perfons fwallowed them. A perfon is mentioned, who ate
all he could find, and who found them to be purgative. He
fpread them on a flice of bread, as if they had been excel-
lent marmalade. Moreover, it is maintained, in oppofition
to the popular error, that the fpider is not able, by its
pricking, to kill the toad. It is alfo well known, that
chickens, nightingales, and other birds, eat fpiders without
injury ; and they have been prefcribed as a remedy chiefly
in the tympanis. Liller, whofe obfervations on thefe infefts
have been numerous, (ays pofitively, that feveral fpiders
have a venomous liquor : but the honorable Mr. R. Boyle af-
fures us, that he never faw any venomous fpiders in Ireland.
Upon the whole, it is obferved, the different effefts of
fpiders are owing partly to a difference in the fpiders on
which experiments have been made, and the different con-
(litution of the fubjedls. In ordinary cafes of being bitten
or punctured by fpiders, it will be fufiicient to wa(h the
wounded part with brine, to apply theriaca, and to pre-
fcribe one or two dofes internally. The frelh leaves of fage,
or thofe of plantain, have been recommended as topics, and
wafhing with vinegar. Recourfe may alfo be had to volatile
alkali.

Some think the white matter we often find floating in the
air towards the end of fummer, is produced by fpiders. See
y//r-TnREADs.

Spider, Red. See Acarus.

The red fpider is very injurious and deflruftive to dif-
ferent forts of plants and fruit-trees, efpecially in forcing-

houfee

S P 1

S P I

hcTufcs. It is found particularly fo to thole of the forced
French bean, melon, peach, vine, cherry, currant, and feme
other kinds. The generation and produftion of this infeft
arc greatly caufed and promoted by the dry warm heat that
is conllantly kept up in the houfes which contain thefe forts
of plants and trees, and there are many other circuniftances
which combine in bringing it forth. It is an infeA which
has no wings, and the female is oviparous.

Several different methods have been attempted in order to
the removal and dellruftion of it. Conttaiit daily watering,
or wafhing the trees, are faid to have the power of fubduing
it, but in the execution of the work, care is always to b.'
taken that every part of the leaves be wetted, otherwile the
infefts flielter and fave themfelves in the dry parts, and are
preferved from the effects of the water.

Moiilure conveyed in fome way or other is certainly found
to be the moll dcftruftive, of any thing yet difcovered, of
thefe pernicious infecfts, as well as many others that infeft
hot-houfes. Throwing weak lime-water in a plentiful man-
ner on the under fides of the leaves, where thefe infeifts are
commonly found, will, for,the molt part, loon deftroy them.

The following direftions have been given for the deltruc-
tion of this fort of fpider, when it becomes injurious to
melon plants ; and the fame may probably be found ufeful
for thofc of the forced French bean, and fome other fimilar
kinds.

In cafes of dry weather, and with a dry heat, melon
plants are very fubjeft to be infefted with the red fpider ;
and the appearances of it may conftantly be long noticed
before the infe£ts can be feen with the naked eye, by the
leaves beginning to curl and crack in their middle parts.
Whenever they are difcovered to be in this ftate or condi-
tion, and there is fine warm funny weather, the watering of
them all over the leaves, both on the under and upper fides,
is advifed ; a watering-pot, with a rofe finely perforated with
holes, or a garden-engine, which difperfes the water in a
fine dew-like manner, being employed for the purpofe. The
work fhould be performed about fix o'clock in the morn-
ing, and the plants be (haded with mats about eight, if the
fun fhinc with much power, (liutting the frames down clofely
until about eleven ; and then admitting a fmall quantity of
frefh air, letting the mats remain until about three in the
afternoon, when they (hoiild be wholly taken away. The
fliade which is thus afforded by the mats prevents the leaves
of the plants from being fcorched or otherwife injured by
the aftion of the heat of the fun while they are in a wet
cooled down ftate. Where a foutherly breeze prevails,
watering them again about three in the afternoon is recom-
mended, fhutting them up clofe as before, to keep the heat
in, which caufes a itrong exhalation of the moillure, and is
greatly dellructive of the ipiders.

In all thefe waterings, the water is to be thrown as much
and as finely as poffible on the under fides of the leaves,
where the infects molUy lodge ; the vines or ffems of the
plants beings gently turned in that intention, taking great
care not to injure them, by which means the water is capa-
ble of beipg eafily thrown over the whole of the under fides
of the leaves, it being done m a gentle manner, in the modes
already fuggelted, fo as not to walh up the mouldy matters
on to the plants : the lights and fides of the frames which
contain the plants, fhould alfo, at the fame time, have water
plentifully thrown on and againft them. When thefe water-
ings are finilhed, the vines or flcms of the plants are to be
carefully laid down a<;ain in their former pofitions. And if
the day be funny, the mats may be let remain, as already
direfted, until the leaves of the plants become perfeftly dry,
.air being admitted according to the heat that may be prcfent

Vol. XXXIII.

at the time. It is likewife further advifed as a precautionary
meafure, that, before the frames and lights,, which are to
contain plants of this fort, are employed, they fhould be
well wafhed, both infidc and out, firll with cleaH water, and
then with a mixture of foap-fuds and urine ; a brufti or
woollen rag being made ufe of in the operation ; as by this
method the ova or eggs of the fpiders or other infeds that
may have been depofited and lodged in or on them, in the
preceding feafon, may be cleared away and deftroyed. The
exhalations of the water which has been thrown upon the
plants, and the frames or boxes that contain them, may alfo
be ufeful in killing thefe infedls, in other cafes by keeping
them in a clofe Hate.

Thele wafhings fhould never, however, be performed in
cold frolly periods or feafons ; and the water made ufe of in
fuch cafes fliould always be of the rain or foft kind.

The mould which has formerly been employed in raifmg
thefe plants, where infeited with the fpider, fhould not, oa
any account, be again had recourfe to fur the fame ufe, as
it may contain the ova of thefe infefts. See CucuMis.

The waterings, wafhings, and other modes and means of
removing and deftroying this infeft, when it infefts the fruit-
trees and flirubs noticed above, are explained under the
different proper heads. See Amygdalus, Prunus, Rises,
and ViTLs.

The fpecies of this genus of infefts are extremely nume-
rous, being more than eighty. This fort is very common on
trees, efpecially thoie of the currant kind, being frequently
feen running on the fruit of it. See Acahus.

This infeft is injurious and deftruftive to plants and trees,
and the produftion of their fruits, by feeding on their juices ;
as the ftems and leaves of them are not unfrequently com-
pletely robbed and exhaulled of their moifture in this way.

Spidek'j Si/i. See Silk, and Aranea.

Spider'j IVeb. See Web.

SpiDER-Shel/, a name given to fome fpecies of the murex.

SpiDER-lVort, in Botany. See Anthericum.

SPIEGELBERG, m Geography, a town and citadel
of Weftphalia, giving name to a fmall county in the prin-
cipality of Calenberg ; 2 1 miles S.W. of Hanover.

SPIEI, in the G/a/s Trade, an iron inltrument, hooked
at the end, and pointed, with which the workmen take the
metal up out of the melting-pots for proofs or ail'ays, to fee
whether it be fit to work.

SPIELBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Oettingen, infulated in the m.irgravate of
Anfpach ; 8 miles N.E. of Oettingen. N. lat. 49° 3'.
E. long. 10° 13'. — Alfo, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach ; 3 miles E.S.E. of Kirch Lamitz.

SPIELMANNIA, in Botany, named in houour of
Dr. John Reinhold Spielmann, profeffor of medicine and
botany at Strafhurg, author of a Prodromut Fhrt Argen-
tornlenfis, and other trafts on botany and pharmacy. —
" Medicus Aft. Palat. v. 3. 196. t. 10." Schreb. 414.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 321. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 4. 45. .luff. loy. Lamarck lUiillr. t. 85.
— Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofperniia. Nat. Ord.
Perfonatte, Linn. Filka, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, creft,
fhort, permanent, divided into five, linear-awl- fhapcd, acute,
nearly equal fej'ments. Cor. of one petal, falver-fliaped :
tube cylindrical, incurvi d, globular at the bafe, hairy within-
fide, Its mouth clofed with h.iirs ; limb nearly equal, cloven
into five oblong, truncated, flat, widely fprcading fegmcnt--.
Slant. Filaments four, very fltort, in the tube I'f the corolla,
two of them fhorter ; anthers oval. Pifl. Gernien fupe-
rior, roundifh ; flylc fhort, permanent ; ttigma hooked.
3 X Peric,

S P 1

Perk, a globular, one-celled, fucculent drupa. Seed. Nut
globularly depreired, wrinkled, ftriated and tuberculated
longitudinally, two-celled. Kernels folitary, oblong, more
gibbous outwardly, tuberculated and ftriated longitudinally,
each affixed to a fleftiy tunic, gibbous on one fide, hollow
on the other, adhering to the partition.

Etr. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Limb five-cleft, its mouth
clofed with hairs. Stigma hooked. Drupa containing a
two-celled, tuberculated nut.

I. S. afrkana. Ilex-leaved Spielmannia. Willd. n. I.
Ait. n. I. (Lantana africana ; Linn. Sp. PI. 875. .laf-
minum africanum, iHcis foho, flore folitario ex ahs folionim
proveniente; Commel. Rar. 6.) — Native of the Cape of

Good Hope It flowers from February to November. —

Stem fhrubby, five or fix feet high, fending out numerous
irregular branches. Leaves oval, thin, embracing the item,
ferrated, pointed, vifcid, fragrant ; upper ones alternate.
Flowers folitary, one from the bofom of each leaf, white,
fomewhat refembling thofe of Jeifamine. Fruit globular,
infipid.

Adanfon long ago formed a new genus of this plant,
which he called Oftin.

SPIE RINGS, N., in Biography, born at Antwerp in
1633, was a painter of landfcape, who formed his ftyle on
the ftudy of the works of Salvator Rofa, and particularly
remarkable as one of thofe who produced a portion of the
Bumberlefs piftures fold as his all over Europe.

SPIETZ, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, fituated on the W. coaft of the lake of
Thun; 25 miles S.S.E. of Bern. N. lat. 46'=' 41'. E.
long. 7° 33'.

SPIGELIA, in Botany, fo called by Linnoeus in comme-
moration of an old botanift, of confiderable note, Adrian
• Spigelius, who was born at BrufTels in 1578, and who
died at Padua, where he was profeflor of anatomy and
furgery, in 1625. His work, entitled Ifagoge in rem her-
bariam, appeared at Padua in 1606, and another edition at
Leyden in 1633. (See Spigelius.) — Linn. Gen. 84.
Schreb. no. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 824. Mart. Mill.
Dift. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 317. JufT. 143.
Purfh N. Amer. 123. Lamarck Illultr. t. 107. — Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stel/ata /S,
Linn. Gentian<e, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
five-cleft, pointed, fmall, permanent. Cor. of one petal,
funnel-fliaped ; tube much longer than the calyx, nar-
rowed towards the bafe ; limb Spreading, cloven into five
broad, pointed fegments. Stam. Filaments five, fimple;
anthers fimple. Piji. Germen fupenor, compofed of two
globes ; ftyle folitary, awl-fhaped, the length of the tube ;
ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule two-lobed, of two cells and
four valves. Seeds numerous, very minute.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Capfule of two glo-
bular cells, with many feeds.

1. S. Anthelmia. Annual Worm-grafs. Linn. Sp. PI. 213.
(Anthelmenthia quadriphylla ; Brown Jam. 156. t. 37.
f. 3-) — Stem herbaceous. Upper leaves in fours. — Native
of the Weft Indies and South America. It flowers in
July. — Root annual, fibrous. Stem herbaceous, a foot and
half high, channelled, branched. Leaves oppofite, in pairs,
thofe which terminate the branches four together in the
form of a crofs, ovate, pointed. Flowers in fhort, her-
baceous, cluttered fpikes, ranged on one fide of the
footftalk.

2. S. marilandica. Perennial Worm-grafs. Willd. n. 2.
•' Hope Aft. Edin. 1771, v. 3. 151. t. i." Curt. Mag.
t. 80. Woodv, Med. Bot. 288. t. 105.— Stem fquare.

I

S P 1

Leaves all oppofite. — Native of North America, on the
edges of woods, in rich moift fituations, flowering in July
and A\iguft. — Root perennial, fibrous. Stems herbaceous,
ereft, fix or eight inches high. Leaves oppofite, feWile,
entire, fmooth, fpreading. Flowers large, and extremely
handfome, in a terminal fpike, all on one fide of the foot-
ftalk, of a bright red or rich fcarlet on the outfide, yellow
or orange-coloured within.

The Englifti name of this genus, Worm-grafs, is derived
from the peculiar efficacy of both the fpecies as a medicine
for perfons afRifted with worms. Dr. Brown, in his
Hiftory of Jamaica, fays that no other fimple is equally
efficacious with S. jinthelmia for this purpofe, ami Mr.
Purfti informs us that the roots of S. marilandica are m
great cftimation, and fold under the name of Pink-root.

Spigelia, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the annual
and perennial kind, the cultivated fpecies of which are, the
American worm-grals ( S. anthelmia), and the Maryland
worm-grafs (S. marilandica).

Metliod of Culture. — The firft fort, which is annual, and
not hardy in its nature, is increafcd by fowing the feeds
of it upon a hot-bed, or in fmall pots plunged into one, ia
the early fpring feafon, treating the young plants after-
wards in the manner of thofe of the tender annual fort.

In the fecond fpecies, which is perennial, and fomewhat
hardy, as it does not ripen its feeds well in this climate, it
muft be propagated by parting the roots in the autumnal
or fpring months, and putting them in feparate pots, er
placing them out in warm fituations.

The latter kind of thefe plants, which have the outfides
of their flowers of a bright red colour, and the infides of a
deep orange caft, produce a fine ornamental effeft, as they
make an elegant and beautiful appearance during the
fummer months, when placed in coUeftions with others.

Spigelia, in the Materia Medica, the root of the fpigelia
marilandica, or worm-grafs root, imparts its bitter tafte to
boiling water. It is purgative and anthelmintic ; the latter
property having been difcovered by the Cherokee Indians,
who call it " Unftretta," and many opportunities having
occurred in this country, as well as America, for evincing
its efficacy in worm cafes. In the recent ftate, and admi-
niftered in fmall dofes, it occafionally produces giddinefs,
dimnefs of fight, and even convulfions ; and thefe effefts
are afcribed to its narcotic principle, the aftion of which
its powerful cathartic property prevents, when the dofe is
large. It is ufual to adminifter an emetic previous to the
ufe of it ; and to affift its purgative operation by adding
two or three grains of calomel, or eight or ten of rhubarb.
Its power in expelling lumbrici has been moft perceptible ;
and in vinous infufionsof it, it is faid to have been beneficial
in intermittents. Dr. Barton alfo recommends it in the
protrafted remitting fever of infants, which often lays the
foundation of hydrocephalus. This root may be admi-
niftered either in fubftance, or in the form of aqueous in-
fufion. The dofe of the pulverized root may be from
grs. X to 3j, given every night and morning till the worms
are expelled. Woodville. Thomfon.

SPIGELIUS, (or Vanden Spieghei,) Adrian, in
Biography, an eminent phyfician, was born at Bruflels in
1578. He ftudied philofophy and medicine firft at Louvain,
and afterwards at Padua, where he received the degree of
M.D. He became thoroughly fltilled in every branch
of his profeffion, and particularly in anatomy and furgery ;
and after travelling for fome time to the different fchools
of Germany, he fettled in Moravia, where he was foon ap-
pointed phyfician to the ftates of the pnivince. He had
there attained to the higheft reputation, when he was invited,

in

S P I

S P I

in 1616, by Ae fenate of Venice, to occupy the principal
profeflbrfhip of anatomy and furgery in the univerfity of
Padua, which had become vacant by the death of Caflerius.
He accepted the appointment, and acquitted himfelf witli
fo much fuccefs, that he contribiited to render the fchools
of Padua more flaurifhing than they had ever been ; and the
fenate recompenfed his fervices by creating him a knight of
St. Mark, and prefenting him with a collar of gold. The
apparent vigour of his conftitution, his vivacity of dif-
poiition, and his years, promifed a continuance of life, and
an increaling reputation ; but he was cut off at the age of
47, in April 1629 ; according to one account, in confe-
quence of a puntlure of his finger by a piece of glafs, at
the marriage-fealt of his daughter, which was followed by
a fuppurating tumour in the axilla ; but according to
another, in confeqi:ence of an attack of (low fever, brought
on by his indefatigable exertions in the performance of his
duties. His writings evince that he was a man poffeffed of
very extenfive medical knowledge. The firll work which
he publilhed was entitled " Ifagoges in Rem Herbariam
Libri duo," printed at Padua in 1606. This work, though
not very fyiematic, contains fome interefting matter. It
treats copioufly on the virtues of plants, refpedling which
he is faid to have learned much from the Italian pcafatitry,
in a tour which he made in the drefs of a rultic. He pub-
lifhed alfo " De Lumbrico lato Liber, cum notis et ejufdem
Lumbrici icone," to which was fubjoincd a letter " De
incerto tempore Partus," 1618. " De Semitertiana Libri
quatuor," Francf. 1624. But the moil valuable of his
writings are thofe which he compofed on anatomical fubjedf s,
and which were publifhed after his death by his fon-iu-law,
Crema. Thefe were entitled " De Humani Corporis
Fabrica Libri X, cum Tabulis 98 xre incifis," 1625, folio ;
and " De formato Fcetu Liber fingularis, xneis figuris
ornatus;" to which was annexed "Traftatus de Arthritide,"
1626, folio. The firit of thefc, relating to the Itrufture of
the human body, is one of the bed anatomical works of the
time, written with purity, and arranged with great per-
Ipicuity and preciCon, and containing ufeful phyfiological
and practical obfervations. There is an edition of this
work publilhed by Bucretius, 1627, who lias been ccnfured
for intermixing his own obfervations with the text of the
author. The whole works of Spigelius were colleftcd by
Vander Linden, and publifhed \n three volume; folio, at
Amlterdam, in 1645. Bee Eloy Dift. Hill, de la Med.
Gen. Biog.

SPIGNEL, in Botany. See Ath.a.maxt.\.

Spignel, Men. See .^Ethusa.

Spignfl, IV'ild. See Sersiountain and Sesei.i Seed.

SPIGNO, or Spin.\, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Stura, late a marquifate belonging
to Piedmont, on tiie Belbo ; g miles S.S.W. of Acqui.

SPIGOLA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Paulus
Jovius, and fome others, to that fpecies of perch which is
generally called the lupus marinus.

It is a genuine perch, and is dillinguiflicd from the others
by Artedi, by the name of the perch with thirteen rays in
the fecond back fin, and fourteen m the pinna aiii.

Authors have called two different fi(h by this name lupus
marinus, which, conveying no diftintl idea of the charadlers
of the fifli, was applicable to one as much as the other ;
but this name of Artedi admits of no equivocation, and
mull always diftinguifh the filli.

SPIKE, in Geography., an ifland in the harbour of Cork,
Ireland, which commands the entrance in fuch a manner,
that it lias been regularly fortified at a great expence, and
is one of the moft complete and unaffailable fortreffes in his

majelly's dominions. The works, now (1815;) nearly com-
pleted, have given employment to a great number of men
for feveral years. Spike ifland is immediately oppofite to
the town of Cove, and about ten miles from Cork.

Spike, or Oil of Spike, a name given by our druggilt* to
an ciiential oil, much ufed by the varnifh-makers and the
painters in enamel ; and of fome ufe in medicine.

This oil, when genuine, is brought from Provence, and
fome other parts of France, and is there made of lavender.
This plant is called in Provence a/pic, and thence came
the name oil of afpic, which afterwards degenerated into oil
of fpik:. See L.WANDtn.A, and Oil.

The manner of making the oil upon the fpot is this :
when the flowers are perfeftly ripe, they put them into an
alembic with a great quantity of water, and this they diflil ;
after feveral days' maceration, there arifes with the water
a large quantity of an oil of a fine pale amber colour, and
this, feparated from the water, is the true and genuine oil of
fpike.

The flower of this plant is the part which yields the
largell quantity of oil ; as is the cafe with all the plants
with galeated flowers, of which the huflc, or flower-cup,
ufually contains almoft all the oil of the plant. The aro-
matic plants, in general, yield indeed but a fmall quantity
of oil, but the vail abundance of this plant, in thefe places,
makes the expence of gathering it fo fmall, that the oil is
very clicap. The quantity required on feveral occafions, is,
however, much greater than what all the lavender of the
country can yield ; and the price it is expefted to be fold
at is fo fmall, that it is not to be wondered that there are
feveral common adulterations of it.

The moft ufeful ways of fophifticating it, however, arc
two ; the one with the fpirit of wine, which is efteemed the
leaft hurtful, and the oil thus fophifticated is often called
the very bell of the country. The method Mr. GeofFroy
took to difcover the cheat was this : he procured a long
and narrow phial, of an equal diameter all the way up ; into
this he firft put an ounce of fair water, and to this he added
an ounce of the oil ; he marked the height of the water in
the phial, then fhook the two liquors together, and they be-
came milky, and heated on the mixture, which alone would
have been a fufficient proof that there was fpirit of wine in
the oil. After fome ftanding the liquor became clear, and
the oil floated at the top, but in a much fmaller quantity than
might have been expedled, there being not more than a
quarter of an ounce of it, the reft having been (pirit of
wine, which mixed with the water, and thus left all the
true oil, whicli was only one-fourth of the quantity, to
float alone on the water, which was greatly incrcafed in
height in the phial. A pint of this oil of fpike, therefore,
contains only four ounces of the genuine oil, and twelve
ounces of plain fpirit of wine.

The fecond method of adulterating this oil, wliich the
fame gentleman had fufpeded, was eafily difcovcred next ;
for on mixing this quarter of an ounce of pure oil of fpikc
with three quarters of an ounce of oil of turpentine, tliere
was produced an ounce of liquor, which appeared wholly
the fame with the oil of fpike commonly fold in the drug-
gilts' fliops. And indeed, much of what is ufually fold
is worfe than this, being no other than oil of turpentine
fcented with a fmall quantity of true oil of fpike.

The ready way of dilcovering the oil counterfeited wth
oil of turpentine, is to wet a |):iper in it, and fet it on fire ;
the turpentine will here be difcovercd by the thick fmokc
it yields, it being, of all vegetable oils, that which yields
much the thickcll cloud in burning: and, on the contrary,
that which has been adulterated with fpirit of wine, w^lI
3X2 he

S P I

S P I

be diftinguiftied by the fame trial, by its yielding a mucTi
finer and thinner fmoke, and burning with a bright blue
flame. If they be- tried by firing them in a fpoon, that
which is adulterated with fpirit of wine will burn very
bright, and yield no fume at firft ; but as it grows near the
bottom it will fmoke a little, and finally will leave no refi-
duum, except that it varnifhes over the infide of the fpoon :
that adulterated with the oil of turpentine will burn more
vehemently, fmoke more, and leave a coarfer varnifh upon
the fpoon ; and if it be of the coarfefl kind, that is, if it
hath been adulterated with badly reftified oil of turpentine,
the fume vrill be the more abundant, and there will be left
in the fpoon a fetid matter, refcmbling melted pitch.

Mr. Geoffroy tried whether, in the bufinefs of varnifhing,
the oil of turpentine alone might not do as well as the oil
of fpike ; he found that it dried perfeftly well, but that it
left a (linking fmell upon the work, which never went off ;
whereas the mixture of this oil with that of fpike, makes
a fmell like neither, and which loon goes off.

An ounce of oil of turpentine, with only twenty drops,
either of our common oil of lavender, or the pure oil of
fpike, makes a liquor tolerably well fcented, and which
ferves for the purpofes of oil of fpike. If two drachms of
our oil of lavender be added to fix drachms of fpirit of
wine, they immediately mix ; and this, afterwards mixed in
a fmall proportion with oil of turpentine, makes a fort of
oil of fpike.

The moft regular method, however, that the artificer can
ufe, if he can get the genuine oil of fpike, is to mix one ounce
of it with three ounces of oil of turpentine, which perfeftly
fits it for this purpofe, and makes it the fame with that in
common ufe. The method of making this perfeftly pure,
13 to rediftil it in a balneum Mariae ; there will thus be pro-
cured an oil highly reftified, and pellucid as water, which
will dry away as foon as touched on any thing. The great
difadvantage attending the oil of fpike adulterated with
fpirit of wine is, that it will not readily mix with all the
forts of varnilh.

Having gone through the properties of oil of fpike, in
regard to varnifh, it remains to inquire into them in regard
to its other great ufe in enamel, and to confider the effefts of
the two ufual methods of adulterating it in this work.

The oil of fpike which wants body, is not at all fit for
enamelling, becaufe it dries too fuddenly, and does not at
all affift the natural drynefs of the enamel, which is only a
fort of powder of glafs ; and the particles of this powder,
with a fluid of too little body, are not manageable by the
artifts, fo that the colour never is brought to a due con-
fiftence ; and when the oil has too much body, the mixture
becomes too tenacious, and is as unmanageable in that ex-
treme as in the other ; and this fault is attended with
another very great mifchief, which is, that the fume raifed
by this oil, when heated, is often fo grofs, as to deftroy the
beauty of the colours. In fliort, thick oil of turpentine is
always deftruftivt of enamels by its fmoke.

The true compofition for enamelling is oil of fpike mixed
with fpirit of wine, but the proportions mull be nicely re-
gulated from repeated trials : for if the quantity of the
fpirit be too large, it is apt to feparate itfelf from the oil
and colour in the drying, and this always fpoils the glofs
and beauty of the work. Artificers obferve, that oil of
fpike does beft for their purpofes, after it has been kept
two or three years. But this is only owing to the oil's
being adulterated with fpirit of wine, and ufually contain-
ing too large a proportion of the fpirit when firlt fent over :
it becomes better for ufe when a part of that fpirit has had
time to evaporate in the keeping. It would be a better

4

way for thefe curious works, to procure the oil pure, and
then occafionally mix it with fuch a proportion of fpirit of
wine, as experience (hews to be the moll proper. Mem.
Acad. Par. 1716.

Spike, La-vender. See Lavender.

Spike, Winged, Grafs, in Botany. See Stipa.

Spike, Hand, in Mechanics. See W.WiT)- Spike.

Spike a Gun, in Military Language, fcfc, fignifies to
choak up the touch-hole of a piece of ordnance, fo as to
render it ufelefs. See Nail.

SpiKE-Roller, in jigriculture, a very ufeful implement of
the roller kind, firft introduced by Mr. Randall of York to
the notice of the farmer. It has been found of much ad-
vantaoje in bringing itifF cloddy lands into a ftate of fuitable
pulverization and finenefs ot mould for being fown. It is
likewife employed, in a beneficial manner, on fward-land
that is worn out and mofly, by preparing it for the apphca-
tion of earthy compofts and grafs-feeds. But it is remarked
by the inventor, that in this bufinefs the roller muft go up
and down, till the fwarth and ground are perfeftly well
broken up : this being done, the feeds of clover, trefoil,
and rye-grafs, or any other mixed with them, muft be fown
in the ufual way and quantity ; then the compoft muft be
fpread over the feeds, fo as to cover them ; and a common
barley-roller, with a thorn-bufti fattened to it, muft follow,
and the ground be ftiut up, left the cattle ftiould do harm
by treading. v

In refpeft to this fort of roller, the dimenfions in length
were feven feet, the diameters at the ends eighteen inelies,
and the whole cylinder made of the heart of oak ; and when
the irons were burnt in, and the man feated on the box de-
figned for that purpofe, the weight of the whole was about
a ton. But the blunt ends of the irons were oppofcd to the
clods, and run more taper, till they came to the furface of
the cylinder, into which the irons were burnt, and inferted
about three inches, which was their length above the furface
of the roller, and which he always found very fufGcient to
crufti the hardeft clod that ever came in their way. Had he,
indeed, attempted to go on the ground, when the foil was
not perfeftly dry, this pofition of the irons would have carried
the clods round with the roller ; for it is not its province to
fqueeze, but crufti. Nor indeed can a man do more harm
to his ground than going upon it, when it is not quite dry,
with a roller conftrufted in this way. He had the irons
fixed in four inches afunder, in the firft row, from end to
end. The fecond row began juft between the firft and fe-
cond irons of the firft row. The third row was like the
firft ; and the fourth like the fecond. Then alternately for
the whole furface of the cylinder, as near as poflible, the
irons were four inches afunder in each individual row ; and
four inches from row to row, as nearly as the fuperficies of
the cylinder would permit. He does not know how to con-
vey ajufter idea of the Ihape of the irons than to call them
ox-harrow teeth, or thofe of a very large harrow ; for when
he fent for the workman, he defired him to make fo many
of this denomination, fix inches in length, and burn the
fmall end three inches into the wood. This is a roller that
requires a ftrong team in performing its work.

But in addition to thefe ufes, it has been fuggefted that it
may likewife be very ufeful in preparing clay for the making
of canals, or pieces of water : for where, as fometimes hap-
pens, the clay grows dry, and will not admit of being duly
tempered for ufe, without great pains in breaking it, a very
large quantity may very foon be reduced to the requifite
finenefs, by fpreading it on hard ground in a due thick-
nefs, and pafiing this roller a few times over it. In exten-
five works, much trouble and labour may fometimes be

faved

S PI

S P 1

favjd by this means, where fuch a roller is at hand, and the
clay prepared in a manner that will anlwer the purpofe much
more efFe&iially.

It may alfo be noticed, that this is a fort of tool which
no farm, where the land is a ftiff clay, or in the lead liable
to clot, Ihniild want : for befides the conltant advantat^e of
faving labour, and bringing land to a better condition for
any kind of fowing than the plough and harrow, with any
afliltance of the work of hands, can make it ; in favourable
feafons, and under certain circumllances, the lofs of the
whole crop, by an otherwife unavoidable delay bcvond the
feed-time, may be with certainty prevented.

It has been Hated as an improvement in thi? implement, in
order to prevent its tearing up the ground, and the great
ftrefs that is upon the frame in turning, to have it divided
into two parts. Let the ends of each part be bound with
narrow, but ftrong, bands of iron, and let the fpikes at the
ends be placed clofe to them ; let each part have a feparate
frame ; but let the cheeks, in which the inward gudgeons
turn, be made of iron plates, about two inches wide above,
and four where the gudgeons enter ; the thicknefs, a com-
mon flat bar of iron : and thefe fixed in any firm manner to
two cheeks of wood, reaching down juft to the bands, and
of fuch a thicknefs at bottom as not to interrupt the fpikes.
Let the inward gudgeons be made with quite flat heads, to
prevent their flipping out in working, and bring the two
ends of the roller nearer together, which is of confequence,
as the fewer clots will be milted in working.

Let the frames be joined together by four eyes, like thofe
of a fmall gate, tvi^o at one end, about five or fix inches
apart ; the two at the er.d of the other, to take place jnlt
within them ; an iron pin being put through all four, and
keyed. Let the thills be placed jull on the middle of each
frame, and a bar of wood jull behind the horfe to llrengthen
them ; the bar fawed through in the middle, and joined by
a ftrong flat hinge ; one fide made to hafp upon a ftaple,
kept down with a wooden clet. This gives the whole pro-
per play in working.

The fpikes are about four inches without, and three within
the wood : the thicknefs of the roller and number of fpikes
may be determined, in fomc meafure, by the nature of the
foil it is to work upon. Thus formed, it will be found, it
is faid, next to the plough, the moft ufeful inftrument in
tillage, not only in reducing a (tifF foil, but, with a bu(h at
its tail, to cover the feed, wlien fown, much more cflettually,
and in a better manner, than a harrow, as it turns up the
earth light and fine behind it ; and, though feemingly un-
wieldy, will turn with eafc, and may he worked with one,
two, or three horfcs at moft, upon any land that is of a
proper drynefs to work upon.

This implement may likewife be employed to affilt in
reducing the half-burnt turf of burn-baked land, which
requires much labour, as commonly done by hand ; but by
going over the land leveral times witli the fpike-roUcr, and
harrowing it with heavy harrows alternately, to pull up the
turfs, or ploughing them up, they may be reduced fine in a
much (liortcr time, and at a much lefs expence, than by
beating or breaking them by hand. The mode of con-
ftrufting the tool, in the common manner, has been already
fliewn. See Roi,l.Eil.

Still more lately, a clod or improved roller of this kind
has been conftrudted by Mr. Blithe Harries of Benthall-
houfe, near Shitrnall, in wliich the danger of the horles
being injured in turning, by the fpikei, is obviated. It is
found very cffcftaal on ftrong foils, and well adapted for
breaking and reducing clods, pulverizing old turf fallows,
and preparing land previous to fuwing barley, and many

other purpofes. He defcribes it in the Agricultural Maga-
zine as confifting of twenty-one call-iron wheels, twenty,
one inches and a half in diameter, the edges three inches
afunder ; or a fmaller pattern, confifting of fourteen wheels,
twenty-three inches in diameter, the edges four inches and
a half afunder, faftened upon an iron axle-tree, with a large
wheel at each end to carry it to the field. It is farther
ftated, that the invention is Mr. Gittin's, of the Ifle, Shrop-
fhire, an ingenious farmer, who had one made at Mr.
Onion's foundery, Brofeley ; and Mr. Harris now makes
them at his iron works, the price of which, in either of the
patterns, is lo/., exclufive of the row of fpikes to clear dirt
or ilones, and the ftiafts.

In this ftate it forms a fort of cutting or bruifing imple-
ment of the kind, and may be of very great utihty in dif-
ferent cafes of ftiff", cloddy, arable land, as well as in thofe
of the tough, unproduftive, overrun fward kind. It is
capable of performing a good deal of work, in both thefe
cales, in a (hort fpace of time, and in the moft effeftual
manner.

All implements of thefe kinds having great power and
difpatch, are confequently capable of very general applica-
tion in the bufinefs of tillage, as well as grafs huftsandry.
They may be conftrufted in different cheap methods, and be
made ufe of with much advantage in a variety of fituations,
where they are at prefent perhaps wholly, or in a great mea-
fure, unknown.

This implement is fometimes called fpiky-roller.
SPIKELET, in Bolany, Sp'uula, is technically ufed for
the afiemblage of the florets of graifes, within the calyx ;
and which confifts of two florets only in A'lra and Helcus ;
of many in Poa, Bromus, &c.

SPIKENARD, Bajlard French. See Naudus.
Spikenard, Celtic, a fpccies of ^a/fn'an ; which fee.
Spikexard, Falfc. See Lavandula.
Spiken'ARD, Ploughman's. See Baccharis.
Spikenard, Ploughman's, is alfo the name of a fpecies
of flea-bane, or conyza ; which fee.

Spikenard, Nardus, or Spica Nardi, in the Materia
Medica, a kind of vegetable flioot growing even with the
ground, and fometimes, in part, within the ground, be-
longing to an Indian graily-leaved plant, of which we have
no particular defcription. The nard, as it is brought to us,
is a congeries of fmall, tough, reddifli-brown fibres, forming
a bunch, or fpike, about the fizc of a finger.

The fpica nardi is ufually reckoned in the number of
roots. It is alfo called nardus Indica ; becaufe brought
from the Eail Indies.

It is now kept in the /hops chiefly as an ingredient in the
mithridate and thcriaca, but was formerly employed in the
fame intention as the Celtic, and is faid to be ufed among
the Orientals as a fj)ice. It is moderately warm and
pungent, accompanied with a flavour not difagreeable.
Lewis.

There is alfo another kind, called /pica Celtica, a fpecies
of valerian, growing in the Alps, from whence the lliops
have been generally iupplied with the dried roots, confifting
of a number of blaekifli fibres. This root has been recom-
mended as a ftomachic, carminative, and diuretic : at pre-
fent it is fcarccly othcrwile made ulc of, in this country,
than as an ingredient in mithridate and theriaca, though
its feiifible qualities promife fomc confidcrable medicinal
powers. It has a moderately ftrong fmell, of which it is
very retentive, and a warm, bitterifti, fubacrid tafte, re-
fembliiig thofe of common wild valerian. Lewis.

SriKi NAiiD, Ointment of. See Nahdinlm Unguentum.
SPIKES, or, as the ieamen call them, /peeks, in a Ship,

arc

s p r

are large long iron nails with flat heads. They are of divers
lengths, fome a foot or two long, and fome are jagged, fo
that they cannot be drawn out again. They are ufed to
fallen the planks and timber. See MARhiNG-Sfiie.

SPIKING up the Ordnance, a fea-phrafe, uied for faf-
tening a quoin with fpikes to the deck, clofe to the breech
of the carriages of great guns, that they may keep clofe
and firm to the (hip's fides, and not get loofe when the (hip
rells, and by that means endanger the breaking out of the
butt-head of a plank. See Quoin.

SPILAMBERTO, in Geography, a town of Italy,
in the department of the Panaro ; 8 miles S.E. of Mo-
dena.

SPILANTHUS, in Botany, originally called Spilan
THES by Jacquin, is derived from cr-Ao;, a J pot, and xnfc;-;
a floiuer, becaufe of its dotted or fpeckled flowers. — Jacq
Amer. 214. Schreb. 543. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 171?
Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 49:;
Jufl". 187. Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 345. Illuftr. t. 668
Gaertn. t. 167. — Clafs and order, Syngenefia Palygamia
Mqualis. Nat. Ord. Conipofita OpjynfitifolU, Linn. Co-
rymbifera, Juflf.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx nearly hemifpherical, imbri-
cated, with lanceolate, linear, compact fcales, in a double
row. Cor. compound, uniform, tubular, conically convex,
the florets numerous, equal, all perfefl, funnel-lhaped, with
a four or five-cleft, reflexed limb. Stam. Filaments four
or five, capillary, very fliort ; anthers cylindrical, tubular.
Ft/}. Germen oblong, comprefled ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the
length of the ftamens ; ftigmas two, recurved. Peric. none,
except the unchanged calyx. Seeds fohtary, oblong ; com-
prefled, flattifh. Down with a membranous margin, and
two unequally-fized awns at the tip. Rccept. briilly, co-
nical, its fcales comprefled, deciduous.

Obf. In S. atriplicifolius the feeds have no awns ; and in
5. Acmella and ullginofa the radius is very fniall, and com-
pofed of only three or five flowers.

Efl". Ch. Receptacle chaffy, conical. Down with two
aw.is, one larger than the other. Calyx nearly equal.

1. S. urens. Biting Spilanthus. Willd. n. i. Jacq.
Amer. t. 126. f. i. — Leaves lanceolate, entire. Stem
proilrate. — Native of fandy fields in America, about Car-
thagena, flowering from May to Ociobcr. Root perennial,
fibrous. Stems herbaceous, round, fmooth, procumbent,
branched, fibrous at the joints. Leaves oppofite, felTile,
imooth, ribbed. Flowers folitary, capitate, terminal, fcent-
lefs, white, dotted with black.

The leaves of this fpecies pofTefs a hot, pungent flavour,
refembhng the root of Pyrethrum, or Peilitory of Spain, for
which they are occafionily fubllituted.

2. S. Pfeudo- Acmella. Baftard Acmella or Spear-leaved
Spflanthus. Willd. n. 2. (Veibefina P leudo- Acmella ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 1270. Chryfanthemum mederafpatanum la-
tifolium, fcabiofas capitulis parvis ; Pluk. Aim. 99. t. 159.
f. 4-) — Leaves lanceolate, ferrated. Stem ereft. — Native
of Ceylon, flowering in July. Root annual. Stem two feet
high, round, branched, rather hairy. Leaves oppufite,
ftalked, ovate, veined, the ftalks chaniielltd and flightly
downy. Floivers folitary, yellow, on long, upright, naked
ilalks.

3. S. Acmella. Balm-leaved Spilanthus. Willd. n. 3.
(VerbeCna Acmella; Linn. Sp. PI. 1271. Abcdaria ;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. 14^. t. 65.) — Leaves ovate, fer-
rated. Stem ereft. Flowers radiated.— Native of Ceylon,
flowering from July to the end of fummer. Stems about two
feet high, much branched. Lea-^^es like thofe of the laft
fpecies. Flowers folitary, radiated, yellow, oq very long

S P I

ftalks. This plant is reputed to be a fpecific for the ftone
in the Eaft Indies. It differs chiefly from Pftudo- Acmella,
in being more branched, and in having radiated flowers.

4. S. ullginofa. Boggy Spilanthus. Willd. n. 4. Swartz
Prodr. no. Ind. Occ. 1291. — Leaves ovato-lanceolate,
notched. Stem erett, forked. Flowers radiated, terminal,
Italked. — Native of the fouth of Jamaica, in clayey, fwampy
ground, flowering in the fpring. Root annual, long, Cmple,
thread-ihaped. Stem herbaceous, halt a foot high, round,
fmooth, reddilh. Z.i•a^|« oppofite, ilalked, fmooth. Flowers
rouiidilh at firlt, afterwards conical, yellow.

5. S. exafperata. Rough or Warty Sipilanthus. Willd.
n. 5. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 3. t. 584. (S. radicant ; Jacq.
Coileft. V. 3. 229.) — Leaves ovate, wavy. Stem forked,
afcending, rough with warts at the bafe. Calyx of five
leaves. — Native of Venezuela, and flowenRg in iloves from
July to January. Root branched, whitifn. Stem nearly
three feet in height, ereft, fomevvhat hairy, rough towards
the bafe, with ftiarp, flefliy warts. Leaves oppofite, ftalked,
acute, flightly ferrated, roughifli. Flowers folitary, white,
on downy ftalks. Seeds black, fringed with white hairs.

6. S. alba. White-flowered Spilanthus. WillJ. n. 6.
L'Herit. Stirp. Nov. t. 4. — Leaves ovate, wavy ; lower
ones alternate. Stem branched, afcending. Calyx of many
leaves. — Native of Peru. It flowers in June and July.
Root annual, fibrous, pungent, exciting faliva, whence
Murray called this fpecies J'alivaria. Stem herbaceous,
wavy, upright, rugged, panicled. Leaves ftalked, fpread-
ing, bluntifli, hairy, fringed. Flowers terminal, folitary,
conical, obtufe, white.

7. S. atripllci/olia. Orache-leaved Spilanthus. Willd.
n. 7. (Bidens atriplicifolius; Linn. Sp. PI. 1168.) —
Leaves alternate, deltoid, toothed, ftalked, furniflicd with
ftipulas. Stem panicled. — Native of South America. Stem
herbaceous, fmootli. Leaves alternate, on flender ftalks.
Stipulas equal, kidncy-lhaped, like little ear-;. Flowers
fohtary, terminal. Seeds without awns, oblong.

S. S. infpida. Tattelefs or Mild Spilanthus. Willd.
n. 8. Jacq. Amer. 215. t. 126. f. 2. — Leaves obovate,
toothed, feffile. — Native of America, and found by Jacqiun
at the Havanna, where it flowers in the winter. Stems
Ihrubby, round, branched, procumbent. Leaves oppofite,
nearly feffile, fmooth, attenuated at the bafe. Flowen like
thofe of urens, and like that fpecies the leaves of this have a
fait or biting flavour, but in a milder degree, fo that the
fpecific name is not extremely appropriate.

9. S. okracea. Efculent Spilanthus. Willd. n. 9.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 63. t. 135. — Leaves ovate, heart,
ftiaped, ferrated. Stem branched, dilTule. — Native of the
Eaft Indies, flowering at Kew from July to November.
Stems a foot long, proftrate, round, fomewhat rugged.
Leaves oppofite, dark green above, yellowifii or glaucous
beneath. Flowers folitary, terminal, forming a fort of
cylinder, yellow. Seeds brown, fringed with white hairs.

10. S. tinaoria. Dyers' Spilanthus. Mart. Mill. Diet.
n. 5. Loureir. Cochinch. 484. — Leaves lanceolate, fer-
rated, fmooth. Stem diffufe. Flowers numerous, ter.
minal. — Found on cultivated ground, in China and Cochin-
china. Stem herbaceous, three feet high, rather procumbent,
round. Leavet oppofite, fmooth, rather fucculent, bright
green. Flowers of a blueifli-white hue. The leaves when
bruifed yield a fine blue colour, whence it is cultivated by
the natives for dyeing. This is very clofely allied to 6".
Acmella.

SPILBACH, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the
territory of Rothenburg ; 4 miles W.N.W. of Rothen-
burg.

SPILE,

S P I

SPILE, in Ship-Building, a plug made of fir to fill up
holes, where nails have been driven, to prevent leaking, &c.
Spile, in Rural Economy, a piece of wood fliarpened at
the point, and drove down into the ground, on the fides of
rivers, or other places, for the purpofe of prolefting their
banks, or other parts, againft the deitruftive violence of the
waters. They (hould be well proportioned for the purpofe,
and be very firmly driven down by proper machinery.

But in whatever way, or however firmly, fpiles may be
driven down into the ground, they never form a good or
fecure defence againft the force of river-currents. The
only method of completely effedting this is now well under-
ftood to be that of making the banks to (helve, or flope
well backward from the rivers, and throwing the force of
fuch ilreams in new, contrary, or otlier direftions than thofe
to which they have been accuftomed. In thefe ways much
is not unfrequently accomplifhed, without any great deal of
labour, trouble, or cxpence in any manner.

Spii.e is alfo a term provincially ufed to fignify the vent-
peg of a caflv.

SPILEMBERGO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
Friuli, on the Tajamento ; 14 miles W. of Udina.

SPILINGS, in Ship- Building, the dimenfions taken from
iule-ftaff, a mould's edge, or Itraight line, to trim or fay
.^nc piece to another.

SPILKEVY, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Drontheim ; 88 miles S.W. of Romidal.

SPILL, To, in Sea-Language, is to difcharge the wind
out of the cavity or belly of a fail, when it is drawn up in
the brails, in order to furl or reef it. This is performed
either by collefting the fail together, or by bracing its edge
to the wind, fo as to fhiver or be laid aback. Falconer.

SPILLING-LlNES, in a Ship, certain ropes fixed oc-
cafionally to the main-fail, and fore-fail, in tempeftuous
weather, for raifing or furling them more conveniently.
They arc parted through blocks above the yard, and thence
loading down before the fail, come under its bottom, and
rttiirn upwards behind it to the yard, where they are faf-
tened ; fo that tlie iail by this effort is clofely and immove-
ably confined to the yard. Falconer.

SPILOMA, in Botany, fo called by Acharius, from
tnriXwy.a., a /lain, or fpot, in allufion to the appearance of
the fruftification. — Ach. Meth. 9. Lichenogr. 23. t. i.
f. I. Syn. I. Sm. Engl. Bot. v. 29. 2075. — Clafs and
order, Cryptogamia Algs. Nat. Ord. Algx, Lichenes.

Ed. Ch. Receptacles fhapelefs, without a border, haiiy
and powdery, in an uninterrupted cruft.

This minute and obfcure genus of the Lichen tribe has
long been overlooked, or confounded with other things.
The fpccies, which are fixteen in Acharius's recently pub-
liflied Synopfis, arc found either on old wood, the bark cf
trees, or on rocks and walls. Thirteen are figured and
defcribcd in Engl. Bot. v. 29 — 36. Some of thefc, as S.
Vitiligo, t. 2075, looks to the naked eye like a little grey
duit, fcattered over the pales on which it grows, and ilain-
ing the finger when touched. Others refemble crultaceous
Lichens, particularly Lecidcic ; but are diftinguifhed by
their black powder, which comes off with a touch ; as S.
ler/lcolor, t. 2076, and variolo/um, t. 2077, both found on
old trees. S. auratum, t. 2078, is dill more remarkable for
the internal orange-colour of its receptacles, which becomes
vifible whenever they are rubbed or broken.

SPILSBY, in Geography, a market-town in the eaft
divifioii of the foke of Bolmgbroke, parts of Lindfey, in
the county of Lincoln, England, is fituatcd on an eminence,
overlooking to the foutli a large traft of marfh and fen land,
whwh is bounded by Bollon Deeps and the German ocean.

S P I

Spiliby is the chief town in the fouthern part of Lindfey
divifion, and is 31 miles E. from Lincoln, and 134 miles
N. from London. It confifts principally of four ftreets
uniting at the market-place, which forms a fpacious fquare,
interfefted in the centre by a row of houfes, with the mar-
ket-crofs at the eaft end, and the town-hall at the weft.
The markct-crofs confifts of a plain oftagonal ftiaft, with a
quadrangular bale ; the whole elevated on five fteps. The
town-hall, a plain brick building, ftanding on arches, was
built in 1764, on the fcite of the old hall, which, being in
a ruinous ftate, had been taken down. The general quar-
tcr-fellions of the peace, for the fouthern divifion of the
parts of Lindfey, have been holden here for upwards of an
hundred years. The pariih-church, fituatfd on the weft
fide of the town, is an irregular building, confifting of north
and fouth aides, the latter of mnch larger extent than the
reft of the edifice. A chapel occupies the extremity of the
body of the cluirch, in which are fome ancient monuments,
belonging to the families of Bcke, Willoughby, and Bertie.
At the weft end of the church is an embattled tower, of a
more modern date than the other parts of the ftruftnrc, and
probably erefted about the time of Henry VII. Here is a
fmall free-fchool, fupported by the rents of certain tenements
bequeathed for that purpofe ; and a Sunday fchool, recently
eftablidied, promifes to be of great advantage to the lower
dalles of the people. A weekly market is held on Mon-
days, and three fairs annually. The population return of
the year 181 1 ftates the number of houfes to be 230, oc-
cupied by 963 perfons.

At Ereft)y, two miles from Spilfby, was formerly a man-
fion, noticed by Leland, belonging to the Bekes and to the
Willoughbys. It was taken down, and another built on
the fcite, which was deftroyed by fire : a ftately avenue of
trees leads to the fcite. The place is now abandoned for
the more fplendid domain of Grimfthorpe. Erefby was a
grant from William the Conqueror to Walter Beke. It
was podeired fucceflively by the Bekes, Willoughbys, and
Berties, till the year 1778, when, with the manor of
Spilftjy, it became the property of fir Peter Burrell, now
lord Gwydir, by his marriage with lady Willoughby,
daughter and coheirefs of the duke of Ancafter. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lincolnftiire, by .1. Brit-
ton, F.S.A.

SPIN Hay, To, in Military Language, is to twift it up
in very hard ropes, for an expedition : fo that it may be the
lefs bulky for the cavalry to carry behind them.

SPINA, in Botany and Vegetable Phy/iology, a thorn ori-
ginating from the fubllance of the wood itfelf. (SeeFoL-
cuA.) Linnxu.i remarks that a thorn is liable to dilappear
by culture, or richnefs of foil, as in the pear-tree. Hence
he fpcaks of fuch plants as becoming tame by the influence
of good treatment ; whereas prickles, aculei, featcd in the
bark, are not affedled by fimilar caufes. The reafon is well
explained by Willdenow, who juftly confiders thorns as of
the nature of abortive branches, ftunlcd in tlieir growtli for
want of nouriftimcnt.

Spina, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Tanaro ; 9 miles S.W. of Acqui.

Spina Bifida, Cloven fpine, in Surgery, frequently named
:ilfo Hydrorachilii, is a tumour for the nioft part fituated on
the fpines of young children, commonly on the lumbar ver-
tebrx ; occafionally on the dorfal or cervical ones ; and
fometimcs, though lefs frequently, on the os facrum.

A tumour of a fimilar nature is now and then obferved
upon the head. Richter's Chirurg. Bibliothck, 9 band,
p. 186.

In cafes of fpina bifida, the fwcUing is foft, and may be

gradually

S P I

gradually diminiftied, or even made to difappear entirely by
preffure ; but it always returns again immediately when the
preflure is removed. The fluftuation of a fluid is diltinaiy per-
ceptible to the touch. The integuments retain their natural
colour and appearance. However, the children feem to ex-
perience pain when the tumour is comprefied, or when they
are placed upon their backs. The fize of the IweUmg is ex-
tremely various, it does not often exceed that of an orange ;
but, in a few inttances, it is much more confiderable.

The generality of children affefted with fpina bifida are
deficient in (Irength and vigour, and are fubjeft to frequent
diarrhoea. Some cannot retain their urine and feces. A
weaknefs and emaciation are often particularly obfervable in
the lower extremities, which, indeed, are fometimes almoft
paralytic. Though molt children agree with this account,
it deferves notice, that many others are, in every relpedl ex-
cept tlie tumour, perfeAly healthy and well formed.

When a fpina bifida is diifetted, the fwelling is found to
confift. of a fac, filled with an aqueous fluid, and compofed
of the integuments, and of the membranous (lieath which
lines the canal of the fpinal marrow. The lining of the
fpinal canal protrudes through a fiflure in the vertebras.
This fiflure is owing to an imperfeft formation of thefe
bones, and is commonly found at their pofterior part, where
the fpinous procelies would otherwife be. The preternatu-
ral opening is fometimes confined to one bone, and then the
fwelling frequently has a fmall bafe. In many inltances, the
ofRfication of feveral of the vertebrae is not completed be-
hind, fo that the canal for the fpinal marrow refembles an
open furrow. Even the whole Ipine, from one end to the
other, has been found thus imperfeft. (Maret, Mem. de
Dijon, vol. ii. p. 105.) The aperture has been known to
extend through the body of the affefted vertebra, fo that
the finger could be pafled quite through into the abdomen.
(Saltzmann, De Tumoribus quibufdam Serofis externis.)
In one example, there was not only a furrow in the verte-
brae, all the procelies of thefe bones were wanting. Rich-
ter's Chir. Bibliothck, 4 b. 2 ft. p. 350.

In general, the fac is filled with a clear, tranfparent
fluid ; but occafionally, the contents are turbid, yellowifh,
and bloody. The portion of the fpinal marrow furrounded
by the fluid is generally foftened, and almoll like mucus, or
thin matter. Mem. de I'Acad. de. Dijon, vol. ii.; and
Richter's Anfangfgr. der Wundarzneykunft, band 2.
p. 236, Dritte Auflage.

Children afflifted with this difeafe fometimes fufFer at the
fame time from hydrocephalus. They feldom live longer
than a year after birth. The tumour generally continues to
enlarge. Occafionally it inflames and ulcerates, and then
death vei-y foon follows. Children are obferved to live
longeil when the fwelling is remote from the head. The in-
ftances of perfons attaining a middle age with this diforder
are rare, and thefe fubjefts have moftly had their lower ex-
tremities in a paralytic ufelefs ftate. Examples, however,
are recorded, in which patients labouring under this aflhc-
tion, have lived to the ages of eight, feventeen, twenty, and
fifty. Acrell K. Vetenfkaps, Ac. Haedhgar, 1748, p. 91.
Warner's Cafes in Surgery, p. 136, ed. 4. Hochftaetter,
DifT. de Spina Bifida, Altoif, 1703.

Experience has proved, that punfturing the tumour with
i lancet, and thus difcharging the fluid, either at once or
gradually, cannot be praftifed without inducing fatal confe-
quences. Alfo, when the fwelling ulcerates and burfts of
itfelf, the child perilhes ; nor has tying the pedicles of fuch
fpinse bifida; as have narrow bafes proved more fuccefsful.
Some years ago, Mr. Abernethy fuggefted the method of
ktting out the fluid, healing the punfture direftly after-

S P I

wards, and repeating the fame proceedings as often at ne-
cen"ary. (See Abernethy's Surgical and Phyfiological
Effays, parts i. and iii.) This gentleman tried the plan in
one inllance, and though it was not attended with ultimate
fuccefs, it did not feem to bring on the fudden fatal fymp-
toms, which arc the ufual effefts of letting out the fluid in
the common way.

This laft propofal, which originated with Mr. Abernethy,
is important, inafmuch as recent obfervations have proved,
that a praftice founded on the foregoing principles may
aftually effeft a cure of a difeafe that, until very lately,
always baffled the art of furgery. It is to Mr. A. Cooper
that we are indebted for the mode of punfturing fpinac bifida:
with a fine needle, thus letting out the fluid from time to time,
and promoting a clofure of the opening in the fpine, by ap-
plying a comprefs and bandage. The adhefive inflammation,
in faft, obliterates the cavity in which the fluid coUefts, and
the difeafe ultimately does not return. In one cafe, Mr. A.
Cooper feems to have accompliflied in this manner a perfeft
cure. See Medico-Chirurgical T.-anf. vol. ii. cafe 2,
p. 326.

This eminent furgeon, however, purfues two modes of
treatment for the relief of children afflifted with fpina
bifida ; one paUiative, the other radical.

The firft confilts in treating the cafe as a hernia, and ap.
plying a trufs to prevent its dcfcent ; the fecond, in pricking
the tumour with a fine needle, and in producing an adhefion
of the fides of the fac, fo as to clofe the opening in the fpine,
and ftop the difeafe altogether. The firft is attended with
no rifli ; the fecond expolcs the patient to much conltitu-
tional irritation ; but, if fucceTsfnl, hinders the future re-
currence of the difeafe. Even when the adhefive procefs
cannot be effeftually accompliflied by the fccjnd plan, the
palliative method may yet be tried. See cafe 4, lib.
fupra cit.

Unfortunately, there are numerous cafes of fpinx bifidae
which leave no hope of cure. The following examples of
this defcription are pointed out by Mr. A. .Cooper.

If the tumour is connecled with an unnatural enlargement
of the head, hydrocephalus intcrnus is conjoined with fpina
bifida, and the water will accumulate in the ventricles of the
brain, whether the radical or paUiative treatment of the
tumour on the back be tried.

If the lower extremities are paralytic, or the feces and
urine are difcharged involuntarily, there is no hope of
relief.

If the tumour has burft at the time of birth, or foon
afterwards, little expeftation of a cure can be indulged ;
for although the opening in the ikin may be clofed with lint
and adhefive plaftcr, and union be produced, fo that no more
of the fluid can efcape, yet hydrocephalus internus will
follow.

The deficiency of the fpine is fometimes fo great, that
the tumour, at the time of the child's birth, is very confi-
derable ; the nerves are protruded out of the fpinal canal ;
the fpinal marrow is injured ; and all attempts at a cure mult
be unavailing. Medico-Chirurgical Tranf. vol. ii.

In this diieafe, purgatives and diuretics have been tried in
vain ; and no outward applications, excepting preflure, have
been found to do the leaft good. Richter has fuggefted
making two ifTues near the tumour ; but the propofal hardly
brings with it a promife of utility. In fliort, in the prefent
ftate of our knowledge, the praftice tried by Mr. A. Cooper
is the only one in favour of which fafts and aftual experience
can be adduced ; and, if we except the cafes publiflied by
this gentleman, we have no inftance on record of a fpina
bifida being cured or benefited.

When

S P I

S P I

When the diieafe does not admit of the radical or pal-
liative cure, the furgeon fhould inltruft the friends of the
patient to keep the tumour out of the way of every thing
that has a tendency to make it inflame and ulcerate ; and,
if any thing at all is done, the fwelling fhould be tenderly
bathed every now and then with fpirituous and mildly aftrin-
gent lotions, with a view of averting inflammation and ul-
ceration of the flcin. Firft Lines of tlie Praftice of Sur-
,a^ry, by S. Cooper, edit. 3.

Spina Burgi, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors for
the alaternus, or ever-green privet, a garden fhrub, the fruit
of which is a mild aitringent.

Spina Ventofa, in Surgery, a caries or abfcefs of the in-
ternal part of a bone. Spina was a term applied by the
Arabian writers, becaufe the difeafe occafioneda pi'ickingin
the fielh ; and the epithet ventofa was added, becaufe the
part affe^ed communicates a feel as if it contained air.
Spina ventofa is often employed fynonimoufly with white-
fwelling. See White-swelling.

SPINACH, or Spinage, in Botany. See Spinacia.

Spinach is fometimes cultivated in the field for the ad-
vantage of the feed. The different forts of it are raifed
in this manner, in order to fupply the demand for the dif-
ferent kind? of feed.

The land for thefe crops is finely prepared by different
ploughings and harrowings in the early fpring, and a little
well rotted dung intimately blended with the foil, where the
land is not of a good quality.

The different forts of feed are then fown in fmall furrows
made for the purpofe, in the ground, either by the hand-
hoe, or by means of a drill for this ufe, at the diftance of
from about twelve to fourteen inches from each other ; the
prickly fort of feed being u(ed in the proportion of fix gal-
lons to the acre, and the round fort in that of four to the
fame quantity of land.

Some time in the early part of March, when the plant*
have advanced fo as to have leaves of about one or two
inches in length, they are thinned out by the hoe to the
diitance of four or five inches. The rows of plants are
always kept well moulded up both before and after the pe-
riod of thinning, and the whole crop preferved in a pcrfeftly
clean Itate from weeds. As foon as the crop has reached
the time of being in full bloom, the greater part of the
male plants are drawn out, by the hand, from among the
others, by which means the female plants are allowed more
room, light, and air to grow in, and thereby to perfedl; their
feed in a better and more full manner. The plants which
are thus drawn out anfwer in a very profitable manner in
the feeding of young pigs, and they may probably be given
10 fome other foris of animals with advantage.

When the crop becomes quite ripe, it is pulled up, and
the feed either threlhed out on a cloth in the field, or the
whole carried to the barn, to be afterwards threfhcd out.
See Spinacia.

The produce is ufually from about two to five quarters on
the acre, according as the fealon and other circnmllances are
lefs or more favourable.

Tiie cultivation of fpinach for feed in the field often turns
out very advantageouily, but it is attended with fome de-
gree of uncertainty, as is the cafe with moll cropj of this
nature.

It is a crop whicli is much grown in the illc ol Tlianct,
and in Eail Kent, in order to fupply feed for the London
feedfmen.

Spinach, Strawberry. See Blitum.

Spinach, Wild, in ]/1gricullure, the name of a weed, a«
Vol. XXXIII.

the goofe-foot. It is very troublefome in fome fort« of
land.

SPINACHIA, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome
authors to our common fticklcback, or banftickle, more
ufually known among writers by the n?Lmes pmigitim, or acu-
leatus pifcictilus. See STlCKl.v.-Back.

SPINACIA, in Botany, a name of dubious origin, but the
mod general and probable etymology deduces it from fptna,
a thorn, on account of the prickly or fpinous integumcnl
of the fruit. — Linn. Gen. 520. Schreb. 688. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 4. 766. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 5. 385. Tournef. t. 308. Jufl". 85. Lamarck Illiiftr.
t. 815. Ga;rtn. t. 126. — Clafs and order, Dioecia Pentan-
dria. Nat. Ord. HoJeraceie, Liuii. Atrlplices, Jiifl.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth inferior, deeply cloven
into five concave, oblong, obtiife fegmonts. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary, longer than the calyx ; an-
thers oblong, twin.

Female, Cnl. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, permanent,
cloven into four, alternately (mailer fegments. Cor. tone.
P'lfl. Germen inferior, roundifh, comprefied ; ftyles four,
capillary ; ftigmas fimple. Per'ic. none, except the lur-
rounding, hardened calyx, which enclofcs a folitar)-, roundifh
feed.

Obf. The fruit is occafionally round, but generally befet
with two or four horns' or fpines.

Efl". Ch. Male, Calyx deeply five-cleft. Corolla none.

Female, Calyx four-cleft. Corolla none. Styles four.
Seed folitary, within the hardened calyx.

1. S. oleracea. Garden Spinach. Linn. Sp. PI. I4j6.
<'Schkuhr. Handb. v. 3. 469.1. 324." (Spinachia ; Ger.
Em. 330.) — Fruit feffile. — Native place of growth un-
known. It was cultivated in Great Britain fo long back as
the year 1568, and flowers throughout the fummer. Root
annual. Stem one or two feet high, herbaceous, branched,
hollow. Lea'ves arrow-fhapcd. Male Jloiuers herbaceous,
in long fpikes, abounding with pollen. Female Jloiuers on a
feparate plant, in clutters on the llalks at every joint, her-
baceous, fmall. Seeds roundifh, unarmed, fubjeft to vary
with regard to fpines.

There are two or three varieties of the garden fpinach,
one called />r/Vi-/y, another ymoo/A; differing in the fize and
fliape of the leaves, and in their feeds being more or left
prickly.

This plant does not appear to have been known to the
ancients. It is called Hifpanac by Arabian phyficians, and
has been fo long and generally cultivated in Spain, as to have
obtained the name of Htfpammnlus. A conjefture is pro-
pofed by profeffor Martyn refpefting the introduftion of this
plant into Spain by the Saracens.

2. S. /era. Wild Spinach. Linn. Sp. PI. 1456. (S.
foliis ex deltoideo-ovatip, fubfinuofis capfulis in orbcm dif.
pofitis; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 86. t. 16.)— Fruit llalkcd.— Native
of Siberia, in damp, unfrequented places. — Root annual,
whitifli. j'/fm nearly two feet high, branched, creft. Leaves
ftalked, triangular or ovate, occafionally finuated, obtufe.
Male flowers in clofc heads, near \.\\c females, or in folitary,
interrupted fpikes. Fruits axillary, three or more, on
llalks of their own length, ovate or obovatc, obtufe,
(lightly keeled on each (ide, fmooth, very obtufe.

Spinacia, in Gardening, contains a plant of the annual
culinary kind, of wliich the fpecijs cultivated is the garden
fpinach (S. oleracea.)

There are varieties of this which differ in the fize »nd
fliapc of the leaves, and the greater or lefs pricklinefs of the
feeds ; as the triangidar with prickly feeds, in which the

■^ Y le^vcf

SPINACIA.

leaves are triangular and (harp arrow-pointed, the feeds
fomewhat armed with (hort fpines ; the round witli fmooth
feeds, which has ovate thick leaves, not angular at their
bafe ; botn the ftalks and leaves are mucl> more flefhy and
fucculent than in the other fort ; and the feeds are fmooth,
without any fpines. Of this alfo there are two or three
fub-varieties, differing in the Ihape, thicknefs, and fize of
their leaves.

In each of the principal forts there are variations in the
leaves, as to their form and magnitude, but the broadeft and
thickeft-leaved forts are far the bed in quality. Thofe with
the molt thick and ftocky leaves, of a ttrong dark green co-
lour and luxuriant growth, are commonly fuppofed the moil
valuable fort of the round kind.

Method of general Culture. — In thefe plants it is efit-aed
only by feed, by fowing it every year in fpring and autumn ;
the former funiifhing the main fpring and fummer crops ;
and the latter the winter, and thofe for early fpring ufe.
The prickly fort is the beil for winter crops, and the round
for the lummer ones.

The feed (hould be fown at feveral intervals of time from
January till Auguft, as every month, three weeks, or fort-
night, according to the earlinefs or advanced period of the
feafon, fo a^ to obtain a regular fucceflion molt part of the
year. The general fpring crop (hould be fown in March,
and the general winter crop about the beginning of
Auguft.

But in the fpring fowings, as the crops in the very early
fowings in January run foon to feed, a moderate quantity
fhould only be fown. However, in the autumn fowings, as
the plants do not run the fame year, good full crops, to
ftand for winter and early fpring ufe, may be put in.

Thefe plants fucceed in any common foil of the kitchen-
garden ; but the richer in dung the better ; always choofing
an open fituation, not too near low fpreading trees, &c. as
they never fucceed in clofe or (hady places, in which they
are always drawn up weak, and foon run to feed without
attaining perfection : a warm border may be proper for
the early crops ; but for the main crops in general, the
open quarters are the moft fuitable, though a broad
warm-lying border may alfo be proper for fome part of
the later fewn winter crops occafionally, for the pur-
pofe of having the advantage of a little flielter of the
fence, and benefit of the fun during the winter feafon ; and
frefh feed fhould be procured for each fowing, as this wall
be found of great importance in the free growth of the
plants : for the autumn fowings of the winter crops, it is of
advantage to procure new feed of the fame year.

And after the ground has been properly dug, the feed
miy either be fown broad-cad, and raked in, or in (hallow
drills a foot afunder ; though broad-ca(t is the moft expedi-
tious, and probably the molt proper method for the growth
of the crops in the product of large full leaves ; fowing it
all over the furface moderately thin, either in one continued
plat, and trodden down evenly, if light groimd, and raked
in with a large rake or light harrow ; or the ground may
be divided iato four or five-feet wide beds, with foot-wide
alleys between each, efpecially for the early and winter
crops in moift ground ; the feeds being fown as above, raking
them in evenly : drill-fowing may alio be occafionally prac-
tifed with convenience and advantage, in which the drawing
of the drills fhould be performed with a hoe flatways, near
an inch deep, and ten or twelve inches afunder, then icatter-
ing the feeds thinly along them, raking the earth over full
half an inch deep ; which mode is often very proper in fowing
between other crops, as between wide rows of beans, peas,
9

cabbages, &c. as it admits of hoeing up the weeds between
the rows with facility ; and if fown thin, and the plants be
thinned out properly, they grow large and fine, and the pro-
duce is very conveniently gathered. It may likewife be
fown in wide drills alone, about a foot diftance, for a dif-
tintt full crop : or in rows two feet afunder, to admit of
intercropping in the intervals, with rows of cabbages, beans,
and other things occafionally. In thefe fowings the feeds
(liould be fcattered moderately thin, and the plants be after-
wards thinned out to three inches diftance at leaft, the feeds
being direftly raked regularly in : and when fown broad>
caft all over the furface, if in light loofe land, and a dry
warm feafon in the advanced part of fpring, or in the fum-
mer and autumn, it may be proper firft to tread the feed
evenly down, then raking it in eneftually with a large rake.
The feeds moftly come up in a fortnight ; or perhaps, if
fown very early in fpring, it may be three weeks or a month
before they appear.

In refpeft to the after-culture of the crops, when the
plants have three or four leaves an inch broad, they (hould
be thinned out and cleared from weeds, either by hoe or
hand ; but the former is the moft eligible, efpecially for the
broad-caft fown crops ; choofing dry weather, and cutting
out the plants to three or four inches diftance, together with
all the weeds in every part ; but the above diftance is fcarcely
fufEcient, unlefs it is intended to begin thinning out the
plants for ufe while young : in other cafes it is advifable to
hoe them out fix or eight inches afunder, efpecially the fpring
and fummer crops of the round fpinach, which, havmg
proper room, will grow very large, and fpread its broad
leaves widely, and does not run to feed fo foon as if left
clofe. When the fpring and fummer-fown crops are left
too clofe, they are apt to draw up weak, and foon go to
feed. The winter crops of triangular or prickly fpinach,
it will be fufficient in moil cafes to thin out finally to three
or four inches diftance.

Thefe crops are often fown in fpring with other crops,
for the fake of cropping the ground to the beft advantage ;
but it is beft when performed alone in moft inftances.

They may, however, in fome cafes, be put in between the
rows of particular plants with fome utihty in the way of
faving ground, where that is material, as between young
cabbage and cauliflower plants, which have been finally fet
out at wide diftances for main crops, as well as in the large
intervals of pea and bean crops, efpecially when of the low
or dwarf kind, and between fome other forts of general
rowed crops with wide fpaces. The fpinach feed, in thefe
circumftances, is moftly beft put into the ground in fingle
or double drills in the middle parts, according to the dif-
tances of the rows of the other plants ; but it is fometimes
fown in the broad-caft manner over the whole furfaccs of
the intervals, and raked in. And it is occafionally fown
over all the piece of ground in mixture with (hort-top
radifh feed, and raked in ; after which, either immediately
or in a (hort fuitable fpace of time, the plants or other
crops are planted out or fown in their regular modes.
The fowing of fpinach feed in this way, commonly takea
place in the early parts of February and the following
month, and is praftifed upon the borders, as well as the
large quarters where fuch main fpring crops are to be
grown and cultivated. The plants or other crops in this
mode growing quickly, have foon the advantage of the
mixed crops between their rows, though the fmall plants
of thefe kinds are not injured or retarded in their growth
thereby, as they are ready to be gathered and removed for
ufe long before the main crops have any hurtful tendency.

Immediately

SPINACIA.

Immediately on the removal of fuch fmall crops, the inter-
vals of the rows are hoed over to loofen the earth, which
is then drawn up to the items of tiie plants or other crops.
Thefe methods of cropping are, however, only to be ufed
in fuch cafes as the above.

When the plants have leaves two or three inches broad,
they may be gathered. The method of which is, either
by cutting them up with a knife wholly to the bottom, or
drawing and cleaning them out by the root, if the crops
want thinning ; or only cropping the large outer leaves,
the root and heart remaining to fhoot out again. With the
fpring crops, when the plants want thinning, thoy may be
cut up wholly to the root, thinning them out where thickefl
in a gradual manner, fo as to leave the Handing plants at
lealt fix or eight inches diftant to grow to perfeflion, which,
when beginning to flioot for feed, may alfo be cut up wholly
to the bottom : and in the winter crops, if the plants ftand
too clofe at firft, fome may be thinned out quite to the bot-
tom, afterwards the larger outer leaves only mull be crop-
ped in the winter and early part of the fpring ; but when
the fpring is more advanced, and the plants grown large
snd require thinning, or when they begin to run to feed,
cutting them up to the bottom in a thinning order is the
bell method.

Some of the beft of the different forts of plants (hould
be left in the fpring to Hand for feed, which (hould be col-
lefted, when well ripened, in the manner direcled below.

Culture in the early and fuccejfwn Crops. — In raifing early
crops of this fort, as well as thofe which are to come
in regular fuccedion, during the beginning of the fpring
and the firft part of the fummer feafon, it will be neeeliary
to commence and continue the fowing of the feed at two or
three different times in the month of January, when the
weather is mild and open, chufing the moll dry and warm
fituations that can be found for the purpofe, and only put-
ting in fmall quantities in each of fuch fowings, as the crops
are extremely liable to be dellroyed or to ran to feed. In
the fucceeding month it will likewife be proper to continue
the fowings in a more full manner as to the quantities, at
two or three additional different periods, in almoft any open
places of the garden, by which means full fucceffions may
be provided, for fome length of time, to follow the crops
of the firll winter fowings, which will now foon run up to
feed, thefe fowings coming in much about the fame time.
In the two months which follow the lall, it will flill be
proper to proceed or go on with the fovring of this fort of
feed every ten days, or fortnigiu, making ufe of open but
rather cooler fituations. By this means regular fupplies
will be provided for the concluding fpring and beginnnig
fummer months.

And in cafes where conftant fucceffions of crops of this
kind arc wanted the whole of the fummer feafon, it will be
requifite and proper to continue the repetition of the fow-
ings every fortnight during the months of May, June, and
July, as the plants in thefe fowings very quickly run up
for feed. The mod moill fpots which the garden affords
(hould now be fclefted for fuch crops, they being free and
open. It is alfo advantageous in the fummer fowings to
have fhowery weather for performing the work in, when it
can be had. The feed fhould be fowu rather thin, when in
the broad-cafl method ; and in the drill mode to only the
depth of about an inch. The plants are to be kept pretty
well thinned, in order to prevent their drawing up to feed.
The fowmgs which arc made in the lall of thefe months,
will continue the crops in fucceffion, until they are fuc-
ceeded by thofe of the winter fowings.

In thefe cafes the fpinach is fometimes not fuffered to

grow large, but cut in its young growth, allowing the
bottom parts to grow again.

In the after-culture there is nothing material in thefe
crops, befides that which is neceflary in the general ones.

Culture in the late or winter Crops. — In thefe cafes the
feed is fown to the moll advantage for the fucceedirg crops
towards the end of the firft week in Auguft, the beginning
of the fecond, and the middle of the third, according to
the nature, fituation, and ftate of the ground, as they are
the moll prevented in common from running up too early to
feed, while they get a little growth, and become fomewhat
forwarded and ftrong before the winter weather fets in. It
is beft when the fowings can be performed in rather moill
lliowery times, as when it is done at dry hot periods, the
feed is apt to fprout and come up in an irregular manner,
the plants appearing in a ftraggling fparing Hate. Thefe
crops fhould conftantly have, as much as' poffible, open
fituations, which lie dry at this feafon of the year, and
which have fuimy expofures.

The feed is to be immediately fown on the frefh newly
turned up foil, either over the whole furface, or in the bed
manner, which is more convenient for the cultivation and
coUedling of the produce. In fome places, a flight fprink-
ling of the brown Dutch and common cabbage lettuce feed,
or other fimilar forts, are fown along with this kind of feed
in thefe crops, in order to ftand for culling out during the
winter and early fpring months. The feed is to be covered
and trod in directly after being fown.

Thefe late crops are alfo occafionally, though rarely,
fown in the drill manner, but the former methods are more
fuitable in thefe cafes, where gradual thinning is to be prac-
tifed with the crops, which is by much the beft fort of cul-
tivation for having fuch crops in fine perfeilion.

Where large crops of the winter kind are raifed, as in
market gardens, early cabbages are fometimes planted out
with thefe crops in wide rows, as three or four feet apart.
The fetting out of thefe plants takes place in Oftober or
the following month. At thefe dillances no injury is done
to the fpinach crops by the growth of the cabbage plants,
and in the early fpring, the fpinach being wholly cleared
away for ufe, a full forward cabbage crop is left, and the
moft is made of the land and time.

The plants in thefe late crops want thinning and clearing
from weeds early in their growth, as when lefs than an inch
in the breadth of the leaves, which may be done by the
ufe of the hoe in a dry time, leaving the plants not more
than three or four inches apart, as fome may be gradually
afterwards thinned out for ufe, fo as to let them ultimately
ftand about five inches from each other ; the leaves arc after
this only to be gathered for ufe, during the whole winter
feafon, the larger outer ones being alone taken, the fmallcr
inner ones being always left to expand themfelvcs by de-
grees, in their turn, and afford regular fuccellional fup-
phes until the end of the fpring, at which time, when the
plants begin to grow large and crowd each other, or to
fhoot up for feed, they may be wholly cleared away.

In thefe crops much attention is neceflary to keep them
clear from weeds, by frequent hoeing and hand-weeding,
being careful to remove chick-weed, which is always liable
to infell thcfc crops much in winter. All the large weeds
fhould be wholly removed from the ground, as if left they
do great injury, and not unfrequently take root again.

As the fpring advance?, the furface of the ground fhould
be lightly hoed among and about the plants, taking a fine
mild dry day for the purpofe ; which will greatly promote
the growth of them, and by which they will foon flioot
out ftrongly, becoming further in a fine ftate of perfedion
3 Y 2 for

S P I

for ufe. The large outer leaves are ilill only to be
gathered, except where the plants ftand too ti:ick in the
crops.

Sa-vtng 5W.— The feed being perfeftly ripe in the plants
which are left for this purpofe, which IhouW always be
thofe of the molt ftocky growth, and which have the
largeft, the moll: expanded, and the thickeft leaves, is eahly
known by its turning of a brown colour, and hardening in
the tops of the feed-ftalks. The plants of the winter
crops moftiv run up i^rft to form feed-ltalks, being foon,
however, followed by thofe of the fpring-fowings, and they
are commonly loaded with plenty of well-ripened fertile
feed? about the clofe of July or beginning of the following
month. In this ftate the ftalks are to be pulled up and
fpread out to dry for a few day^-, turning them as it may
be necefl'ary, in order to fully dry and harden the whole
of the feed in a proper manner. They are then to be beat
or threfhed out from the feed-ftalks upon a cloth, and put
up in bags to be kept in a dry fituation for ule.

The feed which is newly faved is excellent for fowing the
winter crops with, provided it be ripe in due time. It
will, however, remain perfeftly good until the following
year's fowing, but fhould not be trutted to when more
than one year old, as new feed is always of material import-
ance in this culture.

It is proper and neceflary, in raifing the feed of the dif-
ferent varieties, to have the plants of the different forts, in
different fituations, at fome confiderable diltance from each
other, in order to prevent injury and degeneracy, by the
farina of one fort being difperled over the other.

The plants of the different kinds are readily diftinguifli-
able when they are in flower, and the male plants, after
they have difperfed their farina, are in fome diftridts, where
the providing of this fort of feed is an objeft, drawn out, fo
as to leave more room for the feed-plants. Sec Spinach.

SPINADESCO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Upper Po ; 4 miles W. of Cremona.

SPINjE, in Ancient Geogrnphy, a ftation in the ijth
and T4th Iter of Antonine's Itinerary of Britain, between
Durocornovium or Cirencefter and Calleva or Silchefter in
the former, and CmicUio or Marlborough and Calleva in
the latter, and correfpondinp; to Speen, near Newbury,
(which fee.) The number of miles between Cirencefter
and Speen being only 15, which gives too fmall a dillance.
Dr. Stukeley fuppofes that a ftation is omitted between
thcfe two places ; but Mr. Horfl'-y conjcftures, that the
numerals oppolltc to Spinis (hould have been 35.

SPINAL Arteries, in Anntomy, are two arteries, one
anterior and one polterior, ,both produced by the verte-
brales ; each of which, as fpon as it enters the cranium,
fends out a fmall branch, by the union of which the pof-
rerior fpinalis is formed. Afterwards the vertebrales ad-
vancing on the apophyfis bafilaris, or produftion of the
occipital bone, detach backward two other fmall branches,
which iikewiie meet, and bv their union form the fpinalis
anterior. Tlicfe fpinal arteries run down on the fore and
back fides of the medulla fpinalis, and by fmall tranfvcrle
ramifications, communicate with thofe which the intercoital
and Itlmbar arteries fend to the fame part. See Arteky,
Bratk, and Si'IVe.

Spinal Marroiu. See Medulla Spinalis, Medullary
Syjlem, and Brain.

Spik.^L Muj'dcs, arc thofe vertebral mufcles which are
■wholly fixed in the fpinal apophyfis. See Muscle and
Spine.

Spinal Nerves. See Nerve and Spine.

Spinal Apparatus, a machine for affording fupport to

S P I

the fpine, and imagined by certain praftitioners to be ule-
ful in cafes of difeafe and dillortion of the vertebra.

SPINALIS, in Anatomy, a mufcie on the fide of the
neck, arifing from the five fuperior procedes of the ver-
tebra of the thorax, and the inferior of the neck ; an3
which in its alcent, becoming more flefliy, is inferted into
the inferior part of tlie vertebrx of the neck laterally.
It ferves to draw the neck backwards. See Spine.

Spin.\lis cervicis, a name given by Albinus to a mufcie
of the neck, called by Fallopius the tertium par mufculorum
dorji, and by Cowper and Morgagni, fpinalis colli.

This is the mufcie, which the French anatomifts call Us
vertehraux externes du Jemi-epineux, ou le tranpverfaire epineux
ducal.

Spinales colli minores, mufcles lying between the fix
fpinal apophyfes of the neck, and between the laft of the
neck and firft of the back ; being inferted in thefe apophyfes
by both extremities on one fide of the potterior cervical
lijrament, which parts them from thofe of the other fide.
They are likewife termed inter fpinales.

Spinalis dorft, a name given by Albinus to a mufcie
of the back, fisjurcd by Eultachiu?, Tah. 37, and called by
Fallopius qitinti paris dorJi mufculorum pars implantata infpinas
•vertehrjrum thoracis.

Others, as Spigelius, have called it a part of the femi-
Ipinatus, and others a part of the longiffimus dorfi. The
French have named it le grand epineux dc dos.

Spinalis dorfi major, a pretty long and flender mufcie,
lying upon the lateral part of the extremities of the fpinal
apophyfes of the back. It is compofed of feveral muf-
cular fafciculi of different lengths, which crofling each
other, are inferted laterally by fmall tendons in the fpinal
apophyfes from the iecond, third, or fourth vertebras of
the back ; and fometimes, though feldom, from ths laft of
the neck, or iirft of the back, all the way to the firlt or
Iecond vertebiae of the loins, with feveral irregular decuffa-
tions, which vary in difterent fubjefts. The longeft fafci-
culi are all a little incurvated, and the whole mufcie termi-
nates in points at its ends, but is confiderably broad in
the middle. It communicates by fome fibres with the lon-
giffimus dorfi and femi-fpinalis, and fends off fafciculi to
feveral tranfverfe apophyles of the back, from the fourth
to the eleventh. It is called by fome femi-fpinalis, but
very improperly. See Muscle and Spine.

Spinalis, femi, colli, and dorfi. See Se.mi-spinalis.

Spinales dorfi minores. Theie mufcles are of two kinds;
fome go laterally from the extremity of one fpinal apophyfis
to another, being often mixed with the fhort fafciculi of
the fpinalis major ; the rell lie direftly between the ex-
tremities of two neighbouring fpinal apophyfes, being fepa-
rated from thofe on the other fide by the fpinal ligament.
Thefe are fmaller and thinner than thofe of the neck, and
are properly enough termed interfpinaks. See Muscle and
Spine.

Spinales et Iranfverfales lumborum. There are fome faf-
ciculi which run up from the fuperior falfe fpines of the
OS facrum to the lower fpinal apophyfes of the loins, which
may be looked upon as fo ma.ny fpinales lumborum majores ;
and there are alfo fome fpinales lumborum minores between
the fpinal apophyfes of the loins, and tranf-verfales minores
between the tranfverfe apophyfes, which are fometimes of
a confiderable breadth. See Spine.

Spinalis Medulla. Sec Medulla, &c.

SPINA-LONGA, in Geography, a fea-port town and
citadel, fituated near a cape of tiie lame name, on the ifland
ot Candia, with a good harbour, formerly the fee of a bifhop;
30 miles E. of Candia. The harbour is formed by a penin-

12 fulo,

S P 1

S P 1

fula, which fecures it from the eaflerly winds. Its entrance
faces the N.N.E., but it is fheltered and protected by an
iflet, on which the Venetians had built a fortrefs, fimilar to
that of Suda. For a long time the Turks made fniitlefs
attempts to render themfelves mailers of this fortrefs ; and
it was not till the beginning of the laft century that the
Venetians permitted them to take pofl'eflion of it. N. lat.
35° 13'. E. long. 25 42'.

SPINARELLA, in Ichthyology, a name sriven by Bel-
lonius, and fome other authors, to the little fifli called by us
the hjfer Jl'ickhback. In the Linnoean fyltem, this is a diftindl
fpecies of the gafteroiteus.

SPINATUS, in Anatomy, a name given by Riolanus, and
others, to a mufcle of the neck, called by Albinus fpinalis
lolTt, and by Winflow, and the other French writers, les ver-
lebraux externes du demi-epineux, ou tranfverfaire ep'ineux du col.
See SpI^^'^LIS and Transveksalis.

SPINCOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrict of Montmedy. The place contains 466, and the can-
ton 9948 inhabitants, on a territory of zS;-! kiliometres, in
27 communes.

SPINDLE, in Mechanics. See Double Cone, and Mex-

StRATION.

The axis of the wheel of a watch or cluck is called the
fpindle, and its ends the pivot.

SriNDLE, Parabolic. See PynAMiDOiD.

For the method of finding its folidity, fee Solidity.

Spindle, in Sea Language, a fort of iron-pin, tapering at
he upper end to aponit. It is ufed to ftick into the upper
end of the top-gallant mail, fo as to carry a vane, which,
turning thereon horizontally, will (hew the direftion of the
wind. It is ufually crowned with a globular or conical
liece of wood, called the acorn, which prevents the vane
'rom being blown off.

Spindle alfo denotes the lower end or foot of the cap-
ftan, which is fltod with iron, and becomes the pivot or axis,
upon which it turns in the faucer. See Capstan.

Spindle, in Mining, apiece of wood fattened into either
llow-bladc. Sec Stows. ,

Thefe Hows give a miner, or any other perfon that owns
them, as good a right to a meer or meers of ground, (fo that
every meer have a pair of ftows fet on them,) as a deed of
conveyance doth to any purchafer.

Spindle-5'/W/. See Trumi'et-5/W/.

Spindle-TVcc, in Botany. See Euonymu.s.

It is generally fuppofed that the euonymus of the ancients
is the fame plant that we at this time call by this name. The
words of Theophrallus have probably given occafion to this
opinion ; as they found at firlt reading like words expref-
(ing the charaftcrs of the fruit of this tree ; but on a clofer
inlpeftion, they will be found to exprtfs a fruit of a very
different kind. This author iavs, that the fruit of the euo-
nymus is like tile pod of the fefamum, marked with four
protuberant ribs, and hard within, and divided into places
for tour orders of ieeds. It is plain by this, that as their
fefamum bore an oblorg pod marked with four ribs, fo as to
feem of a quadrangular figure, fo did their euonymus, and
that in this long pod there were four orders of feeds, eacli of
thele orders containing a great many feeds. Now the fruit
of our euonymus is fhort and not at all like a pod, and
contains only four feeds, and not four orders of feeds ; there
ia alfo this fartiier proof of our euonymus not being that
of the ancients, that our's is a wholefome food to cattle, and
they are very fond of cropping it whenever they ran reach
it, and never get any hurt by it ; whereas the euonymus of

the Greeks was poifonous to cattle, according to Theophraf-
tus. See FusANUs and Tetuastoechon.

Svi'SOLE-Tree, yIfrican,ov Climbing. See ST.wi-'J'ree.

Spindle-TV^!-, Bajlard. See Kiccelaria.

SPINDLING, in Agriculture, the a£t of running to fe*d
in plants of the grain and other kinds. A great deal, in this
bufinefs, depends upon the manner in which the plants are
cultivated.

SPINE, \n Anatomy, (the vertebral or fpinal column;
the back-bone, in common language ; fpina dorfi,) is the
articulated bony pillar at the back of the trunk, forming
the foundation or balis of fupport and connexion to all the
other parts of the frame. It is placed perpendicularly in the
body, fuftaining the head by its upper extremity, while its
lower end relts on the pelvis. The bones of the chelt, to
which the upper extremities are connefted, are fixed to its
fides ; while the olfa innominata, or the great bones, to which
the lower limbs are articulated, are immovably united to it
below. It is the point of attachment and fupport, in front,
for the vifcera of the thorax and abdomen, and for the great
trunks of the blood-velfels. We may thus regard it as the
central and mod elTential piece of the (keleton ; as the centre
of motion for the head and limbs ; and the bafis of fupport
for all the great internal organs. Again ; the bones which
compofe it give attachment to the principal mufcles moving
the head, the (lioulders, and the arms, to thofe wliicii aft
upon the trunk, and to fome part of the abdominal mufcles,
and of thofe whicli move the lower limbs. Further, it con-
llitutes a canal, which receives and protects the medulla fpi-
nalis, and gives ifTue to the various nerves proceeding from
that organ to the trunk and limbs. The importance of the
fpine, on all the accounts juft enumerated, is fo great, that
it confUtutes a leading charafter, modifying all the other
details of organization in the animals which pofiefs it.
Hence the prnnary divifion of the animal kingdom into verte-
bral and invertebral animals, adopted by tlie great modem
naturahfts, with Lamarck and Cuvier at their head, is founded
on the prefence or ablencc ot the vertebral column.

The fpine is formed of twenty nine pieces of bone, Urongly
articulated to each other, and placed in fucceflion from above
downwards. The twenty-four upper ones are called ver-
tebra, and arc farther named cervical, dorfal, and lumbar,
according as they occupy the neck, back, or loins : there
are feven of the iirll kind, twelve of the fecond, and five of
the lalt. The five other pieces of the column are the facrum,
and the four offa coccygis, which form the back of the pelvis ;
the firft being articulated to the twenty-fourth vertebra, and
the latter to the end of the facrum and to each other.

The form of the fpine is fymmetrical ; but the two halves
do not always correfpond accurately in the healthy (late,
and the deviations arc Hill more remarkable in difcafe. As
the weight to be fuilaincd by this bony column increafes
conftantly from above downwards, the bulk of the vertebrrc,
and, confequently, the ftrength of the pillar, increafe alfo in
the fame direftion, with a trivial exception or two, which
will be noticed afterwards. In the attitude of (landing, the
vertebrae are all fituatcd horizontally ; tlicir procelles, how-
ever, deviate in various ways from this direiflion. They are
dillinguifhcd numerically in the diflcrent regions, excepting
the firll and fecond cervical, which are commonly called atlas
and vertebra dentata or axis. The general configuration
of thefe bones is the fame throughout ; they are formed ou
a common plan, but this plan is modified in each divifion by
circumdanccs peculiar to the different regions. The didri-
bution of them into three dalles is principally founded on
thefe modifications : the dalles arc indeed named from their

pofition^

SPINE.

pofition, but the diverfities of their external forms charac-
terize them. We (hall firft defcribe the general form, and
then notice the particular modifications of the vertebrse.

Geiifral Form of the Fertebra.— They confia of various
irregular and prominent portions, feparated by different in-
tervals, and united by different plates. The principal part
of the bone in fize is the anterior prominence, called the
body ; it is cylindrical or oval, and reprefents the feftion of
a cylinder, being terminated above and below by two flat
furfaces, which give attachment to the fibro-cartilages occu-
pying the intervertebral fpaces. This body of the vertebra
forms in front a greater or lefs convexity, in which we ob-
ferve a kind of tranfverfe depreffion, bounded by two promi-
nent edges ; it is plane, or a little concave, behind, where it
correfponds to the vertebral canal : in both fitnations there
are feveral apertures for the paffage of blood-veffels into the
fubftance of the bone. At each fide the body is continuous
with the re(t of the bone by a kind of pedicle.

A large oval or triangular opening, called the ring or fora-
men, and contributing to the formation of tlie vertebral canal,
which holds the medulla fpinalis, is placed immediately behind
the body. DireAly behind this opening is the fpinous procefs,
varying in form and direftion in the different regions, pro-
jefting backwards beyond the level of the bone, and feparated
from the correfponding proceffes immediately above and be-
low it, by a fpace filled either with iiiufcles or 'igaments.

Such are the parts of each vertebra as come into notice
on the middle line of the bone, from before backwards.
When we view it laterally, we obferve, iff, two notclies, a
fuperficial one above and a much deeper below, excavated
on the pedicle, which connefts the body to the articular and
tranfverfe proceffes, and forming, when the bones are joined,
thofe lateral foramina of the vertebral canal, through which
the nerves are tranfmitted ; 2dly, two articular or oblique
procedes, a fuperior and an inferior, furnifhcd with carti-
laginous furfaces, by which they are articulated to the corre-
fponding proceffes of the bones above and below, and having
this furface turned backwards or inwards in the fuperior,
forwards or outwards in the inferior ; fo that each vertebra
is mechanically locked in its fituation by the two vertebra:
immediately above and below it ; its fuperior articular pro-
ceffes being overlapped by the inferior ones of the bone
above, while its inferior proceffes overlap thofe of the bone
next below : 3dly, a tranfverfe procefs, directed horizontally,
as its name indicates, longer or fhorter in the different re-
gions, and giving attachment to mufcles ; and 4thly, a flat-
tened plate, united to that of the oppofite fide to form the
fpinous procefs.

Particular Forms of the Vertebra. — The various common
circumftances jult enumerated are greatly modified in the
different regions ; it is principally in the middle of each
region that we muff examine thefe modifications, which, at
either end, gradually approach to the characters of the neigh-
bouring region?.

The Cervical Vertebra. — Their number is very conftantly
feven ; but inftances are mentioned, in which there have been
eight or only fix. (See Euftachius, Offium Examen, p. 210;
and Columbus de Re Anatomica, p 263.) The peculiarities
of form are ftrongly marked and diltind in this region.
The firft and fecond too, in confequence of their articulation
to the head, differ widely from the others, and muff therefore
be defcribed feparately.

The atlas, or firft vertebra of the neck, deviates more
than any other from the general type. It is very much ex-
panded laterally, and its ring or foramen is very capacious.
When we look at it in front, it feems to want the body, in-

ftead of which we find a fmall bony arc, flattened in an op^
pofite direftion to that of the bodies of the other vertebrae,
convex and rifing into a tubercle in front, concave behind,
where it bears a fmooth cartilaginous furface, articulated to
the odontoid procefs, thin above and below, where it is con-
nefted, by means of ligaments, to the occiput and fecond
vertebra. Immediately bel)ind this bony arc is the large
ring, larger in this than in any bone of the column, and
confifting of an anterior fmaller, and a pofterior larger divi-
fion, of which the diftinftion is marked by two protuberances,
between which a tranfverfe ligament is extended. The front
of the ring is filled by the odontoid procefs ; its back
part is the beginning of the vertebral canal. Inftead of the
fpinous procefs, and of the laminae which unite to form it,
there is a polterior bony arc, about twice as large as the an-
terior, rifing into a fmall tubercle at the middle, where the
fpinous procefs flwuld be, and bounding the vertebral canal
behind. The edges of this arc have ligamentous con-
neftions above and below. Inftead of articular proceffes,
the atlas poffeffes on each fide, above, a large oval cavity,
direfted obliquely from behind forwards and inwards, cover-
ed by cartilage, eroded by a notch, in which a fynovial
gland is placed, more elevated at its outer than at its inner
edge, and correfponding to the occipital condyle, with
which it is articulated ; below, a large, circular, and nearly
horizontal plane, covered by cartilage, and articulated to a cor-
refponding plane of the fecond vertebra. A very deep channel,
fometimes formed by a bony plate into a complete foramen, is
placed immediately behind the fuperior articular concavity ;
it is occupied by the vertebral artery, and the firft cervical
or fub-occipital nerve. The inferior notch, contributing to
the opening for tranfmitting the fecond cervical nerve, is
behind the inferior articular plane : thus the nerves, which in
all the reft of the fpine go out in front of the articular pro-
ceffes, pafs behind them in the atlas. The tranfverfe pro-
cefs is very remarkable for its length, much exceeding that
of any other cervical vertebra. It is formed by a flender
anterior and pofterior root, between which the foramen for
the vertebral artery is placed, uniting into a confiderable ob-
tufe prominence. Thus the atlas, with the exception of the
thick lateral parts, to which the occipital condyles are arti-
culated, forms nearly a bony ring.

To the tubercle of its anterior arch the longus colli and
the reftus capitis internus minor are fixed : to the tranfverfe
procefs, the reftus lateralis, the obliquus fuperior and in-
ferior, the levator fcapula, the intertranfverfi, and the fca-
lenus anterior. The reftus pofticus minor is fixed to the
tubercle of the pofterior arch.

The vertebra dentata, axis, epiftropheus, or fecond ver-
tebra of the neck, is diftinguiftied from all others by its
odontoid or tooth-hke procefs, and by its large, fuperior,
articular planes. Its body exhibits above, inftead of the
ufual fuperior furface, a large bony procefs, called the den-
tiform, odontoid, or tooth-like, having a flightly convex
cartilaginous furface in front, articulated to the back of the
anterior bony arc of the atlas, a fmall, concave, articular
face behind, on which' the tranfverfe ligament plays, and
terminating above in a rather unequal obtufe extremity, from
which ligaments arife, connefting it to the lateral anterior
portions of the foramen magnum. The anterior furface of
the body of the axis has a middle line, on each fide of which
it is flightly hollowed for the longi colli : the pofterior,
rough, and perforated by fmall openings for blood-veffels,
forms part of the vertebral canal. The inferior furface gives
attachment to the firft intervertebral fibro-cartilage. The ring
is as large in this as in the atlas. The plates of the fpinous

procefs

SPINE.

procers are broad and thick, and the procefs itfelf is ftrong
and prominent, projefting confiderably beyond tlioleof the
fucceeding bones. It is rough belnw, and ends behind
either in an expanded knob, or in a bifurcated extremity.
On each fide of the tooth-hke procefs there is a large circu-
lar and nearly horizontal plane, for articulation with the
atlas. The inferior articular procefles are fimilar to thofe of
the other cervical vertebrse : they are oblique, placed behind
the tranfverfe procefles, and have their articular faces turned
forwards. The fuperior notches for the nerves are behind
the fuperior planes ; while the inferior are in front of
the correfponding articular procefles. The tranfverfe pro-
cefs is fmall, and perforated for the vertebral artery by
a foramen, which is diredled obhquely upwards and
outwards

The axis b united to the head, the atlas, and the third ver-
tebra of the neck.

To its tranfverfe procefs, the fplenius capitis, levator fca-
pulse, fcalenus, tranfverfus cervicis, longus colli, and inter-
tranfverfi anterior and poflerior, are affixed : to the fpinous
procefs, the reftus capitis poiterior major, the obUquus in-
ferior, the ferai-fpinalis cervicis, the mterfpinalis, and multi-
fidusfpinx.

The Jive loiver cervical Veriebne. — The body is very fmall,
in comparifon to the procefles and the ring ; it is flattened
in front, and elongated tranfverfely, fo that it is on a level
nearly with tlic tranfverfe procefles, initead of projefting
into a bony column in front of them, as it does in the other
regions of the fpine. It is rather thicker before than be-
hind : its fuperior furface is concave from fide to fide, rifing
up laterally into two thin ridges, and rather floping off in
front : the inferior prefents juft the oppofite conformation,
fo as to fit it to be received into the hollow of the vertebra
below. We may notice, in front, a middle furface, cor-
refponding to the anterior vertebral ligament, and two la-
teral ones, adapted to the longi colli. A fmall articu-
lar furface is obfervable on each fide of the lower edge of
the body of the feventh, contributing to the cavity in which
the head of the firft rib is lodged. The ring for the
fpinal marrow is large and triangular, with the angles
rounded. The fpinous procefles are prifmatic, horizontal,
and either bifurcated at the end, or flattened and marked
with a groove. They vary confiderably in their direftion,
degree of bifurcation. &c. Three of the four vcrtebrx im-
mediately fucceeding the axis appear very fmall in compa-
rifon to its fpinous procefs ; but the fpine of the feventh is
Large and prominent. The notches for the lateral foramina
are placed in front of the articular procefles ; and the fu-
perior and inferior ones differ very little in depth. The ar-
ticular procefles are oval in their figure, and diretted
obliquely : tlie fuperior backwards and upwards, the infe-
rior forwards and downwards. The tranlvcrfe procefles in-
creafe in fize from the axis ; there is a deep channel in the
fuperior furface of each, lodging the anterior branch of the
correfponding cervical nerve ; hence the extremities are bi-
furcated. Each is perforated at its bafe by a round hole for
the vertebral artery ; which has been obfcrved fometimes to
be abfcnt in the feventh.

The feventh cervical approaches in all refpefts very nearly
to the charafters of the dorfal vertebn.

The mufcles attached to the cervical vertebra; are the in-
terfpinales ; the intertranfverfi anteriores and piilleriores ;
the reftus amicus major ; longus colli ; fcaleni, anterior
medius and poiterior ; cervicalis defcendens ; tranfverfalis
colli ; facrolumbalis ; ferratus podicus fuperior ; rliom-
boidens minor ; trapezius j fplenius capitis ; and part of
the rhomboideuis major.

The Dorfal Vertehrt. — Their number depends on that of
the ribs : they are very feldom eleven ; more frequently
thirteen ; in which latter caie there are generally only four
lumbar vertebrx. Their chief charaftenftics arife from the
articulation of the ribs to this part of the column.

The body projefts in front, when compared to the ver-
tebra of the neck : it is thick behind, and narrower in
front. The upper and under furfaces are plane. It is con
vex in front, a little concave behind. It ib longer, thicker,
larger in all refpet\s, and more cylindrical, in proportion aa
we defcend. The body of the firll, or even of the fecond
alfo, is flattened in front, like thofe of the cervical ; but the
third, fourth, fifth, and fixtli, have the cordiform (hape,
being broad behind, and narrow in front ; the feventh,
eighth, and the reft, are more and more cylindrical. Gene-
rally, the third and fourth are the fmallelt of all. At its
lateral and poiterior part there is a fmall articular furface
above and below, of which the upper is the largelt. Thefe
cartilaginous furfaces form, with the correfponding ones of
the neighbouring vertebrje, and the intermediate fibro-carti-
lages, the articular concavities, which lodge the heads of the
ribs. Sometimes the firft dorfal vertebra ha? an entire arti-
cular concavity at its upper edge, and a half cavity below :
or the upper may be a half cavity alfo, the articulation
being completed by the lower margin of the feventh cervi-
cal. In the eleventh and twelfth there is a fingle cavity-
only, placed either at the upper edge or towards the middle
of the bone, and receiving by itfelf the head of the corre-
fponding rib. The ring is fmall and circular. The plates
are broad, thicker, and more perpendicular than in the
neck ; and they give origin to a very long fpinous procefs,
which is prifmatic, pyramidal, broad at the bafis, and grow-
ing narrower at the oppofite extremity, which i^ pointed,
and dircdled obliquely backwards and downwards. The
fpinous procefs of the firft dorfal vertebra is thick, extend-
ed nearly horizontally, and ends in a flattened tubercle.
The fecond, and particularly the third, is more llanling ;
the upper margin more acute ; and the extremity longer and
more pointed. Thefe characters become more flrongly
marked in the fourth to the feventh or eighth : they are
very long, and pointed, the fuperior edge is very acute, and
the inferior furface is nearly flat ; they flope fo much, that
they lie one over the other, in clofe contait, while thofe of
the three upper and four lower Hand quite apart. The
effeft which this arrangement mull have in limiting the pof-
terior inflexion of the column is very obvious. In the four
loweft dorfal vertebrae, the depth of the fpinous procefles,
from above downwards, is increafed ; they are extended
more horizontally, and the length ot their points is dimi-
nifhcd. The fpnious procefles of the dorfal vertebrx are
feldom all arranged in the fame perpendicular line : one may-
deviate to the right, another to the left, &c. The articu-
lar procefles are perpendicular, the fuperior being direded
backwards, tlie inferior forwai-ds, excepting the inferiof ones
of the twelfth, which are turned outwards, to be adapted
to the fuperior procefles of the firll lumbar vertebra.

The tranfverfe procefles are very thick, and confiderably
inclined backwards : this, together with the concavity of
the column in the back, enlarges the fpace for the reception
of the lungs. When the fpine is viewed laterally, the tranf-
verfe prc)cefl"es of the dorfjil are confiderably behind the line
of thofe of the cervical or lumbar regions. Each of them
has a fmall plane, or very gently concave, furface, on the
anterior part of its extremity, by which it is articulated to
the tubercle of the correfponding nb. Thefe furfaces are
direded upwards in the fuperior vertebrx, downwards ia
the inferior. The tranfverle procefles dccreafe confiderably

from

SPINE.

from the tenth to the twelfth ; and the two laft have no fur-
face for articulation with the ribs.

The configuration of the twelfth dorfal vertebra differs
very little from that of the lumbar.

To the vertebfE of this region the following mufcles are
affixed : viz. fplenius capitis and colli, trachelomaftoideus,
biventer cervicis, complexus, longus colli, tranfverlalis
colli, femifpinalis colli, femifpinalis dorfi, multifidus fpins,
facrolumbalis, levatorcs coitarum, intertranfverfales and in-
terfpinales dorfi, latiffimus dorfi, rhomboideus major, tra-
pezius, ferratus pofticus fupcrior and inferior.

The liimbiir ■vcrlnbris are (eldom fix in number, and more
rarely four. Their great fize, which increafcs down to the
lafl, diltinguifhes them from thofe of the back and neck ;
while the thick fibro-cartilages, by which they are joined
together, and the free fpace between their fpinous procefles,
give them confiderable power of motion. The bodies are
large and cyhndrical, with flat furfaces above and below,
excepting the inferior, which is cut off obliquely, to ac-
commodate it to the facruni, with which it is united to form
the promontory : the ring is triangular, and larger than m
the neck. The lamina: are thick and Itrong, and form a
large fpinous procefs, which is flattened laterally, termi-
nating above and below in a thin edge, and forming a
rounded end behind. That of the laft is very fhort, and
fometimes entirely wanting. The tra:.fverfe procelTes are
flattened, and rather turned backwards: it is fhort in the
firft, increafes in the fecond and third, then again diminifhes.
The articular procefles are perpendicular ; the fuperior
flightly concave, and the inferior proportionally convex.
The former have their articular faces turned inwards and
backwards ; the latter outwards and forwards : the fpace
between the fuperior is, therefore, neceiTanly more con-
fiderable than that between the inferior.

The following are the mufcles attached to the lumbar
vertebrae ; wz. interfpinales and intertranfverfales lum-
borum, fpinalis dorfi, multifidus fpins, quadratus lumborum,
obliquus internus and tranfverfus abdominis, facrolumbalis
and longifTimus dorfi, ferratus pollicus inferior, the dia-
phragm, the pfoa; major and minor.

The bodies of the vertebrte confill almoft entirely of
fpongy texture ; it is covered by a very thin layer of com-
paft bone : hence a vertebra, when thoroughly cleaned, is
very light in comparifon to its bulk. In the recent ftate it
appears bloody and medullary. The circumference of the
two furfaces is fmooth, the centre rougher. At the fame
time that the cellular itrufture of the vertebral bodies in-
creafes the ftrength of the column, without adding to its
weight, it makes thefe bones liable to thofe affeftions which
belong more particularly to fuch ftrufture. The compaft
tiifuc is tolerably abundant in the atlas and axis ; and it pre-
dominates confiderably in the procefles, which, however,
are cellular in their middle, and in parts where they are
fwelled, as at the ends of the fpinous procefles in the loins,
&c. The offification of the vertebrx goes on in three pieces ;
one for the body, and the two others for the lateral and
poftcrior parts : yet feparate points may be fometimes feen
at the bafes of the fpinous procefles. The lateral portions
are united to each other behind, at the bafis of the fpinous
procefs ; and they are united in front to the body, at the
fituation of the articular procefles. The atlas ufually has
five primitive bony pieces; one for the anterior arch, tv,-o
for the pofterior, and one for each fide.

We have included the facrum and the os coccygis in the
enumeration of pieces compofing the fpine, although they
are generally denominated bones of the pelvis. Their de-
fcription may in truth be eonneded, without impropriety,

either with that of the laft mentioned cavity, or of the ver-
tebral column. They belong, however, more naturally to
the latter. The facrum is formed on the fame model as the
vertebrae, and confifts originally of five dillinft pieces, jult
like vertebrae, united by fibro-cartilages ; differing from
vertebrae only in fome infignificant points of fize, figure,
&c. Thefe pieces are indeed foon confolidated into one
bone, which then has much lefs refemblance to the vertebrae
than it had before. One great office of the fpinal column,
that of continuing and protefting the medulla fpinahs, be-
longs equally to the facrum. The modification which the
fpine exhibits in this part, arifes from the attachment of the
lower limbs : a large furface is neceffary for this purpofe,
and a ftrong bone ; and thefe conditions are anfwered in the
facrum, w!iich in every other refpeft has the configuration
belonging to the fpine.

The facrum (os latum, clunium'' is the largeft bony piece
of the vertrbul column, placed immediately below the lait
lumbar vertebra, and at the back of the pelvis ; fupporting,
above, the lead, upper limbs, fpine, and fuperior part of
the tru' k, and traiifmitting the weight thus received from
the laft umbar vertebra to the pelvis, where its broad fides
are Itrongly tied to the ofTa innominata, between which it is
received like a wedge; and containing the lower extremity
of the medulla fpinalis. Its bafis is joined to the laft lumbar
vertebra, in the fame way as the individual vertebrx are
connedled to each other ; its apex is united to the firft bone
of the coccyx. When viewed in its fituation, it is not
placed perpendicularly, but turned backwards, making an
angle with the lunbar vertebrae, called the promontory.

The figure of the bone is wedge-fliaped or triangular,
with the bafis turned upwards, the apex downwards, and the
two fides placed laterally. It is fymmetrical. It is not only
broadefl above, but alfo thickeft from before backwards,
and gradually diminifhes downwards in both thefe directions.
It is concave in front, and tolerably fmooth, convex, and
rugged behind. We fhall defcribe its fpinal, pelvic, ver-
tebral, and coccygeal furfaces, and the two lateral fides.

The fpinal furface is convex, very irregular, and covered
by the origins of the mufcles, which fill the lateral hollows
of the fpinal column. We obferve in it, ill, on the middle
line, four eminences, diminifhing in fize from above down-
wards, analogous to the fpinous procefles of the vertebrx,
of vi'hich they continue the feries, fometimes running into a
continuous bony ridge. Thefe are jhe fpinous procefles of
the facrum, affording points of attachment to mufcles.
They are terminated below by a triangular opening, the end
of the facral canal, which is clofed by the pofterior facro-
coccygeal hgament, and bounded laterally by two prominent
knobs, which are ufually articulated to two correfponding
ones of the coccyx. Under thefe, fometimes called the
defcending procefles of the facrum, the lalt facral nerve
pafles. The inferior opening of the facral canal is fome-
times much more extenfive, reaching nearly to the upper
part of the bone, fo that the canal is flit in its whole length :
the opening in fuch inftances is ttill occupied by ligament.
2dly. On each fide, a rough deprelTion above, for the in-
fertion of powerful ligaments, which tie the facrum to the
OS innominatum ; and, lower, four pofterior facral foramina,
fituated in a channel continuous with that of the vertebn,
but fhallower, and filled by the lumbar mufcles. Thefe
holes, diminifhing in diameter from above downwards, are
traverfed by the pofterior branches of the facral nerves, and
communicate with the canal of the bone : they are bounded
externally by more or lefs diltinft prominences, which may
be confidered as reprefenting the tranfverfe procefTes of the
vertebrae.

The

SPINE.

' The pelvic furface is concave, and correfponds more par-
ticularly to the reAum. It prefents, ilt, on the middle
line, four flight tranfverfe ridges, indicating the points of
vnion between the original pieces of the bone, and fepa-
rated by quadrilateral furfaces, a little concave, which
anfwcr to the anterior part of the bodien of the vertebra: ;
•Sdly, on each fide, the four anterior facral foramina, much
larger than the pofterior, oppofite to which they are placed,
and with which they communicate by the facral canal, di-
minifhing in fize from above downwards, giving pafTage to
the anterior branches of tlie facral nerves, and feparated by
bony intervals, uniting in a furface, to which the pyrami-
dalis is attached.

The vertebral furface, reprefenting the bafe of the tri-
angle, exhibits a configuration very fimilar to that of the
furface of a vertebra, and is adapted for union with the laft
lumbar vertebra. On the middle and anterior part there is
an oval fmooth furface, cut rather obliquely, to correfpond
to the oblique mferior furface of the lad-mentioned hone,
with which it is joined by means of a fibro-cartilage, at an
angle, which forms the promontory of the pelvis. Im-
mediately behind this is feen the orifice of the facral canal,
■which has a flattened triangular figure, with the bafis turned
forwards, and the apex towards the fpinous procefles ; di-
minifties in fize from above downwards ; is continuous with
the vertebral canal, from which it receives the lower end of
the medulla fpinalis, furrounded by its membranes ; com-
municates externally by the anterior and pofterior holes jull
defcribed, and terminates below at tlie triangular fiffure al-
ready noticed. On each fide of this round articulating
portion the factum forms, in front, a fmooth, convex,
tranfverfe furface, continuous with the iliac fofl'a, and co-
vered by ligaments. Behind, there are two concave arti-
cular procefles, facing backwards and inwards, and joined
to the inferior articular procefles of the lad lumbar vertebra.
This procefs is bounded in front by a flight notch, contri-
buting to the opening for the paflage of the laft lumbar
nerve ; and behind by a thin edge, forming the lateral
boundary of the facral canal, correfponding to the margin
of the vertebral laminae, and having the lait of the yellow
ligaments attached to it.

The coccygeal furface, reprefenting the bafe of the tri-
angle, is very fmall, and forms an oval face articulated to
the coccyx.

The edges of the facrum are formed into broad furfaces,
for articulation with the ofia innominata. In thefe parts,
which rcprcfent the tranfverfe procefles of the vertebras, the
refemblance between them and the former bone is the leaft.
Each edge exhibits, above, a furface above two inches long,
and an inch and a half broad, united with the os innomina-
tum by the facro-iliac fymphyfis, oblique in its direftion, in
confequence of the wcdge-Uke figure of the bone, and gra-
dually decreafing in breadth from above downwards, as the
whole facrum diminiflics in thicknefs in the fame direftion.
This articular lurtace is divided by a waving line from above
downwards, into the anterior and pofterior part : the former
is comparatively fmooth, and united by the intervention of
a cruft of cartilage to the 08 innominatum ; the pofterior is
fcabrous and irregularly excavated, to afford attachment to
powerful ligaments paffing between the two bones.

, The coccygeal extremity, or the apex of the triangle, is
an oval furface for articulation with the firft bone of the
coccyx.

The bony fubftance of the facrum is like that of the
Tertebrx, cellular interaally, and covered on the outfidc
with a compaft layer. It il more denfe in the fpinous
procelfcs.

Vol.. XXXIII.

The multifidus fpmae, tne longifiimus dorfi and facro-
lumbalis, gluteus maximus, pyriformis, ferratus pofticus
inferior, latiflimus dorfi, and obliquus internus abdominis,
are connefted to the facrum.

This bone is competed originally of five pieces, exaftly
refembling vertebn, joined together by fibro-cartilages,
which remain till the fourteenth year, or longer, after which
the fcparate portions are conlolidated into one bone.
Hence the facrum and os coccygis have been called the
column of falfe vertebrx. Each of the facral vertebra pof-
ieffes in the fcetus certain diltiuA bony nuclei, like thofe
of the true vertebrse. There are five in each of the three
upper ones, and three in each of the two lower. Tlie late-
ral portions are confolidated firft ; the anterior and pofte-
rior parts later. Tiie cartilages of the front divifions do
not entirely difappear till the time of puberty, or even
afterwards.

The facrum fometinies confifts of fix portions ; very fel-
dom of four.

The coccyx (o?, or more properly ofTa, coccygis) is a
triangular fymmetrical bone, confiding of four pieces,
which are united by cartilaginous ligaments in fuch a way
as to form a continuation of the curvature of the facrum,
placed at the pofterior and inferior part of the pelvis, where
it fupports the termination of the reftum. The firft piece
is the largell, and they decrcafc fuccefGvely, but not al-
ways fo : their breadth exceeds their length : tliey are
joined by articular furfaces. The fpinal face of the bone
is convex, uneven, and marked by prominences, which in-
dicate the original divifions. The great facro-fciatic liga-
ment, and the gluteus maximus, are attached to it. To the
pelvic furface, which is gently concave, marked by tranf-
verfe ridges, and covered by a thick ligamentous llratum,
the reftum correfponds. The facral furface is the broadeft
and thickeft part of the bone : it has an oval concavity arti-
culated to the facrum, and behind that two afccnding tuberr
cles, which join the two defcending ones of the facrum,
and form together the openings through which the laft
facral nerves pafs out. The edges are uneven, and occupied
by the attachment of the Icfs facro-fciatic ligament : they
unite below in a rounded angle, to which the levator ani i<
connefted.

While the bones are feparate, the firft is the largeft : it
is triangular, convex behind, and concave in front ; the
fecond, third, and fourth, are circular and flattened.

The gluteus maximus, the curvator coccygis, the coccy-
geus, the levator ani, and fphinfter ani, are inferted in thii
bone.

The Dony fubftance of the coccyx is fpongy, and re-
markably loofe and foft in its texture. In the fcctus the
four pieces are completely cartilaginous, and the olTification
takes place later than in the facrum. Late in life the
different portions frequently anchylofe ; and fometimcs the
bone itfelf is anchylofed to the facrum : the latter event it
lefs frequent in the female.

Jrlicu/ationi of the Vertebral Column. — From the great
number of pieces which enter into its compofition, the
joints of the fpine mull nccefl'arily be numerous. Moveable
articulations are required, on account of the motions exe-
cuted by various parts of the fpine ; but folldity and
ftrength are alfo neccliary, becanfe the fpine is the point of
fupport of the limbs and head, the centre from which their
motions proceed, and becanfe it contains the fpinal marrow,
to which any injury, preflure, or fhock, would be fo very
dangerous. Hence we find the vertebra: joined by very
broad furfaces, and otherwife very ftrongly tied together,
fo that luxation is impolTible, and the fpine poA'cifcs as
3 Z muck

SPINE.

much ftrength, as if it were compofed of a fmgle piece, al-
though a power of motion is combined with that capacity
for refiftance. The numerous joints, and the great quantity
of foft elaRic matter in the fpine, give a fpring to all the
motions of the trunk, and (top the effeft of all (hocks, fo
as to prevent their propagation, and to obviate conculTion
of important organs, particularly of the brain. But, be-
fides the articulations which join the component pieces of
the fpine, there are feveral others, by which various parts
are joined to the fpine. Such are the joints of the head
with the firft and fecond vertebrae of the neck, and of thefe
vertebra with each other : thefe, and the motions they exe-
cutt, are coniidered under the article Head. The con-
nection of the ribs with the dorfal vertebra; is defcribed
under Lungs. The articulation of the facrum with the
oflfa innorainata, and with the coccyx, and of the diflFerent
pieces of the coccyx with each other, are defcribed under
Pelvis.

Articulations of the Vertehm. — Thefe bones are joined,
lit, by their bodies ; 2dly, by their articular proceffes ;
3dly, by their laminx; ; and 4thly, by the fpinous procelFes.
The mode of connection is the fame throughout the fpine,
excepting in the cafe of the atlas and the axis. Of the
uniting media, however, fome form feparate and infulated
organs at each intervertebral interval ; fuch are the fibro-
cartilages, and the yellow ligaments : others conititute
common organs, embracing at the fame time the whole
vertebral column, or its greatelt part, as the anterior and
po(terior vertebral and the fuprafpinal ligaments. Yet
the fibres of the latter do not run through the whole
length.

I'he bodies of the vertebrx are united by an anterior and
a polterior vertebral ligament, and by a fibro-cartilage be-
tween every two bones.

The anterior vertebral ligament, or fafcia longitudinalis an-
terior, occupies the anterior furface of the column, extending
from the axis to the upper part of the facrum. It is not
equally ftrong nor broad throughout : it is narrow in the
neck, broader in the back, and (till wider in the loins. In
the firft fituation it is thin, ftronger in the fecond, and again
rather thin in the loins, where the tendons of the crura dia-
phragmatis are intermixed with it. The (ibres of this liga-
ment do not run through the whole length of the column ;
fome end and others begin in each bone. This ligament con-
filts of a thin llratum clofely adhering to the bone, and co-
vered, in the neck, by the pharynx and oefophagus, in the
back, by the latter, by the aorta, vena azygos, and thoracic
duft, and in the loins by the aorta and the inferior vena cava.
At the fides it correfponds, in the neck, to the refti majores
antici and longi colli ; in the loins to the pfoae. It adheres to
the fibro-cartilages, and to the projefting edges of the ver-
tebral bodies, more clofely than to the concavities of the
latter. The more fuper(icial (ibres go from one vertebral
body or fibro-cartilage to the fourth or fifth below ; others
belong to three bones or fibro-cartilages ; and the deepe(t
only to two. The fibres are interwoven with thofe on the
froHt of the fibro-cartilages ; and they leave fmall intervals
for the palTage of velTels. At the fides of this ligament in
the neck, under the longi colli, are two fmall fibrous fafci-
culi for each vertebra, palling obliquely downwards and
outwards from the vertebra above to that next below it.

The pofteriur ligament (fafcia longitudinalis poftica) oc-
cupies the pofterior afpeft of the vertebral bodies, where
they form the front of the canal, extending from the axis and
the occipitoaxoid ligament, or apparatus colli hgamentolus,
to the facrum. It is more denfe in its ftrufture than the
anterior, and appears more diftina, fmooth, and ihining.

The narrowed part of it is in the back : it enlarges at the
fibro-cartilages, and is contracted at the bodies of the ver-
tebra; ; thus, when viewed in its whole length, it is alter-
nately contrafted afid expanded at each vertebra and its
neighbouring cartilage. The dura raater covers it behind,
feparated from it by a loofe cellular tiffue, never contain-
ing fat, but often much ferous fluid. It correfponds ia
front to the fibro-cartilages and the bodies of the vertebrz,
adhering lefs clofely to the latter than to the former. Like
the anterior ligament, it confifts of fuperficial and deep-
feated fibres, of which the former are the longed, and pafs
over three or four vertebrae, while the latter go from one
bone or fibro-cartilage to the next.

The fibro-cartilages (hgaraenta intervertebralia) are or-
gans, of which the nature is little underllood, holding the
middle place, in point of ilrudture, between ligament asd
cartilage, and occupying the intervals of the vertebral bodies
throughout the column, excepting between the atlas and
axis. Their form varies according to that of the bodieg
which they unite ; and confequently is different in the neck,
back, and loins. Their thicknefs increafes fucceflively from
above downwards ; fo that the lumbar are feparated by
larger intervals than the cervical and dorfal vertebrx. More-
over, they are thicker in front than behind, in the neck : on
the contrary, they are thickell behind in the back ; and the
arrangement in the loins is the fame as in the neck : thefe
differences are obvioufly connefted with the natural bend-
ings of the column. The fibro-cartilages adhere very in-
timately above and below to the correfponding flat furfaces
of the vertebra:. In the foetus they adhere to the cartilages
of oflification ; when they are removed nothing remains at-
tached to the vertebra: ; but, in the adult, the bony fibres
and thofe of the fibro-cartilages are fo completely identified,
that we find no inftances in the animal economy of itronger
union. The circumference of thefe fubftances correfponds
to the anterior and polterior vertebral ligaments : on each
fide, they form part of the holes through which the fpinal
nerves pafs ; and in the back they contribute to the arti-
cular cavities for the heads of the ribs.

The fibro-cartilages are formed externally of concentric
fibrous laminK, numerous in front and at the fides, fewer
behind, with decuffating fibres, feparated by more confider-
able intervals as we approach the centre. In the latter we
find a foft pulpy tilTue, increafing in quantity as the inter-
vals increafe in breadth. The fibrous laminae degenerate
gradually into the pulpy ftruiture, which occupies alone the
middle of each fibro-cartilage. This tiflue is moft abundant
in the child, where it is alfo foft, whitifh, and even nearly
tranfparent, while it is yellowilh and thick in the adult. It
becomes denfc and compaA in the old fubjeft, and is con-
Itantly diminilhing. To it the fibro-cartilages owe their
pliancy and elallicity ; while their Itrength refides in the
laminx, which inclofe this foft (Irudture. Hence the fpine
is diftinguifhed by the firft property in infancy ; while the
other predominates afterwards. The laminx foon become
red when immerfed in water : the middle part fwells and rifes
jnto a conical projection. If the fpine be fawn through
longitudinally, the fibro-cartilage fwells out, on the cut fur- '
face, beyond the bone. The effect of thefe fubftances in
reftoring the column, when it has been bent in any diredtion,
is very obvious. The inflexion compreffes the fibro-cartilages
at the bent part ; and they reftore themfelves as foon as the
comprcffing caufe ceafes to aft. When the body has been
long ereft, the fibro-cartilages yield to the weight which
pre(res them from above, and thus the length of the fpine,
and confequently of the body, is diminilhed: the ceflation of
this preflure, when the body is in the horizontal pofition,

allows

SPINE.

allows them to recover their original dimenfions. See Car-
tilage.

The correfponding faces of the articular procefTes are
covered by thin cartilaginous layers, and furuifhed with a
ftnall fynovial membrane, which is very clofely drawn be-
tween the oppofed furfaces, and contains very little fynovia.
Several fliort and irregular, but ftrong ligamentous fibres, lie
on this membrane.

The yellow ligaments (lig. fubflava), fo called from their
colour, tie together the laminae of the vertebra;, which do
not touch each other, and complete the canal of the fpine,
which would be otherwife open at the intervals of their la-
mina;. The firft of thefe ligaments is placed between the
fecond and third cervical vertebra: ; the lait between the fifth
lumbar and the facrum. Each confifts of two portions, a
right and left, united at an angle towards the bafis of the
fpinous procefs, and having at this union a fmall interval
containing a little cellular tifFue. Each portion is attached,
above, to the inner furface of the fuperior lamina ; and be-
low to the upper edge ot the inferior : hence they are hidden
behind, and can only be feen to advantage from the vertebral
canal ; they may be beft expofed by fawing out the fpinous
procefTes, and their laminae, from the vertebral column, in
one continuous piece. They correfpond, in front, to the
dura mater, to which they are connefted by a loofe cellular
tiliue ; behind, to the inner furface of the upper laminae of
each interval, and to the multifidus Ipinse. The angle
formed by the union of the two lateral pieces is continuous
m the back and loins with the interfpinal ligaments : on the
outfide each is contiguous to the fynovial membrane of the
articular procefles. Their fibres are numerous and clofely
fet ; longer towards the canal, where they appear fmooth
and pohflied, than towards the vertebral channel, where they
are rough and uneven. There is very little cellular tifl'ue in
their compofition, fo that they are diffolved under ebullition
with great difficulty, and refill it longer than any analogous
organs. They are claltic, very ftrong, fo that vaft force is
required to break them : ftronger indeed than the fibro-
cartilages, in which the fibres are feparated by much of the
pulpy texture. It is very clear that thefe ligaments will
powerfully tend to reftore the fpine, after it has been inclined
forwards.

The fpinous procefles, feparated by intervals more or lefs
confiderable in different fituations, are united by two kinds
of hgaments ; one of which connefts the procefTes them-
felves, while the other envelopes their points.

The interfpmal ligaments (membrana interfpinalis) occupy
the intervals of the procefles, but do not exilt in the neck,
where the correfponding fpaces are filled by the interfpinales
mufcles. Their breadth and ftrength increafe from above
downwards ; in the back they are narrow, elongated, and
thin, and can fcarcely be faid to exift in the upper part of
the region. They are quadrilateral, broader and thicker in
the loins, where they may offer confiderable refiftance to the
feparation of the procefles. Their points of attachment are
the lower edge of one fpinous procefs, and the upper edge
of the next : they correfpond, in front, to the angle of union
of the two portions of the yellow ligaments ; behind, to the
fuprafpinal hgaments ; and on the fides, to the multifidus
fpina: and longiffimus dorfi. They are compofed of de-
cufTating fibres.

The fuprafpinal ligament (hg. quo apices vertebrarum
conneftuntur) extends along the points of the fpinous pro-
cefTes of the back and loins, from the feventh cervical ver-
tebra to the fpinous procefles of the facrum. It is very
thick in the loins, where it is fo interwoven with the ten-
dinous attachments of the mufcles, that they can hardly be

difl^inguilhed. In the back it is thinner and more diftind
from the aponeurofis. The longitudinal direAion of it»
fibres ferves to diltinguifh it from the tendons, of wliich the
fibres are oblique. Its fibres are of diffL-rent lengths ; the
deeped go from bone to bone ; the more fuperficial are
longer, palling over one, two, or more vertebrae, and giving
origin to the aponeurotic fibres of the neighbouring mufcles.
The llvin covers this ligament behind ; adhering to it by a
clofe cellular tilfue.

The ligamentum nuchse, which ariles from the cervical
fpinous procefTes, belongs more to the head than to the
fpine. It is defcribed under Head.

The lait vertebra of the loins is articulated to the facrum,
jult in the fame way as the individual vertebrae are joined to-
gether ; viz. by a fibro-cartilage, by yellow ligaments, by
an mterfpinal ligament, and by articular procefTes.

The Spine conftdered as a Whole. — The twenty-nine bones
juft defcribed, ■u/z. the twenty-four vertebra, the facrum,
and the four ofla coccygis, are joined by tiie articulations
which have been now explained, (all being connefted by the
intervention of fibro-cartilages, except the atlas,) fo as to
form, by their afTemblage, the itrong but flexible bony
column which fuftaiNs the head, forms the bafis of the
trunk, affords a point of attachment to the upper limbs,
and below is received between and fupported by the haunch
bones. We diftinguilh in it an anterior, a pollerior, and
two lateral regions, and two extremities. We may obferve,
in general, that the whole column increafes in fize from
above downwards, as it has to fupport an increafing weight ;
but to this there are fome exceptions, that will be noticed.

The anterior region, compofed of the bodies of the ver-
tebrae and the intermediate fibro-cartilages, prefents in fome
degree the appearance of a bony pillar, which term is httle
applicable to the rows of bony procefTes, which form the
lateral and pofterior afpefts of the fpine. This region is
broad in the neck, narrow in the back, and again fpreads
out in the loins. Its breadth in the firft fituation arifes from
the fmallnefs and inconfiderable prominence of the vertebral
bodies ; in confequence of which the tranfverfc procefTes in
this region form part of the anterior afpeft of the fpine ;
while in the back and loins, the bodies form, by their bold
convex projeftion, the whole front of the column. The
front of the fpine prefents a feries of fuperficial tranfverfc
excavations, and of prominent edges which bound them :
the number of the latter is double that of the former, as
each tranfverfc channel is bounded above and below by a.
ridge. Thefe excavations are confined to the front in the
neck ; but they reach to the fides in the middle of the
column. The anterior vertebral ligament, the refti capitis
majores, the longi colli, the vena azygos, thoracic duft,
aorta, and inferior vena cava, cover the fpine in front.

We obferve, on the pofterior afpeft, in the middle hnc,
the feries of fpinous procelTes, projcfting horizontally at
the upper and lower parts, and very flanting in the middle.
They are feparated by intervals, whicli arc large in the neck
and ttill more fo in the loins ; but very much narrowed in
the back, in the middle of which the procefles aflually
overlap. In the neck and loins there are openings between
the laminx, leading into the vertebral canal, in the flu-le-
ton ; but the flanting of the fpinous procefles covers thefe
in the back. Tlie points of the fpinous procefTes are gene-
rally all in the fame line ; but there may be deviations, arif-
ing either from a lateral inclination of the procefs, or from
an unnatural pofition of the vertebra. On each fido of the
fpinous procefles there is a longitudinal hollow, beginning
at the upper extremity of the column, and ending below
upon the facrum. Thefe lateral hollows arc broad above,
3 Z 2 contraftcd

SPINE.

contraaed towards the middle, and narrow below. They
are formed by the feries of vertebral laminx, feparated by
larger or fmaller fpaces, which are occupied by the yellow
ligaments. They arc hlled by the vertebral mufcles, par-
ticularly by the multifidus fpina;.

The feries of tranfverfe procefl'es occupies each lateral re-
gion ; but they have not all the fame direftion : they are
more anterior in the neck and loins, and thrown backwards
in the back. Between them in the neck, and in front of
them in the back and loins, there is a fucceffion of large
holes, increafing in iize from above downwards, and giving
pafFagc to the vertebral nerves. In front of thefe, m the
back, are the furfaces for articulation of the heads of the

ribs.

Tiie fuperior extremity, articulated to the occiput, torms
a riglit angle with it on each fide ; and an anterior and pof-
terior angle, which vary according to the flexion or extenfion
of the head. This extremity prefents, from before back-
v^ards, the anterior arc of the atlas, the tooth-hke procefs,
the commencement of the canal, and the polterior arc of
the atlas. On each fide of the canal, towards the front,
there is the concavity for the occipital condyle, and the large
tranfverfe procefs. The inferior extremity prefents merely
the fmall rounded point formed by the laft bone of the
coccyx. .

The length of the fpine does not vary greatly in different
individuals"; the differences of ftature depending more on
the limbs than on this column. In malformations, however,
where it is curved in various direftions, the ftature is much
affefted ; and the hnibs, although not exceeding their ordi-
nary fize, appear difproportionately long. We have already
obferved, that the compreflion of the fibro-cartihges by the
weight which they naturally fupport, diminifhes the length
of the fpine after long ftanding ; and that the column re-
covers its former length by repofe in the horizontal pofture.
This effeft is lefs ftrongly marked in the old fubjeft, where
the fibro-cartilages are very denfe, and coafequently do not
eafily yield to prefTure.

The fize of the column increafing from above downwards,
in proportion to the greater weight and more powerful eflefts
it has to fupport, it may be regarded as a pyramid, of which
the bafis is below, and the apex above. Yet this augmenta-
tion is not gradual throughout ; and the column may be con-
fidered as the affemblage of four pyramids. The upper
end, including the atlas and axis, deftined for articulation
with the head, which it fupports, is larger than the imme-
diately fucceeding part of the neck. From the third to the
feventh cervical vertebra the fpine is gradually expanded :
thence, to the third or fourth dorfal vertebra, it contradls
. again ; and is gradually augmented from the latter to the bafis
of the facrum : it contrafts again from the bafis of the fa-
cruin to the apex of the os coccygis. Meafured tranfverfely,
the fpine increafes from the third cervical to the fifth dorfal
vertebra, while the remaining dorfal and the lumbar vertebra;
are nearly of the fame breadth, or increafe very flightly
downwards. The depth of the vertebrse is alfo increafed ;
but the inferior cervical are all nearly of one depth.

The intervertebral intervals are nearly of uniform fize,
down to the third dorfal ; from which they "increafe down-
wards. The flat furfaces of a vertebra are always parallel
to each other, and the intervals are confequently of the fame
depth before and behind. There is an exception, however,
of the parts in which the column is bent ; the intervals of
the third, fourth, fifth, :ind fixth dorfal vertebrae being
narroweft in front, while thofe between the fourth and fifth
lumbar, and the facrum, are broadelt in front.

The fpinal column is itraight, when viewed before or be.

hind ; and might be divided by a perpendicular line into »
right and left correfponding half: but, wlien we view it
laterally, we find that it is bent in fevcral parts, fo as to de-
fcribe a waving line, in which each anterior prominenci' is
accompanied by a correfponding poftcrior convexity. The
cervical portion projefts flightly in front ; the dorfal is de-
cidedly convex behind. The concavity of the dorfal part
of the fpine combines with the inclination backwards of the
tranfverfe procefl'es to increafe the capacity of the thorax-
The greateft depth of this concavity is oppofite to the
lower bone of the fternum. In the loins, the fpine is again
convex in front, while the facrum and coccyx flant back-
wards remarkably, fo as to prefent a deep concavity. The
middle of the firil convexity correfponds to the fourth cer-
vical vertebra ; that of the fucceeding concavity to the
feventh or eighth dorfal ; the middle of the lumbar projec-
tion to the junftion of the fifth lumbar vertebra with the fa-
crum ; and that of the facral concavity to the middle of the
bone. About the third, fourth, and fifth dorfal vertebra,
the fpine is fometimes a little convex towards the right.
This has been afcribed to the prefence of the aorta ; but
that caufe is manifeilly inadequate. The explanation, which
is grounded on the greater ufe of the right arm, and a con-
fequent inchnation of the trunk to the left fide, in order to
afford a firmer point of lupport, appears rather more pro-
bable. Any habitual attitude, particularly when perfiiled
in from childhood, will affeft the diretlion of the vertebral
column. Under various difeafed ftates, remarkable curva-
tures are produced ; in which we find that the vertebrx and
their fibro-cartilages become accommodated to the unnatural
pofition, being greatly diminilhed in depth on the concavity
of the curve, fo that the two furfaces are no longer parallel.
It is alfo conftant, that a bend in one part renders curvature
neceflary in another, in order to preferve the centre of gra-
vity in a Itraight line. The pofition of the head and upper
limbs is alfo calculated to maintain the equilibrium of the
body ; and thus nearly the whole frame is influenced by a
caufe originally affefting only a part of the fpine.

The canal of the fpine extends throughout the column,
excepting a fmall portion of the lower end of the facrum
and the os coccygis : it is continuous, above, with the cavity
of the cranium, and ends below on the back of the facrum.
It does not occupy the centre of the column, being placed
much nearer to the pofterior part. In the neck it is large ;
more ample in the upper than in the lower part of the back,
the narroweft part being from the fixth to the ninth : it exr
pands a little in the eleventh and twelfth dorfal vertebrae, is
very large in the lumbar, and again fuddenly contracted in
the facrum. Its figure is triangular, with the angles round-
ed ; fo that it has an anterior, and a right and left furface ;
it IS more nearly round in the middle, and quite triangular in
the facrum. It partakes of all the curvatures of the fpine.
It is formed in front of the backs of the vertebral bodies
and fibro-cartilages, covered by the poft«rior ligaments.
Behind, the lammse and the yellow ligaments compofe it.
On each fide it prefents a feries of twenty-nine large fora-
mina for the paflage of the nerves ; or there are thirty, if
we include the exit of the firft cervical pair, between the oc-
ciput and the atlas.

This canal is lined by a prolongation of the dura mater,
including the medulla fpinalis, covered by its arachnoid coat
and pia mater. (SeeBRAiv and Nervous Sj//lem.) The
dura mater is furrounded by a loofe cellular tillue, contain-
ing ferous fluid.

Developiment of the Spine. — Few parts of the flceleton un-
dergo more remarkable changes in the progrefs of oflification
than the vertebral column. It differs much in the child

and

SPINE.

and the adult ; and in old age is again very different from
both.

It is one of the firft parts formed in the embryo, where it
feem.s to be a kind of foundation, on which the Itrufture of
the body is erefted. Its form is difcernible at the end of the
third week after conception, when we can juft fee the head
and a curved line connefted to it. Long before the extremi-
ties can be fcen, the fpine continues viiible. The commence-
ment of its olTification by .numerous points may be dated
about the end of the fi'cond month. The gelatinous fpine,
or carina, as it has been called from its incurvated keel-like
ihape, is the firil trace of developement in the incubated

The formation of the fpine is more advanced, and its
fize more confiderable, in comparifon with other parts, par-
ticularly with the pelvis and lower limbs, at the time of
birth. Hence the trunk is proportionably longer. The ge-
neral (tature too, at this lime, depends on the fpine, while
in the adult it is influenced more by the lower limbs. This
\jreat length of the Ipine correfponds to the depth of the
oranium, which is much more confiderable proportionally
in the fcEtus and young fubjefts than in the adult. The ver-
tebral canal being alfo large, the breadth of the column,
which depends much on the fize of the canal, is confiderable.
All parts which relate to this excavation are much ad-
vanced. On the contrary, whatever has reference to fup-
port or locomotion, is little developed at this time. The
fpinous proceiles do not exill ; confequently the points of
attachment for the mufcles are weaker. The bodies are ilill
in great meafure cartilaginous ; behmd, where they contri-
bute to the canal, they are the moft formed ; but there is
much foft fubllance in front, where, when the fpine is dried,
we fee merely a feries of rounded bony tubercles. Such a ftate
is very unfavourable to the fohd fupport whicli is neceflary
for preferving the ereft attitude. At this age, the tranfverfe
proceffes are fmall in the loins, where they relate to the
mufcles only ; they are much more confiderable in the back
and neck, on account of their connexion with the ribs and
the vertebral artery.

The column, at this time, does not form a pyramid, of
which the bafis is downwards and the apex upwards. The
cervical portion is larger than the lumbar, on account of the
developement of the tranfverfe proceiles, which, being
placed nearly on the fame line with the bodies, give to the
former region a confiderable volume ; and of the compa-
ratively imperfeft ftate of the lumbar vertebrae. The dor-
fal and lumbar regions are nearly equal in fize ; but in forae
inltances the former vertebra; are largeft. As the principal
effort, m Handing, is fupported by the loins, the imperfeft
Hate of the lumbar vcrtebrx is very unfavourable to the
maintenance of that attitude in the newly born child. The
imperfeftly developed Hate of the bones coincides with the
inconfiderable volume of the pelvis.

The direftion of the column is remarkable in the foetus :
it is itraight, or at leaft exhibits the hardly fenfible com-
mencement of thofe curves, which it will prcfcnt in the fc-
([uel. In confequence of this llraightnels, the vacillations
which occur in the ereft pollure of the body, and in all the
motions executed in th.at polture, are much more fenfible,
and the centre u{ gravity is more eafiiy carried beyond the
bafis of fupport. Hence another realon why newly born
children cannot keep themfelves upright, or move in that
attitude.

The vertebral column, in early age, is fmall and narrow
in front, particularly at the back and loins. In confequence
of the want of fpinous proceiles, there is great flexibility,
particularly backwards. The latter property is favoured by

the large quantity of foft fubftance in the column ; the car-
tilaginous portion of the vertebral bodies being added to
the fibro-cartilages. The vertebral channels are very fhal-
low, in confequence of the ftate of the fpinous proceiles.
The lateral holes arc very large : the laft lumbar vertebra
does not form fo marked an angle with the facrum. The
upper end of the column does not differ materially from its
ftate in the adult.

As offification proceeds, all the peculiarities juft enume>
rated gradually diiappear. The erect attitude is more fecure,
and progrcftion i^ performed with greater facility. Hence
the fupport of the trunk by all the limbs, is a refult of the
organization of the fcEtus. The child, having crawled
about for fome time, gradually experiences thofe develope-
ments of its bony and mufcular fabric, which enable it to
appear in the erect poiture as a biped. The vertebral co-
lumn, however, arrives at the ftate which we have defcribed
as exifting in the adult, by a very flow progreflion. At the
time of puberty, in both fexes, the atlas and the coccyx are
complete. In the fix lower cervical vertebra, the proceffes
are not yet conlolidated to the body ; and the vertebrse of
the back ap.d loins are ftill lefs complete, having a bony plate
at each furface of the body, and a bony nucleus in the fpi-
nous procefs. Slight marks of the original feparation are
ftill vifible in the facrum. In a few years thefe imperfeftions
diiappear; the apices of the fpinous procefles of the back
and loms being among the laft parts that are confolidated.

In the old fubjeft, the intervertebral fibro-cartilages Ihrink
and become harder : fometimes, but very rarely, they offify.
The fpine, at this age, generally bends forwards, apparently
from debility of the pofterior mufcles : thus, the force which
fliould counterbalance that tendency to fall forwards, arifiiig
from the pofition of the vifcera in front of the fpine, is gra-
dually loft. To counteraft this inclination of the fpine
forwards, and fupport the centre of gravity, the pelvis re-
cedes, and the knees and legs projeft in front. The latter
circumltance is more ftrongly marked in proportion as the
inclination of the fpir.e forwards is more confiderable. The
weight of the trunk being carried towards the front, the bafe
of fupport muft move forwards alfo. There is always an
exadl proportion between the bending of the fpine, the re-
ceding of the pelvis, and the advance of the knees. In this
cafe, the trunk and lower limbs together exhibit the fame
phenomenon as the fpine itfelf in its particular curves, which
balance each other in the neck, back, and loins.

Mechanifm of the Spine. — This muft be confidered in three
points of view: lit, with reference to the canal ; zdly, as
the point of fupport of the trunk ; and 3dly, as the centre
of the motions performed bv the latter.

1. Of the Canal. — All the arrangements about the verte-
bral column are calculated to cnfurc the fafety of this part.
The breadth of the vertebral bodies ; the multiplicity and
llrength of the uniting ligaments ; the parts lying in front
of the fpine in the neck, cheft, and abdomen ; and the thick
midcular malfes that fill the vertebral hollows behind ; all
concur in protcfting the contents of the canal from external
injury. Hence the refiftance which the fpine oppoles to all
efforts direfted againft it ; a rcfiltancc which renders lux-
ation impoffible. The individual vertebra: are capable of
fo very flight a motion, that the medulla fpinalis cannot be
comprefled in any inflexions of the fpine.

2. Mechantfm of the Spine in Standing. — Here tlu- fpine
is the point of fupport ot the trunk, of which it tranfmits
all the might, together with that of the head, to the pelvis.

The mode in which the head is fupported on the fpine, is
confidered under the article Head. The part in front of
the articulation certainly preponderates over that behind ;

but

SPINE.

but the difference is lefs confiderable, than it would appear
from noticing merely the relation of the occipital condyles to
the front and back of the Iiead, in confequence of the anterior
portion containing the face, of which the weight does not
correfpond to the bulk, while all the pofterior part is folid

and heavy. . , r ■ r

If the pofition of the head tends to incbnc the Ipme tor-
wards, the fame effeft is much more ftrongly produced by
the fituation of the pedoral and abdominal vifcera wholly in
front, without any thing to counterbalance them behind.
The mufcles of the vertebral channels, inferted either in the
ribs or the vertebra:, exert a conftant effort in oppofition to
that of the anterior vifcera, maintaining by their exertion the
vertebral column, and, confequently, the trunk, in the ereft
attitude. The greateit effort is below, where the fpine fup-
ports the molt confiderable weight. Here the mufcles are
thicker, the bones large, and their proceffes more prominent.
Here, too, the fenfe of fatigue is felt after long Itanding ;
whence arifes the praftice of tying a firm band round tlie
loins, to fupport the mufcles and favour their adion.

Thus, in Handing, the fpine is placed between two forces
afting in oppofite direftions ; an anterior paffivc one, which
is the trunk ; a pofterior aftive one, the aftion of the ex-
tenfor mufcles. The habitual tendency of the fpine to bend
forwards, produced by the weight of the vifcera, is further
obviated by the hip-joints, at which the trunk is fultained
on the lower limbs, being placed in front of the facro-iliac
fymphyfes. The bafis of the trunk occupies the fpace be-
tween the latter fymphyfes and the cotyloid cavities. It
will be readily underltood that falls muft have been much
more frequent, if the thighs had been articulated on tlie fame
bne with the facrum. The waving line defcribed by the
▼ertebral column, and allowing extenfive motion in the
upper parts, without the line of gravity, which paffes through
all the curves, abandoning the bafe of fupport, is another
difpofition very favourable to the fohdity of the trunk in its
ereft attitude. The gradual increafe in fize of the column,
from above downwards, contributes to the fame end. Thus,
ftanding cannot be regarded, by any means, as an attitude
of repofe ; it requires great efforts, which naturally caufe
confiderable laflitude, if the pofture be long maintained.

3. Motions of the Spine. — The general motions are, for-
wards, backwards, to cither fide, or in the intermediate
direftions. Inclination forwards, or flexion, as it is com-
monly termed, is the moft; extenfive, as all our principal
efforts have this direftion. In this motion, the anterior
vertebral ligament is relaxed ; the fibro-cartilages are loofened
in front, and ftretched behind ; the pofterior vertebral liga-
ment, the yellow ligaments, and tbofe of the fpinous pro-
ceffes, are itretched. The laminae of the fibro-cartilage?,
being much more numerous in front than behind, yield more
readily to motion in the former than in the latter direftion.
In extenfion, we obferve phenomena exaftly contrary to thefe.
The mufcles, however, which produce extenfion, being fixed
to the vertebral proceffes, are very near the centre of mo-
tion, and, confequently, aft lefs powerfully than the flexors,
which operate through the medium of the ribs, and, confe-
quently, at a diltance from the centre of motion. The fpi-
nous proceffes, too, particularly of the back, limit extenfion
very much.

In inclination to either fide, the fibro-cartilages are prin-
cipally affefted ; being ftretched on one fide and relaxed on
the other. The ribs principally limit this motion, by coming
in contaft with each other.

All thefe motions are much more fenfible at the junftion
of the dorfal and lumbar regions than elfewhere. When they
are all performed in fucceffiim, the trunk is carried round in

a circular direftion, defcribing a cone, of which the bafis it
upwards, the apex downwards.

Befides the motions jufl; enumerated, a power of rotatioa
has been afcribcd to the fpine, in which the vertebrse are
fuppofed to be twilled on their axes. Winflow admits this,
and Bichat does the fame ; adding, however, that it can only
be accompliftied with confiderable difficulty. He calls it
a fpecies of general twilling, in which all the ligaments are
ftretched, refulting from the partial twifting of each fibro-
cartilage. When we confider how the vertebrse are joined
together ; when we refleft on the nature of the fibro-carvi-
lages, on the yellow ligaments, on the mechanical locking
of the articular proceffes, and more particularly on the
attachments of the ribs, and the overlapping fpines in the
back, we Ihall begin to doubt whether this rotation be
poffible. Dr. Barclay decidedly denies it. (Mufcular
Motions, p. 337, et feq. ) If the head and (houlders be pre-
vented from moving on the trunk, and the pelvis be alfo kept
motionlefs, no rotation of the fpine can be effefted. An
appearance takes place, which might be afcribed to fuch a
rotation, from a motion of the pelvis on the hips. This may
eafily be detefted, by placing a rod of fome feet in length
acrofs the pelvis, when any motion of the latter will be itn-
mediately vifible at its extremity.

The motions vary in each region : on account of the fmall-
nefs of the vertebrae, the obliquity of the articular proceffes,
the (hortnefs and horizontal projeftion of the fpinous pro-
ceffes, which are not tied together by interfpinal ligaments,
the quantity of motion in all the direftions already enu-
merated is confiderable. The cervical region either repre-
fents a fimple lever, or it may be confidered, in conneftion
with the head, as an angular lever, and will follow all the
motions of that part. In one part of this region there is a
true rotatory motion ; it is at the articulation of the atlas
with the axis. Whenever the head is twifted to one fide or
the other, there is a revolution of the former bone on the
latter, and not any general twifting of the fpine.

Every thing concurs to limit motion in the back : for ex-
ample, the articulations of the ribs to the bodies and tranf-
verfe proceffes, and their conneftion to the fternum in front ;
the length and overlapping of the fpinous proceffes.

In the loins, again, there is free motion ; particularly
above, at the junftion of this region with the back.

The motions of the individual vertebras are extremely ob-
fcure ; but they take place in the fame direftion as the ge-
neral motion which we have jull defcribed. The vifible
movement of any part of the fpine refults, therefore, from
the combined effeft of feveral hardly fenfible motions : one
vertebra could not move fufficiently on another to produce a
perceptible motion of the trunk. This circumilance con-
curs with feveral others relating to the mode of union of the
vertebrse, and the mechanical confinement of the articular
proceffes, to render luxation impoffible : meaning by that
term, a difplacement of the bone without any frafture. The
effort is diitributed over a confiderable region, and cannot
therefore aft fufficiently on a fingle bone. Neither can any
force be eafily applied before or behind, lufficient to drive
out one vertebra from its place. Moreover, were fuch a
force aftually applied, the vertebra could not be difplaced
forwards without a frafture of its inferior, nor backwards,
without that of its fuperior articulating proceffes.

Of the mufcles which are concerned in thefe motions,
fome aft direftly on the trunk, while others affeftit through
the medium of the ribs, the fcapulae, &c. All of them, being
placed on the right or left fide of the body, muft have the
power of moving the trunk laterally, more or lefs, accord-
ing to their degree of obliquity, or their diltance from the

mefial

SPINE.

mefial plane. The following is a lift of the mufcles which
carry it forwards ; including both thofe which aft dirtftly
and the indireft ones.

Peftorales majores and minores ; ferrati magni ; obliqui
externi abdominis ; obliqui interni abdominis ; tranfverfi ab-
dominis ; refti abdominis ; pyramidales ; pfoae magni and
parvi.

The mufcles moving it backwards are, trapezii ; rhom-
boidei ; latiflimi dorfi ; ferrati poftici fuperiores and infe-
riores ; facrolumbales ; longiflimi dorfi ; fpinales dorfi ; femi-
fpinales dorfi ; multifidi fpinae ; interfpinales ; intertranf-
verfarii dorfi and lumborum ; quadrati lumborum.

The mufcles of the neck may be arranged in like manner
into the two claffes of (i) thofe which incline it forwards;
and (2) thofe which incline it backwards. In both claffes,
thofe which are to the right or left of the mefial plane, will
infleft the cervical column to their refpeftive fides. Thefe
lilts include, befides the mufcles which aft immediately on
the neck, thofe which influence it through the head.

1. Mufcles bending the neck forwards: latiflimi colli;
biventres maxillx ; mylo-hyoidei ; genio-hyoidei ; genio-
hyoglofii ; omo-hyoidei ; iterno-hyoidci ; thyro-hyoidei ;
llerno-maftoidei ; refti capitis interni majores and minores ;
refti capitis laterales ; longi colli ; fcaleni antici.

2. Mufcles bending it backwards : trapezii ; rhomboidei
minores ; ferrati poftici fuperiores ; fplenii capitis and colh ;
complexi ; trachelo-maftoidei ; cervicales defcendentes ;
tranfverfales cervicis ; fpinales cervicis ; ferai-fpinales cer-
vicis ; multifidi fpinae ; refti capitis poltici majores and mi-
nores ; obliqui capitis fuperiores and inferiores ; fcaleni pof-
tici ; and levatores fcapularum.

The fcaleni medii and intertranfverfales can only infieft
laterally.

Spine, Difeafe and Curvature of, m Surgery. In the pre-
fent article we mtend to confider a particular difeafe of the
fpine, attended with a total or partial abolition of the power
of ufing, and fometimes even of moving, the lower extre-
mities.

It was that eminent furgeon Mr. Pott, who gave the firfl
iccurate defcription of this ferious affliftion. To this dif-
temper, he obferves, children are the moft fubjeft ; adults
are by no means exempt from it ; but it hardly ever affefts
perfons after the age of forty. In infants, the true caufe of
the paralytic diforders of the lower limbs is feldom difco-
vered by parents or nurfes, who never imagine that it is
fituated in the back-bone. When the difeafe affefts a child
who has been able to walk, the lofs of the ufe of his legs is
gradual, though not very flow. He at firft complains of
being very focin tired, and is unwilling to move about much ;
and very (hortly afterwards he frequently trips and ftumblcs,
although there be no impediment in his way. Whenever he
attempts to move brifkly, he finds that his legs involuntarily
crofs each other, by which he is frequently thrown down.
Upon endeavouring to Hand ereft, even for a few minutes,
his knees give way and bend forward.

When tlie diltempcr is a little farther advanced, it will be
found that tiie patient cannot, without much difiiculty and
deliberation, direft either of his feet precifely to any exaft
poi.'it ; and very loon after this, both thighs and legs lofe a
great deal of their natural fenfibility, and become pcrfcftly
ufelefs for all the purpofes of locomotion. In adults, Mr.
Pott obferved, that the progrefs of the difeafe was rather
quicker than in children.

The affeftion of the lower limbs is fomewhat different
from a common nervous pally. The legr. and thighs are ren-
dered unfit for all the purpofes of locomotion, and do alfo
lofe much of their natural fenfibility ; but they have neither

the flabby feel which a truly paralytic limb has, nor that
feeming loofenefs at the joints, nor that total incapacity of
refiftance, which allows the latter to be twiiled in almofl all
direftions. On the contrary, the joints are often very ftiff,
and the feet frequently cannot be placed flatly on the ground,
in confequence of the toes pointing downward.

The difeafe of the fpine varies in fituation, extent, and
degree ; being either in the neck, back, and fometimes,
though very feldom, in the upper part of the loins ; fome-
timeo comprehending only two vertebn, fometimes three;,
or more. ^

Some patients are rendered totally incapable of walking
at a very early period of the dillemper ; others can manage
to move about with the help of crutches, or by grafping
their own thighs with their hands.

When a weak infant is the fubjeft, and the curvature re-
fulting from the morbid flate of the fpine is in the vertebrse
of the back, it is not unfrequently produftive of deformity,
by rendering the back humped, and by alterations which the
pofition of the ribs and fternum undergoes, in confequence
of the flexure and morbid flate of the fpine.

The general health does not feem at firil to be materially
affefted ; but when the dillemper of the fpine has made
much progrefs, many complaints come on, fuch as difficulty
in refpiration, indigeflion, pain, a fenfe of tightnefs in the
ftomach, obftinate conftipations, purgings, involuntary dif-
charge of the urine and feces, &c.

The paralytic affeftion of the legs is certainly owing to
the particular ftate in which the fpinal marrow, furrounded
by the difeafed vertebrae, is placed. When the dillemper has
exifled only a fhort time, the ligaments connefting thofe
vertebras which form the curve are fomewhat thickened ami
relaxed, and the bodies of the bones affefted with a change,
fimilar to what takes place in the heads of the bones in cafes
of white-fwelling. (See White-swelling.) When the
complaint has been of longer exillence, the ligaments are
now manifeflly thickened, and the bones more obvioufly al-
tered, and even becoming carious. The quantity of elaltic
fubftance between the bodies of the vertebrse is much di-
minifhed ; and, after death, in advanced cafes, the bones
are always found carious, while a quantity of fanious fluid is
lodged between them and the membrane inveiting the fpinal
marrow. The corpora vertebrarum, howfoever foftened,
difeafed, or rendered carious they may be, are never
found fpread and enlarged in their texture. Mr. Pott was
well convinced that the bones were not expanded. The dif-
eafe feems to be very analogous to the affeftion of the heads
of the bones in the fcrofiilous white-fwelling, and as we
know that this latter diforder is commonly unattended with
any real increafe in the dimenfions of the difeafed parts of
the bones, we ought indeed to expedl that no fuch change
would prevail in the dillemper now under confideration.

The convexity of the curvature is always from within
outwards, and is invariably preceded, as well as the para-
lytic afleftion of the legs, by a diftempered Hate of the liga-
ments and bones.

The only thing from which relief is ever obtained in the
prefent dillrefiing aflliftion, is an ifliie, made on each fide of
the fpin(jus procelies of the affefted vertcbrre. The befl
mode of forming the iflue is to rub the potaffa cum calc£
upon the fkin until the part turns brown. To accomplifh
this objcft in a neat manner, it is as well to cover and defend
the integuments with adhcfive plafter, excepting the two
longituiimal portions, about half an inch broad, whiih are to
be converted into efchars by the application of the cautlic.
The end of this fublUnce is to be dipped in water, and
freely rubbed on the fituation of the intended iilues. As

foon

S P I

foon as the fkin has become quite brown, the cauilic may be
walhed off with forae wet tow, the adhefive plafter may be
removed, and the part covered with a linfeed poultice.

Immediately the efchars are loofe, and can be taken away
without pain, the iffues are to be filled with peas, or kidney-
beans. Thefe are to be covered with adhefive plafter,
which will confine them in their fituation. However, as the
hollows foon become filled up with granulations, unlefs con-
fiderable preffure be made, it is generally deemed neceffary
to bind a piece of pafteboard, or a comprefs containing
a bit of Iheet-lead, firmly on the fituation of the iifues.
The preffure thus maintained, though creative of uneafinefs
at firft, will, in the end, fave the patient an immenfe deal of
pain ; for, in confequence of its operation, the peas or
beans will foon form as many little hollows in the cavity of
the iffue as their own number, and into thefe the future peas
may afterwards be put and retained, without the leall unea-
finefs, provided the furgeon gives particular injunctions not
to allow the bandage to be ever flack. The preffure faves
the patient, in the end, a great deal of pain, which would
otherwife be unavoidable, on account of the furgeon being
neceflitated to reprefs the rifing granulations in the cavity of
the iffue, by fprinkling them with powder of cantharides,
or the pulv. ex aerug. leris et fabins, or even rubbing them
with the cauftic. In moft inllances, however, it is now and
then requifite to apply one of the above powders underneath
the beans or peas. In order to apply peas advantageouQy,
they fliould be previoufly foftened in warm water, and con-
nefted together like beads, by palling a thread through their
centre. Then they (hould be allowed to become completely
dry, when they are fit for immediate ufe. There fhould al-
ways be a greater length of thread than of peas, by which
means, two little portions at the ends of the peas may ex-
tend beyond each extremity of the iffue, and be fixed there
by two fmall bits of adhefive plafter. This little contrivance
will have great effeft in keeping the whole row of peas in
its right fituation. When the iffue is more than half an inch
in breadth, two rows of peas {hould be placed in it.

It is faid that a ftring of beads anfwers quite as well as one
of peas or beans, and certainly it is more convenient, as,
when regularly waftied every day, it may be ufed as long as
the furgeoB thinks proper ; and thus the trouble and expence
of getting frelh peas or beans may be avoided.

The iflues are to be kept open until the cure is complete ;
that is, until the patient perfeftly recovers the ufe of his
legs, or even for fome time afterwards. Mr. Pott judicioufly
recommends the praftitioner to heal at firft only one of
them.

In conjunftion with the iffues, bark, fea-air, and fea-
bathing, are frequently proper.

There have been various contrivances propofed for the pur-
pofe of affording mechanical fupport to the fpine. This
method does not, however, promife to be ufeful. When the
morbid affeftionof the corpora vertebrarum has advanced to
a certain ftate, the adjoining found bones, both above and
below the feat of the difeafe, become approximated to each
other, and at length anchylofed. This falutary procefs, if
influenced at all by mechanically fupporting the fpine, muft
obvioufly be retarded. From this account we alfo fee the
reafon why the projeftion of the fpinous proceffes, at leaft
in adult fubjefts, muft always remain. In children, however,
a great diminution, and even an entire removal of a certain
degree of deformity, may take place during the growth of
the body. Pott's Chirurgical Works, vol. iii. Cooper's
Firft Lines of the Praftice of Surgery, edh. 3, part 2.

Spine, in Agruullure, a term fignifying provincially the
furface turf, fod, or fward of land.

S P 1

Spine, a (harp, firm, hard point which is fent off from
the woody parts of fome forts of plants. It confequently
differs from a prickle, which only rifes from the bark of the-
plant. The fpines in plants of this nature are produced
either fingly, as is the cafe in moft of them ; doubly, or by
pairs, as in fome particular forts ; or in a triple manner, a?
in the three-thorned acacia.

Spines of Echini, in Natural Hifiory. Thefe in their foffile
ftate make a great appearance in the cabinets of the curious,
and in the works of the learned, and are of an almoll infi-
nite variety of kinds ; and many of them are of the fame
figures and dimenfions with thofe of the echini now hving
in our own and other feas, and well known to us. But be-
fide thefe, there is an almoft infinite variety of others, which,
though allowed on all hands to be truly fpines of fome
echini or other, yet evidently differ from thofe of all the
known recent fi(h of that name, and have certainly belonged
to a fpecies of it, of which we have not now the leaft know-
ledge. Thefe, however different in fhape from one another,
yet all agree in their texture and conftituent matter.

SPINEDA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Upper Po ; 4 miles N.N.E. of Sabionetta.

SPINELL, or True Ruby, Spinelle of Haiiy and Broch,
in Mineralogy. (See Gems.) The colour of this gem is red,
blended with tints of blue or yellow ; and it occurs in grains,
in fmall rounded fragments, and cryilallized. The primitive
form of its cryftals is the regular oAohedron, exhibiting alfo
the varieties of the cuneiform oclohedron, the primitive odo-
hedron with the edges of the common bafe truncated, the
fame with all the edges truncated, and the primitive oftohe-
dron divided obliquely into two fegmcnts, which are turned
on each other il-th of a circle, thus forming a folid with al-
ternate faliant and re-entering angles. The cryftals are fmall
and very fmall, rarely middle-fized. The faces of the odo-
hedron are fmooth, and the planes of the truncatures are
longitudinally ftriated. Its luftre, externally and internally,
is brightly fliining, vitreous. Its crofs frafture is conchoi-
dal, its longitudinal fradurc is lamellar in three direftions.
It varies from tranflucent to tranfparent. It is confiderably
hard, though in this refpeft inferior to fapphire. Sp. gr.
5 ry — 3.64. Before the blowpipe it is infufible without
addition, but melts with borax, acquiring a green colour.
When ground to a very fine powder, it is foluble by long
dio-eftion in boiling fulphuric acid. It was firil analyfed by
Klaproth, and afterwards by Vauquehn, with the following
refults :

Klaproill. Vaiiqut-liit.

Alumine - 74.5 82.47

Silex - -^55 o.

Magnefia - 8.25 8.78

Oxyd of iron 1.5 o.

Lime - - 0.75 o.

Chromic acid - o. 6.18

100.50

97-43

Although its geological fituation is not known, it occurs
imbedded in calcareous fpar and adulaiia, accompanied by
mica and magnetic pyrites. See Gems. See alfo Corun-
dum. Aikin's Dift.

Mineralogifts formerly clalfed all varieties of ruby with
fpinell, and alfo the oriental ruby or fapphire. The cochineal-
red variety of fpinell is the Balais ruby of the jewellers, fo
called from Balachan, the Indian name of Pegu, where it is
found. The violet-blue fpinell is the almandine of Pliny ; it
is named from Alabanda, a town in Leffer Afia. The orange-
yellow variety is the rubicelle ruby of jewellers. A newly

difcovered

S P I

S P I

difcovered variety of fpinell is called by Werner Salam ftone,
the name by which it is known in India ; its coloura are red
and blue. It is cryftallized in fix-fided prifms, varioufly
truncated. It is in general only tranflucent, and exhibits a
pearly light on the furface. It is fomewhat heavier than
true fpinell, but in other charafters agrees with it. It is
found in the peninfula of India.

SPINET, Spinetto, Ital. Efplnette, Fr. from fpina, a
thorn, or quill, the tone being produced by a crow's quill
inferted in the tongue of a little machine called a jack.
(See Jack, and Tongue.) The inftrument confilts of a
chell or belly, made of the mod porous and refinous wood
to be found, and a table of fir fattened on rods, called the
found-board, which bears on the fides : on the table are raifed
two little prominences or bridges, in which are fixed as
many pins as there are firings on the inftrument. See
Bridge.

It is played with keys, like the virginal, or fmall piano-
forte ; the long keys are for the diatonic or natural notes,
and the fhort for the flats and (harps. See Keys, and
Scale.

The keys, when prefled down at the end by the finger, on
the principle of the lever, make the other end throw up
jacks, which itrike the ftrings, and caufe the fotJnd by means
if the quiUs with which they are armed.

The thirty thickeft ftrings are of brafs ; the others, for
the more delicate tones, are of Heel or iron-wire, faftened at
one end by hooks, and at the other on pins, by which they
receive their tenfion over the bridges already mentioned.

The figure of the fpinet is like that of the harpfichord,
a horizontal harp, and the harp an inverted fpinet. It is
tuned in the fame manner as other keyed inilruments, by
jths and 8ths, with or without bearings, as the tuner or the
owner of the inftrument fhall pleafe.

There have been fpinets and harpfichords made for curious
people with fome or all the ihort keys fplit or cut in two for
harmonics, or at leaft to perfeft fome of the extraneous
keys, furnifliing a different tone for F* and Gb> D* and
Ebj &c. to pcrfeft fome of the moft offenfive keys in com-
mon tuning. Zarlino had an inftrument of this kind made
at Venice, which we faw at the houfe of Pcrcetti, the com-
pofer's widow, and it was afterwards fent to England ; but
the mechanifm and tone were fo bad, that no tuning could
render its founds agreeable. There are quarter-notes, as
they are called, in the Temple organ, to three of the five
fhort keys ; but except in pfalmody, or very flow movements,
Stanley never ventured to touch them.

We have fcen fpinets made by Haywood, in the time of
James and Charles I., with box keys for the natural notes ;
by Keen and Slade, in queen Anne's time, with the long keys
of ebony and the fhort of ivory ; and excellent fpinets by
the two Hitchcocks, father and fon, with ivory natural
keys, and ebony or drii-d pear-tree for tiie fharps and flats.

The fpinet had but a finglc firing to each note. As the
fpinet rivalled the virginal, the fmall piano-forte has fup-
planted the fpinet in the public favour ; and we believe
that very few have been made fince the middle of the laft
century.

SPINIAGOR, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Viatka ; 40 miles vS.W. of Elabuga.

SPINIFEX, in Botany, {rom fpina, a thorn, and facio,
to make, becaufe of the thorny nature of its involucral
leaves. — Linn. Maut. 2. 163. Nov. Gram. Gen. 29. t. i.
Schreb. Gen. 744. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 1129. Mart.
Mill. Dift. V. 4. Brown Prodr. Nov. Hoil. v. I. 198.
JulT. 30. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 840. — Clafj and order, Polj-

VoL. XXXIII.

gamiaDioecia; nther Triandria Dlgynla. Nat. Ord. Gra-
mina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Common Involucrum of two lanceolate,
channelled, unequal, fpinous-pointed leaves ; partial of about
four fimilar ones. Flowers on awl-fhaped cluftered recep-
tacles, naked above. Perianth of two equal valves, con-
taining one or two florets. Civ. of two lanceolate convo-
luted valves, the innermoft enfolding the organs of fruftifi-
cation. Stam. Filaments three, capillar)' ; anthers long,
linear, cloven at each end. P't/l. Germen oblong ; flyles
two, thread-fhaped, longer than the glumes ; ftigmas vil-
lous, prominent. Perk, none, except the hardened corolla,
united to the oblong, fmooth, hWtary feed.

On one plant the flowers are fituatcd at the bafe of each
receptacle, each calyx containing two florets, and the an-
thers are m.oft perfeft in one, the ftigmas in the other. On
a feparate plant the florets are folitary, all male, and nume-
rous along the lower part of eacli receptacle.

Efl. Ch. Involucrum of two fpinous leaves. Calyx of
two valves, two-flowered. Corolla of two valves. Seed
united to the hardened corolla.

Some flowers male, on a feparate plant.

1. S. fqunrrofus. Linn. Mant. 2. 300. Willd. n. i.
(Stipa fpinifex ; Linn. Mant. I. 34. Cyperus littoreus ;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. 6. t. 2. f. 2.)— Smooth. Leaves
channelled, rigid, fpinous-pointed, rough at the edges. —
Native of the fandy fea-fliores of the Eaft Indies. A large,
rigid, tough, fhrubby grafs, whofe furface is fmooth and
glaucous. Leaves three or four inches long, with broad
fheathing bafes, rough-edged. F/oiuers in large, terminal,
aggregate and compound heads, the fpii;ou3 points of their
receptacles and involucral leaves projefting in every direc-
tion. Thefe heads are blown to a great diftance by the
wind, and roll along the fands with great velocity.

2. S. longifolius. Brown n. I. (Cyperus; Peron, Voy.
aux Terres Auftr. v. i. 1 13.) — " Smooth. Leaves flaccid,
femi-cyhndrical, unarmed, fmooth-edged, thrice as long as
the feed-bearing receptacle. Glumes of the male flowers
rough." — Gathered by M. Baudin, in the tropical part of
New Holland. Bronun.

3. S. fragUis. Br. n. 2. — " Smooth. Leaves flaccid,
femi-cylindrical, unarmed, rough-edged, longer than the
feed-bearing receptacle." — Obferved by Mr. Brown, in the
tropical part of New Holland.

4. S. ferieeus. Br. n. 3. — " Silky. Leaves unarmed,
fmooth, like their flieaths, at the infide. Point of the male
receptacle feveral times fliorter than the fpike." — Found by-
Mr. Brown in the laft-mentioned country, as well as in New
South Wales.

5. S. hirfutus. Br. n. 4. Labill. Nov. Hell. v. 2. 81.
t. 230, 231. — Silky. Leaves unarmed, villous as well at
their flieaths. Point of the male receptacle nearly equal to
the fpike. — Native of the fouth coaft of New Holland.

SPINIS! Attachiamenta de Spinit ^ Bofco. See At-

TACHIAMENTA.

SPINNEY, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying pro-
vincially a clump of trees, or fmall grove or plantation.

SPINNING, the art of combinmg animal or vegetable
fibres into threads or cords, by twifting them together.
Wool, filk, cotton, flax, and hemp, are the matters moft
commonly employed forfpinning into threads ; and of thefe,
moll of the vegetable fibres, except cotton, require to be
wetted during the operation of fpinning, to render them
more fupple ; but cotton, wool, and filk, are fpun in a dry
ftate.

The machines employed for fpinning arc of very different
4 A kinds,

SPINNING.

kinds, and adapted to the materials to be operated upon ;
but they have all a fpindle, revolving with a rapid motion, to
twiil the fibres which are attached to the end of it, and are
fupplied in a regular quantity, as faft as the twifting motion
of the fpindle will form them into a thread ; and there is alfo
fome provifion of a bobbin upon the fpindle, to take up and
retain the thread when made.

The mod ancient mode of fpinning is by the fpindle and
diftaff, and this method is the fimpleil of all others. The
fpindle is nothing more than a piece of hard wood, made
round, and fharp-pointed at one end, fo that it can be made
to fpin upon its point, in the fame manner as a child'- top :
the upper part is reduced to a pin or peg, and it is this
part which has the fibres united to it, the lower or enlarged
part being only to give fufficient weight to mrike it ipin.
The fpinner muit be feated upon the ground, and after
having put the dillaff in motion upon its point, by twirling
it between the hands, get it up to a rapid motion, by
Itriking it occafionally with the hand, with a motion very
fimilar to that by which a child keeps up the motion of his
whipping-top, when he draws the lalh of a whip round it.

The flax, or material which is to be ffiun, after being
properly prepared, is lapped round the end of the dif-
taff, which is nothing more than a flick that the fpinner
holds in the left hand, fo as to be conveniently fituated to
draw off from it a few fibres at a time, with the finger and
thumb of the right hand, to form the thread. The upper
part of the fpindle, which is made fmaller, like a pin, has
the ends of the fibres which are to form the thread attached
to it before it is put in motion. Thefe fibres are drawn out
of the bunch which is wound upon the diftaff, and held be-
tween the finger and thumb, fo as to be in the diredion of
the length of the fpindle ; therefore, when the fpindle is
once made to revolve, it twills thefe fibres together, to form
a thread, and as faft as the thread forms, the fpinner draws
off more flax from the ditlaff, and guides the fibres between
the finger and thumb, fo that they fhall be regularly deli-
vered out, and make an even thread. The motion of the
Jpindle is conftantly kept up, by ftriking it as often as the
hand can be fpared from the operation of guiding the
thread. When by thefe means as great a length of thread
is formed as is convenient to reach from the end of it to the
fpindle, the thread is wound upon the outfide of the fmall
part or pin of the fpindle, for which purpofe the fpinner
applies the fore-finger againit the thread, clofe to the end of
the fpindle, and bends the thread at that part, fo that it
will be at right angles with the direftion of the fpindle, in-
ftead of being nearly in the direttion of its length ; and
alfo, that it will be guided oppofite to the middle of the
pin, or fmall part of the fpindle, inftead of being at the
extreme end thereof. In this fituation the motion of the
fpindle, which is continually kept up, occafions the thread
to wind up, or lap upon t'le pin of the fpindle, inftead of
twifting round upon itfelf, as in the former cafe ; but
when nearly all the length of thread is thus difpofed of, the
finger is removed from the thread, and it immediately afliimes
its original direction, by flipping to the extreme end of the
fpindle, fo a! to be twifted round itfelf by the motion of the
fpindle, and more fibres are now fupplied to it from the
bunch upon the diftaff, to form a frefti length of thread.
In this manner the fpinning proceeds, until as much thread
is fpun and wound upon the pin of the fpindle as will make
a moderate fized ball.

This fimple and inconvenient method of fpinning becomes
very efficient, when the fpindle, inftead of being fpun upon the
ground, is mounted in a proper frame, and turned by a wheel

and band ; this forms a inacliine which is called the one-
thread wheel, and is flill uftd in the country for fpinning
wool : the fpindle is made of iron, and placed horizontally,
fo that it can revolve freely ; and the extremity of the
fpindle, to which the thread is applied, projefts beyond the
fupport.

The wheel which turns it is placed at one fide, the pivots
of both being fupported in upright pieces, rifing up from a
fort of ftool. The fpinner puts the wheel in rapid motion by
its handle, and its weight is fufficient to continue the motion
for fome feconds ; then walking backwards from the fpindle,
in the dircftion of its length, flie fupplies the fibres regularly,
and the motion twills them into a thread ; but when a con-
venient length is fpun, the fpinner fteps on one fide, and
reaches out that arm which holds the end of the thread, fo
as to alter the direftion of the thread, and bring it nearly
perpendicular to the length of the fpindle, which motion
gathers or winds up the thread upun the middle of the
projecting part of the fpindle. This being done, Ihe holds
the thread in the direffion of the fpindle, lo that it will
receive twill, and retreats again to fpin a frefh length of
thread. For fpinning wool, it is not wound round the diftaff
the lame as flax, but the fpinner holds a lock of it, doubled
over the fore-finger, and draws away the fibres from the
middle part of the lock, to do which with regularity is the
great art of fpinning by hand.

A fpinning-machint- more perfect than this is the one-
thread flax-wheel, with fpindle and flyer ; it has the pro-
perty of conftantly drawing up the thread as faft as it is
fpun, inftead of fpinning a length, and then winding it upon
the fpindie. For this purpofe the fpindle is made longer
than the other, and is turned by a band and wheel ; but the
wheel receives m.otion from the foot by a fn.all treadle, be-
caufe the fpinner fits before the wheel to work the fpindle,
whicli is fupported upon its two extreme ends, and near one
end the flyer is fixed ; this is a piece of wood curved to an
arc, the vertex of which is fixed on the fpindle, and from the
extremities of the arc two arms proceed, fo as to be pa-
rallel to the fpindle, and at fuch a dilfance from it as to ad-
mit a v.'ooden bobbin to be fitted loofely upon the fpindle ;
and at the fame time the arms of the flyer can revolve round
the bobbin without touching it. The end of the thread is
faltened to the bobbin, and conducted through a hook fixed
in the flyer, fo tliat it proceeds from the circumference of
the bobbin to this hook, in a direifion perpendicular to lh«
bobbin, but turns round the hook fo as to come into the
diredion of the fpindle. The thread is then cor.dufted
through a perforation made in the centre of the end of the
fpindle or pivot, upon which it revolves, and to this end of
the thread the fibres are fupplied. The twifting motion
given by the revolution of the fpindle forms them into a
continuation of the thread, which is gathered up upon the
bobbin as faft as the fpinner lets it go through her fingers,
by a tendency which the bobbin has to turn flowly, at the
fame time that the flyer to which the thread is hooked
is revolving rapidly round the bobbin. For this purpofe a
ftring is palled round a fmall neck upon the bobbin, and one
end of the ftring being fattened to the frame, the other has a
fmall weight to draw it tight round the neck of the bobbin,
and occafion friction. In other fpinning-wheels, a fecoad
band from the great wheel is made to turn the bobbin
more flowly than the fpindle. The thread which paffes
over the hook of the flyer is rapidly carried round the
circumference of the bobbin ; but as the bobbin follows
the motion of the flyer, it only winds up as much thread
upon the bobbin as the difference of the two motions;

»nd

SPINNING.

and this tendency to wind up can be increafed or dimi-
nirtied at plcafure, by tlie friftion which ia occafioiied by
the firing or band which pafles round the neck of the
bobbin. When the winding-up of the thread upon the
bobbin has accumulated a ridge of thread upon it op-
pofite to the hook in the flyer, the thread mull be (hiftcd
to another hook oppoiite to a different part of the bobbin,
for which purpofe the arms of the flyer are furnilhed with
different hooks, and this mull be repeated feveral times, un-
til the whole length of the bobbin is filled ; it is then taken
off to be reeled, and replaced by another empty bobbin.

An improvement was made in the fpinniiig-whecl by
Mr. Antis lome years ago, which was an application of
what fir Richard Arkvvriglit had before invented. The
object is to obviate the nccellity of (lopping the wheel to
remove the thread from one hook to another, in the manner
jult defcribed. For this purpofe, the bobbin is made to
move regularly backwards and forwards upon the fpindle
a fpace equal to its length, fo that every part will, in fuc-
cefiion, be prefented oppoiite the hook over which the
thread pades, and thus receive the thread regularly upon
the whole length of the bobbin. The additional parts ne-
ceflary for producing this movement are as follow : a pi-
nion of only a (ingle leaf is made to projeft from the extre-
mity of the pivot of the great wheel, or a worm or endlefs
fcrew formed on the end pivot, will anfwer the fame pur-
pofe, which is to aftuate a wheel of feven inches diameter,
and ninety-feven teeth ; therefore ninety-feve^n revolutions
of the great wheel will produce one revolution of this
fmaller wheel ; upon the face of which a circular ring of
wire is fixed, and fupported from llie wheel by fix legs, fo
as to be oblique to the plane of the wheel, as it touches it
at one part, and at the oppoiite fide of the ring projofts
nearly three-fourths of an inch. This ring of wire gives
motion to an upright lever, about fifteen inches long, and
moving on a centre at three inches from its lower extremity,
where ii has a pin fixed in it, and railing againft the
oblique ring of wire ; therefore, when the wheel turns
round, it communicates a Imall motion to the lever, in con-
fequence of its obliquity to the plane in which it revolves.
The upper end of tiie lever is connefted to an horizontal
fliding-bar, fituatcd beneath the fpindle, and having an
upright piece of brafs, which works in the notch of a pul-
ley, formed on the end of the bobbin, and drives the bob-
bin backwards and frn-wards upon the fpindle, according as
the oblique ring of wire forces the pin at the lower end of
the lever in or out, when the wheel moves round. To regu-
late and return tliis alternate motion, a fmall weight hangs
by a line to the Hiding-bar, and, palling over a pulley, rifes
and falls as the bobbin recedes and advances, and tends con-
ftantly to keep the pin at the lower end of the lever in
contaft with the wire. It is evident, from this dcfcription,
that one llaple only is wanted to the arms of the flyer,
which being plated near the extremity, the thread pafles
through it, and by the motion of the bobbin, is laid regu-
larly upon it from one end to the other.

The invention has alfo anotlier advantage over the old
method, which always winds the thread in ridges upon the
bobbin ; and if the thread breaks in reeling the yarn, the
whole bobbin may as well be thrown away, bccaufe the
thread cannot cafily be found again ; but this improved
wheel always wuids the threads acrofs upon one another,
by which means the end can never be loll.

In order to regulate the fritlion on the bobbin, and re-
tard its motion in a greater or lefs degree at pleafure, there
IS a neck of brafs or ileel fallencd to one end of it, and
embraced by a kind of fmall vice, or pincers, fixed to the

fliding-bar. This vice muft be made either with two
elaflic fprings with wooden tops, or of wood wholly, and
faced with leather ; but if made of wood only, then a fpring
mult be made beneath the (houlder of the fcrew, to anfwer
the fame purpofe. By tightening this fcrew more or lefs,
the friftion on the bobbin may be regulated to the greatcll
nicety, provided the fprings are of a flrength rightly pro-
portioned to their funftions. It will readily appear, that
ail this may be done without the leaft effeft on the velo-
city of the whole machine, as thereby nothing is added to
the general friftion fo as to obflrucl it.

It was not until (he latter end of the lad century, that
fpinning-machines of greater powers were conflrufled ; but
all threads were fpnii by one of the machines which we
have defcribed ; the firll being ufed for cotton and wool,
and the other, with the bobbin and flyer, for flax ; but for
very coarfe threads, two fpindles were applied to the latter
machine, and the fpinner having the wool wound round a band,
tied it round her waift, inilead of winding it upon a dillaff,
and was thus able to draw out fibres with each hand, and
fupply two fpindles. And of the other fimple fpindles,
feveral were made to turn together by the movement of one
large horizontal wheel, around which the fpindles were r.r-
ranged in direftions radiating from the centre, and each
fpindle received a rapid motion by the contaft of the edge
of the large wheel, which was turned round by one perfon.
The fpinners each flood oppofite to his refpeftive fpindle,
fo as altogether to occupy a large apartment, and by this
means they could do much more work than formerly, hav-
ing none of the interruptions of turning the wheel.

The firfl improvement of any importance in fpinninp,
was that of the fpinning-jenny, invented by Hargraves, as
related in our article Cotton ; and the machine itfelf will
be defcribed under the article Woollen Manufaflure. This
machine confifls of a number of fpindles, fimifar to thofe of
the one-thread wheel, which are all mounted, in a perpendi-
cular diredion in the fame frame, and turned round by one
large wheel, fituated in an horizontal direftion, and put in
motion by a crank at the upper end of its fpindle. The
threads from each fpindle are condufted nearly in an hori-
zontal direftion, but being quite at the point or upper ex-
tremity of the fpindles, do not wind upon the fpindles, but
will receive twifl, bccaufe the threads flip over the top of the
fpindles as they revolve. Tiie threads are guided between
two rulers of wood, called the clajps, inflcad of the finger
and thumb of the fpinner. Thefe rulers are made to fit
together, fo as to hold the fibres between them, and are
fitted up with wheels at the end to run upon the frame,
and thus advance or retreat at pleafure from the fpindles.
It was not attempted with this machine to fpin a fiiiifhed
thread immediately from the lock of wool or cotton, but
coarfe and loofe threads are previoufly prepared on the
hand-wheel, which can be done with great rapidity, and
the coppins or balls of thefe loofe threads are placed in
the jenny, and conduAcd, firll between the clafps or rulers
before mentioned, and then to the fpindles. By this means,
when the carriage of the clafps is drawn backwards from
the fpindles, the clafps being feparate, the threads draw be-
tween them from off the coppins, and at the fame time
that portion of each thread which is between the clafps
and the ends of the fpindles, receives its twill ; but having
drawn out a certain length of each thread in this manner,
the clafps are fliut together ; and the motion of the fpindles,
as alfo the retreat of the clafps, is continued, by which
means the threads are llretclied out tn their intended fine-
nels, and being thus finifhed, the threads arc wound upon
the fpindles, by bciug brought oppofite to the 'middle part
4 A z of

SPINNING.

^

of the fpindlcs by a rail of wood, called the faller, which
moves upon centres, fo as to defcend horizontally before
all the fpindles, and deprefs all the threads together, fo that
they will wind up by the motion of the fpindles, and as.
they wind, the clafps return towards the fpindlcs. The
operations are then again repeated, and thus continued, until
the coppins or balls of thread, wound upon the fpindles, ac-
quire their proper fize.

The next improvement in fpinning-machines was the in-
troduftion of the flubbing-machine, or billy, for preparing
the rovings for the jenny ; an operation which was at firlt
performed by the hand-wheel. This machine has fimilar
parts to the jenny, but they are differently arranged, to
adapt it to fpin the wool as it comes from the carding-
machine, in the ftate of cardings, which are locks of wool
drawn out to about the fize of candles, and from two to
three feet in length. For this purpofe the fpindles are made
to travel on the carriage, and the clafps ftand ftill, being
the reverfe of the jenny. The cardings are laid upon an
endlefs cloth, which revolves over two rollers, and lies in
an inclined polition at the end of the machine ; and one
carding is laid upon the cloth oppofitc to each fpindle, the
ends being pieced with fielh cardings by children, as fall as
the fpindle works them up. A roller piefles down upon
the cardings, to hold them fad upon the feeding-cloth, and
to make them move with it ; and jult beyond this roller the
clafps are fixed to hold the rovings, when the proper
lengths are drawn out by the retreating of the fpindles,
which, as before ilated, are fituated in the carriage. The
operation of the billy is the fame as that of the jenuy, ^'io.
that the carriage is drawn out, and the feeding-cloth re-
volves over its roller to give out the cardings until a certain
length : the clafp is then fhut down, and the further exten-
fion of the threads is produced by itretching ; which being
done, the threads are wound upon the fpindles.

The inventions of fir Richard Arkwright foon fuperfeded
thefe machines. His principal invention in the fpinning was
the introduftion of the rollers, to draw out or extend the
fibres to their full length, which is by this means much
more perfeftly performed than by the fingers of the fpinner.
For tiie immediate tvvilting of the thread, he adopted the
fpindle, bobbin, and flyer of the old flax-wheel, placed in a
vertical pofition, but added to it the important improvement
of railing and lowering the bobbin, to dillribntc the thread
regularly and equally upon all the length of it, the fame
which we have before defcribed as being applied by Mr.
Antis to the common fpinning-wheel. A full defcription of
this machine, which is called the water fpinning-frame, will
be found in the article Cotton Manufacture, Plate IX.
Cotton ISIanufadiire.

The fpinning-jenny was again introduced, and rendered
equal, and for fome purpofes fuperior, to the water-frame,
by Mr. Crumpton, who combined with it the fyftem of
rollers of fir Richard Arkwright, and called it the mule.
It is alfo fully defcribed under Plate XI. Cotton Manu-
faP.ure. See Cotton Manufacture.

The great fuccefs which attended the fpinning of cotton
by thefe machines, induced many perfons to attempt the
fpinning of flax and wool by fimilar means. Short wool,
for the manufafture of cloth, is fpun by the billy and jenny ;
but flax and long wool for worded require very different
treatment from cotton and fliort wool, particularly the flax,
owing to the great length of the fibres, and to their being
of fuch irregular lengths : in confequence, when they are
extended by the rollers, on Arkwright's principle, fome
fibres will be broken, if the dillances between the rollers is
too fmall ; and on the other hand, if the diftance is too

great, the fibres will not be properly extended. The
latter, however, is the leall evil of the two ; and, in confe-
quence, the fpinning-frames for flax have the rollers, be-
tween which the extenfion or drawing out is effefted, placed
at a dillance of from 14 to 18 inches between the firft
twopair of rollers, through which the flax patfes ; the next
two pair fix or eight inches ; after which it is paflcd between
the third pair of rollers at a dillance of five or fix inches,
and then delivered to the fpindles, which arc fimilar to thofe
of the water-frame, but placed in an inclined pofition. The
rollers are made in a very different manner from thofe for
cotton, being only narrow wheels jull wide enough to receive
the fibres of flax between them ; and the fibres are prevented
from gBtting out fideways by fmall tin ipouts, through
which the flax paffes, as the rollers draw it forwards. The
reafon of this is, that the flinty furface of the flax would
foon wear a hollow part round a plain roUer, which would
then let the flax flip through ; but the narrow wheel wears
down equally over the whole breadth of its edge. The
lower pair of thefe rollers, or wheel--, revolves in a fmall
trough of water; in the iame manner as a grind-llone, and
thus keeps the flax coiiilantly wet, which is neccffary, in
order to foften the fibres, and make them fpin into a firm
and fmooth thread.

Woriled is alfo fpun in a frame refembling the water-
frame of Arkwright, from which it only differs in the
relative dillances of the rollers, by which the drawing out
or extending of the fibres is effected.

Mellrs. Clarke and Bugby obtained a patent in 1806, for
improvements in a machine for fpinning hemp and flax, which
is intended to be worked by hand labour, and to be at fuch
a fmall expence, as to bring it within the reach of fmall ma-
nufafturers. The inventors Hate it to be conftrufted upon
fuch fafe and eafy principles, that no length of experience
is neccffary to enable children to work it ; and that it oc-
cupies fo little fpace, that the machines may be placed in
fmall rooms, out-buildings, or other chsap places. To ef-
fedl the above purpofes, it was neccffary to get rid of the
flyer fixed upon the fpindle ufcd in the old machinery for
fpinning hemp or flax, which additions require a power in
proportion of five to one ; and alfo to furmount the diffi-
culty which arifes from the want of elallicity in thefe fub-
ftances, and which prevents them from being fpun, by llretch-
ing out at the fame time that the thread is twilled, in the
maHncr of the mule or jenny.

Thefe patentees recommend a machine, which is in faft a
mule with certain modifications ; and to give the effeft of
elallicity in the fibres, they have two methods. The mod
fimple, and that which they particularly recommend, is to
provide a holder of large wire for every fpindle, which
holders are feveral inches in length, fixed in an arbor or
fhaft, that extends from one end of the carriage to the other.
This arbor or fliaft, with the holders, may be confidered
as an enlarged and improved fubftitute for what is called the
fallcr in the mules or jennies for fpinning cotton, and the
wire-holders fixed therein have elliptical eyes at their ex-
tremities, through each of which a thread is condudled in
its paflage from the rollers which draw out the thread to its
fpindle. The wire of which the holder is made, after form-
ing the elliptical eye, is left or extended beyond the upper,
molt part, fomething in the manner of a cork-fcrew, fo that
the yarn may be conveniently flipped in when occafion may
require it, Thefe holders for each thread are for the pur-
pofe of keeping the yarn in a Itate nearly vertical over the
tops of the fpindle, when the carriage which contains them
is coming out ; and as they will readily yield or fpring from
the vertical pofition, they have the fame effeA as elallicity

S P I

S P I

in the fibres of the fubltance which is to be (Iretched out ;
but the wires being removed from the vertical iituation at
tlie beginning of the return of tlie carriage, and thrown into
nearly a horizontal poiition, by inclining the fliaft into which
they are all fixed, th.;y bring the yarn below the tops of the
bobbins or quills which are fixed upon the fpindles, which
will then wind up the threads upon them when the fpindles
are turned round, and then the wire-eyes being regularly
curved, and raifed up again by the motion of an elliptic
wheel, which is turned round by the machine, they diftribute
the yarn regularly upon the bobbins or quills, and prevent
it from hinkling, and improperly doubling or twilling to-
gether. Another method of compenfating for the want of
elafticity in hemp and flax, is to fix a round bar of wood,
about an inch and a half in diameter, the whole length of the
carriage, about three or four inches above the tops of the
fpindles, fo that the outer fnrfacc, or that next the perfon
who works the machine, may be perpendicular, or nearly
fo, over the tops of the Ipindles, the inner fide having
pieces of wood or metal fixed or nailed thereto, leaving
only Imall fpaces or notches between eacli, for the yarn to
pafs through. The ufe of thcfe pieces is to prevent the
threads from getting together and entangling. Every thing
relating to the wire-holders before mentioned, and the arbor
to which they are affixed, muil be applied in concert with
thefe pieces of metal, which form a feparation between the
threads.

The art of fpinning, which nature has given to many
animals of different kinds for their prefervation, and other
purpofes, is not confined to the inhabitants of the earth or
air alone, but is even extended to thofe of the fea. M.
Reaumur has Ihevvn, by a feries of curious experiments,
that the common mufcle, and fome other fhell-fifh of the
fea, poffefs it in a great degree of pcrfeftion. See Muscle.

But he obferves, that though the workmanfhip is the
fame, the manner of producing it is very different. Spiders,
caterpillars, and the like, make threads of any length that
they pleafe, by making the vifcous liquor, of which they
are formed, pafs through a fine perforation in the organ ap-
pointed for this fpinning : but the way in wliich the mufcles
form their threads is very different, as the former refenibles
the work of the wire-drawer, fo docs this that of the founder,
who calts metals in a mould. The canal of the organ def-
tincd for the mufcle's fpinning, which, from its Ihape, is
commonly called its tongue, is the mould in which its thread
is calt, and gives it its determinate length. Mem. Acad.
Par. 1 7 1 1 .

Spinn'ING-^^ZW, in Rope-making, for twelve fpinners to
fpin yarn at the fame time, is about five feet in diameter, and
is hung between two polls fixed in the ground : on its top
is fixed a lemi-circular frame, called the head, whicli con-
tains twelve whirls, that turn on iron fpindles, with hooks
to their front ends to hang the hemp on, and are worked by
means of a leather band encircling the wheel and whirls.
The whirls are made to run with a truer moti(m when the
head on the rifing fide i/t the band has a larger fegment of
a circle than the falling fide ; or in other words, let the bafe
part of the head be longer from the middle tiian the oppo-
fite or falling (ide, by which means the band will be kept
equally tiglit over the whirls, and confequently the motion
be alike to all. N.B. Heads made in this manner have the
wheel turned always the fame way.

SPINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Po ; 8 miles W.N.W. of Crema.

SPINOLA, Ambrose, in Biography, one of tlie moll
celebrated generals of his time, was born in IC69. His
family was noble, and originally from Genoa. His brother

Frederic, general of the gallies llationed in the Low Coun-
tries, in the icrvice of Spain, engaged him to bring a body
of 9000 Itahan and Spanith veterans into Flanders, where
he fiion diltinguifhed himfelf by his valour and good conduft.
He marched againft the famous prince Maurice, and it was
agreed between him and king Philip that he himfelf Ihould
pay his own foldiers, to be reimburfed afterwards ; by which
regulation, while the other Spanifh troops were extremely
diforderly and mutinous for want of their pay, thofe under
his command were patterns of obedience and Itricl dilcipline.
He was commiffioned to raife fome additional regiments, in
order that he might undertake, in concert with his brother,
fome important expedition, but the death of the brother, in
a fea-fight with tlie Dutch, put an end to the proj v't. The
town of Offend had been in a ftatc of ficge nearly three
years, and fmall progrefs had been made towards its reduc-
tion ; for which reafon the archduke Albert, governor of
the Netherlands, refolved to commit the whole management
of it to Spinola. Before he took upon himfelf the manage-
ment of this bufinefs, he fent fome officers to examine the
works, and though they differed in opinion as to probability
of fuccefs, the love of glory induced him to accept the
charge. His plans fucceeded, and the place furrendered
after the end of the third year, having, it is faid, coll the
lives of 100,000 men. Spinola was rewarded with honours
of every kind, and at the conclufion of tfie campaign, he
went to Madrid, and obtained the rank and office of camp-
marlhal-general, and commander-in-chief of the Spanifli and
Italian troops. He paffed through Paris, and had an inter-
view with Henry IV., by whom he was interrogated as to
the plan of the enfuing campaign, of which he gave a faith-
ful Sccount. The king, taking for granted that his inten-
tion was to deceive, wrote to prince Maurice jull the con-
trary of what he had heard from Spinola, and afterwards,
when he found his millake, he faid, " Others deceive by
telling falfehoods, but this man by telling the truth." Spi-
nola now put into execution his defign of carrying on the
war into the enemy's country, and crofling the Rhine, he
penetrated into Overyflel, where he took ieveral places, in
which he left confiderable garrifons. His progrefs was at
length flopt by prince Maurice, and thefe two great com-
manders exhaufled tlie whole art of war during that and the
following campaign, in keeping each other in check. Both
parties at length becoming weary with war, a congrefs was
appointed in 1608 to treat of peace at the Hague, and Spi-
nola was at the head of the deputies on the part of the arch-
duke. Wherever he came the people flocked to gain a
fight of fo celebrated a commander, and they were met at
Dordrecht by prince Maurice, who treated Ins antagonift
with the greatelt refpeft. The difficulties arifing in the
progrefs of the negociation were fo great, that a truce only
could be concluded. In 162 1 the war was renewed, on ac-
count of a difputcd fucceffion to the countries of Cleves and
Juliers, and Spinola being placed at the head of an army,
penetrated into the latter country and reduced its capital.
Prince Maurice was again his opponent, who was not able
to prevent the fall of Cleves, or the iiiveilment of the llrong
town of Breda. While this fiege was going on, prince
Maurice died, and Spinola was brought into a dangerous
ftate of health. The fiege was, however, carried on with
great vigour, and the town was defended with equal refolu-
tion. At length, it becoming evident that the garrifon could
not hold out any longer, Spinola, in admiration of their
valour and perfeverance, offered them the moff honourable
terms of capitulation. Thele were accepted, and the gar-
rifon, greatly reduced, marched out. Spinola drew up his
army to falute them, and as they pafled, he paid particular

compli-

S P 1

compliments to the governor and principal cfficcrs. He
diltributed money among tlie foldiers, provided with the
utmoft attention for the cure of the Tick and wounded, and
conveyed the reft in the moil commodious manner poffible to
the next fortrefs. Having fulfilled the duties of a hero, he
refigned his command, as'having no longer an equal foe m
the"" field with whom he could contend. In 1627, palTing
from Antwerp to Madrid, he took Rochelle in his way, in
order to witnefs the memorable fiege of that place. Riche-
lieu coiifultcd him on the beft means of bringing it to a
conclufion. " Shut the port," he faid, " and open the
hand;" meaning thereby, that the befiegers fliould be
liberally treated.

The court of Spain recalled Spinola from the Low Coun-
tries in 1629, and fent him into Italy, where he in the fol-
lowing year took Cafal. The citadel, however, remained in
the hands of the French, owing to the impediments thrown
in his way by orders from Madrid. The anxiety and vexa-
tion which this circumftance occafioned, co-operating with
difeafe, put an end to his life in the fame year, at a moment
when he was at the fummit of his military reputation. It
is faid that his great antagonift, prince Maurice, gave this
teilimony to his charafter, when being allied who was the
firlt captain of tiie age, replied, " Spinola is the fecond."

SPINOLETTA, in Ornithology, the name of a fmall
bird of the lark kind, the alauda fpinoletta of Linnxus,
called tordino by the Venetians, and feeming to be ihejloppa-
rola, as alfo the grifola d^nA/pipola, of Aldrovandus. It is
fmaller than the common lark ; its head, neck, Ihoulders,
and back, are of a greyilh colour, with an admixture of
green ; its brealt and belly white, and its throat fpotted :
the female differs from the male, in that her belly is yellow ;
the wing-feathers are of a dufky brown, with whitifh or
yellowilh eda;es ; its tail is moderately long, and part of the
feathers are fnow-white, the rell brown or blackifh ; the
length of the heel dillinguifhes this bird from all others, ex-
cept the lark kind, and it differs from all the fpecies of
larks in the colour of its beak and legs, which are black.
It IS common in the markets of Venice and other places.
Ray.

SPINOSA, in Zoology, the name by which the Italians
call the porcupine.

SPINOSE Leaf, among Botanijls. See Leaf.

SPINOSI Pi.scES, in Ichthyolegy, fuch fiihes as have
fome of the rays of their back fins running out into thorns
and prickles, as the perch, &c. See FiSH.

SPlNOZA, in Biography. See the next article.

SPINOZISM, or SpixosisM, thedoftrine of Spinoza;
or, atheifm and panthcifm propofed after the manner of
Spinoza.

The great principle of Spinozifm is, that there is nothing
properly and abfolutely exifting, but matter and the modi-
fications of matter ; among which are even comprehended
thoughts abllraft and general ideas, comparifons, relations,
combinations of relations, &c.

Benedift de Spinoza, or Efpinoza, was a man well
known in Holland. He was born at Amfterdam, in the
year 1632, being a Jew both by defcent and education ; but
at an early period of his life he manifeited fuch diilatisfac-
tion with the religion of his fathers, and advanced opinions
fo contrary to their eltablifhcd tenets, that a fentence of
anathema was pronounced againft him by his brethren.
Having been excommunicated from the fynagogue, fome
Chriftians, who were attached to him, afforded him an afy-
lum, and gave him an opportunity of acquiring a knowledge
of the Latin and Greek languages, and of lludying the
Cartefian philofophy. But as he ftill continued with great

S P I

1

vehemence to attack the religion of his countrymen, they
attempted firft to filence him by bribe, offering him an an-
nual penfion of icoo ilorins, and afterwards to take hini
off by allaffniation. Both thefe meafures proving in-
effeftual, tliey accufed him, before the magiltrate, of apof-
tacy and blalphemy ; and he w:is baniflied from the city.
In his exile, he ftudied mathematics and natural philofophy,
and procured a fubfiltence by polifhing optical glades. He
refided chiefly at Rhenburg, where he was often vifited by
the followers of Defcartes, who cor.fulted him on difficult
quellions. At their requell he pubhfhed, in 1664, «' The
Principles of the Cartefian Philofophy demonftrated geo-
metrically," with an appendix, containing metaphyfical
opinions altogether inconfiltcnt with the doftrine of Def-
cartes. In order to efcape the odium which was occa-
fioned by this publication, he retired to a village not far
from the Hague, whither he was followed by many of his
countrymen and foreigners, wlio were inclined to adopt his
doctrines. The eleftor palatine invited him to occupy the
chair of philofophy at HeidelbcriJ- ; but apprehending that
his liberty would be abridged, he declined the propofal,
and continued to live in retirement, with great iobriety and
decency of manners, until a confumption brought him td
an early end, in the year 1667.

Spinoza compofed feveral books in Latin ; the m.oft cele-
brated of which ij his «' Traftatus Theologico-Politicus,"
printed at Amfferdam in 1670, in which he attempts to
overturn the foundation of all religion : the book, accord-
ingly, was condemned by a public decree of the States i
though it has llnce been lold publicly, and even reprinted,
both i;-: Latin and French, in that country, and in Englifh
at London. ig

In this work Spinoza infinuates, that all religions are I
only political engines, calculated for the public good, to
render the people obedient to magillrates, and to make them
praftife virtue and morality. n

He does not here lay down his notion of the Deity I
openly, but contents himfelf with fuggelling it. In his
" Ethics demonltrated geometrically," publifhed among
his pofthumous works, he is more open and exprefs ; main-
taining, that God is not, as we imagine him, an infinite,
intelligent, happy, and perfeA Being ; nor any thing but
that natural virtue, or faculty, which is diffufed throughout
all creatures.

His other pollhumous treatifes are entitled " Politics,"
" On the Improvement of the Underltanding," " Epiltles
and Anfwers," and a " Hebrew Grammar." The vari-
ous impieties contained in thefe treatifes excited general in-
dignation ; and refutations were illued by writers of all
religious perfuafions, who concurred in amply expofing the
empty fophifms, the equivocal definitions, the falfe reafoii-
ings, and all the absurdities with which his writings
abounded.

The life of Spinoxa has been accurately written by Co-
lerus, whofe performance was publifhed at the Hague in
8vo. in 1706. But a more ample and circumitantial ac-
count of this fingular man has been given by Lenglet du
Frefnoy, and is prefixed to Boulainvilliers's Expofition of
the Dottrine of Spinoza, whi-,h was publifhed at Amfter-
dam, in i2mo., in 1751. Frefnoy republilhed the work
of Colerus, and added to it feveral anecdotes, borrowed
from a Life of Spinoza, written by Lucas, a phyfician at
the Hague.

The learned Fabricius, in his Bibliotheca Gneca, lib. v.
part iii. p. 119, and Jenichen, in his Hilloria Spinozifmi
Lehnhofiani, p. 38 — 72, have given an ample Lft of thofe
writers who have refuted the fyllem of Spinoza. Witfiu*

in

SPINOZISM.

m Holland, Majus in Germany, and Dela Mothe in Eng-
land, wrote ac;ainft his Tradatiis ; but Bredenburg, accord-
ing to Mr. Bayle, fucceeded belt on this lubjedi ; who,
however, is laid to have been afterwards a convert to Spi-
nozifm, and to have written a demonltration of the truth of
it : a refutation of his defence by Ifaac Orobio, a learned
Jewifh phyfician at Amilerdam, was publifhed in 8vo.
1703. See alfo Buddeua's Thefes de Atheifmo et Super-
ftitione, c. i. feft. 26 ; and Fabricius's Syllab. Script, de
Verit. Relig. Chrilt. p. 357, &c. Mr. Bayle, and above
all Dr. Clarke and Dr. Cudworth, have diltinguiflied them-
felves by their refutation of the fyltem of Spino/.a. See
Bayle's Dift. art. Spinoza, and Clarke's Demonltration of
the Being and Attributes of God, p. 25 — 45, &c. ed.
1725. Cudworth's Intelleftual Syitem.

Spinoza, in his Tradtatus above-mentioned, is very full
on the fubjeft of the authors of tlie fcriptures ; and en-
deavours to Ihew, that the Pentateuch is not the work of
Mofes ; contrary to the common opinion, both of the Jews
and Chriftians. He has alfo his particular fentiments as to
the authors of the other books. This part of the work
has been anfwercd by Mr. Huct, in his Demonllratio Evan-
gelica ; and by M. Simon, in his Hill. Crit. du Vieux Tell.
See Pentateuch.

Spinozifm is a fpecies of naturalifm, or pantheifm, or
hylotheifm, as it is fometimes called, i. e. of the dogma
which allows of no other God but nature, or the univerfe ;
and, therefore, makes matter to be God. Accordingly,
Buddeus, in a dilicrtation " De Spinozifmo ante Spino-
zam," proves at large, that Spinoza'^ dotlrine of God
and the world, is far from being his own invention, but
that it had been held by many philofophers of ditierent feCts,
both among the Chaldeans and Greeks. It is certain, the
opinion of the Stoics, and of thofe who held an anima mimdi,
was not far from it. Lucan introduces Cato dilcourfing
thus ;

" Eftne Dei fedcs nifi terra, et pontus, et aer,

Et CGclum, et virtus ? fuperos quid quaerimus uhra .'
Jupiter ell quodcunq ; vides, quocunq : moveris."

Luc. Pliarf. 1. 9. V. 578.

Strato likevvife, and others among the Peripatetics, main-
tained fomething very like it ; and, what is more, though
no ancient feft feems farther removed from Spinozifm than
the Platonic, as they attributed the greatell freedom to
God, -iud carefully diliinguilhod him from matter; yet
Gundhngius has proved at large, that Plato j^ave matter
much the fame origin witli Spinoza. But the feft that ap-
proached nearell to Spinozifm was that which taught, that
all things were one, as Xenophanes the Colophonian, P.ir-
menidos, MelilTus, and efpccially Zcno Eleates ; whence it
obtairied the name of the " Ele;-.tic Sytleni of Atheilm."
To the fame may alio be reduced the opinion of thofe, who
held the lirll matter for God, as Amalricus and David of
Dinantum. Add, that the fe£l of Foe in China and Japan,
and that of the Soufi in Perfia, and tiiat of the Ziiidikites
ia Turkey, are found to philofophizc much after the man-
ner of Spmoza.

The impious fyltem of Spinoza was fo iiigcnioufly main-
tained, that it found many patrons in the United Provinces,
among whom were Lewis Meyer, who republifhed Spinoza's
works, and who himfelf wrote a work entitled *' Philofophy
the Interpreter of Scripture," and Van Leenhof, an ccelc-
fiallic of Zwoll, who wrote a piece entitled " Heaven in
Earth," of the doftrinc of which he was obliged to make
a public recantation. Others, under the pretence of re-
futing Spino/a, fecretly f;.vouredhis fylttm.
2

The chief articles in Spinoza's fyllem are reducible to
thefe: that there is but one fubitance in nature; and that
this only fubftance is endued with an infinite number of at-
tributes, among which are extenfion and cogitation : that
all the bodies in the univerfe are modifications of this fub-
itance, confidered as it is extended ; and that all the fouls
of men are modifications of the fame fubftance, confidered
as cogitative : that God is a necellary and infinitely pcrfeft
Being, and is the caufe of all things that exiit. but is not
a different being from them : that there is but one being,
and one nature ; and that this nature produces within itfelf,
liy an immanent aft, all thofe which we call creatures : and
that this being is at the fame time both agent and patient,
efficient caufe and liibjett ; but that he produces nothing
but modifications of himfelf.

As Spinoza taught, that there is no difference of fub-
Itances, he maintained, that the whole and every part of
the material world is a necellary exillinir beinc;, and that
there is no other God, but the univerfe : and^^ moreover,
fince it is abfolutely impoffible for any thing to be created
or produced by another, and alfo abfolutely impollible for
God to have caufcd any thing to be in any relpedl different
from what it now is; every thing that exilts mult needs be
fo a part of the divine fubftance, not as a modification
caufed in it by any will or good pleafnre or wifdom in the
whole, but as of abfolute neceffity in itfelf, with relpeCt to
the manner of the exiftence of each part, no Icfs than with
refpedl to the felf-exillence of the whole ; confequently
the material world, and every part of it, with the order and
manner of being of each part, is, upon this fcheme, the
only felf-exiftent, or neceifarily exilling being.

And he alfo maintains, that motion, as a dependent be-
ing, has been eternally communicated from one piece of
matter to another ; and, therefore, without having at all
any original caufe of its being, either within itfelf or from
without : this. Dr. Clarke has proved to be a plain contra-
diflion, and confequently, motion mull of neccffity be ori-
ginally caufed by fomething that is intelligent, or elfe there
never could have been any fuch thintj as motion in the
world ; and, therefore, the felf-exillent being, the original
caufe of all things, mult of neccffity be an intelligent be-
ing. Hence it follows, that the material world cannot
poffibly be the original felf-exiftent being. For fir.ce the
felf-exillent being is intelligent, and the material world
plainly is not fo, it follows, that the material world cannot
poffibly be felf-exillent.

Agreeably to Spinoza's fyllem, he is led to maintain tint
the fupreme caufe is a necellary agent, and, therefore, that
no thing, or mode of exiftence of any thing, could poffibly
have been in any refpetl different from what it now adually
is ; becaufe, he fays, from an infinitely perfeft nature, infinite
things in infinite manners mull needs proceed : if any thing
could poffibly be otherwife than it is, the will and nature
of God mull be fuppofed capable of change ; and if all
poffible things in all pollible manners do not always and
neccfl'arily exill, they never can all exift, but fome things
that do not exift, will Hill always be poffible only, and never
can aftually exill ; and fo the aftual omnipotence of God
is taken away. To this rcafoning Dr. Clarke replies, that
the firll argument is a plain begging of the qiieltion ; for,
that an infinitrly perfert nature is able indeed to jiroduce
infinite things in infinite manners, is certainly true ; hut that
it mull always ailually do fo, by an abfolute luccffity of
nature, without any power of choice, either a; to time, or
manner, or circumltances, does by no means follow from
the pcrfetliou of its nature, unlcls it be firft fujipofed to

be

S P I

be a neceffary agent, which is the very queftion begged that
was to be proved.

The fecond argument, he fays, is, if poffible, ftill weaker ;
for, how does it follow, if God, according to his eternal
unerring purpofe and infinite wifdom, produces ditterent
things at different times, and i.i different manners, that,
therefore, the will and nature of God are changeable > It
might exaftly as well be argued, that if God (according to
Spinozi'sfuppolition) does always neceffarily produce all
poffible differences and varieties of thingi ; therefore his
will and nature are always neceffarily infinitely various, un-
equal, and difljmilar to themfelves.

And as to the third argument, it is juft luch reafoning as
if a man (hould argue, that if all poffible eternal duration
be not always aftually exhaufl;ed, it can never be all ex-
haulled ; and that, therefore, fo the eternity of God is
taken away : a mode of arguing, the weakiiefs of which
muff be difcerned by every one at firft fight. Befides, the
affertion itfelf, that no thing, or mode of exiftence of any
thing, could poffibly have been made in any refpeft
different from whatsit is, is fo palpably abfurd and falle, io
contradiftory to experience and the nature of things, and
to the moft obvious and common reafon of mankind, that
of itfelf it immediately, and upon the firll hearing, fuffi-
ciently confutes any principle of which it is a confequence.
For all things in the world appear plainly to be the molt
arbitrary that can be imagined, and to be wholly the effefts
not of an abfolute neceffity of nature, but merely of a necef-
fity of fitnefs, or of wifdom and choice. Moreover, Spinoza
maintaining that the fupreme caufe is a neceffary agent, is
conilrained to expofe all final caufes as the fictions of igno-
rant and fuperllitious men ; and fo laugh at thofe who are
fo foolifh and childiffi as to fancy, that eyes were defigiied
and fitted to fee with, teeth to chew with, food to be eaten
for nouriffiment, the fun to give light, &c. a mode of arguing
to which reply is needlefs. See the article God.

Againft Spinoz.i's fyffem it is allegLd by Mr. Bayle,
I. That it is impoffible the univerfe ffiould be but one fub-
ftance, fince every thing that is extended muff necelfarily
have parts, and what has parts mull be compounded. And
as the parts of extenfion do not fubfift in each other, it
follows either that extenfion in the general is not fub-
itance, or that every part of extenfion is a different fub-
ftance. Now, according to Spinoza, extenfion in general
is an attribute of fubltance. And he allows, with other
philofophers, that the attributes of fubitance do not differ
really from the fubllance itfelf. He muff, therefore, allow,
that extenfion in general is fubftance ; vifhence it will fol-
low, that every part of extenfion is a particular fubftance ;
which overturns the whole fyffem.

2. If it be abfurd to make God extended, as this robs
him of his fimplicity, and makes him be compofed of parts,
it is ilill worfe to reduce him to the condition of matter,
the loweff: of all beings, and that vifhich molt of the ancient
philofophers ranked immediately above nothing ; matter,
the theatre of all fort? of changes, the field of battle of
contrary caufes, the fubjeft of all corruptions and genera-
tions ; in a word, the being, of all others, moft incom-
patible with the immutability of the Deity.

The Spinozilts, indeed, maintain, that it is not fufcep-
tible of any divifion ; but the argument they allege in
proof of it we have elfewhere ftiewn to be falfe : it is,
that for matter to be divided, it is neceffary that one of
the parts be feparated from the other by a void fpace,
which is impoffible ; fince, they fay, there is no vncuum in
nature. See Vacuum.

3. If Spinozifm appear extravagant, when we confider

S P I

God as the fubjeft of all the mutations, corruptions, and ■
generations, in bodies, it will be found ftill worfe, when
we confider him as the fubjeft of all the modifications of
thinking. It is no fraall difficulty to unite extenfion and
thinking in the fame fubftance ; fince it is not an union
like that of two metals, or of water and wine, that will
ferve the purpofe : thefe laft require only juxta-pofition ;
whereas to combine thinking and extenfion, requires an
identity. Thinking and extended are two attributes iden«
tified with the fubftance, and, confequently, they are
identified with each other by the fundamental rule of all
logic.

Again, when we fay, that a man denies this, affirms that.
Hies that, &c. we make all thofe attributes fall on the fub-
ftance of his mind, not on his thoughts, which are only
accidents or modifications of it : if, therefore, \rhat Spinoza 1
advances be true, that men are modahties of God, it would
be falfe to fay, Peter denies, likes, tvills, &c. ; fince, in
reality, on this fyffem it is, that God denies, wills, &c. ;
and, confequently, all the denominations which arife from
the thoughts, defires, &c. of men, fall properly and phy-
fically on the fubftance of God. From whence it alfo fol-
lows, that God affirms and denies, loves and hates, wills
and mils the fame thing, at the fame time, and under the
fame conditions ; contrary to the great principle of reafon-
ing, oppnjlta funt quie iff neque de fe invicem, neque ile eodem
tertio fecundum idem, ad idem, eodem modo atque tempore vere
ajirmari pojfutit ; which muff be falfe, if Spinozifm be true;
fince it cannot be denied, but feme men love and aiHrm
what others iiate and deny, under all the conditions ex-
preffcd in the rule.

4. But if it be phyfically abfurd to fay, the fame fubjeft
is modified at the fame time with all the different thoughts
of all men ; it is horrible when we confider it in a moral
light ; fince it will follow, that the infinite, the all-perfeft
Being, is not conitant, is not the fame one moment, but is
eternally poffefled even with contrary paffions : all the
uniformity in him in this refpeft, will be, that for one good
and wife thought, he will have twenty fooliffi and wicked
ones. He will not only be the efficient caufe of all the
errors, iniquities, and impurities of m.cn, but alfo the paflive
fubjeft of them, ihe fubjedum inhufwnis. He muft be united
with them in the clofell manner that can be conceived, even
by a penetrative union, or rather an identity, fince the
mode is not really diftinft from the fubftance modified.
Bayle, art. Spinoza.

SPINSTER, inZaw, an addition ufually given to all un-
married women, from the vifcount's daughter downwards.

Yet fir Edward Coke fays, generofa is a good addition
for a gentlewoman ; and that, if fuch a perion be named
fpinfter in any original writ, appeal, or inftrument, ftie may
abate and quafli the fame.

Spelman fays, that" anciently, even queens ufed the diftafF
and fpindle ; whence fpinfter Ijecame a common appellation
for all women.

SPINT, in Commerce, a corn meafure of Germany. At
Bremen, a laft of corn, peafe, or beans, contains 4 quarts,
40 fcheffels, 160 viertels, or 640 fpints ; 50 fcheftels anfwer-
mg \o loi buftiels, Winchefter meafure. At Hamburgh,
a laft of wheat or rye contains 3 wifpels, 30 fcheffels, 60
faffes, 120 kimterns, or 480 fpints ; and according to the
ftandard meafure of the fafs, which is 21 |i inches in dia-
meter, and lOy inches deep, Hamburgh meafure, its con-
tents are 3872 Hamburgh cubic inches, or 3213 Engliffi
inches, i fcheffel or two faffes =i 3 bufliels, Winchefter
meaf^are nearly ; and I laft of Hamburgh = 89 IJ Engliffi
bulhels, or 1 1-,^^ Englifti quarters.

SPIN-

S P I

S P I

SPINTHERf among the Romans, a kind of bi-acelet
which the women, in the firft ages of Rome, ufed to wear
on tlie upper part of their left arm.

SPINTHERA, in Mineralogy, a mineral of greenilh
colour, which occurs crvltallizcd m irregular dodecahedrons,
compofed of a double four-fided pyramid, obliquely trun-
cated at the apexes. The cryftab are fmall, and brightly
Ihining ; the frafture is lamellar. Its hardncfs is inferior
to that of glafs ; it is tranflucent on the edges. It melts
before the blowpipe without much difficulty. It has not
been aualyfcd. It was difcovered by Haiiy implanted in
calcareous fpar from Dauphine. Aikin's Dift.

SPINUS, in the Natural Hi/lory of the Ancients, the
name of a foffile body of a very remarkable quality ; for,
according to the accounts of Theophraftus, and other
authors of the greateft credit, it broke to pieces, and thrown
in a heap expofed to the fun, it took fire and burnt, and
that the more if moiilened or fprinkled with water.

It feems to have been a fubllance nearly allied to what
they call the lapis thracius, but with this remarkable quality,
both of them feem to have been of the clafs of the harder bi-
tumens, and are wholly unknown to us. Some late writers
have imagined, that the common black flate-ftone, fo frequent
■with us in the coal-pits, was the fubftance called by Theo-
phraftus, and the ancients, by this name ; but it had none
of the qualities attributed to the fpinus. Hill's Theo-
phraftus, p. 35.

Spinus, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of the fparus, with a
bifid tail, and the dorfal fpine recumbent. It is found in
the Indian feas.

Spinus, the Fr'tngilla fpinus of Linnasus, in Ornithology,
the name of a fmall bird, called by fome ligurinus, and in
Enghfh the Jijtin. Its head is black, and its neck and
back green ; the neck, however, has fome flight admixture
of a blackifti tinge, and the roots of the back feathers have
alfo fome blackifhnefs ; its rump is of a greenifh-yellow,
as are alfo its breaft and throat ; its belly is white, and its
tail is yellow underneath, with fome brownifh fpots ; the
female is paler coloured than the male ; and its throat, and
its fides, under the wings, are whitifh, with ftreaks of
brown ; the head and back are of a greenifli afli-colour,
marked with brown. It is common in Germany and
England, which it vifits at uncertain times, and is kept in
cages for finging. In winter thefe birds fly in large flocks.
In Sud'ex it is called the barley-bird, becaufe it comes to
them in the barley-feed time.

SPIO, in Natural Hiftory, a genus of the clafs Vermes,
and order MoUufca. The generic charafter is as follows :
Body projedling from a tube, jointed, and furnifhed with
dorfal fibres ; peduncles or feet rough with brilUes, and
placed towards the back ; two feelers, which are long and
fimplc ; it has two oblong eyes. There are only two

Species.

* Seticornis. Feelers thin and ftriatc. This fpecies
inhabits the ocean, principally where there is a clayey
bottom ; it is about three inches long ; the tube is com-
pofed of agglutinated particles of earth, thin, ereft, and
thrice as long as the body. From this the animal projefts
its capillary white feelers in fearch of food, which confifts
of fmall marine worms ; the body is whitifh, with a tinge
of green, with a red line down the middle of the back ; ine
hind-part is of a fea-green ; the fore-part is blackifh-grey,
with tranfverfe white ftrix ; the head is pale.

FiLicoRNis. Feelers thick and annulate. It inhabits
tlie fea-lhores about Greenland, and is an inch long. Body
yblong, yellowifli or reddilh, with a cinereous line in the

Vol. XXXIII.

middle, and at tach end; the tube 19 fragile, creft, and
greenifh, from which it projefts its feelers in fearch of
planarite, and other fmall marine worms.

SPIPOLA, in Ornithology, the name of a fmall bird of
the lark kind, of which there are, according to Aldrovand,
three fpecies, fufpefted by Mr. Ray to be only varieties
of ihe fpinoletta, or tordino of the Venetians.

Linnseus makes two of thefe diftinft fpecies, under the
titles of alauda trivialis, and alauda pratenjts ; the laft of
which is our tit-lark.

SPIRACLE. See Vent.

SPIRACULA, in the Hijlory of Infeds, are httle holes
or pores placed fingly on each fide of every fegment of the
abdomen, through which the infedl breathes ; and if oil be
applied fo as to ftop them up, it proves fatal to moft of
them.

SPIR.£A, in Botany, a name borrowed from Theo-
phraftus, whofe o-TEijaix is fuppofed to be one of the fpecies
of this pretty genus. — Linn. Gen. 253. Schreb. 341.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 1 055. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 535. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 254. Purfti 341.
Juff. 339. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 439. Gzrtn. t. 69. —
Clafs and order, Icofendrim Pcntagynia, Nat. Ord. Po-
maces, Linn. Rofacex, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, flat at the
bafe, in five acute fegments, permanent. Car. Petals five,
roundifh-oblong, inferted into the calyx. Slam. Filaments
more than twenty, thread-fhaped, inferted into the calyx,
fhorter than the corolla ; anthers roundifli. Fiji. Germens
five or more ; ftyles as many, thread-fliaped, the length of
the ftamens ; ftigmas capitate. Peric. Capfules oblong,
comprefl"ed, pointed, each of one cell and two valves. Seeds
li^-^, pointed, fmall, inferted into the inner margins of the
valves.

Obf. S. Filipendula and Ulmaria have numerous ger-
mens and capfules ; S. ^runcus is dioecious ; S. opulifolia
has only three germens and ftyles.

Efl". Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five. Capfules fu-
perior, of two valves, with feveral feeds.
Seft. I. Stem Jhrubby.

1. S. Itevigata. Smooth-leaved Spirsea. Linn. Mant.
244. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. (S. altaica ; Pall. Rolf,
v. I. p. 1. 37. t. 23.) — Leaves obovato-lanceolate, entire,
feflilc, fmooth. Clufters ftalked, corymbofe. — Native of
Siberia. The Engliih gardens are obliged to Dr. Solander
for this fhrub, which is quite hardy, flowering copioufly in
fummer, and diftinguiflied by its very fmooth, wnllow-like,
rather glaucous leaves. Flowers pure white, in clufters,
coUeaed into corymbofe tufts at the ends of the branches.
The leaves are deciduous in all tlie fpecies.

2. S. falicifolia. Willow-leaved Spina. Linn. Sp. PI.
700. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 1468. Ait. n. 2.
Purfti n. I. Pall. Rofl". v. i. p. i. 36. t. 21, 22. (S.
Theophrafti forte; Ger. Em. 1601.)— Leaves ovato-lancc-
olate, bluntifli, ferrated, fmooth. Clufters terminal, com-
pound.— Native of mountain thickets, near water, in Si-
beria, Tartary, and North America, as well as in Scotland
and the north of England. It is common in fhrubberies.
flowering in July. The flem is four or five feet high, cred,
bufliy. Leaves ftalked, from one to two inches long, va-
rious in breadth, deeply ferrated. Flowers pink, with a
dark red caly.v. In America there is a white variety.

3. S. callofa. Callous Spina. Thunb. J-ip- 209.
WTlld. n. 3. (S. japonica; Linn. Suppl. 262.)— Le.ivca
lanceolate, acute, ferrated, rather villous. Stem downy.
Panicle doubly compound, fomewhat level-topped.— Native
of Japan, flowering in June, Leaves longer and more acute
4B

SPIRyEA.

than in the laft, more villous than in the foUowiiifj, and not
downy. The paniclcd inflorefcence diftinguifhcs it from both.
Flowers red, on villous Italks.

4. S. tomentofa. Scarlet Spirxa. Linn. Sp. PI. 701.
Ait. n. 3. Purlh n. 2. " Schmidt Arb. v. i. 52. t. 51."
(Ulmaria pentacarpos, &c. ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 321. [•. 5-)—
Leaves ovate, unequally lerratcd ; downy and white be-
neath. Clufters compound, downy.— Native of North
America ; a hardy (hrub in our gardens, flowering towards
autumn, and juftly admired for its Isright red Jlowers, and
the white downincfs of the backs of its leaves- In other re-
fpefts it much refemblee S. J'aUcifolia.

c. S. argentea. Silvery Spirsea. Linn. Suppl. 261.
Willd. n. 5. — Leaves wedge-ftiaped, furrowed, lomewhat
plaited; filky on both fides; ferratcd at the extremity.
Clufters compound. Capfules fringed. — Sent from New
Granada by Mutis to Linnaeus. The copious filvery leaves,
about an inch long, render this a very elegant (hrub. The
clufters are numerous at the ends of the branches, but do not
confift of many Jlowers. The germens and capfules are bor-
dered with long hairs.

6. S. alplna. Alpine Small-leaved Spiraea. Pall. Rod.
V. I. p. I. 35. t. 20. Willd. n. 6. — Leaves linear-lanceo-
late, partly toothed, very fmooth. Flowers corymbofe. —
Native of cold woody mountains in Siberia, near the lake
Baical. A fmall, fpreading, branching yXrwi, whofe bark
fplits into long threads. The leaves are hardly an inch long,
and very narrow. Flowers white, in fmall downy corymbs,
folitary at the end of each branch.

7. S. hypericifolia. St. John's-wort Spirsea, or Italian
May ; commonly called Hypericum frutex. Linn. Sp. PI.
701. Ait. n. 4. Purfh n. 3. " Schmidt Arb. v. i. 55.
t. 56." Bocc. Muf. 137. t. 96. (Pruno fylveilri affinis
canadenfis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 218. f. 5.) — Leaves obovate,
entire. Umbels feffile. — In dry fwamps of Canada and
New York, flowering in May. Purjh. This (hrub, cul-
tivated for near 200 years pall in our Englifli gardens, and
afferted to be of American origin, is no lefs apparently wild
on all the hills of Umbria, between Terni and Trevi, as
Boccone long ago mentioned. (See Sm. Tour, ed. 2. v. 2.
322.) It is frequently called in England Italian May.
The leaves are an inch long, refembling feme fpecies of
Hypericum. Flowers white, copious and very pretty, in
fmooth lateral umbels.

8. S. chamsdrifolia. Germander-leaved Spiraea. Linn.
Sp. PI. 701. Ait. n.5. Purfli n. 4. Pall. Rofl'. v. i.
p. I. 32. t. 15. — Leaves obovate, fmooth, cut, and fer-
rated. Corymbs ftalked. — Native of Siberia and Hungary.
Hardy with us, flowering in June and July. The leaves
are green, or (lightly glaucous, on both fides, an inch, or
rather more, in length. Flowers white, rather bigger than
the laft, nearly umbellate. Branches angular.

9. S. ulmifoiiH. Elm-leaved Spirxa. Scop. Carn. v. i.
349. t. 22*. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 6. (S. chamsdri-
folia; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 66. t. 140.) — Leaves ovate,
fmooth, doubly ferrated ; glaucous beneath. Corymbs
raceraofe, elongated, on long ftalks. — Native of Carniola
and Siberia. Cultivated for about 30 years paft in our
gardens, flowering in June. A (hrub larger in all its parts
than the foregoing, efpecially the Jowers, which are rather
racemofe than corymbofe. The leaves are an inch and a
half long, on ftalks one-third that length.

10. S. betulifolia. Birch-leaved Spirxa. Pall. Rolf, v. i.
p. I. 33. t. 16. Purfli n. 5. — Leaves broadly ovate,
Imooth, deeply ferrated, on fliort ftalks. Corymbs com-
pound, level-topped Native of Siberia; and, according

to Mr. Pur(h, of the mountains of Virginia, flowering from

May to July. He defcribes it as not above a foot high ; the
Jlowers tinged with red, and aflerts it to be very dillinft from
the laft, to which Willdenow refers Pallas's fynonym. The
leaves appear to be much broader than in the ulmifolia,
with (horter thicker fostjialks, and the injlorefcence more
compadt.

11. S. crenata. Hawthorn-leaved Spirxa. Linn. Sp.
PI. 701. Ait. n. 7. Pall. Rolf. v. i. p. i. 35. t. 19.
(Oxyacantha anguftifolia non fpinofa ; Barrel. Ic. t. 564.)
— Leaves obovate, acute ; toothed at the extremity. Co-
rymbs lateral, crowded, (talked. — Native of Siberia, Tar-
tary, Hungary, and Spain. Cultivated by Miller in 1739,
and frequently met with in curious (hrubberies, flowering in
May. The leaves vary much in (5/,e and (hape, but are al-
ways ftrongly toothed, or jagged, at the end. When fmall
they are often three-ribbed, but that charafter is not fo con-
ftant as to make a fpecific difference. Flowers white, in
copious, (hort, lateral, leaflefs clufters. Willdenow fuf-
pedls the Spanifh variety may be a diftinft fpecies, but we
find our garden plant fo variable, that the line of diltinftion
is fcarcely to be drawn. A comparifon of living fpecimens
mult decide the queftion.

12. S. trilobala. Three-lobed Spirxa. Linn. Mant. 2.
244. Willd. n. II. Ait. n. 8. Pall. Rolf. v. i. p. i.
t. 17. — Leaves roundi(h, fomewhat heart-fliaped, bluntly
lobed, toothed. Umbels terminal. — Native of mountains
in Siberia. A hardy (hrub with us, introduced by fir J.
Banks in 1801, but not yet come into general culture. It
flowers in May. The leaves are fmooth, not unlike thofe
of a goofeberry in (hape. Flowers white, copious, and
handfome.

13. S. thaliaroides. Meadow-rue-leaved Spirxa. Willd.
n. 12. Ait. n. 9. Pall. Rod. v. i. p. i. 34. t. 18. —
Leaves obovate, obtufe, fomewhat three-lobed. Umbels
lateral, felTile. — Native of the alps of Dauria. Flowering
at Kevv in May. A pretty fpecies, with fmall leaves, very
glaucous beneath. Flowers white, fmaller than the laft,
and lateral, not terminal.

14. S. opulifolia, Virginian Guelder-rofe. Linn. Sp.
PI. 702. Ait. n. 10. Purfti n. 6. " Schmidt Arb. v. i.
52. t. 52." (Euonymus virginiana, ribefii folio, capfulis
eleganter buUatis ; Comm. Hort. v. i. 169. t. 87.) — Leaves
ovate, three-lobed, ferrated, fmooth. Corymbs terminal,
denfe, braAeated. Capfules polKhed, inflated. — On the
banks of rivers, particularly among the mountains, from
Canada to Carohna, flowering in June and July. Generally
known by the name of Nine-bark. PurJh. Cultivated by
bifhop Compton, and now common in (hrubberies, forming
a fmall tree, with much refemblance to the Common
Guelder-rofe. Flowers white, fomewhat like Hawthorn.
Capfules tumid, fmooth, of a fliining brown. Calyx more
or lefs downy.

15. S.capiiata. Capitate Spirxa. Purfli n. 7. — "Leaves
ovate, (omevvhat lobcd, doubly toothed ; reticulated and
downy beneath. Corymbs terminal, denfe, fomewhat capi-
tate, on very long (talks. Calyx downy." — Found by
Mr. Menzies, on the north-welt coait of America, flower-
ing in June. Gathered alfo on the Columbia river by
governor Lewis. Pur/h,

16. S. aritefolia. Beam-tree-leaved Spirxa. — Leaves el-
liptic-oblong, fomewhat lobed, toothed ; pale and villous
beneath. Clutters compound, panicled, terminal, downy.
— Gathered on the north-welt coaft of America, by Mr.
Menzies, to whom we are obliged for fpecimens. It feems
not noticed by Mr. Purfli. Perhaps this fpecies ought, on
account of its panicled very c;<mpound inflorefcence, to be
ranged near falicifolia and tomentofa. The leaves are lobed

like

SPIRiEA.

like Pyrus Ana, but ratlier fmallei*, and villous, not cot-
tony, beneath. The dried_/7ow<:rj look as if they had been
reddiih.

17. S. difcolor. Folded-leaved Spiraea. Purfh n. 8. —
** Leaves ovate, lobed, toothed, fomewhat plaited ; fnovv-
white and downy beneath. Panicles terminal, ftalked, very
much branched." — On the banks of the Kooflcooflcy, ga-
thered by governor Lewis, flowering in June and July. A
fhrub about five feet high. Purjh. Can this be the fame
fpecies with our laft ? We have not had an opportunity of
comparing fpecimens.

18. S. forbifolia. Service-tree-leaved Spirsa. Linn.
Sp. PI. 702. Ait. n. II. Purfh n. 9. Pall. Roff. v. i.
p. I. 34. t. 24, 25. (S. n. 51 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 190.
t. 40.) — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets uniform, (harply ferrated.
Stem (hrubby. Flowers panicled. — Native of Siberia and
the north-well coait of America, flowering in July and
Augull. Frequent in gardens, and diilinguiflied by the
elegance of its bright-green, finely ferrated leaves, as well
as its large panicles of cream-coloured Jloivers. The root
creeps in fome degree. The Jiems are three or four feet
high, not very woody.

Seft. 2. Stem herbaceous.

19. S. Aruncus. Goat's-beard Spirxa. Linn. Sp. PI.
702. Ait. n. 12. Purfh n. 10. Pall. RofT. v. i. p. i.
30. t. 26. (Barbacapri; Fuchf. Hill. 181. B. capra ;
Camer. Hort. 26. t. 9.) — Leaves doubly compound.
Spikes panicled. Flowers dioecious. — Native of Siberia,
Auitria, Switzerland, the Pyrenees, and the mountains of
North America. A hardy perennial in our gardens, of
great elegance, about a yard high, with ample light-green
leaves, and innumerable white feathery Jlowers, produced in
June and July.

20. S. FUipendula. Common Dropwort Spirsea. Linn.
Sp. PI. 702. Willd. n. 16, Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot.
t. 284. Fl. Dan. t. 63J. (Fihpendula; Ger. Em. 1058.
Camer. Epit. 608. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 217.) — Leaves
interruptedly pinnate ; leaflets uniform, ferrated, fmooth.
Stem herbaceous. Flowers cymofe, with many Ilyles. —
Native of high chalky or gravelly paftures in England, and
other parts of Europe, flowering in July. Commonly
double in gardens. The root is perennial, furnifhed with
oval woody knobs. Stem one or two feet high. Leaflets
fmall, oblong, fharply cut. Flowers cream-coloured, with
here and there a tinge of red.

21. S. Ulmaria. Meadow-fweet Spiraea. Linn. Sp.
PI. 702. Willd. n. 17. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot.
t. 960. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 33. Fl. Dan. t. 547.
(Regina prati ; Ger. Em. 1043.} — Leaves interruptedly
pinnate ; downy beneath : the terminal leaflet lobed.
Flowers cymofe, with many llylcs. — Common in wet mea-
dows, bogs, and the borders of rivers and pools throughout
Europe, flowering in June and July. The root is fibrous,
perennial. Stems three or four feet high. Leaves broad,
ferrated ; white underneath. Flowers cream-coloured, co-
pious, with a very fweet, but oppreflive, fragrance. Ger-
mens twilled.

22. S. d'lg'itata. Fingered Spirsea. Willd. n. 18. (S.
palmata ; Linn. Suppl. 262. Pall. RofT. v. i. p. i. 40.
t. 27.) — Leaves pinnate; downy beneath: the terminal
leaflet largelt, in feven deep lobes ; fide ones in five. Co-
rymb compound, denfe. — Native of moift mountainous
fituations, in the eallcrn part of Siberia. This has the
habit of the lall, but the palmate deeply divided leajlets
abundantly diftinguifh it.

23. S. lohata. Palmate Red Spirxa. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
». I. 38. t. 88. Willd. n. 19. Purfh n. 11. — Leaves pin-

nate, fmooth : the terminal Itaflet lafgeft, feven-lobed : fide

onci three-lobed. Corymbs proliferous. In fertile wet

meadows of Virginia and Carolina, flowering in July and
Augull. A beautiful perennial ; flowers red, in large
cluflers. Purfli. The Linnoean herbarium fhews that
authors have here mifapplied the reference to the Stipplemea-
tum, which belongs to the laft fpecies.

24. S. camtfchatka. Broad-leaved Siberian Spiraea. Pall.
Roll. V. I. p. I. 41. t. 28. Willd. n. 20. — Leaves five-
lobed, with auricles on the ilalks. Corymbs proliferous.
Stem fomewhat hairy. — Native of Camtfchatka and Beering's
ifland. The roo< is perennial. Z^a-yj-j very broad, fmooth,
with acute lobes. Flowers white.

25. S. palmata. Palmate Japan Spiraea. Thunb. Jap.
212. Willd. n. 21. — " Leaves palmate, ferrated. Panicle
repeatedly compound. Stem fmooth." — Native of Japan.
The ilalks of the haves feem to have no auricles, and the

flem is fmooth ; otherwife the defcription of this fpeciei
bears fome refemblance to the kit. Flowers red or white.

26. S. trifoltata. Common Three-leaved Spiraea. Linn.
Sp. Pk 702. Ait. n. 16. Purfh n. 12. Curt. Mag.
t. 4S9. — Leaves ternate, ferrated, nearly equal. Stipulas
linear. Flowers terminal, loofely panicled. Calyx tubular.
— In fliady woods and on bogs, chiefly in the raountainoui
parts of North America from Canada to Florida, flowering
in June and July. Puifi. A hardy perennial in our gar-
dens, of fingular elegance, with large drooping ^ow^r/,
whofe petals are white, calyx deep red.

27. Q.flipulacea. Auricled Three-leaved Spiraea. Willd.
Enum. 542. Purfh n. 13. — Leaves ternate, ferrated, nearly
equal. Stipulas ovate, leafy, cut. Flowers terminal,
loofely pinicled. Calyx bell-fhaped. — In the fhady wood*
of Kentucky and Tenaffee, flowering in June and July.
Purjl}. We received it from the choice garden of James
Vere, efq. in Auguft, 18 14. The general appearance of
this fpecies is very like the laft, but the very hrgc flipulas,
and perhaps the fhorter greener calyx, diftinguifli it.

Si'iR^A, in Gardening, contains plants of the fhrubby
and herbaceous kinds, among which the fpecies cultivated
are, the willow-leaved fpirxa (S. falicifolia) ; the fcarlet-
Icaved fpirasa (S. tomentofa); the hypericuni-leaved fpiraea
(S. hypericifolia) ; the filvcr-leaved fpirxa (S. argentea);
the germander-leaved fpiraea (S. chama:drifolia); the haw-
thorn-leaved fpiraea (S. crenata) ; the three-lobe-leaved
fpiraea (S. triloba) ; the currant-leaved fpirxa (S. opuli-
folia) ; the fervice-leaved fpiraea (S. forbifolia) ; the goat's,
beard fpiraea (S. aruncus) ; the common dropwort fpirxa
(S. filipendula); the common meadow-fweet fpirxa (S. ul-
maria) ; and the three-leaved fpirxa (S. trifoliata).

In the firft fpecies there are feveral varieties ; as the flefh-
coloured willow-leaved, the Alpine willow-leaved, the
panicled willow-leaved, and the broad willow-leaved fpirxx.
The tough, ftraight, pliant, young fhoots of this plant are
fometimcs ufed to top fifhing-rods, &c.

The fifth fpecies varies very much, with larger or fmaller
leaves, more or lefs cut, but more commonly quite entire
and ovate-acute.

The eighth fort is commonly known in the nurfcrics by
the name of Virginian guelder rofe.

Tiie eleventh fort is an elegant plant, wiiich in gardeni
grows very luxuriantly, and has often double flowers.

In the twelfth fort there are varieties with double flowers,
and with variegated leaves.

Method of Culture — In all the flirubby forts, this may

be performed by fuckers, layers, and cuttings. The

fucker-i ihould be taken off in the autumn, and planted out

where they are to remain, or in nurfery-rows, to attain a

4B 2 fuller

S P 1

fuller growth. The firft fort requires to be cleared of thefe
fuckers every two years at farthell. The layers (hould be
put down ill the autumn, or in the fpring, and may be taken
©ff and planted as above, in the autumn or fpring following.
All the forts may be raifed in this way ; but it is moft pro-
per for fuch forts as do not fend off fuckers. The cuttings
may be made from the Ihouts of the preceding fummer, and
be planted out in a fhady border, in the early autumn.
When they have become well rooted, they may be removed,
and managed as the others. They fucceed in this way with
more difBcuIty than in either of the others.

All the herbaceous forts may be increafed by feeds, or
parting the roots. The feed may be fown in the autumn,
or early in the fpring, but the firft; is the better mode, on a
bed of fine mould. When the plants appear, they fhould
be kept clear from weeds till the autumn, when they may
be planted where they are to remain, or in the nurfery for a
year or two. The roots Ihould be parted in the autumn or
fpring, when the ftems decay, before they fhoot out new
ones, being planted immediately where they are to grow.
The double-flowered and ftriped varieties can only be pre-
ferved in this way.

They ail afford variety and ornament in the Ihrubbery,
and other parts of pleafure-grounds.

SpiRjEA, African, in Botany. See DtOSMA.

SPIRAL, in Geometry, a curve line of the circular kind,
v/hich, in its progrefs, recedes from its centre ; as in winding
from the vertex, down to the bafe of a cone.

It is called, from its inventor, Archimedes' s fp'tre, or helix,
and is thus defcribed : divide the periphery of a circle
AP/iA {Plate 'KW. Geometry, Jig. ^.) into any number
of equal parts, by a continual bifeftion in the points p.
Into the fame number of parts divide the radius C A, and
make C M equal to one part, C m to two parts, &c. Then
will the points, M, m, m, &c. be points in the fpiral ;
which, connected, will give the fpiral itfelf.

This is more particularly called the frjl fpiral ; and the
fpace included between its centre and the point A, the
fpiral fpace.

The firft fpiral may be continued to z fecond fpiral, by
defciibing another circle with double the radius of the firft ;
and the fecond may be continued to a third, by a third
circle, &c.

Hence, i. Ap is to the periphery, as C m to the radius :
wherefore, if the periphery be called p, the radius A C = r,
Ap= X, pm —y; then will C m = r — y : confequently,
2S p : r :: x : r — y, we ftiall h:xve pr — py = r x.

2. UCm=y, then will rx=py; which equation the
fpiral has m common with the quadratrix of Dinoftrates,
and that of Tfchirnhaufen : and, therefore, r" x"" = p" y"
will ferve for infinite fpirals and quadratrices. See Qua-
dratrix.

The fpiral line may be conceived to be thus generated •
If a right line, as A B (Plate XIV. Geometry, fig. r.j
having one end fixed at B, be equally moved round, "^fo as,
with the other end A, to defcribe the periphery of a circle ;
and, at the fame time, a point be conceived to move for-
ward equally, from B towards A, in the right hne A B,
fo as that the point defcribes that line, while the line gene-
rates the circle ; then will the point, with its two motion--,
defcribe the curve B, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. which is called a
Jpiral line ; and the plain fpace contained between the fpiral
line and the right line B A, is called the fpiral fpace.

Again, if the point B be conceived to move twice as flow
as the line A B, fo that it (hall ^et but half way .ilonf B A,
when that line fliall have formed the circle ; and if then you
imagine a uew revplutiga to be made of the line carrying the

S P I

point, fo that they (hall end their motion at laft together,
there will be formed a double fpiral line, as in the figure ;
from the manner of which may be eafily drawn thefe corol-
laries :

1. That the lines B 12, B 11, B 10, &c. making equal
angles with the firft and fecond fpiral (as alfo B 12, B 10,
B 8, &c.) are in arithmetical proportion.

2. The lines B 7, Bio, &c. drawn any how to the firft
fpiral, are to one another as the arcs of the circle inter-
cepted betwixt B A and thofe lines ; becaufe, whatever
parts of the circumference the point A defcribes, as fup.
pofe 7, the point B will alfo have run over 7 parts of the
line A B.

3. Any lines drawn from B to the fecond fpiral, as B 1 8,
B 22, &c. are to each other as the aforefaid arcs, together
with the whole periphery added on both fides : for at the
fame time that the point A runs over 12, or the whole peri-
phery, or perhaps 7 parts more, ftiall the point B have run
over 12, and 7 parts of the line A B, which is now fup-
pofed to be divided into 24 equal parts.

The area C A B D E of the fpiral of Archimedes
(Plate XIV. Geometry, fig. 6. ) is equal to one-third part of
the circle, defcribed with the radius C E.

In like manner, the whole fpiral area, generated by the
ray drawn from the point C to the curve, when it makes two
revolutions, is the third part of a fpace double of the circle
defcribed with the radius 2 C D ; and the whole area, gene-
rated by the ray from the beginning of the motion, till
after any number of revolutions, is equal to the third part
of a fpace that is the fame multiple of the circle defcribed
with the greateft ray, as the number of revolutions is of
unit.

Any portion of the area of the fpiral, terminated by the
curve C m A, and the right line C A, is equal to one-third
of the feftor C A G, terminated by the right lines C A
and C G, the fituation of the revolving ray, when the point
that defcribes the curve fets out from C. See Maclaurin's
Fluxions, Introd. p. 30, 31. See Quadrature of tie

Spiral of Archimedes.

Spiral, Logiflic, or Logarithmic. See Logistic and
Quadrature.

Spiral of Pappus, a fpiral formed on the furface of a
fphere, by a motion analogous to that by which the fpiral
of Archimedes is defcribed in piano.

This fpiral is fo called from its inventor Pappus. CoUeft.
Mathem. lib. ii. prop. 30.

Thus, if C be the centre of the fphere (fig. 7.), A RB A
a great circle, P its pole ; and while the quadrant PM A
revolves about the pole P with an uniform motion, if a
point proceeding from P move with a given velocity along
the quadrant, it will trace upon the fpherical furface the
fpiral PF<7.

Now if we fuppofe the quadrant P M A to make a com-
plete revolution in the fame time that the point, which
traces the fpiral on the furface of the fphere, defcribes the
quadrant, which is the cafe confidered by Pappus ; then
the portion of the fpherical furface terminated by the whole
fpiral, the circle A R B A, and the quadrant P M A, will
be equal to the fquare of A B. In any other cafe, the area
P M A a F Z P is to the fquare of the diameter A B, in the
fame proportion as the arc A a is to the wkole circumference
A R B A. And this area is always to the fpherical triangle
P A a, as the infcribed fquare is to the circle. See Mac-
laurin's Fluxions, Introd. p. 31 — 33.

The portion of the fpherical furface, terminated by the
quadrant P M A, the arcs A R, F R, aad the fpiral P Z F,
admits of a perfeft quadrature, when the ratio of the arc

A a to

S P I

A a to the whole circumference can be afligned. See Mac-
lauriii, ibid. p. 33.

Spiral, Parabolic. See Helicoid.

Spiral, Proportional, is generated by fiippofing; the ra-
dius to revolve equably, and a point from the circumference
to move towards the centre with a motion decreafmg in a
geometric progreffion. See Logistic.

From the nature of a decreafmg geometric proprenion, it
is eafy to conceive that the radius C A tfg. 8.) may be
continually divided ; and although each fuccelfive divifion
becomes fhorter than the next preceding one, yet there mull
be an indefinite number of divifions or terms before the lall
of them becomes of no finite magnitude. Whence it fol-
lows, that this fpiral winds continually round the centre,
and does not fall into it till after an indefinite number of re-
volutions : and alfo that the number of revolutions decreafes,
or the number of the equal parts into which the circum-
ference is divided increafes.

It is alfo evident, that any proportional fpiral cuts the
intercepted radii at equal angles : for, if the divifions A <i,
de, ef, fg, &c. of the circumference be very fmall, the
feveral radii would be fo clofe to one another, that the in-
tercepted parts AD, DE, EF, F G, &c. of the fpiral
mighr bf taken ao right lines; and the triangles CAD,
C D E, C E F, &c. would bt- fimilar, having equal angles
at the point C. and the fides about thofe angles propor-
tional : confequently, the angles at A, D, E, F, &c. being
equal, the fpiral mult neceffarily cut the radii at equal angles.
Hobertfon's Elem. of Nav. book ii, p. 87.

Proportional fpirals are fuch fpiral lines as the rhumb
lines on the terreitrial globe, whicli, becaufe they make
equal angles with every meridian, muil alfo make equal
angles with the meridians in the ftereographic projeftion on
the plane of the equator, and therefore will be, as Dr.
Halley obferves, proportional fpirals about the polar point.
From whence he demonftrates, that the meridian line is a
fcale of log. tangents of the half meridian complements of
the latitudes. See Rhumb, Loxodromy, and Meridional
Parts.

Spiral, in ArchUeaure and Sculpture, denotes a curve
that afcendf, winding about a cone, or fpire, fo that all the
points of it continually approach the axis.

By this it is diitinguifhcd from the helix, which winds,
after the fame manner, around a cylinder. Ignorant archi-
tefts confound the two, but the more knowing dillinguifli
them carefully.

Spiral Pump. See Archimedes^ s Screw .

Spiral Stairs, in Building. See Stairs-
Spiral Vejfili, in Vegetable Phyfwlogy, are found ranged
concentrically round the pith in the tender branches or llalks
of numerous plants, particularly the Elder, Syringa, Cor-
nel, Peony, and many of the Liliaceous order. If a branch
be partly cut tranfverfely, or gently broken, and the por-
tions fiowly drawn afundcr, a number of fine white fibres
will be perceived gradually to unroll, and thcfc will often
fupport a confidcrable piece of the divided italk. Thcfe
fibres originally formed the coat of the vellcls in quellion.
After the plant has acquired a certain firmnefs of texture, or
has finifhed its growth for the fealon, fuch can no longer be
unrolled. Mirbcl has delineated many fpucimcns of thefc
vellels, in which the fpiral fibre of each m more or lefs im-
perfeft, fhewiiig that, probably as they advance in age, the
velTels become entire tubes.

The ufe of thcfc fpiral-coated veliels has been much dlf-
puted. Tiiey being commonly found on dideftion to con-
tain fcarccly any fluid but air, Malpighi, Grew, and others,

S P 1

have called them air-vefiels, fuppofing they were the lungs
of plants, and imbibed air from the atmofphere, through
another more external fet of roundilh or oval air-veUels, of
which leaves, petal;-, &c. are full. But the experiments of
Darwin and Knight rather (hew the fpiral-coated tubes to
be the true fap-vclTels, in which light we have confidered
them in the article Circulation of Sap, to which we refer
the reader. No fuch fpiral veflels are found in the bark of
plants, at any period of its growth.

SPIRATION. See E.\piration, Inspiration, Per-
spiration, Respiration, and Transpiration.

S PI ration, in Scholq/lic Theology, a term ufed by the
popith fchoolmen to fignify the manner in which the per-
fonality of the Holy Spirit was derived from the Father and
the Son. See Procession and Holy Spirit.

SPIRDING See, in Geography, a large lake of Pruffia ;
30 miles S. of Bartcnftein.

SPIRE, in Agriculture, a term fignifying to fprout, as
grain in the malting procefs, &c. The fpiring in this procefs
fliould neither be carried too far nor hopped too fuddcnly,
as in both cafes the malt fuffers injury. See Malt.

Spire, Spira, in the Ancient ArchiteSure, is fometime*
ufed for the bafe of a column, and fometimes for the allra-
gal, or tore.

The word is formed from the Latin fpirte, the folds of a
ferpent, which bear fome refemblance to it ; or from the
Greek o-irsipa, the coil of a rope.

Spire is alfo a pyramidical termination of the tower of
a church or other building. This ornament, being the ge-
nuine offspring of the pointed arch, and not occurring in
the monuments of Greece or Rome, ought to be confined
to its proper ityle. It is an incongruity to introduce it
into Grecian architedure.

Spire, in Geography, a city of France, and principal
place of a diltriiit, in the department of Mont Tonnerre,
containing 3744 inhabitants, (its canton having 7894,) in
9 communes. This was, before the French revolution, an
imperial city of Germany, and the capital of a bilhopric of
the fame name. Spire is an ancient city, (aid to have been
founded before the commencement of the Chriilian era, and
receives its name from the fmall river Spirebacii, which runs
into the Rhine, about 500 paces below it. It contains a ca-
thedral, thrte collegiate churclies, and (everal convents, be-
fides two churches belonging to the Lutherans, of which
clafs the magiltrate^ and greater number of the inhabitants
confiU. The Franks took this city from the Romans, and
it became one of the original imperial cities. In the year
1529, a diet was held here, in which the reformers firil ob-
tained the name of Protellants. It was dillroyed by the
French in 1689, and lay wade for ten years, nor was it re-
built till after tlic peace of Ryfwick. Before this difaller,
it was tiie feat of the imperi.il clamber. In December
1793, it furrendered to the republican troops of France.
The bilhopric of Spire is of conliderable antiquity. Its
territories were fituated on the Rhine, between the Palatinate,
the duchy of Wurtemburg, the niargraviatc of Baden, and
the princi|)ality of Deux-Ponts, about 18 leagues in length,
and 12 in breadth. It is mountainous, and covered with
forelts ; nevorthckfs it produces corn, wine, chelnuts, and
alniMuds. The bifliop was luftragan of Mentz, and refided
at BruchfaL The territories on the left bank of the Rhine
have been united to France, and in 1802, thofe on the right
were given as indemnities to the margrave of Baden ; 12
miles S.W. of Heidelberg. N. lat. 49^ 18'. E. long.
8^^ 30'.

SPIRES,

S P I

SPIRES, in Rural Economy, a term provincially ufed to
fieiiify timber-ttands, , . , r

SPIRINCHUS, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome
authors have called the fmeh.

SPIRIT, Si'iuiTUS, in Phyfiology, the moft fubtle and
volatile part, or juice of the body ; by means of which its
funftions and operations have been fuppofed to be per-
formed, r r • •

The ancients made a fourfold divifion of fpirits ; into
vital, animal, natural, and genital ; the firft of which they
placed in the heart ; the fecond, in the brain ; the third, in
the ftomach and liver ; and the kit, in the tellicles : but as
this divifion is founded on a falfe hypothecs, it is now de-
fervedly fct aiide.

The moderns have ufually divided fpirits into vital and
animal : the former being only the finell and moft agi-
tated parts of the blood, on which its motion and heat
depend : and the latter an exceedingly thin, fubtle, move-
able fluid, juice, or humollr, feparated from the blood in
the cortex of the brain, and thence received into the minute
fibres of the medulla, and by them difcharged into the
nerves ; by which it is conveyed through every part of the
body, to be the inftrument of fenfation, mufcular motion,
&c. See Animal Spirits, and Nervous FluiJ, Juice, and
Sypm.

Spirits, Zow, in Medicine. See Melancholy.
Spirit, Spiritus, in the Newtonian Phyfics, denotes a moft
fubtle penetrative fubftance, which fome have fuppofed to
pervade all, even the denfeit bodies, and to lie hid in them ;
and by the force and aftion of which, the particles of bo-
dies attract each other, at very fmall diltances, and, when
contiguous, cohere ; and by which eleftrical bodies aft at
greater dillances, both attrafting and repelling the neigh-
bouring corpufcles ; and light is emitted, reflefted, and in-
flefted, and warms bodies ; and all fenfation is excited, and
the members of the animals move at the inftance of the will,
tiz. by vibrations of this fpirit, propagated through the
folid capillaments of the nerves, from the external organs
of fenfe to the brain, and from the brain to the mufcles.

Spirit, in Antiquated Chemiftry, is one of the hypotheti-
cal principles of natural bodies, called alfo mercury.

The chemical principle fpirit was defined to be a fine,
fubtle, volatile, penetrating, pungent liquor, which rifes,
ordinarily, before the phlegm, or water, and fometimcs
after it.

The great properties of this liquor were imagined to be,
that it penetrates and opens folid bodies ; corrodes, breaks,
and even dilTolves certain mixed bodies ; coagulates others ;
and produces an infinity of other effefts, many of them even
contrary to one another.

In the general, the early chemifts gave the denomination
of fpirits to all the fine, fubtle, not aqueous, particles
raifed from bodies by heat, and reduced into liquors by dif-
tillation. Such are fpirit of vitriol, of nitre, of fait, &c.

They alfo applied the name fpirits to thofe aqueous li-
quors which are drawn by liquefaftion, when they are im-
pregnated with falts or other aftive principles, raifed, toge-
ther with them, by the violence of the fire.

In this fenfe, the chemifts were faid to dravif a fpirit from
fulphur, fait, and other bodies, when they extraft the
eflence, or the fublileft part of them, by diftillation, or
•therwife. Accordingly, fpirits were diftributed into three
principal kinds, viz. inflammable fpirits, acid fpirits, and al-
kaline fpirits.

To the firft clafs belong the moft volatile and thinneft part
of eftential oils, the principle of fmell, or fpirit us reSor of

S P I

plants, (fee Aroma,) and ardent Ipirits, or the fpirit oil-
tained from wine, beer, and all liquors which have under-
gone the fpirituous fermentation. See Alcohol.

The fecond clafs includes all acids obtained by diftillation
of minerals, vegetables, and animals ; fuch arc, i . The
acids of fulphur, vitriol, and alum, which are the fame at
vitriolic acid, and the acids of nitre and common fait.
They are called fpirit of fulphur, fpirit of vitriol, fpirit of
nitre, Sec. without fpecifying that they are acids. 2. The
acids of vinegar, and of all hquors which have undergone
the acetoua fermentation, and the acids obtained ih the diftilla-
tion of vegetables, and of certain animals, as flies, ants, &c.
Thefe fpirits are commonly called acid fpirits, as the "acid
fpirit of guaiacum, the acid fpirit of ants, &c. becaufe the
lubftances which furnifh them yield alfo fpirits that are not
acid. See Acid.

To the third clafs are referred liquid volatile alkalies, ob-
tained from fal ammoniac, from all vegetable matters which
have undergone a complete putrefaftion, and from all animal
matters. Thefe are generally called fpirits, without fpecifying
their alkaline quality. Thus we fay, volatile fpirit of fal
ammoniac, fpirit of hartfhorn, &c. As fome of thefe fub-
ftances, particularly fal ammoniac, contain alfo an acid
which may be obtained from them, we ought, when we
mention this fpirit, to fpecify its acid quality, calling it acid
fpirit of fal ammoniac.

Spirits, Di/lilled, a general name given among diftillen
to thofe ardent liquors that are obtained from various mate-
rials, and by different proceffes of diftillation. The nature
and properties of thefe liquors, and the modes of obtaining
them, are detailed under the articles Alcohol, Brandy,
Distillation, Fermentation, &c.; but we (hall here
fpecify fome particulars that more immediately relate to the
common fpirituous liquors that are, we lament to fay it, fo
much in ufe in our own country. Thefe are, for the moft
part, prepared from fermented corn of one kind or other,
with certain additions, at the pleafure of the diftiller, of
molaffes, carrots, and other fubfaccharine vegetables. The
principal ingredient, except in a feafon of Icarcity, is one
kind or other of grain. (See Addition.) The fpirit
thus procured is reftified for fale by being rediftilled with
juniper-berries, turpentine, and other fubftances, in order
to modify and improve its flavour and appearance. The
grain, when barley is ufed, is ufually firft malted, and in
Scotland it is dried with peat, which gives to the fpirit
diftilled from it, called " whiiky," its peculiar flavour.
It is then ground into coarfe powder, and the infufion
fermented with yeaft in large tuns. This fermented
liquor is called " walh," and in this ilate it is fit for dif-
tillation. Under the articles already referred to, the ge-
neral procefs and the implements ufed in it are defcribed ;
but previoufly to the operation fome fubftances are added to
the wafli, for the purpofe either of increafing the quantity of
fpirit that is aff^orded by it, or of keeping down the eflential
oil derived from the malt, which would give the liquor a
naufeous flavour, or of regulating the boiling within the
ftill, and preventing it from boiling over or " running
foul," or of neutralizing the acid generated during the fer-
mentation, which would very confiderably lefl'en theproduft
of fpirit. For thefe purpofes foap is confidered thebeft ad-
dition, and accordingly it is ufed in large quantities. Other
diftillers ufe alkalies. At the commencement of the opera-
tion, the liquid is oily and turbid, and has- a naufeous flavour,
on account of the oil of the malt which accompanies it ;
but by degrees it becomes clear, and runs fo to the laft,
although its ftrength decreafee, and it becomes more watery,

10 and

SPIRITS.

and coiifequently of lefs fpecific gravity. (See Specific Gra-
ViTV. ) The quantity intermediately obtained, omitting tlie
firit and the lall produfts, is then rediltilled or " refti-
fied," (fee Rectification) ; and in this Itage of the ope-
ration, thofe additions (fuch as juniper-berries, &c.) which
give the fpirit its flavour, are introduced into it. The pro-
cefs of dillillation on a fmall fcale is fimple and eafily con-
dutled ; but the large dillillcries, where expenfive works are
carried on, require a greater degree of practical (Icill, both
in the preparation of the apparatus, the adjuftment of the
materials, and the conduft of the operation. In order to
expedite the procefs, feveral alterations have been made in
the form of the itill, particularly in Scotland, where it is
an objeft of importance to be quick in the difpatch of the
operation, on account of the mode of levying the duty ;
and, therefore, by gradually widening the bottom and con-
trafting the height of the Itill, dillillation is performed with
a furprifing rapidity. A ftill is faid to have been conftrudt-
ed, which contains only 40 gallons in the body and three in
the head, and in the ule of it the whole time of its opera-
tion, from its coramencenient to its clofe, amounts only to
25- minutes, when the charge of wafh is 16 gallons, or ^ths
of the whole content. In reftification, which is a (lower
procefs, the charge is 24 gallons, and the time of diltilling
about 10 minutes.

A good ipiritmay be obtained without malting the grain,
whether it be barley, or any other kind of corn which will
anfwer the purpofe. With us, a mixture of barley and malt
is generally preferred ; in Holland, the very bell geneva is
made from wheat and malt, though more commonly from
raalt and rye, the latter yielding more fpirit than wheat.

The following procefs is that which is praftifed by moft
diftillers. A quantity of rye-flour, coarfely ground, is
mixed with a third or fourth part of malt, and put into the
fermenting tub, with cold water, itirring it well with the
hand, to prevent the meal from clotting. Water of a blood-
warmth is then added, in fufficient quantity, after which
the ferment, compofed of the yeaft of former operations,
dried and kept for a certain time, is mixed with tiie whole.
(See Fkrmext.) When the weather is favourable, and the
heat well regulated, the fermentation begins in fix hours,
and terminates on the third day, when the liquor becomes
tranfparent, and aflumes a hot pungent tafte. The dillilla-
tion is then immediately commenced, before the liquor turns
four, which (hould as much as pofTible be avoided. The
dillillation is conducted very flowly, to prevent the impreg-
nation of the oil of the grain with the fpirit, and of courfe
the unpleaiant flavour of the fpirits. The fird fpirit is
then rectified by a fecond dillillation over juniper-berries, or
in " double geneva," by a third procefs.

In fome of the ordinary iorts, however, the juniper-ber-
ries are mixed with the fermenting materials, and one dillil-
lation fufficcs. In the common geneva or gin, vulgarly
ufed in this country, the fine juniper flavour is coarfely
imitated by turpentine. See Genkva.

Ff'f the procefs of obtaining arrack, brandy, and rum,
feeAiiAc, Brandy, and Rum.

Sl'lKlTs, Pronf, or common Jukahle goods, are fpirits of
any kind of a determinate ftrength, being the fame with thofe
of good brandy, and the malt and fugar fpirits of the dillil-
lery, as they are ulually fold ; contauiing equal quantities,
or definite proportions, of reftilied fpirit and water.

The bed proof fpirit ii" that dillilled from French wine ;
but for common ufe, the fpirit drawn from molafl'es may be
employed.

The cd.nmon method of examining whether fpirits have
this due degree of Itrength is this : — take a long phial, fill it

half way with the common malt fpirit, and gire it a fmart
flroke by its bottom againll the palm of the hand, there will
then appear on the furface a chaplet, or crown of bubbles,
whicli will go off again in a llrong manner ; that is, firft
remaining a while, and then going off by degrees, without
breaking into fmaller bubbles, or fwcUing into larger.

By this experiment all the traders in fpirits judge of the
llrength of the goods they purchafe ; yet this is a mere fal-
lacy and deception ; for if only a little vinous or faccharine
matter, as treacle, fyrup, mull, rob of fruits, or the like, be
added to a quantity of highly redified fpirit of wine, this
flight addition will give a brandy proof to that fpirit. See
Alcohol, Brandy, and Bead Proof.

Whether there be any fecret for making weaker fpirits
fliew this proof as well as brandies, &c. is not certainly
known ; but the thing is prafticable, fince arrack, which
is but of half the llrength of brandy, gives as fair a proof
this way ; and if a drop or two of any effential oil be added
to a pint of brandy, it takes off its proof, and makes it ap-
pear much weaker than it is. The true itrength may,
however, always be known, by carefully burning away
a mcafured quantity of brandy, &c. fince if it leaves one
half water it is right ; if more or lefs, it is too ilrong, or
too weak.

But befide the falfe method of judging of brandies by
what is called proof, there is another not lefs fallacious one
of judging of their goodnefs, though kept as a great fecret
in the hands of fome dealers, and imagined a certain criterion
to determine whether foreign brandies are mixed with corn
fpirits. Thefe dillillers are provided with a certain yellow
liquor, a few drops of which being poured into a glafs of
right French brandy gives it a beautiful blue colour, and, by
the ftrcngth and goodnef? of this colour, they judge and buy ;
but if common malt Ipirit be tinged with oak, it would give
this colour equally with French brandy, and might be pur-
chafed as fuch. This proof tindture is expeditioufly made,
by diflolving a little green vitriol, firll calcined to a rcdnefs,
in a weak fpirit of lea-falt, which thus becomes a yellow
liquor, a fingle drop or two of which being added to a glafs
of any inflammable fpirit, coloured yellow or brown with
oak, or with long remaining in the cafl<, will inftantly turn it
of a bright and beautiful blue.

The bell way of judging in thefe cafes is by the nofe and
palate. Dilute a quantity of brandy confiderably with
water, and you wmU perceive the malt talle, if mixed with
malt fpirits ; or burn a little in a Ipoon, and by the fmell
and talle of the water it leaves, you will eafily judge whether
there be malt in it.

Proof Ipirits may be diltinguiflied into three \(.\nAs, perfed
proof, more than perfe 8 proof, and hfs than perfeO proof . By
perfffl proof is ufually underltood that crown of bubbles,
before mentioned, of a certain fi/.e, arifing as a head upon
a fmall quantity of a well-qualilied fpirit fliouk in a /len-
der phial.

Proof more than perfeil, is that in which the bubbles raifed
by fliaking the fpirits, are larger than thofe on the common or
perfcdt proof, and go off more fuddenly ; that is, according
as the Ipirit is higher, or approaches more to the nature of
rectified fpirit, or, as it is ufually called, //i(';;V of wine.

Proof lefs that! perfeil, is that in whicli the bubbles are
fmaller, and go off quicker and fainter than in perfeft proof;
the Ipirit in this cafe being mixed with more than its own
quantity of phlegm, or being too poor for fale.

The lurelt method of judging of the llrength of fpiritP, 18
by the hydrometer, water-poifc, or balance ; or, zdly, by dif-
tillation, or finally, by deflagration. The fpecific gravity
of totally inflammable Ipirit is fo muth lefs than that of

phlegm,

SPIRITS.

phlegm, or common water, that it is eafily fenfible upon
the balance ; whence an exaa hydrometer, well balanced
and graduated, and furnilhed with a proper fcale of weights,
may be of great ufe to aflign the proportions in w-hich pure
fpirit and water are mixed in any given liquor. ( See Specific
Gravity, and Hydrometer.) Though, perhaps, a
readier way than this may be that of M. Romberg's, men-
tioned in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy, 1718, for de-
termining the different gravities of different fluids, by means
of a bottle with a very long and (lender neck ; which being
filled to a certain height with any mixture of fpirit, is
weighed againll the fame bottle filled with pure water.

The moll exaft of all methods of determining the ftrength
and fpirit is by diftillation, reftifying it up to an alcohol, or
totally inflammable fpirit ; but this, though liable to no er-
ror, is too tedious to come into common ufe. And, upon
the whole, the bell method of all others, feems to be that
of deflagration, which M. Geoffroy has been at much pains
to adjult and improve.

In commerce, with regard to fpirits, it would certainly be
a much better method to abolifli fuch uncertain proofs, and
to make all the goods of the ilrength of what we call fpirits
of wine ; that is, a totally inflammable fpirit, whofe purity
is much greater, whofe ilrength may always be found out
with exaftnefs, and whofe bulk, ilowage, carriage, and in-
cumbrance, would be only half in regard to that of brandy,
or proof fpirits ; and it might at all times, as occafion called
for it, be mixed into a great variety of extemporaneous
liquors, and the exaft degree of Ilrength would be always
precifely known.

This operation, indeed, in the common way, proves fo
tedious and expenfive, and, after all, fo fliort of expectation,
and fo generally unfatisfaftory, that it is not to be expefted
that the common dillillers, till they have fallen into a better
manner of working, ftiould come into the propofal. But if,
inftead of the common way of reftifying by the hot-ilill,
they would try the ufe of a large balneum Marix, made of
a large reftangular boiler, and a fet of tall conical vellels,
they will find that little fire, and little attendance, and con-
fequently very little expence, will, in this manner, furnifli
them with fpirits reduced at once to this llandard, and
greatly fuperior, in all refpefts, to the common ones of the
fame ftrength. In this cafe there would be no need of any
addition of falts ; but the dilliller may work more perfeftly,
and more expeditioufly without them, and thus preferve the
fine effential vinofity of the fpirit, which, in the common way
of working, they conilantly lofe.

The advantage of this method would be yet greater to the
apothecaries, and tlie makers of compound cordial waters,
who want only a pure fpirit of fuch a ftrength, and fuffer
greatly in the finenefs and perfe£lion of their commodities,
by the fpirit they are obliged to ufe having in it a fulfome
and naufeous oil of its own, which will always mix itfelf
with their compofitions, and the oils of the aromatics, &c.
which they add to it. If fpirits were brought to this ftand-
ard for the market, there would be no poffibility of deceit,
and no farther examination need be made of it by the buyer
than its burning perfeftly dry in a fpoon. Shaw's Effay
on Diftillery.

It is, however, to be obferved, that though the burning
of fpirits away in a fpoon may ferve the trader in the com-
mon way, yet M. Geoffroy has obferved, that they are no
proofs for the philofopher, or the chemill, being not at all
determinate or exa£t, though commonly fuppofed fo.

From what has been faid, it appears that brandy is much
more inflammable than wine, and fpirit of wine much more
^0 than brandy, and ought to burn away without leaving

any remainder. Hence it is vulgarly fuppofed, that fuch
fpirit of wine as burns wholly away contains no phlegm, and
that if two parcels of fpirit both burn wholly away in this
manner, they muff be the fame in ftrength, and in all other
quahties ; but M. Geoffroy has proved by experiment, that
fuch fpirit as burns wholly away, does yet contain a great
deal of water, and two parcels both may burn thus away, and
yet be very different ; and that this trial is not determined
by the entire abfence of the phlegm, but by its proportion
to the oil.

If the fame fpirit of wine, which in the common way of
burning leaves no water, be again tried, by burning it in
a hollow veffel fet to float in a large quantity of cold water,
it will then leave a confiderable quantity of water ; nay,
all that is reftified only in the common way, leaves a large
portion of phlegm on this experiment. The plain reafon of
which is, that this is the only fair trial, the other in the
common way being fallacious. In this there is do more
water left than was in the fpirit ; but in the other, the
veffel becoming heated by the burning of the fpirit, that
heat gradually evaporates the water, as the fpirit burns
away ; fo that the one is as foon gone as the other. But
keeping the veffel cool by external water, prevents that
evaporation, and confequently retains and difcovers all that
cannot burn of the fpirit.

The quantity of water thus difcovered in fpirit of wine
is very great, and it has always been found, that in propor-
tion as the experiment has been made more and more per-
fe£i, the fpirit has always appeared proportionably lefs and
lefs fo.

Pure alcohol, or alcohol of a fpecific gravity of .796,
at 60° Fah., which is the ttrongett that can be procured,
leaves no water ; reftified fpirit of moderate ftrength, 25
per cent. ; French brandy, 56 ; and common malt liquor, 65.

The teft for afcertaining the ftrength of fpirits by pour-
ing a few drops on gunpowder, is very incorreft. A more
accurate teft than any of thefe, and fufEcient for common
purpofes, is to (hake the fpirit in a phial with very dry car-
bonate of potafs, and obferve the quantity of water attrafted
by the alkali, which indicates its ftrength. But the only
certain mode of afcertaining the relative ilrength of fpirits, is
by determining the fpecific gravity of the fpirit at a given
temperature ; thus, at 60° Fahr. the fpecific gravity of refti-
fied fpirit is .83599, ^^ ^5° ^^ '* '^3362, and at 70° the
gravity of the fame fpirit is .83134; while the gravity of
the proof fpirit of the London College, at the fame degree of
temperature, is .93002, .92794, and .92580, (fee the table
under Spirits, in the Materia Medico,) the weakeft:
fpirit having the greateft fpecific gravity, and this di-
miniffiing as the temperature increafes. For ordinary pur-
pofes, the relative Ilrength of fpirits may be known by
weighing the fample to be tried in a phial capable of hold-
ing exaftly 500 grains of water. An equal bulk of refti-
fied fpirit weighs 418 grains, and of proof fpirit 465 ; hence
the number of grains above or below thefe fums will indi-
cate the relative ftrength of the fpirit.

The quality of the phlegm that is left is alfo of ufe to
judge of the fpirit by ; if that were perfeftly fine, this ought
to be perfeftly limpid and clear, and without tafte or fmell :
as it wants either of thefe properties, it is a proof of the want
of perfeftion of the fpirit it is obtained from ; but the great-
eft of all defefts, is its having a coarfe oil fwimming upon it,
and giving the colours of the rainbow in different lights.
Mem. Acad. Par. 1718. See Brandy.

Spirits, Colouring of, the art of giving to diftilled li-
quors a colour, which takes off their watery appearance, and
gives them a refemblance of the foreign brandies, 5cc.

The

SPIRITS.

The colouring is not only necefTary on tliis account, but
as we ufually efteem the fpirits by the proof of the crown of
bubbles, it is found that the clean redified ipirit will not
afford this proof till it has received its dofe of the colour.
The diilillers difptnfe this colour in any proportion that
they find convenient or ncceflary ; it is always yellow, but,
according to the degree, differs extremely in dcepnefs, from
the palell Itraw-colour to the deepeft orange. This 3rt of
colouring was hrfl; introduced, from obferving that all the
fine and foft foreign brandies, that had tlie mcllownefs ne-
ceflary to their perfeftion to the tafte, had alfo a yellow
colour. The colour, in this cafe, has indeed nothing to do
with the flavour ; but that being kept in calks the fame age
that was neceffary to give them this mellownefs, would alfo
give them a colour from the wood. It was hence fuppofed,
that the particular excellence of the foreign brandies de-
pended on the woody colour, and accordingly pains have
been taken to give the fame colour to our fpirits by various
methods.

The way of obtaining it, by many years Handing in the
calk, proved too tedious for our hafty workmen, and ac-
cordingly they provided means of giving it extempore by
itrong tindlures of feveral ingredients ; the chief of which
are logwood, faffron, Japan earth, treacle, burnt fugar, and
oak-chips ; the three former of thefe have but little to re-
commend them, but the others are found very ready, and
very proper for the ufe.

Treacle gives a fine colour not much unlike that of the
foreign brandies, and being neceffarily ufed in a large
quantity, as its colour is but dilute, it not only mends the
bubble, or bead-proof, impaired by the redtification, but
alfo gives it a fulnefs in the mouth ; both which properties
are very agreeable to the vulgar, who are the chief retail
confumers of thefe coarfe goods.

Burnt fugar, that is, fugar dilTolved in a little water,
id fcorclied over the fire yll it turns black, goes much
farther in the colouring than treacle, and at the fame time
gives no fweetnefs, but rather an agreeable bitternels ; and
thus recommends itfelf to the nicer palates, that are not
for a lufcious fpirit. Indeed fugar, thus treated, tinges to
a great perfeftion, and that without lofs of time, and with
as much cheapncfs as can well be dcfired.

The lalt article mentioned, namely oak-chips, is of all
others the moll natural for imitating the dye of foreign
fpirits, as it is the very wood of which the cailcs they come
over in are made, and from which they take that colour of
which we are fo fond. The colouring with oak has alfo
this farther advantage in fpirits meant as fophiltications of
the foreign ones, that it will Hand fome tefts ufually had re-
courfe to on the occafioii, which the others will not ftand.

Common fpirit poured on oak-chips, and digefted in a
moderate heat, eafily fetches out the refinous part of the
wood on which the colouring depends ; but then it does
not go near fo far as the burnt fugar ; a large quantity of
oak being required to colour a Imall parcel of brandy, or
fpirits. It is advifeable not to make the tinfturc every
time, but to have recourfe to an extraft of this wood in a
liquid form : this extracl is bell made in two menltruums,
alcohol and water, and may be evapor.itcd to any llrcngth,
fo that a very fmall dofe of it will tinge a great quantity
of liquor. The two liquid extracts will be mixed together,
and as they will be apt to feparate in Handing, it will be
proper to add to them, when newly made, a quantity of
fine fugar ; this will give a body to the whole, and it will
keep better from mouldinefs than it would without it.
Shaw's Ellay on DilUllery.

Vol. XXXIII.

Spirit.;, Con-verlMity of. This is a doftrine that ha?
obtained among many of the moll curious experimenters,
and, indeed, the moft intelligent of our chemitts have alway*
allowed, that provided proper care were taken in the getting
together of the material, one fpirit may always be changed
into another, as brandy into rum, malt-fpirit into brandy
and brandy into malt-fpirit. The principles on which this
is believed are thefe.

All fimple fpirits (as they are called) confift of four
parts, water, oil, phlegm, and alcohol; the la ft of thefe ii
the ell'ential part, and is what conllitutes the whole a fpirit.
In reducing fpirits, therefore, to their utmoil degree of
fimplicity and purity, it is evident that the three fuper-
fluous parts are to be got rid of, and the fourth left alone ;
by this means the alcohol is procured ditlinft, and is a
liquor fm generis of many peculiar qualities, not to be
found in any other fluid.

Among others, it has thefe remarkable properties:
I. When abfolutely purified, it is an uniform and homogene
liquor, capable of no farther feparation, without lofs or
dellruftion of fomc of its homogeneous parts. 2. It is
totally inflammable, leaving no foot nor any moillure behind.
3. It has no peculiar taile or flavour, any more than pure
water, except what is owing to its nature as alcohol, or
perfeftly pure fpirit. 4. It is an unftuous and crifpy fluid,
running veiny in the diltillation, and its drops rolling on
the furface of any other fluid, hke peafe upon a table,
before they unite. 5. It appears to be the elTential oil of
the body it is obtained from, broken very fine, and inti-
mately and llrongly mixed with an aqueous fluid, which is
aflimilated, or changed in its nature in the operation.
6. And laftly, it feems to be a kind of univerfal fluid, pro-
ducible with the fame properties from every vegetable
fubjeft ; but to produce it thus requires fome care in the
operation. See Alcohol.

On thefe principles is founded the opinion, that all fpirits
may be reduced to a perfeft fimilarity, or famenefs, from
whatever fubjeft they were procured, and on this depends
their convertibility into one another ; for when once they
are brought to this ftandard of fimplicity, there needs no-
thing more than to add the oil of fuch of the finer fpirits
as is required to convert the fpirit into that particular
kind. By this means the fame tatlelefs fpirit, whether ob-
tained from malt, fugar, or grapes, may be made either into
malt-fpirit, brandy, or nun, by adding the cfiential oil of
the grape, fugar, or malt ; and thus, what was once malt-
fpirit, fhall become brandy, or whatever elfe the operator
pleafes.

Many methods have been attempted to obtain the firft
point, that is, the reducing of the fpirit to perfcft and pure
alcohol. The moll pradiicable means feem to be long
digeltion, and the repeated dilhllation from water into water,
wliere the ellential oil will at once be left upon two furfaces,
and the acid imbibed. The fliorter ways are thofe by
rcflifying from neutral abforbent falls and earths ; fuch as
fugar, chalk, and the like. And lalfly, the ulc of fixed
alkalies may be trit-d, for thefe very forcibly keep down
both the phlegm and oil ; infomuch that this lail method
promifcs to be the fliortelt of all, if the art were known of
utterly abolifliing the alkaline flavour, which the alcohol
is apt to acquire in this operation, and which, for this pur-
pofe, is by no means fuitable, as abfolutely dcflroyiiig all
vinofity, which univerfally cunfills in a fine volatile |)ungent
acidity. The diilillers are the only people whole bufinefs
would lead them to make the experiment. This method
of converting one fpirit into another, would be of immcnfc
4 C profit

SPIRITS.

profit to them if they could perfeaiy fucceed in it ; but as
it woul require time and flow procefTes to bring it about,
there is but little hope of its ever being brought to bear
amonjr them, while they are in their prefent fcheme of doing
every thing with difpatch and hurry.

Dr. Shaw has faid a vaft deal in the praife of a taftelefs
fpirit, which is producible from a vegetable fubftafice, only
overlooked, as he tells us, becaufe it is too common, with
which all the foreign fpirits might be imitated to the ut-
molt perfeftion by means of their effential oils, all thin fine
wines raifed to any due degree of ftrength, without giving
them the brandy flavour, and many other things of great
ufe performed ; but he has not told us what the vegetable
fubllance is from which we are to obtain this. Shaw's
Effay on Diftillery.

Spiuit, Ardent, called z\io fplr'it of ivine, becaufe it can
only be obtained from fubftances which have undergone the
vinous fermentation, is a very light, very volatile, very fluid
liquor, perfeftly white and limpid, and of a ftrong, pene-
trating, agreeable tafte and fmell. See Alcohol.

Spiritsdrawn from wine, fuch as French brandy, may,
in a great meafure, be purified or reftified by fimple dillil-
lation, in tall veflels with a gentle heat, the pure fpirituous
parts rifing before the phlegm : if French brandy be thus
diftilled to one-half, thediitilled fpirit proves tolerably pure.
See Brandy.

But wine or brandy being in this country too dear an
article for diitillation, this purification is chiefly praftifed
on the cheaper fpirits of mololfes and malt-liquors. To
feparate the offenfive oil with which thefe abound, after
they have been freed by dillillation from the grcateft part
of their phlegm, they are mixed with an equal quantity of
fpring-water, and the fpirit drawn off again bv a gentle
heat : a confiderable portion of the oil is thus left behind in
the water, which now proves turbid and milky, and very
naufeous both in fmell and taile. The firtt produce is the
ftrongelt and pureft, and when it has come over to the
amount of ith of the whole contents of the Hill, forms the
reftified fpirit. By repeating this ablution with frefh quan-
tities of water, the fouled and moft offenfive fpirits may be
purified from all ill flavour. To complete the purification,
or free them from their remaining phlegm or oil, or the
watery vapour which is raifed even by the gentleft heat in
which they can be diltilled, a little fixed alkaline fait,
thoroughly dried and powdered, or lime, or fome other
article of a like kind, is added ; which, imbibing the phlegm,
is thereby diflolved into a ponderous liquid, that does not
mingle with the fpirit, but fettles at the bottom. If the
fpirit is very phlegmatic, four pints will require a pound
of the alkah ; if the diftillation has been performed with
due care, half this quantity, or lefs, will be fufficient : in
either cafe, if all the fait diflolves, the fpirit is to be di-
gefted with a little more, till at leaft a part remains undif-
folved. The fpirit now poured off is to be again diftilled,
in order to feparate from it a portion of the fait which has
united with it, and which, though extremely minute, may
in fome refpefts change its qualities. As fome particles of
the alkali are apt to be carried up with it, even in the
diftillation, fo as to communicate an ill flavour, or an
urinous tafte, it is advifeable previoufly to add a fmall por-
tion of calcined vitriol, or burnt alum and charcoal, which
will completely abforb the alkali, without giving any new
impregnation to the fpirit. Malt-fpirits, when properly rec-
tified, yield as pure and as ftrong redlified fpirit as brandy.
Lewis's Mat. Med. See Distillation, and Spirits, in
the Materia Mcdka, infra.

When only a fmall quantity of fpirit of wine is to he
reftified, the ufual operation for this purpofe, by means
of diftillations of the fpirit called aqua vitac, obtained from
the firft diftillations of liquors that have undergone the
fpirituous fermentation, and which are overcharged with a
large quantity of phlegm and light oil, is difficult. Thefe
diftillations being flowly conducted with a gentle fire and
water-bath, yield but a fmall quantity of that liquor,
which, being the moft volatile, rifes firft with the leaft heat,
and which is the true or reflified fpirit of wine. Several
chemilts, therefore, in order to obtain a larger quantity
of the firft fpirit, propofe to mix with the fpirit of wine
fome intermediate fubftances, to abforb and retain its phlegm
and oil, fuch as dried and calcined falls, very dry chalk, &c.
Kunckel propofes to feparate more effeftually the oil, by
adding to the fpirit a large quantity of water, and by
diftilling this diluted fpirit with a very gentle heat. But
the trouble and inconvenience of depriving the fpirit of
wine of the water with which it was diluted in this procefs,
may be avoided, by rectifying at once a large quantity of
aqua vitx. Nothing more is required to obtain at once
a confiderable quantity of pure fpirit of wine, than to fet
afide the twelve or fifteen pints firft drawn over from a
large quantity, e. g. from three hundred pints of aqua vitae,
diftilled with a very gentle fire in a large alembic. As the
moft fpirituous, leait aqueous, and leaft oily part of it
always rifes firft, thefe twelve or fifteen pints are perfeftly
reftified fpirit of wine, efpecially when the heat has been
well conducted.

By thus keeping apart portions of the fpirit obtained, at
different times, we may have fpirit of wine of the feveral
degrees of ilrength and purity. The weaker fpirit may, by
another diftillation, be a.^ain reftified ; and the fpirit of mo-
derate ftrength may be preferved for many ufes. The me-
thod is followed by M. Beaume in the reftification of fpirit
of wine, and is certainly the moft convenient and the beft.

A perfeftly reftified fpirit of wine, or fuch as is entirely
freed from water, is undoubtedly a thing of frequent and
neceflary ufe in the nice operations of chemiftry.

It had ufed to be prepared, cither by often diftilling the
fpirit, and every time drawing over only half of it, and re-
peating this till the half remaining in the cucurbit appeared
as ftrong as that drawn over ; or elfe by raifing it to a
great height from the body of the veffel, and this in a very
gentle heat, fo that fpirit alone could rile, the water not .
being capable of being driven fo far by that degree of I
heat. '

But the accurate Boerhaave always found upon trial, that
there was ftill remaining fome water in thefe fpirits, whether
prepared by the firft or fecond proceis, or both. Boer-
haave's Chem. part ii. p. 124.

The method he therefore invented is this : fill a ftill half
full of the fpirit prepared for alcohol in one or other of
thefe ways, and add to it half a pound of pure decrepitated,
and perfeftly dried fea-falt ; put this in hot, then place oa
the head, and carefully lute the junftures ; leave this for
twelve hours in a heat fo fmall, as not to make the alcohol
boil, then dillil off the fpirit ; keep the firft two ounces
apart, becaufe fome aqueous vapour may have happened to
lodge in the head or worm of the ftill,' which this certainly
wafhesoff; after this receive two-thirds of the following
alcohol into a pure dry glafs veflel, and keep it perfeftly
flopped ; then draw off the remainder, and keep that by
itfelf : there will remain a moift fait in the ftill, which has
attrafted the aqueous matter of the alcohol, and held it fo
down, that it could not rife by the heat of boiling water,

which

SPIRITS.

•vhich is all that mufl be ufed in this dillillation ; and the
fait having been firft decrepitated, never makes any change
in the alcohol by adding any thing to it. By this means
an alcohol is prepared perfeftly pure, and fit for all the ufes
of chemiftry.

For the tells and properties of pure alcohol, fee Al-
cohol.

M. Reaumur difcovered, that a mixture of fpirit of wine
and water acquired a fpecific gravity greater than that which
would arithmetically refult from the proportions employed
of each of thcfe liquors. Thus, fifty meafares of fpirit of
wine, and fifty meafures of water, mixed together, were
found to make only ninety-eight meafures ; but in what pro-
greflion the deiifity is increafed by mixing various propor-
tions of the two liquors, had not been determined till M.
Briflbn made a fet of experiments with that vie>v ; an ac-
count of which is given in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences of Paris, for tlie year 1769.

From his experiments he has conllrufted the following
table, which (hews tliis progreffion, and alfo enables us to
difcover the proportion of fpirit of wine and water, in any
given mixture of thele (as brandies, rums, &c. ), the fpecific
gravity of which is found to correfpond with any of the
fpecific gravities in the table. Thus, for inftance, if we find
upon accurate trial, that the fpecific gravity of the rum,
brandy, or other mixture, whofe ftrength is required to be
known, be to that of water as 9427; to looo, we learn, by
infpeftion of the table, that this fpirituous mixture confifts
of equal parts of water and fpirit of wine, of which fpirit
the Itrength is fuch, that its denfity is to that of the water
as 837 to 1000. The firft column (hews the proportion of
well redificd fpirit of wine in the mixture ; the fecond co-
lumn fhevvs the proportion of the water in the mixture ; the
third column fhews the fpecific gravity of the mixture ; the
fourth column (hews the difference between the fpecific gra-
vity of the mixture and that of the preceding mixture ; and
the fifth column (hews the proportion which the feveral aug-
mentations of denfity, caufed by penetration of the two
liquors, have to each other, that is their progreflion.

Spirit

Specific
Gravity.

Proportionable Aug-

of

Water.

Difft fences.

mentations of Denfity

Wine.

from Penetration.

Parts.

Parts.

16

0

837

0

0

'5

I

852^

15^

4t^

14

2

8671

I4r

St^V

«3

3

881;

•4

llVz'r

12

4

8944

13^

13:^4

1 1

5

907 .T

12S-

1J44-J

10

6

9«9?

12;

I7TVr

9

7

93 '^

12

J9T-;-r

8

8

942 r

lOi-

'91^,*

7

9

95''

9c

1844^^

6

10

9S9'

«

<7.SV

5

1 1

967^

7.V

^S-rir

4

12

973t

SfT

HtW

3

'3

979

5^

744*

2

'4

98J

6

4-.Vr

I ■

>5

99 'i

Cl

'-nt^V

0

16

1000

Si

0

Spirit of wine is ufed in dyeing, as a non-colouring drug,
»nd though it gives no colour itielf, it ferves to prepare the
fluffs to receive other colours. Its confumptiou is alfo very

confiderable in feveral other works and manufaiaures, parti-
cularly the making of varni(h.

Proof-fpirit cannot be ufed for burning in lamps, for dif-
folving refins, and for making varniiTi ; and there is alfo a
great number of tinftures, folutions, and mixtures, for which
it cannot ferve ; but retftified fpirit, or alcohol, beCdes its
ready ufe for medicinal purpofes, may, when the fpirit is of a
proper kind, be made into punch, and all other mixtures,
with greater purity, and much greater certamty and exad-
nefs in point of ftrength. See next article and Ar.coiioL.

Spirits, in the Materia Medica, " retftified fpirit" of
the London Pharmacopeia ; " alcohol," " fpiritus vinofus
reftificatus five puriflimus," Ediiib. ; " fpiritus vinofus
reftificatus," Dub.; is alcohol nearly in the higheft ftate of
concentration in which it can be eafily prepared m the large
way for the purpofes of trade. The I^ondon and Edin-
burgh colleges ftate its fpecific gravity to be to that of water
as 835 to loco, while the Dublin college ftates it at 840.
The Edinburgh college names this fpirit alcohol ; but direc-
tions being given both by the London and Dubhn colleges,
for the preparation of a ftill ftronger fpirit, the name of
alcohol, in their pharmacopeias, is judicioufly retained for the
ftronger fpirit, while that of reftified fpirit is applied to the
prefeut preparation.

The alcohol of the Lond. Ph. is prepared by taking of
reftified fpirit a gallon, and of fubcarbonate of potafs,
three pounds : add a pound of the fubcarbonate, previoufly
heated to 300 degrees, to the fpirit, and macerate for 24
hours, frequently ftiaking the mixture ; then pour off the
fpirit, and add the remainder of the fubcarbonate, heated to
the fame degree ; and laftly, diftil the alcohol from a water-
bath, and preferve it in a well-clofed veflel. Tlie fpecific
gravity of this alcohol is to that of diftilled water as .3 15 to
1,000.

The alcohol of the Dub. Ph. is prepared by taking of
reftified fpirit of wine, a gallon ; pearl-afties, dried at a heat
of 300°, and ftill hot, a pound ; cauftic kali, in powder, an
ounce ; muriate of lime, dried, half a pound. Mix the
fpirit and the kali ; add the pearl-alhes, previoufly reduced
to powder, and digeft the mixture for three days in a clofed
veflel, frequently (haking it ; then pour off" the fpirit ; mix
with it the muriate of lime ; and laftlv, dillil with a moderate
heat, until the refidue begins to thicken. The fpecific gra-
vity of this fpirit is to that of diftilled water as 315 to looo.

Reftified fpirit of the fpecific gravity of 835, contains
about 15 per cent, of water ; and to free it from this is the
intention of the above proceffes. The Edinburgh college
has no procefs for the preparation of pure alcohol, which
may be eafily difpenfed with ; but it has very improperly
given this title to the reftified fpirit of the other pharma-
copeias. The theory of the operation is fufficiently obvious.
The affinity of the alkali and the muriate of lime for water
is much greater than that of the fpirit : it is, therefore, at-
trafted by thefe fubftances, and prevented from rifiug with
the fpirit during the dillillation, by which mean* the alcohol
comes over in a very highly concentrated Hate. Of the two
procefl'es, that of the Dublin college is to be preferred;
muriate of lime being a much more powerful agent for fcpa-
rating the water, which is the objeft in both, than fubcar-
bonate of potafs.

Dr. Black thus obtained alcohol of the fp. gr. of 800°,
and Richtcr procured it fo low as 0.792, in the temperature
of 68° Fahr. at which degree of concentration it may be
regarded almoft as pure aleolK)l, or alcohol perfeftly free
from water. That of the pharmacopeias is not free from
water, though more than fuflicientiy concentrated for all the
purpofes of pharmacy.

4 C a The

SPIRITS.

The foUowiag Table, drawn up by Lowitz, with an
additional column by Dr. Thomfoii, (hews the fpecific gra-
vity of different mixtures of pure alcohol, of a ipecific
gravity .791, and diltilled water, at the temperatures of
60" and 68^ of Fahrenheit.

100 Parts by
Weight.

Sp. G

ravity.

1 00 Parts by
VVeisht.

Sp. Gravity.

Alcoliol.

Waicr.

Al 69°.

At 60°.

Alcohol.

Water.

.\t 68°.

At 60°.

100

_^

791

796

49

51

917

920

99

I

794

798

48

52

919

922

98

2

797

801

47

53

921

924

97

3

800

804

46

54

923

926

96

4

803

807

45

55

925

928

95

5

805

809

44

56

927

$930

94

6

808

812

43

51

930

933

93

7

811

*8i5

42

58

932

11935

92

8

813

817

41

59

934

937

91

9

816

820

40

60

936

939

90

10

8i8

822

39

61

938

941

89

11

821

82s

38

^/

940

943

88

12

823

827

37

63

942

945

87

13

826

830

36

64

944

947

86

14

8z8

832

35

65

946

949

S5

15

83'

1835

34

66

948

951

84

16

834

838

33

67

950

953

83

17

836

t84°

32

68

952

955

82

18

839

843

31

69

954

957

81

19

842

846

3°

70

956

958

80

so

844

848

29

71

957

960

79

21

847

851

28

72

959

962

78

22

849

853

27

73

961

963

77

23

851

^S5

26

74

963

965

76

24

853

857

25

75

965

967

75

25

8j6

860

24

76

966

968

74

26

859

863

23

77

968

970

73

27

861

865

22

78

970

972

72

28

863

867

21

79

971

973

71

29

866

870

20

80

973

974

70

30

868

871

19

81

974

975

69

31

870

874

18

82

976

68

32

872

875

17

83

977

67

33

875

879

16

84

978

66

34

877

880

15

85

980

65

35

880

883

14

86

981

64

36

882

886

13

87

983

6i

37

88s

889

12

88

985

62

38

887

891

11

89

986

61

39

8S9

893

10

90

987

60

40

892

896

9

91

988

^l

41

894

898

8

92

989

58

42

896

900

7

93

991

57

43

899

903

6

94

992

56

44

901

904

5

95

994

55

45

903

906

4

96

995

54

46

905

908

3

97

997

53

47

907

910

2

98

998

52

48

909

912

I

99

999

51

49

912

915

—

100

1000

50

50

914

917

* Alcohol of the London and the Dublin Pharmaco-
peias, t Ditto (Edinburgh); redified fpirit (London).
J Reaified fpirit (Dublin). J Proof fpirit (Lond. Dub.)
II Ditto (Edinburgh). '

In tlie extraft from Mr. Gilpin's table (fee Specific Gra-
vity), the itandard fpirit was of the fpecific gravity of
0.825, or contained 89 pure alcohol, and 11 water, in 100
parts.

Pure refkified fpirit has a fragrant odour, and a hot highly
pungent talte. It is colourlefs ; always fluid ; cannot be
congealed at any known degree of cold ; evaporates fpeedily
at the ordinary temperature of the atmofphere ; boils at
163° Fahrenheit ; and is extremely inflammable, burning
with a blue lambent flame, without any fenfible fmokc.
Like alcohol, it combines with water in every proportion ;
and, on account of its affinity for water, precipitates many
of the neutral falls from their aqueous folutions. It ij ca-
pable of diflblving many faline bodies, and is the proper fol-
vent of the greater number of the proximate principles of
vegetables. Its conftituents are 85 of pure alcohol and 15
of water, in 100 parts, when its fpecific gravity is 835, at
a temperature of 60° of Fahrenheit ; but 83 only of pure
alcohol, and 17 of water, when it is 840, as defignated by
the Dublin college.

Redlified fpirit is a very powerful ftimulant. In its undi-
luted itate it is never exhibited as a remedy ; and is merely
employed for forming the diluted fpirit, and as a pharma-
ceutical agent.

The " fpiritus tenuior," or " weaker fpirit," of the Lond.
Ph.; the " diluted alcohol," the " fpiritus vinofus tenuior
five dilutus" of Edinb. Ph.; and " fpiritus vinofus tenuior"
of Dub. Ph., or " proof fpirit," is merely reftified fpirit di-
luted with a certain proportion of water. According to
the London and Dublin colleges, its fpecific gravity (hould
be to that of diltilled water, as 930 to 1000 ; while the
Edinburgh college orders it of tlie gravity of 935. The
former may be formed by mixing four parts by meafure of
redlified fpirit with three of water, and contains 44 parts of
pure alcohol, and 55 of water, in 100 parts ; the latter
is obtained from equal parts of reftified fpirit and water,
and contains 42 of pure alcohol, and 58 of water, in 100
parts. Alcohol, diluted to the degree of proof-fpirit, is
llill a very powerful diffufible itimulant, and too ilrong
for internal ufe. Externally applied, it is recommended
in burns ; to reftrain bleeding in paflive hxmorrhagies ;
and as a friftion or fomentation to relieve mufcular pains ;
and in a more diluted ilate it forms a good coUyrium in
the latter ftage of ophthalmia. Proof-fpirit diluted with
water is employed as a remedy in the form of tinclures and
fpirits ; and the ardent fpirits in common ufe may be re-
garded as nearly of the fame nature. Thefe taken in mode-
ration, increafe the general excitement, communicate addi-
tional energy to the mufcular fibres, fl:rengthen the ilomach,
and exhilarate the mind. Hence they are often and ad-
vantageoufly ufed in cafes of debility and low typhoid
fevers, in which the ufe of wine is indicated ; and in habits
difpofed to create acidity, they are even preferable to
wine ; fome of them, particularly brandy, proving gratefully
ilomachic, when wine is naufeated and rejefted. As an ar-
ticle, however, of daily or dietetical ufe, particularly if
taken in immoderate dofes, or long continued, ardent fpirits,
befides being the fource of much moral evil, and debafing
the human charafter nearly to a level with that of brutes,
are apt to occafion difeafe, and are commonly the origin of
dyfpepfia, hypochondriafis, and hepatic and vifceral ob-
ftruftions. The hurtful effefts of ardent fpirits, however,
are obviated in a confiderable degree by diluting them with
water, and adding lemun-juice and fugar to the mixture, fo
as to form what is generally known by the name of punch.
Although all the varieties of ardent fpirits may be regarded
as diluted alcohol, yet each has a peculiar operation : thus,

brandy

SPIRITS.

brandy is fimply cordial and ftomachic ; rum, heating and
fudorific ; gin and whiflcy, diiirttic ; and arrack, ftyptic,
heating and narcotic, and ill adapted to European coniti-
tutions.

Vinous fpirits, therefore, in fmall quantity, and properly
diluted, may be applied to ufeful purpofes in the relieving
of fome diforders ; whilft in larger ones, or imprudently
continued, they aft as a poifon of a particular kind. The
moderate ufe of them is moft ferviceable to thole who are
expofed to heat and moifture, to corrupted air, or to other
caufes of colliquative and putrid difeafes ; and they are the
moft pernicious in oppofite circumftances, and to thofe who
are afflifted with hylterical and hypochondriacal complaints :
for whatever temporary relief thefe fpirituous cordials may
afford in the lowncflea to which hyfterical and hypochon-
driacal perfons are fubjeft, there are none, as Dr. Pem-
berton obferves, who feel fo foon the ill effefts arifing from
the habitual ufe of them. Lewis's Mat. Med.

The power of brandy, or any thing of this kind, in kill-
ing worms, is evident from this, that the children of the
people in the northern iflands of Scotland, who are accuf-
tomcd from their infancy to drink that coarfe fort of brandy
which they call aqua vitx, never are troubled with worms.
It is a dangerous praftice to ufe brandy in this general man-
ner, but on fome occafions it may be very ferviceable.
Philof. Tranf. N° 233.

SpiriT-S, Laivs relating to Foreign and BriliJIi. By a
variety of ftatutes, which it would be too tedious here to
enumerate, duties both permanent and temporary, of the
cuiloms and the excife, have been impofed on brand)', rum,
arquebufade, geneva, arrack, and fpirits, the amount of
which "is very confiderable in proportion to the original
price. By 43 Geo. III. c. 69. (fched. A), and 43 Geo. III.
c. 81. feveral duties are impofed upon fpirits imported ;
but by 49 Geo. III. c. 98. feveral duties of cuftoms are
impofed : the fr.id duties are payable by the importer, be-
fore landing. If any perfon (hall land any French brandy,
before the duty be paid or fecured, or without licence from
the proper officer, and conceal the fame when landed, he
and his aider fhall not only forfeit the fame, but alfo double
value ; and if any officer of the cuftoms or excife fhall con-
nive at it, he fliall forfeit 500/., and be incapable of holding
any office in the revenue, (i Ann. Itat. 2. c. 14.) The
officers of excife may go on board any fliip and fearch, as
officers of the cuftoms may do, for any excifeable liquors,
and feize fuch as (hall be forfeited, and fuch as fhall be un-
fhipped before entry and payment of the duties, together
with the cafks and other package. (11 Geo. I. c. 30.)
Any officer of the excife may fearch for concealed foreign
fpirits, and feize, &c. ; and the penalty of obftruflion is a
forfeiture of too/. By a general claufe in 8 Geo. I. c. i8.
all brandy, arrack, rum, fpirits, and ftrong waters, and all
foreign excifeable liquors, forfeited, together with the caflcj
and package, may be feized by any officer of tlie cuftoms or
excife, or perfons deputed from the lord treafurcr, or under-
treafurer, or by fpecial commiffion under the great or privy
feal, and no other perfon ; and the penalty of obftruftion is
40/. If any foreign brandy, arrack, rum, or flrong waters,
or fpirits of any kind, fhall be imported in any veft'el of
100 tons burden, or under, (except for the ufe of feamen,
not exceeding two gallons each,) fuch vcfftl, with its tackle,
and alfo the fpirits, ftiall be forfeited (5 Geo. HI. c. 43.) :
except rum or other fpirits of the growth and manufadture
cf the Britidi fugar plantations, which may be imported in
any veffel of not Icfs burden than 70 tons. (6 Geo. III.
c. 46.) If any veffel of 50 tons, or under, partly or fully
laden with brandy, be at anchor or within two leagues of the

fhore, and not proceeding on her voyage, if wind and
weather permit, fuch veffel may be compelled by the com-
mander of jny man of war, or armed floop appointed to
guard the coait, or the commander of any veilel in the fer-
vice of the cuftoms, to come into port ; and the cafe is the
fame with fhips hovering near thecoafts. (6 Geo. I. c. 21.)
If any veffel come from foreign parts, and have on board any
foreign brandy or fpirits, in cafks under fix gallons, (except
for the ufe of feamen, not exceeding two gallons each,' fhaU
be found at anchor, &c. as in the former cafe, all fuch
fpirits, with the caflcs and package, or value, fhall be for-
feited, and the fame may be feized, or value fued for by the
officers ; and if the veffel do not exceed 50 tons \\\ burden,
the faid veftel, with her tackle and furniture, fhall be for-
feited: and if any perfon, having charge of the veffel, fhall
fuffer any brandy to be put into lighters or boats, in order
to be landed, he fhall, befides other penalties, fuffer fix
mouths' imprifonmcnt. No brandy fliall be imported in
any veflel not containing 60 gallons at the leaft, on pain of
forfeiting the lame, or value. (4 W. c. 5.) And no
geneva or rum (hall be imported in any veilel or caflc, not
containing 60 gallons at leaft, (except for the ufe of fea-
men, not exceeding two gallons each,) on pain of for-
feiture. (5 Geo. III. c. 43.) If any officer fhall find
any increafe of rum or fpirits, (except fuch as have been im-
ported and lodged in a warehoufe, according to law,) above
the quantity found on the laft furvey, or any decreafe, (be-
yond the quantity legally delivered or allowed for leakage,)
the proprietor or importer fhall forfeit joo/. ; and opening
the warehoufe, except in the prefence of the warehoufe-
keeper or excife officer, incurs a forfeiture of 500/. If any
rum or fpirits remain in the warehoufe above twelve calendar
months (6 Geo. III. c. 47.), without paying the duty,
the commilTioners of excife may fell them by auftion, and
pay the duty and charges, transferring the overplus to the
proprietor or importer. A permit fhall be obtained for
removal of the quantity fold ; nor (hall any liquor, exceed-
ing one gallon, be carried away without fuch permit, on
pain of forfeiting the fame, with the caflis and veffels. If
the liquor be not removed, and the permit not returned, the
perfon that took it out fhall forfeit treble value. No perfon
fhall receive a permit, without direftion in writing of the
perfon (or his fervant) from whofe ftock the goods arc to
be removed, on pain of 50/. ; and in default of payment,
throe months' imprifonmcnt. No foreign fpirits, although
under one gallon, (hall be received into the cuftody of any
retailer, without a permit, fignifying that the duties were
paid, or that they had been condemned, on pain of forfeit-
ing the fame. (8 Geo. I. c. 18.) No feller or dealer (hall
be allowed to take out more than one permit in one day ;
provided that feveral permits may be taken out, and calks
containing foreign fpirituous liquors fent to the fame perfons
the fame day, fo that each calk may be fent under dift'erent
permits, and by different conveyances ; and provided dealers
(hall not be prevented from fending with one permit by one
and the fame conveyance any number of calks, containing
60 gallons each, or upward";, of tiie fame kind. Foreign
fpirits, not being cadis of 60 gallons, or upwards, fhall not
be removed, unlefs at the following times ; that is, fronj
September 29tli to March 25tii, yearly, between the hour*
ot (even in the morning and five in the evening ; and from
March 25th to September 29th, between the hours of five
and feven, (except the fame is carrying by a known com-
mon llagc-coach, waggon, or other ftage carriage, ufually
travelling out of thefc hour?,) on pain of forfeiture, with or
without a permit. (23 Geo. III. c. 70.) No foreign
fpirits more than 60 gallons Ihall be brought to London by

SPIRITS.

one permit, or one conveyance, at the fame time, from any
part of England by land or water, (except by Gravefend,
in the ordinary courfe of commerce,) on pain of being feized
and forfeited. (26 Geo. III. c. 73.) If any perfon (hall
counterfeit a permit, or give or receive any falfe permit, or
alter any granted by the proper officer, he fliall forfeit 500/.
23 Geo. III. c. 70.

For the conditions, regulations, and reftrldlions, under
which rum imported from the Weft Indies may be fecured
in warehoufes, without payment of duty, fee 43 Geo. III.
c. 152. 45 Geo. III. c. S7. 46 Geo. III. c. 137. and
48 Geo. III. c. 126; and for thofe under which brandy,
geneva, and other fpirits, may be fecured in warehoufes,
without payment of duty, fee 43 Geo. III. c. 132.
45 Geo. III. c. 87. 46 Geo. III. c. 137. and 48 Geo. III.
c. 126. For other laws and regulations, fee Customs,
Distiller, Excise, Smuggling, and Wine.

Spirit of Ammonia, in the Materia Medica, is prepared,
according to the direftions of tlie Lond. Ph., by mixing
two pints of reftified fpirit with a pint of felution of am-
monia. The " ammoniated alcohol," formerly fpirit of
ammoni<2, of the Ed. Ph., confiils of 32 oz. of alcohol (8351,
12 oz. of lime recently burnt, and 8 oz. of muriate of am-
monia ; and is prepared in the fame manner as water of
ammonia. (See Ammonia.) The fpirit of ammonia of
the Dub. Ph. is prepared by mixing three pints of proof-
fpirit, 4 oz. of muriate of ammonia, and 6 oz. of potafties ;
and diltilling, with a moderate heat, two pints. This
fpirit, properly prepared, has the pungent odour and acrid
tafte of ammonia, with which it coincides in its medicinal
properties. (See Ammoniacal Preparations.) It is
chiefly ufed for pharmaceutical purpofes. The officinal
preparations are " fpiritus ammoniac compofitus," " fpiritus
ammonia foetidus," " tinftura callorei compofita," " tinc-
tura guaiaci compofita," and " tinftura opii compofita."

Spirit of Ammonia, Aromatic, is prepared, according to
the Lond. Ph., by mixing two pints of fpirit of ammonia
with oil of lemon and oil of cloves, of each two fluid-
drachms. The " aromatic ammoniated alcohol," formerly
aromatic fpirit of ammonia, of the Edinb. Ph., is com-
pofed of 8 oz. of ammoniated alcohol, li drachm of volatile
oil of rofemary, and a drachm of volatile oil of lemons,
which are mixed fo as to difTolve the oils. The aromatic
fpirit of ammonia of the Dub. Ph. is formed by digelting
two pints of fpirit of ammonia, two drachms of e'flential
oil of lemons, and half an ounce of bruifed nutmegs, in a
covered veffel for three days, frequently (haking the veflel ;
and then diftilling a pound and a half. This fpirit is an
ufeful Itimulant in languors, and flatulent colic ; and the
oils render it more grateful to the Itomach than the fimple
fpirit of ammonia. The dofe is from f 5 fa to f^j, in any
convenient vehicle. The officinal preparations are " tinc-
tura guaiaci ammoniata," and " tinftura Valeriana: ammo-
niata."

Spirit of Ammonia, FatiJ, is prepared, according to the
Lond. and Dub. Ph., by macerating two pints of fpirit of
ammonia, and 2 oz. of afl'afoetida (li oz. Dub.), for
12 hours (for three days, in a covered veflel, with frequent
agitation, Dub.) ; and then by a gentle fire diltilling a pint
and a half into a cold receiver. The " foetid ammoniated
^cohol," formeAy fxtid fpirit ef ammonia, of the Edinb.
Ph., IS prepared by digefting 8 oz. of ammoniated alcohol,
and i oz. of afl'afoetida, in a clofe veff'el for i z hours, and
then diftiUing 8 oz. by ihe heat of boiling water. The
medicinal properties of this fpirit, and the dofe, are the
fame with thofe of the preceding. It acquires colour from
age.

Spirit of Ammonia, Succinated, of the Lond. Ph., h
prepared by macerating three drachms of maftich in nine
fluid-drachms of alcohol, fo that it may be diflolved, and
pouring off the clear tindture ; then adding fourteen minims
of oil of lavender, four minims of oil of amber, and ten
fluid-ounces of folution of ammonia, and mixing them by
agitation. This fpirit is employed a^ a ffimulant and anti-
fpafmodic, in the fame cafes as the oil of amber, and has
been ufed with fuccefs in India againft the bite of the rattle-
fnake. The dofe is from ^}\^ to f 7 fs, in any convenient
vehicle. See Amber.

Spirit of Anife-feed of the Lond. Ph. is formed by ma-
cerating for 24 hours half a pound of anife-feeds bruifed, a
gallon of proof-fpirit, and a fufficient quantity of water to
prevent empyreuma, and diftilling by a gentle fire. The
compound fpirit of anife-fccd oi the Dub. Ph. is obtained by
diftilling one gallon from anife-feeds and angelica feeds
bruifed, of each half a pound, a gallon of proof-fpirit, and
water fufficient to prevent empyreuma. In flatulent colic,
and fimilar affeftions, thefe are pleafant carminatives. The
dofe is from f^fs to f jiv, in water.

Spirit of Horfe-radifli, Compound, " fpiritus armoraciae
compofitus," of the Lond. Ph., is prepared by macerating
frefti horfe-radifli fliced and orange-peel dried, of each a
pound, half an ounce of nutmegs bruifed, a gallon of proof-
fpirit, and water fufficient to prevent empyreuma, for
24 hours, and diftilling a gallon by a gentle fire. (See
Cochlearia.) The " compofitus fpiritus raphani," of
the Dub. Ph., is formed by diftilling two gallons from horfe-
radifh dried and peel of Seville oranges, of each two pounds,
four pounds of frefli garden fcurvy-grafs, one ounce of nut-
megs bruifed, two gallons of proof-fpirit, and water fufE-
cient to prevent empyreuma. Thefe fpirits, which were
formerly ufed as antifcorbutics, are now held in little eftima-
tion in that intention. They are chiefly ufed in dropfies,
attended with much debility. The dofe is from f^j to fjiv,
combined with infufion of fox-glove or juniper-berries.

Spirit of Camphor of the Lond. Ph. is prepared by
mixing four ounces of camphor with two pints of reftified
fpirit, that the camphor may be diffolved. The " tinfture
of camphor," commonly called the " camphorated vinous
fpirit," is obtained by mixing one ounce of camphor with
one pound of alcohol (fp. gr. 835^, fo that the camphor may
be diffolved. It may be alfo made with double or triple the
quantity of camphor. This fpirit is too llrong to be given
internally ; and if water be mixed with it, the camphor is
feparated. It is an ufeful ftimulant and difcutient applica-
tion to chilblains, and in chronic rheumatifm, paralytic
nurabnefs, and gangrene. See Camphor.

Spirit of Carratvay of the Lond. and Dub. Ph. is ob-
tained by macerating a pound and a half (half a pound.
Dub.) of carraway feeds bruifed in a gallon of proof-fpirit,
and water fufficient to prevent empyreuma, for 24 hours,
and diftilling a gallon by a gentle fire. The fpirit of car-
raway of the Edinb. Ph. is prepared by macerating half a
pound of carraway feeds bruifed in nine pounds of proof-
fpirit, for two days in a clofe veflel, adding water enough.
to prevent empyreuma, and diililling nine pounds. This
fpint is an ufeful carminative, and an adjunft to griping
purgatives. See Carum.

Spirit of Cinnamon of the Lord, and Dub. Ph. is pre-
pared by macerating one pound of cinnamon bark bruifed in
a gallon of proof-fpirit, and water fufficient to prevent em-
pyreuma, for 24 hours, and diftilling a gallon by a gentle
fire. The fpirit of cinnamon, " fpiritus corticis laun cin-
namomi," of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared with a pound of
cinnamon bark, in the fame manner as the fpirit of carraway.

Thia

SPIRITS.

'This fpirit is an agreeable cordial in difeafes attended with
nach languor and debility. The dofe ia from fsj to f3iv,
in anv fuitable vehicle. The officinal preparation is " in-
fefiim digitahs." See Cinnamon.
Spirit, Coal. See Coal.

Spirit of Sulphuric Ether of the Lend. Ph. is obtained
by mixing naif a pint of fuiphuric ether (fee Ether) with
a pint of reftified fpirit. The " fuiphuric ether with al-
cohol," of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by mixing one part
of fuiphuric ether with two parts of alcohol. The fpccific
gravity of this mixture is .Ri6. It may be ufed for the
fame purpofes as the ether, but it is much lefs aftive. The
dofe is from f^j to f^iij. An ufcful gargle for (light in-
flammation of the fauces is prepared by adding f ^j of this
fpirit to f Jvi of boiling water, fweetened with f j iv of fyrup
of marlh-mallows. The fuiphuric ether, of which this is
an officinal preparation, is Itimulant, narcotic, and anti-
fpafmodic. In its operation it refenibles alcohol, but is
more dilTufible, and its effefts are lefs permanent. It is
beneficially employed as a cordial in typhoid and low fevers,
particularly when naufea, fubfultus tcndinum, and other
fpafmodic fymptoms are prefent. As an antifpafmodic, it
relieves the paroxyfm of fpafmodic althma, whether it be
taken into the ftomach, or its vapour only be inhaled into
the lungs ; in which latter form it is alfo ufeful in fimple
dyfpncea and in catarrh. It is employed with advantage in
hyfteria, tetanus, cramp of the ftomach, hiccough, and in
cholera morbus to check, the vomiting ; and alfo allays the
violence of fea-ficknefs. The ufual dofe of fuiphuric ether
is from fjfs to fjij ; but it has been given in much larger
dofes with the moil beneficial effefts ; and in all cafes, the
dofe mult be repeated at ffiort intervals, to produce the full
effedl of the remedy. As an external application, ether afts
either as a llimulant or a refrigerant, according to the mode
in which it is applied. The firft takes place when it is pre-
vented from evaporating, by being confined over the fpot
to which it is applied ; in which cafe it often proves ufeful
in relieving head-ache, and other mufcular pains : and from
its refrigerant effctt produced by its rapid evaporation, it is
applied to burns, and to affill in the reduftion of ilrangu-
lated hernia. It has produced, fays Thomfon (Lond.
Difp.), almoft immediate relief in ear-ache, when dropped
into the external meatus.

Spirit of Ether, Aromatic, of the Lond. Ph., is obtained
by macerating tlirec drachms of cinnamon bark bruiled, a
draclim and a half of cardamom feeds powdered, long pep-
per powdered and ginger-root diced, of each a drachm, in
a pint of fpirit of fuiphuric ether, for 14 days, in a (lopped
glafs-bottle, and draining. The " aromatic fuiphuric ether
with alcohol," of the Edinb. Ph., is made with the fame
aromatics, and in the fame manner as the com])ound tinfture
of cinnamon, except that fuiphuric ether with alcohol is
employed inllcad of proof-fpirit. The medicinal properties
of thefc preparations are the fame with thofe of the former ;
the aromatics rendering them in a (light degree more
grateful.

Spirit, Ethereal, of Frobenlus, Spirllus Etheriuj Frobeiili,
a name given by Frobenius, and otiiers, to a liquor famous
for its extreme volatility, and many other qualities ; for
which fee Sulphuric Ether.

The life of this liquor in medicine is now well known : as
a very thin and volatile inflammable matter, it aols power-
fully on tlie nervous fyltem. Frederic Iloilman was one of
the firll who i-mployed it as a fedative and antifpafmodic.
See LuiLOR Jlliruralls ylnutlynus, and Spirit of Ether,
infra.

it is now often prefcribed fingly, in the dofe of (even or
2

eight drops upon a bit of fugar, which is to be eat, or to
be diifolved in fome proper liquor, and drank. It is given
in flatulent cohcs, obllinate hiccoughs, convulfive hyllerical
affeftions, and other diiorders of this kind. This ether is
faid to take fpots of greafe from filk, without affeAing their
colours.

We have feveral curious obfcrvations on this ether of Fro-
benius by Mr. Grode, who lias defcribed three different
methods of making; it in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences, for the year 1734.

Spirit of Ether, Compound, of the Lond. Ph., is pre-
pared by mixing a pint ot fpirit of fuiphuric ether with two
fluid-drachmsof ethereal oil. (See .y</i^/'«r:V Ether.) This
is intended as a fubilitute for the anodyne liquor of HolT-
man (fee the preceding article) ; for, befides being liimulant
and antifpafmodic, it is fuppofcd to poileis anodyne pro-
perties. It is an ufeful addition to tinfture of opium, when
given for the purpofe of procuring lleep ; and it often pre-
vents the opium from exciting the naufea which it is apt to
produce in fome habits. The dofe is from f3fs to fjij, in
any appropriate vehicle.

Spirit of Juniper, Compound, of the Lond., Dub., and
Edinb. Ph., is prepared by macerating one pound of juniper-
berries bruifed, carraway feeds and fennel feeds bruifcd, of
each an ounce and a half, in a gallon (nine pounds, Edinb.)
of proof-fpirit, for 24 hours (two days, Edinb. and Dub.) ;
and then diitilling a gallon (nine pounds, Edinb.) by a
gentle heat. This fpirit is a grateful and ufeful addition to
infufions of fox-glove, and other diuretics, in dropfy. Sec

JUNIPERUS.

Spirit of Lavender. See Lavandula.
Spirit of Llbanus, Smoking. See LiQUOR.
Spirit of Malt. See MALr-Dlflltlery.
SiPRiT of Mlndercrus. See AcETlTE of Ammonia, Ll-
QLOR, and ViNEO.\R.

Spirit, Moloffes. See Molos-sbs-S/i/V/V.

Spirit of Nitre. See Nitric Add, and Nltrat Po-

T.'VSS.'E.

Spirit of Nitric Ether of tlie Lond. Ph. is obtained by
taking two pints of redified fpirit, and three ounces (by
weight) of nitric acid. Add the acid gradually to the
fpirit, and mix them, taking care that the temperature,
during the mixture, does not exceed 120^; then dillil, by
a gentle heat, 26 fluid-ounces. Spirit of nitrous ether of the
Edinb. Ph. is prepared by pouring three pounds of alcohol
into a large phial placed in a vcllel full of cold water, and
adding one pound of nitrous acid gradually, with frequent
agitation. Slightly cork the phial, and place it in a cool
place for fcven days; then diltil the liquor, by the heat of
boiling water, into a receiver kept coo' with fnow or water,
as long as any fpirit comes over. The iillruus ethereal fpirit
of the Dub. Pli. is prepared in the following manner : Add
to the matter which remains after tiie dillillation of nitrous
ether, the reftified fpirit of wine, employed in that opera-
tion for condenfing the clallic vapour, and dillil to drynefs,
willi the greater heat of a water-batii. Mix the dillilled
liquor with the alkaline liquor which remains after the fepa-
ration of the nitrous ether, and alfo add as much dry fub-
carbonate of kali as Ihall be fuffieient to fiturate the pre-
dominant acid ; which is to be determined by the tell of
litmus. LalUy, dillil by the medium heat of a water-bath,
as long as any fluid comes over. The fpecilic gravity of
this liciiior is to that of dillilled water, as 850 to lOOO.
The fpirit of nitric ether, as procured by the London or
E.linbiirgh procefs, has an extremely fragrant od.>ur, and
a pungent acidulous tallc. It is very volatile and inflam-
mable, folublc in water and alcohol, and llrikt.^ a deep

olive

S P I

olive with folutiun of green fulphate oF iron. See Nitrous
Etheu.

Spirit of nitric ether is refrigerant, diuretic, and anti-
fpafmodic. It has been long known and ui'ed, under the
title of " fweet fpirit of nitre," as a grateful refrigerant,
and for quenching thirft in febrile affedlions ; for which
purpofe thedofe is from lllxx to 1l|,xl, given in a cupful of
water, or any other appropriate vehicle. In larger dofes it
afts as a gentle Itimiilant to the ilomach, relieving naufea
and flatulence; and alfo determines to the kidnies, in-
creafing the flow of urine ; on which account it is advan-
tageoufly prefcribed as an auxiliary to other diuretics in
dropfical complaints. The dulcified fpirit of nitre is added
by drops to potions and juleps, till it has given them an
agreeable acidity.

It is alfo much ufed by our diflillers to give a vinofity to
thofe fpirits, vvhofe natural flavour of that kind they have
deitroyed by the improper ufe of alkaline falts in the recli-
fications. Nothing can be more proper for this purpofe
than this fpirit, as it really gives the brandy-flavour, and
is not at all prejudicial to health, but very well falls in
with the nature of the fpirit, and promotes its medicinal
properties as a diuretic, deobllruent, and lithontriptic.

It has been fuggefted, that the method of making it for
this purpofe is improveable, by ufing in the preparation a
fpirit of wine impregnated with fome fine flavoured ingre-
dient, which has not much oil, for acids do not readily mix
where there is much oil.

In the preparation of this dulcified fpirit of nitre, the
longer it Hands in digeft^ion with the fpirit of wine, the
milder it grows ; and by the fame means alfo, the violently
corrofive oil of vitriol may be fo blunted, as to be rendered
fcarcely perceptible to the tafte. In tine, it has been faid
that a fpiritus nitri dulcis may be made, by a flow digeftion,
greatly fuperior to that commonly ufed, and of fo fixed a
nature, that it will not be fubjeft to liave its flavour fly oft"
from the fpirit with which it is mixed, any fooner than the
native vinolity of brandy will of itfelf fly off from that fpirit,
as it always will in time. A proper care in the preparation
of this acid might free the diftillers from that troublcfome
neceflity they arc under of adding their fpirit of nitre, juil
before they fend their goods away, for fear the flavour
fhould be loll before the fpirit is wholly ufed, and fo the
fophiltication be found out. There is no fixing any certain
proportion in which the acid is to be mixed with the fpirit,
but in general it is bell not to over-do it ; for though it will
give an agreeable vinofity to any tolerable clean fpirit, the
perfon will be much deceived who attempts to drow nhe
bad flavour of a foul one by it. Shaw's Eilay on Dif-
tillery.

Mr. Woulle defcribes an apparatus by which nitrous ether
(in the article under Ether) may be expeditioufly ob-
tained by diltillation, with the heat only occafioned by mix-
in?^ together the nitrous acid and the fpirit of wine. ' This
diltillation is performed in a matrafs with a high neck, to
which is fitted a head with a fpout, communicating with
the receiver by means of a long tube. The vapours that
are not condenfed in this receiver, or in a bottle joined to a
fpout in its bottom, are conveyed from the receiver throuo-h
a bent tube into fpirit of v.'ine contained in a bottle. If any
vapours pals uncondenfed through this fpirit of wine, they
are conveyed through another bent tube into more fpirit
of wine contained in another bottle. The liquor collefted
in the bottle annexed to the receiver, being flowly reftified
with flaked lime, furniflics very fine ether. The fpirit of
wine in which the vapours were condenfed, contains fo much
ether, that this fluid may be feparated from the fpirit by

S P I

adding water. This fpirit of wine is by the operation
changed into good dulcified fpirit of nitre. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ivii. art. 59.

Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. See Ammoniacal Pre-
parations.

Spirit of Salt. See Mvm.\Tic jfci J.

Spirit of Sulphur, or of Fitriol. See Sulphuric /Icid.

Spirit of Turpentine. See Turpentine.

Spirit of Venus. See Acetic Acid.

Spirit of Vinegar. See Acetous y^c/V/, and Vinegar.

Spirit of Fitriol. See Sulphuric AciJ, and Vitriol.

Spirit of IVine. See Alcohol and Wine.

Spirit is alfo ufed for any incorporeal being, or intelli-
gence. In which fenfe God is faid to be a fpirit, angels are
fpirits ; and the devil is an evil fpirit.

In this fenfe the human foul is alfo called a fpirit, from
its thinking and reflefting powers, which cannot be con-
ceived to refide in any thing material. See Soul.

F. Malebranche obferves, it is extremely difficult to con-
ceive what it is that fliould make the communication be-
tween the body and the fpirit ; for if the fpirit have no ma-
terial parts, it cannot move the body. But the argument
muft be falfe fomehow or other ; for we believe that God
can move bodies, and yet do we not attribute any material
parts to him.

Spirit, in Theology, is ufed, by way of eminence, for the
third perfon in the Holy Trinity, called the Spirit, the Holy
Spirit, or Holy Ghofl.

Concerning the nature and even the perfonality of the
Holy Spirit, very different opinions have been entertained
by theological writers, both ancient and modern. It has
been faid, indeed, that no mention occurs of any difference
of opinion on this fubjeft, that attracted any notice, till
after the commencement of the Arian controverfy, and even
till after the council of Nice. It ha; been alfo aderted, that
oven after the rife of the Arian controverfy, many perfons
exprefled themfelves concerning the Spirit as if it had no
proper divinity, at leaft of a perfonal nature, without cen-
fure ; and that this could not have been the cafe, if it had
been the uniform doClrine of the orthodox, that the Holy
Spirit was a proper divine perfon, equal to th.e Son, or the
Father. Clement, one of the apoltolical fathers, taakes no
particular mention of the Holy Spirit. Ignatius, allowing
his epillle to the Ephefians to be genuine, feems to have
confidered the Holy Spirit rather as a " power" than as a
" perfon." Jullin Martyr fays but little concerning the
Holy Spirit ; nor is it eaiy to conclude what was his real
opinion. But fome have imagined that he regarded him as a
created being, fince he reprefents him as inferior to Chrift.
Irenaeus feems to have confidered the Holy Spirit as a divine
influence, and no proper perfon ; calling him, in reference to
the words of Ifaiah (ch. Ixi. i.), the unction. Athenagoras
confidered the Holy Spirit as an etflux from the Deity. Ter-
tuUian feems to have thought, that the Holy Spirit was de-
rived from Chrift, in the iame manner as Chi-ift was derived
from God, that is, by a kind of prolation. Novatian, who
was as orthodox in his notions with regard to the Trinity as
any perfon in his age, could not believe in the divinity of the
Holy Spirit, whom he reprefents as inferior to the Son,
whom he alfo makes inferior to the Father. Lactantius is
complained of for not mentioning the Holy Spirit, and for
denying his perfonality. Dionyfius of Alexandria is cen-
fured by Bafil for not admitting the divinity of the Holy-
Spirit, and reducing him to the rank of a created being.
Hilary alfo feems to have confidered the Spirit as a divine
influence. After the council of Nice, the fcntiments and
language of the fathers appear to have undergone a material

change.

S P I

S P I

change. Atlianafius contended ftrenuoudy and efTeftually,
not only for the divinity of Chrift, and his confubltantiality
with the Father, but alfo in behalf of that of the Holy Spirit,
whofe divinity was denied by Macedonius. Being in Egypt
when this herefy prevailed, he procured a fynod to be called,
at which he attended, and where the Holy Spirit was, for
the firft tirne, decreed to be confubllantial with the Fa-
ther and the Son. Soon after this, the divinity of the Holy
Spirit was more folemnly determined at a council held in
Conllantinople, and from that time it was decreed no lefs
heretical to deny tlie divinity of the Spirit, than that of the
Son.

At this time the doftrine of the perfedl equality of the
Spirit and the Son, as well as that of the Son and the Father,
was fully eftabh(hed ; and it was not long before the forms
of public worfliip were accommodated to this opinion ; for
inftead of the cullomary doxology of " Gloria Patri," Fla-
vianus of Antioch made an alteration, for which purpofe he
is faid to have atfembled a number of monks, and to have
firft chanted out " Glory to the Father, to the Son, and to
the Holy Ghoft." Whereas, before his time, fome had faid
" Glory to the Father through the Son, in the Holy Spirit,"
which was the molt cullomary form ; and others, " Glory to
.he Father in the Son, and the Holy Spirit."

The doflrine avowed and maintained by Athanafius, was
liipported by the influence of Bafil, the two Gregories, Cln-y-
foftom, and Cyril of Alexandria. The latter fays, " the Holy
Spirit is the Spirit of the unbegotten God, and comes forth
from him, has perfonality and life, and always exilts, being
from that which exitts." At this time the doftrine of the
inferiority of the Spirit to the Son, and of his having been
created by him, was feverely reprobated. Bafil maintained,
tliat to deny the divinity of the Holy Spirit, is to be guilty of
blafphcmy againll the Holy Spirit ; and Chryfoftom ob-
ferves, " it cannot be that he who halts with refpedi to the
Spirit, can walk upright with refpefl to the Son." How-
ever, though it was admitted, that the Spirit was a divine
perfon as well as the Son, and yet, like the Son, not abfo-
lutely underived, there was fome difficulty in fettling the
mode of his derivation. At length, the term " proceeding"
was adopted, as cxprcfTing the manner of the emiffion of
the Spirit from the fountain of Deity, and was deemed to
be different from tliat of " generation," which had been
eppropriuted to the Son : neverthelefs, the difference between
the two terms could not be eafily adjufted. Auitin fays that
the Holy Spirit, being the Spirit both of the Father and the
Son, proceeds from them both ; and this he makes to be the
difference between the generation of the Son and the pro-
ceflion of the Spirit. Cyril of Alexandria thought that
he had fome idea of the nature of the proccffion of the Spirit
from the fubllance of God, when he fays, that " Chrift
breathed upon his difciplos, to fhew that the Holy Spirit
proceeds from tlie divine fubllance, as the breath of man
proceeds from him."

In proof of the divinity of the Holy Spirit it has been
alleged, that divme names, title', attributes, works and wor-
fhip,are()r feem to be afcribcd,in various paifages of fcripture,
to the Holy Spirit. Many plead that tlie Holy Spirit is
called Jehovah in the Old Tellament, by comparmg Afts,
xxviii. 2J. with Ifaiah, vi. 9 ; and Heb. iii. 7 — 9. with
Exod. xvii. 7 J Jer. xxxi. 31 — 34. with Heb. x. 15, 16.
In adverting to the firtt of tliefe cited paflages, in which
the words fpoktn by God to Ifaiah are by St. Paul faid to
be fpoken by the Holy Gholl, it has been concluded, that
God and the H'>ly Gholt are one and the fame individual
perfon. But in Rey. xi.43, an inferior angel is introduced
as fpeaking in the perfon of God, and therefore this mode of
Vol. XXX III.

reafoning has not been allowed by the oppugners of this
doftrine. It is alleged further, that the Holy Spirit is,
probably, called God v. 4, to which pafTages fome add
I Cor. iii. 16. vi. 19. 2 Cor. iii. 17. Moreover, divine per-
feftions are faid to be afcribed to the Spirit of God ; par-
ticularly omnifcience, i Cor. ii. 10, 11. If. xl. 13, 14;
to which fome add i John, ii. 20 ; — omniprefence,
Pf. cxxxix. 7. Eph. ii. 17, 18. Rom. viii. 26, 27 ; — om-
nipotence, Luke, i. 35. I Cor. xii. 11; — eternity, Heb.
ix. 14. Again ; divine works are afcribed to the Spirit,
Gen. i. 2. Job, xxvi. 13. xxxiii. 4. Pf. xxxiii. 6. civ. 30,
&c. Some perfons likewife add thofe texts in which mi-
racles, infpiration, and faving operations upon the heart of
man, are afcribed to the Spirit. The chief texts produced
to prove that divine worfhip is given to the Spirit are. If. vi. 3,
compared with v. 9, and A£ls, xxviii. 25', Sec. Rom. ix. I.
Rev. i. 4, 2 Cor. xiii. 14; and above all, Matth. xxviii. 19.
Upon the whole it is alleged, that the bleffed Spirit is
fpoken of in fuch a manner, as it cannot be imagined would
be ufed in fpeaking of a mere creature, and, confequently,
mufl be poffeffed of a nature properly divine. On the other
hand it is maintained, that the proofs taken from the attri-
butes and operations of the Spirit are of no more force than
in the cafe of the Son's fupreme deity ; both Son and Spirit,
being agents under God at his will, are concerned in his
glorious works, and partakers of his power and wifdom ; fo
that it is no wonder if moll of thefe be afcribed to the Spirit,
but ftill as to one fentof God. Moreover, thefe arguments
bear lefs evidence in relation to the Holy Spirit, becaufe of
the different ideas which the word Spirit ftands for. The
Spirit, and Holy Spirit, very often fignify not a perfonal
Spirit, but the attributes and operative efficacious virtus
of God, the energy of his power, wifdom, and holinefs, ex-
erted in powerful operations, afflatus, and infpiration. The
name of God is never once given to the Spirit, nor is direft
worfhip or invocation, prayer or praife, glory or dominion,
once given to him, in preceptor pradlice, in the New Tella-
ment ; though his communications are wifhed and prayed for
to Chriftians, 2 Cor. xiii. 14.

The chief controverfy on this head is, whether the fpirit
of God be a perfon in the philofophtcal finfe, or merely a
divine power or energy. That he is a perfon, is argued
from his being defcribed as having undertlanding, i Cor.
ii. 10, II; wilhng, i Cor. xii. 1 1 ; fpeaking and fending
mefl'cngere. If. vi. 8, compared with Afts, xxviii. 25.
viii. 19. X. 19, 20. xiii. i — 4. i Tim. iv. 1 ; as Dr.
Barrow interprets it, fending Chrifl, If. xlviii. 16; as
pleading, Rom. viii. 26; as being grieved. If. Ixiii. 10.
Eph. iv. 3c; as teaching and reminding, John, xiv. 26;
as teilifyiiig, John, xv. 26 ; as reproving, John, xvi. 8,
&c. ; as executing a commiluon received from God, Jolui,
xvi. 13, 14.

Among tliofe who grant the Spirit to be a perfon, it is
debated whether he be the fame philofophical perfon with
the Father, or another diltindt from him ; to fuppofe the
latter (fuppofing him at the fame time equal with the
Father) is making him another God. Some, therefore, have
rcprefentcd liim as a created Spirit, in his own n.iture in-
ferior botli to Father and Son ; again fl which the pafl'agea
above enumerated have been flrongly urged ; as it has iilfo
been, that tlie Spirit is never mentioned as a creature called
upon to praife God, when a large enumeration of fiich ii
made. Others couiider him as a created Spirit, (called ai
one think-f Michael the archangel), fo united to God, and
lo aftuated by him, as by virtue of this union to become
capable of fuch reprtfentations and regards as the Son is,
though adting in fome fubordination to him in the economy
4D uf

S P I

of our redemption ; — while many others have contented
themfelves with averting, that there is only apolitical, modal,
or economical diftinftion, in the perfonahty of the Father,
Son, and Spirit. Others again have maintained, that the
Spirit is a third diftinaion in the Deity ; and when he is
called 2 per/on, the word is to be taken in fuch a fenfe be-
low the philofophical and above the modal ; though whit
determination is to be affixed to it, they do not more parti-
cularly fay.

Thofe, and they form a numerous clafs, who aflert the
Spirit to be a A\me poiver, plead chiefly the fenfe of the
word in the Old Teilament, where they fay it has generally
that fi"-nification : and that it would be abfurd to fuppofe,
that the idea (hould be fo greatly changed, when Chrilt
and his apnftles addrefl'ed thofe who had been bred up in
the Jewifh religion, and muft, therefore, have been ufed to
conceive of the Spirit according to the reprefentation made
in their Ijcred oracles. It is alfo pleaded, that the pouring out
one per/on on another, is both iinfcriptural and unintelligible
language, but not fo, if it relates to a divine/iow^r, influence,
or operation. They urge in favour of the explication of the
doftrine, Luke, i. 35 ; and reply to the paflages of fcrip-
ture above cited, by obferving, that nothing was more com-
mon among the ancients, and more efpecially the Eaftern
nations, than to reprefent powers, properties, and attri-
butes, by perfonal charafters ; thus, wifdom is reprefcnted
as contriving, rejoicing, inviting, pleading, reproving, &c.
Prov. i. 20, &c. iii. 15, &c. iv. 6, &c. viii. i. ix. i, &c. ;
charity, as believing, rejoicing, &c. I Cor. xiii. ; and
death, as being plagued, Hof. xiii. 4 ; the fcripture, as
forefeeing and preaching, Gal. lii. 8 ; the fun, as rejoicing,
Pf. xix. 5 ; a famine, as coming at God's call, 2 King«,
Tiii. I ; righteoufnefs, as walking before him, compare
Pf. Ixxxv. 10 — 13 ; and the wind, as willing, John, iii. 6.
To thofe who allege thefe paflages, it is replied, that none
of them come up to the preceding texts ; more efpecially
confidering how frequently the perfonal term »/io; is ufed,
when fpoken of the Spirit, and that not merely in poetical,
but moll plain and fimple difcourfes, which, indeed, as it
might be argued, is necefl'ary to render the perfonification
complete ; but the fl:rongefl; objeftion againft this opinion
is faid to arife from the form of baptifm, and the fore-
mentioned John, xvi. 13, 14.

Dr. Lardner examines the different fenfes in which the
words Spirit, Spirit of God, and Holy Ghoft, are ufed in
the Old and New Teftament ; and he finds, i. That Spirit
is in many places equivalent to God himfelf. 2. That it
often means the power or wifdom of God, or his will and
command. 3. That it often means an extraordinary gift
from God of power, wifdom, knowledcre, and underiland-
ing. In Heb. li. 14. gifts of the Holy Ghofl; Ihould
be dillributions of the Holy Gholt ; an expreflion plainly
declaring, that by the Holy Ghoft or Holy Spirit were
meant thofe fpiritual gifts, which came down upon men
from heaven immediately, or were communicated in orreat
variety by laying on the hands of the apollles. 4. In the
cpillles of the New Teilament, there are at the beginning
and elfewhere wifht-s of peace from God the Father and
the Lord Jefjs Chrill, but none from the Spirit dillinftly ;
nor are there any doxnlogies or afcriptions of glory to the
Spirit didiTiftly, though there are feveral fuch afcriptions
to God and Chrill, or to God through Chrilt.

Bm it may be faid, as our learned and impartial author
ftates the objedions of thofe who maintain a different opi-
nion, that the Spirit o- the Holy Ghoft is oftentimes fpoken
of as a perfon, and efpecially in St. John's gofpel. To
vhich he replies, i. It is not uncommon in the language of

S P I

fcripture, as we have already ftated at large, to perfonalize
many things to which we do not afcribe intelligence ; thus,
e. g. wifdom is perfonified in the book of Proverbs, and
fin and death in the New Teftament. 2. There is not in
the Afts of the Apoftles, or in any other book of the
New Teftament, any account of the appearance and mani-
feftation of a great agent or perfon after our Saviour's af-
cenfion ; therefore no inch thing was promifed or intended
by our Saviour, nor expected by his apoftles, who could
not but know his meaning. 3. In other texts of fcripture,
and particularly in St. John's gofpel, by the Spirit or Holy
Ghoft is meant a gift, or plentiful effufion of fpiritual
gifts. 4. Our Saviour himfelf explains what he meant
by the Comforter, i. e. the divine influence or effufion of
fpiritual gifts. 5. Our bleffed Lord, in fpeaking of this
matter, has made ufe of a variety of expreffions, by at-
tending to which we may clearly difcern his true mean-
ing, in what he fays of the Comforter. All wliich feem
to (hew, that by the Spirit is to be underftood that fpe*
cial influence, which, in different meafures and propor-
tions, God vouchfafes to men through Jefus Chrill for
their own comfort and eftabliihment, and for fpreading the
great truths of religion in the world. This power or divine
influence, this effufion of knowledge and other fpiritual gifts,
our Lord calls the Comforter or the Advocate, rrx^ociXr'io;,
as thereby their caufe would be pleaded with men, and they
would be juttified in preaching boldly in the name of Jefus
Chrift. This gift, this divine influence, he calls alfo the
fpirit of truth, becaufe by this wonderful influence on their
minds, the apoftles would be led into the knowledge of all the
truths of the Gofpel, and would be enabled to teach them
to others with perfpicuity. And our Lord fpeaks of the
Spirit's bringing to their remembrance the things which he
had faid, and of his receiving of his and (hewing it unto
them ; becaufe by his miraculous influence upon their minds,
thofe prejudices would be removed, which had obftrufted
their clear difcemment of what Chrift had faid unto them,
when he was with them. By the Holy Ghoft in Matth.
xxviii. 19, where we have the form of baptifm, we are to
underftand the miracles of our Saviour's miniftry, and like-
wife the miracles wrought by his apoftles, and the fpiritual
gifts beftowed upon the apoftles and other difciples of Jefus,
and all believers in general, foon after our Lord's afcenfion,
and all the miraculous atteftations of the truth, and divine
origin of the doftrine taught by Jefus Chrift. On the fub-
je6t of this article, we refer our theological readers to
Calamy on the Trinity, Serm. vi. Emlyn's Trafts, vol. ii.
Burnet on the Art. — Script. Doftr. of the Trin. Diff. v.
Watts on the Trin.— Alfo, Chrift. Dodr. of Trin. Bar-
row's Works, vol. ii. Clarke on the Trin. part i. ch. 3.
part ii. § 3, 4. 19, 20, 21, 22. 28 — 32. 40 — 42. 45,
46. 53. Taylor on the Trin. part iii. Owen on the
Spirit, 1. i. c. 3. Pearfon on the Creed. Dr. Scott's
Eft. towards a Demonitr. of the Script. Trin. prop. iii.
Lardner's Firfl Poftfcr. to the Letter on the Logos, apud
Works, vol. xi. Prieftley's Hift. of Early Opinions,
vol. ii. — Corrnptions, vol. i. Doddridge's Leftures.

Spirit, Order of the. See Holy Ghoft.

Spirit is alfo ufed, amond Divines, for the divine power
and virtue, and the communication of it to men.

In this fenfe, the fpirit is faid to have gone out on the
face of the deep (Gen. i. 3.), and the prophets to have
been poffeffed with the fpirit of God. Providence, in this
fenfe, is that univerfal fpirit by which God makes all nature
to act.

Thus, the holy Virgin is faid to have conceived of the
Spirit.

Spirit,

' S P I

Spirit, Privatt, is a terra that made a great figure in
the controverfies of the two lalt centuries. It fignifies the
particular fenfe or notion each perfon has of the dogmata
of faith, and the truths of rehgion, as fuggeded by his
own thoughts, and the perfuafion he is under with regard
to them.

The firfl reformers denying ftrenuoufly any infallible in-
terpreter of the fcripture, or any fettled judge of contro-
verfies, maintained, that every perfon was to interpret and
judge of revealed truths by his own hght, alfilted by the
grace of God ; and this was what they called private fpirit
OT judgment.

Againil this, the arguments ufed by the Romaniils are,
that revealed truths being one and the fame for all be-
lievers ; the rule God has given us for judging of them,
ought to reprefeiit them to us uniformly, and the fame ;
but the private fpirit informs Luther one way, and Zuin-
glius another. It divides Oecolampadius, Bucer, Ofiander,
&c. And the doftrine it difcovers to the ConfelTionites, is
quite different from that it ftiews the Anabaptifts and Men-
nonites, in the very fame paflage of fcripture.

Spirit, Spiiltus, is alfo ufed, in Profody, to fignify the
greater or lels degree of breath employed in the pronun-
ciation of the initial Greek vowels, and of the letter p.

In founding the vowels, we may obferve every vowel has
its found by a fiinple conformation of the mouth, in which
the breath has little or no concern, as being confined in
the arteria afpera : the fpirits, or breaths, which are placed
on the initial vowels in words, are to denote the force this
initial vowel is to have from the breath, when the word is
pronounced. If the found of this vowel be fmooth, as all
the founds of the vowels naturally are, this is termed ^(V/-
tus lenis, a mild breath ; but if this vowel be to be pronounced
with a more vehement expulfion of the air, this is termed
fpiritus a/per, or a rough breath, or afpirate : and when the
afpirate and acute are in the fame fyllable, the mark of the
breath, in this initial vowel, only fignifies, that the vowel
is to be pronounced with a ftronger breath than the initial
mild vowels ; for afpirates do not alter the tone of any fyl-
lable, but only ftrengthen, increafe, and fwell the tone.

SpiRiT-Levil. See Level.

SpiRiT-/2ooni, in Ship- Building, a fecure apartment built
next abaft the after-hold, to contain the fpirits. See Ship-
building.

SPIRITOSO, con Spirito, Ital., in Mufic, fcverally
imply animation, fpirit, and fire, in the performance of the
movements to which either of thefe terms is prefixed.

SPIRITU SANTO, or Efpiritu Santo, (which fee,) in
Geography, a fea-port of Brazil, in the governincnt of
Rio Janeiro, fituated on the fouth fide of a large bay,
about three leagues from the ocean, but having neither walls
nor fortifications, except a fmall ruinated calUe ; fo that
its defence confiils in the bravery of its inhabitant,-, who
amount to about 900. The port is a fmall bay, opening to
the eaft, and interlefted with many fmall illaiids. At the
top of a mountain, at foine dillance from the town, is a
large white tower, which the Portuguefe call Noitra Sen-
hora de Pena, and near it a imall church, furroundcd with
a wall. At the foot of the mountain are ftill to be fecn
a few old licufes, the melancholy remains of a place once
called Villa Vcja, or the Old City. S. lat. 20° 8'.— Alfo,
a town of the ifland of Cuba; 155 miles E.S.E. of Havan-
nah. N. lat. 22° 15'. W. long. 79^ 47'. — Alfo, a town
of Peru ; 8 miles W. of Potofi. — Alfo, a town of Chili ;
60 miles from Coquirabo. — Alfo, a river of Mexico, which
runs ijito the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 23^. W. long. 106" 40'.
— Alio, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan;

S P I

65 miles E.N.E. of Zacatula.— Alfo, a river of Brafil,
wliich runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 20° 10'. — Alfo, a lake
of Eall Florida, near the fouthern extremity.

SriRiTu Santo Bay, called alfo Tampay bay, and Hillf-
borough bay, a large bay on the well coaft of Eafl. Florida.
N. lat. 28=-. W. long. 82' 45'.

Spmutu Santo IJlands, or /InJms, a chain of iflands,
fituated to the foutti-weit of the Bahamas ; the largeft
about 40 miles in lengtli, and eight in breadth. N. lat.
24= to 25= 12'. W. long. 77° to 78° 15'.

SPIRITUAL Friars. See Franciscans.

SPIRITUALITIES of a bilhop, are fuch profits as
arife to him from the benefit of his jurifdiftion in his dio-
cefe, and not as a baron of parliament.

Such are thofe of his vifiLations, inftitutions, ordinations,
prefentation-money, &c.

Spiritualities, Guardian of the. See Guardian.

SPIRITUALIUM Gustos. See Gustos.

SPIRITU ALIZATION, in Chcmiftry, the aftion of
extrafting fpirits from natural bodies. See Spirit.

Spirituahzation is an operation that belongs principally
to fermented falts, and then to fermented juices and li-
quors ; the fermentation rendering the fpirits volatile and
inflammable.

Spirit ot wine is fometimes fpiritualized to that degree,
that upon throwing a quantity into the air, not a drop (hall
fall down ; but the whole evaporate, and be lolt.

SPIRITUS. See Spirit.

SPIRKET, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a
hook to hang any thing upon, as the cart-geer, &c. in
itables and other places.

SPIRKETTING, in Ship-Building, a thick ftrake, or
ftrakes, wrought withinfide upon the ends of the beams or
water-ways. Spirkettings under ports reach from the
water-ways to the upper fide of the lower fill, which it
generally of two ftrakes, wrought top and butt.

SPIRTING Cucumber, m Botany, a fpecies of momor-
dica ; which fee.

SPISE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom
of Ningo, in the interior part of the Gold Coaft.

SPISSUM, in the Ancient Mujic, was ufed to fignify
thofe two fmaller conjunft intervals of a tetrachord, which,
taken together, were lefs than the third.

The Greek term for this was ctkh-.oj. This happened ia
the enharmonic, and the three chromatic genera ; in each of
wliich, the interval between the hypate and the lichanoi, was
lefs than the interval between the lichang: and the nete. To
the fpiiliim was oppofed the non-fpiffum, aVi/xio>, or rarum,
as Martianus Capella tranflatcs it. The jcVt/K>..i happened
in the two diatonic genera, where the two fmallell intervals
were equal to, or greater than the third. They were fup-
pofed equal in the diatonicum molle, and greater in the in-
tenfum. See Genus.

SPIT, The, in Geography, a flioal of the Atlantic, near
the coaft of South Carolina ; 15 miles S. of Cape Fear. N.
lat. 33° 34'. W. long. 78" 10'.

Spit, in Agriculture and Gardening, the quantity or
depth of earth or mould which the fpade takes up at once
in digging or delving over ground. Thus, this fort of
work is performed to one, two, or more fpits deep, according
to circumttances, and the nature of tlie loil and crops-

SviT-Dung, that fort of dung manure which has under-
gone complete fermentation or putrelaction, and is reduced
into a fomcwhat earthy Itate, fo as to be dug or taken up
by the fpade or fhovel in a fort of fpit manner.

Svn-Shovel, that fort of tool of the (hovel kind which

18 employed in digging out or (hovelling up fuch dung, or

4 D 2 other

S P L

other matters, as are in a reduced earthy condition. And
the term is alfo fometimes applied to it when ufed in takmg
up grain for the purpofe of havnig it cleaned or removed
into another fituation.

SPIT A L, in Geography, a town of Aullria ; 6 miles fc..

of Steyr AHo, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, near the

coailof the Mediterranean ; 22 miles N.E. of Tortofa.—
Alfo, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 5 miles E. of Muert-
zenfchlag.— Alfo, 3 town of the duchy of Carinthia, on the
Lifer, about a mile from the Drave; 8 miles E. of Saxen-
burg.

SPITHEAD, a fpacious reach in the Britilh Channel,
about mid-way between the fouthern coaft of Hampfhire
and the Ifle of Wight. It direAly faces the mouth of Portf.
mouth harbour, and is frequently occupied by men-of-war
and frigates at anchor. Sometimes a fleet of (hips is italioned
here. It is laid that 1000 fail of veilels may anchor at one
time with fecurity. The depth of water, at low tide, is
10, II, 13, 14, 15, and 16 fathoms. This place is me-
morable for the (hipwieck of the Royal George, of 100
guns, in Augult 1782. At that time the vefTel was occu-
pied by more than 400 men and 200 women, and was hove
on one fide, for the purpofe of repairing her keel. Not
anticipating danger, the failors had negleflted to lafh down
her lower deck ports, and a fudden fquall coming on, (he
was thrown with her broad-fide on the water. The hole was
(illed in a few minutes, and every thing was carried to the
bottom. Admiral Kempenfelt, with all the crew and vifi-
tors, perifhed ; for there was no time for boats to afford af-
fiftance. Many attempts have been made to raife this velTel,
but without fuccefs ; although many articles have been ob-
tained from the cabins, &c. Some of the malts continued
to be feen above water for many years after the accident.

Spithead Creel, a river of the wellern territory of Ame-
rica, which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 39° 56'. W. long.
80° 46'.

SPlTTER, among Spertfmen, a red male deer near two
years old, whofe horns begin to grow up (harp and fpit-
wife.

It is otherwife called a brocket and pricket.
SPITTLE. See Saliva and Sputum.
Spittle, a corruption of the word hofpital.
Spittle, in jigriculture, the name of a fpaddle or fmall
lort of fpade. See Spade.

SPITTLING, a term applied to an operation performed
in the cultivation of teafle crops, in which the workman, with
a tool of the fpittle, ihoe, or fmall fpade kind, turns over
the furface-mould between every plant in a careful manner,
in the (irft fummer feafon after planting, when the plants
have acquired fome degree of growth. By this means they
are kept perfectly clean from weeds, and their growth pro-
moted as much as poflible.

The work commonly cofts about a guinea and a half the
acre and drink, in moll diilrifts where this fort of cultiva-
tion is carried on. See Teasle.

SPITZ, in Geography, a town of Auftria, on the Da-
nube; 10 miles above Krems. — Alfo, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Leitmeritz ; 9 miles N.E. of Kamnitz.

SPITZBERG, a confiderable mountain of Silefia, in
the principality of Liegnitz.

SPITZ BERGEN, or Spitsbergen. See Eq/2 Green-
land.

SPITZEBACH, a river of Germany, which runs into
the Eltzach, near Ober Winden.

SPIZ A, in Urnilhology, a name by which the ancient na-
turalills called the chaffinch.

SPLA-BoARDs, in Ship-Building, boards or planks fixed
4

S P L

to an obtufe angle in the light-room, to throw the light ixAo

the magazine.

SPLACHNUM, in Botany, a name adopted by Montin
and Linnaeus from Diofcorides, whofe irr>.y.x;-m is fyno-
iiimous witii his /S^uow, and belongs to the MofTcs in general,
or rather perhaps Lichens, which grow upon trees. This
name becomes peculiarly appropriate, when we advert to its
identity with o-vXayxv-., the Greek appellation of the prin-
cipal vifcera, the heart, lungs, &c. ; becaufe the eflential
charafter of the genus before us confifts in a peculiar flelhy
glandular organ, fupporting the capfule ; whence its Eng-
lilh name, Gland-mofs. — Montin Dilf. 7. Linn. Am. Acad.
v. 2. 270. t. 3. Gen. 563. Schreb. 7J9. Hedw. Fund.
v. 2. 8S. t. 7. f. 33. Sp. Mufc. 51. Sm. Fl. Brit. n6g.
Turn. Mufc. Hib. 15. Swartz Mufc. Suec. 22. JulT. 11.
I.,amarck Illuftr. t. 874. — Clafs and order, Cryptogamia
Mufci. Nat. Ord. Mufci.

Ed. Ch. Capfule cylindrical, placed on a fielhy recep-
tacle. Fringe (imple, of fixteen teeth, (landing in pairs.

This genus is one of the molt remarkable of its tribe for
(ize and beauty, as well as for fingularity Twelve fpecies
are defined in Hedwig's Sp. Mufc. ; thirteen in the Fl. Brit.
fix of the latter not being known to Hedwig. Linnxus, in
the original account of the genus, defcribcs but two, which
are far the mod extraordinary, natives of the moll northern
part of Europe, and not found in Britain. We (hall de-
scribe thefe, with a few of the others bed worth notice.

5. mnioides. Green Tapering Gland-mofs. Linn. Fil.
Meth. Mufc. 26. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 51. Crypt, v. 2. 35.
t. II. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 1589. — Receptacle
inverfely conical, green. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, bearded,
entire. — Native of moill alpine fituations in Scotland, Wales,
and other parts of Europe, generally, in Wales, growing
on the dung of foxes and badgers, according to Mr. Grif-
fith's remarlis. This is one of the fmaller fpecies, refcm-
bling fome common Bryutn ; its leafy jQems about an inch
high ; ks fruit-Jla/is rather more. The capfule is cylindrical,
brown, with a blunt lid. Its fhort green receptacle at the
bafe might almoll be overlooked, as a fwelling of the
dalk.

6. fpharicum. Green Globular Gland-mofs. Linn. Fil.
Meth. Mufc. 33. t. I. f. I. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 55. Crypt,
v. 2. 46. t. 16. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 785.— Re-
ceptacle globular, green. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, pointed,
entire. Fruit-ftalk capillary. — Native of alpine fituations
in Lapland, Germany, Carniola, Scotland, &c. ufually on
cow-dung. Dr. F. Buchanan firit met with it at Leney
near Stirling, in 1782. This forms green tufts, each plant
beinij finiple, apparently annual, about half an inch high in
the \e?iiy Jlem, which terminates in a ilarry blojfom. Some of
thefe bloiioms are moil perfeAly male, others female. The
latter produce each an elegant (lender wavy \zvia-^ fruit flalk,
from one and a half to three or four inches high, bearing a
green, nearly globofe, fmooth receptacle, much larger and
thicker than the little brown cylindrical capfule, bordered
with clqht pair of fpreading brown teeth.

S. gracile, Dickf. Crypt, fafc. 4. 3. t. 10. f. 5. Fl. Brit,
n. 9. Engl. Bot. t. 1921, is fuppofed by Mr. Turner to
be a variety of the lalt, rather Imaller, with ferrated poists
to the leaves, and a brown receptacle.

S. ampullaceum. Purple Gland-mofs. Linn. Sp. PI. 1572.
Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 55. Crypt, v. 2 41. t. 14. Fl. Brit,
n. 10. Engl. Bot. t. 144. Fl. Dan. t. 822. (S. n. 3;
Linn. Am. Acad. v. 2. 280. Bryum ampullaceum, foliis
thymi pellucidis, coilo ftritliore ; Dill. Mufc. 343. t. 44.
f. 3.) — Receptacle inverfely conical, ob uie, grceni(h-pur-
ple, thrice as thick as the capfule. Leaves lanceolate, acute,

ferrated.

S P L

ferrated.— One of the moft common fpecies, at lead in Eng-
land, growing chiefly on rotten cow-dnng on moilt turfy-
heaths in the Ipring, ripening fruit in fummer. It feems no
lefs frequent in other parts of Europe. This is larger than
S.fphxricum, annual hke that, but diltinguithed by the nar-
rower ferrated leaves, iiouteTjlalh, and efpecially the large
purple pear-(haped receptacles, each crowned with a little
llender tawny capfule.

S. Turnerianum, Dickf. Crypt, fafc. 4. ^. t. lO. f. II.
Fl. Brit. n. 1 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1x16, is, we fear, but a fmall,
or ftarved, variety of the laft.

S. -vafculofum. Ciimfon Globular Gland-mofs. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1572. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 53. Crypt, v. 2. 44.
t. 15. — Receptacle blood-red, nearly globular. Leaves fpa-
tulate, bluiitifh, entire. — Native of turfy bogs near Uplal,
and in other parts of Sxveden. About the height of the
laft, but diftinguilhed by its blunt entire leaves, and the
globular form, greater fize, and deep rich hue of its recep-
tacle. This fine fpecies has alfo been found in Germany,
but not in Britain.

S. rubrum. Red Umbrella Gland-mofs. Linn. Sp. PI.
1572. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 56. Crypt, v. 2. 51. t. 18. (S.
n. i; Montin Dill. 8. t. i. f. 2. Mufcus norwegicus, um-
braculo ruberrimo infignitus ; Petiv. Muf. 11. t. i. f, 70.
Dill. Mufc. 547. t. 83. f. 9.) — Receptacle orbicular, con-
vex, red. Leaves ovate, partly toothed. — Native of Nor-
way, Finland, Ruffia, and molt parts of Siberia. Thejlem,
like moll of the rcit, is fimple, leafy, about an inch high.
Upper and floral leaves ferrated. Fruit-Jlali about fix inches
long, ereft, red, bearing a fmall cylindrical capfule, which
is fubtended by a moft beautiful, large, and conlpicuous re-
ceptacle, like an inverted cup, half an inch wide, of a rich
crimfon, finely reticulated, and certainly one of the moft
curious produftions in thi; whole natural order.

S. luteum. Yellow Umbrella Gland-mofs. Linn. Sp. PI.
1572. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 56. Crypt, v. 2. 48. t. 17. (S.
n. 2; Montin DilT. 9. t, i. f. i.) — Receptacle orbicular,
flattifti, deflexed, yellow. Leaves obovate, entire. — Native
of bogey woods in Lapland and Weltbothland. This vies
with the laft in magnitude and Angularity, but the receptacle
is pale yellow, and though deflexed, fcarcely convex. By
Hedwig's figures, as well as the Linnsean fpecimens, this
part feems to be fmall and green till the capfule is fully
formed, after which it expands and aflumes its proper
colour.

SPLAIT-Shoulder. See Shoulder.

SPLANCHNICA, a name given to medicines appro-
priated to difeafes of the bowels.

SPLANCHNOLOGY, formed from trr-Ka-yxioi, intejlme,
and Xoyo;, difcourfe, m Anatomy, a dilcourfe on, or explica-
tion of, the vifcera.

Sarcology is divided into three parts, viz. fplanchnology,
myology, and angciology ; of thcfe, fplanchnology is that
which treats of the internal parts, and particularly of the
viicera.

SPLEEN, in Anatomy and Phyjtolo^y, (j-irX>i», lien, la
rate,) a body about tlie fize of a fmall fill, of a texture
rather rtfembling that of glands, fituated in the left hypo-
chondriac retjion of the abdomen, between the jjrreat end
of the llomach, and that portion of the diaphragm which
lines the concavity of the tenth and eleventli ribs.

Tiie organ is ufiially fing'.e ; but occafionally one, two,
or more fmall Iccoiidary fpleens 1 lienes fuccenturiati'), of a
round or oval figure, about the fize of hazel-nuts, of a
texture cxitlly fimilar to the principal one, are found near
its anteriiir end, in the great omentum, conntfted by the
latter and by their blood-veflels to the principal fplccn.

S P L

It has been allerted that the fpleen has been in fome
cafes entirely deficient. It may have been greatly dimi-
niflied by difeafe, or confumed by fuppuration ; but we
have no fuflicient teftimony of its entire abfence as a defeA
of original formation.

Every thing belonging to the fpleen is irregular, and its
figure is remarkably fo. Ulually the outline defcribed by
its circumference is elliptical : it reprefenls, indeed, on the
whole, the feftion of an ellipfoid carried through the axis.
Its largeft furface is convex, like the fuperficies of an egg ;
the margin oval, with two ends, and a longer and (horter
axis. The convex lurface of the organ, then, is the moft
extenfive, rifing in the middle, and floping towards a com-
paratively thin edge : this is rather broader towards the
back part, and grows narrower, terminating in an obtufe
point in front. The oppofite afpeft is concave, and divided
into two furtaces by a flight notch running along its long
axis, at which the blood-veflels enter, and to which the
omentum is affixed. Both ends of the fpleen are obtufe :
the pollerior or fuperior is thicker, the inferior or anterior
thinner. Sometimes the fpleen is more rounded, or more
triangular. Often the edge is notched in one or more
places, and more or lefs deeply.

The fituation of the fpleen varies, as well as its figure.
We may, however, Itate generally, that in a healthy fubjeA
of the ordinary formation, it will be found in the upper and
back part of the left fide of the abdomen, covered by the
falfe ribs, lying between the back of the great end of the
ilomach and the diaphragm in fuch a way, that it Is not
vifible on opening the abdominal cavity until the Ilomach
is drawn afide. Its convexity correfponds to the concavity
of the diaphragm, and of the tenth and eleventh ribs ; its
concavity to the great end of the Ilomach : one end is
turned backwards ; the other forwards.

In this fituation it is clofely tied to the ftomach by its
blood-veilels, which fend branches to that organ ; and by
the great omentum, which is attached to its notch, and to
the neighbouring portion of the ftomach. There are,
befides, certain folds of peritoneum, connecting it to the
furrounding parts. One of thefe, ligamentum verticale,
or fufpenforium licnis, or phrenico-fplenicum, pafles from
the lower part of the diaphragm to the upper end of the
fpleen. Another, ligamentum mefocolicum, or gaftro-fple-
nicum, pafles from the mefocolon, ftomach, and oefophagus,
to the pofterior part of the notch. A fold of peritoneum
may alfo h^ I'ecn going from the fpleen to the left renal
capfule and kidney.

The changes of place in the ftomach arc attended with
correfponding alterations of the fpleen. When the fonncr
is full, the fpleen is fituated nearly tranfverfely, with one
end turned backwards, and the other forwards, with its
concavity touching the colon in front, and the renal capfule
behiiid. As the ftomach becomes empty, the pofition of
the fpleen is more perpendicular ; with its ends upwards
and downwards. The motions of the diaphragm are
ncceflarily accompanied with change of pofition in the
fpleen. When that mufcle defcends, it pulhcs the ftomach
and fpleen downwards and forwards, thrufting them from
under the ribs ; they are brought back again to their former
place by the re-aftioii of the abdominal mufcles.

When it is enlarged, it pafles out of the hypochondrium,
and can be felt in the umbilical region, or even tlie hypo-
gaftric : it has defcended as low as the groin or bladder.
In cafes of tranfpifed vifcera, it has partaken the inverfion
with the other thoracic and abdominal organs.

The fize of the fplccn, like other circumftances belonging
to this organ, is fubjcft to much variety. Soemmcrriug

llato

SPLEEN.

Itates its weight at from fix to fifteen ounces; and its
fpecific gravity to that of water, as 1060 to 1000. It has
been allerted, that the kind and the circumftances of death
influence the fize of the fpleen ; and we may readily be-
lieve that a part of fpongy texture, contammg fo much
blood, will be fmaller in an individual who has perifhed
from hsemorrhage than in one who has died of afphyxia.
All phyfiologills have reprefented that the fize ot the
fpleen is influenced by the Itate of the itomach, which they
conceive to aft on it in two ways. They (uppofe that
the full ilomach prefles the fpleen againfl; the ribs, and
thus mechanically forces out the contents of its cells,
which are expanded again as foon as this prefl'ure is re-
mitted. It has been aJfo imagined, that when the ttomach
is full of aliment, blood pafTes in larger quantity into its
veflels, which admit it more eafily ; while, in the empty
ftomach, the veflels fall into folds, and do not receive fo
much blood. In the former cafe, the blood which goes to
the ftomachic arteries is partly drawn away from the fplenic
veflels, which alfo admit it lefs readily, becaufe the fpleen
is at the fame time comprelTed : in the latter, thefe circum-
ftances are juft reverfed. Thefe obfervations feem purely

that of a coagulum, with divided blood-veffels interfperfed
through it.

It is fpongy, foft, and delicate in its texture, fo that it
can be broken down by moderate preflure with the fingers.

The fpleen is furrounded externally by a fmooth, thin,
and clofely-adhering ferous membrane, derived from the
peritoneum. This coat is fo intimately united to the next,
that they cannot be feparated. The proper membrane im-
mediately inclofes the fpleen. Although this and the
former are infeparably united, we cannot doubt that fuch a
proper membrane exills, becaufe the covering is much thicker
than the peritoneum in any fituation. Juft. at the notch,
the peritoneum may be feparated for a (hort diftance from
the proper membrane. From the internal furface of thi»
covering, numerous fine filaments are continued into the
fubftance of the fpleen, where they form part of the pecu-
liar tiftue of the organ. The proper membrane is fo thin,
that its nature is not eafily afcertained : it feems, however,
to belong to the fibrous clafs, as it is corrugated by boiling,
and eafily receives depofitions of gelatine, or phofphate of
lime. Thickenings of the fplenic coats from this caufe are
very common. This membrane is fofter than thofe of the

hypothetical ; and they prefent a mechanical folution of fibrous kind ufually are ; and it is elattic, fo as to accom.
vital proceft'es, which are certainly governed by other prin- modate itfelf to the varying bulk of the organ
ciples. Not a fingle faft is adduced as a foundation of this

fanciful fuperftrutlure. It feems, on the contrary, that
there are fads fufficient to overturn it. " Numerous com-
parative experiments," fays Bichat, " made at diff'erent
points of time in the digeftive procefs, during the plenitude
and emptinefs of the ftomach, on animals of fimilar fize, and
under fimilar circumftances, have thewn, indeed, fenfible
variations in the volume of the fpleen, but not that inva-
riable coincidence, which has been afferted, between the
contraftion of the ftomach and the increafe of the fpleen,
and -vice ver/a. The oppofite relation was often noticed ; fo
that we could only conclude, that the differences of volume
were independent of the fucceffion of the digeftive pheno-
mena, and conrtituted permanent peculiarities of individual
organization. The kidney, the liver, &c. do not exhibit
an uniform fize in all fubjefts ; but we do not trouble our-
felves by endeavouring to find caufes for fuch variations.

" Laftly, admitting that the volume of the fpleen varies
during life, whether thefe variations coincide or not with
determined ftates of the digeftive organs, it is repugnant to
the fpirit in which modern phyfiology contemplates the
phenomena of fife, to aflign the laxity of the fpleen, when
the ftomach is empty, as a caufe for the derivation of blood
from the veflels of the latter organ, or its mechanical com-
preflion by the diftended if omach, as a means of explaining
the more rapid pafl^age of the blood into the fyftem of the
vena portarum." Anatomie Defcriptive, t. v. p. 58.

We cannot doubt, that, independently of difeafe, or of
fuch natural caufes as may produce changes in the ftate of
the fpleen, the volume of this organ is diff"erent in diff^erent
individuals. Animals of the fame fpecies and age, and under
circumftances in all refpefts fimilar, exhibit fuch diff'erences.
We frequently, too, find the ipleen after death, in the
human fubjeft, confiderably larger or fmaller than what
may be regarded as the ftandard fize, though alike in all
other points ; fo that the kind of death, or other accidental
circumftance, will not explain the difference.

The colour of the fpleen is red or livid, or of fome tint
between thefe. The convex furface is often red, while the
edge and concavity are livid. The former colour is more
prevalent in young, the latter in old fubjeAs. When the

The fpleen is remarkable from the fize of its artery,
which is larger in proportion to the organ than in any other
inilance, although no fecretion takes place. There are
great varieties in the number of fecondary branches, by
which it penetrates the notch of the fpleen. The hepatic
artery is rather larger than the fplenic in young iubjeCls;
but fmaller in the adult ; yet the liver in the latter is at
leaft five times larger than the fpleen. The branches of
the fplenic artery are faid to be very large in comparifon
with the trunk ; and the coats of the artery are remarkably
ftrong. Its refiftance, compared to that of the aorta, near
the emulgents, was as 1312 to looo. The fpleen has a
large fingle vein, vs-hich conftitutes one of the principal
trunks of the vena portarum. In a child of three months,
according to Haller, the artery meafured VoVdth of an inch,
the vein -r^oV'^''' • '" ^ child of eighteen months, the num-
bers were 13 and 19 ; at three years, 14 and 26. Ac-
cording to fir Everard Home, " the trunk of the fplenic
vein, compared with that of the artery, when both are filled
with wax, is found to be in the proportion of five to one in
its fize. This was afcertained both by an accurate mea-
furement of their diameters, and by weighing half an inch
in length of each in a very nice balance : the difproportion
between them is greater than between correfponding veins
and arteries in other parts of the body." (Phil. Tranf.
1807. pt. ii. p. 49.) It has no valves. Injefted fluids of
all kinds pafs with the greateft facility from the artery into
the vein. There are numerous fuperficial abforbents, be-
longing principally to the peritoneum : of deep-feated ab-
forbents, there is little known. The abforbents are eafily
demonftrated in the calf. If air is impelled under the
membrane of the fpleen, numerous knotted lymphatic trunks
appear, arifing from the whole furface of the vifcus, and
pafling with the great blood-veflels towards the recepta-
culum chyli. Many obfervers have noticed and defcribed
them in animals ; but they are not fo confpicuous in man.
The nerves are fmall ; they come from the coeliac plexus,
and form a flender fplenic plexus, furrounding the artery,
and entering the fpleen with its branches. If the organ, in
its natural ftate, poflefles any fenfibihty at all, it is very in-
confiderable. For further particulars on thefe points, fee

organ is ctit, its internal colour feems to depend on the Artery, Vein, Nerve, and Absorbent
large quantity of blood it contains ; and nearly refembles The fubftance of the healthy fpleen readily yields to any

force,

SPLEEN.

force, and is eafily broken down. It appears, when divided,
foft and fpongy. Its colour is deeper than that of the lur-
face. It feems thoroughly penetrated with blood, which is
not coagulated, which may be fqueezed out, but does not
flow very readily. In lome fubjefts, more particularly
young ones, there is a granular appearance, arifmg from
numerous fmall bodies, called acini : thefe are rendered
more vifible by breaking the fpleen, and obferving the
broken iurface. If the divided furface be fcraped with a
knife, blood is exprelied, and fome of the parenchymatous
fubllance is ufually detached. If we fubjedl it to frequent
wafhings, the blood is difcharged from it, and the organ is
reduced to a loofe fpongy tiflue of whitifh fibres and
laminae ; many of which adhere to the internal furface of the
fibrous membrane. If the blood is carefully prelTed out from
the veffels, and they are then waiTied out by repeated in-
jeftions of water, the fpleen, carefully inflated and dried,
exhibits a mere cellular and fpongy mafs.

This parenchyma of the fpleen confifts of the blood-
TefTels, ramified in the ufual way, and terminating in a ca-
pillary fyltem, and of certain cells, which are eafily injefted
from the fplenic vein with coarfe injeftion. The ramifica-
tions of the veins, and thefe cells, are of very delicate Itruc-
ture, fo that they eafily give way under injeftion.

The cells of the fpleen were noticed by Malpighi, who
defcribes in the organ a number of fmall glands, hollow, and
furrounded by arterial zones, into which he had never been
able to trace any venous branches. Cuvier defcribes fmall
corpufcles, whofe ufe is unknown. Sir Everard Home fays,
in his obfervations on the itruclure and ufes of the fpleen,
" I have examined it after death, under the ordinary circum-
ftances, and have found the appearances defcribed by Cuvier.
1 have alfo examined it frequently immediately after the fto-
mach had received unufual quantities of liquids, and in that
ftate have found invariably that the corpufcles of Cuvier,
which were the glands of Malpighi, are diltinft cells,
containing a fluid, which efcapes when the cells are punc-
tured, and renders their membranous coat vifible ; fo that
it would appear that the diftention of thefe cells is connefled
with the Itatc of the llomach, and therefore only takes
place occafionally ; and that the elaftic capfule, by which
the fpleen is furrounded, adapts the organ to thefe changes
in its volume." Sir Everard Hates farther, that " in the
fpleen of the bullock, horfe, and hog, the cells, when the
arteries and veins are injedtcd with coloured li/.e, are feen to
have numerous arterial branches ramifying in their coats,
but no venal ones, which confirms the llatement of Mal-
pighi : and when the cells are empty and contraftcd, and the
blood-veflels filled to a great degree of minntenefs, the ap-
pearance of cells is entirely loil, as Itated by Cuvier. When
the cells were in a diltended (late, their cavities, in a great
many indances, were very dillinft, having been laid open in
making a feftion of the fplt-en. The intermediate parts of
the fpleen arc but fparingly fiipplied with arterial branches ;
and the fmaller ones ^arteries ?) do not appear to have any
particular dillrlbntion. When the veins only are injeftcd,
their branches appear more numerous, and larger than thofe
of the arteries, making the whole fubftance of the fpleen of
a red colour. They appear to arifc from the outfide of the
cells, going off at right angles to their circumference, like
radii. Where the injeflion has not been very minute, they
are feen to arifc at not many points of thecapliile; but
where the injeftion has got into fmaller branches, their num-
ber is lo much increafcd, that they appear to form plexufcs
round the cells." Phil. Tranf. i8.;B, p. 47 — 41).

In a fecond paper on the fame fubjctf, fir Ev'-rard informs
»s, " that the fpleen is met with in two very different Hates,

one of which may be termed the diflended, the other the
contrafted, and that in the one its fize is double what it is in
the other. In the diftended Hate there is a diiliuft appear-
ance of cells containing a limpid fluid, diftinguifhable by
the naked eye : in the contraded, thefe only become diftinft
when feen through a magnifying-glafs. The diftended ftate
takes place when the ftomach has received unufual quantities
of liquids before the animal's death ; and the contraAed
Hate, when the animal has been kept feveral days without
any drink, before the fpleen is examined." Ibid. p. 140.

It is obferved by Haller, that in the calf, and moft other
herbivorous quadruped?, the llrufture of the fpleen is more
obvious, and eafily exhibited, than in the human fubjeft.
" In thefe animals, very ftrong and evident fibres and
laminsE arife from the external covering of the fpleen, pe-
netrate into the interior of the organ, are attached to the
coats of the blood veflels, and laftly, having decreafed in
fize, end in all direftions in the pulpy ftruclure of the
fpleen. In this way they compofe a cellular tiffue much
more loofe than in man. If water be thrown into the vein,
the organ then preffed, and thefe proceedings repeated, until
the fluid comes out clear, the whole may be diltended, by
inflation of the vein, into an appearance very much like that
of the lungs. From this texture, there is a very free paf-
fage into the vein, which feems to open by very fhort
brar:ches, as it were foramina, into the cellular tiffues.
The fibres are neither mufcular nor vafcular, but cellular ; on
account of their ftrength in the larger animals, fome have
called them ligamentous." Elem. Phyfiolog. lib. xxi. feft. I.
§ 15.

Heretofore great difputes exifted about the fmall bodies
called acini, which are obferved in the fubftance of the fpleen.
Malpighi, who firft noticed them, deemed them fmall hol-
low glands. Ruyfch infifted that they were merely the mi-
nute veffels an"uming a peculiar arrangement ; and that this
ftrufture could be demonftrated by fuccefsful injeftions.
The latter opinion has been gradually adopted by the bell
anatomifts ; among whom we may enumerate Albinus,
Haller, and Soemmerring. " Qui nonnunquam occurrunt,
acini vel glomeruli, microfcopii ope accuratiffime explorati,
nihil aliud funt ni fi vaforum fafciculi, vel teretes pcnicilli,
aut cirri vafculofi." De Corp. Hum. Fabric, t. vi. p. 157.

The refemblance of the fpleen to glands in its ftruc-
ture, has led to a very careful fearch after an excretory
duft ; but nothing of this kind has ever been detefted ;
although (ucli difcoveries have heretofore been publifhed.
We know ot no connexion between the fpleen and anv
other organ, except by means of blood-vellels or nerves.

In a paper, containing experiments on the paffage of fluids
from the llomach into the general circulation, &c. publilhed
in the Phil. Tranf. 1812, p. 51, fir Everard Home advances
the opinion, that a fecretion takes place into the cells of the
fpleen, that the fluids thus fecrcted are conveyed by the ab-
forbents into the thoracic duel ; and, confeqncntly, that
thofe veffels arc excretory dufts of the fpleen. With de-
ference to this ingenious and indefatigable inquirer, we may
fuggeft, that the faft of the fpleen pertormiug any fecretion
is not yet proved ; confoquently, that we need not employ
ourfelves in difcovering the means of conveying away inch
fecretion.

The blood of the fpleen feems to be dillinguifhed by fome
peculiarities. It is never feen coagulated : Haller fays that he
never faw it in that flatc ; but according to Socnunerring,
a t'ue clot (polypus) has been obfervi d in the (j)lenic vein.
(Elem. Phyfiol. t. vi. p. 404. De Corp. Hi;m. Fab. t. vi.
p. 156.1 It is faid to be darker coloured than other venous
blood; but cxpofure to oxygen gives it the fcarlet tint.
9 Haller

SPLEEN.

Haller fays Jilfo that it contains more water, the proportion
of this element in it, compared to that in other blood, being
as 4i to ^ J. The thick part fubfiding to the bDttom of the
veflel was lefs ; as 3 to 6. Sir Everard Home confirms the
fad of the greater quantity of ferum in fplenic blood.
(Phil. Tranf. 1808, p- 138.) Neither, according to the
reprefentation of Haller, are thefe the only diltinguifhmg
charafters of fplenic blood. It has been found, he fays, to
contain more volatile fait, *id lefs empyreumatic oil. The
experiments on which the above obfervations are grounded
afforded fimilar refults on repeated trials, and in various

animals.

The fpleen is very fmall in the foetus, and appears re-
markably fo, if compared to the kidnies or liver. It ra-
ther increafes towards the end of pregnancy. No remark-
able changes occur in it after birth : in old perfons it is often
diminiflied ; and its external coat is thicker.

A fpleen, or at leaft a body fo confidered, and called by
that name, exifts in all the orders of the vertebral divifion
of animals ; but, if we may judge from the iize, its im-
portance feems to diminifh fucceffively from mammalia to
birds, thence to reptiles, and from them to fifhes. Mammalia
refemble man in having the fpleen placed clofe to the left end
of the ftomach ; but they exhibit confiderable varieties in the
fize, figure, colour, and texture of the organ. It is pro-
portionally large in man, being twice as large as in the ox
for example. In birds, reptiles, and fifhes, the fpleen is
not only (mailer, but firmer and more rounded j not fo con-
ftantly placed near the ttomach, but in the midil of the me-
fentery for example. The relations and fources of its blood-
veflels are alfo different. Inftead of a large peculiar branch,
it has fmall branches from a ilomachic artery, or from the
mefenteric.

The ufe of the fpleen ftill remains a problem, towards the
elucidation of which the inveftigations of fo many anatomifts
and phyfiologifts have hitherto afforded very imperfect data.
In beginning his obfervations on this fubjeft, Haller very
fenfibly admonifhes his reader that " he is plunging into the
region of mere conjefture, darker than in the cafe of any
other vifcus." We might have hoped to derive fome light
from the difeafes under which it frequently fuffers, and from
the experiments, in which it has been removed in animals.
The inferences, however, to which we arrive in this way,
are only of the negative kind ; they enable us to deltroy or
refute, but not to baild up or eitablifh. The fpleen may
be found confiderably altered in texture, where the indi-
vidual has enjoyed good health before death, or has died of
ether complaints. It is often enormoufly enlarged, without
materially affeAing the health ; and, on the other hand, where
ill effefts are produced, they have no peculiar charafter,
affording illuftration of the ufe of the organ.

The experiment of removing the fpleen feems to have
been performed in very ancient times. Pliny fay?, that
animals will live after this part has been torn out (lib. xi.
c. 30.) ; and the fame fatt is noticed in the Talmud (Ginz-
burger. Medic. Talmud, p. 11.) Haller cites various in-
ftances, in which the fpleen has been loft in the human fub-
ject ; particularly Leon. Fioravanti, teforo della vita umana,
1. li. c. 8. Phil. Tranf. N°45i. The removal of it from
the dog is an experiment repeated over and over again.
(See Haller, t. vi. p. 421.) We find that animals, and
even human fubjcfts, have lived without a fpleen, and en-
joyed tolerable health. Sometimes the experiment has been
fatal, but not from the lofs or interruption of any func-
tion, that could be afcribed to the fpleen. We find that
dogs have been lively, fat, and even plethoric; that they
have had good appetites ; that bitches have produced

young. Some thonght they wire more falacious ; others,
that they made water more frequently. In fome cafes
appearances were noticed, that might be referred to im-
perfeAion in the digeftive procefs, as borborygmi. .The
liver is faid to have fuffered, in a few inftances : in moll,
however, there feems to have been good bile made ; and
generally no particular ill effeft was experienced.

The inference, then, to be collefted from thefe fources
is, that the funftion of the fpleen is of fo httle importance,
that the alteration of its texture by difeafe is not marked
by any unequivocal fymptom, and even that its entire re-
moval is hardly followed by any fenfible effeft.

It has been a generally received, and long prevalent
notion, that the office of the fpleen is related to that of the
liver ; that the blood, either by its retarded motion througli
the ferpentine fplenic veilels, its ft agnation in the fplenic
cells, or other changes wrought in it by the aftions of the
fpleen, acquires peculiar properties, rendering it fit for the
fecretion of bile in the liver. It is fuppofcd that the fplenic
blood is loaded with carbon, which the aft ion of the liver
feparates from it. We do not ufually meet with fuch ar-
rangements as thefe in the animal economy : indeed no in-
ftance could be adduced of the like nature ; — one organ to
carbonize the blood, that it may be decarbonized by
another ; or a part to produce changes in the blood, fitting
it for the fecretion which is to be performed by another.
The tiffue of each gland has the power of extracting its pe-
culiar fecretion from the common mafs. That the fpleen
produces changes in the properties of the blood is not yet
clearly proved : ftill lefs is it proved that fuch changes, if
produced, are in any way concerned with the biliary fecre-
tion. Further, bile is fecreted where the fpleen has been
removed ; and it was fecreted, in the cafe recorded by Mr.
Abernethy, where the vena portarum emptied its blood into
the inferior vena cava. W^e obferve no conltant relation
between the fpleen and liver ; the former is extremely fmall
in many birds, reptiles, and fifties, where the liver is large.

The clofe neighbourhood of this organ to the ttomach,
and the connexion of their blood-veffels, have led to the
conjefture that they are connefted in funftion. It has been
imagined, that when the ftomach is emptj, the fpleen, like
a fponge, fwells with blood, and affords a refervoir for the
quantity of that fluid, which the blood-veffels of the ftomach
do not require in the inaftive ftate of the organ ; while, on
the contrary, when this bag is dillended with food, and the
procefs of digeftion demands a more copious afHux of fluids
into the ftomachic veflels, the preffure of its great extremity
empties the fplenic fponge, and thus caufes a greater flow
in the other parts of the cojliac fyftem. This, again, is all
imaginary : not a fingle point of it founded in obfervation.
It is quite inapplicable to the three lower claffes of vertebral
animals, where the pofition of the fpleen in many inftances,
and its firmnefs in feveral, are quite incompatible with the
explanation.

In two papers, publiftied in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions for 1808, on the ftrufture and ufe of the fpleen, fir
Everard Home attempted to prove, that fluids are conveyed
from the cardiac end of the ftomach into the fpleen, and
thus arrive in the general circulation, without the interven-
tion of the general abforbing fyitem and thoracic daft.
Having tied the pylorus, he injefted coloured fluids into the
ftomach : they were partly abforbed, and manifeftcd their
prefence in the circulating fyilem by changes produced iu
the urine. When rhubarb was ufed, the cut furfacc of the
fpleen produced a decided yellow tint on paper, and the
ferum of the fplenic blood manifefted the prefence of rhu-
barb, on the addition of potafti ; when no fuch phenomena,

were

SPLEEN.

were exhibited by the cut furfac? of the liver, or in the
ferum of blood from the vena cava. There was a corre-
fponding difference between the effefts ef pota(h on fluids,
in which the fubltance of the liver and that of the Ipleen
were broken up. The author abandons this notion in a
fubfequent communication to the fame fociety, on the paf-
fage of fluids from the ttomach into the general circulation ;
having found that correfponding phenomena were exhibited,
after the fpleen had been removed. Phil. Tranf. 1812.

Of numerous other dreams about this myllerious organ,
fuch as that it forms the red globules of the blood, that it
is the feat of laughter, or of the fentient foul, that it is
defigned to balance the liver, &c. &c. we can fay no more
than that thofe who are interelted in fnch fpeculations will
find ample amufement in Mailer's Elem. Phyfiol. lib. xxi.
feft. 2 ; or in Soemmerrin^ de Corp. Hum. Fabrica, t. vi.
p. 158, et feq. One faft, mentioned by the latter author,
may be flated, ijii. that fteel given for fome time to animals
has the efFedl of diminifhing the fize of the fpleen.

Spleen, Difeafes of the, in Medicine. Much more has
been written by the older writers refpefting the difeafes of
this organ, than by thofe of the latl half century. This
may have arifen partly from the greater accuracy of modern
pathologifts, but chiefly perhaps from the aftual diminution
of thefe maladies, in confequence of the diminution of the
prevalence of intermittent fevers, of which many of the
chronic derangements of the fpleen were the fequelis, or di-
reft refult. The infarSion of the fpleen, of which the older
authors fo often treat, was of this nature. The two prin-
cipal modifications of difeafe, to which this vifcus is fubjeft,
are inflammation, and their indolent enlargement of its fub-
ftance, formerly called infarftion. We fliall treat of thefe
difeafes feparately ; and then enumerate fome of the other
morbid conditions, with which the fpleen has been occa-
fionally obferved to be afFefted.

Spleen, Inflammation of, fpknitis of the nofologifts.
This may occur, as in the other vifcera, in two forms ;
either attacking the inverting membranes, or the fubftance
of the gland. Under both forms, however, it is a rare dif-
eafe, but efpecially under the latter, the fymptoms of which
are apparently obfcure, and net fatisfaftorily underltood.

The peritonatal coat of the fpleen is, in faft, feldom in-
flamed, according to the teftimony nf that excellent ana-
tomill, Dr. Baillie, unleft when the peritonscum in the
neighbourhood is alfo affeftcd. The proper capfule of the
fpleen, he remarks, is fo intimately connefted with the pcri-
tonsEum, which is reflefted over it, that it mud neceflarily
partake of any inflammation afFefling that membrane. Ac-
cordingly the fymptoms, attending this inflammation of the
coats of the fpleen, are not to be diftinguiflied from thofe
which characterize inflammation of that portion of the peri-
toneum which lies in the left hypochondriiun (fee Perito-
nitis) ; that is to fay, there is pain in that rcgioa, more or
lefs violent according to the degree of the inflammation,
which is increafed by prellure, and is accompanied by a fenfe
of heat and tenfion in the part. There is alfo more or lefs
of fymptomatic fever, heat of flcin, quicknefs and hardnefs
of pulfe, thirlt, &c. ; and, if the inflammation be confider-
able, fome difiiculty of breathing. The lall fymptom arifcs
from the prcffure of the diaphragm, when defcending, in
the aft of infpiration, upon the inflamed parts. As the ufe
of the fpleen m health is unknown, we cannot, of courfe,
look for any fymptom charafteriftic of its difordercd func-
tion, as in the cafe of other large vifcera ; but mull infer
that it is the feat of inflammation, from tlic fituation of the
pain, and from the abfcnce of dillurbance, in any confider-
ible degree, in the funftions of the neighbouring vifcera ;

Vol. XXXIII.

as in that of the kidaies, exhibited in the urine ; in that of
the ftomach, great inteftine, &c.

It is probable, however, that the invefting membrane of
the fpleen is liable to fome degree of inflammation, which is
not always noticed ; for it has been remarked by the able
pathologift; juft quoted, that it is not uncommon to find ad-
hcfions between the fpleen and the neighbouring parts.
Thofe adhefions confift of a white tranfparent membrane of
more or lefs firmnefs, and generally conneft the broad fur-
face of the fpleen more or lefs clofely to the diaphragm
They often alfo conmft the fpleen to the great end of the
Itomach, and a part of the tranfverfe arch of the colon.
See Baillie's Morbid Anatomy of fome of the moit im-
portant Parts of the Human Body, chap. xi. ; and Mor-
gagni de Sedibus et Cauf. Morborum.

The inflammation or fuppuration of the fubttance of the
fpleen is a very rare occurrence ; but fuch cafes have been
occafionally obferved, and related by authors. (See Lieu-
taud, Hiltor. Anatom.-Medica, torn. i. ) This writer ha»
even related infliances of mortification of the fubftance of the
fpleen ; but neither Morgagni nor Baillie have obferved
fuch cafes. The fymptoms which have been defcribed, as
belonging to inflammation of the fubltance of the fpleen,
are, a dull pain, with a fenfe of fulnefs, in the left hypo-
chondrium, the pain being increafed on preflure, and ac-
companied by the general difturbance of the fyftem, called
fever. The difeafe, liovvever, is fo rare, that fufficient
obfervations have fcarcely been made to determine fatij-
faftorily the diagnofis of this malady. In two cafes, ia
which the inflammation of the fpleen had advanced to fup-
puration, which were examined by Dr. Hunter, the patients
were unable to define accurately the feat of their pain, which
feemed to travel a good deal over the general cavity of the
abdomen.

Ahhough the diagnofis be imperfcftly eftabliflied, how-
ever, the fame praftice will be efficacious, which experience
has found to be remedial in the inflammation of the peri-
toneal coat, or of the fubltance of other vifcera, and of the
peritoneum lining the abdomen ; that is, the early ufe of
blood-letting, and purgatives, with blilters and local bleed-
ing, as circumttances may require ; and the fteady adoption
of the antiphlogiltic regimen, as direftcd in the treatment of
other vifceral inflammations. (See Peritonitis, Hepa-
titis, &c.) We fliall, therefore, proceed to defcribe the
fecond form of difeafe peculiar to the fpleen.

Spleen, Tumid. This difeafe of the fpleen confifts of an
indolent enlargement of the fubftance of the viieus, which,
at the fame time, becomes much harder than natural. It
will occafionally be enlarged to five or fix times its natural
fize, and it then forms a tumour very capable of being dif-
tinguilhed in the living body. When examined after death,
the natural itrufture feems to be prelervcd, except that it it
much more compadt, the parts being much more clofely
applied together. When this tumour and induration are
the confequeuce of intermitting fever, the mafs is called an
ague-cake. In general, this Hate of the fpleen is confidcred
as fcirrhons ; but its ftrufture, as Dr. Baillie remarks, is
not fimilar to fcirrhiis in otiicr parts of the body. It may,
therefore, be doubted whether this is a proper fcirrhoiie
affeftion of the fpleen, or whether it is not, in faft, fotne-
thing eflentially diflerent.

The fymptoms accompanying an enlarged and indurated
ilate of the fpleen, in its early ftages, are not very mani-
feft or urgent ; in fa4t, the exiftence of the difeafe is com-
monly not lufpedcd, till it has made a confiderablc pro-
grcfs. It is ufually not accompanied by any pain or un-
cafineft ; and will even bear a pretty ftrong preflure, with-
4 E out

S P L

S P L

out any painful fenfation. But when the tumid fpleen has
attained a confiderable fize, it may be diftinftly felt by the
hand, and dillinguifhed by its fituation and general fliape.
Its anterior edge may be traced under the margin of the
ribs upon the left fide, and it is fometimes afcertained by this
examination to be notched. Under this Hate of the dif-
eafe the patient can only lie upon the left fide ; but he
ufually complains of a fenfe of fulnefs and weight, rather
than of pain, dragging downwards towards the left fide,
and of fome oppreffion of the itomach after eating. The
coniplexion is always of a dirty, fallow, or leaden hue.
The patient is alio faid to be liable to haemorrhages of the
nofe. If the enlargement goes on, it reduces the body to
great emaciation, and at length terminates in an incurable
dropfy. Dr. Pemberton mentions a tumid fpleen, which
he law, which weighed three pounds two ounces. See
Baillic, loc. cit. Pemberton on Various Difeafes of the
Abdom. Vifcera, chap. v.

The laft-raentioned author conjeftures, that the fpleen
may be thus affeded with zfivcUwg of its fubftance, merely
from a larger quantity of blood being conveyed to it by the
arteries, without thefe arteries taking on that aftion which
is effential to inflammation. It is evident, indeed, that this
enlarged and compatl ftate of the vifcus is fomething en-
tirely different from the ordinary refults of inflammation,
and is perhaps peculiar to the ilrufture of the fpleen alone.
It will not unfrequently fubfide fpontaneoufly, or with the
afliftance of medicines, to its natural fize, and feems to be
accelerated in that progrefs by the ufe of mercurial friftion
upon the abdomen, and by the adminiitration of purgatives.
The patient fliould perfevere in the mercurial courfe, till
the mouth is flightly afFefled, and then it (hould be gra-
dually laid afide. Small dofes of calomel, in union with the
extraft of conium, anfwer the double intention of allaying
the irritation of the ftomach, and of promoting abforption;
and if there is a confiderable degree of tendernefs, which is
fometimes produced by an enlarged fpleen about the arti-
culations of the falfe ribs with the fpine, it may be removed
either by leeches or cupping. The diet of the patient
fliould confift of milk, gruel, and a fmall quantity of animal
broth.

With refpcdl to the prognofis. Dr. Pemberton obferves,
the moil favourable fymptoms are, a diminution of the un-
eafy fenfations in the left fide, and an improvement in the
colour of the fl<in : the moil unfavourable are, an increafe
of the fweUing of the left fide, and the lower part of the
abdomen becoming enlarged : and if this part gives a fen-
fation of flnftuation, the cafe is almoil hopelefs. Loc.
cit.

Spleen, Morbid Changes of the. Among the other
morbid conditions of the fpleen, to which we have already
alluded, may be mentioned, firll, an extreme foftnefs of the
organ, which is not uncommon in middle and more advanced
life. In thefe cafes, the fubltance of the fpleen feems to
confift of httle elfe than a very foft brownifh-rcd mucus,
intermixed with a fpongy fibrous texture. This ftate of
the fpleen is not marked by any pecuhar feehngs,' fo as to
make the perfons confcious of any difeafe, and is probably
of very little confequence in the general economy of the
animal. The fpleen, indeed, is faid to be occafionally want-
ing, as a defeft in the natural formation, and it has even
been cut out, both from men and quadrupeds, without oc-
cafioning them to fufier any inconvenience afterwards. An-
other dileafe of the fpleen is the occurrence of tubercles in
its fubftance, very fimilar to the fcrofulous tubercles of the
lungs, which are placed at regular diftances from each
other, and do not run into mafles, and feldora or never fup.

purate. Hydatids, of the fame kind with thofe found in
the liver, are occafionally formed in the fpleen ; but they
are much more common in the former vifcus. Calcareous
concretions have alfo been feen occafionally in the fpleen, but
they are very rare. Sometimes the fpleen has been rup-
tured, in confequence of external preffure upon that fide of
the body where it is fituated. This accident can feldom
take place, when the fpleen is of the common fize, becaufe
it is well defended by the ribs ; but it may readily happen,
when the fpleen is very large, fo that a part of it pafles
below the margin of the ribs into the cavity of the flank.
The only other morbid condition of any importance, which
affefts the fpleen, is an occafional converfion of its coats
into a cartilaginous fubftance, which is almoft exclufively
obferved in this vifcus. The cartilage is generally found in
its convex furface, and rather refembles the cartilages of
the ears and nofe, than that which is found at the extremi-
ties of bones. Thefe varieties of difeafe are not to be dil-
tinguilhed during life by any peculiar fymptoms.

Spleen, in Ichthyology. The fpleen in fifties is ufually
fituate near the ftomach in the left fide of the abdomen.
Its figure is generally triangular, fometimes oblong. Its
colour it always more duflcy and obfcure than that of the
liver. See Fish.

Spleen of Birds, in Ornithology. See Anatomy o/" Birds.
SpLKEtf-iyort, in Botany, Sec. See Asplenium and
MiLT-TOa/?£-.

Spleen-/Fo//, Rough. See Lonchitis.
SPLENECTOMIA, the name given to the chirurgical
operation of cutting out the fpleen.

SPLENETIC, a-jrXnnmc, a perfon afFefted with oppila-
tions and obftruftions of the fpleen.

In fplenetic people, the fpleen is fwelled beyond the na-
tural bulk ; or it is hardened fo, as to ftiew a fchirrou*
tumour in it.

Splenetic people are diftinguilhed by a livid, lead-coloured
complexion ; and their charaifler is, to be very prone to
laughter ; which is an expedient nature is fuppofed to make
ufe of, to evacuate the too redundant humour the fpleen
is charged withal ; whence it is, that the ancients made
the fpleen the organ of laughter ; and hence that popular
faying, of a perfon laughing heartily, that he vents his
fpleen.

Splenetic Waters. See Water.
SPLENIA, comprefles refembling the fpleen in ftiape.
SPLENIC Vessel, a large artery and vein of the fpleen ;
which fee.

SPLENITIS. See Spleen, Inflammation of.
SPLENIUS, called alfo mafloidcus poflerior, in Ana-
tomy, a flat, broad, oblong mufcle, fituated obliquely be-
tween the back part of the ear, and the potterior and lower
part of the neck.

It is partly fingle, and partly madfe up of two portions,
one fuperior, the other inferior. Thefe two portions are
clofely united backward, making only one plane, but they
are divided above.

The two fplenii reprefent a great Roman V, and the
fplenius, and fterno-malloideus of the fame fide, form a
figure like a Roman A, or the legs of a pair of compafles,
the points of which are in an horizontal plane.

The two fplenii ferve to fupport the head in an ereft
pofture, whether in Handing or fitting; to moderate the
flexion of the head forward, and to bring it back again to
its natural pofture. They ferve alternately to co-operate
with either of the fterno-maftoidei for the rotation of the
head. The complexi are afliftants to the fplenii, to keep
the head ftraight in fitting or ftanding, to hinder it from
6 inclining

S P L

inclining forward, and to raife it when inclined. When
they aft together, they, as well as the fplenii, may move
the head backward, while the trunk is bent forward, or
when we lie upon the belly ; this latter motion is commonly
called extenjton, the other Jltxion. See SteRNO-CLEIDO-

MASTOIDEOS.

Splenius Capitis, a name given by Albinus to a mufcle,
called by Winflow, and others, the miiftoideus J'uperior, or
\ipper portion of the fplenius. Riolaiius, and others, call
i" the triangularis fplenii.

Splenius Colli, a name given by Albinus to the mufcle,
called by Winflow, and otfiers, majloideus pojlerior, or the
lower portion of the fplenius ; and by Cowper, the mufculus
inferior fplenii.

SPLENOCELE, a fwelling of the hernial kind, pro-
duced by the fpleen. Although fuch is the meaning of this
word, we believe the difeafe exprcflcd by it is more imagi-
nary than real. Its poflibility may well be doubted.

SPLENT, or Splint, among Farriers, a callous, infen-
iible excrefcence or grittlc, that fometimes flicks to a horfe's
(hank-bone, generally on the infide below the knee. If
there be one oppofue to it on the outfide, it is called a
pigged or pinned fplent ; becaufe it does as it were pierce the
bone, and is extremely dangerous. Some call this a double
fplent, and others a thorough fplent.

Some horfes are more fubjeft to fplents than others ; but
young horfes are moil liable to tliefe infirmities, which often
,vvear off, and difappear of themfelves. Team-horfes are
very apt to have them. Few horfes put out fplents after
they are feven or eight years old, inilels they meet with
blows or accidents. A fplent that arifes in the middle of
the (hank-bone is no ways dangerous ; but thofe that arife
on the back part of tliis bone, when they grow large and
prefs again!! the back fiiiew, always caufe lamcnefs or ftiiF-
nefs by rubbing againd it ; the others, except they are fitu-
ated near the joints, feldom occafion lamenefs.

It may be noticed, in refpcft to the cure of fplents, that
the bell way is not to meddle with them, unlefs they are fo
large as to disfigure a horfe, or fo fituated as to endanger
his going lame. Splents in their infancy, and on their firft
appearance, fhould be well bathed with vinegar or old ver-
juice ; which, by ftrengthening the fibres, often puts a ftop
to their growth ; for moftly the membrane covering the
bone, and not the bone itfelf, is here thickened ; and in
fomc conftitutions, purging, and afterwards diuretic drinks,
will be a great means to remove the humidity and moidure
about the limbs, which is what often gives rife to fuch ex-
crefccnces. Various are the remedies prefcribed for this
diforder : the ufnal way is to rub the fplent with a round
ftick, or the handle of a hammer, and then touch it with
oil of origanum. Others lay on a pitch platter, witli a
little fublimate, or arfenic, to deftroy the (ubflance : f(/me
ufe oil of vitriol, fome tinfture of cantharides ; all which
niethods have at times, it is faid, fucceeded ; only they are
apt to leave a fear, with the lofs of hair. Thofe applica-
tions that arc of a more caiillic nature, often do more
hurt than good, efpccially when the fplent is grown very
hard, as they produce a running for fcvcral months, which
often leaves an ugly fear. Mild blirtcrs, often repeated,
fhould be firll tried as the mod eligible method, and will
generally fucceed, even beyond cxpeftation : but if they
fail, and the fplent be near the knee or joints, fire and
blifter, in the fame manner aa for the bone fpavin.

Splents on the back part of the (hank-bone are difficult
to cure, by reafon of the back finews covering them ; the
bed way is to bore the fplent in feveral places with 311

S P L

iron not very hot ; and then to fire in the common way,
not making the lines too deep, but very clofc together.

Splent.s, in Surgery, pieces of wood ufcd in binding up
broken limbs. See Fhacture and Splints.

The word is alfo fometimes ufed for the pieces of a frac-
tured bone.

SPLICE, To, in Sea Language, is to join the two ends
of a rope together, or to unite the ends of a rope to any
other part of it. There are feveral different methods of
performing this operation, according to the fcrviccs on
which it is to be employed. The^yZit-rt fplicc is made by
untwining the ends of two ropes, or the two ends of one
rope, and having placed each of the ftrands of one oppo-
fite to, and in the interval between two drands of the other,
to draw thera clofe together ; and then interweave the
drands of the one into the alternate drands of the other,
by penetrating the latter with a fid or marhne fpike, parallel
to the axis or length of the rope. This fplice is ufed on
the cables, flings, block-drops, and in general all ropes
which are not defigned to run through blocks, or where
the fplice is not in danger of being loofencd or feparated.

The long fplice, being fixed in three places, occupies a
greater extent of the rope ; but by the divifion of the join-
ings, the bulk is alfo divided into different parts of its
length. Hence, it is much neater and fmoothcr than the
(hort fplice, and better adapted to run through the channel
of a block, &c. for which ufe it is generally calculated.

The eye-fpliee being intended to make a fort of eye or
circle at the end of a rope, the drands are untwided, and
their extremities thrud through the three drands in that
part of the faid rope on which the fplice is to be formed,
and thence paffing over the furface of the fecond tlrand,
they are again thrud through the third, which completes
the operation.

The cut-fpUce is condrufted in the fame manner as the
eye -fplice ; being no other than the ends of two lines
fadened together, at a (hort didance from each other, the
extremities of either being interwoven into the bight of the
other, fo that the line becomes double in the extent of the
fplice. This is chiefly ufed in lead-lines, log-lines, and
fi(hing-lines, where the (hort fplice would be liable to
feparation, as being frequently loofened by the water. Fal-
coner.

The tapered fplice, modly ufed on cables, is made by un-
laying a certain length of each cable, then placing them to-
gether, and interplacing the (Irands, as in the (hort fplice,
twice each way, and hauled tight each time ; then inlay the
drands, or ends, fuccefTivcly, and reduce them to a finglc
drand, which is again thrud through, and cut off. 1 he
fplice is then ferved over with fpuii-yarn, fomething more
than the whole length. Drawing-fpUee, ufed on cables, is
made by unlaying about three fathoms of the ends ; then
place them together, and make a fliort fplice ; then leave
about one fathom, and from thence reduce each drand to a
long taper, by gradually cutting away as many yarns as ne-
ciffary, and neatly point over the taper ; then lay the ends
up the cut-lines, and clap in a quarter-feizing at each end
of the fplice, an end-fcizing at the beginning of the point-
ing, and a dop at the ends of the tails. Tliis is the bell
fplice for cables, as it may be readily taken afundcr. An-
other good method of making a cable-fpliee is to put the
ends in twice each way ; then to pick out the drands, worm
part of them round the ciblc, and taper away the red,
which (hould be marled clofe down ; then clap on a good
throat and two end-feizing« of ratline.

Splicb, To, among Gardntcrt, is to graft the top of one
4jE 2 tree

S P L

Iree into the flock of another, by cutting them floping, and
fattening them together.

SPLINTS, in Ancient Armour, a defence for the arms,
■which conftituted part of the fuit denominated an Almaine
ryvatt.

Splints, are long pieces of thin wood, or pafteboard,
ufed in Surgery, for affording fupport and fleadinefs to frac-
tured bones.

SPLINTE RS of the Bone, in Frallures. In cafes of frac-
tures, the furgeon is frequently troubled with fplinters of the
bone in the way, which vellicate and prick the neighbouring
parts, and render the proper execution of his office very dif-
ficult. If thefe fplinter? are loofe, and have no connexion
with the bone, they muft be carefully lifted out of the
wound ; if they hang to the bone in fome part by the periof-
teum, that mull be cut off with the fcilFors ; but if they
adhere pretty firmly to the neighbouring parts, and do not
hinder the reduction of the bone, it is beft to replace the
bone, and leave them either to loofen, and come out of
themfelves by the fuppuration of the parts, or to grow
again, as they fometimes will fafely and firmly do, to the
rell of the bone. When they adhere pretty firmly to the
principal parts of the bone, they fhould never be extrafted
by force, but replaced with the greatcit exaftnefs ; for when
this is properly performed, they will frequently unite to the
refl of the bone.

When the points of fplinters of bones flick fo far out,
that they are a great hindrance to the reduftion of the bone,
you are diligently to confider whether you can, by any
means, contrive their reunion to the bone, which may be
determined, by obferving at what dillance they are from the
large bone, and what quantity of flefh there is intervening :
when they cannot be reduced, or reunited to the bone, they
muft be removed with a pair of ftrong forceps, or, if they
flick very firmly, with a fine faw. If the fplinters are buried
iinder the fkin, and cannot be got at with hands, it is pro-
per firft to try if they can be reduced to their natural fitua-
tion ; and if they cannot, an incifion muft be made through
the fkin, that they may be taken out. See Fracture.

SPLIT, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the
grest fomaria iulio/a, or hollow root.

Split, at Sea. When a fail is blown to pieces, the feamen
fay it is fplit.

Split, when applied to a fhip, denotes the ftate of being
ftranded and bilged on a rock or fliore.

Split Rod, in Geography, a rocky headland on the W.
fide of lake Champlain ; 56 miles N. of Skenefborough.

SPLITTING, in Agriculture, a term employed in the
praftice of paring land with the plough in fome diftrifts.
In it the plough always turns upon the left of the firft fur-
row, and the coulter is held clofe all the way to the lifted
flice previoufly turned over, and which now covers a balk
or rib of whole unmoved ground. The fame fort of work,
in fome of the eaftern diftrifts of this country, is denomi-
nated wrell-balking ; but the praftice has there a very dif-
ferent intention to that which induces it in the county of
Devon and fome others.

It is a term which is likewife ufed in common ploughing
to fignify the divifion of the ridges, by making the furrow
parts of the old ones the middle parts of the new ones.
Thus, by beginning at the furrows, and laying the furrow
flices of the different ridges towards each other, by continu-
ally turning in that direftion, the furrows become the middles
and the middles the furrows. It is ufed in oppofition to
gathering, which lias the contrary effeft.

It is ufed too in fetting and taking up fome forts of crops
II

S PO

which are fet in particular manners, as thofe of the potator
kind, when fet in the ridge method, as by fplitting the
ridges with the plough or other tool, the fets are uncovered,
and perfons are enabled to pick and fecure the potatoes, kc.

Splitting. To fpht a thin piece of metal, as an old
filver groat, place the metal on the heads of three pins fluck
up triangularly, and let a lieap of flour of brimltone burn
out upon it ; then throwing it hard againft the floor, the
upper part will feparate from the lower. Boyle's Works,
abr, vol. i. p. 134.

SPLUGEN, in Geography, a mountain in the county of
Chiavenna ; 8 miles N.W. of Chiavenna. Towards the fum-
niit of the mountain is an oval plain, about two miles long
and one broad, encircled with craggy points : it produces
no trees, but yields rich pafturage : near the fummit are
rude blocks of a whitifh kind of marble. Above this oval
plain is the fource of the Lira, which falls into the lake of
Chiavenna. On the other fide of the higheft ridge the
torrents flow towards the Rhine. The paflage over mount
Splugen ii principally ufed for the tranfport of merchandize
to and from Coire ; it is kept open even in winter, though
not without great difficulty : in that feafon the merchandize
is chiefly tranfported on fledges, of which forty or fifty pafo
in a day. — Alfo, a town of the Grifons, fituated upon the
rife of a hill, at the bottom of a rugged chain of Alps, and
principal place of a jurifdrition, in the Rbeinwald ; 16 miles
N.W. of Chiavenna. Two high roads meet at Splugen ;
one from Chiavenna, and the other leading over the Bernard
into Bellinzone. From Splugen to Arder the road continues
by the fide of the Hynder Rhine, through a mountainous
region, which prefents at every ftep the moft awful magni-
ficence of fcenery.

SPODDEN, a river of England, which runs into the
Roch, at Rochdale, in Lancafhire.

SPODIUM, in Pharmacy, a kind of abforbent calx, or
afhes, efteemed drying, and by fome held to have the fame
virtues with coral.

The fpodium of the ancient Greeks was a greyifh kind
of recrement, found in form of afhes, on the hearths of fur-
naces in which brafs was made ; and called by them aroJior,
which literally fignifies ajhes-

Spodium is a metalline powder, nearly akin, both in ori-
gin and ufe, to tutia and pompholyx ; only it is heavier than
either.

The fpodium of the Arabian phyficians, as Avicenna and
others, was made of the burnt roots of rulhes and reeds.
Some moderns alfo make a fpodium of ivory burnt and
calcined to a blacknefs. This is fometimes coutlTerfeited
by burning bullocks' or dogs' bones ; but thefe are of no
value.

The anti-fpodium, which the ancients fubftituted for their
fpodium, was made of myrtle-leaves, galls, and fume other
ingredients calcined.

SPODUMENE, in Mineralogy, Triphane, Haiiy, a mi-
neral which bears lome refemblance to adularia, but differs
from it in the ftrufture, which is foliated, with a threefold
cleavage. It divides into prifms with rhomboidal bafes,
having alternate angles of eighty and one hundred degrees.
It is tranflucent and frangible, but fomewhat harder than
glafs. The colour of fpodumene is a greenifh-white or
grey, and fometimes oil-green. The fpecific gravity is from
3.192 to 3.218. It occurs, both maffive and diffeminated, at
Uton, in Sudermanland, Sweden, at which place it has only
been found at prefent. Before the blowpipe it feparates into
fmall gold-coloured laminx, which melt by a continuation
of the heat into a greenifh-white glafs.

The

S P 0

S P o

The conftituent parts of this mineral are given by Vau-

quelin as under.

Silex - 56 to 64

Alumine .- 24 to 24.4

Lime - 5 ^o 3

Potafh - - 5

Oxyd of iron - 5 to 2

SPOHREN, in Geography, a town of Saxany, in the
■circle of Leipfic ; 2 miles S. of Zorbig.

SPOIL-Bank, n term expreiling any heap of fpare earth
or ftiifF which remains, or is laid by in the cutting of a
canal.

SPOILS, Spolia, whatever is taken from an enemy in
war. See Booty.

Towns and lands taken from the enemy are ufually called
"conquefts;" and allmoveablc thingscoiiltitute the "booty."
This booty naturally belongs to the fovereign making war,
no lefs than the conqueils ; for he alone has fuch claims
againft. the enemy as warrant liim to feize on his goods, and
appropriate them to himfeif. His foldicr";, and even the
auxiliaries, are only inllruments in his hand for ailerting his
right. He maintains and forms them. Whatever they do
is in his name, and for him. Thus there is no difficulty even
with regard to the auxiliaries ; if they are not alTociates in
the war, it is not made for them, they have no more right
to the booty than the conqueils. But the fovereign may
grant the troops what fhare of the booty he pleales. At
prefent, moll nations allow them whatever they can make on
certain occafions, when the general allows of plundering
what they find on enemies fallen in the- field of battle, the
pillage of a camp which has been forced, and I'ometimes
that of a town taken by allault. The foldicr in fcvral fer-
vices has alfo the property of what he can take from the
enemy's troops when he is on a party, or in a detachment,
excepting artillery, military (lores, magazines, and convoys
of provifion or forage, which are applied to the wants and
ufe of the army. This cuftom being once admitted in an
army, it would be injultice to exclude auxiliaries from the
right allowed to the national troops. The Roman foldicr
was obliged to bring in all the booty he had taken to the
public llock. This the general caufed to be fold, and after
dillributing a part among the foldiers, according to rank,
the reft was configned to the public trealury.

Inftead of the pillage of the country and defencelefa
places, a cultom has been fubilitutcd more humane, and more
advantageous to the fovereign making war ; w'z. that of
contributions. Whoever carries on a jull war. has a right of
making the enemy's com. try contribute to the fupport of
the army, and towards defraying all the charges of the war.
Thus he obtains a part of what is due to him, and the fi^b-
jecls of the enemy, on fubmitting to this impofition, are
fecurcd from pillage, and the cour:try is prefervcd. But a
general who would not fully his reputation, is to moderate
his contributions, and proportion them to thofe on whom
they are impofed. An excels in this point is not without
the reproach of cru'-lty and inhumanity : if it [hews Icis
ferocity than ravage and dellruflion, it glares with avarice.
If for weakening nn uiijud enemy, or for punilhing him, it
be lawful to carry oft his goods, which is allowed to be the
cafe, the reafons that jiillify the former aft, may alfo be
pleaded in vindication of dcllroyhig what cannot conveni-
ently be carried oH. Thus a country is ravaged, the pro-
vifions or forage dellroyed, that the enemy may not find a
fubfillence there. When his (hips cannot be taken or brought
off, endeavours are ufed to fink them ; all this tends to put

an end to the vear. But thefe means are to be ufed only
with moderation, and according to the exigency. To tear
up vines, or cut down fruit-trees, is accounted illegal and
favage, except inHidled to punifh fomc crime committed by
the enemy againll the laws of war. This is to dcfolate a
country for many years, and what no fafcty can require.
Such a conduft is not diftated by prudence, but by hatred
and fury.

However, on certain occafions, matters are carried ftill
farther ; a country is totally ravaged, towns and villages are
facked, fet on fire, and the inhabitants put to the fword.
Dreadful extremity, even when forced to it ! Savage and
monltrous exceffes, when committed without neceflity !
However, they are authorifed by two reafons. i. The ne-
ceflity of chaltifing an unjuft and barbarous nation, for
checking its brutality, and prefervirg one's felf from its de-
predations. 1. A country is ravaged, and rendered unin-
habitable, for making a barrier, in order to cover a frontier
againll an enemy, who cannot be flopped in any other way.
A hard refource indeed ! fays Vattel ; but may it not be
ufed againll an enemy, when with the fame views and pur-
pofcs a fovereign lays walte his own provinces ? But for
whatever caufe a country be ravaged, we ought to fpare
thofe edifices which do honour to human fociety, and do
not contribute to the enemy's power ; fuch as temples,
tombs, public buildings, and all works of a remarkable
beauty. What advantage is obtained by dellroying them ?
He who aifls thus declares himfeif an enemy to mankind,
wantonly depriving them of thefe monuments of art and
models of talle. This is the ligiit in which Belifarius re-
prefented it to Tottila, king of tlie Goths. We flill detefl
thofe barbarians for dellroying fo many wonders of art,
when they over-ran the Roman empire. I'hough the refent-
ment of the great Guftavus againft Maximilian, duke of
Bavaria, was entirely juft, he rejefled with indignation the
advice of thofe who were for demolifhing the ftately palace
of Munich ; and took particular care to preferve that ad-
mirable llrufture.

However, if for carrying on the operations of a war, oc
the works of a fiege, there be a neceflity for dellroying
buildings of this nature ; there is doubtlefs a right of fo
doing. The fovereign of the country, or his general, makei
no fcruplc when reduced to it by neceflity and maxims of
war. The governor of a town evidently threatened with a
fiege, fets fire to the fuburbs, that they may not be of ufe
to the befiegers for lodging themfelves in them. Nobody
offers to blame him who lays walle gardens, vineyards, or
orchards, for pitching a camp or throwing up an intrench-
ment ; if fome fine edifice be dellroyed thereby, it is an acci-
dent, an unhappy corifequence of the war, and the general
is not at all blameable ; unlefs, witiiout the leail incon-
venier.cy, he might have made his difpofitions elfewhere.

In bombarding towns, it is difficult to fpare the fine edi-
fices ; at prefent it is only the ramparts and defences of a
place which are ufually b.ittered. To deitroy a place with
bombs and red-hot balls, is an extremity never praAiled with-
out great reafons. But it is warranted by tlie laws of war,
when an army has no other refource for reducing a place on
wliich may depend the fucccfs of the war, or when it greatly
annoys us. It is alfo fomctimcs pradlifed when there is no
other expedient of facing an enemy to make war with hu-
manity, or for punifhing him for fome other illegal outrage.
But it is with reludlancc that good princes make ufe of their
rigorous rights, and never but in extremities.

Fortrelles, ramparts, and every kind of fortification, re-
late folely to war, and as in a jull war nothing is more natu-
ral

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til than to raze thofe which we do not intend to keep, fo
nothing is more lawful. The enemy is thereby weakened,
and no innocent pcrfon is involved in the damages.

Although to ravage or burn a counti7 is not in general
againft the laws of war, yet if an enemy of a much fuperior
ftrength treats a town or province in this manner, which he
might eafily keep for procuring to himfelf au equitable and
advantageous peace, he is generally accufed of making war
Lke a barbarian. Thus the voluntary deftruaion of public
monuments, of temples, tombs, Itatues, paintir.gs, &c. is
abfolutely condemned, even by the voluntary law of nations,
as always ufelefs to the lawful end of war. The pillage and
deftruftion of towns, the defolation of the country, ravages,
burnings, are not lefs odious and detefted on all occafions,
when evidently praftifed without neccflity, or without urgent
reafons. But as all thefe enormities may be excufcd under
pretence of punilhment, which the enemy deferves, Vattel
adds, that by the neutral and voluntary law of nations, only
enormous offences againil it are to be punifhed in this man-
ner : and when rigour is not of an ablolute necellity, it is
always beautiful to liften to the voice of humanity and cle-
mency. Cicero condemns the dcftruflion of Corinth for its
infults towards the Roman ambaifadors ; becaufe Rome was
able to alTert the dignity of its minillers, without carrying
its revenge to fuch extreme rigour. Vattel's Law of Na-
tions, b. iii. ch. 9.

SPOKEN-Chain, in Rural Economy, fignifies provinci-
ally a chain of great ftrength, and fufficiently long for fixing
upon the fpoke of the wheel of a waggon, when the team
is fet fafl in a Hough, to draw it out by, &c.

SPOKES, the bars of a wheel that pais from the nave
to the felly.

SPOKE-SHAVE, in Block-making, a kind of plane to
fmooth and finifh the fhella, which is a piece of fteel, four
or more inches long, and one and a half broad ; (harp at
one edge as a knife, and a quarter of an inch thick at
the back : at each end are left about two inches of narrow
fteel, bent up as pegs, by which it is regulated and fecured
in a piece of wood ten inches long, and narrowed at each
end, for handles.

SPOL.ETO, in Geography, capital of Umbria, or the
duchy of Spoleto, the fee of a bifhop, immediately under
the pope. It became a Roman colony A. U. C. 512 ; and
22 years afterwards, withilood the forces of Hannibal,
after the battle near the Thrafymene lake. It was the
refidence of fome of the Gothic kings, and under the
government of Longinus, exarch of Ravenna, was made
-the capital of Umbria, with the title of duchy. It was
very ill-treated by Frederic Barbaroffa, for tiding with
pope Alexander III. ; but the inhabitants of Perugia
ruined it entirely. It contains 22 churches, 21 convents,
and 17 hermitages. Here are feveral ruins of Roman anti-
quities, thechief of v/hichare a triumphal arch, an aqueduct,
and an amphitheatre. The cathedral is built almoft entirely
■of marble, and contains fome good piftures ; 90 miles S. of
Florence. N. lat. 42° 45'. E. long. 12° 48'.

Spoleto, Duchy of, a province of the Popedom, bounded
[On the north by the Perugiano and the duchy of Urbino,
•on the eail by the marquifatc of Ancona, on the fouth by
Abruzzo Ultra and the Sabina, and on the well by the
-Orvietan and Patrimonio, about 40 miles in length, and
nearly as much in breadth. It was anciently called Umbria,
and received the name of Spoleto in the time of the Lom-
bards, being erefted into a duchy under duke Faroald.
On the extinftion of the Longobardian monarchy, it fell
to the domiuion of the Franks, Hill retaining its former

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conftitution, and afterwards was annexed to the papal ter-
ritories. In 1798 this duchy was over-run by the French.

SPOLIARIUM, among the ancient Romans, the third
part of the bath, ufed for undreffing and dreffing in.

Spoliarium was likevnfe a part of the gladiatorial fchools,
where their clothes and ornaments were laid, and where
the wounded and killed were carried.

SPOLIATION, in Laiv, is an injur)' done by one clerk
or incumbent to another, in taking the fruits of his benefice
without any right to them, but under a pretended title. It
is remedied by a decree to account for the profits fo taken.
This injury, when the Jus patronalus, or right of advowfon,
does not come in debate, is cognizable in the fpiritual
court ; as if a patron firft prefents A. to a benefice, who is
inltituted and induAed to it ; and then, upon pretence
of a vacancy, the fame patron prefents B. to the fame living ;
and he alfo obtains inftitution and indutlion. Now, if A.
difputes the faft of the vacancy, then that clerk who is
kept out of the profits of the living, whoever he be, may i*
fue the other in the fpiritual court for fpoliation, in taking !f
the profits of his benefice. And it (hall there be tried,
whether the living were, or were not vacant ; upon which
the validity of the fecond clerk's pretenfions muft depend.
But if the right of patronage comes at all into difpute, as
if one patron prefented A., and another patron prefented B.,
there the ecclefialtical court hath no cognizance, provided
the tithes fued for amount to a fourth part of the value of
the living, but may be prohibited at the inftance of the
patron, by the king's writ of Indicavit. So alfo if a clerk,
without any colour of title, ejecls another from his par-
fonage, this injury muft be redreffed in the temporal courts :
for it depends upon no queftion determinable by the fpi-
ritual law (as plurality of benefices or no plurality, vacancy
or no vacancy), but is merely a civil injury. Blacklt,
Comm. b. iii.

SPOLTORA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Abruzzo Ultra ; 12 miles S.E. of Teramo.

SPONDAULA, a-zoilo!.ii\n:, formed from o-roi-Ji;, llba^
tion, and avXa;, Jlute, in ylnUquity, a player on the flute, or
other wind-inftrument of that kind; who, during the offer-
ing of facrifice, performed fome iuitable air in the priell's
ear, to prevent his hearing any thing that might di(lra£t
him, or lelTen his attention.

SPONDE, Henry de, in Biography, a French prelate
and ccclefiaftical hillorian, was born in 1568. His father
was fecretary to Joan, queen of Navarre, and, being a Cal-
viniit, educated his fon in the fame perfuafion. He dif-
played, at a very early age, a great facility in learning
languages, one of which was the native tongue of Scotland,
which he acquired in a journey to that kingdom in the
fuite of the French ambaffador. Upon his return, he
ftudied the civil and canon law, and was made mailer of
reqiiefts to the king of Navarre. In 1595 he abjured Pro-
tellantifm, and in the following year declared his new opi-
nions in a work, "De Cosmeteriis Sacris." In the year 1600,
he accompanied cardinal de Sourdis to Rome, and fome years
after he was ordained prieft. He then began to labour on
his great work, x>/2. the " Abridgment of the Annals of
Cardinal Baronius," to which has been added a " Conti-
nuation," brought down to 1640. In 1626 he was nomi-
nated by Louis XIII. to the bifhopric of Pamiers, which
he accepted only through the command of pope Urban VIII.
He pubhlhed " Ordinances Synodales," which were in-
tended to affift in the converfion of his former affociates.
He alfo founded an eccleCaftical congregation, fome lemi-
naries and religious houfes, and dittinguilhed himfelf by all

the

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the epifcopal virtues. He died at Touloufe m 1643, at
the age of 78. Befides the works mentioned above, he
published " Sacred Annals of the Old Teftament to the
Time of Jefus Chrift," which arc, properly fpeaking, an
abridgment of Tormiel's Annals. His elder brother was
author of " Commentaries on Homer ;" " An Account
of the Motives which induced him to unite himfelf with the
Catholic Church ;" and " An Anfwer to Beza's Treatife
on the Marks of the Church." He died in the year 1595.

SPONDEE, Spond^us, in the Greek and Latin Pro-
fody, a foot of verfe, confifting of two long fyllables ; as
vertunt, divos, campos.

The fpondee is a grave meafure : all Greek and Latin
hexameters regularly end with a fpondee.

There are alfo fpondak -verfes ; that is, verfes compofed
wholly of fpondees, or, at leaft, that end with two fpondees ;
as,

" Conflitit, atque oculis Phrygia agmina circumfpexit."

SPONDIAS, in Botany, a name borrowed from the
ancient Greeks, whofe a-iroutx.:, or a~7rooia-, was a kind of
wild plum, very diilinft, mod afl'uredly, from the prefent
Indian genus, though there may be fome fimilarity in their
fruits. — Linn. Gen. 229. Schreb. 308. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. 2. 750. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 3. 108. Juif. 372. Lamarck llluftr. t. 3S4. Gxrtn.
t. 103. (Monbin ; Plum. Gen. 44. t. 22.) — Clafs and
order, Decandria Pentagynla. Nat. Ord. uncertain, Linn.
Terebintacea: ? Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fome-
what bell-fhaped, fmall, five-cleft, coloured, deciduous.
Cor. Petals live, oblong, flat, fpreading. Stam. Filaments
ten, awl-fhaped, ereft, fhorter than the corolla, the alter-
nate ones longer; anthers oblong. PiJ}. Germen ovate;
ftyles five, fliort, diltant, ereft ; ftigmas obtufe. Perk.
Drupa large, oblong, marked with five fears from the fall
of the ityles. Seed. Nut ovate, woody, fibrous, with five
imperfeft angles, and five cells.

Obf. Juflieu remarks, that the ftamens are inferted into
a glandular diflv ; or, in Linnsan language, receptacle of
the flower ; probably a neftary.

Efl". Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Petals five, Drupa fu-
perior, with a nut of five cells.

1. S. ATomlin. Spanifh Plum. Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 10.
V. 2. 1036. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 428. Willd. n. i. (S.
purpurea; Linn. Sp. PI. 613. S. Myrobalanns ; Jacq.
Amer. 139. t. 88. S. n. i ; Browne Jam. 228. Myro-
balanns minor, folio fraxini alato, fruflu purpureo, officulo
magno fibrofo ; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 126. t. 219. f . 3 — 5.)
Common footllalk comprelTed. Clufters much flinrtcr than
the leaves. — Obfervcd by Jacquin to be wild in the ter-
ritory of Carthagena, South America, from whence it has
been brought into the Weft Indian iflands, in fome of
which, particularly Hifpaniola and Jamaica, it abounds,
being known by the name of the Spanifh Plum-tree. The
tree is various in height, of no regularity of growth, fome-
times as tall as thirty feet, with a thick bark, and white
brittle wood. Leaves about the ends of the branches,
alternate, (lalked, deciduous, pmnatc, four or five inches
long, of about ten pair of elliptical (hiniiig, partly ferrated,
leaflets, an inch long, with an odd one of the fame fize.
Flo'wers fmall, red, in ihort clufters, appearing before the
leaves. Fruit ovate, purple, above an inch long, acid, with
a fingular but agreeable aromatic flavour, for which it is
muchefteemed.

2. S. Myrolalanus. Yellow Hog Plum. Linn. Syft.
Nat. ed 10, V. 2. 1036. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. i. (S.

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lutea ; Linn. Sp. PI. 613. S. Mombin ; Jacq. Amer. 138.
S. n. 2 and 3; Browne Jam. 229. Myrobalanus folio
fraxini alato, fruftu luteo, ofliculo magno fibrofo ; Sloane
Jam. V. 2. 125. t. 219. f. I, 2. Prnnus americana ; Me-
rian Surin. t. 13.) — Common footllalk round. Leaflets
pointed, four or five pair. Clufters compound, about as
long as the leaves. — Native of South America ; cultivated
in the Weft Indies. Miller had it alive at Chelfea in 1739.
This is defcribed as a tree refembling a common Wahnit-
tree in fize and appearance, while the ample clufters of
pale yellowifh foiuers are much like Elder, except in
having no fmcU. The lea-ves arc twice the fize of the fore-
going, with pointed, lefs ferrated, leaflets. Fruit yellow,
two inches long, m large clufters, its pulp fragrant, fweet,
and agreeable, but the great fize and fibrous nature of the
(tones render it not commodioufly eatable. Hogs are fat-
tened with thefe plums in Jamaica. We cannot but obferve
that Linnxus has changed his own original names of thefe
two fpecies, much for the worfe ; and thofe he has given
are the more unfortunate, as they are diredly contrary to
what Jacquin had previoufly adopted.

3. S. Mangifera. Eaft Indian Spondias. Willd. n. 3.
(S. amara; Lamarck Dift. v. 4. 261. Mangifera pinnata ;
Linn. Suppl. 156. Retz. Obf. fafc. 5. 4. Ambalam ;
Rheede Hort. Malab. v. i. 91. t. 50, not 51.) — Common
footftalk round. Leaflets entire, pointed, about three
pair. Clufters repeatedly compound. — Native of the Eaft
Indies, flowering in January and July, and bearing two
crops of fruit. This is difficult to diftmguifh by a fpecific
charafter from the laft, though widely diff"erent in many
refpefts. That they are one genus, there can be no doubt.
The trun\ is a foot in diameter. I^ea-ves of three pair,
befides an odd one, of elliptical, pointed, entire, fmooth,
pliant leaflets, each four or five inches long, with one rib,
and many parallel tranfverfe veins. Rheede fays they are
agreeably acid. Chijlers hardly fo long as the leaves,
thrice compound ; their principal branches alternate, widely
divaricated, fmooth, purplifti ; flower-ftalks crowded, brac-
teated, very ftiort, but much elongated and fpreading when
in fruit. Floiuers fmall and pale, fomctimes fix-cleft.
Fruit oval, of a yellowifh-green, an inch and a half long,
eatable and agreeably fragrant. The Cat-Amlalam, Rheede
p. 93, fecms to be the wild ftate of the fame tree.

4. S. dulcis. Otahcitc Apple. Forft. Prod. 34. PI.
Efe. 33. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. (S. cytherea ; Son-
nerat Ind. Or. v. 2. 222. t. 123. Lamarck Dift. v. 4. 260.
Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 12. t. 272.)— Common foot-
ftalk round. Leaflets ferrated, about fix pair. Clultcri
repeatedly compound, fpreading. — Native of Otahcitc, from
whence it has been tranfportcd to the Mauritius, where alfo
the laft-deicribed fpecies is cultivated, as appears by fpe-
cimens from Commerfon marked Evia Amra ; for he dif-
tmguiftied the two. The prefent is a large ereft tree, with
brittle wood. Its leajlels arc ferrated, twice as numerous,
and not half the fize of the Lift. Floiuers fmall, wliitifti.
Fruit oval, orange-coloured, twice as big as the laft, aro-
matic and eatable, refembling an apple in flavour, and by
fome voyagers much commended. Forfter compares it»
taftc to a pine-apple, and praifes its falubrity. Sonnerat
fays it is like a rennet apple, but not fo good ; at leaft in
the Mauritius. — This fruit has ripened in the ttovcs at
Schoenbrun.

Spondias, in Gardening, contains plants of the exotic
tree kind, of wiiicli tlie fpecies cultivated is the purple hog-
plum, or Spaiiifti plum (S. mombin).

This plant is cultivated in its native ftate by many for
the fake of the fruit, which is pretty pleafant. And there

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it a variety «f this fort of fruit called the leather-coat,
from the appearance of its fkin.

Method of Culture.— ll is increafed by fowing the ftones
of the fruit in pots filled with hght mould, plunging them in
the bark-bed of the ftove ; and by planting, cuttings, or put-
ting down layers, and managing them m the fame way : the
plants may be taken off and removed into feparate pots
when they have ftricken good roots, being re-plunged m
the bark-bed.

They require afterwards to be kept conftantly in the
ftove, and to have the fame management as other woody
exotics of the fame nature.

They afford variety in ftove coUeftions among other
fimilar plants.

SPONDYLI, SffovJi-Xoi, in Antiquity, pellets of brafs
ufed in giving fentence, before the xiya|aoi, or beans, came
into ufe.

SPONDYLOLITHOS, a name given by authors to a
ftone found in the country of Tyrol, and elfewhere, refem-
bling the vertebrae of an animal. It is in reality no other
than the vertebrx of fome fea-fifti petrified, as is common
with us.

SPONDYLUS, j-Tov&Xo;, a term anciently ufed for a
vertebra of the fpina dorfi.

Spondylus, in Natural Hlflory, a genus of the clafs
and order Vermes Teftacea, of which the generic charafter
it : Animal a tethys ; (hell hard, folid, with unequal valves ;
one of the valves is convex, the other rather flat ; hinge with
two recurved teeth, feparated by a fmall hollow. There are
four

Species.

G^DAROPUS. The (hell of this fpecies is (lightly eared
and fpinous. It inhabits the Mediterranean, the Indian, and
other feas, and is found in almoft infinite varieties, as to fize,
thicknefs, and colours ; fometimes entirely purple, orange,
white, or bloom-colour ; fometimes marked with various
ftreaks, fpots, dots, or bands.

Regius. Shall without ears, and fpinous. There are
four varieties. One inhabits India, and one is found near
Malta, which is very rare. The (hell is fub-globular ; within
it is white ; without purplifli, fcarlet, flame-coloured, orange
er white ; the fpincs are ufually two inches long ; it is
fometimes cylindrical, with a crenate margin.

Plicatus. Shell without ears or fpines, plaited. It is
found in India, fome parts of America, and in the Mediter-
ranean. The (hell is white, with yellowifh, reddi(h, brown-
ifli, or violet lines and veins.

ClTREUs. Shell oblong, plaited, fpinous. The (hell is
imbricate, about two inches long, and nearly as broad ; it
is of a citron-colour, or red, with an orange inner margin.
SPONGE. See Spongia and Spunge.
Sponge-7V«, in Botany. See Mimosa.
SPONGIA, the Spunge, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of
the clafs and order Vermes Zoophytes. The generic cha-
rafter is as follows : Animal fixed, flexile, torpid, of various
forms, compofed either of reticulated fibres, or maffes of
fffiall fpines, interwoven together, and clothed with a ge-
latinous fle(h, full of fmall mouths on its furface, by which
h abforbs and rejefts water. There are about fifty fpecies,
of which nine or ten belong to this country.

The fponges confift of a ramified mafs of capillary
tubes, that were formerly fuppofed to be the produftion of
a fpecies of worms, which are often found within thefe ca-
vities ; an idea, however, which is now generally exploded.
Others have imagined them to be only vegetable produftions :
that they are, howerer, po(re(red of animality, appears evi-

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dent, from the circumftance of their pores alternately cok
tradling and dilating, and from their even (hrinking, in fom?
degree, from the touch, when examined in their native fitua-
tions. Their ftrufture enables them, it is thought, to ab-
forb nourifhment from the furrounding fluid. Sponges are
the moll torpid of all the zoophytes. The individuals differ
very much from each other in form and ftrufture. Some of
them, as the S. officinalis, or common fponge, arc of no
determinate figure, but others are cup-(haped, tubular, &c.;
irregularly formed, porous, rough, lobed, and woolly.

Species.

Ventilabrum. Fan-(haped, regular, foft, with reti-
culate woody veins, covered with pores like thofe of a honey-
comb. It is found in the Norwegian and American feas ;
about fix inches high, and five broad : it exaftly refembles
a fmall gorgonia flabellum in its (hape and ramifications,
except that the pores are angular, and the fubitance is
fpongy.

Flabelliformis. Fan-(haped, orbicular, cartilaginous,
with fquare articulate fibres. This fpecies inhabits the In-
dian and Red feas. It is from fix to eight inches in height,
and four or five broad, and refembles the ventilabrum.

Infundibuliformis. This is funnel-formed, flexile,
with the furface more or lefs roughened. It inhabits the
Mediterranean and Indian feas, adhering to rocks, and is
from fix to eighteen inches in diameter ; in colour it is a pale
brown, and lefs tenacious than common fponge.

FisTULARis. Tubular, fimple, brittle, and gfrowing
gradually larger. It inhabits the Indian ocean, is from three
to four feet long : when dry it is blacki(h fulvous.

AcuLEATA. Tubular, Ijranched, tough, the tubes ereft,
proceeding from one fide of the ilem, and tapering. It in-
habits the Indian ocean ; is from four to fix inches high,
of a deep orange-yellow colour, and hollow through the
whole infide.

* CoRONATA. Minute, confifting of a fingle tube, and
crowned at the tip with a ray of fpines. This is found in
our own country, on the Sufiex coaft : its colour is of a pale
yellow ; the rays that compofe the crown are of a bright
pearl yellow, hollow, and open at the top ; and when feen
through a magnifier, it appears covered with httle rifing
points.

Cli.iATA. Simple, tubular, conic, flexuous, tapering
upwards, and fringed at the tip. It inhabits the Greenland
feas, adhering to the larger ulvse ; is about eight inches long ;
white, filky, downy on the outfide, and rarely found
double.

Cancellata. Tubular, porous, with cancellate fibres.
It inhabits the ocean ; is ferruginous, elaftic, with a prickly
furface ; the tube as thick as the finger, with a few elaftic
perforations.

Rubra. Tough, fimple, carious, dull red, roundiih,
depreffed with elevated tubercles and equal pores. Inhabits
the Red fea, fixed to ftones.

Nigra. Tough, globular, equal, inflated, black with-
out, cinereous within. It is found on rocks in the Red
fea.

Officinalis. This fpecies is irregularly formed, porous,
tough, lobed, woolly. It is elaftic, and very full of holes ;
it grows into irregular lobes of a woolly confiftence, and
generally adheres, by a very broad bafe, to the rocks. It
is chiefly found about the iflands in the Mediterranean, where
it forms a confiderable article oi commerce. A variety of
fmall marine animals pierce and gnaw into its irregular
winding cavities. Thefe appear on the outfide, by Targe
holes raifed higher than the reft. When it is cut perpendi-
cularly,

SPONGIA.

•ularly, the interior parts are feen to confift of fmall tiibes,
which are divided into branches as they appear on the fur-
face. Thefe tubes, which are compofed of reticulated
fibres, extend themfelves every way, by this means incrcaling
the furface of the iponge, and ending at the outfide in an
infinite number of Imall circular holes, which are the pro-
per mouths of the animal. Each of thefe holes is furround-
ed by a few ereft pointed fibres, that appear as if woven in
the form of little fpines. The tubes, with their rami-
I fications, in the living ilate of the fponge, are clothed with
I a gelatinous fubftance, properly called the flefh of the ani-
mal. When the fponge is firit taken, it has a ftrong fifliy
fraell, and the fifhermen take great care in making it per-
feAly clean, in order to prevent its growing putrid. See
Spunge.

* OcuLATA. Porous, foft, and very much branched, the
branches a little compreffed, ereft, and often uniting toge-
ther. This, as theafteriflc indicates, inhabits the Britifh feas.
It is from five to ten inches high, of a pale yellow colour ;
the branches end obtufely.

MuRiCATA. Porous, much branched, angular, tough,
the pores are cylindrical, fubulate, prominent, equal, many-
cleft, and hifpid. It inhabits Guinea, on rocks ; it is grey,
corky ; the branches are furrounded on all fides with fmall,
obtufe, 'haggy tufts ; the ftem is as thick aj a man's finger ;
the branches are about the thicknefs of a quill.

Nodosa. Porous, flightly branched, irregularly formed,
rough and very tough, with knotty perforations on the
branches. It is found on rocks in the American ocean ;
it is of a reddiih-grey, or whitifh, and about the fize of the
finger.

* ToMENTOSA. Porous, irregularly formed, brittle, foft,
downy, interwoven with the minuteft fpines. This fpecies
inhabits the Britifh, African, and Indian coalts, adhering to
marine fubllances ; when frefh it is of a bright orange co-
lour, and full of gelatinous flefh ; when dry, it is whitifh,
and very light ; and if broken, it refembles the crumb, or
foft part ot bread. It appears to be compofed of a num-
ber of minute fpines, and upon handling, it ftings and raifes
bliiters like cow-itch.

Bacillabis. Irregularly formed, caulefcent, ereft,
with porous branches. It is found in the Norwegian feas ;
18 about eighteen inches high, and of the thicknefs of the
finger. It is round, of the confiflencc of common fponge,
but fomewhat more compaft, with very numerous pores,
appearing as if perforated with a fine needle.

•DlCHOiOMA. This fptciesisdichotomoiis, with ereft,
cylindrical, elatlic, woolly branches, proceeding from one
fide of the Item. It inhabits European and Indian feas: is
from five to fix inches high ; in colour it is of a pale yellow,
and full of minute pores.

* Stui'Csa. Tliis fpecies has round, foft, downy
branches. It is found on the SufTex coail ; is three inches
high, and of a pale yellow.

* CuisTATA. Flat, ereft, foft, with rows of fmall pores,
a little projefting along the top. This is found on the
Britifh fhores, adhering to rocks ; generally about two
inches high and three long ; it is of a yelKnvifli colom, and
growing in the fhape of a cock's-comb.

* Palmaia. This fpecies is, as its name imports, pal-
mate, with finger-like divifions round the fui lace ; the pores
are a little prcmiinent, and irregularly difpofcJ. It inhabits
the Sufl'ex coalt ; it is of a reddilh colour, inclining to yel-
low, with a foft woolly fubllance, like S. oculata.

Prolifeha. Flat, wltii numerous ])almate branches,
ending in finger-like divifions. It is found in the North
American feas ; grows in large bunches, is about fi\ inches

Vol. XXXIII.

liigh, very porous, reticulate within, and fuU of minulf
Ipincs on the outfide.

* BoTKYClDEs. Thio is a very tender fpecies, is branched,
and covered with bunchea of ovate tubercles, open at the
top. It inhabits the Britifh coalls ; is of a bright fliining
white colour ; the bunches are made up of oblong, oval tu-
bercles, like grapes, open at the cud. The furface, when
feen through magnifiers of confiderable power, feeins co-
vered withmaffesof three-rayed Ipinoui flars.

* Panicea. Irregularly formed, whitifh, foft, very ten-
der, and full of minute pores. It inhabits the feas between
this country and Holland, intermixed with fuci, and other
marine produftions ; and is thought, from the fimilarity
which it bears to the S. tomentofa, to be a variety of that
fpecies.

Fui.vA. This fpecies is irregularly formed, but flightly
branched, fulvous, and it is very rigid. It inhabits the
American ocean ; is gelatinous, and brown between the
fibres.

Tabularia. Compreffed, fellile, a little rigid and yel-
lowifh, with imall longitudinal tubes. This alfo is an Ame-
rican fpecies, generally feated on rocks, frequently blackifh
within.

FiBRiLl.osA. This fpecies is irregularly fhapcd, a little
flattened and tender, with divergent, crowded, interwoven
fibres, and fcattered toothed pores. It inhabits the Indian
ocean, is grey, foft, fan-fhaped, or divided, or caulefcent.

FAstucuLATA. This is rigid, fub-globular, compofed
of fibrous, prifmatic, branched, failigiate bunches. This
is found in the Mediterranean fea ; is pale, fulvous, or
yellowifh-grey.

Basta. a little rigid, blackifh, in undulate divifions,
with a round ftem. It is an inhabitant of the Indian
ocean, and found adhering to itonee. It is as thick as the
finger.

Lichenoides. This is irregularly (haped, with foft,
branching, fcattered, and fomewhat connefted fibres. It
inhabits the Indian ocean, and refembles a fhrubby lichen.

Papillaris. Crultaceous, tender, foft, with perforated
papilla;. It inhabits the American ocean, as does the next ;
it is of a pale grey, and gelatinous.

Cavernosa. Irregularly formed, feflile, very tough,
cavernous, hcr.ce its name, with numerous, prominent pa-
pillae on the furface. It is about the fize of a man's hand ;
yellowifh-white, fometimes f tdvous within

SiNUOSA. Cruftaceous, tender, tough, with a thickly
porous furface. This is found in the Indian ocean, iacruitin^
other bodies ; it is ot a yellowifii-grey colour.

Frondosa. Grey, leafy, jagged, tough, fub-reticulate,
and feparated into divifions on one fide. This is an In-
dian fpecies.

AL;AKici>f A. Compreffed, lobed, felTile, downy, reticu-
late and muricate with iliff hairs on the outfide. It is founrf
ill the Indian ocean, and h of a yellowifli-brown.

Tui'liA. Branched, foft, with afcending branches, every
where muricate with ItilT bans. It inhabits the Mediterra-
nean, and is of a woolly kind of lubllancr.

Membranosa. Irregularly formed, flightly branched,
cellular, muricate outwardly, purplifh. black. This is found
in the Indian ocean.

CoMPREssA. Simple, compreffed, conic, with a longi-
tudinal cleft or aperture internally. It inhabits the Green-
land feas, is an inch long ; ereft and tawny.

PoKciLLLM. Cylinurical, pcdicillatc, with a perforated
top. It inhabits the North feas ; is not more than a quarter
of an inch long ; whitifli, and faid to rcfcnible a glals
tumbler.

4, F CiMLITA.

S P o

CoALlTA. This is very much branched, foft, tender,
yellow ; the branches are a little compreiTed. It inhabits
the North feas ; as do the three following.

Plana. Expanded, crultaceous, fan-ftiaped.

Cruciata. White, compreffed, with pinnatifid, obtufe,
muriate, woolly branches.

OssiFORMls. White, flightiy branched, with a thickened

pitted top. .

Macida. White, cruftaceous, projefting into fpines.

FiciFORMis. This is porous, rigid, turbinate, with a
perforated tip. It inhabits the Barbary coatt.

* Lacustris. Creeping, brittle, with ereft, round, ob-
tufe branches. It is found at the bottom of lakes in Eng-
land and Sweden, covered with fcattered pmes, m which
are fometimes found, during autumn, fmall blueifh (hining
globules.

* PuLviATiLis. Green, ereift, fragile, of many irre-
gular branches. It inhabits the frelh waters of this country,
Pruflia, and other parts of Europe. It is of a dull green,
with hardly the appearance of animal life, of a tifhy fmell,
and with the pores full of green, gelatinous granulations ; it
very much refembles the lall.

Friabilis. Cinereous, friable, feffile, irregularly (haped,
and flightiy branched. Found in the lakes of Germany, and
is the food of firti.

Canadium. This is known by its dichotomous, round,
incurved branches. It is found in old aquedufts, and has
been thought not to belong to this genus.

SPONGIOLI, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs
the fmall button muilirooms, which are gathered before they
expand or open their heads.

SPONGIOSUM, in Anatomy, fpongy ; a name given
to a fmall ieparate bone of the nofe, and to a procefs of the
ethmoid bone. In the older writers, the ethmoid bone alto-
gether has been called os fpongiofum, from its complicated
apparatus of bony plates, and numerous perforations. See
Cranium.

SPONGY Cheese, in Rural Economy, fuch as is foft
and full of ey«s, from negletl and want of attention in
making. The remedies are, careful breaking, powerful
fqueezing, good Ikewring, and heavy preffing. See Cheese
and Dairying.

SPONHEIM, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhine and Mofelle, late capital of a county,
to which it gives name ; 27 miles W. of Mentz. N. lat.
49° 54'- E-^long. f 40'.

Sponheim, or Spanbeim, late a county of Germany, in
the circle of the Upper Rhine, fituated between the Rhine and
the Mofelle, formerly governed by particular counts, at pre-
fent divided between the eleftor palatine, the duke of Deux
Fonts, and the margrave of Baden. The matricular afleii-
ment of the whole for a Roman month was 290 florins, and
the tax to the imperial chamber 108 rix-do liars 20 kruet-
zers. The foil is in general mountainous, but fertile. Game
and fifti are plentiful, and the mutton elteemed excellent.
The hills towards the Mofelle and Nahe are covered with
vineyards. Here are mines of copper, lead, iron, &c.
and fome medicinal fprings. The principal towns were
Cruetznach, Sponheim, and Traarbach ; all now annexed
to France.

SPONSIO, in Political Economy, denotes an agreement
relating to affairs of Hate, made by a public perfon, who
goes beyond the terms of his commiflion, and rtfts without
the orders or commands of the fovereign. He who treats
in this manner for the ftate, without having a commiflion,
promifcs by this means to take fuch meafures, that the
(iate, or the fovereign, fhall approve and ratify the agree-

S P o

I

ment ; otherwife his agreement would be vain and lUutivCi
The foundation of this agreement can be no other, on either
fide, than the hope of the ratification. The RomaQ hiilory
furnifhes examples of this kind of agreements.

Sponsio Judictalis, in Law. See Feigned IsstJE.

SPONSORS. See God-fathers.

SPONSUS, one of the many names given by the chemifts
to mercury.

SPONTANEOUS, Spontaneus, formed from the La- i
tin adverb fponte, of otie's own accord, in the Schools, a term |
applied to fuch motions of the body and mind as we perform 1
ourfelves without any conftraint.

Thus, in morality, thofe adlions performed upon an in-
ward and natural principle, conformable to our own incli-
nations, excluding all conftraint, are called fpontaueous
aftions.

In medicine, an evacuation, effected without any appli-
cation for that purpofe, is called a fpontaneous evacuation.
And a laflitude or wearinefs, not occafioned by any pre-
ceding fatigue, is called a fpontaneous wearinefs.

Spontaneous Generation. See Equivocal Generation,

Spontaneous Precipitation. See Precipitation.

SPONTOON, in Military Language, is a weapon refem-
bling a halberd, now ufed infl;ead of a half-pike by the officers
of foot. When the fpontoon is planted, the regiment
halts ; when pointed forwards, the regiment marches ; and
when pointed backwards, it retreats.

SPOON-BILL, Platea, in Ornithology, the name of a
bird of the long-necked kind, approaching to the nature of the
fl;ork and heron, and called the fpoon-bill from the remark-
able figure of its beak, which is diff^erent from that of all
other birds, being broadeft at the extremity, and terminat-
ing in a large, rounded, flat procefs, refembhng a fhovel ;
or, if Jt were hollow, a fpoon. The whole bill of this bird
is of a fine (hining black, except a bright orange-coloured
fpot juil above the point of the upper mandible, which is a
little bent downward at its extremity ; at the angles of the
bill, on each cheek, there is alfo a fpot of the fame colour ;
the upper furface of the bill is elegantly waved with dotted
protuberances ; a deprefled hne, extending from the nollnls,
is continued round it near its edge ; its fubttance appears
like whale-bone, being thin, light, and elailic ; the tongue
is fliort, and heart-fliaped, and when drawn back, ferves as
a valve to clofe the entrance of the throat ; when pulled
forward, it has the appearance of a triangular button ; the
ears are large, and placed an inch behind the angles of the
mouth ; the plumage of the whole body, wings, and tail, is
white ; on the back part of the head is a beautiful creft of
white feathers, hanging behind the neck ; the legs are black,
and alfo the thighs, which are naked about half their length;
and the toes are connected by a fmall web, extending to the
firlt joint on each.

This bird breeds on iiigh trees, feeds on fifli and water-
plants, and can fwim ; it inliabits the continent of Europe,
South America, and the Philippine iflands.

A flock of thefe birds migrated into the marflies near
Yarmouth in Norfolk, in April 1774. Pennant. See Pla-

TALEA.

SPOON-DRIFT, in Sea Language, a fort of ftiowery
fprinkling of the fea-water, fwept from the furface of the
waves in a tempelt, and flying according to the wind, like
a vapour.

SPOONING, or Spooming, was formerly ufed to de-
note that moveir.ent in failing, which is now cdWtA. fcudding^

SPOON-WORT, in Botany. See Cochlearia.

SPORADES, in AJlronomy, a name which the ancients
gave to fuch ftars as were not included in anv confteliation.

Thefe

S P o

Thefe the moJerns more ufually call infarmes, or ejilra-
:imJitUary Jlars.

Many of the fporades of the ancients have been fince
formed into new conflellations ; e. gr. of thofe between
Leo and Urfa major, Hevelius has formed a conltcllation,
cnlled l.co minor ; of thofe between Urfa minor and Auriga,
the fame perfon has formed anotlier conilellation, called
Lynx ; and of thofe under the tail of Urfa minor another,
called Canis venirticus, (sfc.

SPORADIC, ctotojkJixo-, formed from oropac, difperfed,
of c-T^ijij, I Jireixi, &c. in Medicine, an epithet given to luch
illfeafes as have fome fpecial or particular caufe, and are dif-
jicrfed here and there, affefting only particular conftitutions,
■/es, &c.

Sporadic ftands in oppofition to epidemic difeafes, which
are thofe arifing from a general caufe, and that are common
to all kinds of perfons, of what complexion and quality
foever.

SPORiE, in Botany, from the Greek irropa, y?f</, a name
given by fome botaniits to the feeds of certain cryptogamic
plants ; by which they feem to imply a doubt of their being
truly femina, or exaftly analogous to the feeds of plants in
jfencral. We know not on what fuch doubts are founded.
If the parts in queltion be produced or perfefted by fexual
impregnation, they are to all intents and purpofes real
feeds, nor does any peculiarity, or apparent fimphcity in their
llrufture, invalidate the propriety of their being fo called.
Seeds of different orders of phxnogamous plants differ, as
-is well known, in their conformation, and even in the number
of internal parts, as well as external coats, of which they
are compofed. Thofe of the more obfcure cryptogamous
tribes may therefore be expected to differ from them more
widely. If fuch apparent feeds be not the offspring of
fexual impregnation, they are Gemmae, fee that article ;
where, as well as in our biographical account of the great
Hedwig, we have lamented that this diftinguifhed philo-
fopher and botanifl (hould have been feduced, by lefs ac-
curate obfervcrs, to adopt a term entirely fubverfive of his
ewn doftrincs and difcoveries.

SPORANGIUM, from <rT»fa, Jeed, and ayyof, a vfffe/,
a name ufed by Hedwig for the capfule of mofles, to which
we have the fame objeftion as to the term Spor« for their
feeds. See that article, and Hedwig.

SPORLING's Island, in Gtography, a frmW ifland near
the coalt of New Zealand, a little to the N.E. of Gable End
Foreland.

SPORLIVOI, Nos, a cape of Ruffia, on the S. coaft of
Nova Zembla. N. lat. 70° 30'. E. long. 60° 34'.

SPOROBOLUS, in Botany, from <!-:rof.x, feed, and /SaAXii,
to throiv, becaufe, as we prefume, of the round deciduous
feed. — BrownProdr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 169. — Clafs and order,
Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

This genus of grades is feparatcd by Mr. Brown from
/fgrri/lis, by the following charadtcrs.

Calyx of two unequal unarmed valves, containing a fingle
flower ; the outer valve fmalleit. Corolla of two rather
acute valves, without awns, fcffile, longer than the calyx.
Nettary of two fcales. Stigmas villous. Seed obovate,
tumid, naked, deciduous.

The ipecics are found between the tropics, fcarcely be-
yond the latitude of 35°. Some have only two Jlamens.
Tht: Jloiurrs are panicled. Sheaths of the /miiw boarded,
with hardly any membranous Jlipula. They are akin to
jigrojlh, cfpeclally to A. virginica. /I. dinndrii of Linnius
is a Sporobolus, as well as A. inJica. Bolides the latter, two
new fpecies have been ohfcrved by Mr. Brown in New Hol-
land, S. ikngatus and pulchellut.

S P o

SPOROW, in Geography, a tovm of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Brzefc, feated on a lake to which it gives name •
28 miles W. of Pinfk.

SPO RTS, in the Cujloms of Flanders, were in great Togue
through Flanders and the Low Countries fome centuriee
ago. Every city had a folemnity of this kind peculiar to'
itfeif: thus Bruges had that called the Forejler ; Valen-
ciennes, the Prince of Pleafantry, and the Prince of the Horfe.
Comb ; Cambray, the King of Ribaldry ; and Bouchain, the
Provofl of Sots. Lifle, one of the richeft towns in Flanders,
was not behind hand with its neighbours in celebrating fports,
by the magnificence and diverfions of which to draw toge-
ther a vaft concourfe of people from all parts. One of the
chief of thefe divertifements was called the King of the Spinet,
Roy d'Epinelte, which was celebrated with great pomp and
fhow. See Hift. Acad. Infcript. tom. iv. p. 452, feq.

SPORTULA, or Sportella, in Antiquity, a dole, or
largefs, either of meat or money, given by princes, or great
men, to the people or poor.

The fportula was properly the pannier or baflcet in which
the meat was brought, or with which the poor went to beg
it ; thence the word was transferred to the meat itfeif, and
thence to money fometimes given in heu of it. The bafl<et
was fuppofed to contain a quantity of hot provifions, of the
value of 100 quadrantes, or i2i pence; and thefe bafkett
were ranged in order in the hall, and diitributed oflenta-
tioufly to the hungry or fervile crowd, which waited at the
door. This indehcate cuflom is very frequently mentioned
in the epigrams of Martial, and the fatires of Juvenal. (See
likewife Suetonius, in Claud, c. 21, in Neron. c. 16, in Do-
mitian. c. 4. 7.) Thefe bafkets of provifions were after-
wards converted into large pieces of gold and filver coin, or
plate, which were mutually given and accepted, even by per-
fons of the highell rank (fee Symmach. epift. iv. 5J. ix. 124.
and Mifcell. p. 256.) on folemn occafions, of confulfhips,
marriages, &c.

Sportula was alfo frequently ufed in oppofition to reda
ccena, a formal or plentiful meal ; as in Martial. — «' Promifl'a
eft nobis fportula, refta data."

St. Cyprian gives the denomination ^or/H/a/)/«yra/r«, to
fuch clergymen as then received gifts, or gratuities, for their
maintenance.

SPOT, in Ornithology, the name of a particular fpeciei
of pigeon, called by Moore the columba maculata. It is of
the fize of a fmall common pigeon, and was brought otct
to England from Holland. This fpecies has always a fpot
upon its head, jufl above its beak, from whence it has itt
name. The feathers of the tail are always of the fame
colour with this fpot, and the reft of the body is all white.
The fpot and tail are black in fome, red in othera, and
yellow in others. They look very beautiful when they
fpread their tails and fly, and arc a diflinti fpecies, at they
always produce young ones of their own marks.

SPOTICO, in Geography, an ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago, of an irregular form, about four miles long,
and from one to two broad ; 6 miles W.S.W. of Faros.
N. lat. 36^ 59'. E. long. 25" 12'.

SPOTS, in AJtronomy, dark places obferved on the difks,
or faces, of the fun, moon, and planets.

The fpots in the fun are only vifible through a telefcopc ;
fome diilinguifli them into maculx, or dark fpots ; and
faculx', or bright fpots ; but there Items but little found-
ation for any fuch divifion.

The folar fpots have not been long obferved. They were
firif difcovercd by Galileo, in the year 1610. foon after he
had (inilhed his tvlefcope.

In oppofition to the received opinion of the unalterable
4F 2 ftatf

S P o

«ate of the heatens, he maintained, that thefe fpots con-
fifted of a kind of matter that admitted of very great and
fudden alterations ; that they adhered to the fun, which
carried them round an axis of his globe m about a month ;
which axis he firft fuppofed to be perpendicular to the plane
of the earth's annual orbit, becaufe the courfe of the ipots
appeared on the fun's difli as ftraight Imes paraUel to that
plane ; which then happened through a particular diredion
of the floating motions of the fpots upon the fun's furface,
as he foon inferred from the vifible alterations in their Ihapes
and fituations to one another, when feveral of them appeared
together : and thence he concluded, that the general courfe
of the fpots was frequently varied a little, in like manner as,
to a perfon viewing the earth from a great diltancc, the
clouds would appear to move parallel to one another, and to
the equator, with the uniform velocity of the earth's diurnal
revolution, unlefs dillurbed a little from that regular courfe
by their floating in the atmofphere. At firil he took the
apparent motion of the fun's to be, as we have ttated,
reftilinear and parallel to the ecliptic ; but in confequence
of a fubfequent obfervation of the entire tranlit of a large
fpot, and of marking its place at noon, day after day, upon
a circular paper anfwering to the fun's dillc, he found its
courfe was a little incurvated ; and thence he concluded,
that the fun's axis was a little inchned to the plane of the
echptic.

Since Gahleo's time, the fubje£l of the fun's fpots has en-
gaged the attention of feveral aftronomical obfervcrs. The
pofition of the fun's axis, and the periodical time of his
motion round it, have been more exactly determined, the
knowledge of which depended upon the obfervation of thefe
fpots. In the year 1639, Scheiner publilhed his " Rofa
Urfina," containing near 2000 obfervations of folar fpots
for 20 years ; in which time he frequently faw above 50 at
once: but for 20 years after, betwixt 1650 and 1670,
fcai-cely any appeared. He found that many of his fpots
fcarcely exceeded 25 days in making an apparent revolution
from a given place on the diik to the fame again, that others
took up 27 days, and fome others near 28. Scheiner and
Caffini the fon have alio obferved, that the periodical times
of the nearer fpots to the equator are (horter than thole of
the remoter ; and Cafllni the father obferved the like pro-
perty in Jupiter's fpots. Thefe irregularities create great
difficulties in determining the time of the fun's exaft revolu-
tion about his axis. Caffini the father, however, by com-
paring many diftant obfervations together, found a common
meafure of many fucli intervals of time to be 27^" 12'' 20'"
very nearly. Hence it has been concluded, that the pe.
riodical time of the fun's revolution to a fixed itar is
25"! is^ 15"".

All fpots confift of a black part in the middle, of fome
irregular figure, encompalTed with a nebulous border of a
colour lefs dark ; and it often happens, after a gradual de-
cay and difappearing of the black part, that its place feems
brighter than the reft of the fun, and continues fo for two
or three days. Thefe brighter fpots are called facuU ;
which fee.

The fun's fpots are very changeable as to number, form,
&c. and are fometimes in a multitude, and fometimes none
at all.

Some imagine they may become fo numerous, as to hide
the whole face of the fun, at leall the greateft part of it ;
and to this afcribe what Plutarch tells us, -viz. that in the
firll year of the reign of Auguftus, the fun's light was fo
faint and obfcure, that one might look iteadily at it with
the naked eye.

To wliich Kepler adds, that in 1 547 the fun appeared

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reddirti, as when viewed through a tliick mift ; and hence
conjetlures, that the fpots in the fun are a kind of dark
fmoke, or clouds, floating on the furface of it.

Others will have them ftars, or planets, tranfiting the
body of the fun ; but it i; much more probable they are
opaque bodies, in manner of crufts, formed like the fcums
on the furface of liquors.

Dr. Derham, from a variety of particulars which he has
recited, relating to the folar fpota, (fee Phil. Tranf. abr.
vol. iv. p. 235, &c. ) and their congruity to what we ob-
ferve in our own globe, infers, that they are caufed by the
eruption of fome new volcano therein, which, at firlt, pour-
ing out a prodigious quantity of fmoke, and other opaque
matter, caufeth the fpots : and as that fuliginous matter de-
cay's and fpends itlelf, and the volcano at lall becomes more
torrid and flaming, fo the fpots decay and become umbrat,
and at laft faculae ; which faculK he fuppofes to be no
other than more flaming lighter parts than any other parts
of the fun.

Dr. Franklin (m his Exper. and Obferv. p. 266.) fug-
gefts a conjecture, that the parts of the fun's fulphur, fepa-
rated by fire, rife into the atmofphere, and there being
freed from the immediate aclion of the fire, they coUeA into
cloudy mafles, and growing, by degrees, too heavy to be
longer fupported, they dcfcend to the fun, and are burnt
over again. Hence, he fays, the fpots appearing on his
face, which are obferved to diininifti daily in fize, their con-
fuming edges being of particular brightnefs. For other
folutions of thefe phenomena, by Wilfon, Lalande, Her-
fchel, &c., fee Maculje and Sun.

The lunar fpots are fixed ; and altronomers reckon about
forty-eight of them on the moon's face, to each of which
they have given names. The twenty-firft is one of the moft
confiderable, and is called Tycho. See Nature, &c. of the
Moon.

Spots, Circular, in Ekaricity. See CIRCULAR. Spots
and Colours.

Spots, Planetary. Allroiiomers find that the planets
are not without their fpots. Jupiter, Mars, and Venus,
when viewed through a telefcope, (hew feveral very remark-
able ones : and it is by the motion of thefe fpots, that we
conclude the rotation of the planets round their axes, in the
fame manner as that of the fun is deduced fn^m the motion of
his maculae. See each planet in its proper place.

Spots, Lucid, in the Heavens, are httle whitifh fpots, of
which there are feveral, that appear magnified, and more
luminous when feen through telefcopes ; and yet without
any (lars in them. One of thefe is in Andromeda's girdle,
and was firll oblerved, A D. 1712, by Simon Marius : it
has fome whitilh rays near its middle, is liable to feveral
changes, and is fometimes invifible. Another is near the
ecliptic, between the head and bow of Sagittarius ; it is
fmall, but very luminou-. A third is in the back of the
Centaur, which is too far fouth to be feen in Britain. A
fourth, of a fmaller fize, is before Antinous's right foot,
having a fl;ar in it, which makes it appear more bright.
A fifth is in the conltellation of Hercules, between the
ftars ^ and >i, which fpot, though fmall, is viiible by the
bare eye, if the flcy be clear -nd the moon ablent.

SPOTSWOOD, in Geography, a fmall town of Middle-
fex county. New Jerfey, near tne weft fide of South river,
which difcharges itfelf into the Rariton, in a f .uth-eaft di-
reftion. It is well fituated for extenfive manufaftories ;
9 miles S.E. of Brunfwick.

SPOTSYLVANIA, a county of the American ftatc
of Virginia, bounded north by Stafibrd, and eaft by Caro-
line county. It is hilly, and well watered by branches of
12 the

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the Mattapony and Rappahannock river?. It contains
13,296 inhabitants, of whom 7135 are flaves. At the
court-houfe is a poll-office; 78 miles from Walhington.

SPOTTED Island, an ifland in the North Atlantic
ocean, on the eall coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 53° 30'.
W. long. 55° 20'.

SPOTTING, Finger, known alfo by the name of
Brocading, in ttie ManufaSure of fanciful ornamented Cloths,
is a very beautiful, though rather expeniive, mode of inter-
weaving flowers, either of the fame or different colours,
with various kmds of grounds. Of its primary origin we
are totally unacquainted, as we find it praftifcd alike, and
with little variation of apparent effcft, in the filks of Europe
and the muflins of India. It is probable that the whole
range of fanciful cloths, with which we are acquainted, are
originally Afiatic ; and that the knowledge of them has
gradually reached Europe, at various times, and through
various channels. In fpots wrought with the (huttle, the
flowers being at intervals, and the woof pafled acrofs the
whole fabric, what palTes between the flowers, and is not
interwoven with the fabric, mu!l be cut away, when the
cloth is taken from the loom, and before it undergoes the
fucceeding procefles of bleaching and dreffing. Some
fpecimens of brocaded muilins have been occafionally
brought from India, which are entirely effefted by a con-
tinued and patient exercife of manual labour truly aitonifh-
ing. The low price of labour paid tn the natives of that
country may produce thtfe figured muflins, at prices accef-
fible to the opulent natives, and to the more wealthy claffes
of the European fettlers. In this country, even at the molt
reduced prices, capable of affording to the operative the
mod penurious and fcanty fubfittence, they could not be
afforded under four or five guineas per yard ; a fum im-
menfely beyond what could be expedled for a commodity
fo flimfy and perifhable as a mudin diefs.

In finger-flowers, or brocaded muflins, the draught
through the heddlcs is generally fuccellive from the back to
the front, as in moit kinds of fanciful weaving. The
trcddles are moved by the feet, as in the common proceffes,
for forming the plain ground or fabric of the work. For
the flowers or raifed part, thofe leaves which require to be
raifed are moll commonly pulled by cords above the weaver's
head, as in the diaper and patent draw-loom ; and, like
them, fecured by a knot upon the cord, being fixed in a
notch in the board. The weaver then proceeds to pafs the
fubilance, which is to form the flowers, through the warp ;
each end being feparated from, and independent of, all the
others. In this he is generally aflilted by a boy, who fits at
the loom along with him, and who manages one fide of the
web, while the weaver is employed on the other. From
this tedious and laborious operation beinij done entirely by
the fore-finger, the appellation Jlnger-fioiver is derived.
Our limits will not allow of a very lengthened detail, nor
would it be of any effential fervice ; for, from the caufes
already aHignud, there is no ])robability of its ever becoming
an article of extcnfive manufacture in this country.

SPOTTISWOODE, John, in Biography, a prelate
and ccckfiiillical hilforiati of Scotland, defcended from an
ancient family in that country, was born in 1565. His
father, who was a minider of Calder, lent liim to the uni-
verfity of Glafgow to be educated for the church ; and his
proficiency in his fhidics was fuch, that at the age of
eigliteen he was thought to be qualified to be his father's
futceffor. When Lodowick, duke of Lenox, was fent, in
1601, on an embafly to France, for the purpofc of con-
firming the ancient amity between the two countries,
Spotiilwoode, with the hope of conciliating the two na-

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tions, accompanied him as chaplain, and returned writh hira
to England. His reputation was at that time fo high, that,
on the acccflion of king James to the crown of England in
1603, he was one of tlie perfons appointed to attend his
majefly to his newly acquired kingdom ; and in the fame
year he was promoted to the archbifliopric of Glafgow, and
nominated a privy counlellor for Scotlai d. It was the
favourite object of James to aflimdate as much as pofliblc
the church of Scotland to the model of that of England ;
and archbilhop Spottifwoode was very eager in promoting
this intention, and is laid to have made fifty journies to
London on that account. Having held the lee of Glafgow
eleven years, he was tranflated, in 1615, to that of St.
Andrews, the metropolitan of Scotland ; and he prefided
at various allemblies for the reltoration of the epifcopal
form of government. He continued in high favour with
king James during his whole reign ; and Cliarles I., after
his accellion, was crowned by him in the abbey church of
Holy rood Houfe. In 1635 he was appointed chancellor
of Scotland. When the civil commotions broke out in that
country in 1639, the archbifhop withdrew to England,
where he died, and was interred in Weilminller Abbey.
He was author of " A Hittory of the Church of Scot-
land," beginning with the year 203, and continued to the
end of the reign of James VI., which was publifhed in
London in 1655. This work was undertaken at the com-
mand of king James, who, when Spottifwoode told him
fome paliages might bear bard on the memory of his mother,
faid, " Write tlie truth, and fpare not." Spottifwoode
was author of " Refutatio Libelli de Regimhie Ecclefiz
Scoticans," written in defence of the eccleiiallical eilablifh-
ment of Scotland.

SPOULT, in Rural Economy, a word fignifying brittle,
as applied to wood, &c.

SPOUT, the name of a trunk for conveying water from
off the roofs of buildings, which (hould always be attached
to thofe of the farm.-kind. Spouts on fuch buildings are
not only ufeful for freeing tiiem of water, but in coUefting
it for the purpofe of the live-llock, &c.

Spout, or Water-fpoul, in Natural Hiflory, an extra-
ordinary meteor, or appearance, at lea, and fometimes on
land, very dangerous to fhips, &c. oftenell obferved in hot»
dry weather ; and called by the Latins typho, anAJipho ; by
the French, tronipe, &c.

Its fird appearance is in form of a deep cloud, the upper
part of which is white, and the lower black. From the
lower part of this cloud there hangs, or rather falls down,
what we properly call the f pout, in manner of a conical tube,
biggefl at top. Under this tube is always a great boiling
and flying up of the water of the lea, as in a jet d'eau.
For fome yards above the furface of the fea, the water
Hands as a column, or pillar ; from the extremity of which
it fpreads, and goes off, as in a knidof fmoke. Frequently
the cone defcends fo low, as to touch tlie middle of tbii
column, and continue fiir fome time contiguous to it ; though
fometimes it only points to it, at fome diltaiice, either lu a
perpendicular, or in an obliq.ie line.

Frequently it is Icarcely diltinguilliablc, whether the cone
or the column appear the firit, both appearing all ot a fuddcn
againll e.ich oilier. But Idnietimes the wa'er bnils up from
the fea to a great height, with.iit any appearance of a fpout
pointing to it, either perpendicularly or ob';c|!iely. Lidirod,
generally, the boiling or fl -ing up of the water :.,is the
priority, this always precedng its being fornnd into a co-
lumn. Generally the cone does -'oX. apiK.ir liollow till to-
wards the end, when the fea-water is violently thrown up
along Jlb middle, as fraokc up a chimney : loon alter this the

Ipout,

SPOUT.

fpout, or canal, breaks and difappears ; the boiling up of
the water, and even the pillar, continuing to the laft, and
for fome time afterwards ; fometimes till the fpout form itfelf
again, and appear anew ; which it fometimes does feveral
times in a quarter of an hour. See a defcription of feveral
water-fpouts by Mr. Gordon, and by Dr. Stuart, in Phil.
Tranf. Abr. vol. iv. p. 103, &c.

M. de la Pryme, from a near obfervation of two or three
fpouts in Yorklliire, defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, N° 281, or Abr. vol. iv. p. 106, concludes, that the
water-fpout is nothing but a gyration of clouds, by con-
trary winds meeting in a point, or centre ; and there, where
the greatell condenfation and gravitation are, falling down
into a pipe, or great tube, fomewhat like Archimedes's
fpiral fcrew ; and, in its working and whirling motion,
abforbing and raifing the water, in the fame manner as the
fpiral icrew does ; and thus dedroying fhips, &c.

Thus, June the 2 1 It, he obferved the clouds mightily
agitated above, and driven together ; upon which they be-
came very black, and were hurried round ; whence pro-
ceeded a moft audible whirling noife, like that ordinarily
heard in a mill. Soon after there iffued a long tube or
fpout from the centre of the congregated clouds, in which
he obferved a fpiral motion, like that of a fcrew, by which
the water was raifed up.

Again, Auguft 15, 1687, the wind blowing at the fame
time out of the feveral quarters, created a great vortex and
whirling among the clouds ; the centre of which every now
and then dropped down, in (hape of a long, thin, black
pipe, in which he could diltinAly behold a motion like that
of a fcrew, continually drawing upwards, and fcrewing up,
as it were, wherever it touched. In its progrefs it moved
flowly over a grove of trees, which bent under it like wands,
rn a circular motion. Proceeding, it tore off the thatch
from a barn, bent an huge oak-tree, broke one of its
greatell branches, and threw it to a great diilance. He
adds, that whereas it is commonly faid, the water works and
rifes m a column, before the tube comes to touch it ; this is,
doubtlefs, a miltake, owing to the finenefs and tranfparency
of the tubes, which do moft certainly touch the furface of
the fea, before any confiderable motion can be raifed in it ;
but which do not become opaque and vifible, till after they
have imbibed a confiderable quantity of water.

The dilTolution of water-fpouts he afcribes to the great
quantity of water they have glutted ; which, by its weight,
impeding their motion, on which their force, and even ex-
iftence, depends, they break, and let go their contents ;
which generally prove fatal to whatever is found under-
neath.

A notable inttance of this kind we have in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaftions, N° 363, or Abr. vol. iv. p. 108, re-
lated by Dr. Richardfon. A fpout, in 17 18, breaking on
Emmotmoor, near Coin, in Lancalbire, the country was
immediately overflowed ; a brook, in a few minutes, rofe
fix feet perpendicularly high ; and the ground on which the
fpout fell, which was lixty-fix feet over, was torn up to the
very rock, which was no lefs than feven feet deep ; and a
deep gulf was made for above half a mile ; the earth being
raifed on either fide in va(t heaps. See a defcription and
figure of a water-fpout, with an attempt to account for it,
in Franklin's Exp. and Obf. p. 226, &c.

Signior Beccaria has taken pains to (hew that water-fpouts
have an eledrical origin. To make this more evident, he
firft defcribes the cnxumftances attending their appearance,
'.which are the following.

They generally appear in calm weather. The fea feems
to boil, and fend up a fmoke under them, rifing in a hill to-

wards the fpout. At the fame time, perfons who have been
near them have heard a rumbling noife. The form of a
water-fpout is that of a fpeaking-trumpet, the wider end
being in the clouds, and the narrower end towards the fea.
The fize is various, even in the fame fpout. The colour is
fometimes inclining to white, and fometimes to black.
The pofition is fometimes perpendicular to the fea, fome-
times oblique ; and fometimes the fpout itfelf is in the form
of a curve. Their continuance is very various, fome difap-
pearing as foon as formed, and fome continuing a con-
fiderable time. One that he had heard of continued a whole
hour. But they often vanifh, and prelently appear again in
the fame place.

The very fame things that water-fpouts are at fea, are fome
kinds of whirlwinds and hurricanes by land. They have been
known to tear up trees, to throw down buildings, make ca-
verns in the earth ; and, in all thefe cafes, to fcatter earth,
bricks, ftones, timber, &c. to a great diftance, in every di-
reftion. Great quantities of water have been left, or raifed
by them, fo as to make a kind of deluge ; and they have
always been attended with a prodigious rumbling noife.

That thefe phenomena depend upon eleftricity, cannot but
appear very probable from the nature of feveral of them ;
but the conjeAure h made more probable from the following
additional circumftances. They generally appear in months
peculiarly fubjecl to thunder-ltorms, and are commonly pre-
ceded, accompanied, or followed, by lightning, rain, or
hail ; the previous ftatc of the air being fimilar. Whitifii or
yellowilh flafhes of light have fometimes been feen moving
with prodigious fwiftnefs about them. And, laftly, the
manner in which they terminate, exactly refembles what
might be expefted>.from the prolongation of one of the uni-
form protuberances of eleftrified clouds, mentioned before,
towards the fea ; the water and the cloud mutually attrafting
one another ; for they fuddenly contrafl. themfelves, and dif-
perfe almort at once ; the cloud rifing, and the water of the
fea under it falling to its level. But the moft remarkable
circumltance, and the moft favourable to the fuppofition of
their depending upon eledricity, is, that they have been dif-
perfed by prefenting to them Iharp-pointed knives or fwords.
This, at leatt, is the conllant praftice of mariners, in many
parts of the world where thefe water-fpouts abound ; and
he was afiiired hy feveral of them, that the method has often
been undoubtedly effedual.

The analogy between the phenomena of water-fpouts and
eledricity, he fays, may be made vifible, by hanging a
drop of water to a wire communicating with the prime con-
duftor, and placing a velfel of water under it. In thefe cir-
cumftances, the drop afl^umes all the various appearances of
a water-fpout, both in its rife, form, and manner of difap-
pearing. Nothing is wanting but the fmoke, which may
require a great force of eleftricity to become vifible.

Mr. Wilcke alfo confiders the water-fpout as a kind of
great eleftrical cone, raifed between the cloud ftrongly elec-
trified, and the fea or the earth ; and be relates a very re-
markable appearance, which occurred to himfelf, and which
itrongly confirms his fuppofition. On the 20th of July,
1758, at three o'clock in the afternoon, he obierved a great
quantity of dult rifing from the ground, and covering afield
and part of the town in which he then was. There was no
wind, and the duft moved gently towards the eaft, where ap-
peared a great black cloud, which, when it was near its zenith,
eleftrified his apparatus pofitively, and to as great a degree
as ever he had obferved it to be done by natural eleftricity.
This cloud palled its zenith, and went gradually towards
the weft, the duft then following it, and continuing to rife
higher and higher, till it compofed a thick pillar, in the form

«f

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of a fugar-loaf, and at length feemed to be in contaft with
the cloud. At fome dillance from this there came, in the
fame path, another great cloud, together with a long dream
of fmaller clouds, moving fader than the preceding. Thefe
clouds eleftritied his apparatus negatively, and when they
came near the pofitive cloud, a flalh of lightning was fecn
to dart through the cloud of dull, the pofitive cloud, the
large negative cloud, and, as far as the eye could diftinguifli,
the whole tram of fmaller negative clouds which followed it.
Upon this the negative cloads fpread very much, and dif-
folved into rain, and the air was prefently clear of all the
duft. The whole appearance lalted not above half an hour.
See Prieftley's Eledr. vol. i. p. 4^8, &c.

This theory of water-fpouts has been farther confirmed by
the account which Mr. Forfter gives of one of them in his
Voyage round the World, vol. i. p. 191, &c. On the coaft
of New Zealand he had an opportunity of obferving feveral,
one of which he has particularly defcnbed. The water, he
fays, in a fpace of fifty or fixty fathoms, moved towards
the centre, and there rifing into vapour, by the force of the
whirling motion, afcended in a fpiral form towards the
clouds. Directly over the whirlpool, or agitated fpot in the
fea, a cloud gradually tapered into a long flender tube,
which feemed to defcend to meet the rifing fpiral, and foon
united with it into a ftraight column of a cylindrical form.
The water was hurled upwards with the greateit violence in a
fpiral, and appeared to leave a hollow fpace in the centre, io
that the water feemed to form a hollow tube, inftead of a folid
column ; and that this was the caie, was rendered itill more
probable by the colour, which was exaftly hke that of any
lioUow glals tube. After fome time, this la'.l column was
incurvated, and broke like the others ; and the appearance
of a flalh of lightning which attended its disjundion, as well
as the hail-ltones which fell at the time, feemed plainly to
indicate that water-fpouts either owe their formation to the
eledric matter, or at lealt that they have fome connection
with it.

Mr. Cavallo (Elem. of Phil. vol. ii.) has detailed the
following fadls, as the moll remarkable, relative to water-
fpouts.

Two or three, or more, water-fpouts are frequently
feen within the fpace of a few miles, and they are moftly
feen at fea.

Their fize is various, not exceeding, however, a few feet
in diameter ; and the fame watcr-fpout fometimes increafes
and decreales alternately ; it alfo appears, difappears, and
re-appears, in the fame place.

The water-fpout fometimes proceeds a little way from a
cloud, or a little way from the fea ; and often thofe two
fliort and oppofite fpouts are not only direfted towards each
other, but tliey are extended, and meet each other.

When it proceeds from tlie fea, the water about the place
appears to be much agitated, and rifes a Ihort way in the
form of a jet, or fpray, or (learn, in the middle of xvhich a
thick, well defined, and generally opaque body of water
rifes, and proceeds to a confiderable height into the atmo-
fphere, where it is diflipatcd imo a vapour, or it feems to
form a cloud.

When it proceeds from a cloud, the clcnid.i about tlie
fpot frequently appear much agitated, and an agitation of
tlie water immediately under the Ipot is generally ieen at the
fame time.

The v/ater-fpout is frequently feen to have a fpiral or
fcrew-like motion, and fometimes ia attended with confi-
derable nolle.

Some of them Hand in a perpendicular dirciStion, others

S P 11

are inclined, and fome water-fpouts form a curre, or ereit

an angle.

The water-fpouts generally break about their middle, and
the falling waters occafion great damage, either to fliips that
have the misfortune of being under them, or to the adjoining
land ; for inch fpouts are fometimes formed on a lake or
river, or on the fea clofe to the land.

Sometimes the water-fpouts are feen where there is no ap-
pearance of whirlwind, or where the wind, at lead to a
ipedlator at fome diftance, appears to blow regularly one
way.

The oblique fpouts almoft. always point from the wind ;
for initance, when the wind is N.E. the fpout will point to
the S.W.

The water-fpout has been attributed principally, if not
entirely, to the meeting of different winds. In that cafe,
the air ni its rotation acquires a centrifugal motion ; whence
it endeavours to recede from the axis of the whirl, in confe-
quence of which a vacuum, or, at lealt, a confiderable rare-
fadlion of air, takes place about the axis ; and, when the
whirl takes place at fea, or upon water, the water rifes into
that rarefied place, for the fame reafoii wiiich caufes it to
afcend into an exhaufted tube, and forms the water-fpout or
pillar of water in the air : neverthelefs it is obferved by Mr.
Cavallo, that the various appearances of water-fpouts do
not feem to be quite reconcileable to the above-mentioned
theory. Several ingenious perfons have confidercd the water-
fpout as an eleflrical phenomenon ; having oblerved, that
tliunder-clouds and lightning have been frequently feen about
the places where water-fpouts appear, and lil;ewife that by
means of artificial eledlricity, a water-fpout may in fome
meafure be imitated. (See the preceding part of this article.)
Mr. Cavallo, however, fuggells, that the lightning and other
eleftrical phenomena appear to be rather the necelfary confe-
quence than the caufe of the water-fpout ; it being well
known that eleftricity is produced whenever water is reduced
into vapour, or vapour is condcnfed into water. A water-
fpout of the moll complete form is reprefented in iJ/a/f XXIV.
Mlfcelhmy, Jig. 8.

In Pliny's time, the feainen ufed to pour vinegar into tJw
fea, to afluage and lay the fpout, when it approached them:
our modern ieamen think to keep it off, by making a noife
with filing and Icratching violently on the deck, or by dif-
charging great guns to difperfe it.

SPOUTING Fountain. See Fountain.

SPOUTY Ground or Land, in Jgr'uullure. See SoiL,
and ?>y ui'SG- Draining.

SPRAGCtE, Sir Edward, in Biography, a celebrated
naval hero and commander, of whofe early hiltory nothing
has been colleded, but who deferves a place in the annals of
England, and whofe Cervices will be ever remembered with
graditude by his country. He is compared by Campbell to
Alcibiades, who was equally able and elleemed in the camp,
in the court, and in the clofet. " In every charafter which
he alliimed, he fo far excelled as to (eem born and defii^iicd
for that alone. The fame thing his contemporaries, his
companions, thofe who knew him, and the world too, per-
fcdlly well, affirm of fir Edward Spragge, who with a
fine perlon, and gentle temper, had as folid an undi-rltand-
ing, and as hold a Ipirit, as any counfellor or captain of
that age. With all theic advantages, with the favour of the
duke of York, with the merit of great iervices which he
rendered his country, and with the Itill greater merit of
dying glorioufly in his country's fervice, which, indeed, pro-
cured his remains an interment in Weltminller Abbey, he
was not honoured with a tomb ; or any memorial, as far as

I can

S P R

S P R

1 can difcover, where he was born, of what family, or how-
he attained his firil preferment."

We find him a captain in the firft ensragement with the
Dutch, after the reftoration of Charles II., viz.. on the 3d
of June, l66j, in which he behaved with great reputation, and
on account of which he was knighted. He was hkewife in
the four-days' battle in June 1666, at which time lie was
particularly noticed by the duke of Albemarle ; and in the
fucceeding battle, which was fought on the 24th of July,
he carried a flag under fir Jeremiah Smith, admiral of the
blue fquadron, who engaged Van Tromp, (battered his vice
admiral, fo that Ihe was abfolutely dilablcd, and having
ruined the rigging of the rear admiral, and killed the com-
mander, contributed very much to the glory of that day.
He greatly diftinguifiied himfelf when the Dutch daringly
ventured up the Thames in 1667 : he was employed on this
occafion to maintain the fort of Sheernefs, which he de-
fended with gallantry, till it would have amounted to an att
of raflincfs to expofe his garrifon any longer : and when he
could aft no more by land, he began to collctt as great a
force as poffible by fea. This amounted to no more than
live frigates, feventeen lire-fhips, and fome tenders ; and yet
when the Dutch admiral Van Nes came up the river, fir Ed-
ward engaged him, and burnt eleven or twelve of his (hips,
with only fix of his own. The wind, after this, obliged
him to Ihelter himfelf from the enemy's fuperior force, under
the cannon of Tilbury fort. The next day, the weather
being more favourable, he again attacked the Dutch, and
drove them difgracefully out of the river.

In 167 1 he was employed againft the Algerines, and de-
ilroyed feven of their men of war, and did them other
damage which was efteemed irreparable. They had picked
cut their chief and molt renowned commanders, on purpofe
to meet fir Edward Spragge ; had furnilhed them with their
bell brafs ordnance from on board all the reft of their veffels,
with nearly 2000 chofen men double officered, of whom
about 400 were killed, the caftles and towns miferably torn,
and a vail i\umber of people in them (lain and wounded ; and,
which increafed the misfortune, all their furgeons' chells
were burnt on board their (hips, fo that numbers died for
want of having their wounds drefled. In this engagement
fir Edward Spragge had but 17 men killed, and 41 wounded.
Dr. Campbell mentions it as honourable to the Englifh name
and heroifnri, that in all our wars with the pirates of Algiers
at that period, the Spaniards allowed us the free ufe of the
harbour of port Mahon, as to the champions of the Chrif-
tian caufe, and proteftors of the commerce of the Mediter-
ranean, and thither fir Edward repaired to refit before he
returned liome.

Sir Edward Spragge was raifed to the rank of admiral of
the blue in the year 1673, having in the preceding year
been employed by the duke of York to alTemble the fleet in
order to attack the Dutch, and in that year he was piefent
jn the Solebay fight. May 28th, and in it diftinguilhed him-
felf by finking a Dutch fliip of fixty guns.

Before the fleet put to fea in 1673, fir Edward was fent,
with the charafter of envoy extraordinary, to Fiance, where
he was received with all pofTible refpeft, and at his taking
leave, had a prefent made him of great value.
_ On the 28th of May, 167s, he took a moil gallant part
IB the engagement with the Dutch : he fought Van Tromp
feven hours, forced him from the Golden^ Lion into the
Prince on Horfeback, and thence into the Amllerdam, and
from that into the Comet, where he would iiave been killed
or taken if he had not been relieved by De Rnyter. Sir
Edward alfo twice changed his (hip. Thefe circumltances

were not mentioned in the aacouut publifhed by order of
government, but the matter is fairly Hated by prince Rupert,
notwithttanding there had been a private quarrel between
the prince and admiral. " Sir Edward," fays his highnefs,
" did on his fide maintain tlie figlrt with fo much courage
and refolution, that their whole body gave way to fuch a
degree, that, had it not been for fear of the (hoals, we (hould
have driven them into their harbours, and the king would
have had a better account of them."

On the 4th of June he behaved with great refolution,
forced Van Tromp to change his fiiip twice, and finally
obliged him to retreat. In the third battle, which took
place on the nth of Auguft, fir Edward Spragge, with
the blue fquadron, was in the rear, but being provoked by
Van Tromp, he laid his fore-top fail to the malt to wait for
him, and having engaged his fquadron, continued fighting
many hours, at a diilance from the body of the fleet. Sir
Edward was at tirll on board the Royal Prince, and Van
Tromp in the Golden Lion ; but after a difpute of about
three hours, fir Edward's (hip was fo difabled, that he was
forced to go on board the St. George, as Van Tromp for the
fame reafon went on board the Comet. Then the fight be-
tween them began again with greater fury than before : at
lall the St. George was fo battered, that fir Edward thought
it right to leave her, in order that he might go on board the
Royal Charles ; bat before his boat had rowed many yards
it was pierced by a cannon (hot, and the admiral was
drowned.

Bifhop Parker Jefcribes this laft fcene in the following
words : " There was a remarkable fight between Spragge
and Van Tromp ; for thefe having mutually agreed to at-
tack each other, not out of hatred, but through a third of
glory, they engaged with all the rage, or, as it were, with
all the fport of war. They came fo clofe to one another,
that, like an army of foot, they fought at once with their
guns and fwords. Almoll at every turn, both their (hips,
though not funk, were yet bored through and through, their
cannon being difcharged with common gun-fhot : neither
did our ball fall in vain into the fea, but each (hip pierced
the other, as if they had fought witli fpears. But at length,
three or four (hips being (battered, as Spragge was pafling
in a long boat from one ftiip to another, the boat was over-
turned by a chance-fhot, and that great man, not being
(killed in fwimming, was drowned, to the great grief of his
generous enemy, who, after the death of Spragge, could
hardly hope to find an enemy equal to himfelf. But thus it
happened, that when that brave man had overcome fo many
dangers, his country being now viftnrious and fafe, no
honour remained for him to receive, but the reward of a
glorious death." The bilhop adds, in another part of his
hiftorv, that fir Edward Spragge was a perfon the love and
delight of all men, as well for his noble courage, as the
gentle fweetneis of his temper. See Stockdale's edition of
Campbell, vol. ii.

SPRAIN, in Surgery, fignifies an injury done to a joint,
which has had its ligaments violently llietched, wuliout
there being any fenfible luxation.

The motion of the articulations cannot be carried beyond
their natural limits, without the ligaments, intended for
uniting the bones and bounding their movements, being
either forcibly ilretched or lacerated. A iprain, therefore,
is always accompanied with the firft of thefe circumllances,
and fometimes with the fecond.

Cuftom has limited the term diajlafts to the lateral fepara-
tion of two long bones, articulated together by correlpond-
ing furfaces at their extremities, and, efpecially, to fuch in-
juries.

SPRAIN.

Juries, when they affed the immoveable joints, like thofe
betwixt the tibia and fibula, thofe betwixt the bones of the
pelvis, Sec. But, as Boyer has obfervetl, it is plain that
thefe accidents do not at all differ from common fprains,
fince they cannot happen without a violent ftretching and
even a rupture of the ligaments.

The orbicular joints, thofe which allow to the bones the
mod varied and extenfive motions, are fo difpofed, that
their lipjaments, which arc protefted by a great number of
powerful mufcles, can only fuffer a confiderable extenfion
by an extraordinary effort ; and when it is adequate to pro-
duce this extenfion and rupture of the ligaments, the dif-
placemcnt which follows is necefTarily permanent, in confe-
quence of the fpherical form of one of the articular fur-
faces ; which form will not permit a fpontaneous reduftion.
On the contrary, in the ginglimoid joint?, and thofe
which refemble them in the trivial degree of their motions,
which are ufually limited to two alternate direftions, and
fometimes very obfcure, the natural relations of the bones
are aflured by the difpofition of the articular furfaces them-
felvcs, and by the ftrength of the hgaments, but hardly at
all by the mufcles. The aftion of thefe laft organs, confe-
quently, not increafing the refiftance made by the ligaments
in cafes of neceflity, in proportion to the violence which
operates, the latter parts are the more apt to be ftretchcd
and ruptured. On the other hand, as the furfaces of thefe
joints are generally extenfive, and cannot be forced away
from each other witliout great difficulty, the effort which
tends to feparate them, for the moft part only occafions a
ftretching and rupture of the ligaments. Hence, difloca-
tions are very common in the orbicular joints, and fprains
are moll frequent in thofe of the ginglimoid kind. The
ankle joint, which affords a ftriking inftance of the condi-
tions jult now explained, and which is befides expofed to
confiderable and frequent fhocks, is alfo that in which fprains
are mollly obferved. Then follow the articulations of the
bones of the tarfus, of the wrift, knee, and elbow, in which
lall a fprain is not fo often met with, notwithftanding the
fuitable difpofitions in appearance ; for the ligaments which
ftrengthen this joint being extremely flrong, an exceffive
violence is requifitc to ftretch or break them, and tlien it
is always capable of alfo occafioning a dillocation.

The differences of fprains depend upon the importance of
the joint, the degree of violence which has been applied, and
the extent of the diforder attending thefe cafes. Confe-
quently, fome fprains are flight, the ligaments having been
merely ilretched, while others are fevere, the ligaments and
furrounding cellular fubflance having been lacerated, and the
tendinous nerves and veffels of every kind, and even the flcin
itielf, more or lefs violently ftretched.

When a fprain occurs, the external violence which pro-
duces it, mull either aft fo as to carry the motions of a
ginglimoid joint beyond their natural limits ; or fo as to
cauTe movements in a direftion in which they arc not natu-
ral; or, laltly, fo as to make a joint move, which in the
natural Hate performs no motion whatfoever. Thus, in a
fall upon the hands, where the extenfion or flexion of tlic
wriil is forced, a fprain is very liable to happen. In a fall
upon the feet, where one of the two, being in the itate of
add'idlion, or abduftion, fupports nearly the whole weight
of the body ; alfo in falls backward, where the point of the
foot is fo locked as not to allow any motion of the leg back-
ward ; and when the fole of the foot is twided inward while
a patient is running quickly ; tlie ankle, or joints of the
tarfus, or all together, are liable to be fprained. With re-
gard to the ankle, it may be remarked, tliat there arc cafes,
in which a predifpofition to fcrofula afts alfo a» a predif-

voL. xxxni.

pofition to fprain. We allude to inflances, in which the
articular extremities of the long bones having been enlarged
at an early period of fife, the ligaments of the neighbouring
joint have fuffered a confiderable elongation, or relaxation.
This occurrence, which is particularly obfervable at the
lower end of the tibia, makes the foot flat, and its articula-
tion much freer and weaker than it ought to be ; and
patients who are thus formed, are alfo more fubject to
fprains. Under thefe circumllanccs, it is not uncommon to
fee the fame accident happen fcveral times to the fame joint.
With refpeft to the fort of injury winch has received the
name of dia/lqfis, it is difficult to comprehend the pofTibility
of it, unle^ combined with a frp.dure of one of the two
bones. In taking for example the bones of the leg, it is
difficult to conceive how the lower articuhtion of the tibia
with the fibula can be affedled by external violence ; how
the furfaces of this joint can be feparateJ, its ligaments
elongated or ruptured, without there being at the fame time
a frafture of the fibula. It is an accident which to Boyer
feems very difficult to prove. A mere fcparation of the ar-
ticular furfaces, without frafture, would hardly admit of
detedion, becaufe the fwelling, which takes place almoft
immediately, muft hinder the examination of the parts.
Boyer thinks it extremely probable, that, in many cafes,
the confequences of an undifcovered fraAure of the fibula
have been raiflaken for the confecutive proofs of a diaflafis.
Sprains are accompanied with a variety of fymptoras,
amongft which pain and fwelling come on immediately. It
is eafily comprehenfible, that the ligaments, and other foft
parts which furround a joint, cannot be ftretched and more
or lefs torn, without an inllantaneous pain being excited
proportionate to the fenfibility of tliefe parts, and the de^ee
of violence which they have fullained. The pain and irrita-
tion are foon followed by fwelling, which, from being at
firft inconfiderable, afterwards increafes, and at the end of
four and twenty hours it is ufually at the highell degree,
and exhibits figns of the prefencc of inflammation. The
blood, which efcapes from the fmall ruptured veffels, paffe*
into the cellular fubftance, and occafions an ecchymofis,
which fometimes extends a great way. Immediately after
the accident, the joint is capable of performing all its mo-
tions ; but, as foon as the fwelling has taken place, thefe
motions are impeded, and, on force being ufed to make the
joint move, acute pain is produced, and Uie cafe is rendered
worfe.

When a fprain is flight, it is a difeafe of little confe-
quence, and eafily cured. The pain gradually diminifhes,
the fwelling and tenfion difappear, the ecchymofis is dif-
perfcd, the motion of the limb is rellored, becoming daily
more and more extenfive, and the joint in due time returns
to its natural Hate. But when a fprain happens to a joint,
the motion of which is naturally very co.ifined, and which it
flrengthened by exceedingly flrong ligaments, wliofc re-
fiftance can be overcome only by great violence, the fymp-
toms are generally very fevere, and difappear much more
flowly. Then, according as the ligaments have fullered
more or lefs, and as the fwelling of the foft parts hai been
more or lefs confiderable, fometimes the joiut remains af-
fefted with a weaknefs, which renders it particularly fufcep-
tible of the fame accident ; fometimes it contrads a IlifTnefs,
which renders all motion extremely difficult, and which doc«
not go off till after a very long while ; and, indeed, occa-
fionally, fucli rigidity lalts <luring life.

In fubjcdis who are well formed, and free from all confti-

tutional difeale, it feldom happens that a fpr. in, even the

moll confiderable, has any other confequences but thofe

which have jull now been defcribed. Serious errors in the

^ G treatment,

SPRAIN.

treatment, however, and particularly the uiimanageablenefs
and imprudence ef patients, who fatigue the joint in ufing
it too foen and before the pain is over, may render a fprain
▼ery bad even in fubjefts who are in other refpefts perfeftly
found. In this cafe, fometimes the pain and fwelling, after
having undergone a greater or lefler abatement, ftill continue
in a degree, fo that a difeafe, which might have been cured
in five or fix weeks, lads five or fix months, and frequently
a whole year. Sometimes the fymptoms get worfe initead
of becominn- better. The pain and fwelhng occur in the
highelt degree, and fuppuration itfelf, followed by caries of
the bones, may follow, and even create a neceflity for ampu-
tation in order to fave the patient's life.

But fymptoms of this violent nature are feldom remarked
after fprains, except in fubjefts who labour under fome con-
ftitutional difordcr, which may extend its effefts to the
joints. The moft common, and at the fame time the mod
afflifting, is fcrofula. In patients difpofed to this difeafe,
fprains often become the occafional or exciting caufe of
white-fwellings, which too frequently baffle ail the efforts
of the moft flcilful furgeons, and make amputation indif-
penfable.

The fymptoms which charafterize fprains are eafy of
comprehenfion. An application of external violence, the
nature and direfl ion of which are always known ; a more or
lefs acute pain in the affefted joint, without deformity, with-
out any manifeft alteration in the natural relations of the
articular furfaces ; a free power of motion immediately after
the accident ; and a fudden fwelling proportioned to the
violence of the fiiock. Such are the circumftances denot-
ing a fprain. A fprain may readily be diftinguifhed from
every other affeftion of the joints. Uninformed praAitioners
have been known, however, to millake its nature, and thence
do confiderable mifchief, by ill-judged attempts to remedy
a feparation of bones, or to reduce a diflocation which
never exifted. So grofs a miftake may eafily be avoided by
the leaft attention.

The prognofis of fprains differs according to the degree
of the injury, the nature of the joint, and the particular
conftitution of the patient. A flight fprain is a cafe of little
importance, being generally cured in a few weeks, when
properly treated, and when the patient, obedient to the ad-
vice of the furgeon, keeps the joint perfeftly motionlefs, and
avoids ufing the limb until the pain and fwelling are entirely
removed. A violent fprain, occurring to a joint that is
ftrengthened by very ftrong ligaments, like that of the ankle
for example, is a fevere cafe, which often lafts feveral months,
and which, as we have already explained, may have afflifting
confequences, when it is badly treated, or the patient does
not conform to the advice of his furgeon. Even a flight
fprain is always a fevere accident in fcrofulous fubjefts, be-
caufe it may become an exciting caufe of a white-fwelling,
and produce a neceflity for amputation.

The treatment of fprains confifls in preventing the inflam-
matory fwellinj;, difperfing it when it has taken place, pro-
moting the union of the torn ligaments, and re-eftablifhing
the tone, force, and freedom of motion in the affefted
joint.

Experience has taught, that cold water is the beft appli-
cation which can be ufed for fulfilling the firft indication.
This difcutient appeafes the pain, and tends to prevent fwel-
ling and inflammation. Cold water is rendered more feda-
tive and efficacious, when a little of the liquor plumbi ace-
tatis is added to it. Thus, when a furgeon is confulted
immediately after the accident, the part fhould be immerfed
in a pail of fpring water, into which the liquid acetite of
lead has been put in the proportion of a drachm to a pint.

Some praftitioners make tiie quantity greater ; but, we be»
lieve, what is here mentioned is quite fufficient. In order
to derive all the advantage poffible from the employment of ■
cold water, the part fhould remain immerfed feveral hours
without interruption, and the water fhould be changed al
foon as it becomes warmed. Boyer does not approve, how«
ever, of ufing this application for women who have their
menfes on them ; or for patients whofe lungs are weak, or
wlio are fubjeft to haemoptyfis ; or for any perfons who are
in a great perfpiration. Perhaps, in fuch inflances, it may
be as well to ufe a warm linfeed poultice.

After the part has been taken out of the water, it is to
be covered with linen wet witli the fame application, and
care niufl be taken frequently to wet the cloths anew, fo
that they may be as cold as poflible, and the evaporation
effeftual.

When the fprain is flight, difcutients are commonly ade-
quate to the prevention of the inflammatory fwelling, and
they may be continued till the cafe is quite well. But if
the injury be too fevere to yield to thefe means, or fhould
they nut have been tried in the firft inflance, fo that teiifion
and fwelhng have already come on, recourfe mull be had
to the means proper for fulfilling the fecund indication,
that is to fay, for difperfing the pain and inflammatory fwel-
ling. The patient may be bled more or lefs copioufly ac-
cording to his age, ftrength, conftitution, and feverity of
the accident. Low diet and abfolute reft are to be direfted,
and topical emollient anodyne applications are to be made
to the part affefted ; fuch as linfeed poultices, and fomenta-
tions of white poppy-heads. When the pain is excedively
fevere, a fmall quantity of laudanum, or of a watery folu-
tion of opium, may be mixed with the poultice.

The ufe of thefe local applications is to be continued a?
long as the pain and fwelling exill ; but as foon as they are
removed, difcutients muft be employed ; fuch as camphorated
fpirit of wine, foap liniment, ammoniatcd oil, and many
kinds of mineral waters. _

During the whole treatment, and even a long while after- I
wards in fevere cafes, the part affefted muft be kept ftriftly
at reft. On one hand, moving the joint might keep up the
irritation and inflammation ; on the other, when the fprain
has been confiderable and the ligaments lacerated, a firm
union of them, and the return of the ilrength which is el-
fential to the perfeft fundlions of the articulation, can only
be obtained by long reft. I

When a fprain happens to the ankle, as is moft common, ■
the patient fhould not be fuffered to walk before the pain
and fwelling are entirely removed. As there remains in the
joint almolt always a weakneis, which fubjefts the patient
to the fame accident again, when he walks too quickly, or
carelefsly, it is proper, with a view of obviating this incon-
venience, to apply a moderately tight roller to the part, or
to direft him to wear for fome time a laced foft leather
buflcin.

It frequently happens, after the cure of a fprain, when
the joint has recovered all its ftrength and freedom of motion,
that the furrounding cellular fubftance is puffy and (Edema-
tous, efpecially in the evening, after the patient has been
long in the ereft pofition. The moft efficacious means
which can be ufed againft this local infirmity, which may
contmue a long while, is the compreffion of a bandage, or
laced dog-fkin ttocking.

In other cafes, the ligaments, which have been violently

diftended and lacerated, become rigid, and the motion of

the joint remains imperfeft. Here fomentations, emollient

baths, vapour baths, and oily liniments, are indicated.

4 Laftly,

S P R

Laftly, when the ftiffnefs of the joint refills thefc means,
ihe efficacy of hydro-fulphurated waters may be tried.

In fcrofulous fubjefts, fprains may be followed by the
moit fevere confequences, as already related, and may be-
come the exiftmg caufe of an inveterate difeafe of the joint.
The confideration of the treatment of the diforder here al-
luded to, will be found in a future article of this publica-
tion. (See White-swelling.) Boyer Traitc des Maladies
Chirurgicalcs, torn. iv. ch. i.

Sprain, among horfes, and other forts of live-ftock, a
violent extenfion of fome tendinous part, by which fuddcn
!amenefs is not unfrequently produced. It is moltly ca-
pable of being removed by faturnine, fpirituous, or acid
wafhes, with proper elaftic bandages, and a little reft. It
often happens in the legs of horfes, and fome other
animals.

Sprain, in Agrkulturt, a term applied to the fowing of
feeds by hand, fignifying to throw them into their places
with a fingle motion of the hand, at a certain diitance from
one another. It is particularly apphed to beans, and fome
other kinds of feed. Spraining in crops is not unfrequently
praftifed in particular places where labour is cheap.

SPRAINTS, among Sport/men, a term ufed for the
dung of the otter.

SPRANGENBERG, in Geography, a town of the
principahty of Heffe Callel ; 6 miles S. of Lichtenau.

SPRANGER, Bartholomew, in Biography, was the
fon of Joachim Spranger, a merchant of eminence at Ant-
werp, and was born there in 1546. As he exhibited an
inclination for painting, he was placed as a difciple with
John Madyn, a painter of fome reputation at Haerlem,
and afterwards with Francis Moftaert. He then went to
Italy through France, and refided fome years at Parma as
a ftudent, under Bernardino Gatti, who had been a difciple
of Correggio. He thence went to Rome, where the cardinal
Farnefe favoOred him with his patronage, and engaged him
to paint, in the Villa Caprarola, feveral landfcapes in frefco.
By the cardinal he was introduced to the pope, Pius V.,
who appointed him his painter, and gave him apartments in
the Palazzo Belvidere. His firft work for his holinefs was
a pifture of the Lall Judgment, a compofition of five
hundred figures, painted upon a copper-plate fix feet high.
This pifturc is faid to have taken him three years to com-
plete, and to have been, of courfe, finifhed with great care ;
and in confequence of its being highly efteemed by the
pope, it was placed upon his tomb, after his deceafe. The
fame kind patron commifiioned him to paint twelve piftures
of the paffion of our Saviour, but did not live to witnefs
their completion.

The renown of Spranger now reached the court of
Vienna, to which he was invited by the emperor Maxi-
milian II. in 1575, and appointed his principal painter.
On that emperor's death in the following year, his fuccelior,
Rodolphus II., continued to fhcw the fame favour to
Spranger, and engaged him in feveral works of importance
both at Vienna and at Prague ; refpedling him liighly, not
only for his abilities as a painter, but alfo for his literary
acquirements, and other accomplifhments. In 1588 he was
ennobled by his imperial majclly, who honoured him by
placing round his neck, wi' li his own hands, a chain of gold,
with a medal attached to 1: Spranger died at Prague, in
162^ aged 77.

The Kyle of this painter i^ that which was built upon the
«Jefefts of Michael Angclo, or rather in the pcrverfion of
his ftyle, by a crude and indigeftcd adoption of its mod
prominent charafter, without the judicious talle and feeling
in which it originated. It was confequently extravagaat

S P R

and bombaftic, prefenting inflated mufcles, and knobby ex-
crefccnccs for bones, redeemed only in fome eyes by a lively
fancy, an agreeable facility of execution, and a pleafing
colour.

SPRAT, Thomas, bifhop of Rochefter, a writer of
confiderable eminence in the 17th century, was born in 1636
at Tallaton, in Devonfliirc, where his father was a clergy-
man. He received his academical education at Wadhara
college, Oxford, of which Dr. Wilkins was then warden,
under whom he acquired a proficiency in mathematical
knowledge. In 1657 he was eleflcd a fellow of his college ;
and on the death of Oliver Cromwell, he gave a fpecimen
of his poetical talents in an " Ode to the happy Memory
of the late Lord Proteaor," addrefled to Dr. Wilkins.
This ode was followed by one on the " Plague of Athens,"
which, as well as the former, afforded proof of a warmth
and readinefs of conception. At the Reftoration, like
many others, he made a fliort turn, and atoned for hi«
former delinquency by -zealous loyalty, and was made
chaplain to the duke of Buckingham, who was hii zealous
friend and patron. He was chofen a member of the Royal
Society, which was then in its infancy, and which had ori-
ginated from the meetings of the fcientific men held at the
lodgings of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham college. In 1667
Sprat pubhftied the hiftory of this fociety, and its found-
ation ; and obtained a high reputation for the elegance of the
ilyle and fentiment exhibited in the work. He had pub-
lifhed, two years previoudy to this, " Obfervations on Sor-
biere's Voyage to England," which were well received,
and confidered as a feafonable calligation of a fuperficial
foreigner who had vilified the country. In 1668 he was
editor of Cowley's Latin poems, to which he prefixed a life
of the author, in the fame language. This he afterwards
enlarged in Englifli, and annexed to the Enghfli works of
that poet. He had now attained a degree of reputation,
which, joined to his talents for converfation and fociety,
caufed him to be rapidly advanced in the career of prefer-
ment. He was fucceflively made a prebendary of Weft-
minfter, reftor of St. Margaret's, canon of Windfor, dean
of Weftminfter, and finally, in 1684, was raifed to tlie epif.
copal bench as bifliop of Rochefter. This lall preferment
was confidered as a reward for the fervice of drawing up,
at the command of the king, an account of the Rye-houfe
plot. This was firft printed in 1685, and was reprinted in
the following year, after James II. had fucceeded to the
throne. The manner in which lie had executed this tafk
rendered it expedient for him to publifh an apology, after
the Revolution. He had refleftcd on the charaAers of
thofe, whofe names have been long ranked among the
martyrs to liberty. Of lord Rullell, Sprat obiervcs,
•' that he was carried away into this traiterous confpiracy
from a vain air of popularity, and a wild lulpicion of lofing
a large eftate by an imaginary return of popery." His
favour under the new reign was manitelted by his appoint-
ment to the place of clerk of the clofct to the king, and his
nomination as one of the commidioBors for ecclefiallical
affairs. At the revolution he fubmitted to the new govern-
ment, and was allowed to remain unmolcftcd in his fee.
His principles, however, being well known, he was in-
volved, in 1692, with others, in an information laid before
the privy council, of a pretended confpiracy for reftoring
king James. He detcfted the infamy of the informers, and
effeftually cleared himfelf from the charge ; but he was fo
much affcfted by the danger he had undergone, that he ever
after commemorated his deliverance by annual thankfgiving.
He paffed the reft of his life in the praftice of prcfeflional
duties and virtues, by wlijch he engaged the cilcem and af-
4 G 2 feftiou

S P R

feftion of thofe with whom he was connefted, and died in
1713, ill the 79th year of his age. Befides the works al-
ready mentioned, he publi(hed a relation of his examination
before the privy council, two letters to lord Dorfet, and a
volume of fermons. Biog. Brit.

SfR.VT, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of the clupea, with
the lower jaw the loiigelt, and the belly very acute, and the
dorfal fin confilling of thirteen rays. See Clupea.

The fprat, or elupea fpr.itliis of LinnKUS, has generally,
but erroneoufly, been fujipofed a herring not grown to its
full fizc. Its ufual lenptli is about four or five inches, and
the body much deeper than that of a young herring of equal
length ; the back fin is placed more remote from the nofe
than that of the herring : but one great diltindtion between
this fidi, tiie herring-, and the pilchard, is the belly ; that
of the two firit being quite fmooth, that of the h(l very
ftrongly ferraled ; and another is, that the herring has fifty-
fix vertebrx, this only forty-eight. Befides, fprats vifit
our coatts, and continue with us in large (hoals, when the
others, in general, have retired to the great northern deeps.
They come into the river Thames, below bridge, in the
beginning of November, and leave it in March, and are,
during tL'ir feafon, a great relief to the poor of the capital.
At Gravefend and at Yarmouth they are cured like red
herrings : they are fometimes pickled, and are little inferior
in flavour to the anchovy, but the bones will not difiolve
like thofe of the latter. Pennant.

SPRATT, in Agriculture, a name applied in fomc places
to a plant, which is found to rife in great abundance, in a
fpontaneous manner, in molt watery fituations of the more
found boggy kind. It is Hated in a paper in the third
Tolume of the " Tranfadtions of the Highland Society of
Scotland," that though it abounds much in that part of the
kingdom, the proper culture of it is by no means well un-
derftood. It Ihould, it is faid, be fuitably manured for
with compoft manure, once in three years ; or watering
fometimes anfwers the fame intention very well, in cafes
where it is grown for hay ; the land being preferved from
cattle, or other forts of Hock, from the month of March ;
and the plants cut for hay in July at the lateft. The
feeding (talks are alfo ilated to have been mown, after the
cattle in pailurage, to benefit.

The fpring frofts occafionally, however, deftroy fome
inches of the tops of tlie plants.

Sheep may fafely eat it, without danger of rotting them ;
and it raifes young cattle, it is faid, to a great fize of bone.
But that when fuffered to run up to feed, it is not palatable ;
though cattle not unfrequently get it for hay in that Hate.
Where manure is ufed, and it is cut in the fap, it confti-
tutes, it is obferved, a mod excellent and abundant kind of
hay for black cattle. In this management, it has been feen
ready for the fcythe as foon as rye-grafs ; and one of the
belt famples of meadow hay feen ia the above part of the
country was cut in the year 1804, and confiftcd of fpratt
and common poa.

Others, however, do not think fo highly of it, as it has
been noticed in fituatioiis in the Highlands, where cattle
were often Hinted or tlraightened for food, and generally re-
mained untouched by th.-m. The fame has likewife been
the cafe in other places of the above diilrifts.

Its itrong root is alfo thought an objedlion to its being
cultivated as a grafs-c-op, even if it were capable of it, as
being difficult of extirpation.

I- has been farther ufed for making cufiiions, to be put
under the yokes ufed by oxen in ploughing ; for which pur-
pofe it feems, it is faid, well fuited, on account of its
toughnefs. See JuNCUs.

S P R

SPRAWL, To, in Military Language, is to widen out

in an irregular and unloldier-like manner : a term chiefly
applicable to the cavalry.

SPRAWLING Charge, a loofe and irregular move,
ment of cavalry, inilead of a clofe, compadl, forward
attack.

SPRAY, in Sea Language, denotes the fprinkling of the
fea, which is driven from the top of a wave in ftormy
weather. It differs from fpoon-drift, as being only blown
occafionally from the broken furface of a high wave,
whereas the latter continues to fly horizontally alonsj the fea,
without intermillion, during the excefs of a tempell or hur-
ricane. Falconer.

Spray, in ylgriculture, the twiggy branches of any fort
of underwood, which are ufeful for many different purpofes.
The fpray of many extenfive woods, in different places, arc
cut over occafionally for burning lime, &c.

SpR.w-Faggots, fuch as are made from the fpray or fmall
branches, and other offal, of different kinds of wood of the
undergrowth kind, and bound up in proper quantities.
This fort of faggot, as well as thofe which are made of
furze, and fome other inflammable matters, are much em-
ployed in burning chalk into lime, in what are called flame-
kilns, in fomc diltrifts, as in Suffex, &c.

SPREADING and Setting out Manure, the prac-
tice of difperfing and diftributing it in or upon land, and
putting it on in a proper manner for the purpofe. This
fort of work is performed fomewhat differently on arable
or grafs-land, and according to the nature of the cultivation.
This can never be done in the moll proper and complete
manner, unlcfs the neceffary attention has been bellowed in
fetting the manure out, to fee that it is not dcpofited in too
large heaps, but put out in equal proportions, of a moderate
fize, at pretty exaft dillances between the different heaps.
In the bufinefs of fetting out manure to the greatell advan-
tage, the carts employed fhould be rather fmall, and con-
veniently formed for the purpofe. With large carts the
work is liable to be done not only with much inequality,
but in far too large heaps, fo that it is done with great
trouble and lofs of time. Single-horfe carts are perhaps,
in general, the moft ufeful in this way or intention.

The writer of the correfted account of the Agriculture
of the County of Perth, has noticed an ingenious contrivance
for facilitating the unloading of carts filled with fubftances of
the manure kind, which is in ufe in that diilridl. It con-
fills in fufpending the box or body-part of the cart at dif-
ferent heights, while it is emptying ; but it can only be
ufed with advantage in carts which are condrudled on a fort
of moveable frame, or thofe which are denominated coup-
carts, and where the load is to be difcharged in feveral dif-
ferent portions. For this purpofe a thin piece of iron, of
about two inches in breadth, is fixed on the fore-part of the
box or body of the cart, exactly in the middle, extending
in length to the top or height of the body or box-part, in
which are formed and inferted three or four oblnng holes,
correfponding in fize to a rod or pin, which is fixed with a
flaple in tlie middle of the firll bar that keeps the Ihafts of
the cart together. The length of this rod or pin is moftly
about eighteen inches, but longer when neceilary, as the
height or length of that part of the body or box of the
cart which reits on the frame may require. The top part
of it is formed into fomewhat the Ihape of a crefcent, an
inch in width, vvith the point upwards, which correfponds
with the holes in the iron plate. When the rod or pin is
not in ufe, in order to prevent its dangUng, it is made to -
red on a hook in the front of the box, or body of the cart.
When the driver wifhes or is defirous to unload a part of
6 the

S P R

the contents of the cart, he raifes the box or body-part of
it, putting the rod or piu into the firit nick or liole, and
makrs the firll heap ; and then moves on to the place or
dillancc .vticre he intends to put down the fecond, when he
again raiks the iame part of the cart to tlie fecond nick ;
continuing the fame metliod until the whole of the contents
be difcha'-ged or fct out.

In fprt-ading out iiianui'e on the f\irface of arable land,
where it is to be turned into the foil by the plough, fo much
exactnefs is not neceffary ; though it Ihould aKvays be done
in as even and regular a manner, and to as equal a thickncfs,
as poflible. And on ridges, efpecially where they are rather
narrow, care Ihould be taken that it does not fall into the
ridge-furrows, by carefully fpieading it out at iirit all along
the borders of them in a regular manner. In cafes where it
is to be placed and fpre.id out in drills or furrows made for
the purpofe, it fiiould conftantly be executed in as even a
manner, in regard to thicknels, as it wiU readily permit,
and in a way which will allow of its being covered in as com-
pletely as poflible, as it is equally waileful and difgraceful
to have it preft-nting itfelf externally.

In fpreading different forts of materials of the manure
kind over grafs-land, it is always neceffary to fee that the
work be performed in an exaft and even manner, as well as
that all the lumps and clods be well broken down, and as
much reduced as poflible, by beating them with the fork or
fliovel, or in fome other way. On arable as well as grafs-
land, as favourably dry a feafon as can be obtained fhould
moftly be chofen for this fort of work. In wet feafons, the
materials clog and hang about the feet and tools of the
workman, and are never capable of being fo divided as to
be fpread out with the neceffary degree of evennefs and
regularity, efpecially on grafs-land. On this fort of land,
when the heaps have been fet out, they fhould never be fuf-
fered to remain fo long as is too frequently the cafe, before
they are fpread out, as the grafs-plants underneath them
become blanched and tender, and are liable to be deftroyed ;
great injury being often done to the furface or fward, in
fuch cafes. In fpreading manure from the carts, injuries
of this nature are likewife prevented, as is found in the mid-
land and fome other dillritts, where the pratlice prevails ;
but in this mode, it is probable, the work can neither be
performed in fo perfect a manner, nor with fo much economy
of time and labour. In this manner, the inconvenience of
hill or heap-lteads will, however, be avoided ; and, of courfe,
the difadvantage ot their getting too large a proportion of
manure guarded againit and prevented

The tools mofUy employed in this fort of work are thofe
of the dung-fork and the fliovel, but others are occafionally
ufed for particular forts of manure.

After the fubltances of this kind have been fpread out in
this manner on grafs-land, they may often be farther ufe-
fuUy reduced and diltributed, by pafling a bufh-harrow
over them a few times in a dry feafon, fome weeks after the
fpreading has been performed.

Where manure, in its more recent or frcfh flate, is cm-
ployed either on arable or grafs-land, more attention will be
neceffary in fpreading it out over or into the land, fo tiiat
it may be done in an even and perfedl manner. See Yahd-
Dung.

SPREE, or Sprehe, in Geegraphy, a river which rifes
on the frontiers of Bohemia, crofles Lufatia, enters the mar-
quilate of Brandenburg, and, after pafling by Berlin, joins
the Havel at Spandau.

SPREMBEllG, or Sfrehenbehc, or Grodk, a town
of Lufatia, on the river Spree, which gives name to a circle,
or dillrift; 29 miles S.S.W of Guben. N. lat. 51^32'.

S P R

E. long. 14'' 25'.— Alfo, a town of Saxony, at the fource
of the Spree ; 28 miles E. of Drefden.

SPREMONT, a town of France, in the department of
the Ourte, feated on a brook vvhicli runs into the Ourte, and
together with a fmall country, called the " Ban of Spre-
mont," infulated within the bilhopric of Liege; 13 miles
S.W. of Liege.

SPRENDLINGEN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 8 miles E. of Creutznach.

SPRENGELIA, in Botany, received that name from
the writer of this article, in honour of Mr. Chriltian Conrad
Sprengel, maflcr ot a grammar-fchoid at Spai.dow, in Bran-
denburgh, who publilhed at Berlin, in 1793, ^ ™°'^ ■""
genious work, on the manner in which infeits promote the
impregnation of plants. This faft is illuflrated by feveral
hundred particular examples, accompanied with figures of
each. Dr. Curtius Sprengel, now Profeflor of Botany at
Halle, may alio claim his fhare of botanical commemoration
in the above name. His ProJromus of a work on the ar-
rangement of Umbelliferous Plants, publilhed in 1813, to
fay nothing of his letters on Cryptogamic Vegetables, and
his edition of the Philo/ophia Botanka of Linnsus, may well
entitle him to fuch diltiiiAion. — Sm. in the Stockholm
Tranfaftions for 1794, 260. t. 8. Trads relating to Nat.
Hiil. 269. WiUd. Sp. PI. V. I. 833. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. I. 320. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 5^4. (Poi-
retia ; Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 24.) — Clafs and order, Pentandr'ia
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Erica, Jufl. Epacr'tJete, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, chaffy,
coloured, in five deep, equal, lanceolate fegments, ereft
after flowering, permanent. Cor. of one petal, wheel-
fliaped, beardlefs, in five very deep equal fegments, the
length of the calyx. Neftary none. Slam. Filaments five,
inferted into the receptacle, linear, flat, fmooth, fliorter
than the corolla ; anthers vertical, oblong, parallel, more
or lefs combined, of one cell. Pifl. Gcrmen fuperior,
roundifh, deprefled, with five furrows ; llyle fimple, cylin-
drical, about as long as the ftamens ; fligma obtufe. Peric.
Capfule fomewhat cylindrical, obtufe, with live furrows, of
five valves and five cells, the partitions longitudinal, from
the centre of each valve. Sc:Js numerous, roundifh, mi-
nute, inferted into the angles of the central column, which
is fhorter than the valves.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deqp fegments, permanent,
coloured. Corolla wheel-fhapcd, in five deep fegments,
beardlefs. Stamens inferted into the receptacle. Anthers
converging or combined. Nettary none. Capfule of five
valves and five cells, the partitions from the middle of each
valve.

I. &. mcarnala. Flefli-coloured Sprengelia. Sm. Trafts,
272. t. 2. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Br. n. I. Andr.
Repof. t. 2. (Poiretia cucullata ; Cavan. Ic. t. 343.
I^amarck Didl. v. 5. 449.) — Anthers combined, hairy.
Calyx entirely coloured. Points of the leaves elongated. —
Native of Port Jackfon, New South Wales; found alto by
Mr. Brown in Van Diemen's ifland, and on the fouth coalt
of New Holland. Meflrs. Lee and Kennedy railed the
plant in 1793, and in their grcCTihoufes it ftill flouriflies,
flowering from April to June. This is a pretty and lingular
Jhrub, about two tcLthigh, rigid and much branched, leafy,
ever-green, very fmooth ; tiie branches round. Lcavct al-
ternate, flieathing, fomctimcs imbricated in three ranks,
recurved, lanceolate, acute, concave, entire, very fmooth,
rather glaucous, withcjut rib or veins, tawny when faded,
and finally loofened at their bafe, fo as to turn round on the
branch. St'ipulas none. Flwwcrs terminating the nuincroue,
fhort, crowded, lateral branches, clothed with fmaller

Icavea,

S P R

leaves, and making a very pretty appearance. We do not
find that they have any fcent. Ca/yx rofe-coloured, half an
inch in diameter. Corolla and Jlamsns flefh-coloured. The
name of Poiretia, given by Cavanilles, was not publiflied till
three years after our Sprengel'ia.

2. S. montana. Mountain Sprengelia. Br. n. 2. —
« Anthers \mconnefted, beardlefs. Calyx partly coloured.
Points of the leaver ftiort."— Gathered by Mr. Brown in
Van Diemeu's illatid. We have feen no fpecimens of this
Ipccics.

Mr. Brown's PoKCELETiA (fee that article), as well as
his Anderfoma, Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. I. 553. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. I. 321, feems very nearly related to the prefent
genus, both in afpccl and charafter.

SPRETZA, m Geography, a river of Bofnia, which
runs into the Bofna.

SPREWIL, a town of North Carolina, on the fouth
coait of Albemarle found. N. lat. 35° 56'. W, long.

76° 39'-

SPRIG, a fmall eye-bolt, ragged at the point.

Sprig is alfo a fmall branch or fpray. It likewife fig-
nifies a brad.

SPRIGE, in Geography, a lownlliip of Ohio, in the
county of Adams, containing 1664 inhabitants.

SPRIGNO. See Spigno.

SPRING, FoNS, in Natural Hiftory, a fountain or
fource of water, rifing out of the ground.

The origin of fprings or fountains has been much con-
troverted among our late naturalifts. Meflrs. Mariotte
and Perrault afcribe them to rain, to which others have
added dew ; their doftrine is, that the rain-water penetrates
the earth till fuch time as it meets a clayey foil, or ftratura;
which proving a fufiicient folid bottom to fuftain and ftop
its defcent, it glides along it that way to which the earth
declines, till meeting with a place, or aperture, on the fur-
face, through which it may efcape, it forms the head of a
river.

Now, that the rain is fnfficient for this effeft, appears
hence ; that, upon calculating the quantity of rain and
fnow which falls yearly on the traft of ground, that is
to furnifh, for inltance, the water of the Seine, it is found
that river does not take up above one-fixth part of it.

Springs ordinarily arife at the bottom of mountains : the
reafon, they fay, is, that mountains coUeft the moll waters,
and give them the greateft defcent the fame way : and that
if we fometimes fee fprings on high grounds, and even on
the tops of mountains, they muft be brought from other
remoter places confiderably higher, along beds of clay,
or clayey ground, as in their natural channels. If, then,
there happen to be a valley between a mountain on whofe
top is a fpring, and the mountain that is to furnifh it \vith
water, the fpring muft be looked on as water condufted
from a refervoir of a certain height through a fubterra-
neouo channel, to make a jet of an equal or fomewhat lefs
height.

This theory M. de la Hire (Parifian Mem. for 1703) has
taken under examination, in its moft effential article, and
that where the authors feem to have been the leaft diitruft-
ful. He has endeavoured to find by experiment, whether
rain or fnow-water could penetrate the earth as low as the
clayey ftratum : with this view he procured a leaden veflel
eight feet deep, having a pipe at the bottom : this he buried
in the earth, and filled with foil of fand and loam, expofing
the furface to receive all the rain that fell. After fifteen
years' trial, he found that no water had run through the
jpipe at the bottom. Again, he took another veflel, eight
inches deep, which he filled with earth, and expofed in like

S P R

manner. No rain penetrated fo as to run out at the bot-
tom from June to February ; but after that time it yielded
a quantity after moft rains. Another veflel of twice the
depth, or fixteen inches, gave a refult much like that of
eight inches. When herbs were planted in this lalt-men-
tioned veflel, he found that as foon as ever any of thefe
came up, and were grown to any bulk, fo far was the rain
that fell from being able to gather itfelf at the depth of
fixteen inches, that it was not fufficient even to feed the
plants, but there was a neceffity for watering them.

With refpeft to the firft-mentioned faft, fays Mr. Dal-
ton, (Manchefter Memoirs, vol. v.) we need not won-
der that no water penetrated through eight feet of earth
at Paris, where the annual rain is but 20 inches, when
only eight or nine inches penetrated through three feet of
earth here, where the rain is 33 or 34 inches annually.
But it does not follow, that rain may not defcend down
declivities of the ground into vallies or lower parts, at Paris
as well as here, and being accumulated, may penetrate into
the earth to a confiderable depth, efpecially if it meet with
channels or chafms of any kind, or declining ftrata of earth,
that are impenetrable by water. Paris, Mr. Dalton believes,
however, is not very liberally fupplied with fprings, as might
be expefted. As to the experiment upon vegetation, it
only proves that the rain in fpring and fummer is fometimes
not fufficient to fupport vegetable life, a faft which may
readily be granted ; but then in his experiment the plants
were precluded from a fupply of moifture from the earth
beneath the veflel, which is a referve of the utmoft confe-
quence in dry feafons.

This circumftance of water afcending again in the earth,
on whatever principle it is effefted, cannot be denied. There
were four inches and three-quarters of rain here in July laft,
none of which pafled through the earth in the evaporating
veflel ; this earth, however, at the end of the month, was
far from that degree of drynels which is unfit for the fup-
port of vegetation. During the firll four days of Auguft
there fell about three inches of rain, and only half an inch
penetrated through the earth in the evaporating vefTel,
Confequently three feet in depth of earth that was mode-
rately moiit imbibed nearly three inches of rain, before it
was faturated ; whence we may conclude, that three inches
nearly had afcended and been evaporated. This evidently
fhews, that earth is capable of holding a very great pro-
portion of water, that in fummer the water afcends to fup-
ply the exigencies at the furface, and that earth far under
the point of faturation with moifture is itill fit to fupport
vegetation.

This obfervation fuggefted the following queftion — How
much water is there in a given depth of earth, when the
foil is at the point of faturation, or in that ftate, when it
begins to yield water from the lower pipe of the evapo-
rating gauge I

To determine this, Mr. Dalton took a quantity of garden
foil, that had been foaked with rain a day before, and prefTed
it into a crucible ; in this ftate he found its fpecific gravity to
that of water, as fis-e to three. It was then expofed to a
moderate heat, till it appeared, as near as he could judge, of
the fame moifture as garden foil two inches deep in dry
fummer weather ; afterwards it was expofed almoft to a
red heat, till it became a perfeftly dry powder ; in the for-
mer cafe it loft one-twelfth of its weight, and in the latter
one-third. When it had lofl one-fixth, it did not appear
too dry to fupport vegetation. When it had loft two-
ninths, it appeared like the top foil in fummer. Hence it
follows, that every foot of earth in depth, fo faturated,
contains feven inches of water, and that it may part with

a quarter

SPRING.

B quarter of its water, or even a half, and not be too dl^
for fuppnrting vegetation.

Clay, jiilt dug out for the purpofe of making bricks,
was tried in the fame manner. It gave the fame fpecific
gravity as the earth, and yielded not much lefs water.

Thefe experiments and obfervations prove, that M. de
la Hire's conclufions, drawn from the vegetation of plants
in a given quantity of luil, precluded from any communi-
cation with the earth at large, are erroneous, or at lealt
unwarranted ; as it does not thence appear, that the eva-
poration for the whole year exceeds the rain in the year,
whatever it may do for a month or two in fiimmer.

The origin of fprings may if ill, tlierefore, be attributed
to rain, till fome more decifive experiments appear to the
contrary.

Upon the whole it (hould feem, that at the commence-
ment of fpring, the ground is nearly faturated with water
for five or fix feet in depth, as the rains and dews in autumn
and winter far exceed the evaporation. There are then five
or fix inches of water at leaft to be raifcd up again to the
furface in cafe of exigence in the fpring and (ummer. If
this happen to be fo, then it is at the expence of fprings ;
for we find the generality of fprings become languid, or
entirely ceafe to flow at the end of a long drought. As to
the few fprings that feem to be little aftefted by dry or wet
feafons, they form exceptions, which it would not be diffi-
cult to account for. See Evaporation.

Dr. Halley refers the origin of iprinirs merely to vapours
raifed by the heat of the fun, or of fubtcrrancous fires,
from the fea, lakes, rivers, &c.

Now, to fhew that vapour is a fufficient fund to fupply
all our fprings, rivers, &c. the fame excellent author makes
an eftimate of the quantity of vapour raifed from the Medi-
terranean fea, by the aftion of the fun : for the refult of
which, fee Vapour.

Yet the quantity of water thus raifed, great as it is, is
only the remains of what is raifed another way ; viz. by
the winds, which fometimes fweep the water off much faft er
than the fun takes it up.

To find, now, the quantity of water the Mediterranean re-
ceives, allow the moil confiderable rivers it receives, viz.
the Iberus, Rhone, Tiber, Po, Danube, Neifter, lioryf-
thenes, Tanais, and the Nile, each to furnifh ten times as
much water as the Thames ; not that any of them are in
reality fo great, but fo to allow for the Icffer rivulets ; but
the Thames is found, by calculation, to evacuate 20,300,000
tons of water daily. All the nine rivers above-mentioned,
therefore, will only evacuate 1827 milhons of tons in a day;
which is little more than a third of what is raifed in that
time in vapour. The whole Mediterranean, according to cal-
culation, is computed to contain 160 fquare degrees, yield-
ing at leaft 5280 millions of tons. (Phil. Tranf. N° 189.
or Abr. vol. li. p. 1 10.) For a more correft ellimate by
Mr. Dalton, fee River. ,

The prodigious quantity of water remaining, Dr. Hal-
ley allows to rains, which fall again into the fcas, and for
the purpofes of vegetation, &c. As to the manner in
which this water is coUefted, fo as to form refcrvoirs for
the different kinds of fprings, it feems to be this : the tops
of mountains, in general, abound with cavities and fubtcr-
raneous caverns, formed by nature to ferve as refervoirs ;
and their pointed fummits, which feem to pierce the clouds,
ftop thofe vapours which fluftuate in the .itmofphere, and
being condenfed by them, they precipitate in water, and
by their gravity cafily penetrate through beds of fand and
lighter earth, till they are (lopped in their defcent by more
denfe (Irata, as beds of clay, Hone, &c., where they form

a bafon or cavern, and work a paflage horizontally, and
ill'ue out at the fides of the mountains. Many of thefe
fprings difcharge water, which running down between the
ridges of hills, unite their itreams, and form rivulets or
brooks ; and many of thefe uniting again on the plain, be-
come a river.

After all that can be faid in favour both of rain and Ta-
pour, it mull be owned, they are both ilill encumbered with
great difficulties ; though by no means infuperable.

The perpetuity of divers fprings, always yieldiHg the
fame quantity of water, when the leail rain or vapour \s
afforded as well as the greateft, is a llrong objection to
both. Dr. Dcrham mentions one in his own parilh of Up-
minfter, which he could never perceive by his eye to be
diminiflied in the greateft droughts, even when all the ponds
in the country, as well as an adjoining brook, had been dry
for fevcral months together ; nor ever to be increafed in the
moft rainy feafons, excepting perhaps for a few hours, or
at moft for a day, from fudden and violent rains. Had
this fpring its origin from rain or vapour, there would be
found an increafe and decreafe of its water correfponding
to thoic of its caufes ; as we aftually find in fuch tempo-
rary fprings as have undoubtedly their rife from rain and
vapour : add to this, another confiderable thing in this Up-
miniter fpring, and thoufands of others ; viz. that it breaks
out of fo inconfiderable an hillock, or eminence, as can have
no more influence in the condenfation of the vapours, or
Hopping the clouds, than the lower lands about it have.
The very higheft ground in the country he finds is not
above a hundred and thirty-three yards above the level of
the fea ; and what is fuch an inconfiderable rife of land,
to perennial condenfation of vapours, fit to afford fo con-
fiderable a fpring ? or the high lands of the whole country,
to the maintaining all its fountains and rivulets ?

Other riaturalifts, therefore, have had recourfe to the fea,
and derive the original of fprings immediately thence ; but
how the fea-water fhould be raifed up to the furface of our
earth, and even to the tops of the mountains, is a difficulty,
in the folution of which they cannot agree. Some fancy a
kind of hollow fubcerranean rocks to receive the watery va-
pours raifed from channels communicating with the fea, by
means of an internal fire, and to aft tiie part of alembics, in
freeing them frwm their faline particles, as well as condenfing
and converting them into water. This kind of fubterranean
laboratory, ferving for the dilHUation of fea-water, was the
invention of Defcartes. (Princip. part iv. J 64.) Others,
as M. de la Hire (Mem. de I'Acad. an. 1703), &c. fet
afide the neceflity of alembics, and think it enough
that there be large fubterranean refervoirs of water at
the height of the fea, whence the warmth of the bottom
of the earth, or even the central fire (if there be fuch a
thing), may raife vapours ; which, pervading not only the
intervals and fillurcs of the ftrata, but the bodies of the
ftrata themfelves, at length arrive near the furface ; where,
being condenfed by the cold, they glide along on the firll bed
of clay they meet with, until an aperture in the ground lets
them out. M. de la Hire addi!, that the falts of ftones and
minerals may contribute to the detaining and fixing the va-
jjours, and converting them into water. But we have a ftill
more natural and eaiy way of exhibiting the rife of the fea-
water up into mountains, &c. by putting a little heap of
fand, arfies, a loaf of bread, or the like, into a balon of
water ; in which cafe the fand. Sic. will rcprefent the dry
land, or an idand ; and the bafon of water the fea about it.
Here the water in the bafon will rife to or near the top of
the heap, in the fame manner, and from the fame principle,
as the waters of the fea, lakes. &c. rife in the hilU. The

principle

SPRING.

principle of afcent in both is accordingly fuppofed to be the
fame with that of tlie afcent of liquids in capillary tubes, or
between contiguous planes, or in a tube filled with afhes ; all
which are now generally accounted for from the doarineot
attraftion. See River. , , , .

Againa this kit theory-, M. Perrault and others have
urged feveral unanfwerablo objeaions. It fuppofes a va-
ricty of fubterranean pafTages and caverns, communicating
with the fea, and a comphcated apparatus of alembics, heat
and cold, &c. of the exiflence of which we have no fuf&cient
proof. Befidcs, the water that is fuppofed to afcend from
the depths of the fea, or from fubterranean canals proceed-
ing from it, through the porous parts of the earth, as it
rifes in capillary tubes, afcends to no great height, and in
much too fmall a quantity, to furnifh fprings with water, as
M. Perrault has fufficiently fliewn. And though the fand
and earth through which the water afcends may acquire fome
faline particles from it, they are neverthelefs incapable of
rendering it fo frefli as the water of our fountains is gene-
rally found to be. Not to add, that in procefs of time, the
fahne particles of which the water is deprived, either by
fubterranean diftiliation or filtration, muft clog and obllrudl
thofe canals and alembics by which it is fuppofed to be con-
veyed to our fprings, and the fea muft likewife gradually
lole a confiderable quantity of its fait.

In fpeaking of the fituation of the earth, as connected
with the formation of fprings. Dr. Darwin has obferved,
that it confifts of ftrata, many of which were formed ori-
ginally beneath the fea. The mountains were afterwards
forced up by fubterraneous fires, as appears from the fiffures
in the rocks of which they confift, the quantity of volcanic
produftions all over the world, and the numerous remains of
craters of volcanoes in mountainous countries. Hence it is
contended, that the ftrata which compofe the fides of moun-
tains lie flanting downwards, and that one or two, or
more, of the external ftrata not reaching to the fummit
when the mountain was raifed up, the fecond or third
ftratuni, or a ftill more inferior one, is there espofed to day ;
this may be well reprefented, it is faid, by forcibly thrufting
a blunt inttrument through feveral fheets of paper, a bur
will Hand up with the lowefmoft ftieet ftanding higher in
the centre of it. On this uppernioft ftratum, which is
colder as it is more elevated, the dews are condenfed in large
quantities, and Aiding down, pafs under the firft or fecond
or third ftratum, which compofe the fides of the hill ; and
either form a morafs below, or a weeping rock, by oozing
out in numerous places, or many of thefe lefs currents meet-
ing together, burft out in a more copious rill.

But that, as the fprings confift of the water which Aides
down between thofe incUned ftrata ; it is evident that, in
fome eminences of ground they are only to be met with on
one fide of the mountain ; and in other eminences of ground,
on all fides of it. In fearching for fprings, therefore, atten-
tion ftioiild be given to the inclination of the ftrata of that
part of the country, which may be often f'cn in marle-pits,
gravel-pits, or in hollow lanes. But they may in general be
found above any moift or morafly place, or valley ; the
moifture of which (hews that fprings exift in the ftrata on
that fide of the hill or mountain. And another obfervation
for the purpofe of detefting fprings, may, it is faid, be
made on mifty evenings ; as thofe parts of the ground where
the mift commences, are moift^r than thofe in their vicinity
on the fame level, and in confeqiience may generally, if they
are not hollow bafons, pofTefs fprings nearer the furface ;
for thefe moifter parts of the ground, having evaporated
more during the day, are become colder on their furfaces
than the drier ground-in their vicinity ; and in mifty evenings.

which are at the fame time calm, the ftationary air over thefe
moift parts of the ground is alfo more loaded with the eva-
porated moifture ; and on both thefe accounts, thefe moifter
iituations are liable to (hew a condeifation of aerial vapour
fooner than other places on the fami. level. And there may be
other caufes of fprings in the nature of iiilly fituations, for as
mountains are colder in proportion to their height, ift, their
being in a manner infulated or cut off from the common heat
of the earth, which is always of 48", and perpetually coun-
terafts the efFefts of external cold beneath that degree, may
be one caufe. 2. From their furfaces being larger in pro-
portion to their folid contents, and hence their heat more
expeditiouAy carried away by the ever moving atmofphere.
3. The increafing rarity of the air as the mountain rifes.
All thofe bodies which conduft eleftricity well or ill, con-
duft the matter of heat likewife well or ill. Atmofpheric
air is a bad conduftor of eleftricity, and thence confines it
on the body where it is accumulated ; but when it is made
v.-ry rare, as in the eshaufted receiver, the eleftric aura pafTes
away immediately to any diftance. The fame circumftance
probably happens in refpeft to heat, which is thus kept by
the deiifcr air on the plains from efcaping, but is diffipated
on the hills, where the air is thinner. 4. As the currents
of air rife up the fides of mountains, they become mechani-
cally rarefied, the pre Aure of the incumbent column leffeniiig
as they afcend. Hence the cxpznding air abforbs heat from
the mountains as it afcends. 5. There is another, and per-
haps more powerful caufe, it is fufpefted, which may occa.
fion the greater cold on mountains, and in the higher parts
of tlie atmofphere, and which has not yet been attended to;
it is meant that the fluid matter of heat may probably gra-
vitate round the earth, and form an atmofphere, which may
diminilh or become rarer, as it recedes from the earth's fur-
face, in a greater proportion than the air dimini(hcs. And
the greater condenfation of moifture on the fummits of
hills has another caufe, which is the dafhing of moving
clouds againft them ; in mifty days this is often feen to have
great efFefts on plains, where an eminent tree, by obftruft-
ing the mift as it moves along, (hall have a much greater
quantity of moifture drop from its leaves, than falls at the
fame time on the ground in its vicinity. Hence it is con-
cluded, as fuggefted above, that the evening mift commences
fooner on them than in the vallies, but is feen earliir in the
fituations over the moifter places, if they are on the fame
level with the drier ones, exaftly as on the plains or vallies ;
and may therefore indicate the exiftence of Iprings, unlefs
thefe moifter places confift of hollow bafons, containing
water, which, if not attended to, may in all fituatii>ns de-
ceive the obferver. And further obfervations for detefting
fprings may be made in rimy mornings ; for as moift earth
is a belter conduftor of heat than dry earth, the rime
will fooner melt on thofe parts of the foil which are
kept moift by fprings under it than in other parts ; as the
common heat of the earth, which is 48"' in this country,
will fooner be condudled upwards in moid places to diffolve
the rime on the furface. On this account the rime is fre-
quently feen on frofty mornings, when the heat of the air is
not much above 32°, to lie an hour longer on dry cakes of
cow-dung, or on bridges, or planks of wood, than on the
common moift ground, as the latter much better condufts the
common heat of the earth to the incumbent rime .vhich is
in contaft with it. But as the heat of the common fprings
in this country is 48^, where they exift, the rime is fooner
diffolved than on the ftagnant moifture of bogs or moraC'es.
It is therefore concluded, that the common cold fprings are
thus formed on elevated grounds by the condenfed vapours,
and hence are ftronger when the nights are cold, after hot

days

SPRING.

days in fpring, tlian even in the wet days of winter. For
the warm atmofphere durinir the day has did'olvcd much more
water than it can lupport in lolution during the cold of the
night, which is thus depofited in large quantities on the hills,
and yet fo gradually, as to foak. in between the llrata of
them, rather than to Aide oft over the furfaces, like fhowers
of rain. The common heat of the internal parts of the
earth is afcertained by fprings which arife from the ilrata of
earth too deep to be affefted by the heat of the fummer, or
the frofts of winter. Thofe in this country, as has been
feen, are of 48° of heat, thofe about Philadelphia were
faid by Dr. Franklin to be jz^. Whether this variation is to
be accounted for by the difference of the fun's heat in that
country, according to the ingenious theory of Mr. Kirwan,
or to the vicinity of fubterranean fires, is not yet, it is
thought, decided. And in the winter months, the rife of
fprings may be detefted in moid ditches by the prefence of
aquatic plants, as of the water-crefs, water-parfnip, brook-
lime, &c.; as in thofe ditches which become dry in fummer
thefe plants do not exilt ; and when thofe ditches with
fprings in them are nearly dry, it may be difcovered which
way the current has formerly defcended, by the direftion of
the points of the leaves of aquatic plant?, as certainly as
by a level ; an obfervation which was learnt from Mr. Brind-
ley, the great canal conduftor of Stafforddiire.

The proper application of thefe principles may lead to
many ufeful conclufions, both in refpeft to agriculture and
rural economy, and is a fort of knowledge which thofe en-
gaged in the providing of water for wells or pits ihould
be well acquainted with. See Draining, Water, and
Well.

For the method of preventing or remedying the injury
done to land by fprings, &c. fee Spnii^G-Draining.

Springs, D\jft:rent Sorts of. Springs are either fuch as
run continually, called perennial ; or fuch as run only for
a time, and at certain fealons of the year, and therefore
called temporary fprings. Others, again, are called inter-
mitting fprings, bccaufe they flow and then Hop, and flow
and flop again ; and reciprocating fprings, whofe waters rife
and fall, or flow and ebb, by regular intervals, which are
alfo called "ebbing and flowing wells." In order to ac-
count for thefe diderences in fprings, let A B C D E
(Plate XV. Hydraulics, Jig. 7.) rcprefent the declivity of a
hill, along which the rain defcends ; palling through the
fiflures or channels B F, C G, D H, and L K, into the
cavity or refervoir F G H Iv M I ; from this cavity let there
be a narrow drain or duft K E, which difcharges the water at
E. As the capacity of the refervoir is fuppoled to be large
in proportion to that of the drain, it will furnifh a conftant
fupply of water to the fpring at E. But if the refervoir
F G H K M I be fmall, and the drain large, the water
contained in the former, unlcfs it is fupplied by rain, will
be wholly difcharged by the latter, and the fpring will be-
come dry ; and fo it will continue, even though it rains, till
the water has had time to penetrate through tlie earth, or to
pafs through the channels into the refervoir ; and the time
necefl'ary for furniftiing a new fupply to the drain K E, will
depend on the fize of the fifl^ure, the nature of the foil, and
the depth of the cavity with which it communicates. Hence
it may happen, that the fpring at E may remani dry for a
ccnfiderable time, and even vvhilll it rains ; but when the
vrater has found its way into the cavity of the hill, the fpring
will begin to run. Springs of this kind, it is evident, may
be dry in wet weather, efpecially if the duiil K E is not
exaclly level with the bottcjm of the cavity in the hill, and
difcharge water in dry weather ; and the intermiflion of the
fpring mav continue for Icvcral days. But if we fuppofe

Vol. X'XXIII.

X O P to reprefent another cavity, iupplied with water by
the channel N O, as well as by fiilures and clcils in the
rock, and by the draining of tlic adjacent earth ; and another
channel S T V, communicating with the bottom of it at
S, afcending to T, and terminating on the furface at V, in
the form of 3. ftphon (which fee) ; this difpofition of the
internal cavities of the earth, which we may reafonably fup-
pofe that nature has formed in a variety of places, will ferve
to explain the principle of reciprocating fprings. For it is
plain that the cavity X O P muft be fupplied with water to
the height Q P T, before it can pafs over the bend of the
channel at T, and then it will flow through the longer
leg of the fiphon T V, and be difcharged at the end V,
which is lower than S. Now if the channel S T V be
conliderably larger than N O, by which the water is
principally conveyed into the refervoir X O P, the refer-
voir will be emptied of its water by the fiphon ; and when
the water defcends below its orifice S, the air will drive
the remaining water out of the crooked channel S T V,
and the fpring will ceafeto flow. But in time the water Ir
the refervoir will again rile to the height O P T, and be
difcharged at V, as before. It is cafy to conceive, that tlie
diameters of the channels N O and S T V may be fo pro-
portioned to one another, as to afford an intermiflion and
renewal of the fpring V at regular intervals. Thus, if N O
c::mmunicates with a well fupplied by the tide, during the
time of flow, the quantity of water conveyed by it into the
cavity X O P, may be iufficient to fill it up to Q P T ;
and S T V may be of fuch a fize as to empty it, during the
time of ebb. It is eafy to apply this realoning to more
complicated cafes, where feveral refervoirs and fiphons, com-
municating with each other, may fupply fprings, with cir-
cumftances of greater variety. See Mufchcnbrocck's In-
trod. ad Phil. Nat. torn. ii. p. loio. Defag. Ex. Phil,
vol. ii. p. 173, &c.

We fhall here obferve, that Defaguliers calls thofe reci-
procating fprings which flow condantly, but with a fl;ream
fubjeft to increafe and decreafe ; and thus he diltinguiflies
them from intermitting fprings, whicii flow or ftop alter-
nately.

It is faid, that in the dioccfeof Paderborn,in Wcftphalia,
there is a fpring which difappears twice in twenty-four
hours, and always returns at the end of fix hours with a
great noife, and with fo much force, as to turn three mills
not far from its fource. It is called the lolder-born, or
boilterous fpring. Phil. Tranf. N° 7. p. 127.

There are many fprings of an extraordinary nature in our
own country, which it is needlefs to recite, as they are ex-
plicable by the general principles already illuftrated.

Springs are farther divided into oozing or weeping fprings,
where the water gently trickles through the pores of the
land ; pipe fprings, where they appear in a fingle rill ; and
wa// fprings, where the w.iter illues, as it were, through
the joints of a wall. But befides thefe, fprings have many
other local names, which ferve to dillinguilh them in their
particular fituations, where they break out in grounds. See
SpniSG-Draining.

SriiiNO.s, Burning, or Boiling. The burning fpring near
Grenoble, in Dauphine, is famous. St. Augulline (peaks of
it as extinguifliing lamps which are lighted, and lighting
thofe which arc exlind. But it is now cold, like others ;
only near it is a fpot of ground, which Hill emits a light
flame ; over whicli fonie imagine it might auciently have
palled. Augull. de Civ. Dei, lib. xxi. cap. 7, and II,
Mem. Acad. Infcript. torn. ix. p. 565. Mem. Acad. Scien,
an. 1699, p. 26.

At Bofeley, near Wenlock, in Shroplhirc, there is a fa-
4 H mom

SPRING.

mous boiling well, which was difcovered in June 17 ii, by
an uncommon noife in the night, fo great, that .t awakened
feveral people, who being defnous to find what it was owing
to, at length found a bogev place under a little lull, not far
from the Severn ; and perceiving a great (hakmg of the
earth, and a little boilin.,- up of water through the gials,
they took a fpade, and digging up fome part of the earth,
the' water flew to a great height, and was fet on lire by a
candle. This water was for fome time afterwards conllantly
found to take fire, and burn like fpirit of wine ; and after
it was fet on fire, it would boil the water in a veilel fooner
than any artificial fire, and yet the fpring itfelf was as cold
as any whatever. Phil. Tranf. No. 334.

This well was at length lolt for many years, and not re-
covered till May, 1746, when by a rumbhng noife under
gronnd, like to what the former well made, it was hit upon
again, though in a lower lituation, and thirty yai-ds nearer
the river.

The well is four or five feet deep, and fix or leven wide ;
within that is another lefs hole of like depth, dug in the clay,
in the bottom of which is placed a cylindric earthen veflel, of
about four or five inches diameter at the mouth, having the
bottom taken off, and the fides well fixed in the clay, rammed
clofe about it. Within the pot i^ a brown water, thick as
puddle, continually forced up by a violent motion, beyond
that of boiling water, and a rumbling hollow nolle, rifing
and falling by fits five or fix inches. It may be fired by a
candle at a quarterof a yard dillance ; and it darts and flafhes
in a violcRt manner, about half a yard high. It has been
left burning forty-eight hours, without any fenfiblc dimi-
nution. It may be extinguifhed by putting a wet mop upon
it, which mull be kept there afmall time. On the removal
of the mop there fucceeds a fulphureous fmoke, lalting about
a minute, and yet the water is very cold to the touch.
Phil. Trauf. No. 482, fett. 6.

Spring, Lancnrlm. See Laxcarim.
Springs, Ahilicinal. See Water.
Springs, Artificial, thole kinds of fprings, or coUeftions
of water, which are made by art in different views and in-
tentions, by the farmer and land proprietor.

The methods of proceeding in thcle forts of undertakings
may be thofe of making a fufficient number of under-drain
fprings for the purpofe of the above kind, in different direc-
tions, fo as that they may unite in one, at or near their ter-
minations in the wells or citterns, as, in theie ways, the
water may be drawn from a much larger fpace of ground
than would otherwife be tlie cale, and, of courfe, better
iupplies of water be afforded.

Country-houfes and refidences may fometimes be fupplied
with good water in fomewhat this way, where there is either
a deficiency in the quantity or quality of that which is pro-
vided. A very diltinguiflied proprietor in the county of
Berks, E. L. Lovedcn, clq. of Bufcot Park, had recourfe,
it is faid, to the following very ingenious and fucccfsful con-
trivance, in order to accompli Ih this purpofe, which deferves
to be particularly noticed, as it may be applicable to many
other fituations, where the fcarcity of water, or of fuch as
is good, is felt. It is Hated in the Agricultural Report of
the above diltrift, that, the feat of this proprietor ftanding
near the very brow of the eminence on which it is built,
there was only a fnperficies of about an acre and a half of
ajrafs-land in front, from which there was not the leatt de-
fcent. A femicircular drain with a mole-plough, fcarcely
perceptible on walking over the ground, in the line of the
grcateft elevation, was made to communicate with two fmall
iron grates on the fide of the gravel-drive up to the principal
front. All the water which falls on this drive paflcs to one

or other of thofe grates, between which there is an under'
ground drain, with a very moderate fall to that which is the
mod weilerly, where a channel commences which is capable
of receiving all the water within the compafs of the femi-
circular dram, and which paffing through proper ftraincrs,
is conveyed to a larc;e funk refervoir, in a court to the weft-
ward of the manfion ; and a pump being placed there,
the family is fupplied, it is laid, with a pure foft water, no
lefs falutary than ufeful for every domeltic purpofe.

Springs of the abijve artificial kind may likewife be ap-
plicable in many other cafes, w here there is a want of water
for particular ufes.

Springs, Land, fuch of the more fuperficial kind as rife
and exid in fituations where the colleding furface of the
water, together with the containing ftratum, are of a rather
fmall and confined extent. They are often met with about
the bafcs of hilly lands, on (lopes, at the feet of the little
rifings in valley trafts, in their variouHy mixed banks, as
well as in manv other fituations and circumllances of land.
The term is alto fometimes applied to the drains which
are made by art for the procuring of water for different
purpofes.

They are always fuch as are of the more fuperficial kind.
The writer of the work on " Landed Property" confiders
thefe fprings as partial effefts, partaking of the nature of
cold, or of weak lands, according to the quality of the foil
that covers them. They may, it is faid, be confidered as the
molt common difeafe of land where water is concerned.

It is fuppofed that the caufes of thefe forts of fprings are
moftly of a topical nature, the difeafe being commonly pro-
duced by rain-water falling on an abforbent foil which has a
broken fub-Uratum. A broad, flat-topped fwell of fandy or
gravelly loam, befet with plots or malles of clay, is, it is
thought, fingularlv produftive of this fort of v.atcry lands.
The mea'.^s of remedying the injurious wetnelles arifing from
tiiefc kinds of fprings, arc fliewn in Ipcaking of fpring-
draining. See Spring- Dniiniiig.

Si'niSG-Drnin, that fort of drain or channel wliich 15
prepared and conltructed in land for the purpofe of taking
away fuch kinds of over-wctnels in it, as is caufed by in-
ternal or other fprings. Thefe drains are made in many
different methods, according to the nature and circumftance*
of the grounds, and the degrees of the wetnefles which
are prefent in them ; but, for the molt part, in a deeper and
more fubltantial manner than in the other modes of form-
ing drains.

Drains of this fort are conftrufted of many different
kinds of materials, but moltly of thofe which are of the
more folid and durable defcriptions, luch as the common
brick, bricks made in different forms and fhapes for the
purpofe, pipes made in different ways, flat ftones of the
free-ltone and other kinds, common Itones laid in different
modes, and fome other fimilar fubftances. Where common
bricks are employed, they a:e often built in a firm manner
on the fides and arched over the tops, but in other cafes
laid lengthwife over each other to the neceliary height, and
then covered over with flat ftones, and the earth tilled in
upon them. They have alfo other modes of conllruftion,
which are fometimes much lefs expenfive, according to the
nature of the drainage, as will be more fully feen and ex-
plained in fpeaking of furface-drains. But where bricks
made for the purpofe are ufed in thefe cafcs, other m.ethods
are followed. There are many different forms of bricks con-
trived in this intention ; one of which is fo conftrufted, as
to form, when laid, a fmall neat arched drain four inches in
diameter, and is principally made ufe of where only fmall
drains are neceliary, as in the conveying of the water of

fprings

SPRING.

fprings to houfes and other buildings, Sec. A fecond fort
i$ made of three pieces, fo as to conftitute a fqiirire drain fix
inches in width and height ; and a third kind is formed with
a circular opening fix inches in diameter, having long fquare
openings in the top part, and light parts two inches in
breadth, to reft upon, on the fides. It was invented by
Mr. Couchman, of Bofworth Temple, in the county of
Warwick. The two lall forts are well fuited for forming
large drains, but more efpecially the latter. In ItifF foils,
they are for the moft part belt when laid fingly, without
any common bricks or tiles being placed underneath them ;
but in light fandy lands, it is mollly better to lay common
bricks, or llrong tiles, under their fides, in order to prevent
their finking down into the foil too much. See Spring-
Drairiing.

Another fort of bricks that may be employed in this way,
it IS fuppofed, with (till greater advantage than the above,
has been invented by ,Tohn Alhivorth of Turton, near Bol-
ton, in the comity of Lancalter. Thefe are contrived in
different forms and (hapes, fo as to be laid in different man-
ners, and form different forts of openings. When they are
placed in fuch a manner as to conftitute a fort of inclofed
triangular opening lor the difcharge of the water from the
land, eighty-four bricks are required to every eight yards ;
while with common bricks, one hundred and ninety are ne-
ceflary. There is confeqnently a faving, by this means, of
one hundred and fix bricks in every eight yards of draining
tliat is performed. By another form of thefe bricks, laid
fo as to flant againil each other, without any thing under
them, (ifty-five bricks are only necellary for draining eight
yards in length ; and, of courfe, one hundred and thirty-
fcven bricks are faved in that extent. In another form in
which thefe bricks are laid, which reprefents a fort of in-
clofcd diamond-formed opening, one hundred and ten bricks
of this kind are taken to complete the fame length of drain,
by which eiglity-two bricks are faved. This form is, how-
ever, only neceffary where the quantities of water to be
carried olT, or taken away, are very large. In a further
different form and manner of laying thefe bricks, the fame
number are made ufe of as in the firit cafe, and the faving of
common bricks is in the fame proportion. A farther ftill
different form and manner of laying thefe bricks, employs
them in the fame proportion as in the third cafe, and faves
common bricks in the fame extent. This is particularly
ufeful in the drainage of^ boggy, Iwampy, foft lands, and
where quick'^and? are prefent. There is yet another form
and manner of laying thefe bricks, which faves common
bricks in the fame manner as in the fecond of the above cafes.
And there ir, lalily, a ilill diflerciit form and manner of
laying thefe bricks, which takes them in the fame quantities
as in the third and fifth cafes above, and confequeiitly faves
common bricks in the fame proportion as they do. See
SPRINf;-73/'am/«^ Brich.

It is not improbable but that bricks for this purpofe may
have been invented by other perfons, in different other dii-
triits, which may anlwer well for forming fpnng-drains in
different cafes. See Slki-ace- Z^ra/«, and Sunsoil, Brick-
Drain.

Drains formed of tfiefc materials, though they are com-
monly very eflcftunl for the purpofe, are in general attended
with confiderable cxpence.

Large ])ipef formed of burnt clay, and fome other forts
of materials, are not untrequently employed in the making
of drains of this nature, as well as in fome cafes for thofe of
the furface kind.

Where ilones are made ufe of in conftrufting drains, for
the purpofe of carrying off the water of fprings, there are

feveral different modes of laying them. They are fometime*
built up on the fides, to the neceffary heights and widths,
by the fmaller ftoncs, and then covered over the tops, and
connected by the large flat ones of the frceifone, limeftone,
or other fimilar kinds : at other times, the flat ffones,
whether of the treeifonc, limeftone, or other forts, are fet
up edgeways in the bottoms of the drains, in a kind of tri-
angular manner, or, which is better, in fomewhat the form
of the reverted letter A, the latter being laid over on the
tops with broad flat tlones. Thefe conftitute excellent
cheap drains. ,

There are alfo feveral other matters of this nature, as
thofe of the flaggy and (laty kinds, which may be ufed for
this purpofe, with equal advantage in different fituations.
See SuRF.ACE-Z)ra/n.

It has been fuggefted, that in conftrucling main drains of
this fort for carrying off' and diicharging the water of
fprings, befides the particular confideration of the nature
of the foils through which they are to be cut and formed,
which is conftantly to regulate the whole of the future
operation;, procefles, and works about them, where they
are of a loofe gravelly quality, or of the nature of a quick
or running fand, the round or barrel form of drain, when
turned with either common bricks or ftones, the lower half
being laid in mortar, and the upper half dry, may probably
be the moft effeAual as well as the moft durable of any that
can be had recourfe to, in fuch cafes. In moft inftances,
alfo, of drains for carrying away wetneftes of this kind, the
outlets of them, where the water is difcharged, fhould be
well fecured in fome way or other, in order to prevent any
injury that might be fuftained by the force of the paffing
current of the water out of them.

As the common openings of the foughs or paffages in
thefe drains are moftly about fix inches fquare, a piece of
wood of that fize, and about one yard in length, is often
found very ufeful for laying in the bottoms of the drains,
while forming, for building the ftones or other materials on
each of the fides of it, and which is capable of being drawn
or fhifted forward, as the workman proceeds in completing
the foughs or drains.

The different tools ufed in forming and cutting drains are
defcribed under their proper heads.

The making of drains of this nature, in fome diftrifts and
places is termed foughmg, efpecially when they are formed
with fome fort of hard materials, fuch as bricks, ftones, or
other fimilar fubftaiiccs, and is a method of fpring-draining
which is very commonly had recourfe to by the drainer.
See Sough and Svnwa-Drain'mg.

SpRlKG-Drnining, the removing of that fort of wetnefs
in land, which is caufed by, or which arifcs from, fprings,
in its internal or other parts, in the manner already explained
under the article Draining of Land.

Its praftice principally depends upon the difcovery of the
main fprings in the difl'erent ciles, upon the proper taking
of their levels, and upon making ufe of fuch means as are
capable of drawing off the water in particular inftances,
without the cxpence of too much cutting ; as, without
iindine out the main Ipriiig, or caule of the mifchief, no-
thing effeftual can, it is laid, be done ; or without taking
the exaft level of it, and afcertaining the fuhlerraneous
bearings which it may have ; as where the drains, in fuch
cafes, are cut even a very Imall diftance beyond the lii.es of
the fprings, the water which iilucs from them can never be
reached ; whereas by cxadly afccrtaining thofe lines, by
the praAice of levelling, the fprings can be cut off in an
effedtual manner, and the land be rendered dry in the leafl
expenfive and moll eligible method. The fuperabundjnt
4 H a wetnefs

SPRING.

wetnefs of the land, where neceffary, may be taken away,
where the depth of the drains do not reach it, by making ufe
of implements of the auger kind, fo as to bore down, and
tap or let off the water of the fprir.gs which lie ttill lower.

It is conllantly neceffary in this, as well as other kinds
of draining, to pay great attention to the direftion or mode
of condufting the drains, and likewife to the application of
the tools which are employed for tapping or drawing off the
fprings. It is perhaps principally in the fuperionty of
management in thefe refpeds, that the excellence of Mr.
Elkington as a drainer of land confiils. But though the
mode of tapping fprings by means of the auger, and letting
off the water from the bottom parts of the drains, without
the trouble and expence of more cutting and digging, was
unqueftionably brought to praftical perfeftion by this able
drainer, its ufe for other fimilar purpofes had long been
known and experienced ; as it has been aflerted, that in at-
tempting to difcover mines by means of this tool, fprings
have been tapped, and the adjoining wet grounds, in con-
fequence, drained or laid dry, either by letting the water
down into a porous fubitratum below, or giving it a vent
and exit at the furface. The fame tool has alfo been em-
ployed in bringing water into wells, by boring with it in the
bottoms of them, to fave the expence of more digging.
This is fuppofed to be the cafe more efpecially in Italy,
where it is probable that the praftice is of great antiquity,
as Buffon has Hated in his Natural Hiitory, that in and
t about the city of Modena, whatever part is dug, when the

depth of fixty-three feet is reached, and five feet deeper
bored with this tool, the water fprings up with fuch force,
^ that the well is filled in a very fhort fpace of time. It is
likewife noticed, that, in thefe cafes, the tool often bores
through large trunks of trees, &c. which give great trouble
to the workmen. This is confequenily a tool which is not
only well calculated for the purpofes of fpring-draining, in
many initances, but for a great variety of different other
rural ufes and applications.

The porous rocky chalks are excellent condudors of
water, it has been obferved, where they have only a thin
covering of an abforbent loamy material, as they imbibe,
after the furface-foil has been faturated, every particle of
water that may come upon them in the form of rain or
otherwife. This is feen to be the cafe in many hilly fitua-
tions formed chiefly of fuch matters, in the fouth-weil parts
of the kingdom, as in the counties of Wilts and Dorfet.
The water which is abforbed and taken up by fo porous a
fubftance as chalk, it is faid, foon efcapes the power of eva-
poration, and continues to defcend, in the manner of that
which paffes through a filtering-ilone, until it meet with an
impervious or non-condufting flratum or laver, upon which
it coUeAs ; and if this furface, on which it is coUetted,
Ihould lie above the level of the fea, or other colleAion of
water, it forces its way out, in the manner of a fpring, or
more copious fountain ; not always in one conilant ftream,
but often periodically : the fprings of chalk-hills differing,
in this refpcft, from thofe of the more open condufling
kinds ; which is a h&, it is thought, that is entitled to be
more fully and philofophically inveftigated. The aftion or
operation of the waters of chalk-hills, it is fuggefted, is
mofl clearly feen on the fea-coalts, where the bafes of the
chalk-cliffs reft upon an impervious or non-condu£ling
Itratum or bed, which being foftened and worn away by the
impreflion of the waters coUefted upon it, the cliffs are
undermined, and the faces of them thrown down. Where
the bafc of the chalk dips beneath the furface of the fea in
low tides, the whole coUcftion of water regains its " native
home," it is faid, unfeen. And it is not doubted but that

much rain-wrater, pafling through other ftrata, finds its way

to the fea in a fomewhat fimilar manner.

Rocks of the open kind, it is fuppofed, when they are
examined as conduftors of fubterraneous water, will be
found to have various effefts in producing the necelTity of
this fort of draining, according as there may be a difference
in their natural properties. Sand-rock, where it is prefent,
always afts, in the manner of chalk and loofe fand, as a
filter, letting the water freely through it. There are many
different parts of the kingdom in which it is found in con-
liderable quantity and extent, the furface-foil being moftly
dry in quality. Where the rock is of the nature of fiate,
from being of an argillaceous or clayey quality, it is often
in a high degree impermeable to water ; but as it in ge-
neral abounds with cracks, tiffures, and flill finer crevices,
efpecially near the furface, water readdy finds its way
into it, and either filtrates or percolates flowly through it,
or finds a Tent and exit in the clefts or feparations of the
mafles ; and, coUeAing in fuch parts, forces its way to the
furface, as a fpring ; or continues to defcend, until it meet
with a more compaft flratum, which dips towards the face
of fome hill or fiielvirg ground, where, reaching the furface
or outer limits of the rock, it either forces its way through
the foil, and feeds a fountain, or, if the quantity of water
is too fmall, or the thicknefs and texture of the foil are too
powerful to permit it to efcape in a body, fprcads itfelf be-
neath the furface materials or thicker covering, and pro-
ducer watery land. A fhelf of flate-rock, under thefe
circumflances, operates, it is believed, as a flratum of fand
or gravel. Rocks of this nature are common to many dif-
ferent parts of the country, as to the counties of Devon,
Cumberland, and Weflmoreland, to Wales, and the weflern
Highlands of Scotland ; being, it is imagined, peculiar to
the more weflern parts of the ifland.

Limeflone rocks, which are mofl various in texture and
arrangem.ent of parts, are met with in many places as a fub-
ftratum of foils. The foft and granulous kind, of which
the Cotfwold hills may be faid to be compofed, as well as
thofe which arife in the environs of the city of Bath, and
which are found in fome places in Yorkfhire, Northampton-
fhire, and probably in fome other parts of the kingdom, is
of a porous abforbent texture ; water afting upon it as upon
chalk. But the more ordinary lort of limeflone, which
may be faid to be met with in almod every department of
the kingdom, is of a more clofe texture. It is, however,
commonly either divided and parted out into large blocks,
or broken into fragmejits, though fometimes found diftri-
buted in continuous mafles. Still more frequently, the blocks
feem as if they had been thrown together in a fortuitous
manner into their prefent fituations, being feparated by ir-
regular interfpaces, either filled with earth, or other fofTile
fubftances, or forming open fiflures, cracks, and chafms of
different widths ; and, in a few inoicii inflances, form caves
or openings of extraordinary dimenfions. This clafs of
limeflone rocks may, it is fuppofed, without rifk, be con-
fidered as the moll free and extenfive conduttor of internal
waters of any in this counti-y. There are other kinds of
this fort of rocky fubftrata, which have direftly the con-
trary quality and effeft in refpeft to the diftribution of
water in foils.

The next fort of material, which difplays the moll fimple
explanation of the effefls which are produced by water
falling or coming upon land, is that of land, and efpecially
where the lands are of the deep fandy kind, fuch as the
county of Norfolk is chiefly compofed of; fand, it is re-
marked, being of a more open and porous nature than chalk,
and the hills fonned by it, or the more depreffed raafTes of

it.

SPRING.

It, being in general of much lefs depth than thofe of that
fubltance, the effeft is more quickly produced. Prefently
after a glut of rain, the fprings, in thele cafes, are faid to
fly out. Bc-fides, there is another difference, which is more
interelling, it is thought, to the prefent mquiry, between
the effefts produced by chalk and by fand, as conduftors
of rain or other water. Ciialk, for the moil part, throws
it out from the fides or at the bafes of the hills formed by
it, in clear ftrcams, producing no other cffeft on the fur-
faces of the lands than that of forming channels of convey-
ance for it to the rivulets or brooks, to which the particular
calt of furface may incline them. The waters abiorbed or
drank up by chalk-hills fc-ldom occafion, it is faid, any
thing of the nature of upland bog, unlefa when they rife in
the area of a flat-bafed valley, or arc impeded and obllrufted
therein, and by fpreading and ilagnating over its furface,
encourage the growth and decay of aquatic plants. On
the contrary, fand-hillocks are, it is iaid, fingularly produc-
tive of this baneful difeafe of land ; owing, in part, it is
fuppofed, to a want of uniformity in their internal ftruc-
tures, as well as of an evennefs of bafe, when compared
with chalk hills, which generally reft on impervious ilrata
of clay ; and likewife owing to the opennels of the texture
of the fandy material, which fulTera the contained waters to
fpread out and diilend themfelves freely in every direftion.

Gravel is more porous, or condufts water Hill more
freely, than fand ; and is moftly found in thin ftrata or veins,
but lometimes in detached maffes, though very rarely in
extended hills. In fome fituations it is free from the ad-
mixture of any fort of earthy matter. In tliis condition it
condufts water as a pipe ; or when embanked with im-
pervious matters on every fide, contains it as a ciftern.
When a ftratum or layer of fubterrene gravel, or any other
free conduftor, is hipplied with, or h?.s defcending waters
coming upon it, it either condudls them to the furface,
leads them to a fountain, or, when the furface is too itrongly
guarded to allow of their efcape, ftores them up, and con-
fines them in quantity beneath the foil. Where the gravel
is partially depofited in veins, and tlie covering is thin, and
of an abiorbeiit or porous quality, the water, wherever it
approaches the furface, fills every pore of the foil, and
though unable to break its way out in a ftream, as a Itrong
fpring, occafionally trickles and percolates through it ;
thus encouraging the growth of fuperaquatic plants ; which,
being too grofs and unpalatable for pafturing ftock, fall
where they have grown, and, during a fucceliion of ages,
raife det.iched mounds of vegetable earth ; partaking, like
the moory bafii of fand-hlll vallies, of the nature of morafs.

If the containing itratum or bed be more generally and
evenly fpread beneath the loil, and whore this is of an ab-
forbent porous quality, and moreover lo thin as to be eafily
permeable, as well as lying nearly level, a large extent of
ground may, it is faid, be rendered worthlefs, — may become
a mere morals, or extended bog. But if, under thele cir-
cumftances, the land lies with much defcent, the lower fide
only will be much affefted. Further, if the foil or cover-
ing, though of an abforbent porous nature, be conjointly
of a fufficient thicknefs and texture to prevent the contained
waters from rifing to the furface, an uniform breadth of
cold weak land will be produced. Where the covering is
not only thick, but impervious or noii-abforbent, fo as to
prevent the depreffed waters from rifiiig to the roots or
feeding fibres of field-plants, lands of a valuable quality are
met with : even when in the Ikate of perennial herbage, the
finer grades are, it is faid, produced ; but th.it, owing to
the coolnefs which fubjaccnt waters communicate to the foil,
in the early fpnng, vegetation ii more backward, and the

produce lefj than it would be, if the caufe of the coolnefs
were removed by this mode of draining. Land of this de-
fcription is met with extenfively, and in great abundance,
on the flopes, and at the bafes ot the rifing grounds, in al-
molt every vale-dillridt of the kingdom.

Pebbly matters, which are a common fubftratum of land,
it is faid, in the more mountainous parts of the country, aft
in a fimilar, but more complete manner ; being a ftill more
free conduftor of (ubterraneous waters than gravel.

The manner in which chalk conducts fubterraneous water
to the fea, without injury to the furface of the land, is feen
above ; and open rock, fand, gravel, or any other porous
or condufting material, either iingly or in conjunftion, have
the fame effeit, when they form a free and continued con-
neftion between it and the furface of the open abforbent
lands. Cut the fame fubllrufture, when fituated at a dif-
tance from the fliore, and cut off from all fubterrene com-
munication with iko lea or other waters, by the intervention
of impervious or repellent matterr, produces widely dif-
ferent effefts ; and is capable of doing much milchicf to the
lower lands which more immediately iavell it, as well as to
thofe clofe around it. In thefe circumllances, the fubfiding
waters, unable to find a paffage downwards, fill every fif-
fure, crevice, and pore ; continuing to colleft, until the
furface of the embodied waters reaches fome friendly porous
ftratum, to conduit the overflow horizontally towards fome
open outlet ; or until the coUeftion has gained a fufficient
afcendency and weight to break its bounds, and force its
way to the furface, or blend with the fuperficial waters.
The bottom of a lake, or the channel of a deep-funk river,
firll offers the means of relief, in many cafes ; and it is not
unufual to fee fpring-waters curling at the furface of a deep
river-pool. In many fituations, it is fuppofed probable
that rivers receive larger fupphes from their own beds than
is evident to the eye of common obfervation. Where the
river-bed is fliut againlt them, the impounded waters na-
turally continue to rife, until they reach an open ftratum
of the lands on its banks, and thus effeft their efcape.
Where no fuch condufting ftratum offers itfelf, deep cleft
dingles and narrow dells, branching out of the riveted
valley, or wider vale, may, it is faid, be confidered as the
next places calculated for giving vent to rifing waters : and
here they are not uncommonly found boiling up through
beds of fand or gravel, or the fliattered fragments of rock ;
and by fpreading, in a ftate of nature, over the bafe of the
dell, give rife to moory grounds ; or iffuing from its
banks, give birth to a more aftive ftream. No deep funk
dell occurring, or any abforbent ftratum of the vale lands
being ready to receive the internal waters, or, having re-
ceived them, being unable to give tliem vent, by realon of
their being clofed on their lower margin or border, the fur-
face of the embodied waters necefiarily continue to rife above
the bafe of the hill, until, having reached a proper con-
duftor, a fpring or fountain ia formed ; or meeting with a
defcending fubftratum of abforbent or porous matter, it
enters it with the efteft of defcending waters, and produces
different forts of wetnefs according to circumllances. On
extenfive continents, and even in the interior parts of this
iflaiid, inftances of a fimilar nature mult neceffarily, it is
faid, frequently occur.

It may be alio noticed, that it mull likewife not unfre-
quently happen, that witers which have been abforbed by
the porous materials of high lands are checked in their de-
fcent, before they reach tlie bale of the hill or mountain
which has imbibed them ; in the interior ot which, it is
more than probable, minor relervoirs are formed by rifing
waters, aud there adt in a fimilar manner to thofe which are

{ormed

SPRING.

Formed at a greater Jepth. The perpetual fprings which
may be faid to be every where iffuing from the fides of hills,
are ftrong evidences, it is thought, in favour of fuch a po-
fition. For what, it is afked, but an extended furface of
embodied waters, could lend forth thefe conjlant, and, in feme
inltances, almoll uniform dreams? A lake, it is well
known, thus reifulates the ftream which flows from it.
But to produce this efFedt, it is not requifite, it is fuppofed,
that the lake fliould be formed in the interior of a mountain.
It matters not what the receptacle is, provided it be of fuf-
ficient extent, and its feveral parts, if anomalous, have a
free communication with each other ; whether it be a cave,
an extended ferics of fidured rocks, or an extenfive ftratum
of gravel, or any other freely condufting material, the fur-
face of the water will be equally level, and equally capable
of regulating the fupplies received, fo as to difcharge an
uniform or a moderated ftream ; as the wide naked waters
do, which are feen to fpread on the furface in mountain
lituations. A fudden fhower does not fenfibly afFeft, it is
faid, the overflow of a lake, nor does a heavy fall of rain
caufe a fudden flood ; as it does where there is no fuch ex-
tent of furface to regulate the fupply : neverthelefs, after
much rain, and ftill more after a long continued wet feafon,
the overflow is increafed, and the ftream enlarged. And
precifely fo, it is faid, are thefe forts of fprings or fountains
afteded.

The marles which abound in calcareous matter are moftly
of an open, porous, and abforbent nature, and not unfre-
quently form the fubflrata of lands in different places, which
may receive and hold water, in fome cafes fo as to let it break
out and produce fprings on the furface, which are highly
injurious to the foil?. Some marles are, however, of an im-
pervious and retentive quahtv.

There are alfo fome forts of materials which are highly
impervious under fome circumftances, but which become
porous or open in others, as clay in certain itates ; this,
however, has little to do with the nature of fpring-draining.
See Draining of Land.

In laying down the general principles and theory of
draining land under its proper head, the manner in which the
principal agents and caufes which operate in the produclion
of fprings are capable of producing fuch efl"eas m different
circumftar.ces, has been particularly explained, though the
great internal fprings which fupply the interfefting rivers of
countries have not been touched upon, as they have not
yet been by any means fufiiciently inveftigated or explored ;
and befides, they moftly lie at fuch great depths, as not to
afFeft the furface, confequently have nothing, or very little,
to do with the prefent inquiry.

Draining, on the principle of removing fprings, not
only produces extraordinary effefts in the laying" of the
lands dry which are near to them ; but in cauling fprings,
in wells, wet grounds, and other places, at very confider-
able dillances, to become dry, though they had no evident
communication or coiineftion.

Drahuige of Boggy, Morajfy, Stuampy, and ether wet

Land, produced ly Springs See BoG and Draining of

Land, under which articles this fubjeA is difcufl'ed as far as
our limits will allow.

A pump has been lately contrived by Mr. Wakefield,
the ingenious drainer of Traff'ord and other mofl'es in Lan-
caftiire, for afcertaining the lines of fprings in this fort of
draining, which is faid to anfwer well. See Svni^G-Draimns!
Pump. ^

In many cafes of this fort, it may be known, it is faid,
whether the channel of the water lie deep or not, by the
appearance of the furface. Where the land is dry imme-

diately above the place where the water fprings up, it is an

evidence that the channel or refervoir lies deep, and that the
water is forced up fo as to ifl'ue in a perpendicular manner ;
but, on the contrary, where the land is wet for fome diftancc
above the principal outlet of the fpring, it is a fare fign that
the water is flowing in a channel near the furface, and
that the overfowings of it caufe this wetnels. It will
be a certain evidence of this, if there be only one fpring in
the wet ground ; but if the internal ftrata do not lie hori-
zontally, or regularly, and feveral fprings appear, arifing
from water running in diflVrent channels, the land above the
largeft or principal fpring may be wet, not from the backhtg-
up of that fpring, or its channel being near the furface, but
by the breaking out of the lelfer fprings in their defceni, the
channel of the waters of which has thus found a vent and
exit to and out of the furface, higher than that of the larger
fpring. It is in cafes of this kind that draining is attended
with moft difficulty ; and where all the cutting and other
matters necefl'ary cannot be fo ealily afcertained at tirft, until i
fuch time as what is abfolutely requifite be executed, which
will lead to the difcovery of what further is wanted, and in
what manner it Ihould be accomplillied, by expoflng to view
the fubfoil, or under ftrata, in which the water flows. The
making of exploratory bores with the auger, is, it is faid,
ufeful in this and all other difficult cafes.

Where, in fuch cafes as the above, there are different lines
of drains cut one below another, from the highermoft
fprings between the wet and dry land, not of fuch depth as
to catch and intercept the water all the way down the
Hope, as formerly praCtlfed, however they may be filled
with loofe ftones, though they may render the furface drier
while they continue to run, they foon choak up, and burft-
ing out in different parts, the land foon becomes equally, if
not mor,i wet, than it was before they were made, and fo
formed out. It is more difScult to drain this ground a fe-
cond time, even in the proper manner ; as the furface, by
means of the former drains, bei.Tg io much altered from its
natural appearance, the true filuation of the fprings cannot
fo eafily be hit upon, and the frequent burfts of the old
drains increafe the perplexity in no Imall degree. It fre-
quently happens that the uppermoit, where they are the
flrongefl outlets, are the main fprings, and thofe below only
leakages ; which implies, that fome of the water from the
main fpring finds a pailage through fome opening in the
upper foU, near the furface, and breaks out lower than the
main fpring, when it meets with refutance from any bed of
clay : by cutting off' the main Ipring, this of courfe becomes
dry ; therefore the fame caution is iieceiTary to afcertain this
before proceeding to mark out the drain or drains in fuch
cafes, as from the main fpring only the level muft be taken.
In irresxiilar banks, wliere the ground, owing to the perpen-
dicular fituatioa or preffurc of water behind, has jlipt, or
fallen down, the drain muft be carried higher up the decli-
vity than where the water has its apparent outlet, to the
found ground that has undergone no change, and where the
real fpring will be intercepted ; the water in the flipt fand
below being only leakages from that above, but wliich is
apt to deceive in cutting the upright trench, or that which
is made from the outlet up to the crofs one, along the line of
the fprin'TS. When the main fpring rifes in a ileep bank a
confiderable heifrht above the level of the brook or place
where the drain is to difcharge itfelf, it is unneceffary to cut
a deep trench, or to lay a covered drain, all the way from
the brook up to it ; for the dcfcent being too rapid, and if
deep cut by crofling veins of fand, that are always met with
in fuch fituations, the bricks or Hones wuth which the
fough or conduit of the drain is laid, would be undermined

by

SPRING.

by the rapidity of the current, vphich would alfo carry down
a great quantity of the hiofe fand ; but it (hould be begun
only fo far down the bank, as, by culling in level, the drain
may be fix or feven feet lower than the outlet of the fpring,
or whatever depth is neceffary for drawing down the water
to fuch a level as it may difcharge itfclf without rifing to
the furface, or injuring the ground adjoining it. The re-
maining part of the cut, down to the brook, either in a
ftraight or (loping direftion, may be left open, and need not
be deep, but guarded from the cattle, and from the plough
when the field is in tillage. If covered, it need not be
deeper than two feet ; and there is no occafion for boring in
any part of it.

When there may be any difficulty in afcertaining the ex-
aft line of the fpring and that of the crofs-drain, where //
does not appear on the furface, or when there is no apparent
outlet from whence to take the level, in bringing up the
leading drain for carrying off the water, it can be then dif-
covered when it crofles the proper line, and without cutting
any farther up, the crofs-drain muft be carried on that
level, fo far to each fide, along the tail or termination of the
rock or fand containing the water, as the fituation of the
ground and other circumftances may require. And if, in
cutting the crofs-drain, the line marked out by the fpirit-
level fhould be found in lome places to be below that of the
fprings ; and if in boring along that line no water be found,
then fmall cuts mulL be made, of the fame depth, from the
drain up to where tlie fpring lies; for if the drain be cut
below the line of the fpring, all poflibility of reaching it, even
by the auger, is loit, as boring can have no efFeft where the
fubftratum is clay, and where there is no under water ; and
if it be cvX above the line of the fpring, it will require deeper
cutting and boring to reach it, as there, for the moll part,
the ground rifes higher, and that part of the porous lirata
below the drain may contain as much water as may injure the
ground, and wliich may eafily pafs under the bottom of the
trench, between the auger-holes, and find vent below it.
If the expanfe of the valley or bog betwixt two hanks be
fo narrow, that the Itratum of rock or fand containing the
fprings, unites within reach of the auger below tlie clay,
one trench up the middle, with auger-holes, will do the bu-
finefs, without any crols or branch-drains. Although the
fprings that injure ground in this fituation break out of the
banks all round nearly on the fame level, yet the relervoir
from whence they proceed may, it is laid, be hit on in the
middle of the valley, by boruig through the fupcrincumbent
body of clay that forces the water to rife and ooze
out along the upper edge of it, at its junftion with the
higher porous ground. The drain being cut in the hollow
part of the ground, and tlie fpring below bored into, it is
evident that the depth of the drain being fo much lower than
the natural outlet of the fprings, the prellure of water above
that level, which is the bottom of the drain, will force that
under the trench through the auger-holes ; or even tor fonie
time, until the water fubfide, it might be made to rife higher
than the level of its natural outlet. The confequence of
this will be, it is further faid, that the water of the fpring
having found, by means of the drain and boring, a new and
eafier channel, will foon abandon its former outlets, and
ceafe to overflow the ground that formerly lay below it.
Many remarkable inilances of this fort of drainages are
ftated to have been performed by Mr. Elkington indifferent
places, and particularly at Scari(brick-Hall, near Ormfliirk,
in Lancafhire.

However, bogs, or wet grounds of the fame nature in
fimilar fituations, may, it is fuppofed, proceed from dilfcrent
caufcs, and, of courfe, require different forts of treulmciit

in the removal of their ifretnefTcs. In fuch cafes, the firft
thing to be confidered, in examining the ground, is, whether
the fprings proceed from one fide only, from both fides, or
lie in the middle of fuch bogs ; as, according to the nature of
thefe circumttances, the line or lines of the drain or drains
mull be diredled. In order to properly afcertain this, it
will be necefi'ary to have recourfe to the ufe of the fpirit-
level. If the bog fhould have a defcent from one fide to the
other, although the wetnels may appear all round, it will
be evident that the water proceeds only from the higher fide,
but palling over and under the furface, part of it i- abforbed
by the dry ground along the lower fide ;"from whence, if the
level were not prcvioully afcertained, it might be fujipofed
alfo to proceed. In this cale, one drain cut along the upper
fide will be fufficient to keep it dry. If the bog fhould
have a defcent from both fides to the middle, or be perfedlly
level, the fpiings may proceed from both fides; and will,
confequently, require a drain on each, if they do not unite
in the fame llratum below the middle of the bog, and can
be hit on by boring in one drain cut in the centre, as already
fiiewii.

In cafe a bog of this nature between two hills is of great
extent, it may be requifite to have three different drains ;
one on each fide, and one in the middle ; which lafl mull be
an open one, to receive the whole of the lurface-water, as
well as to cut off any fprings that may arife in that part of
the bog. In all cafes of this nature, where there is any diffi-
culty of difcovering from whence the principal fprings pro-
ceed, or what is the nature and inclination or difpolition of
the fubflrata, the application of the auger may be had re-
courfe to for the purpofe.

But in very wet fwamps, or bogs of great extent, it \i
necefiary to have other cuts than thofe that carry off the
fprings : for although the upper fprings, which are the
principal caufe, be cut off, there may be veins of fand or
gravel lower than thofe, out of which it is alfo neceffary to
extratl the water. If the ground is to be divided into in-
clofures, the open ditches may be fo direfted as to hit on
thefe lower collections of fubjacent water, as well a'; to carry
oil any that might llagnate in tlie hollow parts of the fur-
face. The next thing to be confidered in this fort of draining
is the conduiSing of the drain, after the levels have been
taken, and the true line of it fixed ; and whether it (hould
be covered or open. If the land is to be inclofed, and a»
the line of the trench may ferve as a proper divifion of the
ground, it may be made an open cut, or funk ferce ; if not,
a covered drain ; but it is firft neceffary to afcertain which,
as the depth, width, and other circumflances, may be regu-
lated accordingly. After finding the neareil outlet, where
the water colleded in the drain can be difchargcd, from
that a trench mull be brought up to the crofs one that is to
be carried along the line of the fpring, allowing a fmall de-
clivity of a few inches in every ten yards, for the water to
run. In cutting the drain that is to carry off the fpring, if,
after palfing the clay, there be a (Iratum of hard gravel be-
twixt that and the fand containing the water, it is preferable
to lay the fougli there, being a more folid foundation for it,
and either to perforate the gravel with the punch, or open
fmall pits through it « ilh the fpade ; by means of which
the water will flow up, and run as fpecdily off, and with
more fafety, than if the fough had been laid in the fand itfelf ;
which would not only increale the depth and diffienlty of
working it, but in many cafes the level of the oril-ce will
not admit of the drains being cut to fuch deplli. Alfo, if,
in cutting the trench along the tail of the r.^ck, the level of
the orifice will not admit of its bi ing lut fi> deep as to touch
the rock, the clay or impervious llratum that lici, immediately
2 above

SPRING.

above it muft be bored through, when the water will flow
up throuffh the fiffurea of the Itone, and through the auger-
holes, into the fough; but it is preferable, m cafes where
the level will admit, to dig the drain through the clay, and
fo far into the rock as will furniHi ftones for laying the
foutrh ; and then the water will meet with lefs reliltance,
and have a freer iffue, than if the ftone had not been opened
or broken. This will increafe the expence of cutting the
drain, but leflen that of quarrying the Itones elfewhere, and
of carrying them to the place where the dram is made. Al-
though in the ground to be drained there may be a ditch, or
other old water-courfe, in which it may be pradicable, by
means of boring, to tap the fpring, yet it is better to make a
new trench, in which the water of the fpring only can have
admittance; and where this mull crofs any ditch or oldwater-
conrfe, it mud be fecured hj puddling with clay, or be con-
veyed in a luooden trough, io as not to receive any furface-
water : which, by being augmented in time of floods, might
foon blow up and dellroy the fough. As the water thus
obtained by means of boring may be converted to feveral
ufeful purpofes, as thofe of irrigation, ferving fmall mills,
canals, houfes, fifh-ponds, paftures, fields, &c. caution is
neced'ary in ufing the auger, left the water procured in one
part of the drain may be loft at another, in the fame manner
in which it was found ; and, in the endeavouring to procure
a greater fupply, it may by that means be let down from a
met, into a dry, porous J'ubjlratum, as will be feen in its proper
place.

Such are the chief objeifts that require confideration be-
fore beginning to cut the drains : the following direftions
will be ufeful in guiding the execution of them. If the
drain is to be cut through a foft boggy foil, it is better to be
open than covered, efpecially where it may receive other
water than that collefted from below, and can at the fame
time ferve as the fide of an inclofure or divifion betwixt the
upland and low grounds. Stones laid in fuch drains are foon
apt to fink, owing to the foftnefs of the bottom, and the
fough may alfo be foon choaked up. The width of a covered
drain may be from three to four feet at top, and one and a
half or two feet wide at bottom, thus allowing fix or nine
inches for each fide-ftone, and fix inches between, for the
pafTage of the water, forming a fquare conduit, or what is
termed the fough, being alfo fix or nine inches in height.
Or, when the quantity of water collefted, or to be con-
veyed in the drain, is fmall, it may only be coupled at the
bottom. This is a eonfiderable faving, both in materials
and labour, requiring much fewer ftones, and a great deal
lefs time in laying them. It is equally fecure when the bot-
tom is folid, the ftones good and properly laid, being well
packed at the fides, to prevent them from ftiifting. It is
alfo a faving in cutting the drain, as it requires lefs width at
the bottom fir this manner of laying the ftones, than it does
for a fquare conduit. In molt cafes, however, where
circumftances arc favourable, the other method Ihould be
preferred. The depth is regulated by the level of the place
where the drain is to empty itfelf, and the nature of the
ground through which it is cut, which is commonly four or
five feet, and never lefs than three. Where the drain is only
to aft as a conduftor for the water wluch is brought up by
the borer where the foil is all clay, its depth may only be
three feet, wliich will be fufiicient to allow a proper depth
of earth above the ftones laid for the conduit at bottom,
which need not exceed, nor fhould ever be lefs than one and
a half or two feet. Drains are fometimes feen, in ground
apparently very wet on the furface, cut to the depth of three
and even four feet, and feveral hundred feet in length, with-
out any water being collefted by thein ; but when the borer

has been applied, and holes put down at the diftance of fix
yards apart, and eight or ten feet deep, a eonfiderable ftream
of water has been procured, and which has continued to flow.
In a particular inftance, a drain has been direfted to be cut
in a very retentive clayey foil, which, at the depth of four
feet, met with no water ; which gave occafion to the work-
men to fay, and the proprietor to think, that he was laying
out his money to very bad account ; but they were foon con-
vinced to the contrary. As the drain had a fmooth and uni-
form flope in the bottom, in order to expedite the work, fe-
veral men were employed to lay the ftones, beginning at the
loiuer end, and proceeding upwards, while others were en-
gaged in boring at the upper end, to proceed downwards-
When thofe below began their work, the drain was quite
dry, and had no appearance of water, either from the fides or
bottom ; but by the time they had proceeded a few yards,
and two or three holes were made above^ an unexpefted
ftrc^am of water made its appearance, to their no fmall
aftoniftimcnt ; and which has iince had the effeft of laying
dry a piece of very wet land. Tliis fully ftiews, that with-
out the ufe of the auger in fimilar cafes, many drains may
be cut to an extenfive depth, without effcfting the deCred
end, or without making any material change in the appear-
ance of the land.

In foft boggy foils it is often neceflary, where the drain is
to be covered, to cut to a much greater depth than in other
cafes, or to the bottom of the mofs, in order to have a
fecure foundation for the ftones, as a great part of the
water is conftantly lodged between the mofs and the next
ftratum. In digging the drain, it is beil to cut the whole
length to the depth of two or three feet, at wliich there is
no danger of its falling in ; and when the ground near it by
that means has become more firm, and the ftones have been
laid down by the fide of it, then cut to the depth required.
In this way the ftones are at hand, and ready to lay (a foon
as the proper depth is dug, and the laying fiiould be be-
gun at the upper fide, proceeding downwards, fmootiiing
and clearing the bottom of the drain. By this means, the
fall of the water will be feen and kept, as there is a dan-
ger, when the work is begun at the lower end, and laying
upwards, in level ground, of digging too deep in clear-
ing the bottom, and thereby caufing a ftagnation of water
and fludge in the fough, which ought to be carefully
avoided. The turf, in opening the drain, ftiould be firft
pared off thin, and laid to one fide for after ufe, and all
the mould tlirown out to the other. The moft difficult
part of the work is laying the fough in running fands,
where it is neceflary to have the fides of the trench fupported
with flat boards and props, which are removed forwards as
they proceed in working, and which keep the fides from
falling in, and the loofe fand from faUing amongft the ftones
with which the conduit is laid. If the fough or conduit be
laid with brick, a fmall aperture muft be left betwixt each,
to admit the water from the fides of the drain, and the thin
turves muft be laid above, grafs-fide downwards, to prevent
the mould from getting through the openings. The turves
are laid grafs-fide downwards, immediately above the _fiones,
without any loofe ftones above the laid ones, as the water
is all collefted from the bottom of the drain, very little from
the fides of it, and none admitted from the top ; unlefs in
fuch cafes as where the ftratum containing the water, or
that may receive it in time of rains, is cut through to a
greater depth than the height of the conduit, then fmall
ftones muft be laid above the conduit or cover ftone, to the
height of fuch ftratum, or as far up as the water appears to
ooze out. Thefe fmall ftones admit the water to fubfide
through their interftices to the conduit or fough below, and

thus

^

SPRING.

thus prevent the bad effetls that would otherwife proceed
from its confinement fo near the furface. In quick or run-
ningr fandi, turves muft alfo be laid at the bottom of the
dram, under the fough, to prevent the Liofe fund from flow-
ing up, and to render the foundation of brick or Hone more
fecure in cafe of their finking. Before boring, it is proper
to lay the fide-itones of the conduit ; after which the holes
may be put down, at the diftance of every four or fix yards.
But if the water, on withdrawing the auger, rufh up with
violence, and continue to have a boiling appearance, it indi-
cates a ftrong body of water confined below, and, conlc-
quently, requires a nreat n^.mber of openings to give it a
fpeedy and fufficient vent. When the force of the water is
great, the width of the holes enlarges, and confequently tlie
difcharge is incrcafed. By a careful examination of the ad-
joining ground, it is fomelimes polTible to fay at what depth
the (Iratum containmg the fpring lies, and confequently how
deep the bores muft be made ; but the general rule is to go
down until the water rife immediately on withdrawing the
auger. Thirty feet have been bored down before the water
flowed in a full and free manner ; but about from ten to
fifteen feet may be faid to be the average depths of boring.
One cafe is ftated, in which, after boring thirty feet, tlie
water ifTucd in a quantity equal to three hogflieads in a minute,
by which a great extent of wet ground in the vicinity was
drained. In tlicfe fands, it 13 alfo better to dig a little into
the fides of the trench, off the line of the fough, where the
auger is to be ufed, and, after boring, to cover the places
in the fame manner as the reft of the fough, leaving out a
fide-ftone oppofite the hole, as the fand thrown up by the
fpring can thus be more eafily taken out with the hand till
it fubfide and give over running, and is likewife off the
main current, coming down the middle of the drain. That
part of the fough above the auger-holes fhould be left un-
covered till the fand is all thrown up, and the openings clear ;
but, till then, the fand muft be taken out, and the fough
may afterwards be covered up with fafety. Above fome of
the auger-holes, or at any other convenient part of the drain,
a kind of funnel may be built to the top of the trench with
a flat ftone laid over it, whereby it can at any time be looked
at to fee if the ilTue is clear, and if the quantity of water
diminifhes or increafes. When the circumference of the
auger-holes is not fufficicnt to let up the quantity of water
which the fprings would otherwife ilTue, where it is not far
from ti'.e bottom of the trench to the llratum containing the
water, and where there is a bed of hard gravel intervening,
impenetrable by the auger, holes muft be dug with tlie
fpade, down to the fpring, and thcfe holes filled up with
loofc ilones ; firit putting down a round ftakc in the middle,
which, after the ftonee are filled in, muft be drawn out,
which leaves an opening for the water to flow up. No
apprehenfion need be entertained of the holes made by the
auger being filled up, whether the dram be open or covered,
provided no other water is admitted ; for fuch is often the
force of the fpring, that it will throw up any earth or other
fludge that may accidentally get into it ; and it can be in-
jured only by the admiffion of great quantities of furface or
flood-water coming up on it at once. When flat ftones
can be got, they are preferable to brick for this ufe ; but
there arc feveral kinds of brick befidcs the common fort
invented and ufid only for the purpofe of draining, in fe-
veral parts uf the kingdom, where the expencc of ilone
would become greater. When fmall drains are wanted, ind
when the water is to be conveyed to a houfe, &c. that
which is of the arched form is commonly made ufe of. For
larger drains, thofe of the fquarc, hollow, pantile form are
well adapted, efpecially the latter. They are laid fingle,
Vol.. XXXIII.

without one reverfed under ; for when that is done, the
water running on the under one occafions a kind of fludge,
which in time becomes lo encrufted on it, as totally to ob-
ftruA the paffage of the water, and render the work ufelefs
in a few years. In clay bottoms they may be laid fingle, or
w ithout any thing under ; but in foft faiidy bottoms, a com-
mon building brick (hould be laid under each fide to prevent
them from finking down, and be fo laid as to forma regular
arch, by the fide-bricks being laid with an equal height, the
better to lupport the preflure above from breaking ihem.
They may be conilruded in the above fhape to any di-
menfions, fuitable to the quantity of water the drain is to
convey.

Although the earth that is thrown out of the drain (hould,
when filled in again, be confiderably higher than the furface
of the ground on each fide, it muft remain fo ; for in a year
or two it will fubfide to the level of the furface on each fide.
What remains may be fpread or laid in fome adjoinmg hol-
low ; for, if levelled at firll, the earth immediately above the
drain finks down, and the rain by that means lodging in the
hollow and fubfiding downwards, may injure the fough, by
carrying part of the furface of the earth along with it.

While the drain is cutting, in very wet peaty foils, the fur-
face.water, or what may ooze from the fides before coming
to the Ipriug, muft be iiopped here and there ; and when let
out to run through the fough, a turf or bunch of grafs muft
be laid fo as to prevent any fludge which it may bring down
from running through along with it, as this might choak the
laid part of the drain and ftop the paffage of the water.
When trees, efpecially afh, happen to be in the courfe of the
drain, they muft be entirely _fruiW up, otherwife the roots
will get into the fough, and expanding through the joints
of the ftones, will loon put a ftop to the paffage of the
water. When the water iftued by the drain becomes of a
red ochrey colour, it indicates a flagnation either from the
above caufe, if amongft planting, or from fome part of the
fough having fallen in ; which fhould be fpeedily repaired,
otherwife the grounds will foon become equally wet as be-
fore. In the lall place, the mouth of the drain (hould be
carefully railed in, or otherwife guarded, to prevent the
cattle from trampling it or choaking it up, being fond of
drinking there for the fake of the cool water, even although
there be watering-places in the field ; and where there is
any defeft of this kind, it fhould immediately be remedied.
Likewife the outlets of the drains where they empty them-
lelves into an open ditch, or run of water, fhould be often
examined and kept clear, as they are very apt to be choaked
up with gralf and fand when neglefted in fuch places. The
firfl fymptoms of the drain's having effeft, and wliicli foon
appear when the fpring is properly tapped, are, that all the
furface-dra'ms that may have formerly been made, and alfo
any adjacent pits, ditches, or places to which it may have
backed up, immediately become dry, and remain fo after-
wards. On the whole, it appears from the foregoing obfcrr.
ations, that this mode of draining bogs, or land injured by
fubterraneous water, is by far the mofl effeftual of any that
li.as yet been luggeftcd ; and that fuch ground may be made
completely dry, by cutting oft one fpnng alone, with which
the particular place to be drained may have no apparent
communication, but whicli may be io conneftcd under
ground, that from it all the others derive their fourcc, and
being therefore the principal caufe of the whole, to hit on it
fii'ins the chief defideratum of the bulinefs. Many inilanccs
of tills iiave occurred in the |)radice of draining boggy land,
under the diredtioii of the above expert drainer, where by a
few auger-holes, hitting upon the particular (pot where the
loweft part of the main fpring lay, a confiderable extent of
4 I ground,

SPRING.

ground, with which the drain hadfeemingly little conneftion,
has been laid dry, and caufed much lurprife to thofe who wit-
nefied the effeft. At Odftone Hall, in Leicefterfhire, a con-
fiderabk- trad of wet marlhy ground, of very Uttle value,
divided in the middle by a fmall river, was fo completely
drained, it is faid, by the fame experienced drainer, by
making a fmall trench at one fide, and by boring in it, that
the part of the marlh on the oppofite fide of the rivulet,
which was at a very confiderable dillance from tlie drain, be-
came, in a iTiort time, equally dry with that where the cut was
made ; has continued fo ever fince ; and, from being for-
merly of little or no value, is now converted into excellent
water meadow, producing, 'without manure, abundant crops
ef grafs and herbage.

At Madeley alfo, near the town of Newcaftle, in StafFord-
thire, there was likewife a very confiderable bog of fome
hundred acres, the drainage of which was deemed imprac-
ticable, being of fo wet and foft a nature that no cattle
could pafs over any part of it, until this able drainer lately
obtained a leafe of it for a certain number of years, and, by
means of a very little cutting and expence, has in confe-
quence fo effectually drained it, that it may now be con-
fidered as not only a fingular inftance of the fuccefs of this
fort of draining, but as being likely foon to become highly
produftive as a farm, in contequence of other improvements,
which this has produced, on it.

Extenfive bogs too, which were formerly confidered as
incapable of being reclaimed, have within thefe few years
been effeftually laid dry, by this fort of drainage, at or near
Woburn, belonging to the noble duke who refidcs near
that town, at but very little expence, confidering the
manner and nature of the undertaking in fuch bogs. The
drainage, in thefe cafes, was accomplithed by the fame fl<i]ful
drainer.

Succefsful drainages of this kind have alfo been performed
in different parts of the northern diftrift of the ifland : and
particularly in the extenfive park of the duke of Buccleuch,
where the work has been carried on in exaftly the fame
manner, and in pcrfeft conformity to the principles, and the
rules and direftions which have been laid down for the
drainage of the firft clafs of thefe fpring-bogs. In this
cafe, the ground has not only been rendered dry and much
more valuable than formerly, but the drains have likewife
ferved the ufeful purpofe of affording a conftant fupply of
fpring-water to different parts of the park.

It has been fuggetted by the writer of the Middlefex cor-
refted Agricultural Report, that, wherever there may be
any bogs, draining is unquetlionably the firll ftep to be
taken towards their improvement ; for the accomplifhment
of which, the principles and praftices which have been laid
down above fhould be reforted to, though the drainer fhould
not be too fanguine, or imagine that it is, in every cafe, an
eafy operation. It is much feared, that there areyimf bogs
which could not, without great difficulty, be drained at all ;
and others, that would coft the value of the land, in drains
and machinery, to fully effeft it. Yet, notwithftanding fome
unfuccefsful trials may have been made, they (hould, it is faid,
not difcourage or prevent the making of fuch attempts, in
all cafes, where there is tolerable profpeft of fucceeding in
them. The inftances are, no doubt, very numerous, it is
thought, in which this fort of land may be effedually
drained at an eafy expence ; and thereby be brought from
a flate of annoyance to yield confiderable projit to the own-
ers, as well as the community. See Bog, Morass, &c.

Drainage of Ground on the Sides of Rivers, andjlatf-jjampy
hand, beloiu the Level of artificial Leads or Runs of Water. —
It is alfo ftated, that many extenfive trads of land are wet
4

and rufhy, from a caufe that cannot be removed by any
number of open or covered drains. This is called haugh or
holm-land, and lies along the fides of brooks and rivers,
which having altered their courfe fo often between the op-
pofite banks, and depofiting fand and gravel as they recede
from their lalf channel, the water of the river conftantly
percolates through the ground thus formed to the level of
its prefent courfe, keeping it fo moilt and wet as to pro-
duce rulhes and other coarfe aquatics ; and wherever a drain
or pit is dug in luch ground, it immediately fills with water
to the level of that in the river. Where the river has a
quick defcent, it is lefs apt to produce this efFeft ; but
where the current of it is flow, and the level of its furface
little below that of the ground on either fide, the foil will
be very much faturated with water. Anv number of drains
cut in any direftion, can have no good effect while the river
continues in its prelent courfe at fuch a height. . Confe-
quently the only remedy, where it can be had recourfe to at
a moderate expence, is, it is fuppofed, deepening and widen-
ing the bed of the river, the earth taken out of which will,
at the fame time, ferve to form an embankment on either
fide\; for while it can rife higher than the outlets of the
drains, and flow back into them, it renders the ground
equally wet as before they were made, and the expence of
making them is laid out to no advantage. Befides being in-
jured in this way by the Wi'^r-water, fprings, in many fitu-
ations, iffue from the bottom of the higher banks or ground,
and ooze through the foil higher than its level. The water
of thefe can eafily be cut off or lowered to the level of the
river by a proper drain, as will be afterwards ftfen. As this
fort of land is moltly formed by the rivers changing their
courfes, and thereby leaving confiderable extents of flat
level ground on one or both fides of them, which is of an
alluvial nature, and commonly of a very rich quality, being
for the moit part conftituted of very fine earthy particles,
which are either depofited by the water in the time of or
after floods, or waflied down from the higher grounds in
time of heavy rains, and fometimes by both ; its drainage
and embankment mult confequently, when neceffary and
practicable, or capable of being performed without any ex-
traordinary expence, be highly defirable and important. See
HAUGH-Lan//.

But in fome cafes the wetnefs proceeds entirely from
fprings, where the foil of the flat ground betwixt them
and the river does not confitl of loofe gravel or fand, but
of a loam or clayey mixture. In order to drain this
ground, a trench muft be begun at the lower end of it,
and brought from the river along the bottom of the bank
from whence the fprings iflue. This trench fliould be cut
lelotv the line of the fprings, where it can more eafily be
done, and kept open to receive the river-water in floods,
and alfo any runs of water from the high grounds in time
of rains, which would bhiv it up if covered ; and muft dif-
charge itfelf into the river at the loweft poffible level.
Where the ground by the fide of the river is of fuch
extent as to render a regular embankment along the fide
of it a matter of confideration, a flood-gate might, it is
luppofed, be placed at the mouth of the outlet-drain,
which would fhut with the preflure of the river-water in a
flood, and thereby exclude it entirely from the inner ground,
and would open by that of the water accumulated in the
drain during the inundation, and fo be emptied into the
river when it fubfides. The conllruftion of fuch a gate is
fimple, and the only remedy in cafes where'it is defirable to
have the flood-water excluded in fuch inftances.

From this trench, fhort covered drains muft be cut up
a little way into the bank, to lead in the fprings that are

above

SPRING.

sb«ve it, where boring oppofite to them has not that efFeft.
The bottom of thefe mull be higher than the level of that
of the open cut, to preyent any of the water in it from
flowing back into them. In thefe the auger muft alfo be
ufed to tap the fprings, if the depth of this level does not
reach the ilratum containing the water. There will be no
occafion for any crofs-drains betwixt the open cut and
the river, as all the water that is intercepted will be car-
ried along the bottom of the bank, and emptied into the
river at a lower level, unlefs the ground be of fuch extent
that it may be divided by crofs-ditches into feparate in-
clofures. The open drain along the upper fide will ferve
as a divifion betwixt the meadow and higher ground.

This fort of land, from its peculiar fituation, and the
nature of the foil, is mollly well adapted to the purpofe of
being watered after it has undergone proper drainage.

In cafes where a miU-lcad, or other fimilar artificial runt
of water pafs through land, there are many valuable trafts
whicli are not unfrequently confidered as imprafticable in
•Jicir drainage. Alfo where they glide along the fides of
hem to which the falls incline. From the low fituation of
the ground in fuch circumltances, and the height of the
water in the leads or runs, there is no fall for difcharging
into them the water of any fuch drains as may be cut to the
necelfary depth. The only expedient for the remedying
of this difficulty is fuppofed to be the following, which has
been had recourfe to in different inftances, where no otiier
mode was prafticable, witli the molt complete fuccefs. In
all fuch cales, the firft thing is to begin, it is faid, at the
river or natural ftream, and bring up a cut to the lead or
run at the point where the outlet of the upper drain is to
crofs it. This cut mull be as deep as the river will permit,
or the drains above require. A cut mult then be made
acrofs the lead or run to the fame depth, and a flrong
wooden trough, or fquare box, for which larch wood is the
bell, made of a fufficient fize to admit the water collefted
above to pafs through it, be placed acrofs it. The length
of thi« trough mull be fevcral feet on each fide more than
the width of the lead or run, and mull be fecured by ftakes
firmly driven down into the ground on each fide, with crofs-
bars or pieces above, to hold it fecurely down. The fpace
between the top of it and the bottom of the lead or run,
mult be well filled with clay clofely beat or rammed down.
After this, the cut to the higher fide of the ground may be
made as deep as the level of the trough will allow, and con-
tinued along the upper fide of the wet land, fo as to cut off
the fprings that rife in that quarter. This may either be a
covered or open drain, as circumllances may require. From
the trough, alfo, an open cut (hould be made parallel to,
and along the back of, the lead or run, to receive the fur-
face-water from the ground above, and from the divifion
ditches that may be necefiary, if the ground be of great
extent. The earth from this cut Ihould be laid between
)t and the lead or run, to ftrengthen and fecure the bank.
In like manner, an open cut may be necelfary along the
other fide of the lead or run, to receive the water that may
ooze from it, and injure the ground between that and the
river ; and this ground, if extenfive, may likewife be divided
by crofs-ditches, or luch as ferve the double purpofe of
fences, on the fides of inclofures, and drains. The crols
or divifion ditches, in the upper part of the ground, Ihould
not join the upper drain, but a fmall fpace be left uncut, to
prevent any connedtion between the fpring-watcr in the
upper drain, efpecially when it is covered, and that which
is coUefted in the crofs open ditches ; and which may like-
wife ferve as a palFage from one divifion of the field to
another. The parte of the land between the divifios

ditches are moftly well calculated for watering', where'
there is a full command and fupply of water from the leads
or runs.

Something of this manner of <'.rainage has fucceeded, it
is faid, in a cafe of land lying along the fide of a river,
below gently rifing ground, where the wetnefs was com-
monly believed to be owing to a mill-lead penning up the
water above the level of the low meadow-land ; after at-
tempts to drain it, on the fuppofition of the wetnefs origi-
nating from fprings rifing in the higher grounds, by cutting
them off by means of a trench, had completely failed.
This was lately done at Petworth by lord Egremont, ac-
cording to the writer of the " Corredled Account of the
State of Agriculture in the County of Sullex." In thit
cafe, the water in the river was higher than the meadow-
land to be drained ; but there was an old ditch for carrying
the water from the low meadow-land into the river, at fuch
times as when it was low. This ditch was intended to be
Hopped up in cafe of the fuccefs of the above mode of
drainage, as the trench-drain would, it was thought, ferve
the purpofe. But on the drain or trench being cut, the efFeft
was, that when the ditch was Hopped up, the low meadow-
land was flooded by the fprings, as the drain did not anfwer
the purpofe of taking away the water ; and when the ditch
was open, the fame meadow-land was flooded by the river.
The banking of the river out at the ditch, and the building
of a wind-pump to render the ditch dry, were afterwardi
advifed as the only means to be taken for accomplifhing
the drainage.

A difFerent method, of fomewhat the above kind, was,
however, had recourfe to with complete fuccefs. Upon
the levels of the meadow-land, on each fide of the river,
having been taken, it was found that the meadow-ground
on the oppofite fide was beneath the level of the meadow-
land which required to be drained, and confequently that
the drainage of it could be cfFefted by a trunk-drain laid
acrofs the bed of the river ; a wooden pipe was, of courfe,
laid at the bottom, to receive and convey the water of the
ditch, and which was carried on forward by an open drain
being cut fo as to pafs through the other meadow-land,
on the oppofite fide of the river, which was alfo drained by
the cut thus made, quite up to the bridge under which it
paffes, clofe to the turnpike gate, fixed there by means of
a pipe, and which empties itfelf into the river at the mill-
head. This mode of drainage has anfwered, it is faid, moft
efFedtually, fo that the water in the old ditch now Hands
always a foot below the furfacc of the meadow-land which
was wet ; and more than one hundred acres of contiguous
meadow-ground have been highly improved by the new
drains which have been thus made : much of it, which was
a mere bog or fwamp before this drainage of it was com-
pleted, is now, it is faid, converted into a fine water-
meadow, and worth full tlirce pounds tlie acre. Their
grounds are, it is remarked, at any time capable of being
flowed by means of lluiccs made througli the towing-
path, which adts as an enbankmcnt ; and in the fummer
fealon, if the river be too low, by frelh ll reams which How
into it from the upper grounds ; .iiid belidos, tlic water can at
pleafiire be drawn olF by drains into the lower lovel, below
the locks, fometimcs, when particular circumllances render
it necellary, by llie means ot culverts c.irried acrofs the
bottom of the river. This interelling manner of frceiii*
fuch law dammed up meadow-lands from the clFedls of
the water lo kept up in tliem, may be applicable in many
other cafes and lituations of a fimilar nature.

Drainage in boggy and other wet GroiinJ, by perforating

through a retttitiir tv <; porous Sub Jlralum. — There it a fort of

4 I 2 hoggy

SPRING.

bojrgy and other wet land, which ie moltly caufed in a
different w^y than by that of fprings, but which, as par-
taking in feme degree of the natare of that kind of bogs,
and being capable of having the wetnefs removed by fuch
means as are had recourfe to in fpring-draining, may be
confidered in this place without impropriety. In many
part* of the kingdom there are confiderable trafts of land
which lie walte and uncultivated, owing to wetnefs in
a particular Ctuation, that might, by means of letting down
the waters into a porous under-ttratum, be eafily drained,
and rendered much more produftive. The caufe of their
wetnefs proceeds not from fprings lying under the furface,
nor from the overflowings of any of the adjoining higher
grounds, but from the accumulation of rain-water llag-
nating on a retentive body of clay, or other impervious
fubftance, through which the- water can have no defcent ;
and being alfo furrounded with higher ground of the fame
impervious nature, the water of itfelf can have no natural
outlet. Such ground, when it becomes boggy, is commonly
culled lanJ-Iocied hogs. The fituation of thefe bogs being
often fo much lower than the grounds that furrour.d them,
the cutting of a main drain, or conduftor, through the
bank, for carrying off the water coUefted by the fmaller
drains, would, in many cafes, be attended with an expence
greater than the value of fuch land when drained. The thick-
nefs of the impervious itratum that retains and upholds the
water is often fo great, that although the ilrata under it
be of a porous and open nature, as rock-fand or gravel, the
water can find no paflage whereby of itfelf to defcend
through the one into the other ; and, therefore, by its long
ftagnation above, all the coarfe vetegables that have, for
a feries of years, been produced on its furface, and even the
upper part of the foil itfelf, are formed into a body of
peat-earth, equally foft and lefs produftive than that of any
fpring-bog, and which is only paffable by cattle in very
dry feafons, when the wind and fun exhale part of iti
moifture ; and is even then inaccefhble to the plough.
The drainage of thefe bogs mull be effefted in a manner
different from that of thofe above, or fpring-bogj, the caufe
of both not being the fame in their nature, as already feen.
It may probably be done in the following maimer at the
leaft expence. The firft drain mull be made in the middle
or lowefl part of the ground, and into this all the others
mull lead. The number and direftion of thefe mull de-
pend on its extent. They mull be cut through the peat,
or wet, fpongy, upper foil, to the top of the clay or reten-
tive fnb-(lratum, which mull be perforated by the auger, in
order to give an outlet downwards for the water, which will
be abforbed by the porous Ilrata below. The making one
large pit or well in the middle or lower part of the bog,
dug through into the porous fubllrata, with the drains
leading into it, would anfwer equally well, and would fave
boring along each of the drains : this is a method which has
frequently been pradlifed with fuccefs in different dillridls.
In Hertfordlhire, according to the correfted account of
the agriculture of that ditlrift, if a pit be funk twenty or
thirty feet in depth, in the middle of a held, through the
red, flinty, and imperviou', clay of the county, into the
chalk below, when the ufual quantity of chalk is taken out,
the pit-fhaft is filled up with the flints which are coUedled
out of the chalk and clay, and the top, or furface-drainage,
of this part of the held, much fliortened for ever afterwards,
by making principal drains from the part of the field above
the level of the lop of the pit terminate therein, and the
fuperabundant moilture will efcape through the flints in the
pit-lhaft to the chalk below. And if a drain be carried into
a limeilone quarry, it is feldora necelfary to carry it farther.

In dells or -hollows of confiderable extent, which arc
covered with an impervious ftratum, and from which there
is no natural drainage ; fuch, for inftance, as the valley
between Mold, the fhire-town of Flintlhire, and the adjoin,
ing high land j a pit about f )ur feet in diameter, and fifteen
feet in depth, more or lefs, as the cafe may require, is funk
through the impervious fuper-llratum into a pervious
ftratum of gravel, and the rain-water, and that of fome
adjoining (prings, are carried from the furface thereby : the
pit is railed round to prevent cattle from falling into it.
It is here remarked, that though in this, as well as in many
other inllances that might be given, the top-water efcaped
through the pervious fub-ftratum, the effeft might have
been direftly the contrary. It is, coiifequently, advifed,
that the impervious fuper-llratum, in all fuch caf^a, fhould
fii'l be perforated by bore-rods, as the holes made by them
are eafily Hopped up.

Where the firll method is had recourfe to, the drains
fliould be cut as narrow as poflible, and, after the auger-
holes have been made, fhould be filled with loofe flones to
within a foot and a half of the furface ; and this vacuity may
be filled up with part of the earth taken out, having a turf,
grafs-fide downwards, next the Hones. The water and
noxious moillure, contained in the peat or upper foil, will
be extraitled by the drains, and will fubfide through the
auger-holes into the porous ilrata below. If the ground is
afterwards ploughed, care mutt be taken in forming the
ridges, and giving them a proper defcent towards the main
drain, which will greatly affill the others in difcharging any
heavy falls of rain-water.

Before proceeding to drain this kind of land in the man-
ner delcribed, the following obfervation mud be attended
to. It fhould be difcovered, in the firll place, whether the
porous flrata immediately under the clay be dry, and will
receive the water, when let down into it from above ; or,
being faturated with water itfelf, may, in place of receiving
more, throw up a greater quantity to the furface ; and
thus, inftead of remedying the evil, render it worfe. This
may fometimes be the cafe ; and the fubllrata may contain
water that makes no appearance on the furface, at this place,
owing to the fuperincumbent body of clay, but which,
being connefted with fome higher fpring, may flow up,
when a vent is given to it by the auger. Thus would a
greater quantity of water be brought to the furface, which,
having no outlet through the circumjacent bank, would
render the ground much more wet, and might even, in fome
fituations, almofl form a lake. If the furrounding high
ground declines deeper or lower than the bog, although at
fome ditlance, by means of a fpirit-level, and the appearance
of the furface, the nature of the under-ltrata may in a cer-
tain meafure be difcovered ; and although it fhould already
contain water, a drain may be there cut to draw off that
water, and alfo what is let down into it from above.

It not unfrequently happens, that fprings, or Jpouts, as
they are commonly termed, rife in the middle of a field, or
portion of ground at a diltance from any ditch or open
drain, into which the water may be difcharged ; fo that a
covered drain, brought from the nearell outlet, would pafs
fo far through dry ground, as to render the expence of con-
ducting the water from the fpouty part greater than the
injury done by it. In order to remedy this evil, it is ne-
celfary to begin by cutting a drain a few yards in length, or
by finking a pit into the porous foil immediately between
the lower fide of the wet and next dry ground ; and from
that to bring up an upright drain to the upper fide of tke
wet ground, from which a branch mull be taken to both
fides, along the upper fide of the wet, fo £sr as it goesv

This

li

SPRING.

This Bpper drain will cut off the water, when it rifes to the

furface ; while the upright drain will convey it to that cut

along the lower fide of the wet ground, where the water will

fubfide into the porous fubfoil. An eafier me. hod may be

praftifed, where the retentive or impervious fubllratum is

not deep, which is firft to cut the drain along the upper fide

of the wet ground, and after coming to the ilratum m which

the water flows, either to bore through the retentive fub-

ftratum, or cut the drain to that depth ; by which means

the water cut off above will be let down into the abforbent

or porous ftratum below, and thus be got rid of more

eafily than by any other method. But if the ground be

fteep, and the ftratum, into which the water is let down,

tads out any where below, or lower down on the flope or

declivity, the water will again flow out, and eaufe a fimilar

/pout or wet place in the field. This, however, will feldom

be the cafe, it is faid, and may eafily be remedied, by

being made perhaps near the extremity or lower fide of the

field.

It has been ftated, that Dr. Nugent, in his Travels
through Germany in 1766, has fhewn the mode of draining
marflies in that country to be nearly on the fame principles
as thofe explamed above. The draining of marflies i$ faid
to be condutted in much the fame manner as that of lakes ;
but the operation has there been feen performed only on
what we call moor or turf-grounds. Thefe are moll eafily
drained, by carrying trenches through thofe grounds, when
the difpofition of the country is fuch that the water can be
conveyed to fome neighbouring ftream.

In thefe cafes, the firtt thing they do is, it is faid. to
carry a ditch to the middle of the moor in a direft line, its
depth and breadth adapted to the extent and wetnefs of the
ground, and thus to the fuppofed quantity which is to be
carried off. At every fix, eight, or ten perches, as the
ground is more or lefs fwampy, crofs-trcnches on both fides
are drawn in a direft line, and communicating on both
fides with the main trench. But, in cafe of water coming
from any neighbouring eminences, they dig a trench round
the whole ground as a refervoir ; and this likewife com-
municates with the main trench, &c. In cafe the draniing
of the water into fome natural receptacle be not prafticable,
at leaft not under a very great expence, then they have re-
courfe to finking ponds or refervoirs in fome neighbouring
bottom, and to thefe they carry all the trenches. Thefe
ponds are likewife faid to be of ufc as a fifhery ; but even if
the finking of fuch pond be too chargeable, there Hill re-
mains an expedient which is of good cffcft, and chiefly if
the moors are not too wet and marfliy. It is the nature of
moors, in general, that, beneath the turf or mofs, there is
a loam which hinders the moidure from penetrating ; and
this, indeed, is what makes the marfli, and caufes the lux-
uriant growth of the turf or mofe : but this loam or clay is
only a ftratum, and far from being of an immenfe depth ;
under it is generally a fand, or foine other ftony or loofe
foil. Here rejfon readily inforins us, it is faid, that a
middling morafs may be drained by perforaiitig the clay, and
thus making way for the moillnre to penetrate. In order to
this, a pit is dug in the dcepeit part of the moor, till they
come below the obftrnfting clay, and meet with fuch a
fpongy ftratum as, in all appearance, will be fufficient to
imbibe the moifture of the marlh above it. Into this pit
the ebbing of the morafs is conveyed through a trench, and
both the trench and pit are filled up, after the firft drain,
with large broad Itone", fitting them cdgewife, fo as to
leave interltices for carrying off the water : then fuch Hones
are laid over breadthwife, and tiufe covered wjth loofe
earth, like that on the furface. When no fuch ftones are

10

to be had, ftrong piles are rammed down the fides of the
trench, and broad boards laid acrofa ; and thefe are covered
with earth to a height fit for culture. This is a matter of
no great expence, the pit being as near the morafs as the
water will admit, and the trenches but fhort ; then they
have a drain unperceived, which leaves the furface of the
trenches for the plough. And in middling marflies, or
efpecially in fuch moor.s as are only wet and damp, this
method, though fometimes flow, never fails taking eff'eft ;
and many IraiSs are thereby made ferviceable to the farmer
or grazier. Much land, in fome parts of this country, haf
been drained in the manner here defcribed.

It has been done with great fuccefs, to a confiderable ex-
tent, near Aberdeen, in Scotland, as well as in the county
of Roxburgh, according to the writer of the Agricultural
Report of that diftriil, on fuch wafte lands as might be
made arable, in which, at the depth of from one to fix feet
below the furface, is found, it is faid, a large feam of black
flaty or metallic fubftance, generally from twenty to twenty-
five feet in thicknefs ; and below this is difcovered a mafs of
whinftone rock, both lying in a tolerable regular ftraight
line. The thicknefs of the whinftone rock, it is fuppofed,
is unknown, as it is not believed to have ever been bored
into. The black flaty or metallic fubftance is commonly
found fo clofely cemented, as it were, without chinks or
fiflures, as that it is impenetrable even to water, or any
other liquid ; while, on the contrary, the whinftone rock,
when come at, abounds with chinks and fifTurcs, and will
receive and fwallow up any quantity of water that may be
poured into its bofom. The furface of the earth, above the
flaty or metallic fubftance, is found every where of a light,
kernelly, and mofty nature ; apparently having, in the
courfe of a feries of age?, been produced and formed from
the vegetable fubltances which had attached themfelves to
it ; falling in the autumnal feafons, and having no receptacle
to receive the rain-water, as it falls below its ftratum, it
prefervcs it on its furface ; and in the winter months be-
comes fwelled and enlarged in a confiderable degree. In
the fpring months, when the fun and wind abforb it, and
caufe it to exhale, the mofs becomes of tolerable firmnefs,
and produces a coarfe kind of unprofitable grafs, mixed in
many places with a iort of fliort heather, which is of no ufe
either for the rearing or feeding of Iheep or cattle.

Two portions of this fort of wafte land, amounting to
twenty acres, the one lying nearly on a level, and the other
on the flope of a hill, were broke up in the autumn of the
year 1784. The level part was gathered up in fmall ridges,
ploughing rather deeply, and mnking the furrows narrow ;
labourers bemg employed, after the ploughs, to remove
any obltrudlions that might arife froiu ftones or roots, aa
well as to turn the upper rind or furf.ice underneath, when
not cflcfled by the ploughp. It was then allowed to remain
in that ftate ujitil the middle of the funu»ier of 178 J, being
only eaten and trodden in the fpring fealon by flieep and
cattle, which were occafionally driven about the ground for
the purpofe, thi- benefit of which was very great. At the
above period the land was again gathered up ; but finding,
although the ridges were getting high, being only let out
eight feet at firft, the plough did not reach or get to the
flaty ftibftance in the hollow of the ridge, it was neceflary
to lay out the ridges to fixteen feet. This coft much
trouble, h.it the plough was at laft got down to the flaty
fubftane*?. When the work was fo far advanced, the next
bulinefs waa dire6\cd to the getting the w.iter drawn out of
the hollows of the ridges, which were at Icall four feet be-
low any levtl that could be obtained. In order to .tccom-
plifli this, a pair of bore-rod» was procured, and put down

the

SPRING.

the flaty fubftance, to the whinftone rock, at fundry places,
and which effeaaally anfwered the purpofe ; the tops of the
holes or canals being kept covered with a balket of loofe
ftoiies, which was allowed to remain or to be removed at
pleafure, as the weather proved more or lefs wet.

By this means of draining, the land was found to be, in
the fpring of 1 786, brought into a condition for fowing,
nearly as early as any other part of the farm ; the winter
rains falling through the foil upon the ridges into the bofora
of the flaty fubllance, which was laid bare in many places,
in the hollows of the ridges ; the water was gently drawn
off, and ghded regularly into the bore-holes or canalf : and
the production of crops in the following years was very
good.

On the contrary, the other part of this wet wafte ground,
lying on the flope of the hill, was ploughed in thin broad
furrows ; ufing the fame meafures and precautions as in the
above cafe, and being allowed to remain to the fame period,
after breaking up, was then endeavoured to be brake-
harrowed, and afterwards prepared for burning. But both
thefe methods faihng, it was left in a more backward ftate
than the former part ; and was at lait, in the fpring of
1786, after two plonghings, braking, &c. being left in a
large lumpy condition on the furface, fown with peafe, in
drills, in a clofe manner, for the fake of fhade and the im-
provement of the land ; which had thefe effecEls, befides
producing a good crop. The after-crops on it were like-
wife good.

As the foil above the (laty fubftance, in this part, was
not above two feet and a half deep, the plan of fetting off
the ridges eight feet in breadth is faid to have anfwered
well.

Drainage in hilly Lands and Sheep-Pajiures, -with the means
of procuring and raifing Water for certain Purpofes, l^c. — In
hilly diltrids, and other iteep places, where (hcep are the
ftaple or chief produce and ftock of the land, lefs attention
feems to have been paid to the drainage of fuch parts of their
walks and paltures as are wet and unproduftive, in the
opinion of the vrriter of the work on draining, according to
Mr. Elkington's principle, than to that of arable ground,
althoueh the effefts in the one cafe are equally beneficial
with thole in the other. This negleft is often attended
with confiderable lofs. From the nature of the herbage
which a fuperabundance of moifture produces, whether
ftagnant on the furface, or long confined under it, proceeds
that almoft incurable malady the rot, to which fo many
thoufands of valuable animals fall a facrifice. For this,
draining is a moft infallible preventive ; and in fuch fitua-
tions it IS attended with httle expence, as the drains may,
tor the moft part, be left open, with here and there covered
paffages, over which the fheep may crofs with fafcty. It
is ftated to be the praftice, in many of the fouthern ftieep-
farms of Scotland, to cut fmall open drains in the wet paf-
tures, only one foot in width, and the fame depth ; but
this, it is believed, has very Httle effect either in carrying
off" the fuperfluous water, or preventing the rot in the ani-
mals. One rood of fuch a drain, as has been advifed above,
would anfwer thefe purpofes, it is thought, more eff'eftually
than fifty of the other, and, on that account, would not be
more expenflve.

And although in places where the depth of the cut does
not reach the fpring, the auger muft be applied, no appre-
henfion need, it is thought, be entertained of the holes
filling up, where the drain is left open ; for the force of the
fpnng will, of itfelf, throw up any fand or fludge that may
get into them, provided no great quantity of flood or fur-
face-water is admitted. But the better to fecure them

againft any obllruftion, fmall openings m»y be made along
the upper fide of the trench : and in thefe the perforations
may be made, leaving the mouth of the auger-holes about
fix inches or a foot higher than the bottom of the drain,
which will be without the reach of the water that may ac-
cumulate in time of rains. From the irregular difpofition
of the component ftrata, the fides of many hills are covered
with alternate patches of wet and dry foil. By the ap-
pearance of the furface, and by the vegetables it produces
along the declivity, the internal ftrata, and manner in which
they lie, may often be afcertained with fuch a degree of
precifion, as to guide the direftion of a drain without in-
veftigating below the furface ; for the difficulty or facility
with which fuch ground may be drained, depends entirely
upon the lie of the different itrata of which the hill is com-
pofed, and upon the perpendicular or horizontal inclination
of the rock or body in which the water is contained. If the
rock lies in a horizontal diredlion, all tha different outlets
or Iprings that appear on the furface may proceed from, or
be connefted with, the fame body of water, and may all be
dried up, by cutting off or letting out the main body of
water that fupplies them, at the lower part of the refervoir,
or place where the water would of itfelf run ofl more eafily,
if it was not confined under an impervious covering of clay.
But, where the rock lies in a perpendicular manner, and
contains only partial colledlions of water amongft the more
open fiilures of the ftone, which empty themfelves at num-
berlefs outlets unconnedled with one another, it would be
prepofterous to attempt cutting them off by one drain, or
by tapping any particular one of them, without a drain being
cut into each. In this manner it is better to cut the maia
drain all in the clay, with fmall cuts up to each outlet, than
along the line or place where the fprings break out, as it
would in that direction be too much in the rock, and difficult
to cut, from the nature and inclination of the ftone. Where
the water iffuing out in certain parts, can, by means of the
auger, be hit on in the main drain, at particular points it
will be more .effeftually cut off; but if that is not prac-
ticable, the depth of the fmall cuts will reduce it to fuch a,
level as to prevent its overflowing or injuring the furface be-
lovr. In many hills compofed of alternate ftrata of rock«
fand, and clay, the furface of the latter is commonly wet
and fwampy, while that of the former is dry and productive,
and therefore requires as many cuts to drain it completely
as there are divifions of wet and dry foil. The higheft part
of the hill, being for the moft part compofed of porous foil,
receives the rain-water which defcends through it, till it
meet fome impervious ftratum, as clay, which obftrufting
its percolation any further downwards, it then rifes to the
furface, and forces itfelf a palTage over that impaliable
ftratum. After it has thus overflowed the upper clay fur-
face, it is immediately abforbed by the next porous ftratum,
and, defcending into it in like manner as above, it again
iflues at the lower fide of it, and injures the furface of the
next clay-bed, as it did that of the firft. In this manner
the fame fpring will aff'edl the other fimilar ftrata of which
the hill is compofed, down the whole declivity, and form at
latt, in the hollow, a lake or bog, if there be not a proper
outlet or defcent to carry off the water. In order to drain
a hiU-fide of this defcription, it is necefl'ary, it is faid, to
begin by making a trench along the upper fide of the upper-
mojl rufhy foil, which will have the efftd of cutting oft the
higheft fpring ; but as the rain falling on the next porous
foil fubfides to the loweft part of it, and forms another
fpring, and as it may likewife be partly fupplied from fome
other internal fource, a fecond cut is neceflary there, to pre-
vent that water from injuring the furface of the next clay-
bed.

SPRING.

bed. Thus, fimilar cuts will be requifite lower down the
defcent, fo far as the fame fprings and appearances continue
to injure the ground, which may produce a quantity of water
fufficient to irrigate the lower ground, or wliich may be ufe-
ful in fome other refpecls and manners.

In iome hills, the llrata of wliich they are formed lie fo
regular, that it is prafticable to extradl the water from either
fide on tlie fame level, which would be a very confiderable
advantage in draining the one fide, and in irrigating and pro-
curing water for the other ; for there is often found on the
one fide a wet fwamp, and on the other the loil is too dry.
This is owing to the bed of clay that upholds the water not
lying horizontally, but dipping more to the one fide than to
the other, and by the one (the dry) fide being overlap! by
a covering of clay, whereby the water is forced to iilue at
the open fide ; but if an outlet is given to it on the i!ry fide,
by means of a drain lower than that from which it flows on
the wet fide, the courfe of the fpring may be eafily diverted.
The oppofite fide being porous, and covered with fand, will
aft as a refervoir, to receive the rain-waters, which will after-
wards flow through the opening made in the clay. This
may be of great ufe in fupplying a houfe with water that is
fituated on the dry fide of the hill, and fave the additional
expence of conveying it in another manner. Care mult,
however, be taken in condufting the drain for conveying
water to fupply a houfe, &c. not to cut it or bore in it fo
deep as to reach a porou", llratum, otherwile the water that
may have been found at one place, may, by the fame means,
be loft at another. Puddhng may, it is fuppofed, in fome
degree, fecure it, but not in every cafe.

A fpring in a low fituation, adjacent to higher ground,
may be raifed to fupply a houfe, or for any other ufeful
piirpo'e, although much below that level, by confining it in
a pipe, or brick chimnev. The refervoir from whence the
fpring or outlet of water is fupplied being confined, and
pent up between two impervious Itrata, and the upper part
of it extending perhaps to a confiderable height and diilance
in the high ground, it is evident, that if a perforation be
made through the fuperincumbent ftratum into the tail or
lowcft part of the porous Itratum containing the fpring, the
water may be raifed by confining it nearly as high as the
level of the head of the refervoir. Of this kind there have
been, it is faid, feveral inltances in aftual praftice, where
the water procured from draining low grounds has been
raifed to a confiderable height above the level of the drains.
The drains in fuch cafes (hould be clolely built with brick,
and puddled above with clay, to prevent the water from
oozing through the joints. It is thus made to rife, through
fome fort of confined pallage, to the height which is required,
by the preifure which it receives in the high ground. The
advantages of fuch operations, it is remarked, muil be very
great in many fituations, and may often be accomplilhcd with
luccefs, where many would think them imprafticable. Of the
pradlicability of this, however, and that water may often be
railed to a very confiderable height, by means of its preifure
in diftant ground, the lollowing remarkable occurrence,
which happened lately in digging a well in the vicinity of
London, is a proof: earl Spencer, for the prefervation of
his noble manfionhoufe at Wimbledon againit fire, and to
be well fupplied with water, ordered a well to be dug at a
little diftance from the houfe, which was funk to the amaz-
ing depth of nearly 600 feet, before any fpring was found.
It was begun on the 3 lit of May, 1795 ; and on the 12th
of Auguft, 1796, the man who was employed in the under-
taking, gave a fignal to the perfon above to draw him up,
as he had found the fpring, and was imir.erfed in water fo

deep, that his life became endangered. In the fpace of four
hours the water rofe to the height of 350 feet, and during
two days following its increafe was more than a foot an
hour. The water, proceeding from a rock, is remarkably
fine, and, from the Itrata it pafles through, is ftrongly im-
pregnated with mineral quahties. As there is no extent of
higher ground near that where the well is funk, and as the
depth of it is fome hundred feet below the bottom of the
Thames, the fource of the refervoir from whence the fpring
is fupplied, mult be fituated at a very great diitance, and
mull contain a very large body of water to raife it fo fud-
denly to fuch a height.

There are many other cafes of wetnefTes in the deep
moory or heathy grounds, which often take place and oc-
cupy the bafes of the narrow vallies at the bottoms of fuch
hilly lands, hang on the (loping furfaces of their fides, or
fpread over the more flat lands which lie at their feet.

The moll fimple cafe of this kind is probably that in
which the more fuperficial parts of the foil are of an imper-
vious or porous nature, the fubfoil of the abforbcnt porous
kind refl;ing upon a repellent impervious bafe or bottom ;
the porous fubfoil part being uniformly charged with the
defcending waters, which are conveyed or brought down
from fome internal higher fource, by a fubitratum of the
gravel or other precondufting kind. In thefe circumllances,
where the under foil is fufficiently free and open, a fingle
drain, properly made or cut acrofs the lower margin or edge
of the rifing ground, may be fully equal to the prevention,
even of the flatter lands below it, from being furcharged
with water. But though this may be the cafe, fuch an eafy
mode of removing the wetnefs may not always be the moft
fuitable or proper, but mult be decided upon by the full and
mature confideration of the particular cale ; as it is in cafes
of this nature that waters for different ufeful purpofes arc
to be procured, and the higher they may be drawn off,
the more capable they will, for the moll part, be of becom-
ing beneficial in fuch ways : bcfides, where the ablorbent
porous itratum of the lower lands is not fufficiently open to
permit the waters of a wet feafon to pals fo freely through
them as to prevent a temporary furcharge, a threefold bene-
fit, it is thought by fome, may poflibly arife, by cutting
and taking off" the internal defcending waters at the foot of
the Hoping ground. As, in addition to the advantages al-
ready fuggelled, another good cff'cdl may be produced ;
which is that of taking off the lueight of the waters which
are pent up in the higher grounds from the lands below ;
and thereby relieving them from a common difeafe or com-
plaint to which lands fo fituated are very liable ; and which
is occafioned by the water, thus comprefl'ed, being forced
up, through fome fifl'ure or defeft in the foil, to the furface
of the ground in fome particular part or parts. But by a
fuit.-.ble fully efficient drain, made all along the upper mar-
gin of the flatter declining grounds, they may be entirely
relieved from fuch internal defcending waters, and become
in a healthy produftive ilate. It may, however, be added,
that a drain fo made, is in general more difficult and ex-
penfive in cutting, than one which is formed at the lower
part of the more flat declining land; the foil at the foot
of a flope being commonly of n greater depth than it is
either above or below that part; befides the additional la-
hour and trouble in cutting and finking the trench when to
be foughed or filled, and llill more in keeping an open drain
free, by reafiin of the greater prefs> of water in that part.
The upper fide of the trench too, in fuch cafes, is liable to
flioot in ; efpecially if it be funk in a wet feafon, the water
adling the molt forcibly there. Bcfides, unlefs the trench

be

SPRING.

be funk or cut down to a firm bafis or ftratum, it is inef-
fedual ; the lands below are ItiU liable to be affeaed with
a portion, at lead, of the defcending waters ; belides that
which may fall on the particular furface of them. 1 hey
confequently demand nearly the fame labour to render them
dry, as they would without an incffeaual drain being made
along their upper margin or border; notwithftanding,
however, in many inftances, water, defcending internally
from a higher or more elevated fource, and mfinuating itielf
beneath the fuperficial foil of the lower grounds, fo as to
injure them, may be cut off by a drain running along at
the foot of the hilly land, when cut or formed to a proper
depth, as to the folid or impervious body ; which may, at
the fame time, fufficiently relieve the lands which are below,
as well as afford a valuable fupply of water for different eco-
nomical purpofes about the farm or ground.

Another cafe of this kind of dr<iining is where the fupcr-
ficial partJ of the foil are of a porous or repellent quality,
and the under or fubfoil open or various, and partially
charged with defcending waters, paffing through beds^ or
veins of the fandy, gravelly, or fill'ured rocky kinds. This
is a fituation of land which occurs more frequently than the
above, but from which it principally differs, in the manner
in which the internal waters aft upon the lower lands. In-
ftead of being diffufed, in an uniform manner, beneath the
foil, they enter or corae into the fubftrata in coUeAed
ftreams ; and unlefs the fubfoil be fmgularly open, and
fpreads out in an even manner, operate very irregularly on
the land. Thus, if the foil be deep, and of an impervious
or repellent quality, plots of cold wet land are formed and
produced ; — if thin, and of a porous freely abforbent nature,
moory excrefcences are raifed on the furface ; and if the
ftream be powerful and narrowly confined, a fpring or foun-
tain is the confequence.

The nature of the means which are to be purfued in the
removal of the wetnefs in this cafe is of a more compli-
cated kind than in the preceding inftance. In cafes where
the fupply of water cannot be cut off, the circumference of
the flat ground is to be relieved by covered drains formed in
a grcatlv declining manner from the difeafed parts, to a com-
mon drain or outlet in fome proper place. In this cafe, the
fupply of water is cut off with lefs certainty, than when it
is condufted by an evenly charged llratum, relling on an
impervious or repellent bafe or ihatum. It may have only
one, or many conduits iitnated at different depths. This
too is a cafe in which the fupply of water, with a fufEcient
fall, may take place ; and under circumftances which parti-
cularly demand it, every expedient fhould be had recourfe
to in order to intercept the defcending waters at the foot
of the flope on the higher fide of the lands which are to be
drained.

A third cafe of draining in thefe fituations is, where the
furface-foil is impervious, or open and abforbent ; the under
foil porous and abforbent, with a clofed bottom, and charged
with defcending waters, relling on an impervious or repellent
bafe, which has an under bafe that is open and freely ab-
forbent. This is a fituation of land that may not often
occur in fuch a ftate as to have the ftratum or bafe on which
the water rells, only of a few feet in depth or thicknefs ;
but in which, it is probable, an open or porous ftratum may
BOt untrequently be found, by careful examination, at a
greater depth ; particularly when the land is fituated below
fifing ground, at the bafe of which fuch a ftratum is indi-
cated to be prefent, by the flowing of a natural fpring or
fountain.

The means of removing the wetnefs in fuch a cafe as this,

is obvioudy that of opening a communication between the
impervious or clofed and the open porous ftrata ; in order
that the injurious waters, which are pent up in the former,
may be permitted to pafs down into the latter. It is in this
way, it is faid, that marle-pits are drained in fome difcrifts,
as in Norfolk ; the beds of marie w-hich hold up the water
being cut through fo as to let it down into the great body
of fand on which they reft. In order to effeft which, a large j
earth borer naturally prefents itfelf ; and where the fubfoil
\ifrtc and open, and the furface-foil in a ftate of perennial
herbage, the operation of it, when duly direfted, and per-
formed in a fuitably dry feafon, may be found very effective
for the time, if not durable : in the practical management
of which a thick turf is to be raifed on the furface, and at
the bottom of the little pit which is made thereby, the borer
is to be inferted, the turf being returned into its place, as
foon as the work has been completed, in order to prevent
extraneous matters from getting into and obftrufting the
opening made by the borer.

In land under the arable ftate, the operation may Bot, it
is fuppofed, be fo efficient ; but, however, if pits were funk
down beneath the foil, it is fuggcfted, fo as to fecure the
tops of the bores from the operations of tillage, as to the
depth of twelve or fourteen inches below the iurface, fods
being then laid over the tops o* the bores, and the excavated
foil or mould returned to their places, fuch drains might
continue efficient for a (hurt length of time. In cafes, how-
ever, where the fubfoil is fo tenacious as to ftand m need
of many drains to draw the water effeftually out of it, this
mode of draining, or the ufe of the borer, it is thought,
would appear a lefs eligible praftice. In the bottom of a
drain, whether open or covered, more or lefii current takes
place, by which earthy matters are hable to be waftied down
into the bores ; and thefe, in confequence, to be choaked
up. The operation and effefts of water falling down a pipe
or tube, and that of its rifing in them, are, it is thought,
perfectly different ; as rifing waters loofen, and force up-
wards the obftrufting matters they may meet with in their
pall'age ; whereas falling water, on the contrary, adds the
preflure of its own weight to that of the obftruftions ; and
by diffolving earthy matter, and thereby filling every chink
and cranny, tends to clofe up the pafiage in the raoft effec-
tual manner. Rifing waters too enter the pipe or tube in a
pure ftate, leaving their impurities below, while falling
water carries down with it all the foulnefs that its current is
capable of bearing to the mouths of the orifices of fuch
pipes or tubes. Hence, even under the firft mentioned cir-
cumftances, it is probable, it is faid, that the falutary efteds
of the bores would only be of a temporary nature. Befides,
where drains are neceffary to extraft the water from the fub-
foil, why, it is afl^ed, may it not be collefted into a body,
and be carried away upon the furface, where it may in many
cafes be applied to different ufeful purpofes .'

Where, however, a fuperficial defcent cannot be had for
the water thus collefted, and an open ftratum lies beneath
the fubfoil, which is ready and fit to receive it, the making
of a communication between them becomes a point of great
advantage and importance ; as the trouble and expence of
raifing and removing the water by other means may be
avoided.

In all fuch circumftances of land in thefe fituations, the
loweft point of the fpace of ground to be drained is to be
afcertained, in which it is advifed to fink a fliaft down into
the receiving open ftratum, which is then to be filled up, to
within a few feet of the furface, with rough clean ftones,
the roots of trees, or other open materials ; on the top of

which

SPRING.

which a filter is to be formed with Iieatli and gravel, or any
other fubllancei which will prevent earthy matter, or water
in a foul ftate, from entering the (haft or opening. The col-
lefted waters are to be led to this filtering drain or opening
in all cafes.

Where, however, the water is collcfted by means of co-
vered drains, and where the filtering parts have likewife co-
verings placed over them, the whole proccfs will, it is faid,
be free from external injury ; and drains or works of this
kind might, it is fuppofed, remain unimpaired for ages, or
a very great length of time. Even if the waters were col-
lefted by open drains, and the filters, or filtering parts of
them, were fuffered to continue in a Hate of neglect, until
the (haft, in the courfe of time, (hould become defeftive,
the remedy, it is thought, would be eafy ; as by embracing
a dry feafon to re-open it in, and to clean it, as well as the
materials with which it may have been filled, from their im-
purities, it may be rellored to its original condition at but
little expence or trouble. It may be noticed further, that
where the land to be drained and improved is liable to have
any other furtace-water coming upon it than what falls upon
its own fpace, fuch waters ought to be drawn and condufted
away from it fuperficially, by cutting it off at fuch a height
as will gain a fufficient fall. And further, when the quan-
tity of water which defcends into it fubterraneoufly, or
which would defcend into it if a free paffage were opened
for it, is found to be too copious to be readily difcharged
by fuch a drain or (haft in the manner here propofed, proper
means (hould be taken to cut off the fupply, or as much of
it as may be, by making a perforated trench, or otherwife,
at a fufiicient height to be able to convey it away in a fupcr-
ficial manner ; and with a fuitable fall, fo as to prevent its
entering the fpace of land to be improved ; which by this
means will only have its own fuperfluous waters to difcharge
by the (haft-drain. See SHAFT-Drain.

There are many inltances of low, flat-lying, moory val-
lies in different diftrifts of the kingdom, and efpecially in
Norfolk, from the bafes of which it would be difficult to
make fuperficial drains, which have for their fubftrata or
fubftruttures, mod probably, infatiable beds or depths of
fand, or fandy matters, in which this mode of draining
might, it is (aid, be praftifed with vafl benefit. The
praftice in thefe cafes al(b affords additional explanation of
what has been faid above, in fpcaking of the removal of the
wetnefs of land by perforating through a retentive ftratum
to the porous one below, as well as the nature of the
drainage in bogs arifing from fprings.

In cafes where the fuperficial foil is impervious and repel-
lent, or porous and abforbcnt, the fubfoil being uniformly
abforbent, but clofed in the bottom part, and charged with
rifing waters, the cfFeft produced varies in fome mcafnre
with the nature of the furcharged lands. Where the ab-
forbent fubftrata are imperfedly clofed, or where the fur-
charging waters find fome other partial vent at the fame
level, the effeft is merely that of an under foil, which is
liable to be faturated in a wet feafon, and which is left dry
after a long continued drought. But where the fubfoil of
the land to be improved, together with the fubftrata in its
vicinity, on the lame level, are equally impermeable, and the
tmliatiied waters are, in confequence, under the ncccflity of
rifing, for a vent, to a higher level, the lower lands become
fubjefted to perpetual furcharge : even the furfacc-foil,
when in any degree abforbent, becomes liable to a fimilar
degree of faturation, by reafon of the weight of water
which lies above it ; as the comprefl'ed waters, adling in
conformity to the general law of fluids to gain a common
level, prefs upwards againll the foil : and where this is freely
Vol.. XXXIII.

and uniformly abforbent, it becomes fully faturated ; the
inevitable effect of which is a bed of fuper-aquatic plants ;
and, in the courfe of time, an extent of deep moory bog :
if partially abforbent only, plots of moor are the con-
fequence.

The means of relief in cafes of this nature are much the
fame as thofe in the firft of the above cafes. Where the
fubfoil is uniformly free, and a fupply of water is not
wanted above what is called the running level of the lower
margin of the land to be improved, a trench, with a fuffi-
cient outfall there, will lay the whole effeftually dry ; and
will, in addition, become the common outlet of the internal
waters ; iiiltcad of the naturrl fpring, which will confc-
quently ceafe to flow.

But if, on the contrary, die fubfoil be not fufficiently
open to permit a free patlagc for water through it, or where
economical intentions demand a fall from the upper margin,
it will be right and proper to attempt to take off the head
and weight of the water, by a trench made at the foot of
the hill ; and then to free the fpace of land difeafed by one
or more drains, as the particular circumltances of the cafe
may direft. Where a fupply of water is particularly de-.
firable, or the improvement of cold land?, hanging on the_
Hopes of rifing grounds, is wanted, it may be tlie moft pro-
per, when it is found that a deep trench alone, made at the
foot of fuch Hopes, by reafon of the too great depth ef the
impervious or repellent materials, is infufficient for the pur-
pofe, to try the effeft of the borer, and by this means en-
deavour not only to accomplifh the fupply of water that may
be defired, but by bringing down the furface of the fubter-
raneous coUeftion to a level with the bottom of the trench,
to relieve the plain below from the upward predure ; and
thereby probably remove the evil in a fufficient manner,
efpecially on the higher fide, without additional trouble and
expence.

In cafes fimilar to the above alfo, where a freely conduc-
ing ftratum, which is charged with water, lies too deep to
be eafily reached by a trench, and too level to be relieved by
the borer, and in all cafes where the water lies too low, and
in too flat a fituation to admit of a fuperficial channel being
funk deep enough to draw it from its natural bed, yet
without an open ftratum beneath to render a (haft-drain
effeftive, a well-drain funk in the loweft part of the ground
to be improved, may, it is fuppofed, be had recourfe to with
good effect. See WKLL-Drain.

In cafes where the quantity of water to be raifcd is con-
fiderable, and the depth at which it lies not more than fix
or eight feet, it may be forced up into an open drain, funk
to about half the depth, by the ufe of the common draining-
mill of mardiJand diftridts : or, where the depth is too
great, or the fuperftrata too loofe ai d unliable to admit of
a deep open drain, and that of an arched one too cxpenfive,
a pump wrought by wind, or by water, where a fufficient
ftream can be commanded, may be fufficient to raife it to
the furface ; care being taken in this, as well as the above
cafe, that no extraneous waters interfere. See Surface-
Draining.

There are other cafes of draining bcfidos thcfe, in which
the wetnefs is removed by drawing off the fprings that caufe
them. See Tapi'ING Springs.

Cafes of the fame nature as thofe given above are illuf-
tratcd by means of feftions, in all the different inftanccs, by
the writer of the work on " Landed Property."

In many cafes too, a great deal is capable of being

efTcftcd in thefe and other forts of hilly grounds, and very

aftonilhing effects produced, in fome inftaiices, by means of

cuts or drains alone, properly dircftcd, without the necefTity

4K of

5PRING.

of either boring, orliaving recourfe to the making or finking
of pits in the land, for removing and taking away the wetnefs.
It has been found that fields or grounds of confiderable ex-
tent, wliich lie upon irregular banks, hills or knolls, have
been readily drained in this manner ; though the water
which rofe and illued out from the fprings in particular parts
of them, rendered them before of but very little value : and
though many drains, in improper diredlions, and not pro-
perly cut, had been before formed in them, at great ex-
pence, for draining off the wetnefs without efTeft. This
has been nccomplifhed by cutting drains to fuitable depths
through the porous fubitrata, and in fuch direftions as to
cut off the fprings commg from the higher grounds ; or to
take the water of them away, which lodged in the hollow
parts of the land. Such drains have often fpeedily removed
the wetntfs, without colling a tenth part ot what was paid
for the others, or taking into the account the difference
of keeping them in order, which mult be a mere trifle, when
compared with that of the others, as they were moftly on a
loofe bottom, and made lo lma!l, as to be readily choaked up
and dellroved. The nature of the fituation, and the lie of
the (Irata of which fuch lands are formed and compofed,
readily explain the realon why the moi'.ture in fuch cafes is
fo quickly removed by properly cut and direfted drains, as
it ariles, in molt inftanccs, from the inclination of the ftrata,
which is commonly towards the hollow part? of the grounds,
and from their frequently terminating on the lides of Inch
banks, hills, or knolls, under the impervious, clayey, marly,
or lliff loamy ftrata, though for the moll part upon them.

Millakes in the modes of cutting the drains, and in the
direftions they ihould have for properly intercepting and
taking away the water of the fprings, are almott every
where in Inch cafes committed, and valt expeuee thereby not
unfrequently incurred ; it is confequcntly of much import-
ance, in all fuch inltauces, to have a proper plan laid down
before any part of fuch works be undertaken.

There are fometimes fprings and wetned'es found on the
tops of bai;ks and hills, where the ground which is conti-
guous is much lower on all fides ; but in fuch cafes they are,
in many inllances, fupplied with the water from higher
ground at a diftance, by means of metaUic, mineral, or
other fubftrata, lying in a particular curving direftion, be-
tween impervious ftrata, from the higher parts of the land
to the lower. The fprings, in thefe cafes, ifl'ue forth at the
points where the metals crop out.

The drainage, in fuch cafes, is to be accomplifhed by
forming fuitable outlets for the water, and by boring or
finking piis through the porous or metallic ftrata, fo that
the water flowing through them may be intercepted, and re-
duced to fuch a level, that the fource of the fprings may be
cut off, and the ground on the top and on both fides of the
declivity become dry. By this means the metals, to that
depth, may be rendered capable of being wrought, with-
out any inconvenience from the water.

In the above method, the continuation of the ftrata is fup-
pofed to keep on the fame rife, in the high ground on the
north fide of the rivulet, to a much higher level than the line
of fprings, by which means, the fprings iffuiug from the
crop of the metals are fupplied.

By bringing up a cut from the rivulet into the bank an
outlet will be obtained for the water, free from that of the
rivulet ; and by boring or finking a pit, the water flowing
through the porous ftrata will be reduced to a level, and of
courfe the fource of the fprings will be intercepted, and the
ground on the top, and on both fides of the declivity, be-
come dry ; and the metals, to that depth, may be wrought
free of water.

This could not be effeAed by boring from the bottom of
the rivulet, or any run of water, for the prefture of the run-
ning water above would prevent that below from rifing
freely, and fmall ftones or fand would be lodged in the hole.
If the ftrata crop out to the furface, and caule wetnefs, the
pit or bore may be contmued till it reach it ; but lying at
inch a depth, and covered with lo much clay on the furface,
the water contained in it may do no injury to the ground
above it.

Drainage in Lands compofed of alternate Beds of Clay and
Sand ; and other mixed Soils. — In diftrifls where the foil is
compofed of an intermixed variety, and where clay forms
the molt predominant part, draining is, according to the
firlt writer above noticed, a work attended with much
greater difficulty and expence, than in thofe V\here both the
furface and internal ftrata are more regularly difpofed. In
thefe kinds of ioils, where every refervoir of water is un-
connedtcd with another, being feparated by intervening beds
of clay, the partial coUcftions of water that thefe refer-
voirs contain are fo much augmented in time of great rains,
that, bemg full to the level of the furface of the furrounding
clay, the water having then a free ifiue, as over the edges
of a difh, fo overflows and furcharges the furface of that
clay, and renders it fo wet and four, that its produce be-
comes every year m.ore fcanty, and the nature ot the foil
itfelf more barren. As thefe fand-beds have no communi-
cation with each other, it requires as many drains as they
are in number to extract the water from each of them. From
tlicnearcil and loweft part of the field to be drained, a trench
mull be cut up to the higheil or moll diftant fand-bank, in
fuch a direftion, as, if polfible, to hit on fome of the inter-
mediate fand-beds, and fave the making a longer fide-cut,
otherwife neeeflary ; but where this would give many auk-
ward turnings to theraain trench, it would necellarily lengthen
it ; and where, by croffing the beds in places higher than the
furface of the furrounding clay, it would confiderably in-
creafe the depth of it, and be difficult to work, efpecially if
rock or running-fand ; drains in form of the letter Y mult
branch off to fuch beds, to draw off the water they
contain, and convey it into tho leading one. Although the
fand-beds throw out the water they contain on all fides, fo
as to inj'ire the clay-furface immediately round them, a
drain on the o-e fide will completely extraft the water from
the whole, and prevent it from breaking out at either fide,
provided that where it is cut be the loweft. It may be ob-
ferved, that unlefs the drain is fo cut, it cannot be fuppofed
to have this effett, while the water can find an outlet on
the oppofite fide of the bank, lower than the bottom of the
drain. This ought, therefore, to be previcufly confidered ;
and by carefully examining the ground, and applying the
fpirit-level, the proper fide for the drain may eafily be
found : or, if the water burfting out round the bank has
been obferved in dry feafons to run at ore place, and not
at others, it is a proof that this is the loweft point ; and by
cutting the drain in the direftion of this level, the water will
afterwards be prevented from rifing to the height of the
upper outlets, or above the level of the bottom of the drain,
even in the wettell feafons. In many cales, the whole water
that caufes the wetnefs, and fupplies the ether land-beds be-
low, may arife from the upper fprings, paffmg over the
upper foil, and through the difi'trent fand-beds ; by being
prevented from defccnding deeper than the retan-ir.g bed of
clay. In this cafe, the drainage of the whole field may be
accomplifhed with much lets difficulty and expence than in-
the former. After the m.am condudting drain from the out-
let has been cut, a drain on the upper or higher top part, quite
acrofs, muft next be made, which will intercept and cut ofE
12 the

SPRING.

the principal fprin£rs, and may by this means render the lower
drains, on the different fides of tiie main conducing one, un-
iieccfTary, unlefs merely to cxtraft the partial lupply of
water which the lower fand-bcds may rtceive in time of
rains, and which, where thef- fand-beds are of fmall extent,
can do little injury to the adjoining furface. From this it
appears, that one fpring rifmg in the highclt ground may be
the fole caufe of injuring a coufiderable tract lying below ;
from its water overflowing the furface at one place, and fnb-
fiding into it at another, according to the tenacity or open-
ncfs of the foil ; and therefore, in fuch cafes, the upper
Ipring. or feeder, fhould be firtt cut off, and the effect of that
known, before any more drains are made in the lower
ground.

Befides foils correfponding to this defcription, there are
others nearly of a fimilar nature ; but each bed being of
lefs extent, and lying more regularly together, their drainage
can be more eafily effefted, by means of lels cutting, and
confequently lefs expence. Under the beds of fand and
clay tliat thus lie alternately together, and almoft parallel
to one another, is found a general body of impervious
clay, that keeps up the water contained in the fand, which
•ontinues always full, moiftening the adjacent clay, and, in
A't feafona, running over it. As this main untier/Iralum oi
^Iiy is feldom above four or five feet below the furface, a
drain muft be cut to that depth through die middle of the
field, if it have a defcent from both fides ; or, if the ground
declines all to one fide, the drain mull be cut there, where
the water will more eafily difcharge itfelf into it ; and, un-
lefs the field is of a confiderable extent, and have more
hollows in it than one, one drain will anfwer the purpofe
effeftually ; for, by croffing all the different beds that hold
the water, it will draw it from each.

The great difficulty, however, in draining lands of this
defcription, and which is imprafticable by one drain, is, if
the direftiin of the alternate beds of clay and fand We acrojs
the declivity of the grounds ; fo that one drain, in this cafe,
can have no other effi^dt than that of carrying off the water
after it has pafled over the different llrata, and would here
naturally llagnate in the lowell part of the field, if there was
no other outlet for it : therefore, when the ground lies in
this manner, which is often the cafe, befides the drain in the
hollow, others mull be cut up from it, in a floping diredtion,
acrojs the declivity, which by eroding all the different veins,
or the very thin and narrow ftrata of fand, will extraft the
water from each. Where thefe alternate flrata are of great
extent, and the wetncfs produced by greater fprings forming
fwamps at different levels on the fide of the hills, the method
of draining them has been already defcribcd.

The firit thing to be obferved, in the drainage of fuch
alternate (oils, is to difcover minutely the inclination of the
alternate ftrata, or how they lie with regard to the fituation
of the field to be drained, as upon this the diredlion of the
drain entirely depends ; and as the external figns that dif-
tinguifh the different beds are eafily perceptible, from the ap-
pearance of the furface, and difference of the herbage that
each produces, there is little difficulty in attaining this part
of the object. In drains of this kind there is feldom any need
for applying the auger, as the neceffary depth of the trench
reaches far enough down ; and as there is no fpring for
want of connetlion with the higher ground to force itfelf
up throui:;h the augtr-holes, or, if there is, it cannot, at fo
great a depth, and below fuch a body of clay, do any injury
to the ground above.

The drain, after being formed like a fough at the bottom,
or fet like a triangle, mult be filled a confiderable way up
\vith fmall floncs, before the mould is thrown in, taking care

to have tcug/j fods laid immediately above the former.
Where (tones are fcarce, and plenty of brufh-wood at iiand,
faggots may be finiftituted in their place with propriety.
The under part ot the drain, however, (liould be laid or
toupkd with Hones, as a canal to carry off the water fub-
fiding through the faggots ; and which has alfo the good
eftedt of prolonging their duration ; for when the water
cannot get off, which mult be the cafe where there is no
open conduit of ftones, its flagnation amongft the brancheg
muft foon caufe their decay, and choak up the paffage of
the drain. In no cafe whatever fhould the drain be filled
with Hones thrown in in a promilcuous manner, without a
courfe for tlie water at the bottom being firlt formed.
There is one thing more to be attended to in completely
accomplifliiiig the drainage of thefe foils : if the fiild liei
very much on the defcent, care mull be taken in laying out
the i/-i7nc/j-drains in a dire(ftion fufficiently horizontal, fo as
not to make the fall too precipitant, by which the bottom
of the trenches would be worn uneven, and this would ob-
ftruft the paffage of the water, which might foon blow
them up ; but the fall fhould be fuch as to enable the water
to clear its courfe. The reafon why fewer drains arc re-
quired in fields that lie nearly horizontal, as thofc of the
fecond kind here mentioned, is, that the water is drawn
equally from both fides, whereas thofe on a floping deeUvity,
drawing only from the liigher fides of the drain,^, require
them to be more in number, or clofer to one another. This
is the cafe in every fituation wiiere furface-draining is ne-
ceffary, and particularly fb in fome forts of foils, as will be
feen defcribcd in that kind of draining. See Sukface-
Dralning.

In Lancafhire, where thefe foils, compofed of alternate
beds of clay and fand, very much predominate, and which
have there acquired the names oi fand-pots, or guts, a term
properly enough applied to them from their holding water
like a pot, it is obferved, that feveral drainages have been
executed by Mr. Elkington in the manner here defcribed,
and alfo a very difficult one of the fame kind at Sutton-Hall,
Derbyfhire, where the water was contained in fmall bedl
of rock, crofled and intercepted by beds of clay.

There are flill other cafes of thefe intermixed foils, fuch
as thofc which have a porous, or partly impervious fuper-
ficial foil, while the undcr-ftrata are conltituted of different
diftinft mafles of impervious repellent materials, difpofed in
a regular manner. The lands which lie near ti'.e bottoms of
hills and flopes are often compofed of fuch impervious
maffes of the clayey, llrong marly, or lliff loamy kinds.
Such an intermixed, irregular conltrudtion of land, has natu-
rally the cffcft of forcing the intern.il water?, which defcend
from fprings in tlie higher grounds, as well as that which it
taken up by the furface-foil, where it is porou<, upwards
towards the furface of the lands, or other directions, io as to
caufe or induce wetneffes which liave different appearance*,
according to the nature or quality of the fuperficial parts of
fuch grounds, as wet, rufhy. fedgy, or other cold moid
lands, oozing, fpringy, wet lands, land-fprings, quagmu-es,
quickfands, and aftual fprings of water, cither of the tem-
porary or more permanent kinds, as the circumitances of the
feveral cafes may be.

The means of draining fuch intermixed portions of wet
ground of this fpringy nature, although attended with forae
difficulty, IS moftly capable of being acconiuhfli'-d without
any very great trouble or expence; thi« i'; to be cffi ited by
cutting up frora the main condudting drain, which (houlU
always be carried through the moll depending malies, fmall
drains into the feparate upholding mafiis or flrata, at fuitr
able depths, fo as to find tiic waters which rcit upon them
4 K 2 aod

SPRING.

and draw them of?'. Such drains, where properly made and
direfled, muft not only be effeftual, but durable in their na-
ture. The bottoms of the drains or channels in all thefe
cafes fhould conltantly be cut a few inches into the firm im-
pervious beds or ilrata, and their higher fides be made to
communicate well witli the openings in which the waters
are lodged. In thefe ways this fort of land may, in moll
inftances, be rendered perfedlly dry, and in a ftate fit for
cultivation.

A full and perfeft knowledge of the bufinefs of fpring-
draining is of the utmoft utility and importance ; as more
labour and money have, probably, been ufelefsly thrown
away upon this fort of rural improvement than that of any
other, merely for want of fuch information. In many cafes,
from three to five times as much money may have been ex-
pended, and trouble caufed, as the nature and circumltances
of the different cafes demanded. It is indeed not impro-
bable, but thai for one-fifth part of each, the bufinefs might,
in different inftances, have been more effeiftually and com-
pletely performed, if the perfon employed had been fuffi-
ciently informed on the fubjeft. It has been the too com-
mon pr.i(ftice of the orduiary claf-; of drainers, in removmg
the wetnefs cauf d by fprings, whether from intereft and
defign, or the want of adequate knowledge, to fill the
ground with a number of drains, cut fo as to fpread and
extend themfelves in all diredtions, wherever the flightelt
appearances of moilture or wetnefs prefented themfelves ;
while in all probability, by the cutting of a fingle drain in a
fuitable and proper direction, fo as to intercept the fprings,
or draw off the internally colleded waters, which caufed
fuch wetneffes by their fpreading branches, the whole of the
land might at once have been effeftually laid dry. The
prevention of this ufelefs wafte of labour and money is only,
perhaps, to be found in the endeavour to bring the nature of
the theory and praftice of this fort of draining into a more
clear and comprehenfive point of view, fomewhat in the
manner which has been attempted above, fo as to enable
thofe who undertake this kind of bufinefs, to fuperintend
and direft all the various operations and proceffes of it in
the moft fuitable, proper, and efficient manner, without in-
curring unneceffary expence. There can be no doubt that
improvements of this principal kind in land would be much
more generally attended to and extended than they are at
prefent, if this were the cafe, and the ineffcftual modes in
which they are executed, in too many different inftances, lefs
frequent. As the chief and belt (kill of the artift, in this
fort of bufinefs, probably lies in the readinefs and certainty
with which he is capable of difcovering the main fprings,
coUeftions, and paffages or channels of the water which pro-
duce the different kinds of wetnefles which are to be re-
moved ; and as neither long cuftom, nor the moft cxtenfive
practice, has hitherto been fufficient to lead to the means of
attaining thefe, in all cafes, even when guided and affifted
by the outward fuperficial appearances which the furface of
the ground may afford ; it is fomewhat extraordinary that
other aids and methods have not been had recourfe to for the
purpofe. This has, however, fo far as we know, not been
at all attempted until lately, and yet in one or two in-
ftances only. The ingenious drainer of Trafford-mofs, in
Lancadiire, as already noticed, has contrived a pump for
this ufe, which is to be put down into the foil in different
places, in order to afcertain the prefence of fprings, or col-
legions of water in it, before the work of draining is begun.
It IS an implement of very fimple conftrudtion, and ready
apphcation, and which may be of very great utihty in this
intention. See Svkisg- Draining Putnp.

The writer of the work on " Landed Property" has alfo

7

fuggefted, that the borer is a tool which particularly pre.
fents itfelf as ufeful in this way. On the fuppofed fimilaritjr
of the modes of fearching for fprings or internal waters, and
for mineral or foffile fubftances, it is thought extraordinary
that the fame method of proceeding (houid not have long
fince been adopted. In the latter cafes, in frefti diftridls,
the work of fearching for coal is not, it is faid, begun by
finking a fhaft, though appearances may be ever fo favour-
able ; the ground is firll tried by the borer, at a compara-
tively trifling expence, to afcertain the proper place of
finking the pit. In trying for other matters, as ochres and
other fimilar kinds, the fame tool too may be faid to be
that which is in common ufe. And there can, it is thought,
be no riflv in faying, that it may be equally well and more
profitably employed, as a common tool of the drainer, for
the purpofe oi Jlndtng the fprings, refervoirs, and channels
of fubterraneous waters, in the praftice of that art, and by
which it may be refcued from the difficulty and myftery
in which it has hitherto been fo greatly involved. See
Borer.

It is ftated, that an inftance in the praftice of a firft-rate
drainer has been feen, in which the ufe of the borer, for the
purpofe oi jfinding the water before the fpade was fet to
work, wo'ild have faved a large fum of money, which had
been laid out under an error in the mode of praftice which
had been purfued.

There will be fome difference in the depth and manner of
ufing the tool, according to the circumftances and difpofition
of the land, and the intentions and methods of the draining
which are to be undertaken, as has been ftiewn already in
c^nfidering the nature of the drainage ia different cafes.
A'.id it may be neceffary and convenient to have the bores
and boring rods properly marked and regulated, efpecially in
particular cafes.

Thus, though there may be fome inftances of wetnefs in
lands, in which it may be eafy at once to judge and deter-
mine, with a great degree of certainty, of the nature and
fituation of the caufes by which they are produced, and con-
fequently to operate and perform the means of their removal
without any difficulty or trouble of this fort ; there are ftill
numerous others, in which the ufe of fuch tools and imple-
ments may be of the higheft and moft material importance and
advantage, not only in pointing out, with accuracy, the pe-
culiarity of their fituations and direftions, but in preventing
uncertain and unneceffary cutting, and thereby procuring
confiderable favings in different ways. They mutt, of
courfe, contribute much to render the praflice of fpring-
draining more complete and perfeft.

S,vv.iVG-Draining yfuger, that fort of tool which is em-
ployed in this kind of draining for boring down into the
fubftrata of the earth, after the drains have been dug, and
tapping or letting off the fprings, or for perforating the ftiff
foil or other parts, and letting the water down into a porous
ftratum below. It is a tool of very great utility in this fort
of draining, and which has much fimilarity to that which is
employed in fearching for coal and other fubterraneous mi-
nerals. The auger, or ftiell part that forms the hole or
bore in the earth or ilrata through which it pafles, is moftly
from about two and a half to three inches in diameter ; the
hollow portion of it being about one foot four inches in
length, and conftruCted nearly in the form of the common
auger of the carpenter, only the fides of the fhell part are
made to come clofer to each other. The rod parts are
formed in feparate pieces, of four feet long each, which
fciew into one another, to any fuitable length, one after
another, as the depth of the hole or bore may require. The
fize of the Hem above the auger part is about an inch fquare,

except

SPRING.

except at the joints, where, for the fake of ftrength, they
are a quarter of an inch more. There are alfo a chillel and
punch for fcrewing on, in going through liard gravel, or
metalhc fubltances, in order to expedite the pallageofthe
auger, which could not otherwife perforate fuch hard bodie,=.
The punch is often ufcd, when the auger is not applied, to
prick or open the fand or gravel, and give a more eafy iflue
or difcharge to the water. The chifiel is an inch and a half
or two inches broad at the point, and made very fharp for
cutting ftone, and the punch an inch fquare, like the other
part of the rods, with the point fharpcned alfo. There is
a fhitting handle ot wood, which is faftened with two iron
wedges afiixed to it, for the purpofe of turning round the
rods in bormg, and alfo two iron keys for fcrewing and un-
fcrewing the rods, and for aflifting the handle when the loil
is very Itiff, more than two men being required to turn
the tool.

Tt is remarked by Mr. Elkington, that it has been con-
fidered a difficult part of the bufincfs of draining, to judge
properly when to make ufe of this boring tool. Some, it
is faid, who have not feen it employed in this fort of work,
have been led into a miltaken notion, both ai to the manner
of ufing it, and the purpofos for which it is applied. They
think, that if, by boring indifcriminately through the ground
to be drained, water be found near enough the furface to be
reached by the depth of the drain, the proper diredlion for
it is along thole holes where water has been found ; and
thus make it the firll implement that is uled. The contrary
is the cafe, the auger being never made ufe of until after
the drain is cut, and then for the purpofe of perforating
any retentive or impervious ftratum lying between the bot-
tom of the drain and the refervoir or flrata containing the
fpring. Thus it is capable of greatly leflening the trouble
and expence that would otherwife be requifite in cutting
the trench to that depth, to which, in many inftances, the
level of the outlet will not admit. See SemT^G-Draining.

The manner of uCng the tool in working of it is fimply
thus : two or rather three men are neceflary. Two itand
above on each fide of the drain, who turn it round by means
of the wooden handle ; and when the auger part is full they
draw it up out of the hole, and the man in the bottom of the
trench clears out the earth with the inllrument for the pur-
pofe, aflilU in pulling the auger up out of the hole, and in
direftinj it into it again, and can alfo affilt in turning with
the iron handle or key, when the depth and length of the
rods require additional force to perform the operation. The
workman fhould be careful in boring, not to go deeper at
a time, without drawing, than the cxaft length of the (hell,
otherwife the earth, clay, or fand, through which it is
boring, after the (hell is full, may make it very difficult to
pull out. For this purpofe the exaft lengtli of the fhell
(hould be regularly marked out on the rods, from the bot-
tom upwards. Two or four flat boards, with a hole cut
into the fide of one of them, and laid alongfide of one an-
other over the drain, in the time of boring, are of very great
ufe for directing the rods in going down perpendicularly,
for keeping them (teady in boring, and for the men Handing
upon, when pcrforminir the operations.

The hont,ontal draining auger is another tool of this kind,
which was invented in Leicellerlhire, and is probably not
yet become well known, or in general ufe. It is capabJe,
however, of havintr confulerable utility and application in
the praftice of fpring-draining, as well as in other ways. It
has the advantages, in many cafes, of jjrcatly lelTening the
expence of cutting, that would othcrwilc be neceflary, and
«f performinf;; the work in a much (horter fpace of time.
It may be of great benefit when employed ior forming a

fuitable paffage 'for the water without opening a trench-
drain, where the water of a drain, brook, or rivulet has to
pafs under a bank, hedge, road, wall, or any other fimilar
place, and where pits are to be laid dry ; as well as in many
other cafes, as tor tapping fprings, or detefting water at
the bottom parts of hilly lands, in order to the draining
of the ground or the iupplying of the water for different
ufeful purpofes, as the water of the fprings, in thefe cafes,
when it may be hit upon, will flow with more facility and
readinefs, as well as in greater abundance, through fuch hori-
zontal or level openings, than through perpendicular outlets.
It may likewife be uieful for laying or putting down leaden
pipes tor the pafiage or conveyance of water, in making the
holes into which the pipes may be introduced, and laid with-
out the neceflity of forming open cuts for the purpofe, which
are often very laborious and troublefome in performing.

The manner of ufmg the tool in working is this : where,
for inftance, water is to be difcharged from any fituation in
which it is contained, that has high banks furrounding it, if
the land declines lower on one fide, after finding the level
of the bottom of the water On that fide, it is to be traced
to the face of the bank, where the perforation is to be made
through it by the auger. In doing which, the furface of the
ground is there firil to be made Imooth, fo as to place the
frame of the tool nearly level, with the auger part of it
pointing a little upwards. It is then to be wrought, which
is done by two men turning the handles at the top part.
When the auger or fhell part is full, the rods are drawn
back by reveriing the lower handle, and other rods may be
added at the joints wher. the diltance requires it. In boring
or working through a bank compofed of the liardeft clay, or
other fuch materials, two men will, for the molt part, get
through from thirty to forty feet in the courfe of a day,
if they be not obflrudled by hard Hones, or other Inch mat-
ters, which will require a chiffel to be fixed on in the tool in
the place of the fhell, and longer time in working through.
Where the length or diitance to be bored or wrought
through is confiderable, and longer than the whole length
of the different rods when fcrewed together, a pit or opening
is neceffary to be dug or funk down, at a fuitable diitance,
upon the line to the proper depth of the hole, for placing
the frame and tool in when removed from its former place,
and the work be then carried on in the fame manner as be-
fore in the former part of the operation.

SPRitiC-Draining Level, that lort of level which is em-
ployed in forming and cutting drains where fprings are con-
cerned. It is the fpirit-lcvel which is, for the moll part,
made ufe of in cafes of this fort, and which ferves to afcer-
tain, after a principal fpring has been difcovered, a line on
the fame le\'el, to only one, or the different fulei of it, in
order that the direction of the drain may be better and more
certain. The ufe of it is molUy tlie hr!t and moll important
work in fetting out drains in this fort of drainage. It is
employed in determining the h-vel from one particular fight,
or from different Rations, for a confiderable length or
dillance. It is alfo necellary to decide the quantity of fall
that can be gained from a drain to the nearell outfall or
outlet for the difcharge of the water, as the more fhort that
is the better, wlien lulHcient fall can be had. It has like-
wile feveral other applications in the pradtice of fpring-
draining, as may be leen in fpeakiug of implements or con-
trivances of this nature. See Level.

Scarcely any thing can be done, in this or any other
mode of draining, nor even in irrigating or watering land,
without the ufe of a proper level of fome kind or other.

SpiiltiC-Drtiining Pump, that fort of contrivance of the
pump kind, which is made ufe of for the purpofe of dctcft-

ing

SPRING.

ing and alcertaining the nature, fituation, and direftion of
under-ground fprings and colledl'oiis of water, as well ar^ in
fome meafure, the nature and pofition of the different fub-
llrata in land, before the work of cutting and forming the
drains for taking off the injurious wetnefs is begun. It is
conftrufted of copper, in the pipe form, m a very neat,
fimple, and cheap manner, fo as to admit of being put down
into the ground in holes formed by the boring-auger ; and
by being made to be wrought as a pump, is capable of
fliewing the prefence of water, where the pred'ure of it in
the higher grounds above is not fufficient to force it up
through the auger-holes, which is the cafe in many inftances.
The nature and direftioii of the under-ltrata are, in fome
degree, found in boring and putting the pump down through
them. It is the invention and difcovery of Mr. Wakefield,
who has been long much engaged in the praftice of drain-
ing in feveral different places and parts of the kingdom. See
SPRlUG-Drainitig.

This is a contrivance which, with the boring-rod, would
feem to be capable of being of very great importance in
the bufinefs of Ipring-draining, as tending, by the facility
and certainty which it affords of difcovering and pointing
out the nature, exiftence, and lines of fprings, before any
thing is done, to prevent a great deal of unneceffary labour
in cutting at random, as has hitherto moftly been the cafe,
and thereby fave much ufelefs expence to thofe who are
under the neceffity of having fuch works performed. The
utility of chefe contrivances is more fully fhewn under
the head alluded to above.

SemtiG-Draining Bricks, the feveral different kinds, forms,
and (hapes of bricks which are contrived for this ufe, and
which differ from thofe of the common fort employed
in building purpofes. They are of many different defcrip-
tions. Thefe kinds of bricks are moftly well calculated for
forming drains which are to carry off the water coming
from fprings, as a large extent of land may often be ren-
dered dry by no very great quantity of fuch materials ; but
they are not fo well fuited for drains which are to remove
water which Itagnates on the furface of land, though they
are occafionally made ufe of for that purpofe. They fome-
times form hollow paffages for the water to run along, as in
ftiff foils ; but in fuch as are foft they are made to form a
fort of pipe or cylindrical paffage for the fame, by being
laid one upon the other. See SpRiNG-Z)rain.

SpRrNG-jB<jf, a term applied to that fort of bog or
boggy wetnefs which is caufed by fprings, in contradif-
tinftion to that, or the fwampy wetnefs, which proceeds
from the ftagnation of rain or other water upon the furface
of land where thefe prevail in land-locked fituations.

Springbogs are, for the moil part, more confined than
thofe of the contrary kind, but they are fometimes equally
extenfive with them.

^VRisa-Brlnc. See SALT-Brine Spring.

Spring, Elater, in Phyfus, denotes a natural faculty, op
endeavour, of certain bodies to return to their firft itate,
after having been violently put out of the fame by com-
preffing, bending them, or the like.

This faculty philofophers ufually call elajiic force, or
elcylicity.

Fkas only jump to excefllve heights by means of a
fpringy membrane, eafily vifible by a microfcope ; and of
which we liave a curious figure in Dr. Hooke's Micro-
graphia. By the elaltic force of this fpring they are en-
abled to leap two hundred times the height of their own
body. See Fj.f.a.

Nature has provided for the regular fowing of the feeds
ai feveral kinds of plants, by furnilhing them with a fpring,

which is wound fometimes round the outfide, and fometimes
round the mfide of the cafe in which the feeds are contained.
See Semination.

Spring, in Mechanics, is any elaftic body, commonly of
fteel properly tempered, and formed in various ways, ac-
cording to the purpofe it is intended to anfwer, whether it
be for giving motion to a machine, or for equalizing and
modifying motion derived from fome other agent. Springj
are alfo introduced into inftrumeats, called fpring fteel-
yards, for afcertaining the weights of bodies, as well as
having various other applications, which it would be ufe-
lefs to enumerate in this place.

Confidering, therefo.-e, the numerous ufes to which this
kind of force may be dirc£led, it muft appear very remark-
able that fo little is known of the true principle of the
adion of fprings, and of the laws by which their powers
are regulated ; we know, indeed, of no regular fet of ex-
periments, that have yet been made, which are at all ade-
quate to reducing their operation to correft mathematical
principles.

Dr. Hooke feems to have been the firft writer who un-
dertook experiments on the aftion of fprings, with a view
of drawing from them general conclufions, and by this
means to introduce them into the theory of rational mecha-
nics : and the refult which he thus obtained, was his cele-
brated law *' ut tenfio fie vis," the tenfion is as the force :
a law which fome fubfequent experimenters have ftated to
be correift, while others of confiderable eminence have de-
nied its accuracy and agreement with experiment in nume-
rous cafes. The fad, therefore, feems to be, that in
fprings of a certain form, and ivithin certain limits, the prin-
ciple is juft ; but that others of different form, and in all,
when the force is very confiderable in regard to the ftrength
of the fpring, it does not apply : and, confequeatly, that
much ftill remains to be done before the aftions of different
fprings can be admitted to form a part of theoretical me-
chanics.

Dr. Jurin, by adopting the principle above referred to,
viz.. " the tenfion is as the force," fucceeded in rendering
the adion of fprings fufceptible of mathematical computa-
tion. See Phil. Tranf. N^ 472. p. 46 ; or vol. ix. p. 19.
of Hutton's Abridgment.

This paper certainly difplays great ingenuity, and would
be of confiderable utility, provided the hypothcfis there
affumed were perfedly corred ; and even as it is, although
a different law may have place between the fpace through
which the fpring is drawn or compreffed, and its refiftance,
the fame principle of inveftigation muft ftill be preferred ;
and it may, therefore, be confidered as the foundation on
which the true theory muft be raifed, after a fufficient num-
ber of experiments has been made to affure us of the cor-
red law of their adion, not merely within the narrow limits
contemplated by the founder of the hypothefis, but through
all degrees of compreffion and extenfion, ftiort of that which
deftroys their original elafticity. We fhall therefore offer
no apology for exhibiting a concife view of the principal
theorems and dedudions of this ingenious author.

Dr. Jurin commences his memoir with a few neceffary
definitions ; as the

Length of a fpring, which is ufed to fignify the greateft
length to which a fpring can be forced inwards, or drawn
outwards, without prejudice to its elafticity. He obferves,
this would be the whole length, were the fpring confidered
as a mathematical line ; but in a material fpring, it is the
difference between the whole length, when the fpring is in
its natural fituation, or the fituation it will reft in when not
difturbed by any external force, and the length or fpace it

takes

1

f\

SPRING.

tskes up when wholly comprefl'ed and clofed, or when
drawn out.

Strength or force of a fpring is \ifed for the leaft force or
weight which, when the fpring is wholly compreflcd or
clofed, will reftrain it from unbending itlelf. Hence alfo
the force of a fpring bent, or partly clofed, is ufcd for the
leaft force or weight which, when the fpring is bent
through any ipace lefs than its whole length, will confine
it to the Hate it is then in, witliout fuffering it to unbend
any farther.

We have before Itatcd, that the principle which this au-
thor aflumes is, that if a fpring be either compreired or
ftretched by any external force, its refiltance is proportional
to the fpace by which it is removed from its original and
natural fituation. Thus, fuppofe, for inllance, a fpring
(P/rt/^ XXXVIII. Mechanics, fg. 6.) C L, refting with the
end, L, againll any moveablt- fupport, but otherwife lying in
its natural fituation, and at full liberty ; then, if this fpring
be preded inwards by any force, p, or from C towards L,
through the fpace of one inch, and can be there detained
by that force, p, the refinance of the fpring and the force,
p, exaftly counterbalancing one another ; then will the force
2 p bend tlie ipring through the fpace of two inches, ■^p
through three inches, ^p through four inches, &c. The
ipace, C /, {fig- 7-) through which the fpring is bent, or
by which its end, C, is removed from its natural fituation,
being always proportional to the force which will bend it
fo far, and will detain it fo bent.

And if one end, L, be fadened to an immoveable fup-
port {Jig. 8.), and the other end, C, be drawn outwards
to /, and be there detained from returning back by any
force, p, the fpace, C /, through which it is fo drawn out-
v/ards, will be always proportional to the force, p, which i$
able to detain it in that fituation.

And the fame principle holds in all cafes, where the
fpring is of any form whatloever, and is in any manner
whatfoever forcibly removed from its natural fituation.

It may be here obferved, that the fpring, or elailic force
of the air, is a power of a different nature, and governed
by different laws from that of a material fpring. For fup-
pofing the line L. C {Jg- 6.) to reprefent a cylindrical
volume of air, which by compreffion is reduced to L /
(Jig. 7-), or by dilatation is extended to L / {Jig. 8.),
its elailic force will be reciprocally as L / ; whereas the
force or refiftance of a fpring will be direftly as C /.

This principle being premifed. Dr. Jurin gives us a ge-
neral theorem concerning the atlion of a body llriking on
one end of a fpring, while the other end is fuppofcd to red
againll an immoveable fupport. And left any ojijeftion
(hould be fcrmcd ngainft the poflibiiity of an immoveable
fupport, fince any body, how great foever, may be removed
out of its place by the leaft force, he obfervcs, tliat the ob-
jeflion may be eafily removed. Thus, if the fpring L M
(Jig. g.) be fuppofed continued to N, fo that L N ;=
L M, if a body M, with any velocity in the dirediion
M L, llrikes one end of the fpring, and a body N, at the
fame time, with an equal velocity, and a contrary direftion
NL, ttrikes the other end, N, of the cuutiiiucd fpring,
the point L, the end of the firft fuppofed fpring, will be
immoveable.

Theorim. — If a fpring of the ftrength P, and tlie length
C L {fig- lo.), lying at full liberty on an horizontal plane,
rell with one end, L, againft an immoveablf fupport ; and
a body of the weight M, moving with ihe velocity V,
in the diredlion of the axis of the Ipring, Itrike direftly «in
the other end, C, aad thereby force the fpring inwardi.

or bend it through any fpace C B ; and a mean propor-

tional, C G,

be taken between the line CL x -j^, and

2 a, a being the height to which a heavy body would af-
cend in vacuo, with the velocity V ; and upon the radius
R = C G, be erefted the quadrant of a circle G F A :
then,

1. When the fpring is bent through any right fine of
that quadrant, as C B, the velocity, v, of the body, M,
is to the original velocity, V, as the cofine to the radius;

that is, 1. = V X -^ .

2. The time, t, of bending the fpring through the fame
fine C B, is to T, the time of a heavy body's afcending
in vacuo with the velocity V, as the correfponding arc to

2 a ; that is, / = T

GF

After demonftrating this propofition, the author pro-
ceeds to draw from it feveral curious corollaries, which, for
greater fimphcity, he divides into three dillinifl claffes, ac-
cording as they appertain to the following cafe? : vix.

Cafe I — When the fpring is bent through its whole
length, or is entirely comprcffed or doled, before the mov-
ing force of the body is dellroyed and its motion ceafes.

Cafe 2. — When the moving force of the body is con-
fumed, and its motion ceafes before the fpring \i ben{
through its whole length, or wholly clofed. And

Cafe 3. — When the moving force of the body is ex-
panded, and its motion ceafes at the inllant that the fpring
is bent through its whole length, and is entirely clofed.

We (hall enumerate a few of the moft interefting corol-
laries in each of thefe claffcs, premifiiig firft, that P =
ftrength of the fpring, L = its length, V :=z the initial
velocity of the body clofing the fpring, M = its mafs, ; =
time fpent by the body in clofir.g the fpring, A = height
from which a heavy body will fall in vacuo in a fecond of
time, a = the height to which a body would afccnd in
vacuo with the velocity V, C = the velocity gained by the
fall, m =: the circumference of n circle, whofe diameter
is I.

Case i. Cor. — When the fpring is Lent through any
right fine, C B, (Jg. 10.) the lofs of velocity is to the
onginal velocity, as the verfed fine to the radius ; or V —

Gf .

■D = V X -_ -, where v is the prefent, and V the original

velocity.

2. When the fpring is bent through any fine, C B, the
diminution of tlie fquare of the velocity is to the fquare of
the original velocity, as the Iquarcol the fine to the fquare

CB'

of the radius ; that is, V — v'' = V- X -wr-

3. When the fpring is bent llirough any fpace, /, the ve.

body is equal t
/ 2M a - pi

r , , , ■ . ■,, / 2MLa - P/'
locity, V, of the body is equal to V x .. / ^ . .

or to V X * /

2 Ma

4. The time, /, of bending the fpring through any
fpace, /, is proportional to the aic, G F, divided by ^/ a ;

I being

SPRING.

2MLa , .
/ being the right fine of the arc, and R = — = — being

the radius.

Case 2. Cor. i. — If the motion of the body ceafe
when the fpring is bent through any fpace, /, the initial
velocity is

2. If the motion of the body ceafe when the fpring is
bent through any fpace /, the time, t, of bending it is

/ = I" X

\/2PA'

or < = i" X

x/:

M/

2 \/ 2rA 2 V 2/ A

where m = 3.1416, viz. the circumference of a circle to
diameter i.

3. In the fame cafe, the time of bending the fpring is

. , /ML /M/ J .. L ^
proportional to i / —5—, or to * / ; and it — be

giyen, t will be as y M ; and if both — and M be given,

t will always be the fame, whatever be the original velocity,
or through whatever fpace the fpring is bent.

4. If the motion of the body ceafe when the fpring is
bent through any fpace, /, the produft of the initial
velocity, and the time of bending the fpring, or V /, =

mC I
1" X — V-, and is proportional to /, the fpace through
4A

which the fpring is bent.

Hence, any two of the three quantities, V, /, and /, be-
ing given, the other is readily determined.

5. In the fame cafe the initial quantity of motion M V

Case 3. Cor. i. — If the motion of the body ftriking
the fpring ceafe, when it is wholly clofed, the initial vclo-

city V = C./-?A.

' V 2MA

/PL

2 . The initial velocity V is proportional to -i / -^=-.

y M

3. If PL be given, either in the fame or in different
fprings, the initial velocity V is reciprocally as ^ M.

4. The produft of the initial velocity, and the time fpent

f^ T

in clofing the fpring, or V t, — i" x ^;andispro-

4A
portional to L, the length of the fpring.

5. The initial quantity of motion, or M V, =
P /PLM

6. M V is proportional to ^/ P L M, or to P /. And
if P L be given, either in the fame or different fprings,
M V is as v' M.

P
7- If jj be given, either in the fame or in different

fprings, the initial quantity of motion is as the length of
the fpring into the time of bending it.

8. If a quantity of motion, M V, bend a fpring
through its whole length, and be confumed by it, no

other quantity of motion equal to the former, as n M

V
X — , will clofe the fame fpring, and be wholly confumed
n

by it.

9. But a quantity of motion, lefs or greater than M V,
in any given ratio, may clofe the fame fpring, and be wholly
confumed in clofing it ; and the time fpent in clofing the
fpring will be refpeftively lefs or gjreater, in the fame given
ratio.

C PL

I o. The initial vis viva, or M V', = — ; and 2 a M

2 A

= PL.

11. The initial vis viva is as the reftangle under the
ftrength and length of the fpring : that is, M V is as
PL.

P

12. If -p be given, the initial vis viva is as P', or as L'.

13. If the vis viva M V' bend a fpring through its whole
length, and be confumed in clofing it ; any other vis viva,

equal to the former, as n' M X — , will clofe the fame

n

fpring and be confumed by it.

14. But the time of clofing the fpring by this vis viva

V .
«■■ M X — » will be to the time of clofing it by the vis
n~

viva M V", as « to I.

15. If the vis viva M V" be wholly confumed in clofing
a fpring of the ftrength P, and length L ; then the vit
viva n'MV will be fuffictent to clofe, l, either a fpring
of the ftrength n' P, and length L ; 2, or a fpring of the
ftrength n P, and length n L ; 3, or of the ftrength P,
and length n'' L : 4, or if n be a whole number, the num-
ber n'- of fprings, each of the ftrength P, and length L,
one after another. We may add, that it appears from hence,
that the number of fimilar and equal fprings a given body
in motion can wholly clofe, is always proportional to the
fquares of the velocity of that body. And it is from this
principle that the chief argument, to prove the force of a
body in motion to be as the fquare of its velocity, is de-
duced. See Force.

The theorem above-mentioned, and its corollaries, will
hold equally, if the fpring be fuppofed to have been at firlt
bent through a certain fpace, and by unbending itfelf to
prefs upon a body at reft, and thereby to drive that body
before it, during the time of its expanfion : only V, in-
ftead of being the initial velocity with which the body ftruck
the fpring, will now be the final velocity with which the
body parts from the fpring, when totally expanded.

It is alfo to be obferved, that the theorem, &c. will hold
equally good, if the fpring, inftead of being preffed in-
wards, be drawn outwards by the aftion of the body. The
like may be faid, if the fpring be fuppofed to have been
already drawn outwards to a certain length, and in reftor-
ing itfelf draw the body after it. And, laftly, the theo-
rem extends to a fpring of any form whatever, provided
L be the greateft length it can be extended to from its
natural fituation, and P the force which will confine it
to that length. See Phil. Tranf. N° 472. fed. 10. or
vol. xliii. art. 10.

Spring is more particularly nfed, in the Mechanic ArtSt
for a piece of tempered ft.eel, put into feveral machines to

give

S P R

S P R

give them motion, by the endeavour it makes to unbend
ttfelf.

In watchej it is a fine piece of well-beaten fteel, coiled up
in a cyhndrical cafe, or frame ; which, by ttretching itfelf
forth, puts the wheels, and the whole movement, in motion.
See Fusee, and Watch.

The fpring of a watch is prepared by forming a very
thin plate of fteel into a double ring, bending it round with
wire, and putting it into a proper furnace, in order to
give it a fuitable degree of heat. When that is acquired, it
is taken out, and dropped into a kettle of oil, or warm
mutton fuet, in confequence of which procefs it poflelTes
a degree of hardnefs, very little inferior to that of glafs.
After this it is reduced or let down, if the fteel be of a
proper kind for the purpofe, to a fine violet or blue colour ;
in which ftate it becomes exceedingly elaftic, infomuch, that
to make it ftand bent, it muft be brought into a very acute
curve ; nor can it eafily be brought, by twifting horizon-
tally, to alter its form, without endangering its being bro-
ken to pieces. But as it afterwards requires to be planiftied
by the hammer, filed, and pohftied, it is again deprived in
a confiderable degree of its elafticity : and, therefore, when
it has received its laft polifli, it mutt again be blued upon
a brafs plate over a lamp, by which means its former elafti-
city is perfeftly reftored. Dr. Hooke, in his Microgra-
phia, fays, that this blue covering is owing to the fine ful-
phur, prefled through the pores by heat, and fixed by the
ambient air in a fine vitrified lamina upon the furface. See
Steel.

The fpring of a lock, piftol, or the like, is a piece of
fteel violently bent, which beats back the bolt, or ftrikes
down the cock, when fet at liberty.

SPRlUG-Arior, in a IVatch, that part in the middle of
the fpring-box, about which the fpring is wound or turned,
and to which it is hooked at one end.

Spring-^ojc, the cylindrical cafe, or frame, that con-
tains within it the fpring of the watch.
SpRitiG- Compares. See Compasses.
SfumG-Rings, in Rural Economy, the large ring con-
trivances of the ftrong fpring kind, through which the reins
pafs in ftables, in order to prevent horfcsfrom being injured
by being entangled in them. They have a different form
from the rings which are commonly employed, and arc fixed
in an immoveable manner to the items, (hanks, or parts,
which fcrew into the wood and hold them faft. The
fprings in them are fo contrived, as that tlie reins of the
head-italls can be flipped into and out of them with great
eafe and facility. They are a very ufeful and fafe fort of
ring contrivance, for this purpofe, in many cafes, efpecially
where horfes are reftlefs, and much liable to the above kind
of accidents. The expence of them is not great, while
the fecurity which they may afford is confiderable. They
are equally necefiary and beneficial in farm Itablcs as thofe
of the faddle-horfe kind. See Stable Rmgt for Stalls.

SpniNG of the jlir, or its elaftic torce. See Air and
Elasticity.

Sprino, in a Ship, is a rope paft'ed out of one extremity
of a ftiip, and attached to a cable proceedmg from the
other, when (he lies at anchor. It it ufually performed to
bring the (hip's broadfide, or battery of cannon, to bear
upon fome diftant objeA : as another (hip, or a fortrefs on
the coaft, &c.

Spring is likewife a rope reaching diagonally from the
ftern of a (hip to the head of another, which lies alongfide
or ahrcaft of her, at a (hort diftance. This is generally
performed to make one of the (hips (hcer off to a greater
diftance from the other ; or to make merchant-(hip« lie uni-
VoL. XXXIII.

formly in the fame tier. Springs of this fort are, therefore,
occafionally applied from a (hip to a wharf or key, for the
fame purpofe. Falconer.

Spring a Leak, To. See Leak.
Spring the Luff, To. See Loof.
Spring a Majl. See Mast.

Spring, To, in Military Language, is to give vent to any
combuftible matter upon which gunpowder principally afts
by the power of explofion. Hence the phrafe to fpring
globes of compreffion, &c. wh'ch are frequently uled for
the fame purpofes with (Icy-rockets, &c. to ferve as fig-
nals when any fudden attack is to be made.

Spring, To, is alfo to ilep forward with a certain de-
gree of elafticity.

Spring the Firelock, To, is to bring it brilkly up to any
ordered pofitioii, e. g. in the recover.

Spring Up, a word of command occxfionally ufed, and
fignifymg the fame as double up ; fometimes ulcd fingly, as
fpring ! particularly to light infantry men.

Spring, Cear. The cear is a piece of hardened iron or
fteel in a guii-lock, which moves on a pivot, and the point
of which is received in a notch cut in the tumbler, and the
other end is afted upon by the trigger. The cear fpring is
a fmall fpring, which throws the cear into tlie faid notch,
when the piece is at half cock or full cock.

Spring, Feather, the fpring of a gun-lock beneath the
foot of the hammer, called likewife hainmer-fpring.

Spring, Main, the fpring of a gun-lock, which operates
on the tumbler, and gives force to the cock.

Spring, Ver, in Cofmography, denotes one of the feafons
of the year ; commencing, in the northern part< of the world,
on the day the fun enters the firft degree of Aries, which is
about the twenty-firft day of March, and ending when the
fun leaves Gemini.

Or, more ftriftly and generally, the fpring begins on the
day when the diftance of tlie fun's meridian altitude from the
zenith, being on the increafing hand, is at a medium bet v/ en
the greatelt and leaft. The end of the fpring coincides with
the beginning of fummer.

Spring is the feafon in which plants vegetate and grow
with the moft force and luxuriance. Late fprings are, how-
ever, in general, the moft beneficial to the farmer, and occa-
fionally to the gardener.

In fuch fprings as are late in their appearance, there is,
for the moft part, lefs danger in the climate of this country
of the crops of different kinds fiiffering from the checks and
injuries which they may receive in them., than in thr>fe which
are early, as the changes in them arc moftly much lefs fre-
quent, and at the fame time mucli left, fevcre.

Fruit-trees of various kinds are often greatly injured in
the formation and piodudion of their fruit iiy earl.' Ipriags.
This is particularly the cafe with the almond, the apple,
the plum, and the cherry-tree, as well as with the goofe-
berry-bu(h, and fome others. Tlie peach, the nectarine,
and fome other fine fruited trees, are alfo fometimes much
injured in their fruiting by early fpring", as where tliey are
planted again ft walls or palings, in the open ground m ex-
pofed fituations.

Gardcn-cropci of m.nny different kinds not unfroqiicntly
fuffer greatly from enrly fprings ; whole crops of particular
forts beine, in fome iiiftances, nearly dcftroyed, as ie not
fcldom the cafe, in fuch feafons, in the firft fown onion, pea,
and fcveral other kinds of culinary crops.

Spring Crops, in Agriculture, fuch as are put into the

ground in the fpring lealon of the year, as oats, barley, lome

forts of wheat, and different other crops. Sec tlicic heads.

Spring Food, that fori of food, whether of the turnip,

4 L rye,

S P R

rye, tare, rape, cabbage, preferved grafs, artificial grafs,
natural grafs, or any other kind, which is made ufe o.f for
live-ftock, efpecially (heep, in the fpring feafon.

Spring Garden, that fort of ornamental garden which
is chiefly defigned for the introdndion of all forte of curious
early buddine; and flowering trees, fhrubs, and flower-plants,
in the intention of afFordinjr beauty, variety, and cffeft.

Gardens of this nature (hould be fuitably fituated fome-
what contiguous to thofe of the winter kind, being con-
nefted with them and the refidences by fuitable walks of
the gravel kind, fo as that they may be gone into at any
feafon or period without inconvenience. The ground or
foil for them ihould be of the more light, friable, and dry
kind, and be fo fituated as to be well expofed to the in-
fluence of the fun, being completely fheltered on the
northern fides, fo as to prevent the blafts from that quarter
having any injurious effefts on them. They fhould alfo
have fome fort of neat ornamental ereftion in them for con-
lainintf the heaths, the auriculas, and different other tender
early flowering plants.

Gardens of this fort have a fine effeft in many fituations,
when well laid out and managed. See Parterre.

Spring Grafs, a term fometimes applied to the fweet-
fcented vernal or meadow-grafs, from its being fo forward
or early in its growth. See Antiioxanthum odoratum.

It alfo fignifies the grafs of any kind that fprings early
in the fpring feafon, and which affords the firft. bite for live-
ftock of any fort.

Spring Sowing, fuch fowings as are performed in the
fpring feafon, as that for fpring wheat, oats, barley, and
many other crops. See Sowing of Seeds.

Spring Sowing, in Gardening, comprehends all thofe
fowings which are made at that feafon of the year, efpe-
cially for any fort of general feed crops, as thofe of the
pea, bean, and fmall feed kinds. Small flower and other
feeds are put into the ground rt an early period with ad-
vantage, as they are much lefs liable to be injured by iiifefts
in their after-growth, and rife more favourably than where
the contrary is the cafe. The fame is fometimes the cafe with
fmall grafs feeds fown in the field. See Sowing of Seeds.

Spring Tare, a term ufed to fignify that fort of tender
tare, which is fown and cultivated in the fpring feafon for
fummer ufe, in contradiftinftion to the winter tare, which is
ufually fown in the autumn, and Itands the feverity of the
winter feafon. See Take.

Spring Tide is the inci eaCng of a tide after a dead neap ;
or the periodical excefs of the elevation and depreffion of
the tide ; which fee.

Spring Wheat, that fort of this kind of grain, which is
capable of being fown or put into the ground in the early
fpring feafon, and cultivated or grown with the fame or greater
fuccefs and advantage, than the common kind. It has been
ftated by fir Jofcph Banks, that real fpring wheat, the trilicum
afiivum, or fummer wheat of the botanilts, is a grain too tender
to tland and bear the fnifts of the winter in this climate, but
as quick in its progrefs from its firft fliont to riper.efs, as bar-
ley, oats, or any other fpring corn. See Triticom.

The writer of the trail on the refult of an Inquiry into
the nature and caufes of the blight, the ruft, and the mil-
dew, which have affefted the wheat-crops on the borders
of England and Scotland, has fuggedcd, that common or
winter wheat requires the moft expenfive culture, being
generally put into the ground in the autumn, and ufually
requiring eleven months before it arrives at maturity ; that
confequrntly the returns from fuch a fpecies or fort of grain,
fhould be more lucrative than when fpring corn of this
kind IS raifed, which, after remaining only about four

S P R

months in and on the ground, is then in a projjer ftate to be
cut down. Nor is the difference in point of produce fup<-
pofed to be fo very material, as to render it indifpenfably
neceffary to exclufively cultivate winter wheat, with a view
to profit ; and, indeed, it would appear, it is faid, that in
feveral other refpefts, it would be defirable to grow a con-
fidcrable quantity of fpring wheat in this kingdom, as being
better calculated for the different foils and fituations in dif-
ferent parts and places, as being lefs liable to difeafe, and as
furnifhing a moit important refource in cale there be reafon
to apprehend that the autumn or winter-fown wheats may-
become unproductive, or of a bad quality.

It is well known, that in (ome parts of the kingdom it i*
the praftice to fow winter wheat in the fpring, feldom, how-
ever, it is fuppofed, later than the month of February, or
the middle of March, and haveoccafionally good crops from
it ; and it is underftood, from the moll refpeClable autho-
rity, that though the winter wheat fown in the fpring is at
firlt later in ripening than the fame fort fown in autumn, yet
that this difadvantage, in regard to becoming ripe, leffens,
when the crop of wheat of that fort which was fown in the
fpring, is fown again in the fucceeding fpring. Winter
wheat fown in fpring thence acquires a tendency, it is faid,
to earlier maturity, if refown in the fpring ; but from an ex-
periment which was tried in the county of Middlefex, it
does not appear, that when fown in the autumn it becomes
ripe earlier than common winter wheat. But Uill, it is ad-
mitted, that it does not ripen quite fo foon as wheat fown
in autumn, nor as real fpnng wheat, nor can it be fown fo
late in the feafon. An intelligent farmer, it is faid, flates the
difference between real fpring wheat and winter fpring-
fown wheat, at three weeks ; which is a molb material ad-
vantage in favour of the former. But as we have a fpecies
or fort of wheat which is peculiarly calculated for fpring
culture, why, it is aflced, Ihould we endeavour to force an-
other fort to alter its nature and properties, and to grow and
acquire maturity in a fliorter] period of time than nature
intended ? And if confiderable quantities of wheat too can
be fown in the fpring, with perfedl fafety and fuccefs, why,
it is alfo aflied, fhould we confine our Lent or fpring crops
of grains to oats and barley ? It is fuggelted, as being alfo
underltood by the fame writer, on refpeftable authority,
that the fpring-fown wheats were, at one time, getting out
of ufe or fafhion in France ; but that they were foon under
the ncceffity of again returning to them as an effential fource
of fupply.

In this place we may then (hortly confider the hiftory,
nature, qualities, ufe?, and advantages of it, as well as the
forts of land and expofures moll fuited to its growth, and
the means by which the feed of it may be the beft and mofl
readily procured ; leaving the methods of its cultivation,
growth, application, and other points and circumftances, to
the head wheat, to which indeed they as well as it properly
belong. See Wheat.

Spring, or this fort of wheat, is fuppofed, and with great
probability, to have been originally produced in Sicily, where
it is known, it is faid, under the name ofTumenia, a corruption
u{ Trimenia, or three months' gram. It is alfo much culti-
vated in Barbary, in Spain, in Portugal, in France, in Ger-
many, and in almofl all the corn countries, with the exception
of this country, where, on account of the immenfe con-
fumption of malt-liquors, barley is more in demand, than
where wine is the common beverage of tlie people. The
former of the above writers confiders it as well known over
all parts of the continent of Europe, and to be much ufed
and employed in cultivation in France, where it is called B/e de
Mars, from the feafon in which it is ufually fown ; and in fome

province*

S P R

S P R

provinces of that traft of country Bleds-tremo'ts, from the time
it takes between feed-time and harvtit ; that in Spain, it ia
called Trigo de Miirxo ; in Portugal, Trigo Tremes ; and in
Germany, Sommer IVhaitxfn ; according to the lanc^uages of
the different countries ; all of which names are faid to mark
in a diftnift manner the difference between this and the winter
corn of the fame fort. It has alfo been aflerted on the fame
authority, that fpring wheat may be fown in autumn, and that
if it (hould fnccecd, it will produce a beautiful fample, but
that as it is, like barley, a tender plant, a fcverefroll will kill it.
Some have, however, fuppoled it to be a native of fome part
of Tartary, but it is evidently the produftion of a warm cli-
mate, fuch as that noticed above. It has been claffed by
Ray, and probably others, as a dilHnft fpecies or fort of
wheat. In regard to its introduftion into this country, it is
commonly believed to have been introduced or brought into
it about the year 1773, or probably a littlp earlier, under
the names of Siberian wheat, Switzerland wheat, or ble de
Mars, as above. It is faid, however, to have been mentioned
by Harnfon, an hiftorian in the time of Elizabeth, though
he reprcfents ft as having been then only known to a few
hufljandmen or farmers.

It has alio been faid that fpring wheat was known to the
Romans as a fpecies or fort diftindl from the common
autumn or winter kind, and defcribed as fuch by Columella,
who confidered and believed it very acceptable to the farmer,
when, in confequence of floods, rains, or other fimilar
caufes, the autumn or winter wheat was prevented from
being fown or put into the ground by him. And that the
Rev. Mr. Dickfon, in his " Hufbandry of the Ancients,"
has likewife confidered it as well adapted to the wet cold
climate of Scotland, where, on account of heavy rains, and
other caufes, the farmers are not unfrequently reftrifted in
regard to the quantity of autumn or winter wheat that can
be fown or got into the ground.

The writer firft noticed has, however, remarked, that it
does not appear from the older books on hufbandry, that
it was at any former period much grown or cultivated in
this country ; and that the more modern ones are in general
filent on the fubjeft of it : they mention, indeed, under
the name of fpring wheat, every kind of winter wheat
which will ripen when fown after turnips in the month of
February ; but little or nothing- is faid on real fpring wheat.
This, it is conceived, is probably the reafon why the real
fpring wheat has been fo htlle known, the cultivators of
land in general conceiving themfclves to be adtually in the
habit of fowing fpring wheat, when, in reality, tliey were
o;ily lubftitutiiig winter wheat in its place, have been little
mclincd to inquire into the properties or qualities of the
real fpring wheat, when they had an opportunity and the
means of io doing.

The inquirer already noticed dates, on the authority of
an intelligent correfpoiident, that above thirty years ago,
the emprefs Catharine font a bufhcl of fpring wheat to his
majefty, which the king gave to Mr. Ducket, the cele-
brated farmer of Efher, in the county of Surrey, who cul-
tivated it for fome time, and fold a number of bufhels from
it for feed. Notwithltanding which, not a vellige of it
now, it IS faid, remains in all that neighbourhood. On
which, it may be obferved, that, as coming from Ruffia, it
might not be the bed fort of fpring wheat, of which there
are fo many varieties, as will be leen below : that a fmall
quantity, thus accidentally introduced into a dillrift, might
get into improper hands, and be given up from thought-
lednefs or inattention : that the dideience of price between
wheat and barley, coniideriiig the difference of produce,
was then fo incoiitiderable, as to induce farmers to give

up the culture, not only of fpring, but even of winter
wheat : and that the introduftion of many other ufeful
objefts and praftices, befides that of fpring wheat, has at
firft many obftacles, difficulties, and impediments to contend
with. The late Dr. Walker, in a work noticed below,
has likewife obferved that this fort of wheat, or the true
fummer wheat, as he calls it, ii; a grain very little known
in this country, though much crown in the northern parts
of France, as well as in Jerfey, Guernfcy, and in other places.
It was tirft brought into Ayrfhire, in Scotland, from the
ifland of Jerfey, by John, earl of Loudoun, during fpring, in
the year 1766. And that, on being fown in a heavy clayey
foil, and upon one of a more early kind, in the former on
the 7th of April, and in the latter on the 4th of the fame
month, it was reaped or cut down on the 26th of September
in the firll cafe, and on the 4th of the fame month in the
lalt. In both inftances, it afforded ten Linlithgow bolls of
wheat, which are above forty Wincheller bufhels, upon the
Scotcli acre. When the grain was weighed, a boll of it
was found to be only two pounds lighter or lefs than a
boll of winter wheat.

Spring wheat of the true kind, though fown fo late a*
near the middle of May, ha.; been found to become ripe at
the fame time with the autumnal or winter wheat, and that
there is no benefit gained by early fowing with it, as that
which has been put into the ground in April, has become
ripe as early as that fown in the beginning of the preceding
month. In its growth, it is faid by fome that it does not
tiller in the manner of common or winter wheat, but fhoots
up and advances immediately and direftly from the moment
of its appearance above the furface of the ground. The
grains or corns, which are fmaller than thofe of the common
winter wheat, become larger and finer by being grown on
better and more fertile land. It is fuppofed to fucceed
well on low fenny forts of land, which are apt to be flooded
during the winter feafon : and that it is highly deferving
of being tried in the mountainous parts of Derbyfhirc,
Yorkfhire, Lancalhire, and fome other northern diitrifts,
where little or no wheat is fown, the fituations and ex-
pofures being too cold and open for wheat fown in the
autumn to ftand the feverity of the winter frofls, thaws,
and rains, without perifhing and being deilroyed. It hat
been noticed, that though, under particular circumftances,
fpring wheat, when lately tried, has not always anfwered
perfettly well, yet that in many cafes it has fucceedcd to
a with, and that it is now the prevailing hufbandry in an
extenflve diftridl in the county of Lincoln : that the growth
of wheat has become more important and effential than ever,
fince it has become fo much more generally ufed as food :
and that the price now fo much better and more fully rewards
the induflry of the grower or hufbandman. All thefe
circumftances being taken into full coniidcration, no fub-
ftantial reafon can, it is thought, be affigned, why fpring
wheat fhould not be railed in every diftriA of this country
which is calculated for the growth and cultivation of fo
important a national refourcc in this fort of grain, and
without the poffeflion of which, it is indeed thought that
this country cannot be permanently independent of foreign
fupply.

The writer of the above Inquiry Hates, that there are, it
is faid, about fifty varieties of fpring, or this fort of wheat ;
but that the kind or variety belt known in this country
has awns like barley, and hence that it u fometimet known
under the name of rough or IrardfJ wheat. Tito pickle or
grain in it is red ; but it has not to bold or full a fample
as winter wheat, yet it weighs better ; it is conJequently
preferred by all honeft millers, who know its nature and
4 L 2 value.

S P R

valuf, as the perfons engaged in this bufinefs are now moftly
beginning to do. Some" farmers mix it with different pro-
portioiij of winter red wheat, as the red Lammas, which
refembles it fo much in colour, that they never fail to profit
by the praftice, as it increafes the weight of the mixture
more than it diminiihes the quality of the fample ; and be-
fides renders it more produftive at the mill. The propor-
tions employed are ufually about one half, or rather lefs
than that quantity, in fuch mixtures. The average weight
of fpring wheat is moftly about fixty pounds the bufhel.
The bread made from the flour of it is, it is faid, fweeter
than that from winter corn of the wheat kind. And that
it is likewife more nutritious, as containing a larger propor-
tion of gluten, or half animalized matter, in its compofition.
The bread is alfo allowed to be more palatable, it is faid,
to thofe who are in the habit of conitantly eating it. In
proof of its greater power of nourifhment and fupport, the
analyfia of fir Humphrey Davy has lliewn, that it has more
gluten or real nutrient matter in it, when 'compared with
other grains of the fame kind, than in good winter wheat,
in the proportion of twenty-four to nineteen in the hundred.
And that in regard to the infoluble matter or part, or the
bran, there is only a difference of two parts more in the
hundred, when compared with good winter wheat of this
country. Confequently, that the difference in price between
it and fuch wheat, when of equal weight, (hould only be
in that proportion.

The advantages which attend the more general introduc-
tion and growth of this fort of grain or wheat, are partly
of a private, and partly of a public nature. In the former
point of view it is of great importance, it is faid by the
writer of the above inquiry, to have it in the power of the
farmer to raife fo valuable an article as wheat, though fown
late in the fpring, or even in the beginning of fummer. It
■was formerly generally conceived that after turnips, which
was confidered as the bafis of good hufbandry on liglit
forts of land, that barley, including bear or bigg, was almoft
the only crop that could be raifed and grown with advan-
tage, as the fowing of winter wheat in the fpring could
enly be attempted or praftifed in a partial manner. But
it now appears that fpring wheat may be raifed and grown
with as much eafe and facility, and with more profit, than
the inferior forts of barley, too great a quantity of which
is grown at prefent, fince the exportation of grain has been
cheecked and reftridled, and fuch enormous duties laid on
malt. But here is a refource, it is faid, which, if aided by
a prohibition of foreign wheat from being imported, unlefs
at augmented rates or prices, would always enable the
farmer or grower, where his fituation and the nature of his
land are fuited to the cultivation of it, to proceed in his
tifeful and induftrious career with proper inducement,
energy, and fpirit,

A Itill further moft important circumilance in favour of
fpring wheat is, that, it is faid, of its not only being exempt
from the blight or mildew, but alfo of its not being hable to
any rl(k of damage or injury from the grub or wire-worm :
and this is a matter which is not to be attributed to the nature
of lands or feafons ; for the farmers of the extenfive traft
or diftrift of country known by the name of South Hoi-
land, in the county of Lincoln, in which there are various
kinds of land, uniformly declare, that they were compelled,
many years ago, by the frequent attacks of the blight and
mildew, to abandon almoft entirely the fowing of winter
wheat, and to fublUtute fpring wheat in its place or ftead.
That fpring wheat is not liable to the difeafe of blight or
mildew, has alfo been lately (hewn by a field of twelve acres,
which wa» totally, it ie faid, exempt from that difeafe, in a

S P R

diftrift where every other field was in a moll roiferable
ftate or condition with it. In the correfted account of the
" Agriculture of the County of Effex," it is ftated, how-
ever, that there is an inilance of fpring wheat being mil-
dewed: and that Mr. Bailey, of Chillingham, itates, in z
letter to the writer of the " Inquiry," that fpring wheat,
fown in the month of March, was affefted with the mildew,
while the fame fort, fown on the 2d, the 3d, and the loth
of May, efcaped ; alfo, that fome fpring or bearded wheat
of the laft crop, fuffered from that diforder where it wa»
thick on the ground, probably owing to the want of air ;
for where it was thin, it efcaped. The writer of the " In-
quiry," however, conceives, that a few exceptions cannot
overturn a general rule, which was recognized above a cen-
tury ago in the " Syftema Agricultura," printed in the
year 1681, and which repeated experience has fince fanc-
tioned. They, however, fufiiciently prove that it is not
wholly incapable of receiving the difeafe under particular
circumftances and modes of growth. The authority of the
work quoted is probably of no great confequence, as real
fpring wheat was at that early period but little if at all
known or cultivated in this country. The faft or matter
can perhaps only be fatisfaAorily afcertained and decided
by more full and correft experimental trials than any which
have hitherto been made. It is a very material point in its
favour, however, that it is a vaft deal lefs liable to the
difeafe than autumnal or winter wheat, which is allowed on
all hands.

It ftiould, however, be noticed, that it is liable, as in the
other kind of wheat, to be affedled with the fmut, and
confequently that it muft be carefully waffied, brined, or
pickled, in order to avoid any riik of the difeafe, with a
very highly faturated folution of common fait, in fuch a
manner as to prevent the danger of this fort of infeftion
being communicated in any way, and then dulled over
with quicklime, as has been occafionally praftifed, and as
will be more fully (hewn in fpeaking of deeps and deeping
grain. See Steep, and Steeping Grain. See alfo Smut.

In the latter of the above points of view, the advantages
of raifing this fort of wheat are not lefs important. The
writer of the " Inquiry" dates, that for feveral years pad
we have depended on importation for a part of our food.
We have fent abroad, it is faid, above thirty millions iter-
ling, to enrich and improve foreign countries, the mod part
of them lately in a date of holtility againd us ; and that
fo regular were our demands, that they were led to imagine
that we could not exid without their affidance in this way.
What, therefore, can, it is aiked, be more defirable than to
put an end to fuch a difgraceful dependence upon fuch
nations, which, by the growth and cultivation of fpring
wheat to a confiderable and fufEcient extent, may at once
be completely and effeftually accoinplidied ? It feems to
the writer, indeed, of fuch effential importance, that until
the fydem or praftice is thoroughly cftabifhed, fome legif-
lative encouragement, to increafe the growth and cultivation
of this fort of wheat, would be in the higheff degree ex-
pedient. How much better, it is faid, is it to promote
domedic cultivation and improvement, than to bedow
bounties on the importation of mere tradi, the refufe of
foreign granaries, of which fuch quantities are commonly
fent to this country in times of fcarcity ?

It may confequently be fairly afked, whether the culti-
vation and growth of fpring wheat diould not be confidered
as a national refource of very great magnitude and im-
portance ; and as fuch be drongly inculcated on, and re-
commended to, the attention of the public ? The utility
and confequence of it in this way, in times oft carcity, have
6 indeed

S P R

S P R

indeed been enforced by the firft of the above writers and
others, by obferving that the price of wheat feldom ad-
vances much, even in very Icarce years, until a confidcrable
portion of the crop has been thre(hed out, and the yield of
it by this means afcertained, but that this does not take
place until the feed-time of winter wheat is wholly over and
pall ; no fpeculation, confequently, of fowing an increafed
quantity of that grain, can be entered into, during the firit
year of a fcarcity ; but before the end of April, the quef-
tiou of the average yield of the preceding crop will be
generally known, and when it is much below the ufual pro-
portion, there can, it i« fuppofed, be no doubt, that a large
quantity of fpring wheit will be fown, if the feed can be
eajily procured. And that when there is, in the early
fpring months, any general appearance of defect or defi-
ciency in the autumnal fown crops, from whatever cau*e it
may arife, fpring wheat ought to be fown, in fuch propor-
tion as may fuffice for yielding a produce equivalent to
fuch probable defect or deficiency : and that if the ftock
of wheat on hand fhould prove fcanty, or of inferior
quality, either from mildew or other caufes, there is, on
thefe accounts, a neceiiity to have recourfe to the fowing
of fpring wheat, in order to augment and increafe the
Hock on hand. It is thought more elpecially neceffary
by the writer of the " Inquiry," to promote the cultiva-
tion and growth of fpring wheat in a more general manner,
becaufe, unlefs it be grown to fome extent, no quantity of
feed will be capable of being procured, however neceliary
it may become from the circumltances of the times, as for
inltance, a complete failure of the winter-fown wheat, at
once to increafe the quantity that is to be fown. And
that though fpring wheat may not be fo faleable, in
favourable feafons, as winter wheat, at lealt in the metro-
polis, and its immediate neighbourhood ; yet as it can be
raifed in various pans of the country, where winter wheat
will not grow ; and as it may be applied to different ufeful
purpofes bcfides the article of bread ; there is no reafon, it
18 fuppofed, why the cultivation of it (hould not be pro-
moted. It \i always a refource which can be reforted to
in times of fcarcity, with much more advantage to the
country than importing foreign grain, to the difgrace, and
it might almoft be added, it is faid, to the dellruftion of
the agriculture of this country. There are fome, however,
who think foreign wheats more valuable and ufeful than
thofe of this country, as will be feen in fpeaking of
wheat. See Wheat.

It is faid, that it has been objefted to the grain of this
fort of fpring wheat, that it is of a hard and flinty quality ;
but that our millers find no difficulty in grinding it ; and it
is well known, that the harder and more flinty the pickle,
the belter and livelier is the flour. The moll flinty wheat,
it is remarked, may be ground with facihty, when properly
damped. And that the French, when in Egypt, were
taught by the millers there, to fuffer their wheat to lleep a
few hours in water, and the grain, when afterwards dried in
the fun, was ground without difficulty. In this country,
it is fuggelled that it might be kiln dried, or otherwife,
perhaps, by fire heat.

The fame writer obfervee, it is alfo faid, that barley is
a fafer crop, and that oats would be more profitable. In
regard to fafety, no crop, it is faid, can be more certain
than fpring wheat, when it is fown in a proper feafon, with
good, well wafhed, or pickled feed, in the manner already
ftated, and on land properly prepared for Us reception ; and
as to profit, were a crop of oats to be equally, or even more
valuable, which is far from being the cafe, yet fuch a
fcourger or exhaullcr of the ground could not be recom-

mended, in preference to a crop that does not exhauft or
deteriorate the land more than barley would ; and yet, if
other crops of wheat Ihtuld fail, would be much more va-
luable and ufeful.

In the metropolis, however, it is faid, where they are
accullomed to the finelt wheats, and where fafliioii and
habit render it neceflary to make the bread as white as pof-
fible, this kind of wheat is objefted to as coarfe, thick-
fkinned, and as producing clammy flour. It confequently
finds no favour with the millers in the neighbourliood of
that great city, who, it is faid, in times of Icarcity, would
only buy it in Imall quantities, at a price two-thirds lower
than that of the common forts ; and in years of medium
produce, would not purchafe it, in quantities, at almoll any
price. Ttiis, however, it is f;dd, is altogether owing to
the prejudices and habits of a rich and luxurious capital,
and will not probably influence the relt of the kingdom.
Befides, if it be thought ellential for the public interefl
always to have a confiderable quantity of this fpecics or fort
of corn grown in this country as a nal tonal Tiiourct;, the policy
of which, it is tiiought, would feem unqueftionable, govern-
ment might in various ways promote the fale of tins fpring
fort of wheat ; as, by permitting the exportation of it, when
the price is ten fhillings the quarter lels than that of other
wheat ; by reflrifting the manufafture of tlarch to the ufe
of it, if it can be employed in that way ; by permitting the
confumption of this fort of wheat in the dillilleries, while
a prohibition exifts as to other wheats ; by making all the
bifcuiti for the navy of it alone, as it feems pecuharly
well fuited for that ufe ; and probably by different other
means.

It is ftated, it is faid, that thefe advantages cannot be
given to fpring wheat, becaufe it is impoffible to dillin-
guifh it "from coarfe or partially mildewed winter wheat ;
but fome rifl< mull be run, the writer thinks, to infure fo
great a public objedl and advantage as a regular fupply of
food by domejlk induflry. And if fome low-priced or da-
maged winter wheats were mixed with fpring wheat, and
exported, dillilled, or made into ftarch, it is not feen that
any injury or inconvenience from fuch a circumftance would
be fultained by the public. It is better, it is fuppofed, ex-
cept in inllances of dearth and fcarcity, to get rid of in-
ferior wheats in any way, than in bread.

In regard to the forts of land, and the fituations in which
this fort of wheat can be produced, it has been found,
that almofl all the kind?, from the clayey marly defcrip-
tions, to thofe of the light fandy forts, are capable of
affording it ; but that it is obvioully tlie moll fuited to
fuch light lauds as are remarkable for promoting a quick
vegetation and growth in the grain. And it is of great
importance to be known, that land of the fenny kind,
with a bottom of the turf-earthy fort, is particularly
calculated for the growth of this fort of wheat, and that
it riles in a more quick and fpeedy manner on fuch land
than on any other kind. Lands of this quality not being
well fuited to the growth of winter wheat, which is liable
to be thrown out of them by Irofly feafons, oh account of
their lightnel's ; by having all fuch lands, in the different
parts of the united kingdom, fown in fuitable courfes with
fpring wheat, a valt Icarcely calculable advantage, it is
tiiought, would be produced.

It is alfo a matter of very great moment, it is f.iid, that
fpring wheat is capable of being grown in diflferent dillriitls
where winter wheat cannot be railed at all, nor any other
fort of crop of nearly the fame value or importance ; as,
for inllance, in tlie northern parts or Highlands of Scoti.ind,
where they grow an inferior fort of barley, commonly called

heat

S P R

fxrar or iig^, which is now become of little value, in con-
fcquence of the prelTare of taxation ; as, from the quicicnefs
of its growth, it would be the moll likely to anfwer and fuc-
ceed in fnch fituations. Were only one half of the gi'ound
now employed in the growth of bear or bigg crops, it is
faid, appropriated to the raifing of fpring wheat ; it would
furnilh a quantity of this fort of grain, equal to the ufual
average of imported wheat, and any foreign fnpply be un-
neceflary. The propriety of growing fpring wheat in thefe
fituations, and the iflands connefted with them, is ftill more
Wrongly enforced, it is faid, by the high opinion which has
been formed of it by the late Dr. John Walker, profefTor
of natural hiHory in the umverfitv of Edinburgh, in a work
lately publilhed, entitled the " Economical Hillory of the
Hebrides and Highlands of Scotland," which is equally
deferving the attention of the fouthern, as well as the
northern cultivator, though more particularly calculated
for the latter. After noticing the time and manner in
which it was brought into that country, as already fecn,
and the nature of its growth and produce in different forts
of land, it is remarked, that it " will be allowedj that our
common winter wheat could not have afforded fuch a crop,
or indeed any crop in the fame fpace of time. It appears,
therefore, to be a grain better adapted for a northern than
a fouthern climate ; that it might be raifed in many parts
of the fouth of Scotland, where winter wheat is not fown ;
and that of all the different forts of wheat, it is the molt
promtfng to be attempted in the Highlands."

In refpeA to the means of procuring or providing the
feed of this fort of wheat, it has been ftated by fir Jofeph
Banks, in a paper inferted in the fifth volume of Communi-
cations to the Board of Agriculture, that as in the neigh-
bourhood of the towns of Bolton and Spalding in Lincoln-
(hire, the growth and cultivation of it are now fully pftablirti-
ed, and likely to continue ; from either of thefe places, coiife-
quently, the feed may at any time be procured without dif-
ficulty, in fuch quantities as are wanted, even when con-
Cderable ; and that, as there is a water communication be-
tween thefe two places, and as the former is a fea-port, it
may always be brought to the metropolis, or any other
maritime part of the country, at a fmall charge. It may
(Conftantly be had at the above fea-port at the fame or fome-
what lefs prices than winter wheat. And any of the prin-
pipal merchants at it may be depended on for a proper
fcipply. In fmall portions, many of the chief feedfmen in
the metropolis or any large towns can moflly fupply it.

It would appear on the whole, from the account which
has been given of the hillory, nature, properties, ufes, and ad-
vantages, as well as other circumllances in refpeft to fpring
wheat, that a more full and general introduftion of it into
the fyllems and praftices of arable farming, efpecially on
light and fome other lands, where the regular wheat huf-
bandry cannot be carried on, mult be of very confiderable
importance, not only to the interelts of individuals, but to
the nation at large, in affording better and more certain
profits, and at the fame time guarding againft the danger of
fcarcity.

Spring Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.E. coall of
the idand of Barbadocs.

Sphikg IJland, a fmall ifiand near the coaft of South
Carolina. N. lat. 32° 22'. W. long. 80° 57'.

Spring Town/hip, a townlhip of Pennfylvania, in Centre
county, containing 1550 inhabitants.

SPRINGE, or Hallerspringe, a town of Weftphalia,
in the principality of Calenberg, the chief trade of which
Cflnfilts in beer ; i z miles E. of liameln.

S P R

SPRINGER, in Ichthyology, a name given by authors
to the grampus.

SPRINGERS, in Architeaure, the ribs of a groin, or
concentrated arch, which fpring from their refpeftive im-
ports, and meet together in an orb or knot in the centre of
the whole vault. The ribs of the arches were ufually made
of hard ftone, while light toph Hone or chalk was preferred
for filling up the interitices.

SPRINGES, a fort of horfe-hair noofes, made fo as to
run very eafy, and planted in the places where birds run in
fome particular path, to take them as they pafs.

Thofe birds that frequent the waters, or love to paddle
and feed in wet and plafhy places, are the molt eafily taken
by fnares.

The fportfmen who would ufe them to advantage, mud
firft carefully fearch out the haunts and places where the
fowls come in flocks, or in couples, and feed in the morning
and evening hours. The furrows and water-tracks in thefe
places are principally to be regarded ; and wherever the
feveral furrows, or water-courfes, meet in one, and after-
wards divide into feveral others, thefe places are to be re-
marked above the relt : the places which have molt marks
of the birds' feet, give alfo the furell of all proofs, that they
are well frequented. When thefe places are found, there
(hould be placed a number of fmall and fliort Iticks crofs-
wife athwart all the other paffages, one Itick being placed
about half an inch from another, and making together a kind
of fence, guarding every way, except that one through which
it is intended the fowls (liould pafs. This being done, a
good ftiff (lick is to be provided, cut flat on each fide ; both
ends of this Hick are to be planted under water, fo that the
upper part of the flat fide may only be upon a level with the
furface ; then a bow is to be made of hazel, or willow, m
the form of a pear, broad and round at one end, and nar-
row at the other, and at lealt a foot long, and five or fix
inches wide : at the narrow end of this there is to be a nick
or dent. Then a iliff young grown plant of hazel, elm, or
withy, is to be chofen, being bulhy and alear, and without
knots, three or four inches about at the bottom, and about
an inch at the top. Having made the bottom end of this
Iharp, at the top of it there muft be faftened a very Itrong
loop, made of about a hundred horfe-hairs, platted very fait
together with ftrong packthread, and made to flip any way
with great eafe. This noofe or loop fhould be jull of the
dimenfions of the pear-fafliioned hoop before-mentioned.
Then hard by this loop, and within an inch of the end of
the plant, there is to be faftened, with ftrong horfe-hair, a
broad and thin trigger, made fharp at both ends. Then the
bigger Iharp end of the plant being made fall in the ground,
jull by the edge of the water, the fmaller end, with the loop
and the trigger, mull be brought down jull to the firlt
bridge; and the pear-falhioned hoop being fet upon the
bridge, one end of the trigger muft be let upon the nick in
the hoop, and the other end on the nick made on the fmall
end of the plate, which by the violence and bend of the
plant will make them all ftick together till the hoop be re-
moved. This done, the loop is to be laid upon the hoop
in fuch falhion as the hoop is proportioned ; then from each
fide of the hoop little Iticks are to be pricked, as before
direfted, making as it were a kind of impaled path-way,
widening it all the vvay as it goes farther from the hoop, and
making it fo confiderably wide at the end, that any fowl
that chances to come that way may be entered a confi-
derable way in before flie perceives the fence ; by this,
means the bird will be enticed to go ttraight on to the
fpringe, and as foon as (he touches it, either with head or
feet, fhe will be certainly caught ; and thus, if the plant
2 be

S P R

S P R

be ftrong enough, the largelt bird may be caught an eafily
as the lead.

When the fmaller fowls, that frequent watery places, are
to be taken by this engine, it is to be made only a great
deal (lighter. When it is intended for fnipes, woodcocks,
or the like, the main plant may be of willow, hazel, or grown
ofier, or any other pliant wood that will eafily bci;d, and will
recover its ftraightnefs again. The ule of this engine is
limited to the winter feafon, and to times when there is much
wet upon the ground. If there happen any great frolts,
fo that there is no advantage to be made of the wet places
firft defcribed, then the fportfman is to look for fome place
where there is a confiderable fall, and where the current
is not frozen, and in this place the Ipriii^es are to be fet ;
and the greater the frolls are in this cafe, the more birds
will be taken.

There is another ufe of fpringes for birds, which is the
taking, by means of them, certain birds on the boughs of
trees and m hedges, which is often attended with very great
fuccefs. The fportfman, for this purpofe, mull tirll mark
fome tree where the birds very much reforl ; then fix on
fome particular branch that is tolerably llraight, and cutting
off all the twigs to within a foot or two of the top, he is
there to bore a hole through the branch with a piercer or
wimble, large enough to admit a goofe-quill. Then an-
other branch is to be pitched upon, at about a foot dillance
from the firft, and all its boughs are to pared away up to a
certain height. There is to be fixed to this branch a pack-
thread of half a foot long, and at the end of this is to be
tied a noofe of plaited horfe-hair. The branch to which
the packthread is fattened is then to be ftooped fo far, that
the noofe may be brought through the hole in the other
branch, and fattened there by means of a little ftick four
fingers long, and hooked at the end juil fitting the hole, and
fo brought into it, as juft to flop the flying back of the
other branch. Then there is to be placed beyond the noofe
fome bait of a fruit, or infeft, as a cherry, a pear, or a worm,
or any other thing of which the bird, intended to be taken,
is known to be fond ; this is to be fet hi fuch a manner,
that the bird can no way get at it but by fetting its feet on
the fmall ftick which fupports the noofe and ftops the hole.
The weight of the bird will throw down the Itick, and the
bird will then be caught by the legs, and tied fall to the
branch where the hole is, by the flying back of the other
branch where the packthread is faftciud.

There is yet another method in ufe for the taking many
kinds of birds, from the partridge or pheafant to the
black-bird. This is made in the following manner, and is
to be placed either on the ground, or on a tree, bulh, or
hedge, according to the nature of the bird intended to be
taken by it. A ftraight and even piece of willow, or fallow,
is to be chofen, of about fix feet long, and of the thickriefs
of a walking cane ; this is to be Iharpened at one end, and
(luck down into the ground, and at the other end there is to
be faftcned a fmall crook ; then two holes are to be made
in the ftick, the one big enough to admit a goofe-quill, the
other fmaller : and a piece of llick is to be chofen, which
being bent, will fpring back to its Uraightnels again. Inch
as holly, or the like : this Ihould be about three feet long,
and the larger end of it is to be fixed in the larL'er hole of
tiie firft ftick ; the fmaller end mull have faftcned to it a
paektlirt-ad, at the end of which there is a noofe of horfe-
hair : this is to be broujiht through the Imaller hole, ard
be pegged in fo (lightly, as juft to prevent its flying back
of itfelf. Then the fpringe or noofe is to be fpread on the
peg, and a bait, proper for the bird to be taken, is to be

placed at a proper diftance ; fo that the bird cannot come
at it but by treading on the peg, which will give way under
its weight, and the ftick, to which the packthread it faf-
tcned, will fly back, and the bird will be confequently
caught in the noofe, and have Us legs drawn clofe to the
other ftick.

.SPRINGFIELD, the ^aggavan of the Indians, in
Geography, a poft-town of America, in the llatc of Maffa-
chufetts, and county of Hampftiire, on the E. fide of Con-
nefticut river ; 97 miles W.S.W. of Bofton. This town-
Ihip was incorporated in 1645, ^"'^ contains 2 767 inhabit-
ants, a congregational church, a court-houfe, and a number
of dwelling-houfes, many of which are fpacious and elegant.
The town lies clnefly on one fpacious ftrcet, running parallel
with the river. A ftream from the lulls, at the ealtward
of this town, falls into this ftreet and forms two branches,
which run in oppofitedireftions, one northerly and the other
foutherly, along the eaftcrn fide of the ftreet, (upplyingthe
inhabitants with a lupply of water for domellic ufes. This
place has a confiderable inland trade, with a paper-mill,
arlenal and armoury. — Alfo, a town of New Hamplhirc, in
the county of Cheftiire, containing 8 1 4 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Wijidfor, on the W. fide
of Connefticut river, oppofile to Charlelb.wn in New Hamp-
fhire, containing 2556 inhabitants. — Alfo, a polt-townfliip
of New York, at the northern extremity of Otfego county ;
58 miles W. of Albany ; its area being equal to about fix miles
Iquare. Its furface is undulated with liilh ard vallies, and
well divided into arable, meadow, and grazing lands. The
foil in the vallies is principally a deep rich mould. It has
feveral mill-ltreams ; three houfcs tor worftiip, one for Pref-
byterians, one for Congregationahlls, and one for Baptifts ;
and twelve or thirteen fchool-houles. In 1810 it contained
1846 inhabitants, principally compofed of Englifti, Irifli,
Dutch, and Scots emigrants. It derives its name from a
large, deep fpring. — Alfo, a town of New Jerfey, in the
county of Ellex, on Rah way river, which furniflies fine
mill-feats ; 8 or 10 miles N.W. of Elizabeth town ; con-
taining 2360 inhabitants, ot whom 45 are (laves. — Alfo, a
poft-town of New Jerfey, in Burlington county, having
good foil, and famous for its chcefe. The inhabitants, who
are principally Quakers, having three meeting-houfes, amount
to 1500. The bufinefs is chiefly tranfafted at a village
called Job's Town, 10 miles from Burlington. In this
townfliip IS a hill, called mount Pilgah, which turnilhes ftone
for building. This townlhip has a grammar-lchool. — Alfo,
3 townlhip of Pennfylvania, in Montgomery county, con-
taining 550 inhabitants. — Alfo, a towiilhip of Pennfylvania,
in Bucks county, containing 1287 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
townfliip of Pennfylvania, in Delaware county, containing
541 inhabitants. — Alfo,a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in Hun-
tingdon county, containing 751 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town-
(hip of Pennfylvania, in Mercer county, containing 330 in-
habitants.— Alio, a townlhip of Oliio, in the county of Cham-
paign, containing 598 inhabitants. — Alfo, a poft-town in
Hampftiire county, Virginia, 140 miles from Wafliiiifrton. —
Alfo, a poll town in Walhington county, Kentucky, 629
miles from Walhinv;lon. — Alio, a townlhip <it Ohio, in the
county of Columbiana, containing 601 inhabitants — Alfo,
a townfliip of Ohio, in the county of H.Tniiltoii, containing
2063 inhabitants. — Alio, a townfliip of Ohio, in Jel-
ferlon county, containing 746 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town-
fliip of Ohio, in the county of Miilkingum, containing
919 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfliip of Ohio, in Portage
Lounty, containing 510 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfliip of
Ohio, in Rofs county, containing 972 inhabitants. — Alio, a

town

S P R

S P R

town of Kentucky, in Waftiington county, containing 249
inhabitants. — Alfo, a polt-town in Robertfon county, Te-
neflee, 763 miles from Wafliington.

SPRINGHILL, a townihip of Pennfylvania, in Fayette
county, containing 1837 inhabitants, of whom nine are
flaves. — Alfo, a townfhip of the Indiana territory, in the
county of Clark, containing 1107 free inhabitants and feven
flaves.

SPRINGVILLE, a townfhip of the Indiana territory,
in the county of Clark, containing 1380 free inhabitants and
13 flaves.

SPRINGY or Elastic Body. See Elastic Body.

Springy Land, in jigrtcullure, fuch as is fubjeft to the
breaking forth of fmall oozing fpringe. It is a fort of
ground very troublefome to the farmer in the cultivation,
as requiring much draining, and other management, to ren-
der it proper for cropping. See Draining of Land, and
Soil. See alfo SpRiNG-Z)nj;Wnf.

SPRINTZNSTAIN, in Geography, a towrn of Auftria ;
7 miles S. of Aigen.

SPRIT, in jigriculture, a term fometimes made ufe of
to fignify a young fprout or {hoot, as in the cafe of new-
fown grain of any kind. Thus, new-fown corn is often
faid to be juft fprit, by the farmer. It alfo denotes, in
fome cafes, fprouted corn ; as that which is grown or fprit
in the Iheaf or (travv, in the field, from moift weather.

Sprit, in Sea I,anguage, is a fmall boom, or pole,
which erodes the fail of a boat diagonally, from the malt to
the upper hindmoil corner of the fjil, which it is ufed to
extend and elevate : the lower end of the fprit refts in a firt
of wreath or collar, called the Jkotter, which encircles the
maft in that place : fails of this kind are accordmgly called
fpritfalh. See Sail.

SPRITSAIL, a fqnare fail ufed under the bowfprit.

SpRirsAlL-To/>/ail, a fqnare fail ufed under the jib-boom,
but is no longer to be fiipplifd in the navy.

SPRITTING, in Agriculture, a term applied to the aft
er procefs of germinating, fprouting, or fliooting forth,
either in the work of vegetation, or the operation of malt-
ing barley, or other kinds of grain. It is of much confe-
quence, in both thefe cafes, that the procefs takes place m
a proper manner; as, without it, neither good and perfeft
field feed-crops nor malt can be produced. In moiil or wet
harvell feafons, the fpntting of the grain, or other matters,
in the flieaf or ftoiik, in the field, is often of much injury,
inconvenience, and lofs to the farmer, and (hould always be
guarded againfl as much as poflible, by proper ftouking,
hutting, mowing, or fome other means in fuch a fuuation.
See Harvesting Grain.

SPROD, among the fiihermen of many parts of Eng-
land, a name given to the falmon while in his fecond year's
growth.

SPROE, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Denmark,
fituated in the Great Belt. Veflels which pafs the Great
Belt in winter are often obliged to fhelter here, though
there is only one farm on the ifland. During winter the
poll regularly Hops here ; and an ice-boat, conJufted by
five men, is provided for the convenience of padengers, let-
ters, &c. ; 8 miles N.W. of Corfoer. N. iat. 55° 22'. E.
long. 10° 59'.

SPROTTAU, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Glogau, on a river of the fame name, at its conflux with
theBober; 21 miles W.S.W. of Glogau. N. Iat. 51° 32'.
E. long, if 32'.— Alfo, a river of Silefia, which runs into
the Bober, at the town i.f Sprottau.

SPROUT, in Agriculture and Gardening, the common

name of the young fhoot, offset, or fucker, which is thrown
or fent off" from any part of a vegetable of the plant, tree,
or (hrub kind.

Fruit-trees and flirubs, which are defigned for produftion,
mult conftantly be kept pretty free from thefe forts of
fprouts, ftioots, and fuckers, or their capability of affording
good fruit will be much lellened and rellrifted. This is
particularly the cafe in the goofeberry and currant flirubs,
which fcarccly produce any at all, where they are let re-
main. See Offset and Sucker.

In hedge plants, however, the fending off numerous
fprouts or flioots from the inferior and bottom parts of their
roots and Hems, is often of very confiderable utility, in
rendering the lower portions of the fences more thick and
clofe, where it does not too much injure the growth and
ftrength of the plants which are made ufe of for the pur-
pofe, as is fometimes the cafe. See Hedge and Quickset
Hedge.

In the praftice of gardening, fprouts or fljoots are occa-
fionally, though not frequently, employed for raifing new
crops of vegetables of the fame kind as the original plants.
This is fometimes the cafe in the cabbage, and a few other
fimilar kinds, as well as in fome forts of tree and ftirubby
plants.

But though the flips of the fprouts or ftioots, in the cab-
bage tribe of plants, will readdy take root and grow, when
planted out while they are in a young ftate, they are only
proper to be made ufe of in this way in an occafional man-
ner, in particular cafes and circumftances ; as, for inftance,
in planting them for feed in any particularly good and
valuable fort. In which cafe, fome of the beft flips of the
fprouts, ill the more early crops, may be taken off, on the
approach of the autumnal feafon, and be planted out in
rows, at the diftance of about two feet from each other,
giving them frequent waterings at firft, when they will take
root and grow fo as to eltablifli themfelves in a ready man-
ner, (hooting up to form feed-Items in the enfuing Ipring,
from which feed of the molt perfeft kind may be coUefted
and fecured.

The fprouts, fuckers, and flioots, of plants of the tree
or flirub kinds are, m lome cafes, flipped off and ufed in
railing young trees and flirubs of the fame forts as the ori-
ginals, with the greateft certainty, and in the moll eafy and
expeditious manner. In fuch intentions, the flips or (hoots
are, for the moll part, taken off in the early (pring, or to-
wards the autumn, and planted out in rows in the nurfery
grounds, at fuitable diftances, according to their nature and
habits of growth ; or placed in pots, to be fet out in the
open ground, or to be forced forward by the heat of the
hot-beds, in the Itoves, hot-houfes, frames, and other (imilar
compartments of the garden. They are afterwards, as foon
as they have ftricken or taken full root, in many cafes, re-
moved and put out in different ways, according to circum-
ftances, and their particular nature and habits, as is (hewn
in fpeaking of the culture of the different forts, under their
proper heads.

Sprouts, Efculent, the fine, fmall, young, tender, green
flioots, which are fent off and produced from the fides or
other parts of different kinds of culinary vegetables or
plants, and made ufe of as human food at different periods
and feafons of the year. There is a great number of gar-
den vegetables which afford fprouts of this nature, and fome
in confiderable abundance as crops for this purpofe ; as
thofe of the hrtijjtea tribe in particular, as feen below.

In lome herbaceous efculent plants the young fprouts are
excellent eating, as in the cabbage kinds, and feme others,

affording

S P 11

S P R

affording a very profitable after-crop. The fprouts pro-
duced on the Italk;! of the early-cut cabbages often alfo
cabbage into tolerable little firm heads towards autumn, in
the fugar-loaf cabbage particularly, and other forward
kinds ; producing abundance of fine fprouts in fummer,
which, being gathered while young and green, conftitute
feme of the moll excellent culinary greens of the feafon.
Likewife forward favoys, being cut early in autumn, the
remaining italks produce fine large fprouts the fame year,
fit for ute in the early part of winter : later crops of the
fame plants produce alfo abundance of fmall fprouts in the
fpring ; and the borecole is remarkable for its great pro-
du6lion of fprouts towards fpring, emitted all along the
fmall Hems from the very bottom to the top : alfo, purple
brocoli never fails to produce a fecondary crop of excellent
fprouts, furnilhed with little tender heads.

In the culture of all the varieties of the cabbage kind, it
is proper, therefore, after gathering the main heads, to
leave a quantity of the (talks of the bed and more forward
crops, of the refpe6tive iorts, to produce fprouts ; and if,
towards autumn or winter, and other feafons, the ground
(hould be wanted for other crops, the ilalks may be removed,
and trenched in by the roots in another place, not in a (hady
bye corner, as often prattifed, nor placed too clofe, as the
fprouts would, in fuch cafes, prove fmall and trifling, and
be liable to be eaten up by flugs ; but in an open iituation,
in rows a foot afunder : in which method the fprouts will
continue their growth in much greater perfection, though
probably not in fo good condition as if the Italks had re-
mained undillurbed.

As the Italks of cauliflowers and cauliflower-brocoli
rarely produce any fprouts, it is needlefs to leave them
itanding on the ground, alter their heads have been cut from
them.

The fprouts of this kind which are produced in the fum-
mer and autumnal feafons are by much the fined, and con-
tinue the longell in perfection ; yet, though the fpring
fprouts may be of a fmaller fize, and continue a much fliorter
time before they run up for producing feed, they are, not-
withltanding, often found highly advantageous, ufeful, and
acceptable at fuch a feafon, on account of the great defi-
ciency of other forts of green vegetable produfts, and for
the variety which they afford at the table.

All fprouts of this nature, and for this ufe, fliould con-
ftantly be plucked or taken off from the ftems of the old
plants while they are in their young, full, and early growth,
in order that they may boil in a green and tender manner ;
as they are liable to become hard and dicky, when left to
an old date of growth, and are not by any means fo fale-
able in the market.

Spuouts or Shoots of Potatoes, Planting of. Tliefe are the
fprouts, fiioots, or rur.ning branches, which are fcnt off from
them in their early growth. Such young fprouts or fhoots
have lately had different experiments made with them, by
which it has been fliewn, that they are capable of being ulcd
with advantage in raifing crops of this very neceffary root,
in fome cafes. In Sullex, the carl of Egremont, according
to tlie writer of the corrected account of the agriculture
of that didridt, has taken much intcred in trials for raifing
them in this way.

In regard to the method of breaking off the fprouts or
fiioots from the potatoe', there is no realon, it is faid, to
be apprehenfivc liow or in what manner they are taken od ;
and if the fprouts dr flioots, alter they have been leparated
from the potatoe, be put into a balket, and have a little
earth thrown over them, they will keep in this date, it is
aliened, if not immediately wanted, for months. The

Vol. XXXIII.

kidney potatoe, after its fecond cropping, is noticed to de-
creafe in the number of its fprouts or Ihoots. No fort is
fuppofed to equal the red cinder kind. The early kidney
comes up before any other fort ; the cluder is the next ;
and the ox-noble the lad. The cluder throws out more
fprouts or fhoots than any other kind, even fo far as up to
thirty at a time.

The fprouts or fhoots are planted promifcuoufly from one
to fix or feven inches in length. Until the third or fourth
month after planting, the fprouts or fiioots have, it is faid,
but a (mall apple, not above the fize of the end of a per-
fon's finger ; but afterwards they wonderfully increafc their
fize. Hence it follows, it is fuppofed, that the eye, hav-
ing a greater and more fubdantial root to fupport the vege-
tative power of the plant, comes eafier to perfection ; but
that the fprout or fiioot, though dationary at fird, will in
the end more than equal the other in produce ; and if to
this be added the faving of feed, the advantage will be (till
more confiderable.

Hence it is faid, that it may be inferred, that this method
of cultivating the potatoe, which is practifed at Petworth,
in the above county, with fuccefs, merits the attention of
farmers, and probably of garden cultivators alfo. For an
early market it is the only method, it is thought, of raifing
them ; and befides, the feed and expences of cutting are
faved.

It has been long known that the potatoe is capable of
being readily raifed by planting the fprouts or fhoots, and
recourfe has, for a confiderable length of time, been had
to it, in fome mealure, for the production of early crops, in
the county of Lancader.

The want of fubdance in the fprouts or (hoots would
feem to be a great objeftion to the fprout manner of raifing
potatoe crops, as there mult be a deficiency of fupport in
the early growth of the plants which conditute fuch crops ;
as it has been found that even fmall cuttings, where the eyes
are preferved, are not fo good for raifing full crops, on ac
count of their want of fubltance, as thofe of large ones ;
and fcooped eyes, as fets, have now almod been wholly re-
jected by cultivators, in confequence of their defeft of fub-
dantial nutrient matter for the fupport of the young plant
in its fird or very infant growth. The matter remains,
however, to be fully cleared up, and placed in a decided
point of view, by more full and more corredt trials made
direftly in this intention, as the fprouts or flioots are un-
quedionably the natural modes in which the plants arc railed.
See Potatoe and Solakum.

Sprout-/////, a name fomctimes given to the ant-hill.
See Ant-//;//.

The moll ready way of removing fprout-hilU is probably
by frequent heavy rolling of the land, immediately on their
fird appearance. The turning of a dream of water over the
ground, where it can be conveniently done, may alfo fomc-
times perhaps be efte£tual in the fame intention. There arc
different implements and machines which perform this fort of
work in a very complete, expeditious, and effectual manner,
that may be had recourfe to £or the purpofc. See SwARU-
Cutter, and Striking AnI-hUl MaMne.

SPROUTING, the germination or firft fending forth
of youg fprouts from feeds, cuttings, or plants.

The fprouting and early growth of almod all forts of field
and garden feeds and plants are greatly promoted by placing
them to proper depths, in properly dry and fuit.ibly rich foils
and (Ituations, as well as by a nice attention to their cul-
ture, while they are in their young rifing date or condition.
'J'his is particularly the cafe in the latter forts of feeds and
plants.

4M SPRUCE,

S P u

SPRUCE, EJence of, a fluid extrad, prepared by coc-
tion of the twigs of the wild pme or Scotch fir. See PiNUS
Sylveftris.

SpRUCE-5«r, a beverage made of the effence of Ipruce,
fermented with fugar or molofles and water.

Spruce, in Gengraphy, a fmall American lake of New
Hampfhire, near Chefterfield.

Spruce Crak, an American creek, which winds its
courfe through tlie marfhes from the mouth of Pifcataqua
river five or fix miles to Kittery, in York county, Maine.

SPRUNT, in Rural Economy, a term figuifying a fteep
road, or one on which there is much difficulty in paffing
with teams, and which requires great exertion in them.

SPRY, in Agriculture, a name fometimes applied to the
flat broom which is ufed with the calling (hovel, in the
operation of cleaning grain, for fweeping off the chaffy ma-
terials that coUeft in the work.

Spry Harbour, in Geography, a bay on the fouth-eafl:
coaft of Nova Scotia. N. lat. 44° 42'. W. long. 62° 40'.

SPUD, in Agriculture, 3 tool or implement of the fork
fort, with three broad prongs of confiderable ftrength,
which is ufeful for feveral different purpofes. See Hop.

SPUDING, the praftice or operation of digging over
the hop-giounds, by means of the fpud, in different dif-
trifts. This fort of work fhould always be fully, care-
fully, and expeditioufly performed, as a great deal of the
fuccefs of the crops depends upon thefe circumftances.
See Hop.

SPULLERS of Tarn, in our Old Writers, perfons that
work at the fpole, or wheel. It alfo denotes triers of yarn,
to fee if it be well fpun, and fit for the loom.

SPUN-Hay, in the Military Art, hay twilled in ropes,
Tery hard, for an expedition in the winter time ; each
trooper carrying as much as he can behind him.

SPUNGE, or Sponge, Spongia, in Natural Hi/lory, a
kind of marine fubftance, found adhering to rocks, (hells,
fee. under cover of the fea-water, or on the fides of the
rocks about the (hore. See ISpongia.

The ancients dillingui(hed two kinds, male and female :
but the moderns make only one kind ; which, however,
they diftinguifh, with regard to its texture, into coarfe
and ^ne.

Naturalilts have been embarraffed in all ages, whether to
range fpunge in the animal, mineral, or vegetable family.
Some would have it a concretion formed of the fea-mud ;
others have commonly fuppofed it to be a vegetable pro-
duftion : but it is now allowed to be, like the corallines, of
animal origin ; being the fabric and habitation of fome
fpecies of worm or polype.

Dr. Peyffonel has aAually difcovered and defcribed the
worms that form four different fpecies of fpunges, without
having it in their power to dilate and contraft them, as fome
naturalifts have fuppofed ; the fpunges being altogether in-
animate bodies, and infenfible to the touch, or to any motion
of the fea, or any other accident, and formed by the juice
or flaver which is dcpofited by the worms that inhabit them.
Phil. Tranf. vol. 1. art. 78. p. 590, &c.

_Mr. Ellis, to whofe obfervations on produflions of this
kind the public are much indebted, informs us, that if we
carefully examine a fmall part of one of thofe fpunges,
whofe ramifications are large and diftintl, in the microfcope,
we (hall find that they rife from many fmall tubes : thefe, as
they extend themfelves upwards, fond outfide branches in
various direAions, which inofculate, and, uniting thus with
each other, form a compound reticulation quite through the
infide of the whole mafs. In viewing the extremities of the
upper or aft fliooti, we may perceive fmall openings at the

S P u

end of their fibres ; and as vre trace thefe fibres back from
the opening downwards, we fee a foft whitilh fubftance,
which fills the internal hollow part of all the ramifications
through the whole fpunge ; which ramifications have much
the appearance of tranfparent catgut of an amber colour,
and are, without doubt, the lodgments of animals of a par-
ticular clafs. For though wc cannot dillingui(h cither
veficles, or cells, or difcover any other kind of organization,
than that of a hollow tube varioufly infleAed, and wrought
together into a mxiltitude of agreeable forms, fome branched
like corals, fome expanded like a fungus, fome rifiiig up
ftraight like a column ; others broad at top, with a narrow
bafe, and hollow like a funnel, with regular cavities, en-
trances, or apertures, which are nearly alike in all fpungee
of the fame fpecies ; yet, from many obvious refemblances
to divers other claffes of fea produftions, which are found
to be of animal conftruftion, and from the chemical analyfes
of fpunges in general, tliere feems fufficient reafon far re-
ferring them to the clafs of animal produftions. Ellis's
Nat. Hift. of Corallines, &c. p. 78.

Spunge, or Sponge, in Chemf/lry and the Materia Medica,
is the fpongia ojirinalii, for an account of which, fee
Spongia. This fpecies of fpunge is found chiefly in the
Mediterranean and Red feas.

On fome of the iflands of the Archipelago, the inha-
bitants are trained from their infancy to dive for fpunges,
which are generally found attached to the bottom of the
rocks. This fubftance, formerly fuppofed to be of a vege-
table nature, but determined by the obfervations of Mr.
Ellis (fee Phil. Tranf. vol. Iv.) to be of animal origin, has
been, not long ago, examined by Mr. Hatchett, in the
courfe of his valuable experiments on the component parti
of animal membrane. (See Phil. Tranf. vol. xc. p. 352,
&c.) The fpunges particularly examined by this ingenious
chemift, are the S. cancellata, S. oculata, S. infundibuli-
formis, S. palmata, and S. officinalis. When the fpunges
had been immerfed in nitric acid (diluted with three meafurea
of diftilled water) during fourteen or fixteen days, the acid
became pale yellow, and was changed to an orange colour,
by the addition of pure ammonia. After this procefs the
fpunges became more or lefs tranfparent, and were con-
fiderably foftened. In this ftate, if they were touched with
ammonia, the part thus touched affamed a deep orange
colour, inclining to a browni(h-red ; and when much foft-
ened by the acid, (if afterwards immerfed in ammonia,)
they were completely diffolved, and formed a deep orange-
coloured folution. When digefted with boibng diftilled
water, the fpunges afforded a portion of animal jelly or
gelatin (fee Gelatin), which was precipitated by infufion
of oak-bark. In confequence of their lofs of gelatin, which
was imparted to the water, the fpunges became lefs flexible,
and more rigid ; and the remaining part, when dry,
crumbled between the fingers ; or, when moift, was torn
eafily, like vvetted paper. From thefe properties it ap-
pears, that fpunges only differ from the horny ftems of the
gorgonia;, and from the antipathes, by being of a finer and
more clofelv woven texture ; and this is particularly obferv-
able by comparing the coarfe fpunges (fuch as S. cancellata)
with the finely reticulated parts of certain gorgonise, efpe-
cially the gorgonia flabelliim, when diverted of the external
membrane. When the fpunge, either in its natural ftate,
or efpecially when its gelatin has been extraCled by long
boiling with water, is boiled with lixivium of caullic potafh,
it is completely diffolved in it, and forms an animal foap.
Spunge, when heated in a clofe vcffel, gives out an am-
moniacal fetid fmoke, and is reduced to a black charcoal,
which, after incineration, leave* a fmall quantity of com^

jnoik

S P u

S P u

men fait and fome carbonate of lime. The principal con-
Itituents of fpnnge, according to Mr. Hatchett's experi-
ments, are animal gelatin, albumen (which fee), a fmall
portion of common fait, and carbonate of lime. Spunge,
when cleaned and fit for ufc, is of a brownifh-yellow colour,
foft, light, and very porous ; abforbing rapidly by capil-
lary attrattion as much as it can contain of any fluid in
which it is immerfed, and again yielding it when com-
pre'lcd.

Spunge is a very ufeful fubftance in the arts. In its
ufual form it is never employed as a remedy ; but in furgery,
rt is a very ufeful inftrument on various occafions.

A fpunge applied to bleeding veflels has been found a
Tery fucccfsful method of flopping the effufion of blood.
Phil. Tranf. N° 478. p. 33.

For this purpofe, a very dry and folid piece, of a cubical
•r conical form, (hould be applied in clofe contaft with the
veffel, and retained by proper compreifion ; and it will foon
adhere with great force. Very large arteries have been
prevented from bleeding by this application.

Dry fpunge, from its property of imbibing and fwelling
by moilture, is fometimes ufed as a tent for dilating wounds
and ulcers : for this purpofe, after being carefully freed
from the tmall Itones generally lodged in it, it is dipt in
melted wax, and the wax fqueezed out from it in a prefs.
Lewis.

Taken inwardly, it choaks ; and is, for that reafon, cut
fmall, and fried or dipped in honey, and given to quadru-
peds to kill them, which it feldom fails to do, by fwelling
and preventing the pallage of the food into the inteitines.

The officinal preparation of fpunge for medical purpofes
is the " fpungia uita," or burnt fpunge. The London
Pharmacopeia direfts to cut fpunge into fmall pieces, and
to bruife it, that it may be thus freed from any adhering
extraneous fubltance ; then to burn it in a covered iron veffel,
until it become black and friable ; and, lalUy, to reduce it
to a very fine powder. Burnt fponge confilts of carbonate
and phofphate of lime, fubcarbonate of foda, and charcoal.
The principal aftive ingredient is the fubcarbonate of foda ;
but it is aiierted, that a mixt\ire of this principle and char-
coal does not produce the effedts of burnt fpunge. This
fubftance is tonic, deobftruent, and antacid. It has been
much recommended in bronchocele, fcrophulous affcftions,
and hepatic eruptions. The dofe is from _;j to ^iij, mixed
into the form of an eleftuary, with powdered cinnamon and
honey. In bronchocele the patient is dircfted to fwallow
the portion of elertuary very flowly, from a fuppofition that
fome local eifeft is produced. See Bronchocele.

Some have pretended to cure the leprofy with it, and
others extol it againll the bite of a mad dog ; but thcfe lafl
are virtues not un'verfally received.

In fpunges are found a kind of Itones called cyftlolitht,
held good for the worms in young children, and to this pur-
pofe given in powder.

Spungr, in the Manege, is the extremity, or point of a
horfe'a {hop, that anfwers to the heel of his foot ; upon it
tiiecalkuis are to be made. Thick fpunge ruins the horfe's
heels, and therefore ought never to be ufed. See Shoeing
of Horfes.

Spun«ks, PyrotechnkalyVrc made of the large muftirooms
or fungous excrefcences growing on old oaks, adies, firs,
kc. which, being boiled in common water, then dried and
well beaten, are put into a llrong ley, prepared with falt-
pctre, and again dried in an oven.

Thefc make the black match or tinder brought from Ger-
many, ufed to receive and fuftain the Are ilruck from a
Hint and fteel, kc-

Spunge is ufed, in Gunnery, for a cylinder of wood,
from ten to twelve inches long, of the fame diameter with
the rammer, with a piece of llieep or lamb-lkin wound about
its end, to ferve for Icouring great guns when difcharged,
before they be charged with frelh powder ; hence called
fpung'mg. In fmall guns it is commonly fixed to the other
end of the handle of the rammer ; but has a leparate one iu
thofe of a larger calibre.

SPUNGING. See Spunge.

SPUNK, a term ufed indifferently for half-rotten wood,
match for guns, and a fubftance growing on the fides of
trees. See Ag.vuic.

SPUN-YARN, among Sailors, a fmall line or cord,
formed of two or three rope-yarns twifted together by a
winch ; the yarns, of which it is ufually made at fea, are
drawn out of the itraiids of old cables, or other ropes, and
are knotted together, and tarred. It is employed for feve-
ral purpofes, particularly to faften one rope to another, to
feize block-ftrops to the fhrouds, and to ferve ropes which
are liable to be chafed, &c.

SPUR was anciently a piece of the armour of a ca-
valier, fattened to the talary, that is, the hind part of that
piece of a complete armour which covers the legs and
feet.

The word is derived from the German, fpohr ; or rather
the Saxon, fpora ; or Danifh, /par ; which all fignify the
fame.

At prcfent, the fpur is a piece of iron, or other metal,
confining of two branches encbmpafTing the horfeman's heel,
and a rouelle or rowel in form of a ftar, advancing out be-
hind, to prick the horfc.

Louis le Debonnair forbad ecclefiaftics the profane fafhion
of wearing fpurs. Anciently the difference between the
knight and efquire was, that the knight wore gilt fpurs,
whence the appellation of eques auratus ; and the fquire,
filvered ones.

Two forts of fpurs fecm to have been in ufe about the
time of the Conquett, one called a pryck, having only a
fingle point, like the gaffle of a fighting-cock ; the other
confining of a number of points of confiderablc length, ra-
diating from and revolving upon a centre, thence named the
rouelle, or wheel-fpur. Delineations of the firll occur in
the feals of niort of our kings and great barons, prior to the
reign of Edward III., and alfo on the engraved and fculp-
tured figures of crof^-leggcd knights. The rouelle is fome-
times found on figures of equal antiquity ; inftanccs occur-
ring of the fame perfon being delineated with the pryck-
fpur on one leal, and the rouelle on another. Some fpcci-
mens of the pryck-fpur are ilill to be found in the cabinets
of the curious.

Si'Uit, Order of the GoliUn, in Rome, is fuppofed by fe-
vcral writers to have been inftituted by pope Pius IV., in
1559. The badge is a ftar of eight points argent, and be-
tween the two bottom points a fpur or.

Spur, in jigricullure, the name of a vegetable difcafe,
which frequently attacks rye, and which fometimes likewife
damages wheat. It is found that the grains which have the
fpur are thicker and longer than the found ones, and gene-
rally projeft beyond their hulks, appearing (ometimei
ilraii;lit, and fometimes more or Icfs crooked ; and that
their outfides arc brown or black ; their lurface is rough, and
three furrows may fiequently be perceived in them, wliich
run from end to end. Their outward end is always thicker
than that which llicka to the chafl, and the moll fwolleii
end is fometimes fplit into two or three parte. It is not un-
ulual to find on their iurfacee cavities which fecm to have
been made by infeds Further, that when a fpircd grain is
4 M 2 broken,

S P u

broken, in the middle or centre of it is feen a Pretty white
flow" covered with another flower, wh.ch ^s redd.lh or
brown. Thoi.eh this vitiated flower has feme confiltency, it
may neverthekfs be crumbled between the •nge;;^-^ M- A'-
men has fometimes found this powder almolt as black as that
of fmutty wheat. Thefe grains when P"' '" ° /''"^[^
fwim at firlt, and afterwards fink to the b""om It
chewed, they leave a bitter taite on the tongue. The chaft
appears found, though what is outmoll is fomewhat browner
than when the ears are found. But all the grains of the
fame ear are not ever attacked with the fpur. The grains
which have this diftemper (lick leis to the ftalks than lound
grains do. And the above writer imputes the diitemper to
the orains not being impregnated ; and afferts, that he has
not L^er found a germ in grains which had the fpur.

It may be noticed, that it has been fuppofed by fome that
fogs, dews, rain, and the moillure of the earth, may give
the diftemper to rye, but without any fufficient reafon.
M Tiilet is however (Irongly inclined to think that it is oc-
cafioned by an infeft, which turns the rye into a kind of
jfal/j and he fufpefts a fmall caterpillar as being the caufe
of this mifchief, but cannot fpeak affirmatively on this
point. It has been abfurdly fuppofed to affeft thofe who
confume the bread made from grain thus difeafed with a fort
of dry gangrene in the extreme parts of the body. The
nature of this difeafe in grain, hke thofe of many others, is
ftill far from being fully inveltigated, fo as to form any cor-
reft notion of the means of removing or preventing it.

Spurs, in Old Fortifications, denote walls that crofs a
part of the rampart, and join to the town-wall.

Spurs, in Ship-Building, large pieces of timber, the
lower ends of which are fixed ae;ainft the fide of the bildge-
ways, and the upper ends fayed and bolted to the (hip's fide,
to fupport the (hip in launching. They have been much dif-
continued of late years.

Spvn-She/l, a fpeciesof the cochlea.
SPURGE, in Botany. See EUPHORBIA.
SpunGE-Lau«/, or Me%ereon, Launola, or Daphne. See
D.^PHNE, and Daphne Mezenum.

Spurge, Oli-ue, the Engli(h name of a genus of plants,
called by fome botanifts <-ia»«/<rfl; which fee.

Others have made the olive fpurge a fpeciea of euphorbia,
or fpurge. See Euphorbia.

Spl'RGE, Sun, a name by which fome call feveral fpecies
of tithymalui ; which fee.

SpuRGE-i?oo?, in the Materia Medica. See EsuLiE
Radix.

SPURGEN, in Geography, a town of America, in
North Carolina ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Salifbury.

SPURIOUS Diseases, in Medicine, are fiich as, in fome
fymptoms, cannot be brought under any diltintt head, and,
therefore, are called by the name of others with which they
moil agree. Whence, alfo, they are often denominated
ia/Iards, nothi.

Such are a fpurious or baftard pleurify, a Ipurious peri-
pneumony, a baftard quinfey, and the like. See Pleuuisy,
Peripneumo.ny, &c.

Spurious Flejb, is an appellation given by fome to the
fle(h of the lips gums, and that of the glands, &c.
Spurious Medals. See Medals.
Spurious Rils. See Ribs.
Spurious Suture. See Suture.
SPURKETS, in a Ship. See Spirketting.
SPURN Head, in Geography, a cape of England, at
the S.E. extremity of the county of York, at the mouth of
the Humber, on which is a light-houfe, N. lat. 53° 3^''
E. long. 0° 18'.

S P u

SPURNESS, the fouth cape of Sunda, one of the Ork-
ney iflands. N. lat. 59"^ 7'- W. long. 2° 35'.

SPURNWATER, in Ship- Building, a channel left
above the ends of a deck, to prevent the water from coming
any further.

SPURRE, in Ornithology, a name given by many to the
bird more commonly called the fea-fwallow.

SPURREY, in Botany. See SPERGULA.

Spukrey, Corn, ill Agriculture, the common name of a
plant of the weed kind, which is common in many parts and
fltuations. It feldom rifes above fix inches in height, flowers
in the beginning of July, ripens its feed in Auguft, and is
an annual plant. When it is troublefome as a weed, the
beft method of exterminating it is by fummer fallows, and
cutting it down before it can fcatter its feeds, which are

very fmall. r • j i_ i.-

Two fpecies of tliis plant, however, are faid to be culti-
vated in Holland and Flanders, for the winter food for
cattle, when there is a fcarcity of grafs. It is laid to enrich
the milk of cows, fo as to make it afford excellent butter ;
and the mutton fed on it is preferable to that fed on turr.ips.
Hens eat this plant and its feeds greedily, and they are fup-
pofed to make them lay a great number of eggs

It is a plant which is fown twice a year ; the hr(t time in
April and May, to be ready in June or July ; and the fecond
time after the rye-harveft, to ferve the cattle in November
and December. The ufual allowance of feed is about
twelve pounds to the acre.

It is faid, that though not cultivated in the county ot
Berks, it grows there in an abundant manner, and that the
feeds of it might be eafily coUeded in any quantity. The
cultivation of it has been recommended, by way of trial, on
the poor foils about Frilfliam and Yattendon, in the above
diftrift, by the writer of the account of the agriculture of
the county, on the fuggeftion of an intelligent perlon It
is ftated alfo, that Roucel, in his " Flora du Nord de la
France," has confidered it as an excellent late fodder for
cows ; and that it is made ufe of in the above countries, as
well as in Germany, both in its green ftate, and when made

into hay. ^ r

It is likewife fuggefted, that as the knotted fort ot Ipurrey,
though perhaps not equally grateful to animals, naturally
over-runs the peat-pits in the Kennets, in the above county,
it might therefore be fown with certain eftea in fuch
fltuations. .

Spurrey, Purple, an annual weed in dry iandy mea-
dows, and corn-fields of the fame dry quality. There are
other forts which are troublefome m wet hedges and wood-
lands.

SPUR- WAY, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a
bridle, or horfe-way, or road through inclofed lands or
fields, and free to any one to ride in by right of cuftom or
ufage.

SPUR-WING, in Geography, a river of America, m
the ftate of Maine, which runs through Scarborough, W.
of Cape Elizabeth, and is navigable a few miles for veilels ot
100 ton?.

SPUTT, a river of England, in the county of Wefl-
moreland, which runs into the Ken.

SPUTUM, iu Medicine, &c. the fpittle or excrement
voided at the mouth. See Saliva.

An examen of the fputum is of great confequence in
phthifical cafes: and Bennet, in his " Theatrum Tab_ido-
rum," applies himfelf in a particular manner to it. The
fputum fanguinis is a very dangerous fymptom in that
difeafe. g^y,

S Q U

SPY, a perfon paid to watch the aftions, motions, &c. of
another, particularly as to what pafies in an army.

The ufe of fpies is a kind of clandeftine praftice or deceit
in war. Spies are generally punifhed capitally, and imme-
diately when they are difcovered in a camp ; and, fays Vat-
tel, not unjuflly, there being fcarcely any other way to pre-
vent the mifchief they may do. For this realon, a man of
honour, who would not expofe himfelf to die by the hand
of a common executioner, ever declines ferving as a fpy ; he
counts it beneath him, as it can fcarcely be done without
fome kind of treachery. The fovereign, therefore, cannot
lawfully require fuch a fervice from his lubjefts, unlefs in
fome fingular cafe, and that of the laft importance. The
mercenaries are allured to it by great rewards. If thofe
whom a fovereign employs make a voluntary offer, or if
they be not the enemy's fubjefts, or have no connexion
with him, he may unqueltionably make ufe of their fervice,
without offence to juttice or honour ; but it may be aflied,
is it lawful, is it decent, to folicit the enemy's fubjefts to
aft as fpies, and betray him ? Let the following paragraph
ferve as a reply.

If it be adced in general whether it be lawful to feduce
the enemy's men, to engage them to tranfgrefs their duty by
an infamous treachery ? Here we mull diltinguifh between
what is due to the enemy, notwithllanding the ftate of the
war, and what is required by the internal laws of confcience,
and the rules of probity. Now the enemy may be weakened
by all poiGble means, provided they do not affcft the com-
mon fafety of human fociety, as poifon and affaffination.
The feducing a fubjeft to turn fpy, that of a governor to
deliver up his place, does not itrike at the foundation of the
common fafety and welfare of fociety. Subjefts afting as
the enemy's fpies, are not a fatal and inevitable evil, they
may in fome mcafure be guarded againli ; and as to the fecu-
rity of fortreffes, it is the fovereign's concern to choofe pro-
per governors. Thus thefe means are not contrary to the
external law of nations, nor can the enemy complain of
them as odious proceedings. Accordingly, they are prac-
tifcd in all wars. Bat are they jult, and compatible with the
laws of a pure confcience ? Certainly not. And of this
the generals themfelves are fenfible, as they are never heard
to boalt of having praftifed them. Seducing a fubjeft to
betray his country, fiiborning a traitor to fet fire to a ma-
gazine, praftifing on the fidelity of a governor, inticing him,
perfuadmg him to deliver up a place, is prompting fuch
pcrfons to commit deteftable crimes. Is it honell to incite
our moil inveterate enemy to be guilty of a crime ? If
fuch prafticcs are at all excufable, it can be only in a very
ju(t war, and for faving our country, when threatened with
ruin by a lavvlcls conqueror. The guilt of a fubjeft or
general who betrays his prince in a caufe manifellly unjult,
does not appear fo very odious. He who himfdf tramples
upon jultice and probity, dcferves, in his turn, to feci the
effefts of perfidy and wickednefs. And if ever it is ex-
cufable to depart from the ftrift rules of probity, it is
againit fuch an enemy, and in fuch an extremity. Vattel's
JLaw of Nations, b. iii. ch. lo.

Wicquefort lays, an ambalTador is an honourable fpy,
under the proteftion of the law of nations.

SPyCKENS, in Geography, a town in the ifland of
Voorii ; 9 miles E. from tlie Brill.

SPYRUS, the Jung of goats. This is ufually found in
fmall round maffcs, and is recommended by Hippocrates as
a fumigation in the difeafes of the womb.

SQUACCO, in Ornithology, the name of a large bird of
the heron kmd. Its head and neck are variegated with
black, white, and yellow, and it has on the back part of its

S Q U

head a creft of the fame colour. Its back is of a ferru-
ginous yellow, its breail and belly are white, as are alfo its
wings and tail, at leafl in great part, and its legs are green.
It is a bold and fierce bird.

SQUAD, in Military Language, a diminutive of fqua-
dron ; ufed to denote any fmall number of men, horfe or
foot, that are collefted together for the purpofes of drill,
&c. See EscouADE.

Hence, Xo /quad is to divide a troop or company into cer-
tain parts, \n order to drill the men feparately, or in fmall
bodies, or to put them under the direftion and care of
lome Heady corporal, or lance corporal. Each troop ought
to be divided into two fquadj, when under 40, and into three,
or even four, when above this number, with an equal pro-
portion of non-commiffioned officers in each : and when the
eldell is on duty, the charge of the Iquad falls on the next
in the fquad, and fo on. Ricruits fhould always be quar-
tered and fquadded with old foldiers, who are known to be
Heady and well behaved ; and thofe men that are at all ".m-
gular in their conduft, mult be feparated and diltributed ia
fquads which are compofed of good old foldiers.

SciU.\D, ^luktuard, confills not only of recruits at drill,
but of formed foldiers, that are ordered to exercife with
them, in confequcnce of fome irregularity under arms. The
term has hkcwife been ufed, by way of ridicule or reproach,
to mark out thofe officers who are negligent of their
duty.

SQUADRON, a body of horfe, whofe number of men is
not fixed, but is ufually from eighty to a hundred and
twenty men.

The word ia formed from the \x.iX\2.n fquadrone ; of the
Latin J'quadro, ufed by corruption for quadro : in regard,
at firlt, the fquadrons were always fquaie, and called alio by
the Latins agmiua quadrata.

The fquadroM ufually confiits of two troops, and each
troop of about forty men ; a greater number cannot be ad-
vantageoufly polled, nor have room to aft in narrow grounds,
woods, marlhcs, defiles, &c.

The eldell troop takes the right of the fquadron, and
the fecond the left.

Squadron of Ships, denotes either a detachment of fhips
employed on any particular expedition, or the third part of
a naval armament.

The number of fhips in a fquadron is not fixed : a fmall
number of veffels, if they be in a body, and have the fame
commander, may make a fquadron.

If there be a great number, they are ufually divided into
three fquadrons ; and if the fquadrons be numerous, each
fquadron is divided into three divifions, diftinguifhed by
their flags and colours. See Division and Fleet.

SQUAIOTTA, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of
the heron kind. Its beak is yellow, but blackifli at the
extremity ; its legs are green ; its head is variegated with
grey and black ; and its back rcry elegantly with white and
red. It feems to have had its name from its note, which it
often repeats in flying.

SQUAI^L, in Sen Language, a fuddcn and violent blaft
of wind, ufually occafioned by the interruption and rever-
beration of the wind from high mountains. Thcie arc fre-
quent in the Mediterranean, particularly in the Levant,
as produced by the repulfion and new direftion which the
wind meets with in its paflage between the various iflandc of
the Archipelago. Falconer.

SQUALLEY, a note of faultinefs in the making of
cloth. 43 Eli/., cap. 10. Blount. Cowel. See Rewiy.

SQUALLY, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied
to fuch crops of turnips, corn, rape, &c. as are broken or

detached

S Q tl

detachf d by vicant or unproduaive fpots or patches. Crops
which are thus produced have an extremely difagreeable ap-
pearance, and are never promifing or produd^ive to the

farmer. r » f

Squally Land, a term fometimes applied to that lort ot
ground which is of the irregularly wet thm kind.

SOU ALUS, the Shark, in Ichthyology, a genus ot hlhes
of the order Chondropterigious, or, according to more mo-
dern naturahits, of the Cartilaginous order : the generic
charader is as follows. The mouth is fituated beneath the
anterior part of the head, with numerous teeth difpofed in
rows. On each fide the neck, in moft of the fpecies, there
are five fpiracles of a fcmilunar fhape. The body is oblong,
and lomewhat cyhndrical.

The animals of this genus are altogether marine } and are
laid to be rarer in the Baltic than in any other fea : they are
viviparous, and are obferved to produce more young at a
time than the rays ; but each is included, as is the cafe with
thofe filhes, in a quadrangular capfule or involucrum, each
extremity of which is extended into a long, contorted, car-
tilaginous thread of great length. Many of the fliarks are
faid to emit a phofphoric light during the darknefs of night :
they are chiefly of a folitary nature, and, in general, devour,
with the mod indifcriminating voracity, almoll every animal
fubitance, whether living or dead. A few fpecies are faid to
feed chiefly on fuci, and other marine vegetables. There are
about thirty-four fpecies enumerated by Gmelin, which are
feparated into different feftions.

Species.

A. IVilh temporal Orific: and anal Fia.

Isabella. The firlt dorfal fin is oppofite the abdominal.
It inhabits the fouthern Pacific ocean, and has been obferved
about the coalts of New Zealand. It is thirty inches long ;
in colour it is yellowifli ; the teeth arc comprefled, (hort,
triangular, furniflied on each fide the bafe with a fmaller
lobe, and difpofed in fix rows ; the tongue is very (hort and
thick ; the dorfal fin is fubquadrangular ; the fecond placed
oppofite the anal fin ; the peftoral fins are very large ; the
ventral are feparate, and pointed behind.
' • Canicular ; Spotted Dog-fifli. Noftrils furrounded
with a lobe and vermiform appendage ; the ventral fins are
diftinft. This inhabits molt feas, is about four or five feet
long, is very voracious, and feeds chiefly on fi(h ; the body
is of a reddifh-brown, with large diitinft fpots, which are
black above, but white beneath, a little comprefled at each
end : the ikin when dried is ufed for various purpofes. The
head is fmall ; fnout fliort ; eyes oblong ; pupil fea-green,
iris white ; the mouth is wide and oblong, with three rows
of teeth ; the tongue is cartilaginous, and with the palate
rough ; the vent is before the middle of the body ; the firft
dorlal fin behind the ventral, the fecond lefs, and nearly op-
pofite the anal ; the tail is narrow, ending below in a fliarp
angle,

* Catulus ; I>efler Spotted Dog-fi(h. This fpecies is
fpccifically defcribed as having noftrils covered with a lobe
and vermiform appendage ; the ventral fins are connefted.
It inhabits the Northern, Mediterranean, and Indian feas.
Its habit is rather flender ; in length it is from two to three
feet ; the head is large ; fnout prominent, and flightly
pointed ; the fkin is rough ; the body cylindric ; the colour
pale brick-red, marked with very numerous, fmall, rounded,
blackilh or dufl<y fpots ; the abdomen is whitifli ; both the
dorfal fins are placed much nearer to the tail than the head ;
the ventral fins are connate, large, and of a (lightly pointed
form ; the anal fin is fmall ; the tail is long, bilobate, with

S Q U

the lower lobe continued to a confiderable diflance beneath.
It is a moft voracious fifh. According to Mr. Pennant, it
breeds from nine to thirteen young at a time ; it is nume-
rous on our own coalls, and very injurious to the fifheries.
The liver, when taken or tailed as food, is highly noxious,
caufing a long-continued fi;upor, fuccecded by an univerfal
Itching, with a total peeling off" of the cuticle.

Stellaris. Lobes of the noftrils double. This is found
in the European ocean, and is from two to fix feet long ;
it feeds chiefly on cruitaceous animals, moUufcx, and lefler
fifli ; the body is reddifli, with unequal blackifli fpots ; be-
neath it is of a dirty afli, and refemblcs the S. canicula, but
the fpots are larger and fewer ; the fnout is a little longer,
the tail fomewhat (horter, and the noftrils nearly clofed ; it
brings forth about twenty at a time. The dorfal fins are
equal ; the firlt a little behind the middle of the body, the
fecond a little behind the anal.

* Galeus ; Tope. Teeth nearly triangular, ferrate ob
the inner edge. This fpecies is of confiderable fize, often
meafuring feveral feet in length, though the fpecimens ufu-
ally feen about the Britifh coafts fcarcely exceed the length
of about five feet. In its habits it refembles the white
Shark (which fee), being a very bold and rapacious fifli,
attacking fuch as happen to be accidentally expofed to it
with great violence and rapidity ; its fliape is rather flender ;
its c(3our pale cinereous above, and whitifli beneath ; the
nofe is long, flat, and pointed ; the noftrils are fituated near
the mouth, and behind each eye is a fmall orifice ; the teeth
are numerous, difpofed in three rows, fmall, very fliarp, tri-
angular, and ferrate on their inner edge. The firft dorfal
fin is placed about the middle of the back, and is rather
large ; the fecond is fmall, and fituated near the tail, which
is (mall, and terminates in two unequal lobes, of which the
lower is the broadeft. It has been allerted by able and well-
informed naturaUfts, that this fi(h is fo bold as to purfue it»
prey to the very edge of the fliore, and even to attack thofe
who are walking near the water's edge. It is fuppofed to
be the fifti mentioned by the name of canicula, which is
defcribed as highly dangerous to thofe employed in diving
for corals, fponges, &c.

* MusTELUs ; Smooth Hound. The teeth of this fpecies
are very fmall and obtufe ; it has ftiort peftoral fins. The
fifli of this fpecies are of a flender habit ; their fnouts are
flightly fliarpened, and lengthened ; the firlt dorfal fin is
large, and placed nearly in the middle of the back ; the
fecond nearly oppofite the anal fin ; the tail is ftiaped as in
moft others of this tribe, or flightly bilobate; the lower lobe
is continued to fome diftance beneath ; the teeth are very
numerous, fmall, flightly convex, and fet as in Ravs (which
fee.) The general colour of the animal is of a greyifli-brown,
paler or whiter beneath ; fometimes varies in being marked
above by numerous white fpots. Tlie ftomach in this fifti
is furnilhed with feveral appendices, fituated near the py-
lorus ; it is found on our own coafts, and in other European
feas, and alfo in the Indian fea, and when full grown it is
about two feet long.

Cirratus. The noftrils have a worm-fliaped appendage.
This fpecies inhabits the American and Pacific feas, and is
from one to five feet long; the body is coated with large
flat (hining fcales ; when young it is fpotted with black. The
head is depreilcd ; the fnout is fliort, obtufe ; the eyes and
temporal orifice fmall ; lips thick at the fides ; teeth nume-
rous, fliarp, long, dilated at the bafe ; the two hindmolt
fpiracles are approximate ; the vent is in the middle ; the
firft dorfal fin is oppofite the ventral ; the anal is fmall j the
tail is about a quarter as long as tjie body.

Babbatus. The gape of the mouth is bearded with
4 vermiform

SQUALUS.

vermiform appendages. It is found about the coifts of New
Holland, and is from three to four feet lonsj ; the body is
cohered with fmall, hard, fmooth (hinitig fcales, and marked
with black fpots, round and antjular, furroundcd with a
white circle. The head is large, deprelled, and fhort ; the
teeth are lanceolate, in many rows ; cirri unequal, about an
inch and a half long, and branched before. The temporal
orifice is large ; vent in the middle ; firll dorfa! oppofite the
vent ; the tail iubdivided.

TiGRiNUs. Tail elongated ; the two hindmoft fpiracles
are confluent. It inhabits the Indian ocean, and grews to
the length of fifteen feet ; the body is thick, oblong, black,
with irregular white fpots and bands ; feeds on tellaceous
animals and crabs. The head of this fpecies is broad, flat,
and floping on the fore-part ; the mouth tranfverfe, with
two cirri ; the upper lip is thick and prominent ; the teeth
are minute, thofe on the upper jaw are moveable, and rough
like a rafp ; the tongue is thick, (hort ; the eyes are fmall,
eblong, and the pupil is blue ; the iris is black ; belly broad ;
peftoral fins (hort, broad ; fiift dorfal oppofite the ventral ;
the fecond is oppofite the anal ; the tail is compreded on
each fide, thin like a leaf at the end ; the fin is long, and
notched at the tip.

Africanus. Body with feveral parallel, longitudinal,
blackifh bands above. This, as its fpecific name imports,
IS found in the African ocean, and is about two feet and a half
long ; the body is covered with minute fubquadrate fcales ;
above it is glaucous, beneath whitifh.

OcELLATU.s. On each fide of the neck is a large, round,
black blotch, furrounded with white. It inhabits the Pa-
cific ocean and New Holland, is two feet and a half long ;
the body is long, cinereous, dotted ; beneath it is of a
greeni(h-a(h colour.

ZvG.T-.vA. Head very broad, hammer-fliaped. It inha-
bits the Mediterranean, American, and Indian feas ; grows
to fix feet long, and to the weight of five hundred pounds ;
it is the moll rapacious of all its tribe. See Shark.

TiBURio. The head is very broad, heart-diaped. It
inhabits the South American feas. It very much refembles
the lalt, except that the head, inltead of being widened on
each fide into a long procefs, is rather fnbtriangular, and
rounded off in front ; the fins are glaucous.

Griseus. Spiracles fix on each fide. It inhabits the
Mediterranean ; is two feet and a half long ; the body is of
a moufe colour, a little rough ; in the dried (kin there is
the appearance of fmall fcales, with an elevated line in the
middle.

VuLPES; Seafox, or Long-tailed Shark. This fpecies
inhabits the Mediterranean fea, and often wanders on the
Britifh coalls ; is feven feet long ; the body above is of a
blueifh-a(h colour ; beneath it is paler ; the fcales are very
minute. This is a very voracious fi(h. It is diltinguiOied
by its plump, (hort, fubovate body, and very long tapering
tail ; the head is (mall and pointed ; the firik dorfal fin is
triangular, and placed on the middle of the back ; the (ccond
ie fct above the beginning of the tail, which gradually tapers
to the tip, and is fiirniflied with a (hallow fin or procefs be-
neath, running from the bafc to the tip, which is (harp and
{lightly bilobate ; the peftoral fins are of confiderable fize ;
the eyes are large ; the mouth fmall ; the teeth triangular,
fmall, and difpofed in three rows. The colour of the fi(h
is dulky alh above, and whitiih beneath. It grows to the
length of thirteen or fourteen feet ; the tail meafures more
than half the length of the whole animal. It ii an inhabit-
ant of the Mediterranean and other feas, and is confidercd
a& a voracious and artful fi(h ; but the name of lea-fox it ap-

plied to it rather from the length of its tail than from its
fuppoled (agacity.

LoNGlCAUDUS. Upper jaw with two cirri ; the tail it
long, as its fpecific name denotes ; the head is obtufe ; the
nortrils near the mouth ; there are four fpiracles.

Appendiculatus; Botany Bay Shark. Upper jaw with
two jagged, cartilaginous appendages, and four others on
each fide between the fir'l and the fpiracles. This inhabits
New South Wales ; is nineteen inches long ; the body is
brown, with three rows of large pale (pots, dark within,
rounded and nearly equal for half its length, and then
growing fuddenly very fmall. It is an extremely fierce ani-
mal. The head is broad, but angular ; the mouth is placed
near the end of the head ; it has nine teeth in front, which
are (liarp, crooked, and in three rows, with a great number
of fmall ones on each fide ; the eyes are projeding ; dorfal
fins placed far back ; the peftoral near the fpiracles ; ventral
near the middle of the body ; the anal more than half way
between the lalt and the tail, with a fin-like projeftion be-
hind it to the end of the tail.

B. IVilh the anal Fin, hut no temporal Orifite.

* Glaucus ; Blue Shark. The fides of the tail are
fmooth ; the lower part of the back with a triangular dent.
This is found in our own and almoft all other feas. See
Shark.

* CoRNUBicus ; Probeagle Shark. The fnout of thi(
fpecies is projefting, (harp ; body round, deprefled and an-
gulate near the tail. It inhabits the Britifh coalls ; is from
three to four feet long; the body above is of a deep blue,
beneath it is filvery ; round, except near the tail, where it is
deprelled. This fpecies is flightly defcribed by Pennant,
from an engravmg which he found in Borlafe's Hiilory of
Cornwall, which was copied by Mr. Jago, who was efteemed
a very obfervant and Ikilful ichthyologill. A fpecimen ob-
ferved in 1793, on the coall of Haftings, is defcribed in the
third volume of the Liniixan Tranfaftions. Its length from
the tip of the fnout to the extremity of the tail, was three
feet ten inches ; the colour of the body was a deep blue on
the back, and white or filvery beneath ; the fhape was round,
except for about fix inches from the tail, where it was de-
prefled ; at about an inch from the tail was a femilunar or
lunar imprcdion, the points of which were towards the tail ;
where the body was deprcffed, the fides were raifed into a
(harp angle or elevated line, of about eight inches in length,
running to the middle of the tail, or a little beyond ; the
nofe was prominent, and (harp ; and on either fide, from the
nofe to the eyes, were numerous perforations or minute pores ;
the tail was of a lunar form, the upper lobe nearly a third
longer than the lower.

* Cambricus ; Beaumaris Shark. Snout fhort, blunt ;
body cylindrical, angulate near the tail. This is chiefly
found on the Britifh coalls ; is feven feet long ; very much
refembles the la(l, except that it does not taper lo much
towards each end ; the body is of a lead-colour, and
Imoothilh.

CiNEHF.us. Seven fpiracles on each fide. It inhabits
the Mediterranean ; is three feet long ; the body ie glaucous,
and a little rough.

* Maximus ; Balking Shark. Teeth conic, not ferrate.
Sec Shark.

* Carciiarias ; White Shark. In this fpecies the teeth
are triangular. This is the moil dreadful and voracious of
all animals. See Shark.

C. Will) temporal Orifice, but no anetl Fin.

* Sfinosus. Body covered svcr with large miicronate

tubercle*.

S Q U

tubercles. This is about four feet in lengtii ; tl.e colour i»
erev-brown above, whitifh beneath ; the body is roughened
with Icattered unequal tubercles, confiftmg of a broad round
bafe, and curved, lliarp-pointed tip ; in lome they are bitid ;
eves large ; fnout prominent and conic ; its gape is mode-
rate : the teeth of a fqua.ifh Ihape, compreffed, cornered at
the margins, and placed in feveral rows ; dorfal fins placed
near the tail, the firll oppofitethe ventral, which are fet at
an unufual diftance from the head, and are almoft as large
as the peaoral ; the tail is angular.

• AcANTHiAs ; Picked Dog-fifh. Dorfal fins fpinous ;
the body is roundifh ; a variety has an ocellate body. This
fpecies inhabits moft feas : it is about three feet and a half
long ; the body above is blickifti, dotted fpanngly witli
white ; the fides are white, inclining to violet, with a tew
angulate tranfverfe furrows, beneath white; the fledi is ofteu
falted and eaten.

Jacksonii. Eyes with a prominence over them on each
fide ; before each of the dorfal fins is a Itrong fpine. This
inhabits Port Jackfon, New Holland. It is not more than
two feet long ; the body is tapering, Ikin rough, above
brown, beneath paler ; the head is fomewhat convex ; teeth
numerous, in many rows, larger as they are placed back-
wards, forming a bony plate.

Spinax. Body beneath blackifh. It is found in the
Indian ocean ; and, in its fpinous back-fins, it very much
refembles the lad.

Squamosus. Body coated with fmall oblong fcales.
The body of this is three feet long, thick, round, rcfembhng
the next, except in having a longitudinal elevated line of
fcales down the middle.

Centrina. Body nearly triangular. It is from three
to four feet in length ; the body above is brown, carinate,
beneath whitidi, broad ; flcin covered with hard, ereft tu-
bercles ; the flefh is very hard.

Indicus. Back variegated, unarmed ; teeth acute. It
inhabits the Indian ocean.

Amekicanus. Dorfal fins unarmed, the hinder one
larger, ventral large near the tail. It is found in the South
American feas ; is three feet long ; body round ; fcales
fmall, angular.

* Squatina ; Angel Fifh. Peftoral fins very large,
and notched on the fore-part. This fpecies inhabits the
Northern feas, and is from fix to eight feet long ; it feeds
on lefl'er fifh, and brings forth thirteen young at a time.
The body above is cinereous, rough, with fmall recurved
prickles ; beneath it is fmooth, white. In its Ihape it ap-
proaches very nearly to the Ray genus.

D. li^ilhoul Teeth.

MassAsa. Peftoral fins long. An inhabitant of the
Red fea.

Ku.MAL. Peftoral fins (hort ; the mouth with four cirri.
It inhabits the Red fea.

Squalus is alfo a name given by Varro, Columella, Sal-
vian, and others, to a fpecies of cyprinus, diftinguidied by
Artedi by the name of tlie oblong cyprinus with long Icales,
and with the pinna ani containing eleven rays, and commonly
known with us under the name of chub or chevin.

The generality of authors call it capita and cephalus, but
it is very improper to give diilinft generical names to fifh,
which are genuine fpecies of other genera.

The name fqualus is originally Latin ; it is ufed by
Pliny, and m.any other of the old Roman authors, and is
derived from the word fqualor, becaufe this fifh is found to
delight in impure and dirty places.

SQUAM, in Geography, an American lake, partly fitu.

SQL ^

ated in the townfhip of Holdernefs in Grafton county, Ne\r
Hampfhire, and partly in StraflFord county ; r.bout five
miles long and four broad. — Alio, a river of New Hamp-
iliire, the outlet of the abore lake, which, after running a
fouth-weil courfe, joins the Pemigewafl'et, at the town of jj,,
New Chefter, lo miles above the mouth of the Wine- I
pifcogce branch. I

Squam Beach, lies on the fea-coaft of New Jerfey, be- |
tvveen Barnegat inlet and Cranberry new inlet. '

Sqla.m Harbour, lies on the north-eafl fide of Cape
Amen, in the Itate of Maflachufetts. Squam (Pidgeon-
hill) lies in N- lat. 42^40'. W. long. 70° 36'.

SQUAMARIA, in Botany, irom fquama, a fcale, in
allufion to its Icaly root, or fubterraneous item, ii Ri-
vinus's appellation for the Toothwort (tee Lathrjea);
and is Itill ufed generically by Haller and Scopoli, though
only fpecifically by Linnaeus. The fcales in queltion, bear-
ing a great refemblance in every thing but hardnefs to the
human fore-teeth, have given rife to the Englifh name, and i
to that of Dentaria, ufed by Matthiolus. But this plant T
mull not be confounded with the Linnarau Dentaria.
See that article.

SQUAMIS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Albertus,
and others, to the filh called by us the m«nk, or angel-fiih,
by the generality of authors fquatina, and by the old Greek
writers rhine. See Squ.4LUS.

SQUAMOSiE Sutum Add'itamentum, in AncUomy, the
portion of future which connefts the poderior inferior
length of the parietal to the malloid part of the temporal
bone. See Cranium.

SQUAMOSE Culm, among Botan'ijl:. See Stalk.

Squamose Root, one compofed of, or covered with lefler
flakes. See Root.

SQUAMOUS, in Anatomy, a future of the head, made
by the thin edge of one bone overlapping a correfponding

thin edge of another Alfo, the portion of the temporal

bone entering into the formation of the fquamofz future
additamentum. See Cranium.

SQUARCIONE, Francesco, in Biography, a painter,
born at Padua in 1394, more and better known as the
founder of a fchool of art, than for any particular works of
his own produftion. The fchool he maintained was fur-
nifhed with defigns and veltiges of antiquity, which he had
acquired not only in Italy, but alfo in Greece, whither he
travelled for the purpofe ; and it was at one time attended
by upwards of 130 itudents, fo that he acquired from it the
refpedablc title of the father of the young painters. One
pifture of his is more particularly noticed by Lanzi, which
was formerly in the church of the Carmelites at Padua, and
afterwards in the private poUeffion of the Conte de Lazara,
reprefenting St. Jerome lurrounded by three faints ; and he
fpeaks of it in terms of praife for fo early a produdion. It
was painted, according to an inlcription upon it, for the
noble family of Lazara, in 1452, and is figned Francefco
Squarcione. He died in 1474, at the age of 80.

SQUARE, Qu.\DRATU.M, in Geometry, ■& quadrilaterSl
figure, whofc angles are right, and fides equal.

Squaue, To Jind the Area of a. Seek the length of one
fide ; multiply this by itfelf ; and the produft is the area of
the fquare. Thus, if the length of a fide be 345, the area
will be 1 19025 ; and if the fide of a fquare be 10, the area
will be 100.

Since, then, a decempeda contains 10 feet, a foot lo
digits, &c. a fquare decempeda contains 100 fquare feet, a
fquare foot 100 fquare digits, &c.

Square, the Properties of a, are, that its angles are all
right, and, confequently, its fides perpendicular ; that it is

divided

SvQ U

divided into two equal parts, by a diagonal ; that the dia-
gonal of a fquare is incommenfiirable to the fide.

Squares, for the Ratio of. They are to each other in
the duplicate ratio of their fides. E. gr. a fquare whofe
fide is double another, is quadruple of that other fquare.

Square of the Cube. 7 p t>

c yw p J r V J r ^ee rowEU.

OQUARE of the Surdefolid. j

Square Number, in Arithmetic and Algebra, is the pro-
duft arifing from multiplying any number by itfelf. Thus,
9 = 3.3, 16 = 4..4, 25 = 5. J, &c. are fquare numbers :
and fince, by the rules of algebra, — 3X — 3 = 95 — 4
X — 4=16; — JX — 5 = 25, &c. ; it follows, that
the fquare root of every pofitive number has two different
roots ; the one plus, or affirmative ; the other minus, or ne-
gative ; while the fquare root of every negative number is
imaginary, or impoflible.

Square numbers have feveral remarkable properties, of
which the following are fome of the moil interefting, viz.

I. Every fquare number is of one of the forms 4« or
4n -)- I ; that is, every fquare, when divided by 4, will
leave either o or i for a remainder : and underftanding this
expreflion ftill in the fame fenfe, the following table will
exprefs the forms of fquare numbers to the moduli, or
divifors, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12..

Moduli.

Po(El)le Forms of

Squares.

3

3"

i" + I

4

4"

4" + I

5

5"

5 « + I

6

bn

6n + I

6n 4- 3

6" 4-4

7

7»

•jn -r I

7" 4- 2

7''4-4

8

8«

8n + I

8n + 4

9

9"

9" + I

9n + 4

9"+ 7

10

ion

ion + I

ion + 4

ion±5

II

II R

II n + I

lin4- 3

iin 4-5

IIn4-9

12

izn

I2n 4- I

I2n 4-4

i2n4-9

2. And hence, by exclufion, we may derive the following
table of impoflible forms, viz.

Moduli.

Iinpofilble Forms for Squares.

3

3« 4 2

4

4«+ 2

4" + 3

5

5«+ 2

y + s

6

6n4- 2

6n4-5

7

7« + 3

7'' + 5 7n4-6

8

8n + 2

8n4-3 8n + 7

9

9n + 2

9n + 3 9n45 9"-^^

10

I0n4- 2

lon-f 3

II

lln 4 2

Iln46 Iln-f7 lln4-8 IIn4lo

f I2n±2

I2n4-3 I2n±5 I2n4-6 I2n4 8

\ I2n4- ic

Thcfe formulae, as they involve no higher power of the
indeterminate n than the firft, arc called linear forms ;
but, by means of them, we eafily arrive at a variety of
quadratic formula:, which it is extremely ufeful to be ac-
quainted with, in pradifing the Diophantine or indeter-
minate analyfis.

If a perfon, unacquainted with thefe exclufions, were
required to find two fuch numbers, that double the fquare
of the one, added to triple the fquare of the other, fhould be

Vol. XXXIII.

S Q U

a fquare, he would fee nothing impoflible in the propofition,
and might, therefore, lofe many ufelefa hours in the re-
fearch ; whereas, by a little attention to the impoflible and
poflible forms, he would find the problem absolutely im-
poflible, and hence fpare himfelf much ufelefs labour.

3. The method of deducing impoflible quadratic forms
from the linear ones above given, will be feeii immediately
from a fingle example. Let it be required to afcertaiu
whether the equation, 2 x' 4- 3 J"' = w ', be poflible or im-
poflible. Firlt, we may afl'ume », y, and lu, prime to each
other ; for if x and y have a common divifor, lu muit have
the fame, and the whole tquation may be divided by it ;
whereby it will be reduced to another equation 2 «" 4- 3 y"'
= tu' ', in which thefe quantities have no longer a common
divifor, or, in other words, they are prime to each other.

Since, then, x and y are prime to each other, they can-
not be both of the form 3 n ; for, in this cafe, they would
have a common divifor 3. Let then, firft, x' be of the
form 3 n, and y' of the form 3 n 4- I ; then 2 x' is of the
*"orm 3 n', and 3 ji ' of the form 3 n' 4- 3, and confequently
their fum will have the form 3 n, which is impoflible, be-
caufe, in this cafe, to and x would have a common, divifor 3 j
and it we fuppofe x' of the form ^ n + 1, and y' of the
form 3 n ; then 2 .r ' 4- 3ji' is of the form 3 n 4- 2, which
is an impoflible form : and, lallly, if we an"ume both of the
form 3n + 1, then zx' 4- 3^' would have again the fame
impoflible form 3 n + 2 ; therefore, in no cafe can 2 .x' 4-
3jr- = to' be poflible in integral numbers.

In the fame manner a variety of other impoflible forms
may be deduced, of which the following are thofe which
moll commonly occur.

{5) Modulus 3.

2/^ 4- 3 u' = w'
5/^ + 3a^ = w'
8/^ 4- 3B^ = to'

2) /' 4- 31/^:^ TO-

(6) Modulus 5.

2/>' + 5 «' = TO^

3/' ± 5"' = '«'"
7 /^ + 5 u^ = TO^

2 ) t' ± 51/^ = TO '

(3^ +

iSP ±

Or the two latter general forms may be rendered more
comprehenfivc, by the introduftion of another indeter-
minate j; obferving only that, in this cafe, the quantity
mult always be prime to the modulus. With this condition,
the two latter may be written thus :

(3;> +
Isp ±

2) /^
2) t^

4-
4-

3 ja' = TO

5 y u' = TO

(7) Modulus 7.

3) '' ± 7?"' = •"
5 '' ± 77"' =
6) r ± Tqu^ =

(8) Modulus II.

{lip + 2) /' ± II qu

and

7/
[IP
[IP

= TO-

= to'
= to'
= to'

(lip + 6) I' ± llqu'
(lip + 7) r ± llqu'

(9) Modulus 13.

(^iP ± 2) '' ± '3?"* = •»'*

•3/ ± 5) '* ± '3?"* = *"*

•3^ ± ^) '' ± '39"* = *"*

'3/ ± 7) '* "t 'Sf * = '"*

4"S

(10)

SQUARE NUMBERS.

II

+ y^ -
- y' =

: z"

13

{V.

' + y'

'5

+ 2j'-
- 2^^

= nu

{"'

+ y

1

z-w"-

u

- y

1

2a'

x'

+ 2y'-

= 2a

1 k'

- 2y'

= 2ZU

f2.V.^ +

y''

= 22:^

I2.V' -

y''

=^ 2 TO

(10) Modulus 17.
(17/ ± ^) '' i I77«' = '^'

(•7;> ± ?) '^ ± 17 y«' = ■"'^

(i7/> + 6) /' ± 17?"' = "^

{17/. + 7) /'- ± 17?"' = •«'"

A great variety of impoffible forms might have been
given to other moduli ; but the above are fufficient for our
prefent purpofc.

There arc alfo many formula:, which, though polhble
fingly, become impoffible in pairs : fuch are the foUowmg :

H

Thefe might alfo be carried to a much greater extent,
and many collateral properties drawn from them relative to
the impoffibihty of fonie higher powers : we mult not, how-
ever, carry the fubjeft farther in this place. The reader,
who is defirous of more detailed information, may confult
Barlow's " Elementary InvefUgation of the Theory tjf Num-
bers," where this part of the doftrine of numbers is carried
to a confiderable extent. We (hall merely feleft a few
other dillindl properties of fquares, as they are given by
the fame author, in his " Mathematical DiAionary."

17. The fum of two odd fquares cannot be a fquare.

18. An odd fquare, taken from an even fquare, cannot
leave a fquare remaicder.

19. If the fum of two fquares be itfelf a fquare, one of
the three fquares is divifible by 5.

20. Square numbers muft terminate in one of the digits
O, I, 4, 5, 6, or 9.

21. No number of repetend digits can be a iquarc.

22. The area of a rational right-angled triangle cannot
be equal to a fquare.

23. The two following feries are remarkable for being
fuch, as, when reduced to improper fraftions, the fum of
the fquares of each numerator and denominator is a com-
plete fquare ; or, which is the fame, they are the fides of
rational right-angled triangles. Thefe feries are as fol-
low, viz.

U. 2|i 3f. 4t. SrV> &c. &c.
»ii 2^T. %]h 44« 514. &c- &c.

24. The fecond differences of confecutive fquare numberivj
are equal to each other, thus :

Squares 1

Firll difference
Second difference

, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c.

3> 5' 7. 9» &c.
2, 2, 2, &c.

To thefe we may alfo add the following ; which are more
particularly applicable to the indetermmate and Diophantine
analyfis.

25. If a number be the fum of two fquares, its double is
alfo the fum of two fquares ; for

(.,'-+ j') X 2= {x +y)'k- i^'-yY-

Hence alfo, the fum of two fquares multiplied by any
power of 2, is the fum of two fquares.

26. The produft of two numbers, each being the fum of
two fquares, is itfelf the fum of two fquares ; for

(■'

') X (.v'

+ y'')
.1.

iix.'+yy'y+{xy'-x>yy,

(.v-r'

Thus,

5 = 2
13 = 3

+

Produd 65 = 8' -t- !■

7' + 4'

27. The produft of the fum of four fquares, by the fum
of four other fquares, is itfelf the fum of four fquares ; thuj

(iv^ + .v^ + y' + z') X {w'^ + x" + y +»'•) =
'[•wiu' -f xx' + yy' -f- zz')^ -{- (iw.v' — xtv'

+ y^' - y'z)' +
(y' lu — .vz' — y'w'+ z-v')" -f (wz' + xy'
— y x' — X ■»') '

as will appear by the developement of thefe formulae.

28. Every integral number is either a fquare, or the funj
of two, three, or four fquares.

The latter is one of the celebrated numerical theorems of
Fcrmat, which was firft demonftrated by Lagrange.

For a variety of other properties, fee the works above
referred to.

We fliall conclude this article with a table of the fquares
and cubes of all numbers from i to 1200. A table of the
fquare and cube roots, to the fame extent, is given under
the article Root.

Table

SQUARE NUMBERS.

Tablk

of Squares

and

Z!uhes to

1200.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

I

I

I

61

3721

226981

121

14641

1771561

181

32761

5929741

2

4

8

62

3844

238328

122

14884

1815S48

182

33'24

602H568

3

9

27

63

3969

250047

123

15129

1860867

•83 1 33489

6128487

4

16

64

64

4096

262144

124

15376

1906624

184

33856

6229504

5

25

'25

65

4225

274625

125

15625

'953'25

185

34225

6331625

6

36

216

66

4356

287496

126

15876

2C00376

186

34596

6434S56

7

49

343

67

4489

300763

127

16129

2048383

.87

34969

6539203

8

64

5'2

68

4624

3 '4432

128

16384

2097152

188

35344

6644672

9

81

729

69

4761

328509

129

I 664 1

2146689

189

3572'

6751 269

10

100

1000

70

4900

343000

130

16900

2197C00

190

36100

6859000

II

121

»33i

7'

5041

3579"

'3'

I7161

2248091

191

36481

6967871

12

144

1728

72

5.84

373248

'32

17424

2299968

192

36864

7077888

'3

169

2197

73

5329

389017

•33

17689

2352637

'93

37249

7189057

14

196

2744

74

5476

405424

'34

17956

2406104

'94

37636

7301384

•5

225

3375

75

5625

421875

'35

18225

2460375

'95

38025

7414875

16

256

4096

76

5776

438976

136

18496

2515456

196

38416

7529536

17

289

49 = 3

77

5929

456533

'37

18769

257 '353

■97

38S09

7645373

18

3H

58.?2

78

6084

474552

'38

19044

2628072

198

39204

7762392

«9

361

6859

79

6241

493039

'39

19321

2685619

199

39601

7880599

20

400

8000

80

6400

512000

140

19600

2744000

200

40C00

80CCOOO

21

441

9261

8i

6561

53H4I

141

19881

2803221

201

40401

8120601

22

484

10648

82

6724

551368

142

20164

2863288

202

40804

82424C8

23

529

12 167

83

6889

571787

'43

20449

2924207

203

4I2C9

8365427

24

J76

1382+

84

7056

592704

'44

20736

2985984

204

41616

8489664

25

625

15625

85

7225

614125

'45

21025

3048625

205

42025

8615125

26

676

17576

86

7396

636056

146

21316

3112136

206

42436

8741816

27

729

19683

87

7569

658503

'47

21609

3^76523

207

42849

8869743

28

784

21952

88

7744

681472

148

21904

3241792

208

43264

8998912

29

841

24389

89

7921

704969

'49

22201

3307949

209

43681

9129329

30

900

27000

90

8100

729000

150

22500

3375000

210

44100

9261000

3«

961

29791

91

8281

75357'

'5'

22801

344295'

211

44521

939393'

32

1024

32768

92

8464

778688

152

23104

3511808

212

44944

9528128

33

1089

35937

93

8649

804357

'53

23409

35'^i577

2'3

45369

9663597

34

1 156

39304

94

8836

830584

'54

23716

3652264

214

45796

9800344

35

1225

42875

95

9025

8ir7375

'55

24025

3723875

215

46225

993^375

36

1296

46656

96

9216

884736

.56

24336

3796416

216

46656

10077696

37

1369

50653

97

9409

9126-3

•57

24649

3869893

217

47089

10218313

38

1444

54872

98

9604

941192

.58

24964

39443 '2

218

47524

10360232

39

1521

59319

99

9801

970299

•59

25281

4019679

219 47961

' 0503459

40

1600

64000

100

1 0000

I 000000

160

25600

4096000

220 48400

1064S000

4'

1681

68921

lOI

10201

1030301

161

25921

4173281

221 1 48841

10793861

42

1764

74088

102

10404

1061208

162

26244

4251528

-•22 49284

1 094 1 048

43

1849

79507

103

10609

1092727

.63

26569

4333747

223 49729

11089567

44

1936

85184

104

10816

1124864

164

268y6

4410944

224

50176

11239424

45

202J

91125

105

11025

1157625

.65

27225

4492125

225

50625

11390625

46

2I16

97.^3^

106

,.236

1 191016

166

27556

4574296

226

51076

11543176

47

2209

103823

107

"449

1225043

167

27889 ,

4657463

227

51529

11697083

48

2304

1 10592

108

11664

1:159712

168

28224

4741632

228

51984

11852352

49 '

2401

II 7649

109

11881

1295029

169

28561 ,

4S26809

229

52441

1 2008989

50 1

2500

125000

1 10

12 100

1331000

170

28900

4913000

230

52900

12167000

(
5«

2601

1 3265 1

I! I

1232!

1367631

171

29241 ,

50002 1 1

23'

53361

12326^91

5^

2704

140608

I 12

12544

1404928

172

29584

5088448

232

53824

1 248 7 "168

53

2809

148877

"3

12769

'442897

'73

29929 !

5177717

233

54289

12649^37

54 1

2916

157464

114

12996

14S1544

'74

30276

5268024

234

5475''

12812904

55 i

3025

166375

"5

'3225

1520875

175

30625 I

5359375

235

55225

12977875

56

3136

175616

116

'3456

1560896

176

30976 1

545 '776

236

55696

13144256

57

3249

• 85 193

117

1 3689

1 60 1 6 1 3

'77

3'329

5J45233

237

56169

133 '2053

58

3364

195112

<i8

'3924

1643032

178

31684

5639752

238

56644

13481272

59

3481

205379

119

14161

1685159

179

32041

5735339

239

57121

1365 1919

60

3600

2 1 6000

120

14400

1728000

180

32400

5832000

240

57600

13S24000

4N

SQUARE NUMBERS.

Table

of Squares and C

iibes to

1200.

No.

Sfjuares.

Cubes.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

No.

Si|uares,

Cubes.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

241

580S1
58564
C0049

i?99752i

301

90601

27270901

i^^

130321

47045881

421

177241

74618461

T

14172488

302

91204

27543608

362

131044

47437928

422

178084

75151448

T
24^

1434890;

303

91809

27818127

363

131769

47832147

423

17S929

75686967

244.

3 J -ry

59536
60025

14526784

304

92416

2H094464

364

132496

48228544

424

179776

76225024

24J

14706x25

305

93025

28372625

365

133225

48627125

425

180625

76765625

246

60516

148S6936

306

93636

28652616

366

'339)6

4902 7 S96

426

181476

77308776

247

61009

15069223

307

94249

28934443

367

134689

49430863

427

182329

77854483

248

61504

15252902

308

94864

292181 12

368

135424

49836032

428

183184

78402752

249

62001

1 543 S 249

309

954S1

29503629

369

136161

50243409

4:9

I 84041

78953589

250

62500

15625000

310

66100

29791000

370

1 36900

50653000

430

1 84900

79507000

251

63001

15813251

311

96721

30080231

371

137641

51064811

431

185761

80062991

252

635°4

16003008

312

97344

3°37ij28

372

1383 84

5147884S

432

186624

80621568

253

64009

16194277

313

97969

30664297

373

'39129

51895117

433

187489

81182737

254

64516

16387064

3 '4

98596

30959144

374

139876

52313624

434

188356

81746504

25?

65025

16581375

3'5

99225

31255875

375

140625

5273+375

435

189225

82312875

256

65536

16777216

3 '6

99856

31554496

376

i4'376

53157376

436

190096

82881856

257

66049

16974593

317

100489

31S55013

377

142x29

53582633

437

190969

83453453

258

66564

17173512

3'S

10F124

32157432

3 78

142884

54010152

438

191844

84027672

259

67081

173^.^979

3'9

101761

32461759

379

14364'

5443 '>939

439

192721

84604519

260

67600

17576000

320

102400

32768000

380 144400

54872000

440

193600

85 1 84000

261

68121

17779581

321

103041

33076161

381

145161

55306341

44'

194481

8576612I

262

6S644

17984728

322

103684

333S6248

382

145924

55742968

442

'95364

86350888

263

69169

18191447

323

104329

33698267

383

146689

56181887

443

166249

86938307

264

69696

18399744

324

104976

34012224

384

'47456

56623104

444

197136

87528384

265

70225

18609625

325

105625

34328125

385

148225

57066625

445

198025

88121 125

266

70756

18821096

326

106276

34645976

386

148996

57512456

446

19S916

887x6536

267

71289

19034163

327

106929

34965783

387

149769

57960603

447

199809

893x4623

268

71824

19248832

328

107584

■35287552

388

150544

5841 1072

448

200704

89915392

269

72361

19465109

329

108241

35611289

389

151321

58863869

449

201601

90518849

270

72900

19683000

330

108900

35937000

390

152100

59319000

450

202500

91125000

271

73441

19902511

331

109561

36264691

391

152881

59776471

45'

203401

9173385'

272

73984

20123648

332

110224

36594368

392

153664

60236288

452

204304

92345408

m

74529

20346417

333

110889

36926037

393

154449

6069S457

453

205209

92959677

274

75076

20570824

334

111556

37259704

394

155236

61 162984

454

2061 1 6

93576664

275

75625

20796875

335

112225

37595375

395

156025

6)629875

455

207025

94196375

276

76176

21024576

336

112896

37933056

396

156816

62099136

456

207936

94818816

277

76729

21253933

337

1 13569

38272753

397

157609

62570773

457

208849

95443993

278

77284

21484952

338

114244

38614472

398

158404

63044792

458

209764

9607x912

279

77841

21717639

339

1 1 492 1

38958219

399

159201

63521199

459

210681

96702579

280

78400

21952000

340

1 1 5600

39304000

400

160000

64000000

460

211600

97336000

281

78961

22188041

341

116281

39651821

401

1 6080 1

64481201

461

212521

97972181

282

79524

22425768

342

116964

40001688

401

161604

64964808

462

213444

98611128

283

80089

22665187

343

117649

40353607

403

162409

65450827

463

214369

99252847

284

80656

22906304

344

' 18336

40707584

404

163216

65939264

464

215296

99897344

285

81225

23149125

345

119025

41063625

405

164025

66430125

465

216225

100544625

286

81796

23393656

346

119716

41 42 1 736

406

164S36

66923416

466

21 7 156

101 194696

287

82369

23639903

347

120409

41781923

407

165649

67419143

467

218089

10x847563

288

82944

23887872

348

1 21104

42144192

408

166464

67'Ji73i2

468

219024

102503232

289

83521

24137569

349

121801

4250X549

409

167281

68417929

469

219961

103161709

290

84100

24389000

iS°

122500

42875000

410

168100

68921000

470

220900

103823000

291

84681

24642171

35'

123201

4324355'

411

16S921

69426^31

471

221841

104487111

292

85264

24897088

352

123904

43614208

412

169744

69934528

472

222784

105154048

293

85849

25153757

353

1 24609

43986977

413

170569

70444997

473

223729

105823817

294

86436

25412184

354

125316

44361864

414

171396

70957944

474

224676

106496424

29;

87025

25672375

355

126025

447.^8875

415

172225

71473375

475

225625

107171875

296

87616

25934336

356

126736

451 18016

416

173056

7 1991 296

476

226576

107850176

297
^ 0

88209

26198073

357

127449

45499293

417

173889

72511713

477

227529

108531333

298

88804

26463592

358

128164

45882712

4.8

174724

73034632

478

228484

109215352

299

89401

26730899

359

128881

46268279

419

175561

73560059

479

229441

109902239

300

90000

27000000

360

129600

46656000

420

176400

74088000

480

230400

1 10592000

SQUARE NUMBERS.

Table of Squares and Cubes to 1200.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

No.

Squares.

Cubes.

No.

1

Squares. Cubts.

No.

■jt|uarcs.

Cube&.

481

231361

III28464I

54'

292681

158340421

60 1

561201 217081801

661

436921

2S8804781

481

232324

I I 1980168

542

293764

159220088

602

362404 218167208

662

438244

290117528

483

233289

.12678587

543

294849

IO0IO30O7

603

363609 219256227

663

439569

2^1434247

484

234256

"3379904

544

295936

160989184

604

364816 I 220348864

664

440896

292754944

485

235225

1 14084125

545

297025

161878625

605

366025 ■ 221445125

665

442225

294079625

486

236196

II4791256

546

298116

'62771336

606

367236

222545016

666

443556

295408296

487

237169

II550I303

547

299209

163667323

607

36S449

223648543

667

444889

296740963

488

238144

H62I4272

548

300304

164566592

6ot<

369664

2247557 '2

668

446224

298077632

489

239121

1 16930169

549

301401

'65469149

609

370881

225866529

669

447561

299418309

490

240100

I I 7649000

350

302500

i6637_5ooo

610

372100

22698 ICOO

670

448900

300763000

491

241081

1 1 83 7077 I

551

303601

167284151

611

37332'

228099131

671

450241

3O2III7II

492

242064

119095488

552

304704

168196608

612

374544

229220928

672

451584

303464448

493

243049

119823157

553

305809

1691)2377

6'3

3757*9

230346397

673

452929

304821217

494

244036 1 120553784

554

3069 1 6

17003 1464

614

376996

231475344

674

454276

306182024

495

245025

121287375

555

308025

'70953875

6is

378225

232608375

675

455625

307546875

496

246016

122023936

556

309136

171S79616

616

379456 1 233744S96

676

456976

308915776

497

247009

122763473

557

310249

17280S693

617

380689 234885113

677

458329

310288733

498

248004

123505992

558

3"364

173741112

618

381924, 236029032

678

459684

311665752

499

249001

124251499

559

312481

174676879

619

383'6i

237176659

679

461041

313046839

50c

250000

I 25000000

560

313600

175616000

620

384400

238328000

680

462400

314432000

501

2JIOOI

I2575150I

S6i

3'472i

176558481

621

385641

239483061

681

463761

315821241

502

252004

126506008

562

315844

177504328

622

386884 240641848

682

465124

3172I4568

503

253009

127263527

563

316969

'78453547

623

388129 241804367

683

466489

318611987

504

254016

128024064

564

,318096

17940O144

624

3^9376 242970624

684

467S56

32COI35O4

505

255025

128787625

565

319225

180362125

625

390625 ! 244140625

685

469225

321419125

506

256036

129554216

566

320356 181321496

626

3918761 245314376

686 470596

322828856

507

257049

'30323843

567

32 1489 182284263

627

3931291 246491883

6S7 1471969

324242703

50S

25S064

13 10965 I 2

J 68

3226241 183250432

628

394384 1 247673 '52

688 473344

325660672

'

509

259081

I31S72229

569

323761 1S4220009

629

39564'

248858189

689 474721

327082769

5io

260100

132651000

570

324900

'85193000

630

396900

250047000

690 476100

32850900c

5'i

26II2I

13343283'

57'

326041

186169411

631

398161

25 1 239591

691

47748'

32993937'

512

262144

'34217728

572

327184

1 87 149248

632

399424

252435968

692

478864 331373888

513

263169

135005697

573

328329

'88132517

633

400689

253636137

693

480249 3328125,-7

5'4

264196

'35796744

574

329476

189119224

634

401956

254840104

694

481636 334255384

5'5

265225

136590875

575

330625

1901C9375

6.35

403225

256047875

695

483025 335702375

516

266256

137388096

576

331776

191102976

636

404496

2572594)6

696

484416 337153536

S'7

267289

138188413

577

332929

19210C033

6.^7

405769

258474853

697

485809 338608873

518

26.S324

138991832

578

334084

'93100552

638

407044

259094072

698

487204 I34006S392

5'9

269361

'.59798359

579

iiSH'

194104539

639

408321

2609171 19

699

488601 1341532:99

520

270400

I40608OCO

580

336400

195112C00

640

409600

2621440CO

700

490000

343OOCGOO

52 1

27(441

141420761

58'

337561

196122941

641

410881

263374721

701

49I4OI

344472101

522

2724*^4

142236648

582

338724

197137368

642

412164

264609288

702

492S04

345948408

523

273529

143055667

583

339889

198155287

643

413449

265847707

703

494209

347428927

524

274576 143877824

584

341056

199176704

644

414736

267089984

704

495616

.^48913064

S^5

275625 144703125

585

342225

2C0201625

645

416025

268336125

705 497025

350402625

526

276676 145531570

586

343396

201230056

646

417316

269586136

706

498436

351895816

527!

277729

'46363183

587

344569

202262003

647:

418609

270840023

707

499849

353393243

528!

27S784

147197952

5^8

.345744

203297472

648,

419904

272097792

708

501264

354894912

529!

279841

148035889

589 346921

204336469

649

421201

273359449

709

502681

356400829

530

280900

14887700c

590 348100

205379CC0

650

422500

2746250CO

710

504100

35791 lOCO

531

28 196 I

I4972129I

591

349281

206425071

65.

423801

275894451

71 '

505521

35942543'

532

283024

I5056S76S

592

350464

207474688

652

425104

27716780S

712

506944

360944128

533

284089

'5'4i94.?7

593

351649

208527857

653

426409

278445077

7'3

508369

362467097

5341

285156

'522733'^4

Tc;4

352836 2095X45^4!

654;

427716

279726264

714

509706

363994344

535'

286225

'53'3°375

595

354025

210644875

655 ;

429025

28101 1375

715

511225

365525875

536

787296

'53990656

596

355216

211708736

656 i

430336

282300416

716

512650

36706 16()6

5..' 7

288369

'54854'53

597

356409

212776173

657:

43 '6491

283593393

717

5I40S9

368601813

538 289444

155720S72

598 357604 1

213847192

658 i

432964:

284890312

718

515,-24

370146232

539 290521

156590S19

599

358801

214921799

659

434281 1

286191179

719

5 I 696 1

371694959

540

291600

157464^00

600

360C00

216000000

660

435600 J

287496000

720

518400

573248000

SQUARE NUMBERS.

Table of Squares and Cubes to 1200.

No. Squares.

1 I51984I
722 521284
522729
524176
525625
527076
528529
529984

S.J'44t

532900

Cubes.

723
724
725
726

727
72S
729

73°

-31
732
733
734
735
73'^'
737
73«
739
74°

741

742

743
744

745
745

747
748

749
750

75'
752
753
754
755
756

757
758
759
760

761

762

7^'3
764
765
766

7''>7
;6S
769
770

77'

772

773
774
775
776

777
778

779
780

534361
535824
537289
538756
540225
541696
543 "69

544644
546121

547600

549081

550564
552049

553536
555025
556516

558009

559504
56 1 00 1
562500

564001
565504
567009
568516
570025
57'536
573049
574564
576081
577600

579121

580644
58216c)
583696
585225
586756
588289
589824
591361
592900

594441

595984
597529
599076
600625
602 1 76
603729
605284
606841
608400

No.

374805361
376367048
377933067

379503424
381078125
382657176
384240583
3S5828352
387420489
389017000

390617891
392223168

393832837
395446904
397065375
398688256
400315553
401947272

403583419
405224000

406869021
40S518488
410172407
411830784
413493625
415160936
416832723
418508992
420189749
421875000

423564751
42525900S
426957777
428661064
430368875
432081 216
433798093
4355i95'2

437245479
438976000

4407 1 108 1
1442450728
444 '94947
'445943744
447697125
449455090
451217663
452984832
454756609
456533000

458314011
460099648
461889917
463684824

4654S4375
46-288576
469097433
470910952
472729139
474552000

Squares.

781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790

791
792
793
794

795
796

797
798

799
800

So I
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810

811
812

S13
814
815
816
817
818
819
820

Cubes.

609961
611524
613089
614656
616225
617796
619369
620944
622521
624100

6256S1

627264
62S849
630436
632025
633616
635209
636S04
638401
640000

64 1 60 1

643204
644809
646416
648025
649636
651249
652864

65448'
656100

657721

659344

660969
662596
664225
665S56
667489
669124
670761
672400

No.

821 674041

82 2 675684

823 I 677329
S2.» ■ 67S976
S25J 680625

826 ; 682276

827 ! 683929

828 ! 685584
687241
688900

69056 1

692224
693889
695556
697225
698896
700569
702244
703921
705600

829
830

83'

S3 2

833
S34

835
836

837
838

839
840

47637954'

4782 1 1 768

48O04S687
481890304
483736625
485587656
487443403
489303S72
49 1 1 69069
493039000

49491 367 1
496793088
498677257
500566184
502459S75

504358336
506261573
508169592
510082399
512000000

513922401
515849608
517781627
519718464
521660125
523606616

525557943
5275 141 12

5294751 9
531441000

5334"73'

535387328

537367797
539353 '44
54'343375
543338496
54533S5'3
547343432

549353259
551368000

553387661
555412248

557441767
559476224
561 5 15625
563559976
565609283
567663552
569722789
5717S7000

573856191

57593036S
578009537
580093704
582182875
584277056
586376253
588480472
590589719
592704000

841
842

843
844
845
S46
847
848

849
8,-0

851
852

853
854

855
856

Squares.

707281
708964
710649
712336
714025
715716

717409
719IO4
720801

734201
725904
727609

7293'6
731025

732736

857 I 734449
S58 736164

7378B1
739600

Cubes.

859
860

861

862
863
S64
865

866
867
868
869
870

871

872

873
874

875
876

877
878

879
8S0

881
882
883
S83
885
886
8S7
888
S89
890

891
892

893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900

No.

741321

743044
744769

746496
748225

749956
751689

753424
755161
756900

758641

760384
762129
763876
765625
767376
769129
770884
772641
774400

776161

777924
779689
781456
783225
784996
786769
788544
790321
792ICO

594823321
596947688
599077107
601211584
603351125

605495736
607645423
609800192
61 1960049

6 1 41 25000

616295051

618470208
620650477
622835864
625026375
627222016
629422793
631628712

633839779
636056000

638277381
640503928
642735647
644972544
647214625
64946 1 896
65 1 7 14363
653972032
656234909
658503000

66077631 1
663054848
665338617
667627624
669921875
672221376
674526133
676836152

679'5'439
681472000

683797841
68612S968
688465387
690807 104
693154125
695506456
697864103
700227072
702595369
704969000

Squares.

Cubes.

793881 !
795664

797449 !
799236;
801025
S028J6
804609 I
806404 I
808201 i
810000 !

707347971

709732288
712121957
714516984
716917375

7'9323'3'>
731734273
724150792
726572699
729000000

901
902

903
904
905
906

907
908
909
910

911
912

9'3
914

9'5
916

917
918
919

920

921
922

923
924

925
926
927
928

929

930

931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
94°

941
942
943

944
945
946
947
948

949
950

951

952
953
954
955
956

957
958

959

960

S11801
813604
815409
817216
819025
820836
822649
824464
826281
828100

829921
83 '744
833569
835396
837225
839056
840889
842724
844561
846400

848241

850084
851929
853776
855625
857476
859329
861184
863041
864900

866761
868624
870489
872356
874225
876096
877969
879844
881721
883600

885481
887364
889249
891136
893025
894916
896809
898704
90060 1
902500

904401
906304
908209
910116
912025

913936
915849
917764
9196S1
921600

731432701
733870808
736314327
738763264
741217625
743677416
746142643
748613312
751089429
753571000

756058031
758550528
761048497
763551944
766060875
768575296
771095213
773620632
776151559
778688000

781239961

783777448
786330467
788889024

79 '453 '25
794022776

796597983
799178752
801765089
804357000

806954491
S0955756S
812166237

814780504
817400375
820025856
822656953
825293672
827936019
830584000

833237621
835896888
S38561807
841232384
843708625

84659=536
84927S123
851971392

854670349
S57375000

860085351

862801408
865523177
868250664
870983875
873722816
876167493
879217912
881974079
884736000

SQUARE NUMBERS.

Table of Squares and Cubes to 1 200.

No. Squares. Cuhcs. No. Squares

961
962

964
96,-
966
967
968
969
970

971
972

973
974
975
976

977
978

979
980

98.
982

983
98A
985
986
987
988
989
990

99'
992

993
994
995
996

997
998

999

1000

1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010

lOI I

1012
1013
1014

IOI6

IOI7

1018
IOI9

1020

923521

925444
927369

929296
931225

933156
935089
937024
938961

940900

942841
944784
946729

948676
950625

952576
954529
956484
958441

960400
962361

964324

966289
968256

970225
972196

974169
976144

978I2I
980100

982081
984064
986049
988036

990025
992016

994009

996004
998001

I 000000

1002001
1004004
1006009
I0080I6
1010025
IOI2036
I o I 4049
1016064
1018081

IO2OI00

I022I2I
1024144
1026169
1028196
1030225
1032256
1034289
1036324
1038361
1040400

887503681
8902771 28
893056347

89584' 344
898632125
901428696
904231063
907039232
909853209
912673000

91549861 1
918330048
921167317
924010424
926859375
929714176
932574833
93544'352
9383'3739
941 192000

944076141
946966168
949862087
952763904
955671625
958S85256
961504803
964430272
967361669
970299000

973242271
976191488
979146657
982107784
985074875
988047936
991026973
99401 1992
997002999
1000000000

1003003001
1006012008
1009027027
loi 2048064
1015075125
1018108216
1021147343
1024192512
1027243729
1030301000

1033364331
'036433728
1039509197
1042590744
1045678375
1048772096
1051871913

'054977832
1058089851
1061208000

021
022
C23
024
025
026
027
028
029
030

031

032

033

034

035
036

037
038

039
040

041

042

043
044
045
046
047
048
049
050

051
052

053
054

055
056
057
058
059
060

061

062
063
064
065
066
067
068
069
070

071
072

073
074
075
076
077
078
079
080

042441
044484
046529
048576
050625
052676
054729
056784
058841
060900

062961
065024
067089
069156
071225
073296
075369
077444
079521
081600

083681
085764
087849
089936
092025
0941 16
096209
098304
100401
102500

104601
106704
108809
1 10916
1 13025
115136
117249
119364
121481
123600

125721
127844
129969
132096
134225

'36356
138489

140624
142761
I 44900

147041
149184
151329

■53476
155625
157776
159929
162084
164241
1 66400

Cubes.

1064332261
1067462648
1070599167
1073741824
1076890625
1080045576
1083206683
'086373952

1089547389
1092727000

1095912791
1099104768
1 102302937
1105507304
II08717875
IIII934656
1115157653
1118386872
1121622319
1 124864000

II2811 1921
II31366088
1134626507
"3789.^184
1141166125

1144445336
1147730823
1 15IO22592
1 1 543 20649
1157625000

1160935651
1 164252608

"67575877
1170905464
II74241375
"77583616
"80932193
1 1842871 12
1187648379
I 191016000

I 194389981
1197770328

i«oi 157047

I20455OI44
1207949625
1211355496

I 2 14767763
1 218186432
122161 1509
1225043000

I 22848091 1
1231925248

'235376017
1238833224
1242296875
1245766976

'249U3533

125272/)552

1256216039
125971200

No. Si|iui

108 I
T082
1083
1084
10S5
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090

1091

1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
IIOO

IIOl

1102

II03

1 104

1105

1 106

1107

1108

1 109
1 no

nil
1112

"13
1 1 14
1115
1116
1117
1118
1 1 19
1120

1 121

1 122
1123

1 124

1 125
1126
1 127
1128
1 129
1130

1131
1132

"33
"34

1 136

"37
1 138

"39
1 140

Cubes.

1168561

1 170724
1172889
I I 75056
1177225
1179396
1181569

"83744
1 185921

I18810O

1 190281
I 192464
I 194649
1196836
1 199025
I201216
1203409
I 205604
I20780I
1210000

I2I220I
1214404
1 2 I 6609
1218816
1221025
1223236
1225449
1227664
1229881
1232100

1234321
1236544
1238769
1240996
1243225

1245456
1247689
1249924
I252161
1254400

1256641
1258884
1261 129
1263376
1265625
1267876
1270129
1272384
1274641
1276900

1 279 I 61
1281424
1283689
1185956
I28S225
1 290496
1292769
1 295044
1297321
I 299600

263214441
266723368
270238787

273760704
277289125
280824056
284365503
287913472
291467969
295029000

298596571
302170688
305751357
309338584

312932375
316532736
320139673

323753192
327373299
331000000

334633301
338273208
341919727
345572864
349*32625
352899016
356572043
360251712
363938029
367631000

37'33-"'63i
375036928
378749897
382469544
386195875
3899:8896
393668613
397415032
401 168159
404928000

408694561
412467848
416247867
420034624
423828125
427628376

43'43;383

435249 '52
439o69'.89
442897000

44673 109 1
45057 196s
454419637
458274104

462'35375
46600345')
469878353
473760072
477648619
48 1 544000

No.

1 141

1 142

"43
"44
"45
1 146

"47
1148

"49
1150

1151
1152
"53
"54

"55
1 156

"57
1158

"59
1 160

1161
1162
1163
1 164
1165
1166
1 167
1168

1 169

1 170

1171
1 172

"73
"74

"75
1 176

"77
1178

"79

1180

1181
1182
1183
1184
1 185
1186
1187
11S8
1 189

-Squares.

Cube;

I301881
1 304 1 64
1306449
1308736
131 1025

1313316
1315609
1317904
1320201
1322500

1324801
1327104
1329409
1331716
1334025

1336336
1338649

134 964
1343281
1345600

1347921
1350244
1352569
1354896

13572251

1359556
1361889
1364224
1366561
1368900

1371241
1373584
1375929
1378276
1380625
1382976

1385329
1387684
1390041
1392400

1394761

1397124
1399489

1401856'
1404225'
1406596,
I40S969J
1411344!
'413721
I 190 ' 1416100

1 191 j I41S481
I 192 I 1420864

"MSi 1423249

"94l '425636
1 195 1 1428025
1 196J 1430416
1197 1432809
1198; 1435204
"991 1437601
1200 1440000

1485446221
1489355288
1493271207

1497193984
15011 23625
1505060136
1509003523

'512953792
1516910949
15208750G0

1524845951
1528823808
1532808577
1536S00264
1540798875
1544804416
15.^8816893
'552836312
1556862679
1560896000

1 5649363^81
1568983528

'573037747
1577098944
1581167125
1585242296
'589324463
1593413632
1597509809
1601613000

1605723211
1609840448
1613964717
1 618096024
1622234375
1626379776
1630,-32233

'63469' 752
1638858339
1643032000

164721274'
16? 1400568

'655595487
'659797504
1664006625
1668222856
1672446203
1676676672
1680914269
1685159000

1689410871
1693669888
1697936057
1702209384
1706489875
1710777536
17 15072373
>7i93'4?92

1723683599
1728000000

S QU

Square Root, a number confidered as the root of a fe-
cond power or fquaie number: or a number, by whole
multiplication into itfelf a fquare number is generated. See

To exlraa the Square Root out of any given Number, fee
Extraction of Roots.

Square, Norma, is an inftrument made of wood or me-
tal, fervin^ to defcribe and meafure right angles ; luch is
LEM, PlateXlV. Geometry, fg. 10.

It confills of two rules or branches fattened perpendicu-
larly at one of their extremes. When the two branches are
moveable on ajoint, it is called a bevel.

To examine whether or not a fquare be exaft, defcribe a
femicircle, A E F, of any length, at pleafure ; and therein,
from each extreme of the diameter, A and F, draw right
lines to a point taken at pleafure in the periphery, as E :
to the fides of the angle, A E F, apply the fquare, fo as
its vertex may fall on F. If this be poflible, that fquare is
juft.

Square, The, an inttrument ufed in drawing, which con-
fills of a fiat ruler hg {fg. 1 1.), at one end of which are
fattened two tranfverfe pieces ; one of them, a b, fixed at
right angles to it, and the other, c d, moveable round the
centre/, fo as to be fixed at any angle required. Thefe
tranfverfe pieces are applied clofe to the fide of the drawing-
board, which is a fmooth board made in the form of a fquare,
or parallelogram, while the ruler lies upon it ; and by Aiding
them along the board, lines may be dr.iwn parallel to one
another with much lefs trouble than by the help of a paral-
lel ruler. By the fixed tranfverfe, lines may be drawn pa-
rallel to one fide of the board, and perpendicular to the
other ; and, by the moveable tranfverfe, lines that have any
degree of obhquity to the fides of the boards, may be
drawn parallel to one another : and if, without moving the
tranfverfe, the ruler be removed to the other fide of the
board, lines may be drawn perpendicular to them. But if
the obliquity be very great, it will be impofTible to apply the
fquare, fo as to interfeft the lines at right angles in fome
parts of the board. In this cafe recourfe muft be had to a
parallel ruler.

Square, Geometrical, a compartiment frequently added
on the face of the quadrant, called alio line of Ihadows and
quadrant.

Square, Gunner's. See Quadrant.

Squares, Magic. See Magic Square.

Square, in Glafs-Mah'mg, an inftrument with which the
conciator, or founder, ftirs and mixes together the metal,
when in fufion in the melting-pots. When this inftrument is
grown red-hot, it is always to be quenched in a pail of
water, otherwife the metal will ftick to it.

Square, in the Manege, is ufed for working in a fquare.
The piite or tread of a volt, inftead of being always circu-
lar, and traced upon a circumference round a centre, ought
to be imagined as if it formed four ftraight equal lines laid
in a fquare, and equally removed from the centre or the
pillar, which reprelents it in the middle of the manege-
ground ; fo that, to work in a fquare, is to ride along each
of thefe four lines, turning the hand at every corner, andfo
patting from one line to another.

Square, The, in the Military Art, a particular form into
which troops are thrown on critical occafions ; particularly
to refill the charge of cavalry.

Square Battalion, Hollow, and Solid, See the feveral
articles.

Square Cap. See Cap.

Squark CharaBer, See Hebrew^

S Q U

Square Fool, Nails, Niche, Pedeflal, Pillar, Roof, and
Winditig flairs. See the fubftantives.

Square, in Sea Language, z term peculiarly appropriated
to the yards and their fails, implying that they hang at right
angles with the maft or keel, or that they are of greater ex-
tent than ufual.

Thus, when the yards are fo balanced by their lifts, as to
hang at right angles with the maft, they are faid to be fquare
by the lifts; when they hang perpendicular to the ihip's
length, they are called fquare by the braces ; but when they
lie in a direftion perpendicular to the plane of the keel, they
are fquare by the lifts and braces ; or, in other words, they
hang direftly acrofs tlie ftiip, and parallel to the horizon.

The yards are faid to be very fquare when they are of ex-
traordinary length ; and the fame epithet is then applied to
their fails, which by confequence acquire an additional
breadth.

Square nf an Anchor, denotes the upper part of the
(hank. See Anchor.

SQUARE-5o</y, in Ship- Building, all the midrtiip part of
the (hip, or that between the cant-bodies, whofe timbers
ftand at right angles, or fquare with the keel.

SovARE-Maker, a ihipwright, who cuts the butts of the
planks when required to receive the oakum, and prepares the
work ready for the caulkers.

S(iVA.v.t,- Ribbands, the fame as horizontal ribbands. See
Ribbands.

QovAU^-Rlgged, is an epithet applied to a ftiip which
has long yards at right angles with the length of the deck,
and low mafts ; and hence it is ufed in contradiftinftion to all
vefiels whofe fails are extended by ftays or lateen-yards, or
by booms and gaffs ; the ufual fituation of which is nearly
in the plane of the keel.

Hence, fquare-fail is a fail extended to a yard, which
hangs parallel to the horizon, as dittinguifhed from the
other fails, which are extended by booms and ftays, placed
obliquely. This fail is only ufed in fair winds, or to feud
under in a tempeft. In the former cafe it is furniftied with
a large additional part, called the bonnet, which is then at-
tached to its bottom, and removed when it is neceflary to
feud. Falconer.

SavAR'E-Sterned, a term applied to (hips having broad
fterns, and the butts of the planks of the bottom ending on
the wing-tranfom. All Britiih fhips are now built upon this
principle, whilit many of other nations are ftill conilrufted
by the ancient methods ; hence we fo frequently hear the
phrafe of " fquare-lterned and Brititti-built," as our prac-
tice in this refpeft juftly claims the fuperiority over that of
all other nations.

SQUARE-77mfcrj, the timbers which ftand at right aagles,
or fquare with the keel. See Square-5o<^.

Square-Tuc^, a name given to the after-part of a vettisl's
bottom, when terminated in the fame direftion up anddovm
as the wing-tranfom ; and the planks of the bottom end in a
rabbet at the fore-fide of the fafliion-piece.

Square Handherchlef, in Geography, a clufter of iflets
and rocks in the Atlantic, formerly called " Bazos de Ba-
buca ;" extending above loo miles in circumference. N.
lat. 21°. W. long. 69°.

Square Ifland, a fmall ifland in the N. part of lake Su-
perior. N. lat. 48° 40'. W. long. 87° 22'.— Alfo, an
ifland near the E. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 52° 54'. W.

lo"g- 55° 34'-

SQUARING, in Mathematics. See Quadrature.

Squaring /Ae Circle, is the making a fquare whofe area
(hall be equal to the area of a given circle;

The bell mathematiciaus have found it impollible to folve

this

S Q U

this problem fo as to be precifely exaft ; but they can eafily
come fo near it, as not to err fo much in the area as a grain
of fand would cover in a circle, whofe diameter is equal to
the diameter of Saturn's orbit. The following proportions
are near enough to the truth for any real ufe that can arife
from this problem.

As loooooooo is to the diameter of the given circle, fo
is 88622692 to the fide of the fquare required. Therefore,

If the Diameter The Side of ihe

of the Circle be Square will be

loooooooo

10000000
I 000000
I 00000
lOOCO ■ -

1000
100
10
I

88622692.
8862269.2
886226.92
88622.692

8862.2692

886.22692

88.622692

8.8622692
0.88622692

And, as loocooooo is to the fide of a given fquare, fo is
112837917 to the diameter of a circle very nearly equal to
the fquare. Therefore,

If the Side of
the Square be

loooooooo

I 0000000

1 000000

I 00000 -

1 0000

1000

100

10

I

The Diameter of
the Circle will lie

112837917.
I I28379I.7
1128379.17
112837.917
11283.7917
1128. 37917
II2.837917
11.2837917
1. 12837917

See Circle, Diameter, and Quadrature.

SQUARTIA, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of fi(h found in
the Eaft Indies, the (Ivin of which makes thefhagreen.

SQUASH Gourd, in Gardening, the common name of
a particular fort of gourd-plant, with erecl Hems or italics.
See CucuuBiTA.

Squa.sh Pear tree. See PEAR-/r«.

SQUATAROLA, in Ornithology, a name given by the
Venetians to the grey plover, or p/uvieilis cinerea.

SQUATINA, in Ichthyology, the monk-fjh, a fpecies of
the fqualus, called, in Italian, the pefce angelo, and thence
in Englifh the ani;tl-fi(h and monk-fifh. See Squalc'S.

SQUATINATORIA, a name by whicii fome authors
have called the thinobatos, a fea-fi(h of a fort of middle na-
ture between the monk-fifh, orangel-fifh, and tlie ray.

SQUATT, in Mineralogy, a term given by the Englifh
miners to a peculiar fort of bed of ore, lels valuable than
a load or vein, becaufe of its reaching but a little way.

Though the ore of the fquatts is generally very rich and
good, not inferior in quality to the befl vein-ore, the miners
are often difappointed, on finding thefe fquatts inltead of the
right veins, after a long fearch. In the tin countries, the
way of fearching for mines is by looking after the Skoad-
Jiones, whicli fee.

Thefe upper parts of the veins have been wafhed off, and
carried down the fides of the hills, in which the mines ufiially
lie, into the flat country ; but they always lie in a regular
and continued train, from the orilice of the mine to the
farthetl pan of the train ; fo that when but one Itone of this
kind is found, the miners arc certain of coming to the bed
of metal, on tracing it up to its head by the train. This
is a laborious and expenfive work, becaufe the Itonei never

Voi,. XXXIII.

S Q U

lie on the furface, but at the different depths of one to ten
feet, or any depth between thefe. The fquatts have their
trains of flioad-ftones as well as the regular veins, and when
thefe are traced to the orifice, there is the appearance of a
rich load, which the proprietor is not thoroughly undeceived
in till the diggers come to the end of it.

The fquatt is a bed of ore from three to ten fathoms long,
and ufually is about half as broad as it is long ; few are
larger than this ftandard, but many much lets. This is
always flat, and thence has its name ; the round collec-
tions of ore of the fame kind being called bonnies. The
fquatt communicates with no other load or vein, but is en-
tire of itfeif, and its extremities terminate at once, without
running into fe%'eral little ftringr-, in the manner of thofe of
the right veins. It does not lie within walls, as the loads or
veins always do, though it is always depofited in the fhelf,
or fafl ground ; that is, in ftrata that have not been moved.
Phil. Tranl. N'>69.

SQUATUS, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by Pliny, and
other of the old Roman authors, to exprefs the fifh called
by the old Greek writers rhine, and by the moderns fguatina.
See Squalu.s.

SQUIB and Mince-meat Manures, in ^Agriculture, are
terms which are applied to thofe forts which are collefted in
large towns, as the metropolis, and others. The former
chiefly confifts of the more fmall mixed powdery kinds, but
the latter principally of the inore reduced animal matters.
They would both feem to be fuperior to foot or malt-duft
in the trial of a writer in the Agricultural Report of the
County of Middlefex. See Soot and Manure.
SQUIBS. See Yiv^-lVorh.

SQUILACHI, in Zoology, the name by which the mo-
dern Greeks call the jackall, or luj>us aureus of authors.
SQUILL. See SyiiLLA.

Squill, Officinal, or Sea-onion, Scilla Maritima, in the
Materia Medica. The roots, or rather the bulbs, of this fpe-
cies are the parts that are ufed in medicine. Of thefe bulbs
there are two forts, the red and white, which are fuppofed to
be accidental varieties ; but for medicinal ufe the red is gene-
rally preferred, as it has been fuppofed to be more efficacious
than the other. They grow naturally on fea-fhores, or in
ditches where the falt-water flows hi with the tide, in moft of
the warm parts of Europe ; particularly on fandy fhores in
Spain and in the Levant, from whence we arc annu.illy I iipplied
wuh them. They fhould be chofen large, plump, frclh, and
full of a clammy juice. They are prcicrved frelh in fand ;
but as they are apt to fpoil, it is bell to keep them in the
dried flate. However, the frefh bulb iofes in drying about
four-fifths of its weight, without any confidcrable lofs of its
tafte or virtue : hence fotir grains, which are the mean dofc
of the dry bulb in powder, are equivalent to near a fcruple
of the frefh fquill. Neverthelefs, its acrimony, on which
its virtue depends, is partially diffipated by drying and long
keeping ; and completely deflroyed by heat. The molt
convenient way of drying it is, after peeling off the outer
fkin, to cut the bulbs tranlverfely into thin flices, and ex-
pofe them to a gentle warmth. Tiie ancients, in order to
abate the acrimimy of the fquill fir certain purpofei. after
feparating the llcin and fibres, enclofcd it m a palle made of
flonr and water, and then baked it in an oven, till (he ] .iltc
became dr)', and tlie Iqnill tlioroughly foft and tender. Tlie
fquill, fo prepared, was beaten with two-third> its wcigiit of
flour, the mixture formed into triciies, and dried with a
gentle heat. Thefe troclies were fuppofed to be alexipliar>
mic, and on this account were ufed . an ingredient in
theriaca, with which view tli -y are ftill retained. Water,
wine, proof-fpirit, and reftihed fpirit, extrad the virtue*
4 O both

SQUJLL.

both of the frefti and dry bulb. Nothing nfes m diftiUation
with any of thefe menltnia, the entire bitternefs and pun-
gency of the fquill remaining concentrated in the infpiflated
cxtrafts ; the fpirituons extraft is fmaller in quantity than
the watery, and its tafte is proportionally itronger, aimed
fiery. Alkalies confiderably abate both the bitternefs and
acrimony of the fquill : vegetable acids make little altera-
tion in either of thefe refpefts. Thefe acids extraft its
virtue equally with watery or fpirituous menllrua ; and, as
an expeftorant in diforders of the breail, excellently coin-
cide with it.

The expreffed jiiice, when diluted with water, filtered,
and boiled, yields white flakes v)f albumen. Nitrate of
mercury and fuperacetate of lead feparate from it white
curdy precipitates. Infufion of galls forms in it pale
brownifh flakes ; fnlphate of iron throws down a copious
pale green precipitate : lime evolves ammonia. When the
infoluble part of dried fquill is digefled in muriatic acid,
filtered, and ammonia added in excefs, a copious precipitate
is throv^n down, which is oxalate of lime. Ether digefted
on dried fquill acquires a pale green hue, and when evapo-
rated on the furface of water, a thin pellicle of very bitter
refin is depofited ; while the water acquires an intenfely
bitter talle, and yields copious precipitate! with folutions
of acetate of lead and nitrate of filver. From thefe im-
perfeft experiments, fquills appear to contain extraftive,
albumen, a fmall portion of refin, mucus, carbonate of
ammonia, the bitter principle, ftarch, and oxalate of lime.

The root of the fquill has been known in medicine in
the early ages of Greece ; fo that the introduftion of its
medical ufe has been referred by foine to Epimenide«, and
by others to Pythagoras. It is noticed by Diofcorides,
Hippocrates, Galen, Actius, Celfus, Pliny, Cselius Aure-
lianus, and the Arabian phyficians. Its medical charaftcr
has been retained ever fince to fuch a degree, that it is
ftill defervedly held in high eltimation, and frequently ufed.
It feems, however, to manifeft a poilonous quality to feveral
animals, as many medical writers have teftified. If admi-
niftered in large and repeated dofes, it not only excites
naufea, tormina, and violent vomitinos, but it has been
known to produce llrangury, bloody urine, hypercatharfis,
cardialgia, hamorrhoids, convulfions, with fatal inflamma-
tion and gangrene of the ftomach and bowels. Never-
thelefs, under proper management, and in certain cafes and
conftitutions, it merits recommendation as a medicine of
great praftical utility, and real importance in the cure of
many obftinate difeafes. In fmall dofes it is expeAorant and
diuretic ; but in large dofes, emetic and purgative : but
when thefe latter effefts take place, the medicine is pre-
yentcd from reaching thj blood-veffels and kidnies, and the
patient derives no benefit from its diuretic efficacy. In fuch
cafes it fliould be given in fmaller dofes, at more diltant in-
tervals, or an opiate fhould be joined to it, which, accord-
ing to Dr. Cullen, will anfwer the fame purpofe. By re-
peated ufe the dofe may be i-.icreafed, and the intervals of
adminiftering it diminiflied ; and accordin^y, when the
dofes are tolerably large, the opiate may be moft conveni-
ently employed to direft the operation of the fquill more
certainly to the kidnies. In cafes of dropfy, he fays, when
there is an efFufion of water into the cavities, and therefore
|ef« water pafies to the kidnies, neutral fait, accompany-
ing the fquill, may be of ufe in determining it more ccr-
tainly to the kidnies ; and when it is perceived to take this
courfe, he is perfuaded that it will be always ufeful, and
generally fafe, during the exhibition of the fquills, to in-
creafe llie ufual quantity of drink. The diuretic effeas of
%uill8 have been fuppofed to be promoted by the addition

10

of fome mercurial ; and Dr. Cullen is of opinion, that the
lefs purgative preparations of mercury are bell adapted to
this purpofe ; accordingly he recommends a folution of
corrofiye fubliraate or oxymuriate of mercury, as the moft
proper, becaufe it is the moil diuretic.

Wagner recommends the powder of fqoillst given with
nitrv, in hydropical fwellings, and in a nephritis, and men-
tions feveral examples of cures which he performed, by
giving patients from four to ten grains, with a double quan-
tity of nitre.

When fquill has been employed as a diuretic, it has been
ufual to give it in powder, becaufe in this ftate it is lefs apt
to produce naufea ; and it has been cuftomary to add neu-
tral falts, as nitre, or cryftals of tartar, efpecially if the
patient complained of much thiril ; others recommend calo-
mel : and with a view to render the fquills le(s offenfive to
the ftomach, it has been ufual to conjoin an aromatic.

In allhmatic affeftions, or dyfpnoea, occafioned by the
lodgment of tenacious phlegm opprefling the lungs, or
when the prims v\x abound with mucous matter, it has
been the expeftorant ufually employed ; and held in general
eftimation. As an expeftorant, the fquill may be fuppofed
not only to attenuate the mueus, and thus facilitate its
ejeftion, but by ftimulating the excretory organ and mucous
foUicles, to excite a more copious excretion of it from the
lungs, and thereby lefien the congelUoii, upon which the
difficulty of refpiration very generally depends. Hence, in
all pulmonic afFeftions, excepting only thofe of aftual or
violent inflammation, ulcer, and fpafm, the fquill has been
found to be a very ufeful medicine.

The root of fquill is to the talle very naufcous, intenfely
bitter and acrimonious ; but without any perceptible fmell :
much handled, it exuicerates the fl<in. It is rendered more
ufeful as an expeftorant, when combined with nitrate of
potafs, tartarized antimony, or ipecacuanha ; and in allhma
and dyfpnoea witliout fever, fquill combined with ammonia-
cum is perhaps the beft remedy we can employ.

Dr. Hefs fays, he has cured the afthma with the powder
of fquills. The efficacy of this powder, from four to
twelve grains, in curing the althma, is attclled by feveraL
Med. Ell'. Edinb. Com. Norimb. 1737, and 1739.

As an emetic, fquill is very uncertain in its effeft, pro-
ducing in fome perfons the moll cruel vomiting, and in
others exciting no naufea in the largelt dofes : neverthelefs,
when it readily and moderately induces vomiting, it proves
more ufeful in hooping-cough and croup, than any other
emetic.

For producing expeftorant and diuretic effefts moft effec-
tually, fquill mull be given in fubftance ; but fo excite vo-
miting, its infufion in vinegar, or the oxyrael, is more ufually
employed. Of the dried f .^uill, gr. j, in the form of a pill,
may be given at firil for a dofe, morning and evening, or
every fix hours ; and the quantity gradually increafed to
grs. v or grs. vj, or till fome degree of naufea is induced,
and its expeftorant or diuretic operation obtained.

The officinal preparations of fquills are the following: -uiz.
acftum/cilU, oxymelfcilU, pllulx /cilia comp., pulvit fc'tlU,fyru-
pus Jc'illx tnaritmt, and tlnSurafcilU. The " acctum fcillae,"
or vinegar of iquill, of the Lond. Ph. is prepared by ma-
cerating lib. of frelh fquill root (bulb) dried in fix pints of
acetic acid, in a covered veifel, for 24 hours ; then expreff-
ing the liquor, and fetting it afide, that tlie feculencies
may fubfide ; and laftly, adding half a pint of proof-fpirit
to the clear liquor.

The << acetum fcillae maritimae," or vinegar of fquill, of
the Edinb. Fh. is prepared by macerating 2 oz. of the
fquill root (bulb) dried, with 2^ lbs. of diftjled vinegar, for

ffven

\

S Q U

feren days ; tlien exprefling the liquor, and adding to it
3 oz. of alcohol ; and when the feculencies have fubfided,
pouring off the clear fluids.

The " acetum fcillae," or vinegar of fquill, of the Dub.
Ph. is obtained by digefting half a pound of frefh fquill
root (bulb) dried, with three pints of wine vinegar, for four
days in a glafs velFel, with frequent agitation ; then exprefF-
ing the vinegar ; and, after the feculencies have fubfided,
adding to it four fluid-ounces of reftified fpirit.

This has been long ufed as an expeftorant and diuretic in
chronic catarrh, humoral aithma, and dropfics. The dofe
is from fjfs to fjij, given in cinnamon or mint-water. In
large dofes it produces vomiting, and is occafionally ufed as
an emetic in the above-mentioned difeafes, when the ftomach
is loaded. For the " oxvmel of fquill," fee Oxymel Scilla.
For the " pills of fquillj" fee Pills.

The " pulvis fcillse," or powder of fquill, of the Dub.
Ph. is prepared by freeing fquill roots (bulbs) from their
membranous integuments, and cutting them in tranfverfe
dices, then drying them upon a fieve with a low degree of
heat ; and afterwards reducing them to powder, which
muft be preferved in well-ilopped glafs phials.

The " fyrupus fcills maritimae," or fyrup of fquill, of
the Edinb. Ph. is formed of 2 lbs. of vinegar of fquill and
3ilbs. of refined fugar powdered ; diffolving the fugar by
a gentle heat, fo as to make a fyrup. This fyrup has the
fame properties, ar.d is ufed for the fame purpofes, as the
oxymel of fquill. The dofe is from fzj to fyij, given in
any aromatic diftillcd water.

The " tinfture of fquills" of the Lond. and Dub. Ph.
is prepared by macerating 40Z. of recent fquill root (bulb)
dried, with two pints of proof-fpirit, for 14 days, and filter-
ing. The Dub. Ph. direfts digeilion for feven days, fet-
ting it afide until the dregs are fubfided, and pouring off the
clear liquor. The dofe is from 1^ x to IVj, xxx, given in
almond mixture, ammoniac mixture, or mucilage. Lewis.
Woodville. Thomfon.

Squills, Wine of, is an infufion of the roots of fquills
in white wine for forty days, after which the fquills are
taken out, and the liquor preferved for ufe. It is a gentle
emetic, and is good againft defluxions of rheum.

Squill, IVhlte, Leffer, in Botany, a fpecies oi pancratium ;
which fee.

Squill, Squ'dla, in Natural Hijlory, a large clafs of ani-
mals, comprehending the (hrimp, or cancer crangon ; the craw-
fifli, or cancer Jluviatihs, or cancer ajlacus of Linnaeus ; the
crab, or canrfry \(it>'^e.x, ox cancer gammarus ; prawn, or cancer
fqu'iUa, The fqu'iUa is alfo a genus defcribed under Can-
cer : all which, according to Dr. Hill, make only one
genus of infefls of the podaria kind. They properly be-
long to the genus of Canceu, under which they are de-
fcribed.

SQUILLA, in Botany and Gardening. See Scilla.

Squill A ylqus Dulcis, or frejh-ivater Jhrimp. Few
perfons are aware of the damage done by the frefli-water
(hrimp among the fmall fry of fifh. This infeft is com-
monly very plentiful in ttanding waters, and particularly in
breeding-ponds, where they always have their prey in plenty
before them ; and often fuffer none, or fcarcely any of the
numerous young fry hatched from the fpawn of carp and
tench, to live to grow up. They may be obferved follow-
ing the flioals of the young fry, and fcizing multitudes one
after another ; and at other times lurking among the weeds
to feize fuch as draggle by themtelves. If one of thefe in-
fefts be put into a bafin of water with a dozen or two of
thefe young fifh, though as big as itfelf, it will very

S Q U

foou dettroy them all. They kiir numbers that they can-
not eat, but leave them to rot.

SQUILLACE, in Geography, a fea-port town of Na-
ples, in Calabria Ultra, built on the verge of a rocky
mountain, Hoping to the call, about three miles from the
fea ; and giving name to a gulf of the Mediterranean. It
is the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of Reggio, and contains
eleven pariihes and lix convents. Virgil, for reafons un-
known, gave this city the epithet of " Navifragum,"
breaker of fliips, as there are no hidden or apparent dangers
attending the approach of vefiels ; and we cannot fuppofe,
that this correft poet ihould be fo negligent, as to confound
the capacious bay of " Scyllacxum," as this is called, with
the narrow pafs of Scylla in the Faro of Meffina. In form-
ing the body of Grecian commonwealths on the Italian
(liores, Athens furnilhed emigrants for Scyllacaeum ; but
this fettlement never made any figure in the confederacy.
Rome fent a colony hither. In the year 982 the emperor
Otho II. was defeated under its walls by the forces of the
Greeks. Montfort obtained this lordfhlp in fee from
Charles of Anjou ; but in the next reign it was given to
the Marfans. When this powerful houfe was overturned
by the Aragonefe, the fief was beftowed upon that of
Borgia, and was afterwards veiled in the marquis Gregori,
who, from being a commiflioner of the viftualling office at
Meffina, rofe to be prime minifter of Naples, and after-
wards of Spain. Squillace prides itfelt on having given
birth to Caffiodorus, a ftatefman of great abilities, and, con-
fidering the times he lived in, a very refpeftable author, be-
loved and honoured by Theodoric, and other Gothic mo-
narcha. To this town, which was the place of his nativity,
he retreated in his old age ; and he amply defcribes it ;
33 miles S.S.E. of Cofenza. N. lat. 38° 48'. E. long.
16° 44'.

SQUINANCY, or Esquinancy. See Quinzy.

SQUINDER, in Rural Economy, a word fignifying to
burn inwardly, or in a fmothering manner, as charcoal and
fome other fubftances are burnt.

SQUINTING, in Medicine, Strabifmus, an irregular po-
fition and motion of the eyes, in which their axes do not
converge to the objeft looked at.

It is certain, that when the axes of the eyes of perfon*
who do not fquint are direfted in different lines, objefts are
feen double ; fquinting perfons, however, do not fee objefts
double. Yet it is well known that the principal realon
which has been adduced for the fingular phenomenon, that
the images imprefled upon the two eyes excite only one
image in the mind, is, that the two images fall upon corre-
fponding points of the eyes. The probability, therefore,
is, that, in a fquinting perfon, both eyes do not lee the ob-
jeft looked at. In many cafes, indeed, " thii is pretty evi-
dent to a by-ftander," as fir E. Home has remarked, " who
is able to determine, that the direction of one of the eyes
differs fo much from that of the other, that it is impoffible
for the rays of light from any objeA to fall on the retinas
of both ; and therefore that one eye docs not fee the objeft.
The fame thing may be proved in another way. For fince
a fmall deviation in the direftion of either eye from the axis
of vifion produces double vifion, any greater deviation muil
have the fame effeft, only increafing the diilance between the
two images, till it becomes fo great, that one eye only is
direfted to the objeft. In fquinting there is evidently 3
greater deviation from the axis of vifion than in double vifion,
and the objetl does not appear double : it is therefore not feen
by both eyes." {(See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxxvii. for the year
'797' P- '3') It^ is manifcit, indeed, that the perception is
not ditlinfl ; but this, as Dr. Porterfield remarked, may be
4 O 2 the

SQUINTING.

the refult of habit and experience, by which the mind learns
to correa the impreifions of the fenfes. (See Edm. Medi-
cal Effays, vol. iii. J 12.) In order to afcertain the nature
of this afFedion, it wiU be neceffary to inveftigate its vane-
ties and caufes. , .

Dr. Cullen was of opinion, that all the varieties of Itra-
bifmus, delcribed by Sauvages and others, might be included
under three fpecies, which he defignated by the appellations
habitualis, commodus, and necefarius. TUefrJl of thefe may
arife from the habit of ufiiig only one eye in viewing objefts,
while tiiere is no dcfeft either in the organ itfelf, or in the
mufcles which move it. In this way children may learn to
fquint from having objefts, which attraft their attention,
placed obhquely near the cradle ; in which cafe it will be
more eafy to view them with the oppofite eye alone, than to
direft both towards the fame point, and they will thus ac-
quire the habit of neglefting the ufe and motions of the
other eye. In a later period of life, the power of fquinting
voluntarily appears to be acquired by fome by this praftice
of ullng one eye. Thus perfons who look much through
telefcopes, and of courfe employ one eye almolt exclufively,
may acquire the power of moving the one more than the
other, or lofe a part of their command over the mufcles
of the negledled eye.

Dr. Darwin mentions a fingular cafe of fquinting, in
which the patient was equally expert in the ufe of either
eye, but viewed every objeA prefented to him with only one
eye at a time, and always with the eye on the fide oppofite
the objeft. Thus, if the objeft was prefented on his right
fide, he viewed it with his left eye ; and when it was prefented
on his left fide, he viewed it vi?ith his right eye. At the fame
time, Dr. Darwin found that he turned the pupil of that
eye which was on the fame fide with the objett in fuch a
direftion, that the image of the objeft might fall on that
part of the bottom of the eye where the optic nerve enters
it, and where it would of courfe excite no impreflion ; and
this infenfible portion of the retina, Dr. Darvdn afcertained
by fome ingenious experiments to be four times greater in
this patient than in ordinary perfons. When an objeft was
held direftly before this patient, he turned his head a little
to one fide, and obferved it with but one eye, •viz. with that
moft diftant from the objeft, turning away the other in the
manner juft mentioned ; and when he became tired with ex-
jmining it with that eye, he turned his head the contrary
way, and obferved it with the other eye alone, with equal
facility ; but never turned the axes of both eyes on it at the
fame time. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii. p. 86.

The fecond fpecies of fquinting, however, which Dr.
Cullen ityles commodus, and which is the effedl of fome im-
perfedion in one of the eyes, is the mcft common form of
the difeafe. It has generally been admitted, or afcertained
by experiment, in thofe who have a confirmed fquint of this
nature, that one of the eyes is too imperfcdl to fee dif-
tinftly. Of this, however, the patient is not always con-
fcious, as was evinced in a young lady, whofe cafe is related
by fir Everard Home. Neither herfelf nor her friends be-
beved that any defeiS of the eye exilted ; and upon being
aflted if (he faw objeds diilinftly with both eyes, file faid
certainly, but that one was ftronger than the other. To
afcertain the truth of this, he covered the ilrong eye, and
jrave her a book to read, when, to her allonifhmeiit, (he
found Ihe could not dilfinguifh a letter, or any other near
objed. More diltant objects (he could fee, but not dif-
tinftly : when (lie looked at a bunch of fmall keys in the
door of a book-cafe, about twelve feet from her, (he could
fee the bunch of keys, but could not tell how many there
were.

The obfcurity of vifion in one eye, then, is the caufe of
this common fpecies of fquinting, and may occafion this ir-
regularity in the following way. The obfcure image, being
fo imperfeAly formed in the weak eye, as to excite little at-
tention in the mind, the ufe of the eye, and its uniform di-
reftion to the fame objeft with the other, may have been
neglefted from the beginning ; for as diftinft vifion was ob-
tained at once by the perfeft eye, the end was anfwered, and
therefore there was no neceffity for any exertion to employ
the other. Or on the other hand, in the effort to get rid
of the confufed image, the mufcles may have acquired an
irregular and unnatural aftion. It is remarked by fir E.
Home, that the direftion, which the eye takes under either
of thefe circumftances, is inwards, towards the nofe ; becaufe
the adduBor mufcle is ftronger, fhorter, and its courfe more
in a ftraight line, than any of the other mufcles of the eye.
Phil. Tranf.

In the third fpecies, or flrabifmus necejfarius of Cullen,
the fquinting is the refult of fome peculiarity or change in
the form or fitualion of the eye or its parts ; whence a per-
feft and diilinft image of any objeft can only be obtained by
an oblique direftion of the axis of the eye. Dr. Porterfield
has pointed out two varieties of this kind, arifing, the one
from an oblique pofition of the cryftalline lens within the
eye, by which the image of an external objeft is refrafted
out of the line of the axis of the eye ; — and the other, from
an oblique pofition and greater protuberancy of the cornea,
which produces a fimilar effeft. (See Edin. Medical E(rays,
vol. iii. art. 12.) Thefe appear to be fynonimoas with the
Urabifmus a cryjlalUm, and S. myopum of Sauvages (Nofol.
Meth. clafs iv. gen. i. fpec. 12 & 9.) Other partial dif-
eafes of the eye may contribute to render obhque vifion the
moft convenient ; fuch as kucoma, hypopion, pterygium, &c.
enumerated by Sauvages as conftituting his eleventh fpecies,
S. caligantium.

Cure of Squinting. — The two firft fpecies of fquinting,
arifing from the habit of ufing one eye only, or from the
weaknefs or imperfeftion of the other, may be foraetimes
cured. The third, which arifes from fome malformation of
the eye or its parts, is fcarcely remediable.

The principle of cure in the two firft fpecies is nearly the
fame ; namely, the conftant exercife of the neglefted eye,
whether naturally weak or not. This may be effefted by
covering the ftrong eye, or that which is always employed,
and confining the perfon to the ufe of the neglefted or weak
eye. For in this way, the mufcles of the latter, from con-
ftant aftion, will become perfeft in the habit of direfting
the eye upon the objeft, gain ftrength in that aftion, and
acquire a power of adjufting the eye. When this is efta-
bli(hed in a fufhcient degree, the other eye may be fet at
liberty. The time that will be neceftary for the cure, will
depend upon the inveteracy of the habit, the length of time
that the mufcles have been left to themfelves, and the degree
of weaknefs of the fight ; for it is with difficulty that
mufcles acquire an increafed degree of aftion after having
been long habituated to a more limited contraftion. Dr.
Darwin obferves, that if the fquinting has not been con-
firmed by long habit, and one eye be not much worfe than
the other, a piece of gauze ftretched on a circle of whale-
bone, to cover the belt eye in fuch a manner as to reduce
the diftinftnefs of vifion of this eye to a fimilar degree of
imperfeftion with the other, (hould be worn fome hours every
day.

For the cure of the curious cafe related by the fame in»
genious phyfician, in which there was no defeft in either eye,
but merely a depraved habit of ufing both eyes feparately.
Dr. Darwin fays, " a gnomon of thin brafs was made to

ftand

SQUINTING.

ftand over his nofe, witli a half circle of the fame metal to
go round his temples ; thefe were covered with black filk,
and by means of a buckle behind his head, and a crofs-piece
over the crown of his head, this gnomon was managed fo as
to be worn without any inconvenience, and projefted before
his nofe about two inches and a half. By the ufe of this
gnomon he fi)on found it \eh inconvenient to view all objefts
with the eye next to them, initead of the eye oppolite to
them.

" After this habit was weakened by a week's ufe of the
gnomon, two bits of wood, about the fize of a goofe-quill,
were blackened all but a quarter of an inch at their fum-
mits : thefe were prefented for him to look at, one being
held on one fide the extremity of his black gnomon, and the
other on the other fide of it. As he viewed thefe, they
were gradually brought forwards beyond the gnomon, and
then one was concealed behind the other. By thefe means,
in another week, he ci'uld bend both his eyes on the fame
objeft for half a minute together.

" By the praftice of this exercife before a glafs, almoft
every hour in the day, he became in another week able to
read for a minute together with his eyes both direfted on
the fame objefts ; and I have no doubt, if he has patience
enough to perfevere in thefe efforts, but he will in the courfe
of fome months overcome this unfightly habit." Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixviii. p. 89.

Philofophers, as well as phyficians, have adopted various
hypothefes, in order to account for this defeft in vifion. It
has been generally fuppofed to proceed, according to the
preceding ttatemeat, from the want of a due correfpondence
in themufclesof theeyes, which not aftingin a proper concert
with one another, are not able to point both eyes at one
objeft. M. de la Hire apprehended, that this diforder pro-
ceeded from a defedl in the eye itfelf having the moft fenfible
part of the retina not placed in the axis of the eye, but ae
fome diltance from it on one fide or the other ; and that,
therefore, not the axis, but this more fenfible part of the
retina is turned towards the objeft on which the axis of the
other eye is fixed, fo that both axes are not direfted to the
fame point.

He fuppofed fquinting, alfo, fometimes to be owing to
the oblique fituation of the cryltalline humour in one of the
eyes. Thefe hypothefes are examined and refuted by Dr.
Jurin, who, in order to account for this defcft, confiders
the difpofition and fituation of the eyes in a found ilate.
When we look direftly forwards at a diltant objeft, the
pupil of each eye lies in the middle of the aperture formed
by the eye-lids ; fo that the diftance between the two pupils
confitts of the breadth of the nofe and half the breadth of
the aperture of each eye ; and this diltance between them is
always prelerved, liowever obliquely we turn our eyes. In
looking at near objefts, the diltance between the pupils is
fomewhat lefs, but (till it is always the fame in all oblique
direftions of the eyes, as well as when we look Itraight for-
wards ; by which means the axes of both eyes are direfted
forwards to the fame point, in both thtfe cafes of looking
at diltant and near objefts. But in thole who fquint, when
the pupil of the undillortcd eye is fcated in the middle of
the aperture, as in looking dircftly forwards, the pupil of
the other eye is drawn dole to the nofe, and confequently,
the diltance between the two pupils ii confiderably lefs than
in other perfons ; and this lefs diltance continues the lame
in all oblique dircftion'; for the eyes ; fo that two axes are
never pointed at the fame objeft, though the mufclcs do fo
far aft in concert with each other, as to move both eyes the
fame way at the fame inltant of time.

This vicious habit, Dr. Jurin obfervcs, may eafily be

contrafted by a child, if he is often laid into his cradle in
fuch a pofition as to be able to fee either the light, or any-
other remarkable objeft, with one eye only : and when by
this means he is brought to fquint, and the habit is con-
firmed, he apprehends it will be in vain to attempt a cure
by his wearing tubes, or Ihells, with fmall holes to look
through ; for, notwithllanding every help of this kind, he
will contmue to fee through them dillinftly with one eye
only, and will ilill diftort the other. The true method of
cure he takes to be the following : when the child is ar-
rived at fuch an age as to be capable of obferving direftions,
place him, fays he, direftly before you, and let him clofe
the undillorted eye, and look at you with the other. When
you find the axis of this eye fixed direftly upon you, bid
him endeavour to keep it in that fituation, and open hi»
other eye. You will now fee the dillorted eye turn away
from you towards his nofe, and the axis of the other eye
will be pointed towards you. But with patience and re-
peated trials, he will, by degrees, be able to keep his dif-
torted eye fixed upon you, at leatt for fome little time, after
the other is opened ; and when you have brought him to
keep the axes of both eyes fixed upon you, as you itand
direftly before him, it will be time to cliange his pofture,
and to fet him firft a little on one fide of you, and then to
the other, and fo to praftife the lame thing ; and when in
all thefe fituations he can perfeftly and readily turn the axes
of both eyes towards you, the cure is effefted. An adult
perfon, he fays, may praftife all this by a glafs, without a
direftor, though not fo eafily as with one ; but the older he
is, the more patience will be neceflary. Smith's Optics,
Rem. p. 30.

M. Buffou infers, from a great number of obfervations^
that the true and original caufe of fquinting is an inequality
in the goodnefs, or in the limits of dillinft vifion in the two
eyes. When one of theeyes, he fays, is much weaker than
the other, we do not direft it towards the objeft, but make
ufe of the (Ironger eye only : when the eyes are equally
good, we fee more dillinftly with both eyes than with one,
by about a thirteenth part ; but when they are unequal in
goodnefs, objefts appear lefs diftinft with both eyes than
with one. It is no wonder, therefore, that perfons, fubjeft
to this inequality, chufe to make ufe of one eye, and turn
the other afidc. This inequality in the goodnefs of the
eyes is the general caufe of fquinting, according to M.
Buffon ; and other.i!, with refpeft to this, are accidental.
All the perfons whom he examined, if they fquinted at all,
did fo from this caufe ; and this eiTeft is fo necellary, that,
he fays, it is not poffible to cure a perfon of fquinting,
whofe eyes diffi-r much in point of goodnefs, except, per-
haps, by firll bringing them nearer to an equality by means
of glalTes. To the lame purpofe Dr. Reid obfcrves, that,
having examined above twenty perfons who fquinted, he
found in all of them a defeft in the fight of one eye. And
this writer is of opinion, that the centres of the two eyes of
fquinting perfons correfpond with them as with others, fo
that if they could be brought to the li.ibit of dircftini; iheir
eyes aright to an objeft, they would not only remove a de-
formity, but likewile impri>ve their light.

In examining the limits of diltinft vfion in feveral chil-
dren who did not fquint, M. BiilTou found, (contrary to
Dr. Jurin's obfervation,) that t' '-y did not fee by any means
either fo far off, or fo near as .idiilt oerfons ; lo that, as we
advance in age, the limits of dillinft vifion are extended
both ways; and this, he fays, is one reafon why ciuldrcn
fquint mor-- than adult perfons.

When tlie eyes of ihofe perfons who fquint do not differ
much in point of gooducfd, M. Buffon thought that the

mod

S Q U

moft fimple, the moft natural, and the moft effeaual method
of curing it, would be to cover the good eye for feme tiwe ;
for the diftorted eye would thus be obliged to aft and turn
itfelfdJreftly towards objefts, and, by degrees, this would
become natural to it.

The reafon why thofe perfons who fquint generally turn
the weak eye towards the nofe, he fays, is, that in that
fituation, the direftion of its axis is as diftant as poffible
from that of the good eye : and beCdes, in this place, the
nofe conceals many objefts from its view, fo that this fitua-
tion is the lead difadvantageous to it of any other.

In fome cafes, M. Biiffon obfcrves, that the eyes have
what is commonly called a cajl only, in confequence of the
optic angle being too great or too fmall, when they are of
equal goodnefs. This, he fays, is generally the refult of
habit, acquired very early, in confequence of the mifmanage-
ment of children, and that it is often eafily cured. If the
eye that fquints be turned towards the temples, be fays, he
has generally found that there is no great inequality in the
goodnefs of the two ; and that, in this cafe, the caufc being
only a vicious habit, the cure has been completed by cover-
ing the good eye for a fortnight only. In order to judge
with any certainty of the inequality of goodnefs in the two
eyes, and the poffibility of the cure of fquinting, it is ne-
ceflary, he fays, to cover the good eye for fome time, in
order to exercife the bad eye, and give it an opportunity of
gaining ftrength, after which it will be more eafy to judge
whether the cure be poflible or not. Acad. Par. 1743,
p. 329. 342. Reid's Inq. into the Human Mind, p. 253 —
457. See Phyjiology of the Eye.

SQUINZ ANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Otranto ; 6 miles N.W. of Lecce.

SQUIRE, Samuel, in Biography, a learned Englilh
prelate, was born at Warminfter in 17 14. He was educated
at St. John's college, Cambridge, of which he became a
fellow. After various inftances of preferment, he obtained
the vicarage of Greenwich, and was appointed clerk of the
clofet to the prince of Wales, his prefent majeity. In
1760 he was promoted to the deanery of Briftol ; and in the
following year he was advanced to the fee of St. David's.
He died in 1766, leaving behind him feveral works of re-
putation, befides a number of fingle fermons. His prin-
cipal pieces are as follow. In his profeflion as a divine, he
wrote " The ancient Hiftory of the Hebrews vindicated ;"
" Indifference for Religion inexcufable ;" and " The Prin-
ciples of Religion made eafy to young Perfons." In claf-
fical literature, he pubhihed " Two Effays : (l) A De-
fence of the ancient Greek Chronology; (2) An Inquiry
into the Origin of the Greek Language ;" and an edition
of « Plutarch de Ifide et Ofiride," Gr. and Engl., with
commentaries and various readings. His works, as a po-
litical writer, are, " An Inquiry into the Nature of the
Enghfh Conttitution, or an hillorical ElTay on the Anglo-
Saxon Government both in Germany and England ;"
" An EfTay on the Balance of Civil Power in England ;"
and " Remarks upon Mr. Carte's Specimen of the General
Hiftory of England." He left in MS, a Saxon grammar,
compiled by himfelf. Dr. Squire was a fellow of the Royal
and Antiquarian Societies. Gen. Biog.

SQUIRREL, ScivKvs, iovmeAai arnMyJhade, and «fx,
tail, becaufe the tail ferves this animal for an umbrella, is a
genus of animals defcribed under SciURUS.

There is great diverfion in hunting the common Englifh
fquirrel, and its flelh is very dehcateand well tailed. The
only feafon for hunting it is in autumn, and the beginning
of winter, at which time the creature is fat ; and the leaves
being off the trees, it may be feen as it leaps from bough

S Q U

to bough, which, when purfued, it does with furprifmg
agility.

In the fummer they build their nefts, which the fportfmcB
call drays-, very artificially in the tops of trees, with fticks,
mofs, and fuch other things as the woods afford : to their
neft they have two holes, and they ftop up that on the fide
the wind blows, as Pliny has remarked ; they fill this
lodging, during the feafon, with nuts and other fruits,
which are to ferve them in the fevere weather, when the
trees afford nothing. They fleep in the inidft of this pro-
vifion a great part of the winter, and that fo foundly, that
they will not be waked by ever fo loud a noife made juft
under their drays ; though at other times they fly out im-
mediately on hearing any noife, even at a confiderable dif-
tance.

In the fpring the female is feen purfued from tree to tree
by the males, feigning an efcape from their embraces.

The tail of the fquirrel, which is a'' large as the body,
though compofed almoft entirely of hair, ferves the creature
iu fome fort inftead of wings ; for by means of it the body
is kept fufpended in the air, without any vifible finking,
while the creature throws itfelf from the boughs of one tree
to thofe of another of equal height. But the more general
leaps the fquirrel takes, are from the outermoft branches of
a high tree to another fomewhat lower at a diftance : it is
wonderful to fee how far it will be carried in thefe leaps ;
and if it miffesthe tree it aims at, and by that means falls from
the top of ever fo high a tree to the ground, the tail fup-
ports it fo well that it comes foftly down, and receives no
harm. The hunting of the fquirrel is molt agreeably per-
formed in woods of a young growth, the trees of which
may be (haken by the hands ; and it is neceffary to take out
fome means of diflodging them from the clefts of trees, in
which they will take refuge, and from which they will never
be removed by mere noife.

Many people ufually go together on this expedition, and
fometimes they carry bows and arrows for the diflodging of
the prey from thefe places ; fometimes bludgeons, or fhort or
thick Itaves, loaded at one end with lead, to prevent their
lodging in the tree when they are thrown up. The fquirrel,
which in its fright has taken refuge in any part of a tree,
and is not to be diflodged either by hallooing or fhaking the
tree, will always quit the place as foon as an arrow or
bludgeon has been well aimed at it, and will give a farther
chace.

The fquirrel is always fond of a large oak in time of dan-
ger, and runs to the nearell it can find, as foon as it fees
Itfelf purfued : in fome part of the upper boughs of this
tree it fits fecure from the men and dogs, at*d as it is too
troublefome to the fportlmen to climb every tree, the only
method is to fhoot arrows, and throw bludgeons at it ; it
is very feldom hurt by thefe, unlefs hit juft upon the head,
for its back-bone is fo ftrong, that it will bear nearly as
hard a blow as a dog, without danger of hurt. So long as
the ftrength and fpints of the creature laft, it always keeps
in the tops of the higheft trees ; but when it grows weary.
It comes down, and takes fhelter in the hedges. The fquirrel
then foon becomes a prey to the dogs, or is very often killed
upon the ground, in attempting to gain the hedge in places
where there is no continued chain of trees by which it can
come at it.

It is obferved, that the gullet of this animal is very nar-
row, to prevent it from difgorging its food in defcending of
trees, or in its leaps downwards.

SQUIRTING or Spurting Cucumber, in Gardening,
the common name of a wild fort of cucumber, which is fome-
times cultivated in gardens for the fake of curiofity, and for

the

S R A

S R A

the peculiar property which it poffeiTes of inftantly burfting

the capfules of the ripe fruit, on being toiiclied, with much
claiticity and viulence, fo as to throw the juice and feeds
which they contain forcibly to a great diftance all around,
to the great lurprize of thofe who may have touched them.

Jjee MOMWKDICA.

It likewife affords the medicinal fubftance known by the
name of elaterium.

SQUIRZINA, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warlaw ; 50 miles W.N.W. of Pofen.

SRADHA, the name of a ceremony among the Hin-
doos, of a very interelting and affefting nature; being
obfequies in honour of departed anceftois.

The Hindoo Pantheon furniflies fome particulars ex-
planatory of this intereiling and affefting ceremony, which,
, the author tells us, is an oblation of daily recurrence with
Brahmans and rigid Hindoos who can afford it. It is of-
fered not only in honour of deceafed anceftors, but for their
comfort ; as the manes, as well as the gods connetted with
them, enjoy, like the gods of the Greeks, the iiicenfe of
fuch offerings ; which are farther of an expiatory nature,
fimilar, it may be prefumed, in their efficacy, as well as in
the motives that induce them, to the maffes of the Romifh
church. Over thefe ceremonies of Sradlia, Yama prefides,
in his charafter of Sradhadeva, or lord of the obfequies.
See Sradhadeva and Yama.

Mr. Colebrooke tells us (Af. Ref. vol. vii. ), that the
prielts, in the performance of the Sradha, meditate the
gayatri, and thrice repeat " Salutation to the gods, to the
manes of anceftors, and to mighty faints; to Swaha (god-
defs of fire) ; to Swadha (the food of the manes); faiuta-
tion to them for ever and ever." Of the gayatri, &c. of
this quotation, fee O'm, Swadha, and Swaha.

M. le Gentil found a Itrong refemblaiice between the
funeral rites of the Chinefe and the Sradha of the Hindoos.
On which fir WiUium Jones ( Af. Ref. vol. li.) fays, " that
all the circumftances which iiave been mentioned, under the
two heads of literature and religion, feem colleftivcly to
prove, (as far as fuch queftion will admit of proof,) that
the Chinefe and Hindoos were the fame people ; but having
been feparated near four ihoufand year<, have retained few
ftrong features of their ancient confanguinity ; efpeeially as
the Hindoos have preferved their old language and ritual,
while the Chinefe very foon loll both. And the Hindoos
have conflantly intermarried among themfelves ; while the
Chinefe, by a mixture of Tartarian blood from the time of
their firll eftablilhmcnt, have at length formed a race diitinft
in appearance from both Indians and Tartars."

In the third chapter of tlie Inilitutes 0/ Menu, the rules
for the performance of the Sradha are detailed with pro-
lixity. Among other particulars of the moit important of
thofe ceremonies, we learn that Brahmans only ought to be
invited to the feaft, which forms one important rite ; and
fuch Brahmans fhould be of holy and learned iiabits. A
Sudra, that is, one of the fourtii or fervilc clafs, is urgently
prohibited as a guelt. Let the houfckeeper, it is faid, who
knows his duty, perform each day a Sradha with boiled
rice, and the liiie, or witii water, or with milk, roots, and
fruit ; for thus ke obtains favour from departed progeni-
tors, &c. &c. &c.

The following extraft is taken from Colebrooke's Dif-
fertation on the religious Ceremonies of the Hindoos, in
the feventh volume of the Afiatic Refearchcs ; which article
contains much valuable matter, and many curious particulars
of the Sradha, or feaft attending funeral obfequies.

" A dying man, when no hop,:s of his furviving remain,
(hould be laid on a bed of Kufa grafs (fee Ku.sa), in tie

open air, his head fprinkled with water drawn from the
Ganges, and fmeared with clay brought from the fame
river. A Salagrama ft one (lee Salagrama) (hould be
placed near him, holy ilrains from the Veda (.fee Veda)
fliould be chaunted aloud, and leaves of holy bafil fcattered
over his head.

" When he expires, the corpfe muft be wafhed, per.
fumed, and decked with wreaths of flowers, and carried by
the nearell relations to fome fpot ir. tlie foreft, or near
water: the funeral pile is lighted from the confecrated fire
maintained by the deceafed. (See of this under our articles
Sagnika and Sami.) The nearell relation apphes the
flaming brand to the pile, hung round with flowers ; and
the attendant prielts recite the appropriate invocations :
♦ Fire ! thou wall lighted by him ; may he, therefore, be
reproduced from thee, that he may attain the regions of
celedial blifs. May this offering be aufpicious !' All who
followed the corpfe walk round the pile, but may not view
the fire. They then proceed to the river, and, after bath-
ing, prefent oblations of water to the manes of the deceafed,
faying, ' May this oblation reach thee!' Elegiac verfes,
fuch as the following, are then recited.

" I. Foohfh is he who feeks for permanence in the human
itate ; infolid, like the Hem of the plantain-tree ; tranfient,
like the foam of the ocean.

" 2. When a body, formed of five elements, to receive
the reward of deeds done in its own former perfon, reverts
to its own five original principles, what room is there for
regret ?

" 3. The earth is perifliable ; the ocean, the gods them-
felves pafs away : how fliould not that bubble, mortal man,
meet dellruclion ?

" 4. All that is low muil finally pcrilh ; all that is ele-
vated mud ultimately fall ; all compounded bodies muft end
in dill'odution ; and life be concluded by death,"

Excliifive of the daily Sradhas, or feails, given by wealthy
individuals, formal obfequies are performed ninety-fix hours
in every year, on particular days. " It fliould be ob-
fervcd," Mr. Colebrooke tells us, refpefting the praftice
of giving food at thefe obfequies, " that Braiimans generally
give it to one or more of their own relations. A llranger,
unlefs indigent, would be very unwilling to accept the food,
or attend at a Sradha, for the purpofe of eating it. The
ufe of flelh meat is piifitively enjoined to Hindoos at certaia
obfequies, and recommended at all. (See Inll. of Menu,
c. iii. V. 124. 268, &c.) But the precepts of tlieir law-
givers are, by fome, deemed obfolete in the prefent age ;
and are evaded by others, who acknowledge the cogency
of thefe laws. Thefe commonly make a vow of abdaining
from flefh meat, and co:.fider that vow as more binding than
the precepts here alluded to. Others, again, not only eat
meat at obfequies and folemn facrifices, but make it their
common diet, in direct breacli of their religion." It hence
appears clear, that the idea fo common in Europe, of the
univerfal abllineiice of Hindoos from flelh meat, is as er-
roneous as general. Swme pages of the Hindoo Pantheon
are devoted to prove this fad\ ; and it is fully proved, that
not only all Huidoos may, but that a great majority of thofe
who can obtain it, including Braiimans themlelves, actually
do, eat meat.

The feall attendant on tV ccremonie* of the Sradha can
be given only by the fun, or grandfon, or male idue of the
defun£t ; and as the greated importance is attached by
Br.ihmans and others to the due performance of thefe cere-
nioni.s, default of male iffue is deprecated as among the
heavied of misfortunes. The Hindoo books, therefore,
abound in indanccs of the cfEcacy of praytr«, facrifices,

alms

SRI

alms to Brahmans, pilgrimages, aufterities, Sec. in obtain-
ing this grand objeft of comfort to departed fouls. " Ap-
peafing the manes," by the Sradha, is as common in the
mind of a Hindoo, as relieving the pains of purgatory by
maffes is in that of a Papift. Though the ceremonies difter,
the principle is ftrikingly fimilar. Being childlefs is felt as
an angry vifitation of the gods, inflifted partly for fins in a
former ftate of exiftence : they arc, therefore, propitiated
by alms, pilgrimages, &c. One mode of removing llerility
is by 'circumambulating an image, or tree, facred to fome
deity. (Of this fee under Pradakshna, the name of this
ceremony.) If every thing fail, there is, however, itill a
remedy by adoption, accompanied by certain ceremonies,
expenfive, according to the means of the party. Another
is by giving daughters in marriage with like ceremonies ; all
of which are minutely detailed in the ritual. For all thefe
proceedings divine authority can be quoted. Holy men,
or even divinities, in the times of their tcrrellrial fojourn-
ments, are related to have done the like. " He," fays
Menu, " who has no fon, may appoint a daughter to raife
up a fon for him, faying, ' The male child who fhall be
born from her in wedlock (hall be mine, for the purpofe of
performing my obfequies.'

" In this manner Daklha himfelf, lord of created beings,
anciently appointed all his fifty daughters to raife up fons
to him, for the fake of multiplying his race."

SRADHADEVA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name given
to the Pluto of their infernal regions. It means lord of the
Sradha, a feall often, by many daily, offered in comme-
moration of deceafed anceftors. (See Sradha.) The
more common name for the lord of the obfequies is Tama;
which fee.

SRAMANA, a name of the Eaftern deity Boodh ;
which fee.

Sakya, Sravaka, and Sugata, (which fee,) are others of
his names. So is Gotama, or Godama. The union of the
firft and laft of thefe names, a little altered in the pronuncia-
tion, produced that of Somonocodom, by which he is called
by fome writers. See Godama.

SRAVAKA, the name of the laity of the Jainas, a fed
of fchifmatic Hindoos. Their priefts are called Yati. (See
Jaina and Yati.) A name alfo of the god Budha, or
Boodh ; which fee. For a notice of the religion and cuf-
toms of the feft of Sravaka, fee Moor on Hindoo Infanti-
cide, p. 174. Among the Mahrattas, the Sravakas are
called Shevari.

SRBORNICK, in Geography, a town of Bofnia ; 40
miles N.N.E. of Bofnaferai.

SREDNEI, an illand in the Frozen ocean, at the mouth
of the Indigirda, about 40 miles in circumference, of a tri-
angular form. N. lat. 72° 52'. E. long. 154'' 155". —
Alfo, a town of RufTia, in the government of TobolOc ;
20 miles N.N.W. of Taffievfkoi.

SRI, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name given to feveral
goddeffcs ; ofteneit perhaps to Laklhmi, the goddefs of
prolperity and abundance. This name is in the firft cafe
Sris, which fir William Jones remarked as refembling, both
in name and charafter, the goddefs of abundance of the
Latins ; and he fays, that in very ancient temples near
Gaya there are images of Lakfhmi, with full breafls, and a
cord twitted under her arm, like a horn of plenty, which
looks very much like the old Grecian and Roman figures of
Ceres. (See Lakshmi.) The word Sri, however, al-
though given a« a name or epithet to the Ceres of India, and
to the other great goddelfes Parvati and Sarafwati, is not
confined to them : it means fortunate, happy, &c. as well

SRI

as bleffed or divine ; and is fometimes prefixed to the names
both of gods and men.

SRI BHAGAVATA, the title of a work in the San-
fcrit language, of great celebrity among the Hindoos. It
is ufnal to afcribe this work to Vyafa, the reputed compiler
or author of the Vedas, Puraiias, Mahabarat, and other
works. But the real author of the Sri Bhagavata is Vopa-
deva, who, in attempting to revive the leading dotlrines of
Vyafa, opened a door to the reconciliation of the variout
lefts of Hindoos, numeroully divided and fubdivided as they
are, and, as far as hiftorical evidence can be traced, ever
have been. We muft refer the reader to our article Sects
of Hindoos, for farther information on thefe points. (See
alfo Vyasa.) Under our article Purana we have given a
fuccinft account of the mythological romances fo called,
that are fo highly venerated in India as infpired poems. Of
thefe the Sri Bhagavata is reckoned the eighteenth and laft ;
and whatever differences of opinion may cxii^., and very wide
differences do exift, as to the antiquity and form of the
other Puranas, it feems a pomt generally agreed on, that
the Bhagavata is much more modern than the reft, and can-
not, in Its prefent form, claim an age of more than fix
hundred years.

The main fubjeft of the Bhagavat is the hfe and aftiont
of Krifhna ; including the extravagant and myftical details
of his incarnation, miracles, debaucheries, and variout
fooleries ; intermixed, however, with fublime effuCons of
pure theology and morals. (See Mystical Poetry.) Like
moft of the other refpefted writings of the Hindoos, it con-
tains much to applaud and admire ; but more, whether
viewed philofophically or morally, to reprehend. It is
comprifed in twelve books, and, like the other poems bear-
ing the common denomination of Purana, contains, befides
the general thread of feftarial theology interwoven through-
out, five fubjeiSs, viz. primary creation, or creation of
matter in the abftraft ; fecondary creation, or the produc-
tion of fubordinate beings, both fpiritual and material ;
chronological account of their grand periods of time called
Manwantara ; genealogical rife of families, particularly of ,
thofe who have reigned in India ; and, laflly, a hiflory of
the lives of particular families.

This work is in general eflimation, and is found in moft
of the vulgar dialefts of India, and in the Perlian language.
It has alfo appeared in a very imperfeft and abridged form,
in French, under the title of Bagavadam, tranflated from
the Tamul verfion. Its title is derivable from Bhagavan,
one of the names of Krifhna and Vifhnu ; and Bhagavan
from Bhaga, meaning, it is faid, the author of exiftence,
or lord of nature. (See SivA.) Sri is a pretixture of re-
fpeft, extenfively applied. (See Sri.) The modern feft,
who adhere to the liberal dodlrine expounded in this work,
are called Bhagavatas. But we muft again refer to our ar-
ticle Sects of Hindoos, for an explanation of the nature of
the Hindoo feftarial diftinftions. See alfo Krishna, for
an account of the hero of the Bhagavat.

SRIDEVI, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name given by
feveral feiSs to the goddefs of their adoration ; fuch indi-
vidual goddefs being called the fakti, or energy of her lord.
In explanation of this, we refer to our article Sakti. Sri-
devi means the bleffed goddef-', and is given to all the three
great goddefles, Lakfhmi, Parvati, and Saraf«'ati.

Sridevi is likewife the name of the wife of Dakfha, who
was Brahma in a human fhape. In this charafter fhe feems
to be both the daughter and mother of Parvati. See Pike-
swARi and Sradha.

SRIMANA, a name of Kartikya, the Hindoo regent
of the firmament. See Kaktikva.

9 S RIM ANT,

S R S

S T A

S RIM ANT, an appellation of refpeft ufed in the third
pei-fon to the Pefkwa, or chief perfon of the Mahratta em-
pire. See Peshwa.

SRINAGUR, in Geography. See SirinaguRw
SRIPADA, a name, or word, ufed amonjr the Hindoos,
meaning a divine footllep, for which fuppofed impreffions
they have a very reverential feeling. On the top of tlie
lofty mountain on the idand of Ceylon, which European
geographers call Adam's peak, the Hindoos fancy there is
a fripad ; and accordingly pilgrimages are made to it from
diftant parts of India. Vifhnu, it is faid, alighted on this
fpot, and left the holy and indelible impreflion. In the
neighbourhood of temples, or at their thrcniold, it is not
unufual to fee a flat ilone embofled or engraved with the
impreflion of two feet, joined from heel to toe ; fuch being
the attitude of adoration : and it is faid that fuch Itones are
the laft terrene fubftance preiled by the feet of the unhappy
viftims of fuperftition, who burn themfelves ahve on the pile
of their hufbands. They ftep from thefe flat ftones upon
the pile, and then appertain more to the next world than to
this. The next Hep is into the prefence of the gods ; or, in
the cafe of temples, to their holy place.

The Hindoos are not the only people who have a venera-
tion for the myftical impreffions of feet. The fripad above
mentioned on Ceylon was faid by our early zealous mif-
fionaries to have been left by Adam ; they endeavouring to
eftabhdi the faft of that chofen idand havmg been the Eden
of our firft parents. (See Lanka.) In the holy land,
miraculous fripada, or footlteps, are Hill fliewn and reve-
renced, as left by the laft prefliire of our Saviour on the
earth. On this fubjeft the reader will find fome interelting
difcuffion in Dr. Clarit's Travels, vol. ii. p. 584.

SRIRANGA, a name of the Hindoo god Siva. The
name is Ranga, with the epithet Sri prefixed, meaning holy
or blefied. (See Ranga, Siva, and Sri.) Seringapa-
tam, or Seringapatan, means the city of Sriranga, or of
the holy Ranga.

SRIVIRUPAKSHA, a name of Siva, the deftruftive
or transforming power of the Hindoo divine triad. Viru-
pakflia is faid to mean with three eyes, Siva being fo gifted ;
and hence named rW/o/faw ; which fee. (See alfo Siva.) An
eminent Sanfcrit fcholar tranflates the name Virupakfha,
•' with a difagreeablc countenance." The epithet Sri pre-
fixed means blefled or divine. See Siil and Virupaksha.

Madame Dacier, in a note on the ninth book of the
Iliad, has a pailage applicable to the mythological fubjeft
of this article. The ancients, flie fays, gave the name of
Jupiter not only to the god of heaven, but hkewife to the
god of hell, as is feen here by the epithet of " infernal
Jove," and to the god of the fea, as appears from Efchy-
lus. They thereby meant to (hew, that one fole deity go-
verned the world ; and it was to teach the fame truth, that
the ancient ttatuaries made ftatues of Jupiter, which had
three eyes. Priam had one of them in that manner in the
court of his palace, which was there in Laomedon's time.
After the taking of Troy, when tlie Greeks fliared the
booty, it fell to the lot of Sthenclus, who carried it into
Greece.

Siva, the Indian Jove, is, in like manner, deemed vari-
oufly the god of the three regions of the univerfe, as de-
noted by his three eyes, trident, &c. See Parvati and
Trisula.

SRODA, or Svoda, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Warfaw ; 14 miles S.E. of Pofen.

SRSEM, or SiJUM, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
20 miles S. of Pofen.
SRSERED. Sec Serat.
Vol. XXXIII.

SSE-TCHUEN, a town of Corea ; 33 miles S.W. of
Tlin-tcheou.

SSIDA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 18
miles S. of Fitaqua.

SSIERPSCH, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 16
miles N. of Ploczk.

SSOKAL, a town of Auftrian Poland, in the palati-
nate of Belz ; 10 miles N.E. of Belz.

SSUUS, a town of Japan, on the N. coaft of Niphon ;
20 miles S.E. of Noto.

ST, an indeclinable term, chiefly ufed to command filcnce.
The Romans had thefe two charafters written over the
doors of the eating-rooms, as who fhould fay, fed tace, or
Jilenllum tcne.

Porphyry obferves, the ancients made a point of rehgion
of it, not to fpcak a finglc word in paffing in or out of the
doors.

STAAL, Madame de, \a Biography, an ingenious French
writer, firll known by the name of Mademoifellc de Launay,
was daughter of a painter at Paris. Her father being
obliged to quit the kingdom, fhe was left in a ftate of
poverty. She had enjoyed the advantages of a good edu-
cation at a priory in Rouen ; but her patronefs dying, flic
was under the neccffity of engaging herfelf as bed-chamber
woman to the duchefs of Maine ; who foon difcovering
the talents of her fervant, employed her in all the theatrical
entertainments which flie gave at her feat of Sceaux. For
fome of thefe De Launay wrote verfes, and for others lite
formed the plans, and thus obtained the perfeft and un-
limited confidence of her miftrefs, and the friendfliip of all
the men of wit and letters who frequented that court. Fol-
lowing the fortunes of her miftrefs, flie was involved in the
difgrace incurred by the duchefs during the regency of the
duke of Orleans, and was two years a prifoner in the
Baftille. After her liberation, the duchefs, as a reward for
her fidehty, married her to M. de Staal, lieutenant, and
afterwards captain, in the Swifs guards. From her own
defcription, flie appears to have poflefled few perfonal at-
traftions, yet her gallantries were a great fource of the
vexations with which her life was difquieted. She fome-
tiraes loved without a return, and flie fometimes attrailed
attentions to whicli flie paid no regard. She died in 1750,
and after her deatli were printed, in 3 vols. izmo. " Me-
moirs of her Life," written by herfelf. Thefe are agree-
ably written, and in a pure and elegant ftyle. There has
been added a fourth volume, containing two comedies afted
at Sceaux, entitled " L'Engoument," and " La Mode,"
the chief merit of which is faid to confift in the fpright-
linefs of the dialogue. Her memoirs have been tranflated
into the Englifli language.

STAATEN Land, in Geography. See New Zea-
land.

STAATSBERG, an opulent farming neighbourhood
in Clinton, Duchefs county, New York, in which is a poft-
office ; 70 miles from Albany, and 10 from Poughkcepfie.
STAATZ, a town of Aurtria ; 5 miles W. of Falken-
ftain.

STAAVIA, in Botany, was fo called by Dahl, in com-
pliment to Mr. Martin Staaf, of Gottcnburgh, a great
patron of botany, and an adiduous difciple of the great
Linnins, to whom he formerly communicated many natural
produdlions from China. — Dahl. Obf. Bot. 14. Tliunb,
Prodr. 41. Wilhl. Sp. PI. v. l. 1144. Ait. v. 2. 35.
Poiret in Lamarck Ditt. v. 7. 363. (Lcvifanus; Schrcb.
Gen. 149, excluding the reference to Gasrtner. ) — Clafs and
order, Penlandria Monogyn'ia. Nat. Ord. Rhamni, Jufl".
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx hemifplierical, many-flowcrcd,
4 P imbricated,

S T A

imbricated, of numerous linear leaflets. Perianth fuperior,
erea, of one leaf, is five deep acute fegments, permanent.
Cor. Petals five, (hort, oblong, obtufe, nearly upright,
with Hender claws. Stam. Filaments five, a«rl-fhaped, in-
ferted into the bottom of the calyx ; anthers roupdifh. PtH.
Germen inferior, turbinate ; ftyles two, combined, capil-
lary ; Itigmas fimple. Pnic. Berry coated, of five cells.
SetJs folitary. Common Riciptacle convex, villous, or chatty.
Eff. Ch. Flowers aggregate. Stamens inferted into
the calyx.' Styles two, united. Berry coated, with five
feeds. Common receptacle chaffy.

1. S. radlata. Rayed Staavia. Willd. n. J. Ait.
n I. (Brunia radiata; Linn. Mant. 2. 209. Phylica
radiata; Linn. Sp. PI. 283. Chryfanthemum encoides
coronatum; Brcyn, Cent. 165. t. 82.)— Leaves lanceolate-
triangular. Coloured rays of the calyx fhorter than the
diameter of the head of flowers. — Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. A greenhoufe plant in England, flowering
in May and June, but of no itriking appearance. The
ftraight hairy branches of the bufliy Jkm are clothed with
numerous, little, alternate, heath-hke, fmooth, glaucous
Uaves, on fhort ftalks. The fowers are corymbofe, four
or five together at the fummit of each branch, looking not
unlike fome fmall kind of Jfer. The dillc is a quarter
of an inch broad, reddilh. Rays nearly the fame in length,
pale, obtufe, recurved.

2. S. glutinofa. Clammy Staavia. Willd. n. 2. Ait.
n. 2. (Brunia glutinofa; Linn. Mant. 210.) — Leaves
linear-triangular. Coloured rays of the calyx rather longer
than the diameter of the head of flowers — From the fame
country. Introduced into England by Meflrs. Lee and
Kennedy in 1793- We find no figure that can be trufted,
though Plukcnet's t. 431. f. i. bears fome refemblance to
this fpecies. The leaves are longer and more flender than
the foregoing. Flowers folitary, full twice as large, with
copious, long, and (lender rays. The di/h is glutinous,
perhaps from abundance of honey, and is covered in the
dried fpecimens with fand, whence the name.

STAB, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Pilfen ; II miles S.S.W. of Pilfen.

STABAT Mater Dolorofa. This celebrated elegy
in monkifh rhymes, written about the 14th century by
Jacoponus, a minor Francifcan friar, has been fet by all
the great maftcrs in Italy, and Roman Catholic compofers
in Germany ; but by none in fo happy and captivating a
manner as by Pergolefi.

STABBIA, in Geography, a town of Etruria ; 1 1 miles
S.S.W. of Piltoya.

STABBING, in Law- See Manslaughter.

Stabbing of Haven Cattle, in Rural Economy. See

HOVEN.

STABILI SuoNi, in the Ancient Greek Mufic, were the
extremes, or lowed and higheft founds of each tetrachord,
which, founded together, conttituted the diateflaron, or 4th,
that was never changed as the two middle firings were,
which were elevated or lowered according to the genera,
and on that account were called mobiles, mobili fuoni.

STABLE, in Rural Economy, a building or houfe con-
llrufted for horfes and other animals, being furniflied with
Halls and proper contrivances to contain their food and other
matter.

Nothing conduces more to the health of a horfe than
the having a good and wholefome liable. The fituation
of a liable (hould always be in a good air, and on a firm,
dry, and hard ground, that in winter the horfe may come
in and go out clean. It Ihould always be built fomewhat
tin an afcent, that the urine -and other foulnefl'es may be
12

S T A

«afily conveyed away by means of drains or finks cut tof
that purpofe.

As there is no animal that delights more in cleanlinefs than
the horfe, or that more abominates bad fmells, care (hould
be taken that there be no hog-ilie, hen-roolt, or neceffary.
houfe, near the place where the liable is to be built ; for
the fwallowing of feathers, which is very apt to happen
when hen-roolls are near, often proves mortal to horfes; and
the (teams of a bog-houfe, or hog's dung, will breed many
dillempers ; and particularly they will bring on the farcy
and blindnefs in many horfes. It is much better to build
the walls of a liable of brick than of (lone, for the former
is always dry, the other often fweats, and is very apt to be
damp, and to caufe rheums and catarrhs to liorfes that are
fet in the liable in damp weatlier.

The walls ought to be made of a moderate thicknefs,
both for the fake of fafety, and warmth in winter, and to
keep off the heat of the fun in the midll of fummer, which
would fpoil the horfe's appetite, and fink his fpirits. The
windows (hould be made on the eaft and north fides of the
building, that the north air may be let in to cool the (lables
in fummer, and for the benefit of the rifing fun all the year
round, efpecially in winter.

The windows (hould either be fafhed, or have large cafe-
ments, for the fake of letting in air enough ; and there
fnould always be clofe wooden (butters, that the light
may be (liut out at pleafure ; by which means the horfe
will be brought to deep in the middle of the day, as well
as in the night, when it is judged proper that he (hould
do fo.

Many pave the whole liable with ftone ; but it is much
better to have that part which the horfe is to lie upon,
boarded with oak-planks ; for it will be not only eafier,
but more warm and comfortable to the animal.

The boards mull be laid as even as polTibie, for this is
the way to make the creature lie mod at his eafe, and in
the mod healthful pollure. The dealers in horfes gene-
rally, indeed, make the boards be laid higher toward the
top, and (lanting down : this (hews a horfe to more advan-
tage as he lies, but it is very uncomfortable to the creature,
and his hinder parts are always flipping down, and the
hind legs are often made fubjeft to fwellings by it.

The planks (hould be laid crolfwife, not lengthwife ; and
there are to be feveral holes bored through them to receive
the urine, and carry it off underneath the floor into fome
drain or common receptacle. The ground behind (hould
be raifed to a level with the planks, that the horfe may
always dand even, and the floor behind (hould be paved with
fmall pebbles, and the place where the rack flands (hould
be well wainfcotted. There are to be two rings placed on
each fide of the (tall for the horfe's halter to run through,
and a logger is to be fixed to the end of this, fufEcient to
poife it perpendicularly, but not fo heavy as to tire the
horfe, or to hinder him from eating. The bed place for
him to eat his corn in is a drawer, or locker, made in the
wainfcot partition ; this need not be large, and confequently
need not take up much room, fo that it may be eafily fixed,
and taken out to clean at pleafure ; by this means the com-
mon dirtinefs of a fixed manger is to be avoided.

Many people are againd having a rack in their dables ;
they give the horfe his hay fprinkled upon his litter, and if
they think he treads it too much, or too foon, they only
nail up three or four boards, by way of a trough, to give
it to him in. The reafon of this is, that the continual
lifting up of the head to feed out of the rack is an unnatural
podure for a horfe, which was intended to take his food up
trom the ground, and maJies him, as they exprefs it, withy-

cragged.

STABLE.

eragged. In the way of fprinkling the hay on the litter,
or laying it in a trough even with the ground, he not only
takes it up as if from the earth in a natural way, but can
eat as he lies, which is a kind of indulgence, that a horfc
takes great pleafure in.

It is proper, however, in mod cafes, to have fome fort of
rack, or other contrivance, for the purpofe of containing the
hay, or other fort of fodder which the horfe may want, and
from which he might eat it with eafe and convenience to him-
felf. The beft and moil economical kinds are probably thofe
which are placed in an upright manner ni recefles in the walls,
or in the corners and angles of the Halls.

When there is ftable-room enough, partitions are to be
made for feveral horfes to ftand in ; thefe fliould always allow
room enough for the horfes to turn about, and lie down con-
veniently in, and they fhould be boarded up fo high toward
the head, that the horfes placed in feparate ftalls may not
be able to fmell at one another, nor molelt each other any
way. One of thefe ftalls ought to be covered in, and made
convenient for the groom to lie in, in cafe of a great match,
or the Ccknefs of a valuable horfe. Behind the horfes there
flieuld be a row of pegs to hang up faddles, bridles, and
other neceffary utenfils ; and fome Ihelves for the hanging
up brulhes, &c. and the (landing of pots of ointment and
other preparations.

The ftables of the nobility are often incommoded by bins
for oats placed in then, which take up a great deal of
room with very httle advantage. Dr. Plott has given us, in
his Hiilory of Oxfordfhire, a very convenient method, ufed
by a gentleman of that county, to prevent this. It is done
by making a conveniency to let the oats down from above,
out of a veffel like the hopper of a mill, whence they fall into
a fquare pipe of about four inches in diameter, let into the
wall, which comes down into a cupboard alfo let into the
wall, but with its mouth fo near the bottom, that there (hall
never be more than about a gallon in the cupboard at a
time ; which being taken out, and given to the horfes, an-
other gallon immediately fucceeds it from above, without
any trouble to the groom or any body elfe. By this means
there is not an inch of room loll in the lower part of the
liable where the horfes ftand : and there is this great con-
Teniency befidc, that the oats are always kept Iweet by it,
for every gallon that is taken away puts the whole quantity
above in motion, by the runnina down of the gallon that
fupplies its place, and no mullinefs ever comes where there
is this continual airing and motion. There may eafily be
contrived two of thefe, the one for the oats, the other for
fplit-beans ; and both of thefe may be let into the range of
preffes, the oats and beans being feparated above by parti-
tions. The other requifites for a ftable are, a dung-yard, a
pump, and a conduit ; and if fome pond or running river be
near, it is much the better.

But with regard to farm-ll,ables, it is not, however, nc-
ceflary to attend fo much to elegance in their conllrudllon as
in the above cafes ; it is fufficient to have them mat, handy,
and convenient. And in order to thi.-, they Ihould be
fituated fo as to be contiguous to the other offices, with
which ttjey may have tlie greatell conneftion or relation.

It has been obfervcd by Mr. Bealton, in the lirll volume
of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, that in the
contriving and fitting up of the racks and mangers in thefe
buildingf, great attention fhould be had to economy and the
convenience of labour. The mod common and ufual me-
thod of making them, fo as to extend quite acrofs the upper
end of the It.ill, i^ a bad and expenfive pradice, and which
ka% much inconvenience in the foddering of the borlcs ; as,

in order to fave trouble, fervants are »ery apt to ftufT the
racks full of hay, ho«icver large they may be, from which
many bad confequcnces arifc, and niucli hay lb loft or de-
ftroyed by being pulled down and mixed with the litter, or
trodden under the feet of the animals. Bcfides, various bad
effcdls refult from the prafticc of fuffcring horfes to be con-
tinually (lufliiig themiclvcs with hay, as is well known to
thofe who are accuftomed to the proper management of fuch
animals ; as under their direflions they arc never permitted
to have much hay in their racks at a time. Another difad-
vantage alio attends this mode of fitting up ftalls, cfpecially
for farm-horfes, as it ought to be the objcCl to preferve every
thing ; the hay-feeds are totally loft, which, if good, and
carefully fecured, might be of great utility and value. And
by the praftice of placing the racks with fo much inchnation
outwards, the feeds are alfo very apt to fall into the horfe's
ears and eyes, which often caufe difagreeable effefts. For
thefe reafons, it is fuppofed that racks fhould have a perpen-
dicular diretlion, not having a fpace of more than fourteen or
fixteen inches from the wall ; the bottom being fparred, in
order to let the feeds fall down through below, whence
they may be removed by a fort of Aiding fliutter. Thefe
advantages may alfo be neatly and conveniently obtained by
leaving niches in the walls for the racks, on which plan the
fpars will be equal with the infides of the walls. Where the
niches and racks are made in the middle of the ftalls, two
feet, or two feet and a half wide, will in moil cafes be fuffi.
cient ; they fhould, however, be carried down low enough
to admit of a fmall box or drawer being placed under them,
for the reception of the hay-feeds. Racks of this fort may
likewife be placed in the corners of the ftalls, and be made
in fuch a way, as that one niche may ferve two ftalls. And
they may be placed in the angles of the ftalls without having
any niche, and may be made of a femicircular form. But
in whatever way they are formed, there fhould conftantly
be a divifion betwixt them, which is probably beft made of
deal. Where the racks are put in the corners of the ftalls,
it may, perhaps, be more advantageous to have them llraight
than circular ; but in whichever way they are formed, the
farmer ftiould always have a hatch fixed for each ftall, as by
that means a great deal of time may be faved in feeding his
horfes.

If the above methods be adopted, it muft be unneceftary
to make a manger of the fame width with the ftall ; as z
box or drawi-r, fixteen or eighteen inches long, and twelve
or fourteen inches wide, will anfwer every intention perfectly
well. But it ftiould be fo contrived that it may be readily
taken out and cleaned whenever it is fouled, or becomes
furred witli dirt. With the fixed mangers thii can never be
done.

Befides this, there is another method of making ftalls,
which, as being cheaper and more economical, deferves to
be regarded by the farmer : on this plan the ftable has nei-
ther racks nor mangers; the head of the Hall it boarded
about three feet from the ground, having a Ipace of about
two feet from the wall, in which the hay is to be depofiled,
the horfe pulling his hay from bilow, initead of drawing it
from al)ove ; which is not only more natural, but prevents
the wafte of hay, much of which drops down and is loft,
when the horfe eats from a rack. But cvei in thisconllruc-
tion, it will be neccdary to have the bottom fparred within
eight or ten inches of the ground, and a box, lioppcr, or
hay-manger and drawer, fo contrived as to receive the
feeds of the hay : where there are double ftalls, the boxes may
be divided in the middle. Single Halls, where they can be
conveniently made, fhould, however, always be preferred, as
4 P 2 being

STABLE.

beinff much more fafc and convenient in different points of
view, both for tlie horfes and perfon» employed about
them.

. Further, it is likewife conceived, that the paving ol
(tables is a matter of great importance, though it has
been hitherto but little attended to : whether the ftall
{hould have a flight declivity, or be perfedly level, has not,
perhaps, yet been fo fully determined as it ought. It
would appear, however, to be more natural and eafy for
thefe animals to Hand and reft themfelves on a level fur-
face, than on one that is floping, as it is evident that the
tendons or finews of the paftern joints muft be kept more
upon the ftrctch in the latter than in the former cafe. The
main difficulty in regard to a level ftall has been the con-
veying away of the moifture ; but this may be well effected
by paving the ftall perfeAly level, and only leaving a fmall
drain in the middle, extending within two or three feet of
the upper end of the ftall ; but which fliould not be more
than ieven or eight inches wide at top, forming an angle at
the bottom. The depth at the end neareft the head of the
ftall need not be more than three or four inches deep, having as
much flope as can be conveniently given it backwards, in order
that it may carry the moifture off quickly to the main drain,
into which all the ftall-drains Ihould have a fall, and the
moifture be difcharged. And the fmall ftall-drains muft alfo
be covered with a piece of good ftrong oak-plank, in which
a great number of holes are bored, and which muft be fo
faftened, as to admit of its being readily raifed up and let
down ; as by this means the drains may be wafhed, and kept
clean and fweet, as often as they are found to be furred up
and obftrufted. And befides thefe, main drains muft be
made at the end of the ftalls, or in fome other convenient
fituation, for carrying off the moifture into the general re-
ceptsclc. Where they are placed at the bottoms of the
ftalls, they fiiould not be clofer to the ftalls than two feet, in
order that the ftale of mares may get readily into them,
which would not be the cafe if they were nearer, unlefs the
pavement behind the ftalls was made to decline a little to-
wards them. Thefe main drains need not be more than
feven or eight inches wide at the top, but they ftiould be
covered with plank, in which holes are perforated for con-
veying away the moifture and wetnefs. But with the view
of faving the expence of making main drains within the
ftable, a ftiallow open drain may be made in the common
way, with which the ftall-drains may communicate by means
of very fmall grates at the ends. And it ftiould be obferved,
that the pavements or floors of the ftalls ftiould have a very
flight decKnation from their fides towards the drains, to pre-
vent moiilure ftanding on them ; an inch, or an inch and a
half in the whole, will, however, be quite fufficient for
thefs purpofes.

It may be noticed, in regard to the fizes of ftalls, that
they differ much according to circumftances ; but four feet
and a half in width are the leaft they ftiould ever be made,
and five feet are much better. The divifions between them
(hould be high, fo that Itrange horfes may not fee each other.
But where ftaUione are kept, or young horfes required to
be left loofe in a ftall, they ftiould be fo inclofed as to be
incapable of doing mifchief. And for thefe purpofes, one
or more ftalls may be fparred to the top, or doors provided,
which may be hung to the back pofts of the ftable. Where
this laft method is followed, the ftalls ferve extremely well
for keeping different mares and their foals feparate from
others, as well as many other ufeful purpofes in the b-ufinefs
of horfe-managemcnt with the farmer.

But the writer of the Eaft Lothian Agricultural Survey

has remarked, that fometimes ftalls are made double ; and at
farm-horfes generally work in pairs, each pair that work to-
gether have one of thefe double ftalls ; for horles are focial
animals, and it is faid they feed better, and are more cheer-
ful, when they live in fociety. But even in thig cafe it is
proper they ftiould be faftened to the oppofite fides of the
ftall, and that each horfe Ihould have his own rack and his
own manger ; for although they may feem to have a very
great attachment to each other, yet if the dividing of their
food is left to themfelves, it is more than probable they will
quarrel about it, and that the ftrongeft horfe will have the
beit ftiare. But fuch farm-ftables as contain only one row
of ftalls, with one horfe in each ftall, are, on the whole,
the moll ufeful and convenient ; and if the ftalls are
fufficiently large, and the divifions between them raifed fuf-
ficiently high, not with fpars, as often is the cafe, but with
boards clofely joined, each horfe will be allowed to eat his
proportion of corn and hay equally, and allowed to take
the neceffary reft, without danger of being difturbedj by a
troublefome neighbour. The ftable ought to be well paved,
and of a fufficient breadth, to leave a fpace of at leaft fix or
Ieven feet behind each horfe, for a fafe paftage to the fer-
vants in hanging the harnefs upon the wall, &c. The pave-
ment fliould decline very gradually from the horfe's head
backwards, towards the channel at his heels, which ftiould
alfo decline, in the fame gradual manner, towards one end of
the ftable, where the urine may be received into a refervoir.
Proper openings ftiould alfo be left in the walls, for the
purpofe of ventilation ; thefe fliould be fitted with Aiding or
flap-boards, opened in the morning, when the horfes go out
to work, and fliut in the evening : in this way the ftables
will be properly ventilated ; and every rifle of cold, from
having thefe openings uncovered during the night, be
avoided.

The fmell of a ftable, where the dung has been allowed
to remain for a week or ten days, is intolerable ; and the
volatile alkali generated is fo ftrong as to penetrate and affeft
both the eyes and nofes of perfons entering into it, in a very
difagreeable manner. The confequence is, the horfes are
fickened and enervated by the heat and offenfive fmell during
the night ; a part of their food, being impregnated with the
effluvia, is loathed and rcjefted ; and, in the morning, when
they are taken out to work, inltead of the fprightly appear-
ance exhibited by animals that have been well fed and had a
comfortable bed, their hanging ears and heavy fluggifti ap-
pearance diltinftly mark the ftate of the ftables they have
quitted.

However, in order to render the forming and conftrufting
of the different internal parts of ftables more clear and eafy,
it may be neceffary to have recourfe to fome account and
explanation of them. In the old common and ufual modes
of placing the racks and mangers in ftables, as in fome mea-
fure fuggefted above, the former are moftly put in a ftanting
outward upward direftion, fo as that the top parts of them
may have a projcftion or fpace of two feet or more from
the walls, while the lower parts reft againft them. The
btter are conttantly placed a little below and underneath
them, moftly extending quite acrofs the ftalls. In thefe
modes of fixine thefe internal parts of ftables, there is feldom
or ever any fort of contrivances for either preferving the
feeds, or preventing their faUing upon the heads of the
horfes, while they are eating. Nor is the hay, or other
fodder, guarded againft being pulled out, trodden under
foot, and wafted by the animals. They are confequently
very uneconomical in their nature and confequenccs.

But in the improved methods of placing thefe internal

parts.

STABLE.

parts, the portions of the racks, as well as the nature, di-
nienlions, and other circumftances of the mangers, are quite
different. In feme cafes, the racks are fixed about fourteen
inches from the walls, with but very little, if any, flant ;
having their bottom parts laid with fmall fpars, or tliin nar-
row pieces of wood, in an open manner, fo that the hay-
feeds can fall down through between them, and be received
in a drawer, or box, made tor the purpofe below, where they
are capable of being drawn or taken out at plealure. A fmall
box, or trough, is placed in fome convenient part, anlwcring
the purpofe of a manger, and which is fometimes made as a
drawer, to put in and draw out as there may be occafion.
The divifions of the ftalls fometimes rife pretty high at the
head parts, in the ordinary way ; and, at other times, in a
curving manner at the upper ends, from the tail-pofts to
nearly the ceilings of the ftables ; and flap-doors, the height
of the lower parts of the divifions, are fometimes fattened
with hinges to polls, or the walls behind the horfes.

In other inftances, the racks are placed in half-circular
niches or receffes in the walls of the itables, oppofite the
divifions of the ftalls ; each niche being made to ferve two
Italls, by having a divifion in the middle betwixt them ; and
the racks themfelves are fometimes made in half-circular
1 rnis. The fame kind of half-circular racks are occa-
ionally,alfo put in the angles or corners of the italls, with-
out any niches; there being divifions between them, fo as
that they may ferve two ftalls : but the racks, in thefe cafes,
have not always the half-circular form, but are made and
iixed up in a ftraight manner.

In all thefe cafes, fmall drawers or boxes ferve as man-
gers, for the horfes to eat their provender out of, as may
be neceflary. There are fome few other modes of fixing up
racks and mangers in ftables, as will be feen below ; but
thefe are probably the molt eligible and convenient, as well
as the molt economical and leaft expenfive in their nature
and means of putting up.

The manner of fixing the window and the (hutters in the
windows of ftables is important in feveral relpedts, as they
contribute much to the proper regulation of the atmofphere
and ftate of heat in them, as well as to other matters. They
are both probably the beft and moft convenient, when ful-
pended and balanced upon two iron pins, fixed in the middle
parts of them, fo as to render them capable of turning and
Itanding in either or any direftion, and to be readily wholly
removed, in cafe of neceffity. When the windows are made
to flide up and down, the (liutters may atfo be fixed in this
way with advantage and good effcft. By thefe means the
air may be eafily let out or in, and be regulated in an exadl
manner, which will be of much advantage in different cafes
and circumftances of liable management. There is fome-
timeo a hopper fort of contrivance in itables, where neither
racks nor mangers are employed, which is broad at the top,
and has about fourteen inches width in the bottom part ;
being fparred, in order that the feeds may drop through into
a drawer made for the purpofe below. In each corner there
is a fmall box for corn, which fcrves as a manger ; the hop-
per part being divided in the middle, fo as to ferve two
ftalls as hay-mangers. This is a neat and convenient mode
in fome cafes, though rather expenfive in making and put-
ting up.

There are ftill other contrivances in fitting up racks and
ftalls for preventing the unncccllary walte of labour and
food, as well as to guard againft the inconvenicncies of hay-
feeds falling into the eyes and ears of horfes, which have
been fuggelted by experienced farmers in other countries.
In one (et of contrivances in this intention, the racks are
placed in an upright manncfi and ttic perpendiculars of

them are made to fall on the inner edgei of the trough*
below, which have fhelving leaves. In thefe cafes, when
the animals pull out the hay from the racks, the wafte part*
fall on the leaves, and thus flide down into the troughs,
where they are fecured from being fpoiled by the breath of
the horfes ; while the diftance between the bottoms of the
racks and the troughs is quite fufficicnt for the admilfion of
the heads of the horfes, fo as that they may get at the hay
which is dropped. The racks, in thefe cafes, are two feet
four inches in depth, and two feet at top from the edge
parts of them ; being planed within, in order that the hay
may fall to the bottoms of the racks gradually, in propor-
tion as it diminilhcs in quantity, and the animals be faved
the trouble of a long reach, which they are often obliged to
make in the itables which are fitted up in the old ufuat man-
ner. The animals arc fed and fupplied with the fodder from
the entry, which is fix feet in width ; the hay being dropped
through a trap-door from the itore-room above the liable.
This plan is the fuggeftion of Mr. Weft, an intelligent
North American farmer. Another plan in the fame inten-
tion has been propofed by Mr. Cooper, of another part of
the fame country, in which the racks of the ftalls of the
ftables have a fomewhat different conftruftion and pofition,
being formed with what are called Jlats, or thin (trips or
pieces of wood. In thefe the advantages are fuppofed to
be very great, as the upright flats prevent the horfes from
wafting the hay, as well as from blowing upon it : and be-
fides, the animals are prevented from looking round, a habit
to which horfes are much accullomed when any perfon
enters the ftable ; neither can they thruft their heads over
the troughs, as the flats compel them to feed direftly over
them, witliout turning to either fide. This mode of fitting
up the ftalls of ftables may be found of much utility, in dif-
ferent fituations and circumftances, in the management of
both faddle, farm, and team-horfes.

Very great utility and faving in point of duration may
not unfrequently be produced, by having the internal and
fome other parts of the mangers and boxes, or other con-
trivances from which the horfes eat their feeds of corn and
other provender, lined and plated, or cafed with difterent
metallic fubltanccs. At Holkham-Hall, in the county of
Norfolk, Mr. Coke has his mangers themfelves, it is faid by
the writer of the corrected agricultural account of that
dillrift, plated with fhect-iron ; and the front edges, which
are rollers, covered with tin-plates. The bottoms of the
ftall divifions are likewife made of flate. It has alfo been
found that for ftables, as well as all other offices, thole lock*
which have copper wards are the belt, as being much more
durable than any other kinds.

Stables, or the lofts over them, for faddle as well as for
farm, team, and carriage-horfes, are alfo not unfrequently
fitted up and provided with different forts of machinery and
contrivances for preparing and reducing the difterent articles
of food, which fuch horfes are to have, into the moft proper,
convenient, and economical forms, for their being given to
and confumed by them. Thefe are, for the moft part,
ilraw or chaft'-cuttcrs, bean, barley, or malt-crackers, and
oat-crudiing and bruifing machines. Such contrivances are
often of very great utility and convenience, when properly
managed, and put up in fuch ftable buildings, or the rooms
conneded with them ; and particularly where other more
valuable ufos are to be made of Itraw, pea and bean-haulm,
and other fimilar materials, than that of merely littering
animals. They are likewife ufeful in faving mi«.'h labour,
by their being always ready and at hand for performing
thefe difterent neceflary operations, as well as in feveral
other ways.

Thi«

STABLE.

This fort of machinery is arranged and placed in a variety
of different ways, according to the circumllances of the
different cafes. In a two-aalled (table, paved in the man-
ner which is direded above, or in that which has been re-
commended by a writer m the firll volume of Communica-
tions to the Board of Ac^riculture, a very fimple and
convenient apparatus has been contrived for working a
chaff-cutter and a bean and barley-cracker, fituated in the
upper part of it, by the Rev. Mr. Froud, ef Dartington Par-
fonage, in the county of Devon, merely by the power of one
horfe. It confilf s, accordinsr to the writer of the correfted
agricultural account of the hulhandry of the above dilfrift,
of a block of oak funk in the ground below the ftable, with
a perpendicular (haft or ilem' paffing through the hay-loft
floor, upon the top of which is fixed a crown-wheel of two-
inch elm-plank, with fix call-irou fegments, fo as to com-
pofe a wheel of this fort of one hundred and eight cogs.
There is alfo a pinion-wheel with fourteen cogs, the (haft
of which paffes through a drum, which is eighteen inches in
diameter. From this" drum the motion is communicated by
a belt to the barley-cracker, and by the lame belt to the
chaff-cutter, where it is drawn tight over a fheave of
eighteen inches in diameter. The barley-cracker has like-
wife a fly-wheel, and a wooden hopper for receiving the
grain. Tiie lever by which this machinery is worked, and
which paffes through a mortife made in the lower part of
the Ihaft, makes, it is faid, the divifion of the Italls of the
ftable, when tied or fallened to the mangers and other
parts.

Stables may, however, be accommodated with thefe forts
of neceffary machinery in other ways and inannert, ptrh:ips,
with equal, if not greater, convenience and benelil than as
above ; as by having them put up in particular parts of fiich
buildings exclnfively appropriated for them, and the ma-
terials which they are to work upon ; or by placing them
in diftinft feparate ereftions conUrutied purpolely for them,
and fuch matters in immediate connettion with the ftables.
By either of thefe means every poflible advantage may be
gained, without the horfes being fo much dilturbed as in the
preceding method. Befidcs, the materials which are to be
operated upon may be a great deal more amply provided,
and much better ftored up and fecured ; and there will be
far more extent for the fixing up and working of fuch forts
of machinery, ag well as more room and convenience pro-
vided for putting by the different cut and prepared fub-
ftances as food for the animals : and above all, a confidential
fervant can have the command and controul of fuch fitua-
tions, without interfering with the general management of
the itables in luch inilances, efpecially where there is a
proper corn and provender bin arranged fomewhat in the
manner that is fuggeiled below ; by which method a vaft
walle and lofs of expenfive food may, in different cafes, be
guarded againit, and the macliinery be wrought with a great
deal more effeft and fecurity.

Stables for all forts of faddle-horfes, as well as for thofe
of the light carriage kinds, (hould conftantly be railed, con-
ftrufted, and fitted up in a neat, warm, and fonietimes, in
particular fituations and circumllances, in a rather elegant
manner; as fuch forts of horfes can never be made to Iwok
fo fleek and well in their coats as they ought to do, without
the ftables in which they are kept are in fome degree warm
and comfortable. And near the fe.Us and refidences of per-
fons of diftinftion, har.diome llables have an ornamental
clfedl, in conjunftion with the other forts of offices and
buildings, which is moltly defirable, and which (hould fel-
dom or ever be overlooked or neglected in the plans and
diltributions of the ofQce-buildings, in fuch cafes. The

particular manner in which fuch ftables are to be built muft
be left to, and regulated by, the taftes of the proprietors,
and the peculiar nature and circumftances of the fituations ;
but in tKe external walls, effeft fiiould almoft always be well
confidered and attended to, while the necedary warmth and
fecurity are provided in an effectual and proper manner.

In the Ralls, and the modes of fitting them up in thefe
kinds of (tables, the lame fort of neatnefs, elegance, and
ornamental effeft, Ihould, for the moft part, be carefully
preferved and kept in view ; though, in fome cafes, this need
not be fo very much regarded. In the former, or ftalls,
there fhould conitantly be a fufficiency of capacity or fize,
as already fuggefted, in order that the animals may not be
too greatly confined, and that full room may be given for
performing the various daily operations that are neceffary
about them. The latter, or the fitting up of the ftalls,
may be varioufly regulated and executed, according to the
different methods and rules which have been laid down above,
and the particular tafte of the owners ; having a conftant
regard to neatnefs, ornament, convenience, and economy,
in the dittribntion of the different kinds of food and labour
which are neceffary, and to be performed about them.

In the conitruftion of ftables for farm and moll forts of
heavy team-horfes, a much lefs attention and regard to neat-
nefs will always be requifite and proper ; and any fort of
elegance or fintnefs in fuch cafes muft invariably be ufelefs,
abfurd, and inpropcr. In the building and contriving of
thefe forts of (fables, convenience and the health of the ani-
mals are the principal circumftances which deferve to be
materially confidered and regarded. In the external in-
ciofing materials for fuch ftables, any fort which can afford
the neceffary warmth, fhelter, and fecurity, and which are
at the fame time cheap, will be proper for the purpofe.
The ftables for thefe ufes need feldom, if ever, be raifed to
fuch heights as thofe for otner forts of horfes ; nor need
they always have lofts over them, or, at leaft, over the
whole of them ; though fome extent of loft is moftly de-
firable, and often of confiderable utility, for containing
provender for the horfes in a convenient and readily appli-
cable manner. A (mall extent or proportion will, however,
mollly anfwer the purpofe very effeftually, when properly
arranged and fitted up in fuch intention ; by which a very
confiderable faving of expence may not unfrequently be
made.

The arrangement of all fuch ftables muft be according to
the nature and circumftances of the farms, and ]iurpofes
for which they are intended. The fingle range or row
mode, which has been already noticed, is very good, in
many inftances ; but they may be quite differently arranged,
placed, and fituated, in other cales, with equal or more ad-
vantage ; and fometimes, under particular circumftanc«,
ftables with double rows of ftalls may be found beneficial on
farms, and for other ufes. In fitting up the internal parts
of fuch ftables, the main objefts are thofe of convenience,
the fafety of the animals, the prevention of the watte of
food, and economy in the labour of thofe who have the pro-
viding, preparing, and giving of it, as well as the manage-
ment of the animals, in fuch cafes.

Some have adviled the having ftiort diftinft ftalls in ftables,
fo that each horfe may confume his feeds in a feparate man-
ner, and be liarneffed and prepared for work with more
facility and readinefs ; and that the partitions, in fuch cafes,
(hould not be carried quite up to the ceihngs of the ftables,
in order that a more free and open circulation of air may be
produced and preferved. Otheri, again, contend tor quite
open (hed- ftables, where the racks and mangers are fixed
low down near the ground ; the horfes having fmall yards

for

STABLE.

fof them to go into at pleafure, furnifhed with pumps and
ciilerns, as in thefe. With this fort of management tliey
are fuppofed to do better, even without drefTmjr, than in
regular ftables, by the ordinary management which is be-
llowed on them by farm-iervants in fuch cafes. Thefe
forts of ftables are faid to have anfwered well in praftice, in
feme inftances. They are found beneficial, when with
yards, in the winter feeding of the horfes on dry fodder and
carrots, or other fimilar roots ; alfo in fummer, feeding
them with different forts of green food and dry meat. It
has been fuggeited, however, that as fuch cold fhcd-ltables
feldom do well for horfes, thofe of the regular liable kind
may he the moil proper in general, and efpecially in all the
more northern diltrifts of the kingdom ; though the open
fhed fort may fometimes be ufeful and advantageous in the
more fouthern parts of the country, where the winter fea-
fons are more mild and favourable, as well as more iliort in
their duration. Low Ihed-ftables, with large fliding (hat-
ter openings behind the horfes, may often be cheap, proper,
convenient, and ufefu!, where foiling farm and team-horfes,
during the fummer feafon, is praftifed to any great extent ;
as the animals, it is laid, not only do better in them, but
are much more eafily managed in fupplying them with the
different forts of green fodder in the moll fuitable and proper
manner ; and, at the fame time, there are advantages pni-
duced in the way of raifing manure. Thefe ftables fhould
always be provided with fuitable racks for the purpofe ;
and there fliould be proper drains for conveying aw.iy all the
liquid matters that may be produced, in fuch modes of
feeding, into the littered yards, or other places deftined for
forming and containing the manure. They (hould hkewife
have proper places provided m or near them, for the recep-
tion of the new-cut green food, from which it can be
readily and with facility diftributed to the different animals
in fmall fuitable proportions, as it is wanted ; there being
Jarge fuitable openings into them, left for the purpofe of

ceiving the carts, or other conveyances by which it may
".' brought to the ftables. The horfes are probably the
bell and moft advantageoufly managed, in all fuch cafes,
when kept conftantly tied up in the llalls.

In all forts of ftables, or very contiguous to them, as
has been already fuggefted, there rtiould always be proper
places provided for the reception and fecuring of different
forts of harnefs and other articles and things of that kind
in ; as well as fuitable well-fecurcd and convenient places
for fixing up properly contrived corn-bins in. When thefe
ftables are Imall, it is in general moll convenient to have
the corn-bins placed and put up in the rooms above them,
and fo contrived and conllrufted, as that the feeds may be
'i-CTulatcd and drawn from a fpont carried down into the

jble part below, as by fuch contrivances, much time,
labour, trouble, and occafionally food, may not unfre-
quently be faved, which would otherwiic have been fpent
in going to tlie bins, mcafiiring the grain or other forts of
provender from them, and fecuring them again. By having
fuch forts of contrivances duly provided in ftables, many
fither forts of fubltanccs and materials, as food, can be kept
fafely and ready prepared, befide thofc of corn, either in a
mixed or fcparate ftate, as may be moft luitable and con-
venient ; fuch, for inftance, as fplit-beans, cut-ftraw, bean
:iiHi pea-haulm, and a great variety of other fimilar matters,

hich are of much confequence in the feeding and foddcr-
• j;,' of all foits of horfes.

On large farms, and in other fituations where there is
much room and convenience, it is always the beft way to
have fuch chelts, bins, or other contrivances, conftrufted
jud fitted up on the moft improved principles, as thofe of

the aerated granary or fome others, which have the means
of preferving the grain or other matters in a perfeftly fweet
and found ftate. Where the former of thefe plans is adopted
and had recourfe to, the beft form is probably that of
fomewhat the cubical, the bottom part being made, in fome
degree, in the manner of the common hopper, having the
Aider in the lower part of it fo fixed and contrived, as that
it may ftand about eighteen or twenty inches from the floor
of the place in which the bin or chell is put up ; as by
fuch means, fufficient room and convenience will be afforded
for receiving and taking out the corn or other provender
as it may be wanted. In all thele kinds of bins or chefts,
the fpouts for aerating the grain or other matters may with
perfedl eafe, facility, and convenience, be formed and fixed
from one fide to the other of them ; the external openings
or air-holes being conftantly well lecured by gratings of
iron- wire. In the fpout parts of thefe bins, which moftly
projedl confiderably below them, there are plate-iron Aiders
at their bottoms, which are fecured by a fmall lock and
key, where neceffary. They have often alfo other fmall
Aiders put juft above thefe, for the purpofe of afccrtaining
and regulating the feeds of the horfes, by which they can
readily and without inconvenience be taken out as wanted
for them.

The moft ufeful and convenient machine for the ufe of
ftables, in cruihing and bruifing the grain and other fub-
ftances which are neceffary in them, is probably that con-
ftrufted by Rawntree, as it takes up but little room, while
it is very effective in reducing all fuch materials. It is
found to operate well on oats, beans, peas, barley, and
other kinds of grain employed as horfe-iood ; and at the
fame time is capable of bruifing malt for brewing.

Machines of the mill-kind are likewife fometimes bene-
ficial in ftables for the purpofe of preparing particular forts
of horfe-food. The turning horizontal hand-mill, invented
by Mr. Wright, may probably be found a good and ufeful
contrivance for performing the necellary bufinefs in thefe
fituations, as it occupies but a very fmall fpace, is readily
managed, and fufficiently effeftive for the purpofe.

It may alfo be of importance, that ftables (hould be better
lighted than what is commonly the cafe, as the blindnefs
which is fo frequently met with among horfes, has lately
been attributed, and not without confiderable probability,
to an excefs of the ilimulus of light on their coming out
of dark or du(l(y ftables, where the irritability of the organ*
of fight has been for fome length of time accumulating,
into the full and broad glare of day-light.

As farm-ftables are moftly, during the fummer months,
very generally much expoled to the full open air,' the
doors, wickets, or windows of them being very feldom (hut,
except at night, and then but very rarely j the confequence
of lucii full expofure is, that flies, which are attrafted by
the horfe-dung and other fimilar matters, have very free ac-
cefs into them ; but as it may commonly be obferved, that
in fuch expofed ftables, too, the fpider is very prevalent, as
is fcen by the number of cobwebs whicii are prcfent ; it
may, of courfe, be unwife and improper to difturb or de-
ftroy them, as the infeft fliould probably be cherijhed in
fuch ftables, as it may favc the liorfe from the irritation of a
variety of little troublefome enemies and difturbers. The
provifion of fuch an infeft is natural, and the ufeful con-
fequences of it (hould not be difregarded by the farmer ia
fuch ftables.

In concluding the account of ftablca, it may be jud
noticed, that the manner of treating and managing faddle
and light carriage-horfcs in them is often very negligent,
uneconomical, and improper, as the different kinds of food

which

STABLE.

which are made ufe of are not unfrequently given to them in
very ineligible dates and modes, equally as to time, manner,
preparation, and quantity ; the natural habits or methods
of feeding in the animals being fcarcely at any time, or in
any cafes or circumltances, if they be ever at all attended
to or regarded, fo as to lead to better praftices. The ftufF-
ing the rack? of horfes in ftables at all times and feafons
with large quantities of hay and other fimilar forts of fod-
der, as is too commonly the cafe, is, in all circumftaiices
and cafes, a wafteful and highly improper manner of pro-
ceeding in ftable-foddering. And the letting them have
their feeds of corn or other forts of provender in irregular
manners and quantities, is not lefs detrimental and incon-
venient to the animals, than fluffing them fo much with hay.
They never fucceed well when there is much irregularity in
the praftices of feeding them. All the other operations
about them fliould alfo be performed, as much as poffible,
in exadl manners, and at proper periods.

But with the farm and heavy team-horfes, both in the
itables and on the roads, as well as in other places, the man-
ner of treatment is ftill more exceptionable and improper
in a variety of different diltridls and fituations of this
country. It has been obferved by Mr. Vancouver, that,
except in Ireland, where the method of treating farm-horfes
is extremely bad indeed, thofe in the county of Devon have
perhaps as hard a meafure of negled. and ill-ufage dealt
out to them, as is any where to be met with in the whole
united kingdom. From the injudicious manner in which
they receive the corn that is occafionally given them, it
is fuppofed, in fome meafure, a queftionable point, whether
it affords them a benefit, or, by diverting their appetites
from the hay, pea-haulm, or other forts of llraw, abfo-
lutely produces an injury and difadvantage, in conlequence
of the avidity with which they fwallow the corn in an un-
mafticated or unchewed Hate. In order to reftify and re-
medy fuch improper modes of managen\ent in the liable and
other treatment of farm and heavy team-horfes, a better
and more defirable example, it is thought, can no where be
found, than that which may be drawn from the management
of farm and waggon-horfes in Pennfylvania and Maryland,
in North America. Thefe horfes, it is faid, perform jour-
nies of two and three hundred miles over the itupendcus
mountains of that country, with prodigious loads of wheat
and flour from the interior, and wet and dry goods from
the fea-ports to the different points of embarkation, at Fort
Pitt, Red-ftone, Charleflown, Wheeling, and other places
on the Ohio river. Notwithllanding which, thefe waggon-
horfes, through the whole extent of that country, are, it
is afferted, feldom feen in a lefs high condition than the
brewers' and other large cart-horfes in the metropolis of
this country. The manner in which thefe American horfes
are fultained and fupported, fo as to perform thefe labours,
is, it is faid, generally by feeding them, in the (tables and
on the roads, with hay and ilravv chopped in fliort pieces
about half an inch in length, with which is mixed about
half a peck of rye, oat, and Indian corn-meal, to about
two and a half or three pecks of hay chopped in the fame
manner. A feeding-trough, fufficiently large for four or
five horfes to eat out of at the fame time, is attached to
each waggon, it is faid, while on the road. The chaff is put
into this trough, and after being well mixed with the given
quantity of meal, is moillened, and again well ilirred together,
until every Ihrcd or part of the hay or chopped ftraw is found
to be covered, or, as it were, frofted over by the meal. The
avidity with which the horfes eat their meat or provender,
when thus prepared, may, it is fuppofed, be readily con-
ceived. Their feed or meal being finifhed, they either

purfue their journey or lie down to reft ; but in either
cafe, it is obferved, not without being well drefTed, and
perfeftly freed and cleanfed from the muddy and other
effects of their laft labour. It is the pride and pleafure, it
is faid, of the carters, as well as of the waggon mafters in
that country, to fee their horfes in a condition rather above
than under the labour which they have to perform ; and io
a hundred miles travelling, from Baltimore to Philadelphia,
it is confidently afferted, that as many prime waggon-horfes,
and in as high condition, may be feen, as is the cafe in any
direftion for the fame diftance from the chief city of tliis
country. The adoption of a fimilar manner of treatment
in the management of farm and waggon-horfes in the ftables
and on the roads in this country, needs, it is thought, no
further recommendation than the certainty of thefe fafts and
ftatements, w-hich are unqueftionable.

The praflice of baiting poft, ftage, and travelling horfes
with rye, oat, or bean-bread, in the manner performed on
the continent, is likewife, it is fuppofed, an infinitely more
economical and facile mode of adminiflering refrefhraent to
jaded, exhaufted, and labour worn-out animals, than that of
giving them the crude corn in its unbroken ftate, which is fo
commonly and indeed almoft univerfally praftifed in thi»
country.

That there are great wafte, want of economy, and lofs of
nourilhment,' in the too general pradlice of giving unbroken
corn to animals, efpecially horfes, is extremely evident,
from the ftate it is in after it has paffed through their
bodies, as it is found, in many cafes of horfes thus fed, to
have lofl but a little of its nutrient property, being Hill
capable of fupporting other forts of animals, particularly
thofe of the granivorous kinds, in a perfeft manner. In its
unbroken condition, when not completely m.afticated or
broken by the teeth of the animals, as is frequently the
cafe, the digeltive procefs of the ftomach would feem to
have but little effecl upon it, as it paffes in nearly its
natural flate, while, when broken or crufhed by art, it
readily afts upon it, and the whole of us nourilhing pro-
perty is taken up there, and in its long courfe through the
bowels, in confequence of its being fo much more fully and
extenfively applied to their furfaces. All horfes are, there-
fore, far better fed and fupported, where the grain is re-
duced in its preparation before it is given, than in the com-
mon ufual modes of giving it whole. The fuppofed defcA
from want of chewing and mixing the faliva of the mouth
with it, where broken grain is given as the feeds of the ani-
mals, is probably complete fuppofition, being founded on
an imperfeft conlideration of the matter, and not upon the
refult of aAual trials, as it has been a great deal talked
about without any fort of proof, which can be depended
on, being given in its fupport.

Stable Bin or Hopper, that fort of box, or contrivance
of that kind, which is fixed up in ftables for the purpofe
and convenience of containing the corn or other fort of pro-
vender, which is to be given to horfes in fuch places.

Stable Logger, Lumper, or Ball, the oval, oblong, or
round piece of folid wood, which has a hole through its
middle, for the purpofe of receiving and paffing the rein
of the horfe's head-itall or halter through, and faftening it
by a knot or otherwife, after it has been put through a ring
fixed to the manger or other part of the ftall, in order to
poife and keep it tight, but not to be fo heavy as to in-
convenience the horfe in feeding or otherwife. There are
often in good ftables, two reins to each hcad-ftall balanced
in this manner. The forms and weights of thefe pieces of
wood fliould always be well fuited and proportioned to the
nature and powers of the horfes.

Stable

I

S T A

S T A

Stable Rings for Stalls, the llrong iron rings which are
fixed to the mangers or (ides of the italls of ftables for the
purpofe of the iialter or head-ftall reins of the horfes run-
ning in. There are not unfrequently two to each Itall in
well fitted up (tables, but common (tables have feldoin more
than one. Thefe rings are mortly of the common kind,
made fo a? to work in a (hank, which fcrcws into the part
of the (tall to which the rings are to be iixed ; but a great
improvement has lately been made in them, by having them
formed in fomcwhat the manner of and as a Itrong ipring,
by which, in cafe ot the horfe becoming entangled in the
reins, accidents may be prevented by their giving way. At
all other times they arc as perfectly fafe as the common
ring. In thefe cafes, they have alfo a (crew-fhank, in order
to be fixed in their proper places, but are not moveable in
it, as in the common ring.

STABLES's Strait, in Geography, a channel between
Sugar-loaf ifland and Banker's illand, in the Mergui Ar-
chipelago.

STABLESTAND, in the Forefl-laiu, is when a per-
fon is found at his (land in the foreit, with a crois-bow or
long-bow, ready to fhoot at a deer, or elfe (landing clofe
by a tree with greyhounds ready to flip.

This is one of the four evidences, or prefumptions, by
which a man is convifted of intending to (leal the king's
deer ; the other three being back-berond, bloody-hand, and
dog-draw. See Forest.

STABLO, or Stavelo, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Ourte, and chief place
of a canton, in the diltrict of Malmedy, fituated on the
river Rechte, and deriving its name from that of an ancient
abbey, founded in the year 657 by Sigebert, king of
Audrafia, for the accommodation of St. Remade, bilhop
of Maeftricht, who preferring folitude to the epifcopal
dignity, retired hither, and became the fir(t abbot. The
place contain^ 2604, and the canton 7903 inhabitants, on
a territory of 2925 kiliometres, in 10 communes. The
manufafture and trade, which are coniiderable, confift of
cloth and Ituffs, and the tanning of leather ; 20 miles S. of
Aix-la-Chapellc.

STACCATO, Ital. is a term in Mufic, which implies
a didinct feparation of one note from another, in a plain
and articulate manner. The term is confined to inltru-
mental mufic, and chiefly to that of the violin kiiid, where
the flroke of the bow is to be given to every note, and none
of the paffages are to be flurred ; that is, no two or more
notes are to be played with the fame bow.

STACHYS, ii: Botany, from T'-xyh a fp'i'i becaufe
the flowerr., though whorled, are more crowded into a
fpiked form than molt others of the fame natural order ;
which may, in fome meafure, anfwer Ray's objeAion to this
ancient name, as not peculiarly appofitc. — Linn. Gen. 293.
Schreb. 390. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 97. Mart. Mill. Uiiit.
V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 632. Prodr. Fl. Grace. Sibth. v. i.
407. Ait. Hort. Kevv. v. 3. 397. Purlh v. 2. 407.
JuiT. 114. Tourn. t. 86. Lamarck Didt. v. 7. 364.
Illuftr. t. 509. — Clals and order, D'ulynam'm Gymnofpermia.
Nat. Ord. Verlkillatit, Linn. I^abiattc, Ju(i.

Gen. Ch.. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
angular, permanent, cut about half way down into (wc
awl-fhaped, pointed, awned, rather unequal, tectli. Cnr.
of one petal, ringent ; tube very fliort ; throat oblong,
gibbous downwards at the bafe : upper lip ereft, nearly
ovate, vaulted, often cmarginate : lower larger, reflcxed at
the fides, three-cleft ; its middle fegment very large, cmar-
ginate, folded backward. Stnm. Filaments four, two of
them (liortcr than the fell, all awl-(haped, curved towards
Vol, XXXIII.

each margin of the throat after flowering ; anthers fimpl".
Pyi. Germen fuperior, four-lobed ; fiyletluead-fliaped paral-
lel to the llamens, and as long ; lligma in two acute divi-
fions. Peric. none, except the fcarcely altered caiy«. Serds
four, ovate, angular.

EIT. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, awned. Upper lip of the
corolla vaulted : lower reflexed at the fides ; its middle fep-
ment largelt, emarginate. Fading (tamcns refiexcd towardi
the fides.

Stachys is chiefly an European genus, of herbaceous, or
fomewhat fiirubby, mollly perennial, plants. Loureiro in-
deed has a 5. ArtemtJ'xa, found in China and Cochinchina ;
but we cannot, from his account, be certain as to its genus.
Mr. Purlh enumerates four American fpecie.s, three of
which are new. The fourteenth edition of Linn. Sylt.
Veg. contains feventeen, Willdei.ow has twenty-fix. We
(hall particularize fome of the mod remarkable, efpecially
the five Britilh fpecies, and a new ene from Crete.

&■ fylvatica. Hedge Woundwort.' Linn. Sp. PI. 8rr.
Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 416. Curt.
Loud. fafc. 3. Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 26. f. 2. t. 34. (Ga-
leopfis vera ; Ger. Em. 704.) — Whorls of fix flowers. Stem

(olid. Leaves heart-fhaped, (talked Native of hedges and

(liady fituations, throughout Europe, frequent with us,
flowering in July and Augud. 'The root is fomewhat creep-
ing, perennial, not annual. Herb erett, two or three feet
high, of a dark green, covered with fine, rather glidening
hairs, and exhaling a pungent, difagreeable, very peculiar
fcent. Stem fohd. Leaves broad. Spike interrupted, leafy
at the bottom, brafteated above. Calyx hifpid. Corollec
of a deep dull blood-red, elegantly variegated in front with
purple and white.

S. ambigua. Ambiguous Woundwort. Engl. Bot.

t. 2089. Ait. n. 5 Whorls of fix flowers. Stem hollow.

Leaves oblong, heart-fhaped at the bafe, (talked. — Found in
the Orkneys, very abundantly, in potatoe-fields and other
cultivated ground, as well as in the north of Scotland, and
near the Pentland hills, flowering in Augud and September.
It feems intermediate between S.fylvatka and palii/2ris, fome
fpecimens more refembling the former, others the latter.
The root is white and creeping. Stem hollow, its hairs more
or Jefs deflexed. Lip of the corolla lefs (trikingly varie-
gated. The dalked leaves didinguifli this fpecies from iS.
palujlr'is ; while their narrower oblong form, more filky fur-
face, and the want of any very llrong fetor, render it unlike
t\ii:Jylvatica.

S. palii/lris. Marfli Woundwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 811,
Willd. n. 4. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1675. Curt.
Lond.fafc. 3. t. 35. Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 26. f. I. (Pa-
nax Coloni ; Ger. Em. 1005.) — Wliorls of fix (lowers.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, half embracing the dem. — Found
in marfhy watery places, about the banks of rivers, tiirough-
out Europe ; common in England, flowering in Aiiguft,
and very troublefome in low, wet cultivated fields. The
root is (iefliy and tuberous, creeping cxtenfively, and very
difficult of extirpation. Steins credt, two or three feet high,
(Irongly qu.adrangular, rough, with deflexed bridles. Leaves
felTile, (errated ; lilky above ; rather woolly beneath. Spiie
of many leafy whorls. Corolla light purple ; its lower lip
flrcaked with white and violet. The herb is fetid. G«>-
rardc calls it Clown's Woundwort, becaufe he was iiidrudtcd
by a clown to ufe it as a vulnerary, with fo much fuccefs,
that, according to hia account, it might fuperfede all other
fiirgical applications !

S. gennamca. Downy Woundwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 812.

Willd. n. 6. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 829. Fl. Dan.

t. 684. Jacq. Aullr. t. 3i'9. (S. Futhfii ; Ger. Em. ^19?.

4 Q S. mon-

STACHYS.

Riv MonoD Irr t 27. f. i.)— Whorls of where moft botanical travellers have gathered this fpccies,

S. montana. IV ' ^^l S'em wonlly, erect.— and from whence it came into the gardens of Parkinloi. and

many n )Wtr^. i^idvis ticuni . ^ ..j/^ ■■ _... ^.

Nanve of Germany, Siberia, France, England, a^ d Greece

other curious cultivators of that time, though now ftarcely
to be met with. The plant is bufhy, of humble growth,
fpinous, pale green, with fmall lea-vet. Floiuers white, their
lip prettily fpotted with red.

S. paldtftina. Greek Woundwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 1674.

Willd. n. 15. Prodr. Fl. Grsc. n. 1363. (S. alba, an-

gullo falvis folio; Barrel. let. 279. ) — Whorls of about

'i"^/!!!!"^ '"'wooUv Woundwort. Murray in Linn. Syft. fix flowers, crowded, leafy. Leaves feifile, lanceolate, entire,

W.tt, us ,t IS rare, occurring only on fome ch..lkv or iime-
il„ne fells, flowering in July. The/.wu are denlely clothed
wit I. (oft white wool. Leaves italked. ovate, acute, covered
with Inft white pubefce ce, molt wo..lly beneath. Flo'wers
numerous , f.lky and fdvery at the outhde ; purple and
white ill front.

Ven. ed. 14. 536. J'aeq. M>fc. v. 2. 342. Ic. Rar. t. 107.
W'lld. n. 8. Alt n. 9.— Wliorls of many flowers. Leaves
woolly. ' Stems procumbent ai d rooting at the bafe.— Na-
tive of Siberia. Frequent in i^ardens, where it proves a

nd

veiny, finely downy ; as well as the nearly round item. — Na-
tive of the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp found it plentiful through-
out Greece, in rough and ftony mountainous places, as Di«>-
fcorides mentions of his t^x^-^ ^^^ therefore concludes it to
be that identical fpecies. It anfwers, indeed, well enough to

hardy perennial, fl-werin. throughout the futrimer, and be that ide . .a w n, f ' I, .

forming Wire tufts, confpicuous for their very white woolly the defcnption. The >/nj are ereft, bufhy, fornewhat
appeartice. The leaves are more ohtufe, and far more fhrubby, leafy, nearly round, clothed with peculiarly fine,
denfely woolly, than in the lalt. Dr. Sibthorp's manu-
fcnpts iiifor-n us that the prefent fpecies is called ra^"'' ^y
the modern Greeks in Laconia,

S. coccinea. Scarlet Chili Woundwort. Willd. n. 3.
Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 18. t. 284. Curt.
Ma"-, t. 666. — Whorls of fix flowers. Leaves ovate, cre-
nate* hairy ; heart-fliaped at the bafe, with dilated footllalks.

clofe, denfe, woolly hoarinefs. Leaves an inch and half or
two inches long, fcavcely one-third of an inch broad, very foft
and downy on both fides ; the floral ones fhort and ovate.
Calyx unarmed, downy, hke the outfide of the corolla, whofe
lips are purple, the throat variegated with white.

S. rugofa. Rugged Yellow Woundwort. Ait. ed. i.
V. 2. 303. ed. 2. n. 17. Willd. n. 20. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 493.

Native of South America. Said to have been brought — Whorls of fix flowers. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated, ru-

from Sj>ain in ,798, by the late marchionefs of Bute. This gofe, downy ; tapering at the bafe, and fomewhat ftalked.

is a haidv iJreei:lK.uic plant, readily increafed by cuttings, or Stem round, finely downy. — Native of the Cape of Good

by parting its roots, and producing abundance of large Hope, from whence Mr. Maffon is faid to have introduced

fiowers, of that rich fcarlrt hue fo prevalent in the vegetable it in 1 774, yet Thunberg has it not in his Prodromus. The

produfti.ns of Chili and Peru. pm is flirubby, bufliy, quite round, very white, as in the

S- hyjf'ipifolia. Hyflop-leaved Woundwort. Michaux lall, to which the leaves alfo bear a great refemblance, but

Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 4. Purfli n. 1. (S. paluftris? Walt, are more ftalked. Jacquin'a plate fliews no ferratures. The

Carol. 162.)—" Whorls of about four flowers. Stem ^oTO<T.f are axillary, with a white tube and yellow lips,
ereft. Leaver feffile, linear-lanceolate, nightly toothed, nearly &. annua. Pale Annual Woundwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 813

fmooth." — Native of Carolina. A fleiider, upright, nearly
fmooth plant, with about ioin Jlowers in each whorl. Mi-
thaux.

S. afpera. Harfh Woundwort. Michaux Boreal-Amer.
V. J. 5. Piirfli n. 2. (S. tenuifolia; Willd. n. 11. S.

Willd. n. 23. Ait. n. 19. Jacq. Auitr. t. 360. (Sideri-
tis flore albo, barba luteola ; Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 70. S.
latifoha glabra ; Ger. Em. 699.) — Whorls of fix flowers.
Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ferrated, ftalked, fmooth, three-
ribbed. Stem branched, eredl. — Native of Germany and

arventis ? Walt. Carol. 162.) — Whorls of about fix flowers, the fouth of Europe. Kept fomelimes in curious gardens.

Stem ereft, very rough, with deflexed briftles. Leaves rather for curiofity than any valuable property. The root

lanceolate, acute, ferrated, very fmooth. Teeth of the calyx is annual. Stem erecft, fquare, with oppofite fpreading

fpinous, divaricated. — In low fields and on the banks of rivers, branches. Leaves green; the larger ones ftalked ; upper-

frora New York to Virginia, flowering from June to Au- molt narrower, and feflile. Calyx-teeth fpinous. Corolln

guft. It refembles S. palujlris. Root perennial. Flowers white, with a yellowifh lip.

purple. Purjh. S. arvenjis. Corn W^oundwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 8 14.

&. hifplda. Briftly Woundwort. Purfti n. 3. (S. fo- Willd. n. 24. Fl. Biit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 1 154. Curt,

liis lanceolatis, &c. ; Gron. Virg. ed. 2. 89, but not the Lond^fafc. 4. t. 41. Fl. Dan. t. 587. (S. arvenfis mini-

plant of Linnaeus, nor of any other author cited, except
Clayton, n. 271.) — " Whorls of about fix flowers. Stem
briitly. Leaves ftalked, ovate-oblong, bluntly ferrated,

ma ; Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 27. f. 2.) — Whorls of fix flowers.
Stem weak, fpreading. Leaves heart-fliapcd, obtufe, cre-
nate, rather hairy. — Common in the fields of Britain, and

briftly. Calyx imoothini." — In old fields and low paftures, other parts of Europe, efpecially where the foil is light and
from Virginia to Carolina, flowering in July. Flowers fandy, flowering in July and Augutt. Root annual, fmall.
purple. Gronovius's fynonym has been erroncoufly referred Steins fpreading, often proitrate, a fpan long, iqnare, hairy

to S. annua, from which his original fpecimen proves widely
diflerent. PurJh.

S. Faniculum. Fennel-fcented Woundwort. Purfli n. 4.
— " Whorls of about fix flowers. Stem creft, downy.
Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-ftiaped, toothed ; fmooth

fmooth. Leaves ftalked, ovate, fetid, an inch long.
Flowers fmall, light purple, with a white and dotted palate ;
their calyx hairy, witii violet teeth.

S.Jpinulofa. Prickly-branched Woundwort. Prodr. Fl.
GrsEC. n. 1368. (S. foliis hormini ; Riv. Suppl. t. 15. Si-

The

above; whitifli and downy beneath." — On the banks of the deritis cretica maxima, ocymaftri valcntini facie; Tourn
" "" ' " ■ - ■ •■ Q^^^ j^^^ — Whorls of fix flowers. Leaves heart-ftiaped,

crenate, hairy. S'em erect, branched, minutely prickly. —
Native of Crete, where Dr. Sibthorp found it. Arduino
fent a fpecimen to Linnaeus, marktd with Tournefort's fy-
nonym ; and we have lately noticed a figure of this plant,
in the rare unpubliflied fupplement to Rivinus, of which the

Miflburi ; annual, flowering in July. Flowers blue,
whole plant fmells extremely like Fennel. PurJh.

S. fpinnfa. Thorny Woundwort, Afles' Thyme. Linn.
Sp.Pl. »i3. Willd. n. 13. Alt. n. 12. Sm. Fl. Grac.
Sibth. t. 559, unpubliflied. (Gaidarothimo di Candia ; Pon.
Bald. 106.) — Hoary. Branches crofling each other, tipped

with fpincB- Flowers axillary, teruate — Native of Crete, only copy known to exift, apparently once belonging to

the

S T A

tlie author, is in fir Jofeph Banks's library. The root is
fibrou'', probibly aiimial. Stem a fo:)t cir fciot and half
high, enct, branched, iqnare, with prickly angles. Leaves
llalked, an inch an<i half liniiT, bhintifli, ribbed and veiny,
green, more or lefs hairy. Whorh leafy, rather crowded.
Calyx bell-fhap'd, hairy, with (hort fpinous teeth. Corolla
yellowilh, twice a^ loiij as the calvx ; its upper lip entire.

STACHYTARPHETA, from rax^^, a fpiie, and
Ta^In t tlen/e, a name n{ Vdhl's, intended to exprels the clofe
uninterrupted difpofition of the flowers. — Vahl Eiuim. v. i.
205. .luir. Annal du Muf v. 7. 75 Ait. Hnrt. Kew.
V. I. 46. — Clafs and order, Diandria Monrgynia. Nat. Ord.
Verbenaceit, .Tutl. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, an-
gular, with four acute teeth, permanent. Cor. of one pe-
tal, lalver-fhaped ; tube cylindrical, longer than the calyx,
fomewhat recurved at the upper part ; limb fpreaduig, di-
vided half way down into live roundifli unequal fegments,
the lowell being the finalleft. Stam. Filamentj four, m-
ferted into the upper part of the tube, not reaching to its top,
two of them imperfeift ; anthera of two cells, one over the
other. Pyi. Germen fuperior, two-lobed ; llyle the length
of the tube, capillary ; IHgma peltate. Seeds two, linear,
the length of the calyx.

Ed'. Ch. Calyx tubular, with four teeth. Corolla falver-
fliaped, unequal, five-cleft, curved. Two abortive ftamens.
Seeds two.

A handfome and diltinft genus, of tropical, chiefly Weft
Indian, annual or flirubby plants, previoufly confounded
with Verbena. Their branches are obfcurely quadrangular,
divided in a forked manner in the upper part. Leaves op-
pofite, italked, tapering down into the footllalks. Spikes
from the forks and fummits of the branches, folitary, elon-
gated, cylindrical, tapering, acute. Flowers alternate. Brac-
teas tapering into a briftly point. Calyx as long as its cor-
refponding channel in the common ftalk.

Twelve fpecies are defined by Vahl.

1. S>. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Baftard Vervain. Vahl
n. I, excluding Jacquin's fynonym. (Verbena anguftifolia ;
Mill. Dift. ed. 8. n. i j.) — " Leaves lanceolate, tapering at
each end, dillantly ferratcd, fmooth." — Gathered at Vera
Cruz, by Hoiiltoun, who lent feeds to Miller. The latter
defcribes it as an annual branching plant, a foot and half high.
Leaves pale green, acute, three inches and a half long, half
an inch broad. Spikes flefhy. Flowers blue, appearing in
Augult, and in warm feafons ripening feed in our gardens.
— We agree with Vahl that Miller's plant, though we have
not feen it, is probably dillintt ; but Jacquin's indica furely
is the following.

2. S. indica. Indian Ballard Vervain. Vahl n. 2. Ait.
n. I. (Verbena indica; Linn. Sp. PI. 27. Jacq. Obf.
fafc. 4. 7. t. 86.) — Leaves lanceolate-oblong, tapering at
the bafe, coarfely toothed, fmooth as well as the Hem.
Bradlcas linear-lanceolate. — Native of Ceylon. Van Royen
lent feeds to Linnscus, who raifed the plant in his ftove. It
is annual, flowering in Augult and September. The leaves
are an inch or more in breadth ; the lower ones obtufe.
Spikes long and flender. Bradeas finely liriatcd, mem-
branous at the edges. Corolla blue. Jacquiii reprcfents
the leaves more narrow and acute, with more regular ferra-
tures, than in tlie Linniean fpecimen, which came from the
Upfal garden, and is accompanied by a branch with nar-
rower leaves. This latter, evidently a mere variety, may be
fimilar to what Vahl had from the fame garden, and took for
Miller's Verbena angujlijolia.

3. S. arijlata. Awned Ballard Vervain. Vahl n. 3.
(Verbena ariltata; Vahl Eel. Amcr. v. 2. 2. t. n.) —

S T A

" Leaves oblong, fcrrated, acute ; villous and (lightly hoary
beneath. Bradteas ovate, pointed. Stem Ihrubby."— Ga-
thered by Von Ruhr in South America. Branches purplifti-
grey. Leaves an i:'ch and a half lonp;, tapering at each end,
equally and deeply lerrated, entire at the bafe, ribbed ; the
ribs moll hoary underneath. Spike fon-etimes near a foot
long. Lower bradeas fpreading ; upper imbricated, fome-
what fringed, longer than the calyx. Vahl.

^. S.JamaicenJis. Jamaica Baftard Vervain. Vahl n. 4.
Alt. n. 2. (Verbena jamaicenfis ; Linn. Sp. PI. 27. Jacq.
Obf. falc. 4. 6. t. 85. V. folio fubrotundo ferrate, flore
csruleo ;^ Sloane Jam. 171. t. 107. f. 1. Cymburus urtici-
fohus; Sahf. Paiad. t. 53.) — Leaves ovate, obtufe, fcr-
rated, nearly fmooth. Branches hairy. BraAeas ovate,
Ihorter than the calyx — Native of the Well Indies. Intro-
duced very early into our ftoves. The Jem is naturally
fhrubby and perennial, though it feldom furvives after flower-
ing in a hot-houfe. Leaves two inches long, tapenng down
into a wm^eAfootJlalk half that length ; their veins and mar-
gins roughifli with fhort hairs. Spikes a fpan long, hardly
thicker than a crow's quill. Bradeas clufe-prefl'ed. Corolla
blue, fomewhat refembling the elegant Durania Ellifia.

5. S. dicholoma. Forked Bafl;ard Vervain. Vahl n. c.

("Verbena dichotoma ; Fl. Peruv. v. i. 23. t. 34.")

" Leaves oblong-ovate, ferraled. Branches hifpid. Brac-
teas lanceolate, the length of the calyx." — Native of wood*
in Peru. Stem flirubby, ereft, a yard high, flightly
branched ; the branches comprefied in each joint at the
upper part. Leaves acute, veiny, minutely hifpid beneath ;
their lerratures pointed. Spikes a foot long, curved. Seeds
Uriated externally. Fl. Peruv.

6. S. marginata. Bordered Baftard Vervain. Vahl n. 5.
— " Leaves roundifli-ovate, fmooth, with tooth-like ferra-
tures ; the edges of the teeth cartilaginous. Stein flirubby."
— Found by Von Rohr in the Weft Indies. Branches round,
fmooth, like the reft of the plant. Leaves an inch long,
firm, very obtufe, ribbed, without veins, with pointed coarfc
teeth. Spikes fix inches long, as thick as a pidgeon's quill.
Bradeas linear-lanceolate, tapering, the length of the calyx,
finely ftriated. Vahl.

7. Si.Jlrigofa. Strigofe Baftard Vervain. Vahl n. 7. —
" Leaves ovate-oblong, crenato-fcrrated, hairy like the
branches." — Native of the Weft Indies. Ventenat. Shrubby,
with round branches, which are befprinkled, like the leaves
znAfoolJlalks, with white hairs. Leaves very blunt, an inch
long, ribbed, veinlefs. Spikes no thicker than packthread,
about four inches long. Vahl.

8. S. cajanenfts. Cayenne Baftard Vervain. Vahl n. 8.
(Verbena cayennenfis ; Richard Aft. Soc. Hift. Nat. Parif.
V. 1. 105.) — " Leaves ovate, crenato-ferrated, fmooth, very
obtufe. Stem flirubby." — Native of Cayenne. Branches
round, their young extremities hairy, as well as ihcjloiver-

Jlalks and the leaf-Jlalks. Leaves two niches long, coarfely
crenale, ribbed. Spikes flender, four inches in length. Brac-
teus flender, hairy like the calyx. Vahl.

9. S. orubica. Orubian Ballard Vervain. Vahl n. 9.
Ait. n. 3. (Verbena orubica ; Linn. Sp. PI 27. Pluk.
Almag. 382. t. 228. f 4, and t. 327. f 7. Slicrardia urticic
foho fubtus incano, floribus violaceis ; Eliret. Pift. t. f . f i.)
— Leaves ovate, ferr:ited, rough and rugole. Stem Ihrubby.
Brafteas ovate, larger than tlie calyx — Nitive of Panama.
A greenhoule or lloveftiriib, early introduced, but not often
met with in our collections. The Jlem is a yard high,
branched. Leaves deeply lerrated, rounded. Spike twelve
or eighteen inches long, with Iquarrole bradeas. Corolla
violet, with a dark divided fpot.

4 Q ? »o. S.

S T A

10. S. mutabilis. Changeable-flowered Baftard Vervain.
Vahl n. 10. Ait. n. 4. Curt. Mag. t. 976. (Verbena
mutabilii ; Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 334. Ic. Rar t. 207. Andr.
Rcpol'. t. 435. Venten. Malmaif. t. 36. Cymburus muta-
bihs ; Salif. Parad. I. 49.)— Leaves ovate, ferrated, rugofe,
fomewhat hoarv as well as tlie item. Braaeas lanceolate,
fhorterthan the'caiyx.— Native of South America. A Itove-
plant, flowennjj throughout the fummer, and propagated
by cuttings. 'Tliis is larger and more fplendid than any of
the foregoing. Leaves often four inches, or more, in length.
Siiies a foot long. Flowers large, crimfon, with a central
rino- of a blood-red, round the white throat. The corolla
fades before it goes off, occalioning a perpetual variety of
hues in each fpike.

11. S. prljmatica. Germander-leaved Baftard Vervain.
Vahl n. II. Ait. n. 5. (Verbena prifmatica ; Jacq. Coll.
X. 2. 301. Ic. Rar. t. 208. V. fpicata jamaicana, Teucrii
pratenfis folio, difpermus ; Pluk. Aim. 382. t. 321. f. i.)

Leaves ovate, obtufe, ferrated. Spikes lax. Brafteas

awl-fhaped, ihorter than the calyx. — Native of the Weit
Indies. Biennial in our hot-houfes, flowering in May and
June. T\iejlem has many fmooth, flender, forked branches.
Leaves one or two inches long, green, roughilh, ribbed.
Flowers fewer and more difperfed than in the rell, of a
violet blue, fmall and rather inconfpicuous.

12. Si'ifquamofa. Scaly Baftard Vervain. Vahl n. 12.
(Verbena Iquamofa ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. i. 3. t. 5.)
— Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, alternate, with fliallow wavy
ierratures. Flower-ftalks axillary, fcaly, much longer than
the leaves. Stem flirubby. Corolla ringent. — This flowered
in the imperial ftoves at Schoenbrun, but its native country
is unknown. We ftiould prefume the plant to be of South
America origin. The irancAfj^ are villous. Zcatifj dark green,
fpreading, three inches long. Floiuer-Jlalks very peculiar,
numerous, from five to ten inches long, hairy, thrcad-ftiaped,
foraetimes branched, covered entirely with innumerable clofe
braBeas. Flowers very fmall, pale blue ; their upper lip
ereft, ftiort, cloven ; lower larger, fpreading, in three cloven
fegments. Vahl has doubts refpefting the genus of this
plant, its leaves being alternate. We fufpeft it to be more
allied to Jiijikia; at leall to the Linnaean J. acaulis, vrhich
is Vahl's Elytraria crenata.

STACK, North, in Geography, a cape on the W. coalt
of the ifland of Anglefea ; 2 miles N. of Holyhead.

Stack, in Agriculture, a quantity of corn, puKe, hay,
ftraw, ftubble, or other fimilar material, regularly built or
piled up, and generally thatched, as a defence from the
weather. Stacks are ot various forms and dimenfions, ac-
cording to circumftances ; but for grain, thofe of the long,
narrow, fquare ftiape arc probably the moft advantageous,
where the quantity of corn is confiderable ; as they are
found to ftand more firmly, have a better appearance, are
more conveniently and readily built, and prelcrve the grain
better than thofe of other forms. And they have the great
advantage of requiring lefs thatch, as well as labour in
putting it upon them. But where the corn is only in a
fmall proportion, the round or oblong ftiape may be more
proper and fuitable, as being more readily drawn up in the
root ; and the circular, with a conical top and cylindrical
body diverging a little at the eaves, is efteemed the beft form
of any in luch cafes by the author of the Agricultural Re-
port of Perthftiire. For hay, the form of the ftack is a
matter of Hill lefs confequence : the long fquare or oblong
fliapes are perhaps the moft fafe and convenient, efpecially
when not too broad, as they admit the air the moft fully.
Befides, they are the moft convenient to cut from in trufling
hsy for fide at the market. But the circular form for farm

S T A

ufe, where ftraw is fcarce, may be more advantageou* in
faving ftraw in thatching or covering them.

Tlie oftagonal form of corn-ftack has fometimes a pleaf-
ing and very ornamental effeft in particular circumftances
and fituations, efpecially in the ftack-yards of the farms
about country feats and refidcnces, but it requires more time
and trouble in building and finifhing than thofe of moft other
fiiapes, confequently is improper, in general, except in fuch
places, circumftances, and fituations.

The oblong and long fquare forms of corn-ftacks, with
circular ends in the latter cafe, are fometimes very convenient,
ufeful and advantageous, as they are built and finiflied in a
ready and eafy manner, take up but little room in compari-
fon with fome other forms, and keep the grain remarkably
well and fafe. In building them, the different courfcs of the
ftieaves, which are not many in the width, are laid fo as ta
bind on each other and fecure the whole, as will be feen
in fpeaking of ftacking grain in a more full and clear
manner.

In the ordinary circular form of corn-ftack, the thatch,
which ftiould always come down to the termination of the
moft bellying-out or fpreading-out part of the ftem, is
ufually fecured and kept on in the common way, without the
ufe of any fort of rope or other contrivance of that kind.
Ropes are, however, fometimes employed.

But there is another form of corn-ftack, which is com-
mon in the northern parts of this country and that of Scot-
land, which is of the round kind, and which moftly refts on a
wooden Irame upon high ftone fupports with fiat caps. The
ftem is made perfectly upright to the caves, where the
(heaves of the upper part are made to projeft lome way at
firft, and then gradually taken into a point at the top. The
thatch or covering in this cafe, in confequence of the windy
and ftormy fituations in which the ftacks are moftly expofed,
are, for the moft part, fecured by means of ftraw-ropes, or
thofe of other kinds, put on in a fort of checquered man-
ner, one rope being made to crofs or pafs over the other, fo
as to afl"ord fomething of this appearance. There are two
ftraight ropes, to which all the others, which are oblique, are
faftened, the ends being well fecured by being pafled round
a ftrong belt-rope which furrounds the top of the upright
ftem of the ftack. The different oblique ropes are put on
alternately from the different fides of the ftack. In fome
cafes, the ends of the oblique ropes are fixed to the butt-
parts of the flieaves, without any fort of belt-rope being
employed. See Thatching of Gra'm-Stacis.

There are a few other forms of corn-ftacks, which are
occafionally made ufe of in particular circumftances and
cafes of farms ; but more for the fake of curiofity, than
any utility they may have in praftice.

In flacks with any fort of pulfe crops, a« peas, beans,
feeding tares, and other fimilar matters, the fame forms may
be moitly had recourfe to, but their Item-parts need feldom
be fo much bellied out at the eaves as in corn-ftacks, as
there is moftly lefs danger from wet ; they fhould always,
however, have fo much outward diverging at the tops of the
Items, as fully to carry off the water from them. The
Italk or butt-ends-of all fuch forts of produce, when put into
ftacks, Ihould conftantly be carefully laid in an outward di-
reftion, fo that as few of the pods as polTible may be ex-
pofed to the moifture of the air. The top-parts in ftacks
of this kind have rarely any occafion to be carried up to fo
much height, as is the cafe fometimes in corn-ftacks. Thefe
forts of ftacks, as well as thofe of corn, (hould always be
put on Hands or itaddles which are confiderably raifed from
the ground.

In the forms of hay-ftacks there is lefs tariety than in
t thofe

S T A

S T A

tliofe of corn, but they have fome degree of variety accord-
ing to circumftances, and the nature of the lituatiors in
which they are placed, as well as fome other caufes. The
moil ufeful forms are probably thofe of the fquare, long
fqiiare, oblong, and perfectly round kinds. There is a cu-
rious fort of low very bellying form, which relts on a very
imall bafis or lladdle at bottom, and which has an equally
low top, which is fometimes in ufc. This is fomewhat the
form or (hape of a fort of hay-ftack, which in Scotland,
and fome of the more northern Englirti diltricts, is often
denominated a hay-fow.

In Hacks with hay of the artificial grafs kinds, as that of
clover, faintfoin, tares, and other fimilar forts, the Hacks
fiiould never be made fo large as in the cafe of natural grafs-
hay, as fuch forts of hay, in order to fecure them in the beft
manner, fliould never be fo much or fo well made as that of
the natural grafs knid, confequently never be put together
in (lacks in fuch large quantities, as there may often be
danger, inconvenience, and lols in fuch pratticee.

In Hacks of the ftraw and Hubble kinds, very little more
is feldom necedary than merely the fecuring of the mate-
rials; they need but rarely liave fo much labour and time
beHowed upon forming the top-parts of them, as is often
the cafe in corn and hay-ftacks, as the matters fcarcely ever
remain in them for any great length of time, bemg moHly
in a Hate of gradual removal for different ufes.

It may be farther obferved, in refpecl to the fizes of
ftacks of the firH fort, that they of courfe vary greatly ac-
cording to circumHances ; but they (bould never be made
too large, as there is a great deal more labour and rifle in
fecuring and getting in the grain for them, than in thofe of
a fmaller lize ; and from their being built at different times,
they do not fettle altogether in fo equal and perfect a man-
ner, or refift the eifedts of the weather, and keep the grain
fo well, as thofe of lefs dimenfions, that can be completed
at once : and, in addition, they are more convenient in tlie
thrcfhing out, efpccially where the flail manner is employed.
The chief advantages they poffefs are thofe of taking fome-
thing lefs in thatch and labour in covering them, as has
been juH noticed. But, in common, from about twenty to
thirty-two horfe cart-loads may be fufficient for one Hack,
on all the middhng-fized farms in mofl of the grain diitrifts
of this kingdom.

And in regard to the proper fize of the hay-ftack, it
(hould probably be diflcrent in fome degree, according to
the Hate and nature of the hay ; but a middling fize is per-
haps the beft, as from twenty to thirty loads of about one
ton each ; as there are inconveniencies in both fmall and
large Hacks, the former having too much outfide, while the
latter are liable to take on too much heat, and at the fame
time permit lefs moiHure to be prefcrved in the hay. In
fmall (tacks, the bellying forms, with very narrow bottoms,
have often much advantage, and are in fome didri'Ss termed
/heep-ftacks, probably from the (lovcnly practice of (Keep
havmg been permitted to feed at them. It is obferved by
Mr. Middleton, in hie Agricultural Survey of Middlefex,
that ttiere are no hay-Hacks more neatly formed nor better
fecured than thofe of that county. At every vacant time,
while the Hack is carrying up, the men are employed in
pulling it with their hands into a proper (hape ; and about
a week after it is finifhed, the whole roof is properly
thatched, and then fecured from receiving any damage from
the wind, by means of a Hraw-rope extending along the
eaves, up the ends, and near the ridge. The ends ot the
thatch are afterwards cut evenly below the eaves of the
flack, jufl of fufficient length for the rain-water to drip
quite clear of the hay. When the Hack happens to be

placed in a fituation which may be fufpefted of being too
damp in the winter, a trencli of about fix or eight inches
deep is dug round, and nearly cloie to it, which ferves to
convey all the water from tlie (pot, and renders it perfeftly
dry and fecure.

It may be noticed, that in Hacks of all kinds, proper
Hands or Haddlcs fhould conllantly be provided, being well
proportioned to the intended fize of the Hacks. Thofe for
grain fhould have copings placed lo as to prevent the en-
trance of vermin : but for hay there is no neceifity for this,
nor need they be raifed fo high, but be quite plumb and
upright. It is evident, that by the common method of
placing them upon the ground, on a little drift, or a few
pieces of wood laid acrois each other, there niuH conHantly
be great lofs in the bottom parts of the Hacks, from the
moiHure being abforbed by the hay, and it becoming in a
fuHy condition ; while by the ufe of Hands, this may be
almofl wholly avoided, and the cxpencc be but trifling, as
any old rough pieces of wood, or other materials, will
anfwcr the purpofe in a pretty perfetl manner, when other
better forts of ftaddles are not at hand, or to be procured.
See Staddle and Stand.

All forts of Hacks (hould be carefully attended to, while
they are forming and getting up, and never be left for any
length of time, as is too frequently the cafe, without being
properly topped up ; as injury and lofs are always to be ap-
prehended wherever that is the cafe. Every kind of Hack
fhould iikewife conllantly be fuffered to have completely
fettled in all its different parts, before it be attempted to
be covered in ; as otherwile the covering may be deranged
and rendered unfightly, by the fhrinking that may after-
wards take place, and the matters be not rendered fo fecure
or fo well preferved.

Stacks of the corn kind are fometimes conveniently placed
upon low frames of wood, and on low call-iron wheels, mov-
ing in circular iron railways, contrived in fuch a manner as
that three or four horfes may, in mod cafes, in moderate
fized ftacks, draw tliem to the barn or threfhing machine.
Placing them on thefe forts of contrivances is often of great
utility and advantage, in faving the expence of labour and
time in carting, or otherwile conveying them to fuch places ;
and is, befides, capable of being performed at any time,
without waiting for the coming of fine and favourable
weather for the purpofe. The expence in this way of
placing Hacks is very trifling, and will in a great meafure
prevent the ncceffity of having capped Hone ftandings lor
them. It is Iikewife a necedary and ufeful plan, in many
inHances, as being that alone which allows of a choice of
any particular Hack for threfliing, without waiting for the
whole or a great number of others being previoufly removed
or taken out of the way. In fome other cafes the placing
the ftacks in Hraight lines, leading by and pafl thefe places,
jnay anhver the fame intention, though in a much lefs per-
Tedt manner in different points.

Stack, Huy-Soiu, a name given in fome places to that
low bowl-like bellying form of ft.ick, which has an equally-
low top, fecured by hay, or other fimilar kinds of ropes,
put on in fcmewhat the checquered form. It is chiefly in
ufe in fuch fituations as arc much cxpofed to winds and
Horms.

Stack, Mew Ar'ijh or Erri/h, that particular fort of
Hack or mow which is made witli grain in the field, in fome
dillriftr, as Cornwall, in wet and catching harvelt fcafons.
The corn uliially remains in thefe Hackr. for a fortnight or
three weeki. And it is faid by the writer of tlic correAcd
account of the agriculture of the .ibovc county, that thefe
ariflt ftacks or mows, of which he has given a icprefont-

ationf

S T A

ation, are admirable contrivances in fnch like feafons ; and
that if proper care be taken in forming and making of them,
to keep the middle parts well up, fi> as that the butt-ends
of the (heaves may have a confidcrable Hope outwards, the
corn will receive no dama-e, though it were to remain in
the field a month or fix'weeks, or perhaps longer. See
Stacking Grain.

Stack, Sheep Hay, a name fometimes applied to that fort
of low, circular, diverging form of hay-ftack, in fome dif-
trids, which was formerly had recourle to about farms, for
(heep to feed at during the feverity of the winter feafon.
This littering, walleful, and fiovenly mode of foddering
flieep ha^ now mollly been done away by the great value of
hay, and the introduftion of proper (heep-yards, with fuit-
able contrivances for the purpofe. See Sheep- /"(V/v/.

Stacks, Supporting of, the practice of propping and
flioring them up, where they may happen to lean or incline
too much to either fide, fo as to be in danger of falling with-
out fuch aid and aflillance. In thofe of the grain kind, it is
always a good praAice to arm and eafe the props, or polls,
which are made ufe of for the purpofe, with a (heet of tin,
njiled round them, at more than halfway up, in fomewhat
the form of an inverted funnel, as this ferves to flop vermin
in their progrefs and attempts to get up and into the flacks ;
and tin, on account of its cheapnefs and polifhed furface, is
found particularly well fuited to the purpofe.

The props or pods for this ufe (hould, in all cafes, have
fufficient ftrength, and be firmly fet up to or againft the
Hacks ; having a portion of ftrong thick board laid to the
Hacks, where their upper ends come againit them, to pre-
vent their entrance into them.

This method is found to fucceed well in the praftice of
forae fanners in Gloucefterlhire, according to the corrected
account of the agriculture of that diltrict.

SxACK-^arx, a term applied to the large bars or hurdles
by which hay-ftacks in fields are inclofed and fecured.

The bars and hurdles for inclofing Hacks (hould always be
of a proper thicknefs and ftrength, fo as not to readily gife
way, but refill any ftrefs that may be brought againft them
by animals, in getting at the hay, or in any other way.
They (hould alfo be put fo near together in the fence, as to
prevent any hurtful fort of animal from getting at them.

STACK-Guard, a cloth or other covering fufpended over
flacks, during the time of their being built, to prote£l them
from rain, &c. It is applicable both to the fecuring of
corn and hay-ftacks, as well as thofe of other kinds. It is
ufual for this purpofe to employ a large fheet of fail or
other cloth, which anfwers perfedlly, and prevents much
injury and lofs in wet bad feafons. In the diftri6ts of Kent
and Surrey, the old or half-worn fails of (hips are, accord-
ing to Mr. Mar(hall, made ufe of as guards for (tacks.
But he thinks, that a fail-cloth, thrown over and immedi-
ately upon the hay of a ftack in full heat, is liable to do
more injury, by increafing the heat, and at the fame time-
checking the afcent of the vapour or ileam, than fervice ia
(hooting oft' rain-water.

The improved method of fprcading the cloth, which he
obferved in the diftrift of Maidftone, in the former of the
above counties, is, he fays, this : Two tall poles, ufers, fir-
balks, are ftcpped firmly into two cart-wheels, which are
laid flat upon the ground at each end of the ftack, and
loaded with ftones to incrcafe their firmnefs. Another pole
of the fame kind, and fomewhat longer than the ftack, is
furnilhed at each end with an iron ring or hoop, large
enough to admit the upright poles, and to pafs freely upon
them. Near the head of each of the ftandards is a pulley,
©ver which a rope is pafl"ed from the ring, or end of the hori-

S T A

zontal pole, by which it is eafily raifed or lowered, to fuit
the given height of the ftack. In the mftance obferved, the
rick was begun with two loads of hay ; yet even thefe two
loads were as fecurely guarded from ram, until more could
be got ready, as if they had been houied : for a cloth being
thrown over the horizontal pole, and its lower margins
lo: ded with weights, a complete roof is formed, and ex-
aftly fitted to the ftack, whether it be high or low, wide
or narrow ; the eaves being always adiulled to the wall-plate,
or upper part of the ftem of the ftack, thus effeftually
(hooting off rain-w;iter, while the internal moillure, or fteam
arifing from the fermentation of the hay, efcapes freely at
either end, as the wind may happen to blow. And what
renders this ingenious contrivance the more valuable is, its
being readily put up or taken away. The poles, being
light, are eafily moved from ftack to ftack, or laid up for
another feafon ; and the wheels are as readily removed, or
returned to their axles. On thele hints fir Jofeph Banks
feems to have made a confidcrable improvement, which is
equally fimple, cheap, and eafy in the execution ; and, at
the fame time, perfectly calculated for the purpofe.

This improved apparatus, as given by a writer in the
tenth volume of the Annals ot Agriculture, is thus de-
fcribed. There are two long upright polls, poles, or balks
of wood, which are firmly fixed and fet into two wheels,
fomewhat in the fame manner as the above ; one of which is
placed at each end of the ftack, to which ropes and a block-
tackle are fo attached as to be capable of fufpending the
cloth or (heet over the ftack in fuch a way as to render it
readily raifed or deprelfed at pleafure, vsithout difficulty or
much trouble ; the middle part of the cloth being well pre-'
pared and fecured, in order that the hooks of the tackle for
regulating it may be attached to it in a fuitablc mamier.
There are three ropes on each fide of each poll or pole,
which are fallened to rings in the upper and top parts of
them, and fixed by ftrong large pegs down to the ground,
by which means the upright polls or j>oles are held fteady
and firmly in their places. The block-tackle, by whictl
the cloth is rendered capable of being raifed or let down,
as there may be occafion, conhfts of an upper and larger,
and of a lower and fmaller block, which anfwer the purpofe
very efteAually. There are alio four pieces, or more, of
ropes, which are attached by rings to the bottom parts or
edges of the cloth, on each fide, by which they fix it to the
ground or ftack, by means of pegs driven firmly into them.
The whole of the apparatus is fo contrived, as to be eafily
and readily taken down and removed, as there may be occa-
fion ; and when not wanted, it takes up but little room in a
dry fecure place.

St.\ck Hay-Rod, the ftrong or ftout iron rod of the bolt
kind, which is forced into hay-ftacks, in order to make way
and form a pallage for an iron gun ram-rod, which has a
ftrong worm or fcrew at the lower end of it. In this way
a fample of the hay is fcrewed and forced or taken out, and
the ftate or condition of the ftack difcovered and determined.
This neat and ufeful difcovery and contrivance was made by
the late Mr. Ducket, the ingenious farmer at Eftier, in the
county of Surrey ; and the method praftifed by him, not
only for afcertaining the ftate of the heat in hay-flacks, and
preventing its proceeding to too great a degree, but for
(hewing the colour of the hay in them. When the heat is
too great, it ferves alfo for making holes in different parts
and places of the flacks, in order to let it pafs off, and to
admit air more freely, fo that the hay may be prevented from
being injured in any way by it. This is an invention which,
of courfe, may be beneficial to the hay-farmer in many dif-
ferent ways.

Stack*

S T A

STACK-Taci/ey any fort of tackle or contrivance employed
about a ftack of any kind, either for the purpoie of adilting
aiid expediting the work of forming, preparing, and buildinjr
>t, or for protefting and fecuring the materials of which it
is compofed, while the Itack is forming and fijiifhing.
Thefe different kinds of tackles and contrivances are often
very neceffary abont Hacks, while the work of forming and
finiihing them is in hand and going on with ; as they may
fave much time, labour, and trouble, as well as be of great
utility in preferving the different forts of articles in a fafe
ftate from the effefts of the weather, or other caufes.
Every kind of tackle, or contrivance of this nature, ftiould
always be made as readily applicable and convenient as pof-
fible, and fo th^t it may perform its intended ufc in the
eafieil and moll ready and complete manner there is a capa-
bility of, without having any fort of complexity or diffi-
culty in making ufe of it.

Stack Hay-Barn, that fort of open barn which is con-
trived for the purpofe of receiving and having hay Hacked
up in it, in contradiftin£lion to thofe of the clofe common
kind in which it is fometimes put. Thefe barns are con-
ftruded in feveral different manners, as the nature of the
materials may allow, but moftly on polls of oak, or fome
other durable kinds, with open frames, lo as to admit air
in a very free manner. They have not unfrequently a capa-
city of holding from thirty to fifty loads of hay, and, in
fome inltances, even fo many as a hundred loads. See
HAY-5arn.

The queflion has not yet been fully decided, whether hay
keeps better when Hacked up in the open air, or in common
barns, and thofe formed exprefsly for the purpofe. The
opinion of moil of the bell hay-farmers in the fouthern parts
of the kingdom is direftly m favour of the open Hack man-
ner, fo far as the quality of the hay is in any way con-
cerned ; and there can be no doubt but that the Hack-barn
method, defcribed above, may be equally or more beneficial
in that way, and Hill more advantageous in other refpedls.
But how f<tr the dole common barn is fuited to the pnrpole
of containing hay, has probably not yet been fully fliewn.
However, in many of the more northern parts of the
country, hay is not unfrequently fecured in barns of this
kind, and, on examination, h.Ts been found to be equally
fweet and good as when preferved in Hacks in the open air.
The experimental trials of others, in the more fouthern dif-
trifts, have likewife fhcwn the fame thing, fo far as they
have gone ; it being found, on cutting and binding up, that
it was not lefs good than that from the Hack-y;ird, being
equally free from dull. It cannot, however, be difputcd,
that hay put up in clofe barns is, in general, more liable to
become dully, and of a mouldy luHy quality about the fides
next the walls, and other futh parts, than fucli as is con-
tained in Hacks in the open air, or in futh barns as the
above.

Many other forts of building; and roofed contrivance?,
befides thofe of the large Hack haybarn kind, may be had
recourfe lo for containintj hay, in diffeent fitiiauons and
circumllanccs, and be formed and raifed in a much mi;rc
ready and cheap manner.

SlACK-Ro'fitl Corn-Barn, that fort of barn which has
the roof tormeil for the Uiily Ircnriiig of the Hacks of grain,
or other Inch matters as may be put into it, and the fides
and other parts fo raifed and m.ide open, as to produce per-
feft fecurity from vernin, aid tnll ventilation of the con-
tained materials. In the conllriifli n of it, upon the low
timber platform, which is put on polls or pill.irs, as in
ttaddles tor grain, the frame or flteleton of a perfcdl barn is
railed, with ends, fides, and roof, 'i'hc fides and ends arc

2

S T A

left open for the full admifTion of air ; but upon the roof is
put a complete and fubHantial coat of thatch, or f me other
luitkble, light, lafe material, which being expofcd to no
injuncn or miieiiief from mice, rats, or any thing clfe, ex-
cepting fire and the inclemency of the weather, will lall, it
is faid, for upwards of thirtv years.

This is confidcred by Mr. H. wlctt, in the corrcfted ac-
count of the Hate of agriculture in the county of Ellex, as
a very great improvement on the ftaddle ercftions for corn-
Hacks or ricks ; for though it is remarked, that the pillars
and frame in that mode, together with the care and time
employed in raifing and providing them, and in thatching
the Hacks, mull obvioufly be attended with confiderable
charge beyond what would have been necellary for the mere
laying up the corn in the common barn ; and, after all, it
muH be again taken down and removed, before it can be
threfhed ; — the height from the ground fecures it from
vermin ; the thatch preferves it from the weather ; and the
expofure of its ends and fides to the air, which are merely
the butt-ends of the fheaves, keeps it entirely fweet and
pure, far beyond the bell common barn or granary in the
world. And, indeed, the farmers' ricks and barns arc, it
is fuppofed, the only kind of granaries which a wife and
patriotic government in this country will ever encourage :
their contents will generally be brought forth at the pro-
pereH time, not Hinking and fpoiled by conveyance in fliips
from abroad, or by lying and rotting in the warehoufe of
the merchant, but pure, found, and good, as when carted
from the field.

The fiiperior advantages of this Hack-roofed mode over
that of the common barn, and the common rick or Hack
manner, are, however, it is thougiu, great and numerous.

Thefe fiirts of barns are often made from lifty to fixty
feet in length, having a breadth or width of fix teen or
eighteen feet ; but they may have fmallcr dimenfions, as
may be necellary. They are fometimes raifed on large
fcales, and fo contrived as lo ferve as cart-lodges for loaded
corn, and other ways, upon the moveable rafters on the
fides being taken away. See Staddle, Grain Stand, and
Wheat Rick Stand.

SiwcK-Tard, the inclofure or yard in which the Hacks
of hay and grain, as well as thofe of other field produce, are
placed. Thefe yards fhould always be conveniently fituated
tor the barns or threfliing-miUs. Tiiey fliould alio always
be fufiiciently fpacious and airy, having a firm dry bottom .
and fome advile them to be ridged up, to prevent the accu-
mulation of furface-water ; as by thefe being pretty well
raifed in the middle, and covering the places where the Hacks
are to be built, either with rough Hones, with a mixture of
gravel, or paving them in the lame manner as Hreets, much
advantage would be gained at little expcnce. But a much
better method is to have the bottom parts for the Hacks
raifed coi.fiderably above tlie fuiface, and placed upon
pillars of wood or Hone, with a covering of wood or Hone
round the circumference, and beams laid acrofs. The in-
clofing of Hack-yards is alfo a matter that (hould be attended
to more particularly, and be well performed in fome manner
or other, either by means of low walls or palings.

On large .irable farms the Hack-yards are not unfre-
qnently divided for diflerent forts of produce; but this is
leldoni or ever necellary for tliolc of the middling or fmaller
fizis, as it creates hii additional expence and trouble, with-
out any adeejuate advuiitage being derived from it, efpecially
wliere the yaids, in thefe cafes, are fufficieiitly extenlive fcr
the quantity of corn-ll.icks which are to be put into them.

Ill thefe yards the Hacks Ihould be arranged fomewhat
according to the nature of the matters or produce which are

put

s r A

put into tlieni : tliofe which require to be kept the moil dry
and Iweet, as the grain, pulfe, and hay kinds, in the higher
and more open airy parts ; and thoie of the contrary Kind
in the lower and more coniinLd parts.

Stack of Wood, among Hujbandmen, is a pile of wood
three feet long, as many broad, and twelve feet high.

STACKHOUSIA, in Botany, received that appellation
from the writer of the prefent article, in honour of John
Stackhoufe, efq. F.L.S. of Pendarvis, in Cornwall, author
of a fplendid work on fubmarine plants, entitled Nereis
Brltannica, and of fome botanical illuftrations of Theo-
phraftus.— Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 218, Brown
Bot. of Terra Aultralis, 23.— Clafs and order, Pentandria
Trlgynla. Nat. Ord. Tefcb'mtaceic, Jufl". ? Sm. Stachhoufer,
Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
divided half way down into five equal, acute fegments, per-
manent. Cor. Petals five, equal, inferted into the calyx,
linear-lanceolate, cohering by tiieir claws in the for.Ti of a
tube much longer than the calyx, their borders narrow,
fprcading horizontally, (horter than the tube. Slant. Fila-
ments five, thread-fhaped, unequal, inferted into the ca-
lyx ; anthers roUndifii, concealed within the corolla. Pift.
Germen fuperior, three-lobed ; ftyles three, fliort ; flignias
obtufe, fimple. Perk. Capfule of three roundifh, coriaceous,
corrugated cells, each of one valve, not burfting. Seeds
I'olitary, nearly globular, attached to the permanent central
column.

EfT. Ch. Calyx in five fegments. Petals five, connefted
by their claws. Capfule of three lobes and three cells, not
burfting. Seeds folitary.

Obf. The llyles, as well as the cells of the capfule, are
fometimes two only.

I. S. viminea. Slender Stackhoufia. — Gathered near
Port Jackfon, New South Wales, by John White, M.D.
to whom we are obliged for fpecimens. The root is taper-
ing, whether annual or perennial we know not. Stems feve-
ral, ereft, twelve or eighteen inches high, fimple or branched,
round, leafy, Itriated, fmooth. Leaves fcattered, feflile,
nightly fpreading, elliptic-lanceolate, or oblong, obtule,
entire, fmooth, rather flefhy, and fomewhat glaucous, fingle-
ribbcd, an inch or more in length, tapering at the bafe.
Clujlers terminal, elongated, ereft, many-flowered. Fln-vtrs
fmall, yellowifh, in little diltant tufts, two or three together,
on (hort partial italks, with minute brafteas at their bafe.
Capfule ot three rugged lobes, each the fize of a muftard-
feed, fubtended by the permanent expanded calyx. The
Howers bear a refemblance to fome fpecies of Struth'wia or
Daphne, but are very different when examined.

This is the only fpecies that has fallen in' our way. Mr.
Bi-own probably may have feen more. This learned botanift
confiders Slaclboujia, " and an unpublilhed genus, exaftly
agreeing with it in llower, but remarkably different in fruit,"
as forming a fmall natural order, fufhciently diftinft from
all hitherto ellablilhed. He places it between his CelaJJrw,i
and Euphorbiace£, " to both of which, but efpecially to the
former, it feems to be related in a certain degree." Mr.
Brown thui defines the order in queftion.

Stackhouse.t;. Calyx of one leaf, in five equal feg-
ments, with a fwelling tube. Petals five, equal, inferted
into the top of the tube ; their claws cohering in a tubular
form, longer than the calyx. Their borders narrow, fpread-
ing like a (lar. Stamens five, diitinft, unequal (two alter-
nate ones being the fliorteil) inferted into the throat of the
calyx. Germen diltinct, of from three to five feparate fingle-
feeded lobes, the feeds erecl. Styles three to five, fometimes
cohering at their bafe. Sitgmas undivided. Seed-ve/fel of

S T A

three to five lobes, each without valves, fometimes winged ;

the central column permanent. Embryo ereA, central, al-
mott as long as the flefliy albumen.

The plants of this order are herbaceous, with fimple, en-
tire, fcattered, fometimes minute, leaves, and lateral, ex-
tremely minute, Jlipulas. Spiies terminal, with three braHeas
to each Jlozuer. " The Stacthoufea are peculiar to Terra
Auftralis, and though found chiefly in its principal parallel,
extend more fparingly both to the fouthern extremity of
Van Diemen's ifland, and to the north coaft of New
Holland."

STACKING, in Agriculture, the art and manner of
forming, building, and making all forts of ftacks with any
kind of farm produce.

In forming, building, or Itacking any fort of material of
the farm kind, it is moltly proper to begin in the middle of
the fladdles or llands on which they are to be raifed, fo as to
form and lay it out to the fides, end?, or other parts, in a
very flightly inclining manner, the ear-parts the highell
in corn or other fimilar matters, keeping fuch middle part
always well up, and the outlide parts on the fides, or in
other ways, in a conftantly very gradual, but fcarcely per-
ceptible, outwardly fwelling or overhanging manner, pro-
ceeding courfe after courfe, in the fame way, until the top
of the flem or fhaft part of the flack be reached, from
which, in forming the top part, it is to be taken or drawn in,
in placing the different courfes of the fubftances in nearly
the fame eafy, gradual, though in rather a quicker manner,
until the ridge or top be arrived at ; always carefully keep-
ing up the middle, as in the item or fhaft part. The top or
ridge part mull conftantly be well and fafely fecured ; it is
fometimes ornamentallv formed. In fomewhat this way
every fort of Hack about s farm may be raifed without any
very great difficulty or trouble, if the labourer or perfon
who is to form and conilruft them be but a little converfant
with the nature and praftice of flacking, though he may
not be greatly experienced in this fort of bufiuefs. He
cannot, however, raife or form flacks in the very neat, exaft,
and perfeft manner, that complete and profeffed itack-
building labourers are capable of performing the work.
Nor will he be capable of finifiiing them with the fame ex.
aclnefs, or the fame degree of neatnefs or elegance. See
the next article.

Stacking of Grain, the art and praftice of building
or forming flacks of corn, and other fimilar matters ; which
is performed in dift'erent methods, according to the particu-
lar nature and circumflances of the different cafes. In the
execution of this bufinefs, the flems of the flacks fhould,
however, in general, be fo formed as to fwell gradually out-
wards, quite up to the part termed the eaves, as by this me-
thod they are more perfeftly fecured againft the entrance of
moillure, and at the fame time require a lefs fpace to Hand
or refl upon. And when the building of them is well per-
formed, they have equal folidity, and ftand in as firm and
fafe a manner. But Mr. Marfhall, who has probably not
fully confidered the advantages of this praftice, advifes that
the ftem or body of the flack fhould be carried up as plumb
as pofFible, except the laft courfe of fheaves, which fhould
projeft five or fix inches, to form the eaves : for the weight
of the roof will, he thinks, prcfs out the upper part of
the ftem fufficiently. If it overhang in making, its own
weight and the weight of the roofVill, it is fuppofed,
fqueeze it too fiat, will fpoil the appearance of it, and
wafle both thatch and time in thatching. The ftem or body
of a flack fhould commonly contain about two-thirds, and
the roof one-third of the whole flack. If it be built on a
frame, the ftem fhould, however, contain lefs, and the roof -

more;

STACKING.

more ; if on a bottom, the revcrfe. Tlie corners of the
ftem (hniild not be built too (harp ; fliould be carri'd up
fnug ; by which the fides will look fuller, and the fwell
given by the preffure will be more perceptible. The ends
of the roof (hould have a gentle projefture, anfwerable to
the ftem ; and the fides (honld be carried up rather convex,
than flat or concave. Perhaps a roof greatly convex fhoots
off the rains preferably to any other. A corn-Hack fhould
not, it is faid, contain above twenty-one loads, as the ride
of making and getting in is much lefs on a imall than on a
large flack ; beildcs, a large Itack does not fettle fo true as
a fmall one, and of courfe will not fland the weather fo
well. It is true, a large flack does not, in proportion, take
fo much thatch and thatching, which are its only advantages.

But in cafes where corn is flacked in a loofe manner, it is
the ufual praftice to have a nun:ber of perfons upon the
ftack, the corn being forked up and depofited on the dif-
ferent fides all round m a fimilar method ; after this, other
parcels are laid all round on the infide of thefe, fo as to bind
them in a fecure manner from (lipping outward ; the ope-
rator proceeding in the i.ime manner till the whole of the
middle fpace is perfeftly filled up ; when he begins another
courfe in the fame method, and goes on in this mode, with
courfe after courfe, till he has raifed the whole of the flem
or body part ; then he begins to take in for the roof in a
very gradual manner, in every fucceeding courfe, until the
whole is brought to a ridge or point, according to the
manner the flack is formed in. But in order that the
roofs may throw off the water in a more perfeft and efleftual
manner, they fhould be made fo as to have a flight degree of
fulnefs or fwell about the middle of them, and not be made
flat, as is too frequently the pradlice with indifferent builders
of flacks of this fort.

The method of proceeding where the corn is bound into
(heaves, is, however, quite different, as there is feidom more
than one perfon employed in managing the work of building
the flack, except in cafes where the dimenfions are very con-
Cderable ; in which cafes it is found neceffary to have a boy
to receive the fheaves from the pitcher, and hand them to
the man that builds the ftack. And in executing the work,
it is of the utmoll importance that the centre of the flack
be conftantly kept in a fomewhat raifed ilate above that of
the fides, as by this means the fheaves have a floping direc-
tion outwards, by which the entrance of moiflure is more
efieftually guarded againfl and prevented. And in order to
accomplifn this in the moll perfetl method, it is fnid to be
the bell prattice tor the workman to begin in the middle of
the (land or (laddie, letting tiie fheaves together, fo as that
they may incline a little againfl each other, placing the red
in fucceflive rows againfl them, till lie comes to the ontfide,
when he carries a courfe of flieavcs quite round, and in a
more floping manner than in the preceding courfes. The
bottom of the flack being formed in this way, it is after,
wards ufual to begin at the outfide, and advance with dif-
ferent courfes round the whole, placing each courle u little
within the other, fo as to bind them in an exa6t and careful
manner, till the flacker comes to the middle. And all the
different courfes are to be hid on in a fimilar manner, until
the whole of the flem is raifed and completed ; when tiie lafl
outfide row of flieaves is, in mofl cafes, placed a very little
more out than the others, in order to form a fort of projec-
tion for the eaves, that the water may be thrown ofl more
effeilually. But in cafes where the flcms of the flacks are
formed fo as to projcil outwards, in tlie manner already no-
ticed, this may be omitted without any bad confequcnccs,
as the water will be thrown off eafily without touching the
vvailc of the ftsck. And the roof is to be formed by placing

Vol. XXXII r.

the (lieaves gradually a little more in and in, in every courfe,
until it comes to a ridge or point, according to the form of
the flack, as has been already obferved. But in forminir
and conftrufting this part of the flack, great care fhould
conftantly be taken to give the ear-endi of the (heaves a
fufficiently (loping diredlion upwards, in ordtr that they may
be the better fecured from wetnefs. And to the outfide
(liould be given a rounded form, in the manner that has been
already noticed.

In refpeft to the flacking of grain, it is obferved in the
Farmer's Magazine, that the corn and its flraw mufl neceffa-
rily be a great deal more dried in the field, to render it pro-
per for being fecured in barns, than when it is built in
ricks, as thefe latter, being expofedto the free air all round,
are by no means fo apt to heat or mould the grain and
flraw, as if it were ilored in common bains. And that, in
confequence of that fuperior degree of drynefs necefiary for
barn-harvefling, the grain is certainly a great deal more apt
to fliake out from the ear, in handling and forking into the
carts or waggons for being led home. And further, that
when built in ricks properly contrived, the grain is likewife
placed altogether out of the reach of rats and mice, which
commit very great wafle in common barns, however well
conflrufted ; that it is of courfe better that all grain (hould
be built in round ricks in the yard, upon wooden frames
open below, raifed on (lone fupports, fitnilar to thofe on
which granaries are fixed. By this plan, it would, it is
fnppofed, be more effeftually fecured againfl the depreda-
tions of vermin ; and befides, the air having free accefs all
round, and even underneath, through the interflices of the
frame, it will be completely prevented from all danger of
fpoiling any way in the rick. And fuither, that in this
way of fecuring grain, the ricks do not by any means re-
quire to be thatched fo very fubllaiitially, and, of confe-
quence, cxpenfively, as is pra£lifed in general.

Further, it is alio advifed, that in building a corn-rick,
efteftual care be taken to keep the centre or heart of the
rick always confiilerably higher than the outer range of
(heaves, as noticed above ; fo that every (heaf in the rick
has a confiderablc (lope outwards and downwards. When
this is properly attended to, and all the iheaves carefully
locked together, and the crown properly put on, the rick
will, it is obferved, turn a very heavy (hower of rain, even
before the tiiatch is applied. Tlie wli,)le rick, after the
thatch is laid on, is finally covered with a net-work of
(Iraw-ropc, leaving the mellies about nine or twelve inches
wide, all the ends of the ropes being fecured to a belt-rope,
which goes round the rick below the eave^, jull within reach
of a man, and the middle parts of all the ropes are lied to
one that goes flraight over the top of the rick by fmall hand-
fuls of flraw. See Stack.

And it has been Hated by the author of " Praftical
Agriculture," that it is the praftice in fome diflrids, efpe-
cially where the flack,; are made of a circular form, and the
weather is wet and unfavourable, to have a funnel or chim-
ney left in them, in order to prevent tlieir taking on too
much heat. This is effeiUd by tying a flicaf up in a very
tight manner, and placing it in the middle, on the found-
ation of the Hack, pulling it up occafionally as the building
of the ftack proceeds all round it. And in letting up r:ck»
in bad harvells, it is a pradice in fome places, particularly
with barley-crops, to have three or four pretty large poles
tied together, by winding ftraw-ropcs round them, fet up
in the middle, round which the flacks are then built. But
that except the flacks are large, or the grain when put into
them in an imperfeft condition, fuch openings are quite un-
ueceflary. Thefe openings in the northern parts of the
4 R kingdom

STACKING.

kingdom are denominated fa'u/fis, or faufes. And it is
probable that in fome inllances they may be prejudicial to
the Itacks, by the admilTion of too much np.oi'l air. See
Harvest.'NG of Grain.

A curious praftiec in this mode of ftacliina: grain prevails
in fome parts of the northern didnfts of the kingdoir^,
where the operation is performed round about a high coni-
cal frame of wood, which has, in fome cafes, a fmall door,
provincially termed a lope, formed in it on the fide or quar-
ter from which the wind commonly blows, in order that a
more free admiffion of air may be fecured, a lateral vent, or
fmall opening, being fometimcs, perhaps, made in the body,
a little below the point of the wooden frame, which has in
different parts of thefe diftridls of country the names oi faufe
houfe and luindy houfe. The writer of the Coirefted Ac-
count of the Agriculture of the County of Invernefs fuggelli,
that where wood is fcarce, the fame effeft and advantage may
nearly be produced, without an upright timber-frame, by
filling a fack with ilraw or hay, and fixing a rope to the
moath of it. This fack i; fet down adjoining to the logie,
and in the centre of the fpace on which the Hack is to be
built ; and as the Hacking advances, the fack is gradually
pulled up, fo far as is thought neceflary and ufeful, by
which means a future draught of air is freely admitted.
Thefe precautions are, however, it is faid, moltly ufed
when the material is damp, and the ftack to be formed on
the ground. See Staddle.

In fome damp fituations and moid wet feafons, grain is
occafionally (lacked up in the field in different form? and
methods. The writer of the Account of the Hufbandry of
Middlefex has remarked, that to the weftward of the city
of Bath, the excefTive moillure of the climate has neceffa-
rily induced and obliged the occupiers of arable land to fe-
cure their corn or grain crops in the field, immediately after
they are bound into (heaves, by (lacking them in round ricks
or Hacks, which contain about a cart-load each ; the (heaves
being placed in fuch a manner as to fccure the ears equally
againll the rain and damp arifing from the ground. They
are fet on their butt-ends in the bottom parts, but every
(heaf, from the eaves upwards, is placed doping in a thatch-
like manner, and in the form of a cone. One flieaf is in-
verted at the top, and fpread over this conc-like point ;
which method fecures the whole, until it may fuit the conve-
nience of the farmer to carry the matters to be re-Hacked,
or built up in the barns or Hack-yards. When thefe ricks
or Ihcks are well made or put up, they are (ecure, it is faid,
againft every pofGble quantity of rain, and for any reafonable
Jength of time ; even for a whole winter, if it were necef-
fary to keep them out fo long. This is a praftice of Hack-
ing in the field, which, it is thought, deferves imitation i^t
all wet climates, and indeed in all others, in cafes of wet
harveft feafons.

The method of flacking or making the arifh mow or
ftack, which is another mode of Hacking grain in the field
in fome of the fouth-weftern diftrifts of the kingdom, is
thus defcribed by the writer of the " Weftern Tour." A
fort of cone or pyramid is firH formed with (heaves fet upou
their butt-ends, and in a leaning manner towards their centre ;
the workman then gets upon them with his knees, an afTiHant
putting the (heaves in their proper places before him, while
he creeps or crawls round the mow or Hack, forcing and
beating them down in a perfeft manner with his knees applied
about the binding-place ; and continuing in this manner to
lay courfe after courfe, until the mow or Hack be deemed high
enough ; obferving to contraft the dimenfions of it as it
rifes in height, and to fet the (heaves more and more up-
right, until they form at the top a Hiarp point, which is

capped with an inverted fheaf, either of corn or reed. \u
cafes where corn or grain is put up or built in thefe (lacks, it
is moilly thought to be quite fafe.

The Hacking of corn, when carried to the yards, is fre-
quently performed on oblong and other forms of raifed
wood, on frames covered with loofe poles or other matters,
fo as to admit air freely to all parts ot the bottoms of the
mows or Hacks, and at the fame time to prevent rats and
other fuch animal;; getting into them.

The Hacking of grain is moHly performed in a neat and
exaft manner iu many diHrifts towards the middle and more
northern parts of the kingdom ; but in many of the more
louthern and eaftern counties, it is often done in an extremely
bad and flovenly manner. In Oxtordlhire and Berkfhire
Hacks are formed with peculiar ueatnefs, and have much merit
in their dilferent forms and (hapes, being not unfrequently
duly arranged, and placed in neat clean Hack-yards. In
the latter of the above counties, it has been remarked, that a
farmer who was negligent in thefe refpefts, would be the
objeft of obfei-vation and derifion in his neighbourhood.
And that the labourer who can make a handfome rick or
Hack, prides himfelf on his (l<ill ; and as good as well as bad
examples are catching, others, in imitation, endeavour to
gain credit by the fame means.

In finilliing the Hacking of grain in many places, the
ftem or body parts of the Hacks or mows are neatly pared
round, in order to prevent the vermin, which might leap
againll them, from finding any thing to hold by ; and the
whole is completed in a neat and exacl manner.

Stacking of Hay, the work or bulinefs of putting hay up
into ricks or ilacks. This is an art which requires much
care and attention in the pcrfon employed for the purpofe,
though much lefs than that of building corn-Hacks. There
fhould conHantly, though it is often too much neglefted, bt
a proper Hand or foundation, (omewhat raifed by wood or
other materials, prepared for placing the Hacks upon ; but
nothing of the (helving outward direction or of the coping
kind is here neceflary. See Stack, Staddle, and Stand.
It may be noticed, that in performing the bufinefs of
Hacking hay, the work (hould conHantly be performed as
much as poifible while the fun is upon the hay, as much ad-
vantage is thus gained in the quality of the hay: and it is
neceffary to have a Hacker that has been aecuHomed to the
bufinefs, and a proper number of perfons to help upon the
Hack, in order that it may be well fpread out and trodden
down. The building of thefe forts of Hacks (hould be con-
dufted much in the fame way as thofe of the grain kind \
the middle of the Hack being always well kept up, a httle
higher than the fides, and the fides and ends be well bound
in by the proper application of the fucccffive portions of
hay as the work advances ; and during which it is a good
way, where there are plenty of hands, to have the fides and
ends properly pulled into form, as by this means much after-
labour is prevented. It is likewife of advantage, that the
hay fhould be well fhaken and broken from the lumps dur-
ing the operation of Hacking. The form in which the
Hacks are built is not, as has been already feen in fpeaking
of Hacks, of much confequence. See Stack.

With the intention of preventing too much heat, fome-
times in building thefe Ilacks, as well as thofe of the grain
kind, holes, pipes, and chimnies are left in the middle, that
the excefTive heat may be difcharged. But there is often
injury fuHained by them, from their attrafting too much
moiHure. See Hay, and HAY-maiiiig.

For this purpofe, iquare (pouts or troughs, bored full of
large holes, and two oppofite boards, fecured about nine
inches apart, by nailing fliort laths on them, are fometimes

employed ;

STACKING.

employed ; as well as the drawing up the middle of the
ftacks, while they are building, a b.-.ilvct or a fack full of
hay, ftraw, or other fimilar materials. And in fome cafes,
on the ilacks heating too much, fquare openings are cut
from the tops to the bottoms of them.

In (tacking of hay, the ufc of fait has likewife been found
to have the valuable property of keeping it from heating too
much in fuch fituationf, and, by that fneans, preferving it
of a finer green colour than would otherwife be the cafe.
Its dilpofition to counteraft or prevent heat is fo great, it
is faid, in fuch cafes, as to render it particularly fuitable,
proper, and valuable in every inftance where it may be fuf-
pedled that the hay has been put together without being fuf-
ficiently made.

The hard benty hay of poor uplands may moitly be
Hacked up without any rifle or danger of heating too much ;
but that which is of a more open fuccnlent nature arid qua-
lity, on rich or highly manured lands, is for the moft part
▼ery liable to take on too great a degree of heat, and Ihould
confequently be longer delayed in Hacking, as well as put
up in fmaller quantities together, in order to avoid being in-
jured by being burnt in the mow or ftack.

The hay of clover, tare, faintfoin, and fome other fimilar
kinds of gralfes, are commonly more difpoled to heat in too
great a degree than almoft any other forts when put up in
Itacks, not only on account of their being more fuccvilent
and fappy, but in coniequence of their nature requiring that
they fhould be a good deal lefs made, in order to preferve
their foliage as perfcftly as poflible. In Racking them,
therefore, thefe circumdances {hould be carefully attended to
and kept in mind, and fmaller, as well as more loofely
formed ftacks of them raifed. In tlie county of Middlefex
alfo, many farmers are laid to make ufe of ialt, in fuch
cafes, with very good effect, in keeping down the heat.

Where there are great quantities of hay ready on hand at
the fame time, it is of much confequence that it Ihould all
be ftacked up as foon as ever it is fully made, which, though
difficult to be accomplilhed in many cafes, (hould feldom be
negleftcd, as its weight and good quality greatly depend
upon it, there being every moment from that time a lofs in
the weight, as well as tlie nutritious properties of it, by what
is forced off by heat into the atmolphere. The difference
of even a few hours in very hot fealons, may, it is fuppofed,
be the caufe of a lofs of fifteen or twenty per centum on the
hay, by its having been carried beyond the point of perfec-
tion in making ; and not unfrequently a much greater lofs
is fuftained. The flacking, therefore, in fuch circumftances,
(hould always be done as expeditioufly as poffible.

In regard to the lofs of the materials before and after thev
have been Hacked up, it has been fuppofed by the writer of
the Middlefex Agricultural Report, that four hundredweight
of grafs wailes in forming into hay, three hundred before it
is ready for Hacking ; it is then further reduced by heat and
evaporation, in about the fpace of a month, to perhaps
ninety-five pounds ; that at between that and ninety, it is
apprehended it continues throughout the winter. That
from about the beginning of fpring until the commencement
of the following autumn, the different operations of trulfing
and conveying it away, render it confiderably lighter, pro-
bably to eighty, by expofing it fo much to the fun and
wind : that is, fuch hay as would weigh ninety pounds on
being taken from the ftack, would be reduced to eighty by
the time it i? difpoled of, as in tlie courfe of twenty-four
hours. On fuch ftacked hay being kept longer, little or
nothing is loll in the fucceeding winter : it i« nearly obvious,
it is thonglit, tliat the tame (lacked hay will weigh on being
difpoled of eighty pounds in the fummer, and ninety in the

winter. From this circumftance, and fome others which re-
late to price, the farmer may, it is conceived, dLterminc
what feafon of the year is the moll advantageous and proper
for him to difpofe of his flacked hay : on large hay-farms
flacked hay is fometimes kept for four or five years, and
there are not unfrequently very large quantities of hay on
them in this Ifate.

The ftacking or mowing of hay is fometimes performed
in large hay-barns conftrufled for the purpofe, which are
found to be extremely ufeful and convenient on many occa-
fions, as well as to produce confiderable favings in different
ways, bcfides the fafety which they afford. See Stack //ajr-
Barn.

After the work of ftacking the hay has been finifhed, and
the ftack been properly pulled and topped up, it may be
left until it has fweated, and is bee ^me perfectly fettled,
which molUy takes place in the courfe of a week or i wo.
It is then ready for thatching. See Thatching of Stackt.

It may likewife be noticed, that in building the upper
parts of thefe, as well as grain and other ftacks, the ufe of
a (lage often becomes necedary, in order that the materials
may be pitched more conveniently to the ftacker, as has beeu
feen under the head Stack. See STACKiN(;.y/<2f<r.

Stacking nf Pulfe Crops, the art and pradtice of putting
all the forts of farm produce, which have pods in the place
of ears, up into ftacks. It is always necellary, in building
theni, to keep the pod parts, as much as poflible, from
being expofed to the aftion and effects of the atmofphere,
as they are very liable to be much injured or quite fpoiled
by the influence of much moillure or wetnefs, whether com<
municated by the air or in any other manner. It is confe-
quently proper in ftacking up thele different materials, to
always let the flem or root-ends of the crops have an out-
ward direftion and appearance, they being bound inwardly
by fuch wad=:, fheaves, or bundles as have but little ftem or
root parts in them, which is mollly fufficiently the cafe in all
fuch forts of produce. The middle parts of fuch (lacks
fhoiild always be kept well filled up with fuch materials
while building. The ftem or (haft parts may moftly be
carried up in a pretty plumb or upright manner, but if the
outward fide parts are made and carried up fo as gradually
to diverge or projeA a very little at the top or cave parts,
it will be fo much the better, and the ftack will be fo much
the fafer from the danger of the droppings of the rain-water
or any other wetnefs that may fall upon it.

It is hardly ever necellary to carry up the top parts in
conflrufting fuch flacks to any great height, the lower they
are indeed the better, provided they are formed in a regular
manner, and fo as to efleAually carry off the water that may
fall upon them.

The topping-up of fuch forts of ftacks (hould never,
however, be much delayed, as the feed of fuch kinds of pro-
duce readily f well, and are apt to become injured by a very
little moiftiire in fucli fituations.

Thefe forts of ftacks, as well as thofe of other kinds,
fliould always be built upon proper ftaddles in fafe yards or
other fituations.

Stacking unJ prcfervmg nf Hop- Poles, \.\\e praftice and me-
thod of piling them up in ftack-., for the purpofe of render-
ing them fafe and fecure agaiiill wind and bad weather; and
the means of preparing their bottom parts againft the inju-
ries they may receive from the earth or foil in which ihey
may be placed. See Yioi'-Polt.

In the (quare manner of Hacking up hoppoles, the num-
ber of from thirty to forty or more arc ufn.illy let up to
each corner fo as to form it, which Humid inoHly Hand eight,
ten, or twelve feet apart in each or every dircdtion at the
4 R 2 biife

STACKING.

bale or bottom parts of them, the top parts uniting, or com-
ing as clofely a<; poffible into contad with each other. By
this mode of proceeding, a fort of fquare inchning pile is
formed, v/hile fufficient openinc;s or fpaces are produced
below and between them, for contributing to render the
poles dry, as well a? afterwards for preferving them, as
much as poflible, in that condition, and at the fame time for
lettimr the wind pafs among th^-m more freely, by which the
danger of their being thrown down or overturned is confi-
dcrably led'ened, as m the cafe of ftaAs of the conical or
circular form. In conftruaing this, as well as the other
form of thefe ftacks, a few poles are firll weU fi.^;ed up,
faltened and fecured at the top parts, and then fet out in a
firm fpreading-out manner at the bottoms, fo as that the
proper quantity of poles may afterwards bs regularly and
gradually laid to them and conftitute the ftack.

The means of rendering the parts of hop-poles which are
fet into and come in immediate contaft with the mould or
foil lefs liable to decay and deftrudlion than they are in the
ordinary mode, is a matter of much confequence to thofe
engaged in the cultivation of hops. The following procefs
has been recommended by Mr. Vancouver, in the Correfted
Account of the Agriculture of the County of Etfex. Tak-
ing into full and due confideration, it is faid, the very im-
portant benefits which are derived from coal-tar, in prevent-
ing the depredations of marine infefts on plank and timber,
it very naturally occurs, that a preparation of the fame fub-
flance, judicioufly applied, might not only produce a fimilar
efteiSl on and againlt infefts in the ground, but, by its gra-
dual and regular folution there, become matter of food for
the nourifhment of plants ; and that this leads to a very im-
portant confideration, as that of how far the application
of the fame material mav become ferviceable, by prolong-
ing the durability of polts fet into the ground, and in the
like manner for the prefervation of the parts of hop-poles
•which are put into the earth, to which particular point, it
is ilated as the fubltance of a converfation on the fubjeft
with the earl of Dundonald, who has taken a great lead and
interclt in the invention, manufafturc, and introduftion of
coal-tar into more general ufe, that he recommends the me-
thod of preparing the hop-poles with it, which is given
below, to all hop planters.

The parts of the ends of the liop-poles which are intended
to be fet or inferted into the ground or foil, fhould firll be
flripped of their bark for the length of about thirty inches.
The poles Ihould then be pointed, and fcorched or burnt,
until the furface of them, from which the bark has been
removed, becomes black, and in fome fort charred. The
ufual or cnftomary depth to which poles are fet and fixed in
the ground, will moltlv regulate with exaftnefs how much
of the pointed ends of the poles fhould be treated in the
above manner. The burnt end of the pole, while hot,
fhould be dipped into thin coal-tar, which fliould previoufly
be made a little warm, in order that the wood may abforb
and take up as much of it as poffible. There may perhaps.
It is fnppoftd, be an advantage in dipping or putting the
pole the whole fpace of the thirty inches which is dripped
of the bark, as by that means twelve inches of what is co-
vered and laid over with coal-tar may be above the furface
of the ground.

After the paying or coating of the poles with the tar has
been completed, they are to be put up or Hacked with their
pointed and tarred ends upwards, until they become perfeftly
and quite fufficiently dry ; after which they are to be dipped
in coal-pitch made boiling hot, and then fet up again in the
fame manner, to remain in that ftate until the time when they
are wanted for ufe, In cafes where the poles are liable to
I4t

injury at the upper or fmaller ends, dipping them in the
coal-tar might alfo, it is fuppofed, probably be of ufe in
preventing the feparation of the bark, or the harbouring of
infefts.

It is of very material confequence that the coating or
tarring of the poles be performed at fuch a diftance of time
before they are wanted for ufe, as to allow of the whole
covering becoming perfectly firm, ha:"d, and dry. And
likewife that the poles, before they are begun to be coated
over with the tar, be in a quite dry condition, as they take
up a much greater quantity of tar wlien in thic- fituation,
than when much loaded with nioiilure, as is too often the
cafe.

The praftice of burning or charring the bottom ends of
hop-poles has alio been found highly beneficial in preferving
them from decay without the application of either the coal-
tar or pitch, in many cafes and fituations, as well as fome
other methods. See Hop.

It is always proper to have the poles piled up in proper
parcels to<rether, or fet upright againlt fome fort of fup-
port in the hop-grounds, while they have the binds about
them, until they can be difengaged from them, as well as
afterwards, until thi;y can be flaked or pointed, prepared in
the above manner, and fet up into Hacks, inftead of having
them diiperfed all over the ground in a flac manner, as
is the too ulual cuflom, as by fuch means they will be-
come readily more dry, be a great deal more free from in-
jury, and at the fame time be rendered more fit for receiving
the preparation.

And in extenfive plantations, it might probably be the
fafell, cheapeft, and mo!t convenient way, to have open
coarfe fheds with fecure clieap roofs built for receiving and
preferving them in, they being piled up in them upon low
frames or llools witii long arms or branches for keeping them
up. In this manner they would in all probability be more
readily, more perfeftly, more conveniently, and more advan-
tageoufly fecured tiian in any other way ; 2nd thereby a
great faviiig of poles moft likely be produced.

Stacking of Strain and Slubblc. Straw is often Hacked
up when bound in truffes, as well as when in the loofe Itate.
In the former mode, the different bundles (hould be Hacked
in as ftraight a manner as poffible, in order to be kept
for fale or other particular ufes. In the latter Hale the
Hacks fhould be well pulled while they are forming, in order
that they may be dole and compaft. In building the top
parts of Hack-- of thi'= natu/e, they need not be carried to
any great height, but bs fo formed as to fhoot off the water
in a perfect manner.

SiTACKiKd-Bantis, or Belts, the ropes or bands ufed in
thatching Hacks of different kinds, whether of the Hraw,
hay, or other forts.

STACKiNG-iS'/rt_fi-, the fcaffold or platform employed in
building ttacks of corn, hay, and many other forts of farm
produce.

Stages of thefe kinds are conHrutted in different ways,
fome being fixed together in a fort of frame, fo as to be fet
up againlt the Hack, and fuited to the height of pitching
by a moveable Ifage. Lately this fort of ftage has been
confiderably improved, bv being fo contrived as to be ca-
pable of being readily taken in pieces and laid by. It is the
contrivance of a gentleman in the county of Suffolk, and
defcribed in the Agricultural Survey of that diHrift. It
confilts of two parts, one of which is a frame eight feet
wide, made of two fir-balks twenty-two feet long, braced
together in a parallel pofition, and liavmg feveral holes
bored in them, about fourteen feet from the ground, for the
reception of the hinges of the Hage ; and a hook in each

of

S T A

S T A

t)l ihcm, to hang the chains on which are to fupport tlic
outward edge of the ftage, and lerve to raife or lower it
at plcafure. The other part is a moveable ttage eight feet
long, and three feet eight inches broad, having a hinge under
each end, at tlie hinder, or edge nearell the (lack ; one end
uf the hinges is made like a bolt, to enter the holes in the
balk:, ; the ftage likewife has an iron-plate under each end,
with a hole in it to receive a hook on the chain. It is
added, that in ufing the ftage it is fet againft the ftack,
when it grows fo high that it is inconvenient to pitch on
to it from the buck of an empty waggon. Tlic holes in
the balks moft commonly ufed are fourteen feet from the
ground, about the height of a wagsTon-load of hay. Should
the ftage be fixed lower, it would be of no ufe, not being
wanted whilft a man can conveniently pitch from the buck
of a waggon on to a ftack ; and fhould it be fixed much
higher, it would be found too high for a man to pitch on
to, when the waggon is nearly empty.

It has been fuggefted, that a ftage like this is not expenfive
in the conilruction, and might be ufed for nailing up wea-
ther-boarding', painting, plaftering of walls, and feveral
other purpofcs.

STACKPOLE Head, in Geograbhy, a cape on the S.
coaft of Wiles. N.lat. 5i°42'. W.' long. 4° 57'.

STACKS of Burgh, rocks near the E. part of Scotland,
one mile W. of Duncanfby Head. N. lat. ^i' 23'. W.
long. 2" 57'.

Stacks of Duncnnfby, rocks in the North fea, near the E.
coatt of Scotland ; li mile S. from the mouth of Wick river.
N.lat. 58^36'. W. long. 2° 57'.

Stacks nf Hempnggs, rocks in the North fea, two miles
5. from the mouth of Wick river. N. lat. 58° 21'. W.
long. 2° 57'.

STACTE, raxTr, in Pharmiicy, a fatty refinous liquid
matter, of the nature of a liquid myrrh.

This liquor is very odoriferous, and is held very precious ;
making alone the perfume called by Diofcorides flaSe,
which, he fays, fmells finely, tiiough very bitter to the
tatte. We have none of it now but what is fopliillicated ;
and what the apothecaries call ll.nfle, is ufually no more than
liquid ftorax.

STADARSTAD, in Geography, a group nf buildings,
comprifing a church, tlie habitation of the n:inifter, and a
few cottages, in Iceland, fit\iatcd in the peninfula terminated
by Sn^fell's Syffd (which fee.) Tliis church was the
bcft which the travellers to whofe account we refer had
fecn, except that of Befieftad. It is conftruAed entirely of
wood, and has a pretty large gallery. The mountains that
rife behind Stadarftad are very lofty, and prefect a bold and
precipitous front towards the fea. About fix miles from
Stadarftad, in the mountains that approach towards the fea,
js a hot fpring, in a place called Lyfiehouls. The water
ifTues from the top of a mount about ten feet high, and fifty
yards in diameter, entirely calcareous. The temperature of
the fpring was g6^, and the water had an acidulous tafte.
Not far from the mount were great quantities of incrufta-
tions not calcareous, which had evidently been formed by
•fome ancient fprings. Ab nit halt a mile from the fpring is
a llream of lava, that had flown ilowu from the precipices
above, and fpread over 'he flat plain intervenim^ between
the mountains and the lea. Near Uudei-ftad, which is one
of the trading ftations of Iceland, and confifts of a merchant's
houfe, a large wooden itorehoule, a church, and a con-
fider.able number of rnttages, is an ,th>'r mineral water, the
•tafte of which was fimilar to that of Lyfiehouls ; the tem-
perature was 46^. Mackenzie's Travels in Ireland.

£TADDLE, in uigrkuHurt, a term applied to the bot-

tom part, or that on which the ftack or mow of corn, pulfe,
ftraw, hay, or any other fort of field produce, refts, and ia
formed or built. Thefe forts of ftaddles are contrived in
many different ways, according to different occafions and
circumitances ; as, in a walled manner, in the wooden frame
method, in the fimple log mode, and fome others. The
two lirft are, however, by far the moft proper, where grain
or pulfe is to he ftacked upon them ; but the hft may do
for ftraw and hay occafionally, where better and more per-
feft methods cannot be adopted or put in praftice. The
firft method is expenfive, and therefore not common. See
Corn-SrAND.

A method more commonly adopted by farmers, is that
of the wooden frame, refting upon low fupporters of the
ftoue or other kinds. In many different diftriits, the ftaddles,
cfpecially for corn, are conftrufted by means of upright
ftones with caps, placed about feven feet diftance from
each other, in a circular, fquare, or fome other fuitable
form. The uprigiit flone, in fome cafes, is a truncated
pyramid, about four feet in length, a foot being allowed to
be let into the ground. On the top, which is about four
inches in the fquare, is placed the cap, which is a round
flone, fiat and fmooth on the under fide, and a little con-
vex on the upper, two feet in diameter, and projefting ten
inches from every fide of the upright ftone. Upon thefe
ftones ftrong timbers are fram.ed, firft extending in a crofs-
wife direflion, and then all around the fides ; a ftone and
cap being, for the moft part, put in the centre, to take off
the bearing of the crofs-timbers. This is a plan of ftaddle,
whicli, it is thought by many, effectually fecures the grain
againft rats and.other fimilar forts of vermin.

In other fituations, ftone or wooden pillars are put down,
at proper diftances from each other, into the ground, upou
whicfi is laid a firm and flrong fubftantial timber-frame, well
compaAed and put together, of joifts, beam.s, and other
parts, as may be found neceffary and expedient. If the
fupporting pillars be of ftone, they are ufually of a conical
form, with ftone caps faced upon their tops, as above ; but
if of wood, they are cafed with tin, ten, twelve, or more
inclies near their upper ends. In the former cafe, the flone
caps, and, in the latter, the tin coverings, effiftually pre-
vent, it is iuppofcd, the rats and mice from climbing up
into the flacks.

In fome of the more northern diftrifts of the country, the
corn-flacks are occafionally fet fomcwhat in the form and
manner of little houfes, upon pillars, or arches turned in
mafoury, round or on one or more of the moft expofed fides
of the ftraw-yards, where the outlying or other cattle are
to be foddered and kept. Where the pillar mode is adopted,
a tlrong fohd wall, built in mafon work, raollly forms the
outfide, and the pillars are fet round or on the iiilides of the
ftraw-yards. Beams of a proper fize and length are firit
laid from one pillar to another, and then rafters are laid
acrofs from the outfide wall to the pillars and beams, fu as
to form a fort of flooring ; upon wliicli the Hacks are built
of any length and height that may be neceflary ; their roofs
being always well fccured. In the turned arcli manner, no
pillars or frames of wood are at all rwrceffary, the top parts
of the arcties forming the bafes or ftaddles for raifii;;; the
flacks upon, while the openings of them, or arches below,
form the Halls fir the cattle. In both thefe ways the cattle
are well protedled Ik'Iow or uiidernealh the (tacks ; the yraio
is perfectly preferved from the efletts of dampnols and ver-
min, by being fo much elevated ; and to the tV.rmer there is
a confijerable faving of manure in different ways.

In other ciles, corn-flacks are built roumi and againfl a
frame of wood, fet up firmly in fomcwhat a conical (liape

S T A

or manner ; the tops of the rafters or boards, of which this
fort of ftaddle is compofed, reiting or inclining againft each
other, and reaching fomewhat above the eaves of the ftack.
This is a kind of iladdle which is fuppofed to afford much
air and ventilation in moilt damp iituations, for drying the
grain in the ftacks. See Stacking of Grain.

Where the fimple log manner of forming fladdles is in
ufe, any fort of rough large pieces of wood, of the tree or
other kind, are laid round the outlides, in the form in which
the ilacks are to be made ; in the infide and middle of which,
bottoms or fonndations are formed with common wood fag-
gots, bufhc?, or any other fimilar matters ; the whole being
then well covered with rough ftraw or haulm of any fort.
Sec Stackixg of Hay, and Stand, Grain.

The term y/(i^^/<-, likewife, fometimes fignifies a tree,
which is fuffered to grow for coarfe or common purpofes ;
as the forming and making of polls, rails, and other fimilar
ufes.

Staddle of Hay, a term applied to a plot or portion of
hay thrown abroad in making. See H.w-Making.

Staddle-J?oo/", any fort of roof or covering which is
placed over fladdles, and employed for the purpofe of pro-
tefting or fecuring the flacks of either corn or hay, or of
any other forts of materials which are built upon them.
Staddle-roofs are of many different kinds, and their heights
and fizes are variou":, according to thofe of the fladdles
over which they are laid.

In the county of Devon, a mode of this kind of roof
prevails for the fecuring of corn, in fome parts of the
South-hams in that dillrift, which appears to be entitled to
the confideration of the farmer.

It is faid to have been borrowed from the Dutch, as it
is much ufed in Holland, and all thi; low countries upon
the borders of the Rhine and Scheldt rivers. It is likewife
Hated to be almoil univerfally had reconrfe to through-
out the eaflern and middle Hates of North America. And
it probably cxilts in different other countries and dif-
trifts.

It confilfs of a light moveable roof, formed of fome
fort of fuitable and convenient materials for the purpofe,
which is capable of being raifed or let down at pleafure
over the ftaddle upon which the ftack is built. The me-
thods of forming and managmg the arrangement of it are
thefe. At the diltance of about four feet from the corners
of the ftaddle or flack-frame, are funk four ftrong boxes,
well rammed and fecured in the ground, and of fufficient
capacity to receive about three feet in length of a large pole
or fpar, rounded from a fquare of fix inches, being made
a little tapering towards the top, and thirty feet in length :
on the upper end of this fpar or pole is fixed a llout ring
or fernde, from which is projeftcd a flrong iron hook : the
four ports or poles thus formed and fitted up are placed in
the boxes at the diflerent corners of the ftaddle. A two-
fhcave tackle is then hitched to the hooks at the tops of the
poles or ports, and a one-fheave tackle to each corner of
the roof, refting upon the ftaddle, and prefer ting at each
corner a portable hoop, or collar, to enclole the different
poles or ports on which it traverfes up and down, keeping
all firm, fteady, tight, and compaft together. Thefe four
tackles are manned with as many perfons as may be found
neceflary to raife or lower the roof, and thus every fheaf of
grain, or any other lubftancc, which is brought home to
be ftacked under thefe rtaddle-roofs, is faid to be more im-
mediately and betC'-r fecured from future dnmaije, than if
they were any otherwife placed under cover, or even ftowed
away in a barn or other fimilar building. This rtaddle-roof
contrivance is faid to be denominated a hay-barrack in the

lof

S T A

ftate of Pennfylvania, in North America, in which dillrift
they are equally ufed for the purpofe of proteding hay as
well as corn.

It is noticed, that in climates or trafts of country which
are frequently liable to fudden and violent florms, or
thunder-fhowers, during the periods of hay-time and har-
veft, thefe fladdle-roofs are moftly found particularly ufeful,
proper, and neceflary for the farmer, in preferving his crops
of thefe kinds in the befl and readieft manner.

The loofe ftaddle-roofs, ufed in fome fituations, are
moftly formed of fome fort of very light thin boards of
diflerent extents, as ten, twelve, or more feet in length,
and which are fometimes bent or curved on one fide, and
hollowed in the middle, in fomewhat the manner of the pan-
tiles which are ufed in covering buildings, fo as to hook on
to each other and carry off the wet. Roof-boards of this
fort are in ufe en the farms at Winwick, one of the feats
of the earl of Derby, in Lancafhire, and found to anfwer
the purpofe very well, and to be particularly ferviceable in
(howery or rainy feafons.

Staddle-roofs of the cloth kind are fometimes employed ;
the old fails of (hips and other fimilar forts of cloth being
provided for the purpofe.

STADDLE-iVonf.f, thofe which are made ufe of in the con-
ftruclion of fladdles, efpecially when they are intended for
the purpofe of corn, in order to keep rats and other forts of
vermin out of the flacks ; and alfo for granaries, to keep
them from climbing up into them. Various kinds of flones
are employed in this way, as thofe of the free-ftone, the
fiate-ftone, the lime-ftone, and different other kinds. See
Staddle.

Staddle-ftones are moflly employed alfo for granaries,
wherever the primary confideration of the farmer is the fe-
curity of his corn. In thefe cafes, the old method was to
have them only put at the corners, while the buildings flood
upon a frame of wood, but the improved mode is to have
them coped all round, in fomewhat the fame manner as corn-
flands, in order that they n.ay be perfetlly fecure agiinft the
inroads of deftruftive vermin.

For granaries placed on ftaddle-llones, it has been lately
fu^gelted, in order to prevent vermin from getting up the
outward fleps, that fuch fleps fhould be fixed on the infide
of the lower parts of the door, which are to be balanced with
weights, fo that a flight effort may be capable of bringing
them down on blocks of ftone, which are to form the firft
fleps for the purpofe, fuch blocks of flone being twenty-
four feet by fourteen in the clear. The doors, in fuch cafes,
muft, of courfe, projeft in fome degree in being brought
forward, fo as to reach the ground, or come near to it, for
the purpofe of affording a ready and eafy entrance into the
repofitories.

STADE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Bremen,
with a ftrong fort, on a fmall river, about a mile from the
Elbe ; formerly the capital of a county and rcfidence of the
counts. It is now the feat of the regency of the duchies of
Bremen and Verden, and alfo of the chancery, chief court of
juftice, and confiftory, and contains three c'larches. Its two
burgo-mafters are ccunfellors of Hate. It was formerly a place
of confiderable trade, and from the year 1586 to 1612, an
EnTlifh ftaple, which «as removed to Hamburg. After having
undergone feveral revolutions and changes of mailers, it was
occupied in 17 15 by the troops of Brunfwick. In 1757
the fortifications of it were completed ; 24 miles W. of
Hambur-. N. lav. 53° 42'. E. long. 9'' 21'.

STADECKEN, a town of Germany, in the palatinate
ofthf" Rhiie ; 11 ■ i'es W. of Oppenheim.

STADELHOFEN, a town of Bavaria, in thebiftiopric

of

S T A

of Bamberg ; 6 miles SS.W. of Weifmain. — Alfo, a town
of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 7 miles S.S.E. of Ge-
munden.

STADEN, a town of France, in the department of the
JLys ; 7 miles S.E. of Dlxmude. — Alfo, a river of Ger-
many, which runs ir.to the Nidda, 10 miles N. of Francfort
on the Maine. — Alfo, a town of Germany ; 20 miles N.E.
of Francfort on the Maine.

STADIUM, riJisv, an ancient Greek long meafure, con-
taining one hundred and twenty-five geometrical paces, or
fix hundred and twenty-five Roman feet ; correfponding to
our furlong.

The word is formed from the Greek rao-i-, Jiiition ; and
it IS faid, on this occafion, that Hercules, after running fo
far at one breath, Hood ilill. The Greeks meafured all their
diftances by itadia, which they call raJix^fv.

Eight iladia make a geometrical or Roman mile ; and
twenty, according to M. Dacier, a French league ; but ac-
cording to others, eiglit hundred itadia make forty-one and
two-thirds of a league.

Guilletiere obferves, that the fladium was only fix hun-
dred Athenian feet, which amount to fix hundred and
twenty-five Roman, five hundred and fixty-fix French royal
feet, or fix hundred and four Enghfii feet ; fo that the Ita-
dium fhould only have been one hundred and thirteen geo-
metrical paces. It muft be obferved, however, that the
ftadium was different in different times and places. See
Measures.

Stadium was alfo the courfe, or career, in which the
Greeks ran their races.

It is faid to have derived its name from the meafure of
length mentioned in the preceding article ; which being
equal to the fpace of ground allotted for the foot-race, the
courfe was from thence called the ftadium, and the racers
were named fladieis, or ftadiodromi. Tlie Eleans, indeed,
pretended, that the ftadium at Olympia was meafured by the
foot of Hercules, which being longer than that of an or-
dinary man, made their (ladium longer than any other in the
fame proportion.

Vitruvius defcribes it as an open fpace one hundred and
twenty-five paces long, terminated at the two extremes with
two pofts, called career and meta.

Along it was built a kind of amphitheatre, where the
fpeclators were placed to fee the athletre exercife running,
wrellling, &c.

Paufanias (lib. vi.) informs us, that the Olympic ftadium
was a terrace compofed of earth ; on one fide of which was
the feat of the Hellenodicks, or Hellenodics (fee Helleno-
dic/e), and over-againlt them on the other, was an altar of
white marble, upon which the priclltfs of Ceres Chamyne,
and fome virgins, had the privilege to fit and view the games.
At the farther end of the ftadium was the barrier, whence
thofe who ran the fimple foot-race began their courfe ; and
there, according to the tradition of the E!cans, was the tomb
of Endymion.

According to the dcfcription given by Wheeler, in his
travel?, of the remains of the lladium at Athens, which was
built by Herodes Atticus, it appears to have been a long
place, with two parallel fidci;, clofed up circ\ilarly at l!ie
eaft end, and open towards the other end, and about oriC
hundred and twenty-five geometrical paces long, and twenty-
fix or tvventy-feven broad, which gave it the name of a
ftadium.

Thoujjh the Olympic Itadiiun does not focm to have been
fo fplendid as this at Athens, or another at Delphi, built
likevvife of marble by the fame mugnilicent citizen of Athens,
yet we may fuppofc th«y were all formed upon the faine mo-

S T A

del, as they were deftined to the fame ufe. In the ftadium
were exhibited thofe games which are properly called gym-
naflic. At either end of the courfe flood a pillar, the one
conllituting the barrier where the race betran, and the other
the goal, wfiere the fimple foot-race, inltiluted or revived by
Iphilus, ended.

In the fourteenth Olympiad was added the diaulos, or
double ftadium ; and the clinulotlromo't, who ran this race,
turned round the pillar erected for that purpofc at the end of
the ftadium, and returned to the barrier, where their race
terminated. But the doHchodromoi, or runners in the race
called dol'uhos, or the long courfe, which was introduced in
the fifteenth Olympiad, and which confided of feven, or
twelve, or even of twenty-four Itadia, when they came to
the barrier, turned again round the pillar tretled at that
end, m order to continue their courfe, which required many
doublings of the ftadium.

The ftadium, or race-ground, called the Olympian hi^'po-
drome, confifted of two parts ; the firft refeinbled in fhape
the prow of a fhip, and was called the barrier. In thi^ place
were the ftaiids for the hurfcs and chariots, and here they
were matched and prepared for the courfe. The next par-
tition was the lijls, or the fpot on which the races were to
be run. At the end of the courfe itood a pillar, which was
the goal, round which the candidates were to turn ; and that
rider or driver who could make the narrowelt turn and ap-
proach neareft to it, had the fairefl chance, csteris paribus,
of furpafTmg his rivals. To this Horace alludes in the ex-
preflion, Meta ferwd'is e-chaia rolis. Beyond this goal, there
was a figure placed on purpofe to frighten the horfes, called
Taraxippus, or the terrifier of horfes. It is probable, that
fome tricks were praftifcd luidcr the difguife of this figure,
to render the viftory more difficult, and of courfe more ho-
nourable, or to try and prove the relolution and temper of the
horfes. On each fide of the courfe, from one end to the
other, tie fpeftators were placed ; the molt advantageous
flations being afligned to the judges of the games, and
other diftinguifhed perfonp. In that place where the horfes
ftood which were to run, a long cable was drawn from one
fide to the other, which fcrvcd the purpofe of a bariier;
about the middle of the p'ow already mentioned, an altar
was erefted, upon which Itood a brazen eaule with out-
itretched wings, and the figure of a brazen dolphin was
likewife placed at the entrance of it. This laft was fo con-
trived, that when the prefident of the races thought proper
to put it in motion, it would afccnd at once to fuch a
height, as to be vifiblo to all the lpedt;.tors. This eagle
was dedicated to .Jupiter, the patron god of the Olympic
games, as the dolphin was facred to Neptune, the fuppofed
creator of the horfe. In the moment when the eagle Iprang
into the air, the dolphin funk under ground ; and upon this
fignal, the cable was removed, and the horfes advanced from
the ftands into the courfe, where they ftood ready to ftart.
The fignal for ftarting was probably the lame as in the
chariot races, and was given by the founding of a trumpet.
The fpace of ground round which the horfes were to run,
and the number of times vvhieii they were required to run
round it, will make their courfe or heat to ainouut to »bout
foin- niilc=;, or fomewhat more. See on this fubjcdl Weft's
Odes of Pindar, and Preliminary Diflertation on the Olym-
pic Games, p. 43, &:c. p. 84, &c. For other particulars,
fee Hii'i'Ouno.Mi:.

Tiiere were tladia likewife covered over, and cncora-
paded with coloiniades and porticoes, ftrving for the fame
exercifes in bad weather. Captive children uled to run the
ftadium.

A more natural derivation of the word ftadium, from

crl«a»c»

S T A

S T A

a\ci.Ti', fiatmn, than that popular one mentioned in the laft
article, may be drawn from the athletx Hopping and red-
ing when at the end of thi<; courle : whence the name
might be applied to the fame diltance mealured in any other

place.

STADIUS, John, in Biography, a German allronomer,
was born in 1527. and iluditd at the univerfity of Louvain,
where he applied himfelf with fo much dilisence to mathe-
matical purfnits, that he was very foon qualified to become a
profefTor ; he refided fome time at Liege, and was allowed a
falary by the bifhop, for whom he annually calculated an
ephemeris, adapted to the meridian of Antwerp, begiiming
from the year 1554- The ephemerides of Stadius were
much ufed by the celebrated Dutch mathematician Stevin,
though they were afterwards proved to be in many refpefts
inaccurate. From Louvain, Stadius went to Savoy, with a
commiflion as mathematician to the king of Spain, and he
removed thence to Bruges, in Flanders, where he conipofed
his " Falli Romanorum," which were publifhed by Hubert
Goltzius, whofe daughter was married to his Ton ; after this
he was invited to France as profellbr royal of mathematics,
and lived there in high refpeft and honour till he became
enthufialtically attached to judicial aftrology, and on the faith
of that pretended art he began to predift future events.
He died in the year IJ79, in the fifty-fecond year of his
age. He is author of fome aftrological treatifes, and tranf-
lated a work of Hermes Trifmegillus, entitled " Jatro-ma-
thematicae, ad Amonem jEgyptium conlcripta."

STADL, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
8 miles N.E. of Gratz.

STADLIN, or Stadlau, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Bredau, on the Stober ; 27 miles E. of Breflau.

STADLKIRK, a town of Auftria ; 4 miles N. of
Steyr.

STADMANIA, in Botany, fo named by Lamarck, in
commemoration of a botanical traveller, M. Stadman, to
whom he was obliged for the knowledge of the plant. — La-
marck lUullr. t. 312. Poiret in Lam. Dift. v. 7. 376. —
Clafs and order, OStandr'ia Momgynia. Nat. Ord. Saplndi,
Jud'.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, of one leaf,
with five fhort, oval, rather pointed, teeth. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments eight, thread-fhaped, ereft, rather longer
than the calyx ; anthers terminal, roundifh. Pjjl. Germen
fuperior, oblong ; (lyle very Ihort ; ftigma triangular. Perk.
Berry dry, globofe, generally attended by the rudiments of
another abortive one. fei/ folitary, globofe, large.

EfT. Ch. Calyx with five teeth. Corolla none. Stigma
nearly fellile. Berry dry, with one feed.

I. S. oppofilifolia.- — Native of the ifland of Mauritius,
where the Frencli call it Bois de fer, or Iron-wood, from
the hardnefs of the wood, which is employed for many ufe-
ful purpofes. The half-ripe berries, prelerved in a moilt
form with fngar, are faid to be tolerably good. — The tree
is large and handfome, with a tall ereft trunk, and fpread-
ing, oppofito, round branches, of 3 greyifh hue, downy when
young. Poiret defcribes the lea-ves as fimple, oppofite,
ftalked, elliptic-lanceolate, coriaceous, perfeftly entire,
obtufe, (lightly contradled at their bafe, fmooth ; Ihining
above; paler and brownifh beneath; their length three or
four inches, breadtli an mch, or inch and half. Footjlalks
three lines long. Fhiuers about the ep.ds of the branches,
in long, llalked clujlers, with (hort, thick, often aggregate,
partial ilalks, having a fmall tuberculated permanent braSea
at the bafe of each. — Such is Poiret's account ; but La-
marck's plate evidently reprefents the leaves as alternate,
pinnate, of from three to fix pair of oppofite leaflets ; the

chillers o{ Jlotvers being axillary. Such we believe to ht
the true nature of the plant. We have fpecimens brought
by Commerfon from the ifles of Mauritius and Bourbon, and
marked Bois dea Gaulelles, a name which does not occur in
Juflieu, which, if not the fame fpecies, have every appearance
of belonging to thi? genus. In thefe the leaves are alternate,
abruptly pinnate, their common footjlalks flightly winged.
The flowers are in ftiort, denfe, compound, axillary, filky
clufters. Calyx and germen very filky. Fruit nearly
fmooth, crowned with the permanently?) /i» andjligma. We
dare hardly fufpeft fo much inaccuracy of delcnption in
the authors cited as to take this for their very identical Stad-
mania, but that it belong-s to the fame genus there can
fcarcely be any doubt. We find here and there even the ap-
pearance of a bud, or abortive leaflet, at the end of the com-
mon footjlaik, as reprelented mi re ilrongly by Lamarck,
which perhaps led Poiret to take the compound leaf for a
branch.

STADT-AM-HOF, in Geography, a tovrn of Lower
Bavaria, on the Danube, oppofite to Ratilbon, and connedied
with it by a bridge. It has two convents and an alms-houfe,
to the latter of which Lutherans and Roman Catholics are
equally admillible ; the objefts of relief, as well as the go-
vernors, being half Lutherans and half CathoUcs ; its
yearly revenue is faid to amount to 80,000 florins.

STADTBERG, or Marsberg, a town of the duchy of
Weilphalia, on the Dimel ; 20 miles S. of Paderborn.

STADTHAGEN, a town of Weltphalia, in the county
of Schauenburg, endowed in the 13th century with con-
fiderable privileges, and furrounded with ditches, ramparts,
walls, and towers. From its fufferings during the 30 yeai's'
war, it has n,it yet recovered. The palace of the prince of
Schauenburg -Lippe is in this town, and the gardens have a
mineral fpring ; 8 miles E. of Minden. N. lat. 52'' 18'.
E. long. 9° 20'.

STADTHOLDER, Stadthouldeb, or Stadholder,
a governor or lieutenant of a province, in the United Ne-
therlands, particularly that of Holland, where the word
(now indeed almoll obfolete) has been mod ufed, by rea-
ion of the fuperior importance of the government of that
province.

Menage derives the word from ^adt, Jlate ; and houlder,
holding, q. d. lieutenant of the dates. Others will have it
compounded oi Jlad, ox Jlede, Jlead, or place ; znd houlder,
holding ; in regard this officer held the place of the counts,
and reprelented them in their abfence.

The ftadtholder, i. e. the fladtholder of Holland, was
the firft member of the republic : he was chief of all the
courts of juftice, and might prefide therein when he plealed.
All fentcnces, judgments, Sic. were difpatched in his name.
When an office became vacant in any of the courts:, the dates
propofed three pcrfons to the ftadtholder, who chole one
of them. He even pardoned criminals, which is a fovereign
prerogative : and he had the choice of fcabines, or chief
magi'.trates, in each city ; to which end the council of the
city always prefented him two perfons, one of whom he ap-
pointed.

In feveral cities he had the fame right of nominating the
burgo-maders and couniellors ; as at Rotterdam, Dort, &c.
He had alfo a power to calhicr the magidrate^, and put
others in their room, when he found it necefiary for the
public gocd, upon giving a reafon for the fame.

By article VI. of the union of Utrecht, the States con-
ftituted him arbiter of all the diff'erences that might arife
between the dates of the feveral provinces, or between the
cities and the members of the dates of the province.

To the dignity of Uadtholder was iufeparably annexed,

that

S T JE

S T ^

that of captain and admiral-general of the province ; in
whicli quality he named all the officers, and difpofed of all
military polls. He took eve of the execution of the or-
dinances cf the Hates ; and his authority gave him a right
to receive, and give audience to ambadadors from foreign
princes, and even to fer.d anibafladora on his own private
affairs.

The office of ftadtholder was very ancient : the counts,
not being able to refide in Holland, appointed Hadtholders
to command in their abfence in the levcral provinces ; be-
fidcs a governor-general of all the feventeen provinces of
the Netherlands.

William I., prince of Orange, was made ftadtholder of
Holland and Zealand in 1576, and foon after of the pro-
vinces of Guelders, Utrecht, and Overyftel, at the time
when the Dutch Ihook off the Spanifh yoke ; which enabled
him to contribute greatly to that happy event.

In 1584, when William I. was aflaflinated, the fame
dignity was conferred, by the fame provinces, on his fon
prince Maurice, who was fucceeded by his brother Fre-
deric-Henry in 1625. Upon his death, in 1647, his fon,
William H., became ftadtholder, and he polleiicd this dig-
nity till his death in 1650. The ambitious views of this
prince having given offence to the provinces of the republic,
they took meafures to reduce the authority of the ftadt-
holder ; and the province of Holland formed a defign of
excluding his fon, William HI. prince of Orange, after-
wards king of England, from the dignity pofleffed by his
anceitors. However, in 1672, Holland, alarmed at the
progrefs of Lewis XIV., declared William ftadtholder, and
captain-general of the forces of the republic, with the fame
power which his predecelTors had enjoyed. Their example
was followed by four other provinces; and, in 1674, on
account of his fignal fervices to the ftates of Holland, they
declared him hereditary ftadtholder, and determined that
his dignity (hould delcend to his male heirs. He was fuc-
ceeded by his appointed heir, the prince of Naliau-Dietz,
hereditary ftadtholder of the provinces of Friefland and
Groningen, from whom the dignity defcended to his fon,
William-Charles-Henry-Frifon. In 1722 he was named
Itadtholder by the province of Guelderland.

In 1747, the iladtholderfhip was extended to all the feven
united provinces, and made hereditary in the male and
female reprefentatives of the family of Orange. For other
particulars refpefting the change of government, &c. fee
Holland and U.vited Provinces.

STADTKYLL, or Statkyl, in Geography, a town
of France, in the department of the Roer, on the Kyll ;
8 miles N.N.W. of Gerolftein.

STADTLAND, a fmall ifland in the North Atlantic
fea, near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 62° 10'. E. long.

5° 5°'-

STADT-LOEN, a town of Germany, in the biftiopric

of Munfter ; 23 miles W. of Munfter. N. lat. 52'' &.

E. long. 6"^ 54'.

STADT-OLDENDORF, a town of the principality
of Wolfenbuttel, containing about 20O houfes ; 15 miles
W.N.W. of Eimbcck.

STADTSBUGDEN, a town of Norway, in the pro-
vince of Drontheim ; 10 miles N.N.W. of Drontheim.

STAUT-STEINACH, a town of Bavaria, in the
biftiopric of Bamberg ; 7 miles N-E. of Culmbach.

STiEBIS, in Botany, a name given by the modern
Greeks to a plant growing very plentifully in the ifland of
Crete, and feeming to be the fame with \.\k Jlabe of the
ancient Greeks, when ufed as the name of the pheos or
hippopheos ; for the ancients ufed it alfo as the name of a

Vol. XXXIII.

low plant of the gnaphalium kind, growing in marlhy placet,
with which they ufed to ftuft beds, &c.

STiEBIUM, a name given by the modern Greeks to the
plant called hippopheos by Diolcorides : that author alfo
fometimes called it Jiiile.

ST7EBR0ECK, in Geography, a town of Guiana, on
the eaft coaft of the river Dcinarari.

STjECHAS, in Botany. See Cassidony.

ST./EHELINA, appears to have Seen a name of Hal-
ler's, which Liniixus removed to the prcf»nt genus. There
have been feveral Swifs botanifts, authors of inaugural dif-
fertations, or other fmall treatifes not generally current, of
the name of Stsehelin, or Stehelin. Haller feems to have
intended principally to commemorate his beloved and re-
gretted friend and companion, Benedift Stjehelin, to whom
he addrefles two epiftles among his poems. (Sec his
Bihlkth. Botanica, v. 2. 175, and H'tft. Stirp. Helvet. v. i,
136.) In the latter place he contends that he had given
this name to the Bartfta alpina, before Linnxus dedicated
that genus to his own, no lefs tenderly lamented, friend
Bartfch. (See Fl. Suec. cd. 2. 211.) However the right
of priority may be oircumllanced, the Bartfia of Linnxus,
like his Stichelina, has prevailed ; nor can the warmed ad-
mirer of Haller or of Stxhelin now regret, that the latter
has obtained a moft elegant and remarkable genus, of the
compound tribe ; he having particularly written upon that
order, in a dillertation publiflied at Bafil in 1721, after the
diftinguifhed example of Vaillant, of whom he had been a
favourite difciple. — Linn. Gen. 415. Sclireb. 546. Willd.
Sp. FL V. 3. 1783. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 4. 5ii. "Sm. PI. Ic. 71. Prodr. Fh Grsc. Sibth.
V. 2. 162. Jul!'. 175. Gsertn. v. 2. 412. (Serratula;
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 666. f. 3, 4.) — Clafs and order, Synge-
nejia Polygamia-aqualu. Nat. Ord. Compofita difco'ideat
Linn. CinarocephaU, Juff".

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx oblong, cylindrical, (lightly
fwelling, imbricated with lanceolate ercft fcales, each ter-
minated by a fmall, (liort, coloured fcale. Cor. compound,
uniform, tubular : all the florets equal, perfeft, of one
funnel-ftiaped petal, whofe limb is bell-lhaped, in five equal,
acute fegments. Slam. Filaments in each floret five, capil-
lary ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube, each of them
having two elongated teeth at the bafe. Pift. Gcrmeo very
fhort ; ftyle thread-fljaped ; itigmas two, oblong, obtufc,
ereft. Peric. none but the unchanged calyx. Seeds foli-
tary, oblong, very fliort, quadrangular: down branched or
cloven, longer than the calyx. Reeept. flat, covered with
very fhort, permanent, chaffy, branched fcales.

Efl. Ch. Receptacle with branched (cales. Seed-down
branched. Anthers with a pair of tlireads at the bafe.
Calyx imbricated, rather fwelling.

I. S. dubia. Roiemary-leaved Slaeheliiia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1176. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Dickf. Dr. PI.
n. 13. Gerard Gallopr. 190. t. 6. (Serratula; Lamarck
f. 4. Chamxchryfocome pri'longia purpuralcentibufque
Jacea: capitulis ; Barrel. Ic. t. 406. Stocchas citrina altera
inodora ; Lob. Ic. 486.) — Leaves fefTile, linear, fomewhat
toothed ; downy and white beneath. Seed-down Imooth,
about twice as long as the nearly cylindrical calyx. — Native
of dry open hills and lields, in Spain, Italy, and the fouth
of France. Parkinfon appears to have cultivated it, but
we have never met with the plant in any garden, nor does it
make a figure even in cat.ilngues. The y/rm is (hrubby, of
humble growth, bnftiy, uith round leafy branches, clothed
with dole white cottony down ; as are alfo the backs of the
very narrow, toothed, (lightly revohitc leaves, each above
an inch long. Floivcrs terminal, cicd, cither lolitary or

4 S fomewhat

STiEHELlNA.

fomewhat corymbofe, making a Angularly elegant appear-
ance, even in dried fpecimens, on account of their partly
downy calyx, variegated with rofe-colour and brown, fur-
mounted by the tuft of filvery fecd-diywn, intermixed with
the long, tubular, crimfon fonts, which are eight or ten
in each calyx. The genus of this fpecies was confidered
doubtful by Linnteus, becaufe the Jhd-do'wn is defcnbed
by Gerard as iimple. It is, however, curioufly branched
from the bafe, which, added to the bearded anthen, fuffi-
ciently eitablifhes the charaaer, though we have not exa-
mined the fcales of the receptacle. The habit, moreover, is
well marked, and proves this genus, which fome French
botanifts have fcrupled to admit, to be one of the mod na-
tural, as it unqueftianably is the moft elegant, of the fynge-
nefious family in Europe. Willdenow has furely altered the
fpecific charafter for the worfe.

2. S. arborefcens. Storax-leaved Stashelina. Linn. Mant.
III. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Schreb. Dec. t. i. Sm.
Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. S45, unpublifhed. (Cyanus arbo-
refcens altera, Ityracis folio; Alpin. Exot. 33. t. 32.
Ciano friiticofo di Candia ; Pon. Bald. 165.) — Leaves
ftalked, eUiptical, entire ; filky beneath.— Native of rocks
on the white mountains of Crete, and in the ifles of Hyeres.
Miller is faid to have cultivated this fine plant, before the
hard winter of 1740, which was fatal to fo many oriental
varieties in the Englifli gardens. The _/?£/« is woody, two
feet high, fometimes an inch in diameter, with round, leafy,
filky, afcending branches. Leaves remarkably handfome,
elliptical or fomewhat heart-fhaped, obtufe, two or three
inches long and half as broad ; fmooth and dark-green above ;
white and beautifully filky beneath ; with one rib, and many
branching veins. Footjlalks filky, about an inch long.
Floiuers terminal, cofymbofe, light purple. Colyx {lightly
fwelling, its fcales roundifh-ovate, partly filky. Anthers
with a double feathery beard. Seed-down roughifh, cloven
in a finger-like manner, like the fcales of the receptacle.

3. S. frutkofa. Smooth Plantain-leaved Stsehelina.
Linn. Syll. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 538. Willd. n. 3. (Cen-
taurea fruticofa ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1286. Serratula ; Lamarck
f. 3. Cyanus repens ; Lob. Ic. 548.) — Leaves (jbovato-
lanceolate, entire, tapering at the bafe, fmooth on both
fides. — Native of Crete and the Levant. Dr. Slbthorp
mentions having gathered it on rocks in the ifland of Chero,
but no fpecimens are found in his herbarium. The ftem is
{hrubby, with round, minutely roughifh, branches. Leaves
near two inches long, dotted, tapering down into a winged
footftalk. Flowers faid to be white. Calyx nearly cylin-
drical, with oblong, acute, partly downy fcales. Seed-
down rough. Its peculiar ftriifture, or that of the fcales
of the receptacle, our fpecimens will not allow us to afcertain.

4. S. hajlata. Halberd-leaved Staehelina. Vahl. Symb.
V. 1. 70. Willd. n. 4. (Chrj-focoma fpatulata ; Forflc.
^gypt.-Arab. 147.) — " Stem ihnibby. Leaves hallate,
hoary, feffile." — Gathered by Forllcall nearTascs, in Arabia
Fehx. A low rigid Jhrub, with numerous, round, hoary
branches. Leaves not half an inch long, very obtufe, dilated
into an horizontal lobe at each fide ; molt lioary beneath ;
tapering at the bafe. Flowers folitary, feffile, towards the
extremities of the branche?. Calyx at firft cylindrical, then
turbinate, with linear keeled fcales. Seeds villous ; down
rulty, rather rigid, very finely toothed where it projefts
beyond the calyx. Receptacle fcarcely chaffy. — Vahl, from
whom we borrow this defcription, as we have feen no fpc-
cimcn, might poffibly not be aware of the true charafters
of a St^helina, and therefore might, like Linr.Kus, Gerard,
and others, not obferve whether ihe feed-down were branched
in this fpecies. Its genus therefore remains doubtful.

5. S. unijo/culo/a. Simple-flowered Stathelina. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 2016. Fl. Graec. t. 846, un-
publifhed. — Leaves ovate, acute, toothed ; downy and
fnow-white beneath. Stem fomewhat fhrubby. Calyx
fingle-flowered. — Found on mount ParnafTus, by Dr. Sib-
thorp. The root of this very pretty fpecies is ttrong and
woody, bearing numerous, partly decumbent, branched,
leafy, hoary, ffirubby Jlems, about a fpan high. Leaves
ftaliied, an inch or an inch and half long ; fmooth and
dark-green above ; very white beneath ; their points fome-
what reflexed. Flotuers five or fix at the top of each item,
corymbofe, ereft, fmall. Calyx cylindrical, brown, (hin-
ing, nearly fmooth, half an inch long, containing a foli-
tary, purple, flarry Jloret, with tawny anthers, whofe bafe
is furnifhed with a double feathery beard. Seed-down
cloven in a digitate manner. Nothing can be more cer-
tain than the genus of this plant, though its fingle Jloret
forms one of thofe exceptions in its natural order, which
render abfolute definitions, in botany, fcarcely ever pof-
fible.

6. S. llicifoUa. Holly-leaved Stihelina. Linn. Suppl.
358. Willd. n. 5. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 71. — Leaves oppo-
fite, on fhort flalks, heart-fhaped, bluntly toothed ; fmooth
and fhining above ; woolly beneath. Points of the calyx-
fcales naked. — Native of New Granada, from whence
Mutis fent fpecimens to Linnxus. Thejlem is fhrubby, or
arborefcent, with round leafy branches, downy when young.
Leaves rather above an inch long, rigid, obtufe, revolute,
coarfely toothed, reticulated with veins ; of a fhining green,
as if varnifhed, on the upper fide ; denfely woolly and white
beneath ; on fhort, thick, hozry Jlalis, remarkable for be-
ing oppofite, thofe of all the foregoing being alternate.
Stipuliis none. Panicles terminal, corymbofe, denfely woolly,
with lanceolate woolly braHeas. Calyx almoft hemifpheri-
cal, very woolly ; it? inner fcales with fmooth, membranous,
fringed, finally inflexcd, points. Florets numerous, yellow ;
their limb erecl. ^nthers with two points at the bafe.
Seed-down rough, or feathery, fcarcely branched or digi-
tate. Scales of the receptacle fliort, rigid, with two or three
teeth.

7. S. aquifolia. Kermes-Ieaved Stashelina. (Elichry-
fum arborefcens, ilicis cocciglandiferx folio ; Plum. Cat.
Amer. 9. Ic. 114. t. 123. f. 2.) — Leaves fcattered, on
fhort ftalks, roundifh, abrupt, with fpinous teeth ; fmooth
and fhining above ; woolly beneath. Calyx-fcales downy
throughout. — Gathered in South America by Plumier.
This is in many refpects nearly akin to the laft, though
eflentially diftiniS. The leaves are but half the fize, with
finer veins, and Iharp fpinous teeth. Flowers yellow, feffile,
either folitary, or feveral together, at the leafy fummit of
each branch. Calyx longer, and more regularly imbricated,
its fcales lanceolate, finely and uniformly woolly, without
any membranous inflexed points. The anthers have two
briftly naked points at their bafe, like the preceding, and
ihe feed-down is rough ; we cannot perceive it to be branched.
We have not been able to examine the receptacle. There
cannot be the leall doubt of this plant belo.iging to the
lame genus as the lafl, and the points in which it differs
fpecifically, ferve to bring it nearer to other Stxhelina.

8. b. gnaphalodes. Soft-linear-leaved Staehelina. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1 1 76. (Leyfera fquarroia ; Thunb. Prodr. 160.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 2133. .lacea sethiopica, lloschadia
citrinx majoribus tomentofis foliis, capitulonim fpinis et
fquamulis ex aureo colore nitentibus ; Pluk. Almageft. 193.
t. 302. f. 3.) — Leaves thread-fliaped, woolly. Flowers
foUtary, on long ftalks. Points of the calyx-fcales reflexed,
membranous, naked, acute Native of the Cape of Good

Hope,

sr M

Hope, but rare, and as yet a ftranger in our greenhoufes.
The p/anl is fhrubby, branched, clothed througliout with
white cottony down. Leaves an inch and a half to thi-ee
inches long, very narrow, obtufe, alternate. Floiver-Jlalis
terminal, folitary, ereft, fimple, fingle-flowered, twice as
long as the leaves, woolly like them. Calyx ovate, of
numerous imbricated fcales, the inner ones gradually longeft,
as in the laft, all woolly, with (liining, tawny or brown,
membranous edges, and a llrongly reflexed, tapering, almoft
pungent, fmooth point, of the colour and texture of the
edges. Florets apparently yellow. Anthers with two
flightly feathery points at the bafe. Seed-down feathery,
divided at the bale into feveral palmate portions, like the
ttamens of a polyadelphous flower. Scales of the recep-
tacle crenate, or many-cleft, at the funimit. — We know
not on what grounds this has been referred to Ley/era,
there being in our fpecimens no appearance of a radius, nor
any thing of the peculiar habit or charafters of that genus.
But if it were fo, this, being the original Sltehelina, ought
not to be changed. The more particular explanation, than
heretofore, which we have given of the relt of the fpecies,
anfwering alfo to this in fo many peculiar and eflential cha-
rafters, will we truit eftablifh the gciius before us beyond
my poffibillty of doubt. Pkikenet's figure of S. gnapha-
lodes, the only one we can find, though rude, is charac-
teriftic, elpecially in the points of the calyx.

9. S. fpinofa. Thorny-leaved Stshelina. Vahl Symb.
V. 1. 69. Willd. n. 6. (Chryfocoma mucronata ; Forfk.
^gypt-Arab. 147.) — Leaves nearly cylindrical, fimple or
pinnatifid, with awl-(haped fpinous points. Calyx-fcales

elliptic-lanceolate, ereft Found by Forfl<all in Egypt.

'Vhe Jlem is fhrubby, bufliy, rigid, with angular branches.
Leaves alfo rigid, flender, like branched thorns, an inch
or inch and half long, roughilh, alternate. Fhivers ter-
minal, few, fomewhat corymbofe, yellow, according to
Vaillant, who is cited by Vahl. Calyx at firft cylindrical,
then fpreading and turbinate, of many, nearly fmooth, im-
Ijiicated, ftraight fcales, each tipped with a fcarcely dif-
cernible, ereft, prickle. Seeds hairy, their down very mi-
nutely toothed according to Vahl, and the receptacle clothed
with fliort briltly fcales. We have not feen thefe parts,
nor the anthers, fo that we cannot be certain of the genus.
One of Forikall's fpecimens, now before us, has decidedly
pinnatifid /fa'ufj.

10. S. Chamapeuce. Pine-leaved Stihelina. Linn. Syfl:.
Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 538. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 3. Sm.
Fl. Gric. Sibth. t. 847, unpublilhed. (Scrratula Cha-
msepeuce ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1147. Chamxpeucc ; Alpin.
Exot. 77. t. 76. Stcbe capitata, overo Chamepino frut-
ticofo di Candia ; Pon. Bald. 75. Jacea fruticans, pini
folio ; Pluk. Pliyt. t. 94. f. 3.) — Leaves hnear, crowded,
elongated, revolute; downy beneath. Calyx ovate. Scales
lanceolate, ereft. — Native of rocks in Crete and Cyprus,
where, as well as in Greece, and on mount Athos, it wag
gathered by Dr. Sibthorp. Parkinfon mentions this fpecies
as cultivated here in 1640. It is Itill preferved in curious
greenlioufes, and may be feen at Chelfea, flowering all
fummer long. 'Yhc Jlem is flirubby, bufhy, llout, two or
three feet high, its round cottony branches clothed with
abundance of long, narrow, drooping, revolute, acute leaves ;
fmooth and green above ; covered with white cottony down
beneath ; their bafe fomewhat dilated. Flowers forming a
fort of fpare leafy panicle at tlie top of each branch, ereft.
Calyx ovate, or nearly globofe, bigger than a lia/.el-nut, of
numerous, clofely imbricated, lanceolate, acute, downy,
crimfon-pointed fcales. Flowers crimfon. Anthers with a
pair of fimple, not feathery, briiUcs. Seids polilhed, ob-

S T A

ovate, variegated with brown ; their dawn the length of
the calyx, feathery, but not branched or palmate. Scales
of the receptacle in many brillly fegments.

11. S. ? tmbricata. Imbricated Stsehelina. Berg. Cap.
233. Linn. Mant. 2. 281. Wilid. n. 8. Thunb. Prodr.
143' — " Leaves ovate, pointed, imbricated ; downy be-
neatli. Calyx turbinate; its inner fcales with reflexed
coloured points. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
The Jlem is fhrubby, a fpan high, with cluttered downy
branches. Leaves feflile, above aline in length ; of a glau-
cous green, nearly fmooth, and flightly rugofe, above ;
white and downy underneath ; clofely imbricated. Flowers
ufually two at the end of each branch, one feflile, the other
ftalked. Calyx downy, of numerous, linear-lanceolate,
acute, fringed fcales ; the inner ones rather the longeft, and
each tipped with a blueifh, chafly, fpreading point, refem-
bling a radiant floret. Seed-down fimple, minutely feathery,
violet-coloured. Receptacle naked, rough, with elevated
points. Such is the defcription of Bergius, who mentions
no appendages to tiie anthers, nor does the receptacle, or the

feed-down, indicate a Stuhelina. Having feen neither fpeci-
men nor figure, we mnft leave the matter undecided.

12. S. corymhofa. Corymbofe Cape Staehelina. Linn.
Suppl. 359. Wilid. n. 9. Thunb. Prodr. 143. — Leave*
wedge-fliaped, toothed ; downy beneath. Panicles corym-
bofe Calyx-fcales rounded, obtufe. — Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. The Jlem is fhrubby, with hoary, fur-
rowed, leafy branches. Leaves fcattered, an inch long, on
fhort ftalks, abrupt, toothed at the extremity ; green and
fmooth above ; white, finely downy, fomewhat filky, be-
neath. Flowers numerous, on angular, downy, corymbofe,
terminal flalks. Calyx not half an inch long, of many
broad, brown, downy, ereft, clofely imbricated fcales.
Florets white or yellowifli. Anthers with a double fpur at
the bafe. Seed-down rough, fimple, fcarcely fafciculatcd.
Receptacle fmall, cellular, not perceptibly fcaly. The habit,
and the fpurred anthers, feem to juftify us in keeping this
fpecies among the Stteheltnx, notwithllanding the receptacle.

STAFARDA, in Geography, a town and abbey of
France, in the department of the Stura ; 3 miles N. of
Saluzzo.

STAFF, B.\cuLLs, an inftrument ordinarily ufed to reft
on, in walking. Card. Bona obferves, in his treatife of
liturgies, that, anciently, thofc who ufed a ttaff in the
church to lean on, were obliged to lay it by, and to ftand
alone, firm and upright, while the Gofpcl was reading,
to teftify their rcfpeft by their poilure ; and to fhew they
were ready to obey .lefus Chrill, and to go whcrefoevcr he
fhould command them.

The flaff is alfo frequently ufed as a kind of natural
weapon, both of offence and defence. The Lacedemo-
nians never wore any fwords in the time of peace ; but
contented themfclves with a thick, crooked ilaf^, which wai
pectiliar to them.

Among the Romans, M. St. Evremond obferves, blows
with a Itaff were the gentlefl correftion they gave their
flaves ; inafmuch as they received them over their clothes.
Among the mailers of honour and arms, it is held a greater
affront to be beaten with a ttaff than with a Iword ; becaufe
the fword is the inllrumcnt of war, the ilafl the inttrumeut
of outrage.

Blows with a ttaff were very feverely puiiitticd by the
French laws : by a regulation of the marihals of France,
in 1653, for reparations and fatisfaftions of honour, it it
adjudged, that a perfon, who fhall ftrike another with a
flaff, fliall be imprifoned a whole year; unlefa fix monilin
be moderated, upon paying three thonfand livres, applicable
4 S 2 !«

S T A

to the neareft hofpital ; befide which, the offender is to a(]<
pardon of the offended on his knees, &c. ready to receive
from him a like number of blows with a ftaff ; which, on
fome occafiona, the latter may be obliged to give, if he
have too much generofity to do it of himfelf.

By another regulation of the marlhals in 1679, he who
flrikes with a ftaff after receiving blows with the fift in the
heat of a fray, is condemned to two years' imprifonment ;
and to four, if he (truck firft with the fift.

Staff, A, is ufed as an inltrument for taking acceffible
or inaccellible heights. For the manner of operation, in
taking the height of an acceffible objeft, fee Altitude.

Inaccedible heights may likewife be taken by means of two
ttaves. This muft be done at two flations in a right line
from the objeft, at each of which the ftaves are to be placed
in fuch a manner, that the fummit, or top of the height,
may be feen along their tops in the fame right line. Thus,
fuppofe A (PtofXIII. Geometry, fg. 17.) the fummit of
the objeft whofe height is to be mealured, D E, F G, the
two ftaves at the firft ftation ; and R N, K O, the fame
ilaves at the fecond, fo placed, that the points FDA,
K N A, are in the fame right line. Through the point N
let there be drawn the right line N P, parallel to F A :
■wherefore in the triangles K N P, K A F, the angles
K N P, K A F, are equal ; alfo the angle A K F is com-
mon to both ; confequently the remaining angles K P N,
K FA, are equal. And P N : F A :: K P : K F. But the
triangles P N L, F A S, are fimilar ; therefore P N : F A ::
N L : S A. Thence alternately K P : N L :: K F : S A;
i.e. as the excefs of the diftanceof the ftaves at the fecond
ftation above their diftance at the firft, is to the difference of
their lengths ; fo is the diftance of the two ftations of the
fhorter ilaves, to the excefs of the height fought above the
height of the fhorter ftaff. Wherefore S A may be found
by the rule of three ; to which add the height of the ftiorter
ftaff, and the fum will give the whole inaccelfible height,
AB.

Staves may be ufed for meafuring any diftance : fuppofe
A B {Jig. 18.), to one of whofe extremities we have accefs.
Let there be a ftaff fixed at the point A ; then going back to
fome fenfible diftance, in the fame right line, let another be
fixed in C, fo that both the points A and B maybe covered
or hid by the ftaff C. Likewife going off in a perpendicu-
lar, from the right line C B, at the point A, let there be
placed another ftaff at H : and in the right line C G K,
perpendicular to the fame C B at the point C, and at fuch a
point of it K, that the points K, H, and B, may be in the
fame right hne, let there be fixed a fourth ftaff. Let there
be drawn, or luppofed to be drawn, a right line, H G, pa-
rallel to C A. The triangles K H G, H A B, will be
equiangular : wherefore K G : G H (= C A) :: A H :
A B ; ». f. as the excefs of C K above A H is to the dif-
tance betwixt the firft and fecond ftaff, fo is the diftance be-
twixt the firft and third ftaff to the diftance fought. Tr.
Praft. Geom. p. 22 — 25.

St.\ff, Almucantar's, Augural, Back, Crofs, Fore, Paf-
toral. Whip. See the articles.

Staff, Jacob's, See Radics AJlronomlcus. ,

Staff, Qjmrter. See Quarter.

Staff, Ward, See WwiD-Staf.

STAh-F-OJieers, in Military Language, &c. See Of-
ficers.

Staff, Field. See Field.

Staff, Regimental, confifts of the adjutant, quarter-
mafter, chaplain, furgeon, &c.

Staff, in Heraldry. See Bastov.

Staff, in Muftc, Riga, Ital., Portee, Fr., the five pa-

S T A

rallel lines upon which, and between which, mufical cha-
rafters or notes are written.

Guido Aretin, the great improver of the modern mufic,
is faid to be the firft who introduced the ftaff, marking his
notes by fetting points (.) up and down them, to denote
the rife and fall of the voice ; and each Ime and foace he
marked at the beginning of the ftaff, with Gregory's feven
letters, a, b, c, d, e, f, g.

But others will have the artifice of an older date ; and
Kircher particularly affirms, that in the Jefuits' library at
Meffina, he found an old Greek MS book of hymns, above
feven hundred years old ; in which fome hymns were written
on a ftaff of eight hues, marked at the beginning with eight
Greek letters. The notes or points were on the lines, but
no ufe was made of the fpaces.

The ingenious and learned Dr. Burney has proved that
parallel lines were of higher antiquity than the time of
Guido. It appears from an ancient MS. treatife on mufic
by Odo the monk, written about the year 920, that lines
began to be ufed in the tenth century. They were eight or
nine in number; and at firft, the fylkbles of the pfalm or
hym.n that was to be fung, were placed in the fpaces be-
tween thefe lines : after this an alphabetic charaftcr was
placed at the beginning of each line, capitals for the grave
founds, and minufcules for the acute : to this kind of nota-
tion fucceeded points, a fcale formed of which Dr. Burney
has given from a traft written by the great mufical monk
Hubaldus, wdio flouriftied .ibout tlie year 880. He has alfo
produced three examples from ancient miffals, one of which
was written about the year 900, cited by P. Martini, in
which only one line is ufed to afcertain the predominant
found of the chant ; a red line for the clef cf F, and a
yellow one for that of C : and this, he fays, feems to have
been the firft time that a line was drawn through notes of the
fame elevation, and the origin of clefs, which are only
Gothic letters corrupted or disfigured.

Vincenzo Gallilei fays, that a little before the time of
Guido, the points were placed on feven lines only, without
ufing the fpaces ; perhaps in imitation of the feven firings
of the lyre. The regular ftaff of four lines was not gene-
rally ufed till the thirteenth century. Kircher, indeed,
fpeaks of Guido's ufing five lines and five fpaces, but, as
Dr. Burney fays, without authority. However, though
lines without (paces, and fpaces without lines, had been ufed
before the time of Guido, he feems to have firft fuggefted
the ufe of lines and fpaces together ; and thus the lines,
which by fome had been made as numerous as the notes,
were reduced to four : a number which, in miffals and rituals,
of the Romifh church, has never fince been exceeded. In-
deed the ufe of a line for each note above mentioned, may
never have arrived at the knowledge of Guido, who fpeaks
the language of an inventor, with refpeft to lines and fpaces,
more than on any other occafion : and, if he be allowed the
invention of hues and fpaces, clefs will of courfe accom-
pany them. Burney's Hift. of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 34, &c.
p. 87, &c.

Staff, in a Ship, a light pole erefted in different parts
of a ftiip, on which to hoift and difplay the colours. The
principal of thefe is reared immediately over the (tern, to
difplay the enfign ; another is fixed on the bowfprit, to ex-
tend the jack ; three more are erefted at the three maft-heads,
or formed by their upper ends, to (hew the flag or pendant
of the refpeftive fquadron or divifion to which the (hip
belongs.

Staff, Futtock, or Puttoch-Jlaff Rigging, are (hort pieces
of rope, ferved over with fpun-yarn, to which the (hrouds
are confined at the cat-harpins. Thofe for the lower and

top-ma(l

.

S T A

S T A

top-maft rigging are to be made of iron in future in the
navy.

Staff, in Rope-Making, is an implement btlongintr to
the nipper, being an oak bar feven feet long, and four
inches fqiiare, one end of which is tixed in an iron itrap on
the upper plate of the nipper, whilll on the other end a
weight i? (ufpendud, fnfficient to prefs the tar out of the
yarn. The " nipper" is formed of two tteel plates, eight
inches fquare, and half an inch thick, with a fcmi oval
hole in each, lour inches wide, which, by the upper plate
moving, enlarges or contracts, as the tarring of the yarn
requires. It is thus fix.'d : a poll, twelve inches fqiiare, is
placed between the kettle and capltern, with a inoitife cut
eighteen inches long from the kettle's furfaco, and five
inches wide. The under plate is turned up on each fide, to
form two grooves, -.md is let into the front fide of the poll
from the lower part of the mortifc : the upper plate has a
dove-tail on the back, that flides up and down in a groove
inte the grooves of the lower plate, and by the ilaff, made
fail to its front, it is elevated or depreffed, and regulated by
a weight lufpended at the other end, fo that the yarn re-
ceives no more tar than is required, and what is fqueezed out
drops in a trough, and returns into the kettle.

Staffs for tops are round, from fix to eight feet long,
and from two and a half to five inches in diameter, which
go through a hole in the top, or are confined under it by a
bolt and tails : they run on a truck-wheel, as the rope
clofes. See SpiNtiiaG-lVhee/.

Staff, in Surgery. See Catheter and Lithotomy.
Staff, in Surveying, a kind of itand, on which to mount
a theodolite, circumferentor, plain table, or the like, for
ufe. It confiits of three legs of wood joined together at
one end, whereon the inftrument is placed ; and made peeked
at the other, to enter the ground. Its upper end is ufually
fitted with a ball andfocket.

Staff, Station, an inilrument confiding of two rulers
that Hide to ten feet, divided into feet and inches, with a
moveable vane or fight, t vvo of which are uftd with a level ;
and on the edges there are the links of Gnnter's chain di-
vided. Its chief ufe is for the eafy taking ofF-fets. See
Offset Staff.

Staff, Shepherd's, in Botany. See Teazel.
STAFF-7Vff. See Celastrus.

Staff, in Rural Economy, a meafure of nine feet, or
half a cuftomary rod. It alfo fignifies the rod fet up as a
mark in levelling, furveying, &c. See Levelling.

Staff and Band Hedge, a term applied to that kind of
dead fence of this fort, which is formed and contlrufted by
means of ilakes and bands, or edders and eathers.

Staff, Churn, a term applied to the round upright ftem,
or piece of wood of the ilaff kind, which, in churning in
the old common upright churn, forms the butter from tiie
cream or milk.

A very great and ufeful improvmont has lately been made
on the llaffs of churns of this kind, by Mr. T. Fifher, an
ingenious gunfmith at Ormlkirk, in the county of Lan-
caller ; winch conlilU in the head or working part of the
llafT being formed with a fort of bevil, and its turning upon
a fwivel made of iron.

The two pieces of wood wliich form the head of the llafF
have commonly the following dimenfions. Thicknefs one
inch and a half, breadth two inches and a half, length tiiir-
teen inches, and from that to any other length, according to
the fize of the churn. They are joined together in a crofsr
like manner, by halving one into the other in the middle
parts. All the cdires on the under fide are rounded, or
bevilled off to fome dillance, fo as to elevate or raile the

middle part a little above the reft of the head. This crofs-
formed head is conneAed with the ilaff by means of a
fwivel, which is one inch and three quarters in diameter,
being turned perfeftly fmooth and round. There is a fort
of tongue, which is four inches in length from the (houlder,
and of an oblong form, which is paifed up the ilalf, and
held in its place by an iron peg ; the lower round end of
which, to the length of about half an inch, ferves to ileady
the head of the ilaff. And there is a button fixed upon the
upper fide of the head, which notches into the ftuiF, and
keeps it Heady in the time of collecting the butter, but sthen
churnincr, the whole is left perfcdlly loofe. The lower end
of the ilaff, in this cafe, fhould be left rather thicker than
in the common Ilaff, in order that it may receive the button
more perfeftly.

Staff, Hand, in Agrictdture, the name of that part of
the common flail which is held in the workman's hand while
he is working with it, and to wliich the louple or other part
of the flail is attached. The hand-llaffs of flails were
formerly mollly connedted to the other parts of the tools by
means of leather caps and thonifs ; but the improved method
is now by iron caps, mide in the manner of round halt-cir-
cular llaples in the middle parts, which conneft with and
work in the fame fort of caps on the fouples.

Staff, Plough Paddle, a term fometimes applied to the
fmall lldtf carried in the body of the plough, which is (hod
with iron, and employed for clearing away the adhefive
earthy matter that hangs about the mould-board, and other
parts of common ploughs.

Staff, Rack, that fort of Ilaff which is employed iu
forming racks for horfcs or neat cattle.

Staff, Tuck, the name of that fort of (laff which is made
ufe of in emptying dung and fome other kinds of carts.

STAFF A, in Geography, one of the iflands of the
Hebrides, Scotland, is noted in natural hillory for its vail
bafaltic columns and caves. (See Basalt.) This fmall
ifland emerges from the Atlantic ocean, in the midft of a
fpacious bay, formed by leveral ifiands, of which thofe of
Mull, Icolm-Kill, Col, and Tiree, are the chief. In civil
government and jurifdidlion it is included in the dillritt of
Mull, and fhire of Argyle, and conllitutes part of the
pariih of Kill-Ninian. It is abnut five haijiies W. from the
ifle of Mull, and three leagues N.N.E. from Icohn-K'.ll.
The form is oblong and irregular, and the wliole extends
about one mile in length, and half a mile in breadth, with
lleep and craggy coalts ; its fides are entirely bare, and in
many places it exhibits fuperb bafaltic columns, with various
caverns. It is accrlTible only by a fmall entrance on the
well fide, where the furface flopes towards the lea ; but
which will only admit a fmall boat, and that in calm weather.
The mod elevated part of the ifland is over the cave of
Fingall, where it is 214 feet above the fea, at ordinary
tides. The greatell length of Staffa is about om- Enirlifll
mile, and its breadth half a mile. During the fummcr a
few cattle are fed on this ifland, and .ire attended by a'
herdfman and his family, who have a fmall hut. More
than half the circumterence of the ifland is occupied by
grand and regular colonnades of bafaltes, wh'ch are com-
pletely expofed to the operations of tlic fea : the red of
the iilaiid exhibits the fame bafaltic appearances; but the
pillars are bent and twilled in various directions ; fome lyiiiif
nearly horizontal, and others forming fegments ot circles.
The pillars arecliiifly of five or (\\ fides ; but fome ot three,
four, or (even. The diameters vary from one foot to fiiur
feet and a half : the liirface of the large pill.ir- is, in general,
uneven; tome are jointed, having the upper iurf.ite coi.cave,
with a correfpoiident convexity in ihe inferior ; but in many

the

S T A

the iurface is plain. The fpaces between the perpendiculav
prifms are filled with a v.Uow fparry matter, of which the
oxyd of iron, feparated from the bafaltea, with fome argil-
laceous earth, and fpecimens of zeolit.c cryllals, are the
component parts. Near the landing-place the pillars are
fmall, but their magnitude increafes in the vicinity of the
cave of Fingall. ' This natural curiofity of the ifland is 53
feet wide at the entrance, 117 feet in height, and 250 feet
in length. The arch is compofed of two unequal fegments
of 3 circle, which form a natural pediment. The mafs by
which the roof is crowned, or rather farmed, is 20 feet in
thicknefs at its loweit part. It confills of fmall prifms, in-
clining in all direftions, clofcly cemented with a calcareous
matter, and zeolitic cryllallizationf, which afford a ftriking
contrail with the dark purple hexagons formed by the end»
of the pillars, and exhibit the appearance of mofaic work.
The bottom of the cave is filled with the fea. In very calm
weather, a boat may fail into it ; but if fuch an attempt
Hiould be made when the waves are in the flightell degree
agitated, the vefl'el would be dalhed to pieces. The only
way of entering at fuch times is by a caufeway on the eaftern
iide, not more than two feet broad, formed by the bafes of
broken pillars, which being contfantly wafhed by the fpray,
13 very Hippery and unfafe. At the further extremity is
another fmall cave, which, from certain paffages, emits an
agreeable noife every time the water rufhes into it, whence it
has acquired the name of the " melodious cave." Befides
the cave of Fingall, there is another, exhibiting the fame
appearance-, though on a fmaller fcale. It is tituated on
the nortli fide of the ifland, and is called the " Corvcrant's
cave."

Staffa, though one of the greateft natural curiolities in
Europe, or perhaps in the world, has been till lately little
noticed, and indeed fcarcely known. The iirlt perfon who
particularly called the attention of the learned to this fingu-
iar ifle was Mr. Leach, a native of Ireland ; who, in the
year 1772, having been on a vifit to Morven, in Argylefliire,
in a fifhing excurfion, was charmed with the peculiar appear-
ance of its rocks, and landed upon it. Soon afterwards, fir
Jofeph Banks, Dr. Von Troil, the learned biihop of Linc-
koeping, and others, in their voyage from Iceland, anchored
in the Sound of Mull ; and having been informed by Mr.
Leach of the wonders which Staffa afforded, they vifited the
ifland, and an account of it was commur.icated by Gr Jofeph
to Mr. Pennant, who publifhed it in his " Tour to the He-
brides." Since that time it has excited the attention of va-
rious naturalifls, who have given accounts of it in their re-
fpetlive works : among whom, M. de St. Fond and Dr. Gar-
nett may be principally mentioned. The former, who vi-
fited the Britiili dominions on a voyage of refearch, thus
expreffes himfelf refpefting Fingall's cave. " This fuperb
monument of a grand fubterraneous combuftion, the date of
which has been lofl in the lapfe of ages, prefents an appear-
ance of order and regularity fo wonderful, that it is difficult
for the coldeft obferver not to be Angularly attonifhed by this
prodigy, which may be confidered as a fort of natural pa-
lace. I have feen many ancient volcanoes, and I have given
defcriptions of feveral bafaltic caufeways and dehghtful ca-
verns in the midll of lavas, but I have never found any thing
which comes near to this, or can bear any comparifon with
it, for the admirable regularity of its columns, the height of
the arch, the fituation, the form, the elegance of this pro-
duftion of nature, or its refemblance to the mafter-pieces of
art, though art has had no fliare in its conilruftion." Simi-
lar to this are the animated obfervations of the learned pre-
late before-mentioned. " How fplendid," fays he, " do the
porticoes of the ancients appear in our eyes, from theollen-

S T A

tatious magnificence of the defcriptions we have received of
them : and with what admiration are we feized on feeing the
colonnades of our modern edifices ! But when we behold the
cave of Fingall, formed by nature in the ifle of Staffa, it is
no longer poffible to make a comparifon, and we are forced
to acknowledge that this piece of nature's architefture far
furpaiies thatof the Louvre, that of St. Peter at Rome, all
that remains of Palmyra and PoeUuin, and all that the ge-
nius, tafle, and luxury of the Greeks, were ever capable of
inventing." In Pennant's Tour in Scotland, 4to. 1790, and
St. Fond's Travels, are accounts of this ifland, with plates.
STAFFELSTEIN, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg, on the Lauter ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Bamberg.
N. lit. 50" 8'. E.long. 11° V-

STAFFORA, a river of Italy, which pafies by Vog-
hera, and runs into the Po, 8 miles W.S.W. of Pavia.

STAFFORD, a borough, market, and county-town, in
the fouth divifion of the hundred of Pirehill, Staffordlhire,
England, is fituated on the north bank of the river Sow, at
the ditlance of three miles from its junftion with the Trent :
and is 16 miles N.W. from Lichfield, and 140 miles in the
fame direiifion from London. The earliell authentic mention
of the town is in the Saxon chronicle, A.D. 913, when
Ethelfleda, countefs of Mercia, filler of king Edward the
Elder, built a callle here, of which no vellige now remains :
and Camden Hates, that in the following year king Edward
built a tower on the north bank of the river. This tower Mr.
Pennant fuppofes to have flood on the mount called Caftlc-
hill, and now dillinguiflied by the appellation of BuUy-hill.
Near it is an ancient ftrudure, called Caftle-church, built
in various ftyles of architefture. Nothing worthy notice is
mentioned refpefting this town, from the creftion of thefe
cafUes till the Norman conqueft, when it appears from the
Domefday furvey, that tlie king had here " eighteen
burgellfs in demefne, and twenty manfions of the honour of
the earls." The fame record Hates that the king built a
caflle here, the cuftody of which was given to Robert de
Tonei, who in confequence took the name of Stafford.
This caflle does not appear to have flood long ; but by
whom, or on what account deftroyed, is unknown. It was,
however, reflored in the reign of Edward III., and conti-
nued till the feventeenth century ; when being garrifoned in
fupport of the royal caufe, it was taken by the parhament's
forces, and demoliflied. Stafford appears to have been a
town of confiderable importance prior to the Norman con-
quelk : early in the tenth century it was confidered the chief
town of the diflrift : in the Domefday-book it is termed a
city, and was at that time governed by two bailiffs : but the
earlietl charter of incorporation now extant was granted by
king John, in the feventh year of his reign. This deed,
however, evinces that it was incorporated at a much earlier
period ; as it merely confirms privileges enjoyed from " re-
mote antiquity," and does not confer any new. The word
ufed in this charter to point out the previous exidence of
thefe privileges is antlquilus, which certainly would not have
been ufed to denote a period then fo recent as that of the
Conqueft. King John's charter was confirmed by Ed-
ward VI., and many new privileges added to the town.
Queen EHzabeth eftabhflied the alTizes and feffions here by
ad of parliament, in the firll year of her reign. Mr.
Gough Hates, that in her progrefs in 1575, fhe perceived
the town to be on the decline ; and being informed that it
was partly owing to the removal of the affizes, fhe faid fhe
would reltore that privilege for ever.

The form of Stafford is that of an irregular ellipfis, the
greateft diameter whereof extends from fouth-eaft to north-
weft. The fituation, though low, is very plcafant : the

llreets

STAFFORD.

i^ructs arc well paved, and tlie houfcs in general built of
i^.one, in a compadl and regular manner. It anciently had
four gates, and was defended, except on the fide next the
Sow, by a wall, and a ditch fupplied witii water from the
river. When taken by the republican army m 1643, the
wall was razed, and the ditch filled up, fo that no remains
of cither can now be difcovered. Under the charter of Ed-
ward VI. the civil government of Stafford was veiled in a
mayor, a recorder, ten aldermen, twenty comtnon-council-
raen, a town-clerk, and two fergeants at mace. Two re-
prefentatives are fent to parliament, and have been fo ever
fmce the 23d year of Edward I. The right of cleftion is
in the mayor and burgelles ; the number of voters being
.ibout four hundred. Tlie chief manufaftures in the town
are thofe of boots, (hoes, and cutlery. Tanning is likewife
carried on to a confiderable extent, as well for the exporta-
tion as home confumption of leather. A weekly market is
held on Saturdays, and feven fairs, annually. In the year
181 1, the population of Stafford was returned to parlia-
ment at 4868 ; the nBmber of houfes 885. The imme-
morial cultom of Borough Etigli/lj is flill retained in this
town, whereby the youngell ion iucceeds to property, as
'■cir at law, in preference to the elder children. Though
otafiord may with propriety be confidered as only one parifh,
there are two churches, St. Mary's and St. Chad's. The
former is a fpacious cruciform (Irufture, conlifting of a
nave, two fide aifles, a tranfept, and a chancel of three
aifles, with an otlagonal tower in the centre. This church
appears to be of very remote origin : it has, however, been
zlmott entirely rebuilt, but fome remains of the ancient
ilrufture are Itill vifible. The general ftyle of architefture
is the early pointed. The font is a fingular remnant of an-
tiquity, very large, and aukwardly conltrufled. Its height
is three feet three inches : the lower part is two feet fquare ;
and is ornamented on three fides with human figures lying
flat on their faces : on the fourth fide is the figure of a ram.
Among a variety of monuments, ancient and modern, in this
church, thofe mod worthy of notice are, an altar-tomb, in
honour of lord Edward Afton, of Tixal, and his wife lady
Ann ; a monument to the memory of fir Edward Alton,
who erefted the ancient manfion of Tixal, tern. Hen. VIII.
and his lady Joan ; and one to lady Barbara Crompton, who,
as the infcription informs us, " lyeth interred in the parifli-
church of St. Gregory, by St. Paules, London." Near
the church, to the wellward, formerly ftood an ancient
building, which Mr. Pennant conjeftines to have been the
dean's houfe. The church of St. Mary, anterior to the
reformation, was collegiate : king Stephen, at the com-
mencement of his reign, bellowed it on the biffiop and
chapter of Lichfield and Coventry. At the diffolution, a
dean and thirteen prebendaries were attached to it. The
other cliurch of Stafford, St. Chad, is a very ancient edi-
fice. Early in the lull century it wascafed witli brick ; but
fome portions of the buttrefies of the original building are
ftill vifible. St. Chad's parifh is of very fmall extent, not
containing more than 20 houfes, the rents of which are
chiefly paid to the dean and chapter of Lichfield catliedral.
Befidcs the churches, there are places of worfliip for the
Quakers, Independents, Frefbyterians, and Melliodills, of
wtiich fedts the two latter are numerous. Of the other
public buildings, tlie molt confpicuous are ; the county hall,
a fpacious modern edifice, fituLted near the centre of the
town : it extends a hundred feet in front, and contains many
handfome apartments. Behind the hall is a convenient
market-place. The county infirm.ary, a plain building, in
the Forcgate ; ereftcd about the year 1772, according to
Mr. Pennant ; and fupported by voluntary contributions, to

the annual amount of nearly 900/. The county gaol,
fituated oppofite to the infirmary ; an extcnfive modern
itrufture, containing about 150 cells or apartments. The
free-fchool, an ancient building, founded and endowed (a?
appears by an infcription in St. Mary's church) by king Ed-
ward VI., in the year 1550. Leland fays, "there is a fre
fchool for grammar in Stafford, made by fir Thoma)
Countre, parfon of Ingeflre, by Heywodde and Syr Ran-
dol, a chantre priefl of Stafford." Various alms-houfes, at
different periods, have been built and appropriated for
the comfortable accommodation of the aged poor : each
tenement has a garden annexed to it. Previous to the diffo-
lution of religious hoiifes, Stafford contained feveral monaf-
tic eftablifhments. At the north end of the walls ftood a
houfe of Francifcanp, or grey friars, founded, Erdefwick
fays, by fir James Stafford, of Sandon. King Henry VIII.
granted it to James Levefon. A priory of black canona
was founded here about the year 1 180, and dedicated to St.
Thomas a Becket, ten years after his death. Richard
Peche, bifliop of Lichfield and Coventry, had fuch a par-
tiahty for this houfe (of which he is by fome authors confi-
dered the founder), that, refiiijning his fee, he entered him-
felf as one of the members, and fo continued the remainder
of his life. At the diflolution it was granted to Rowland,
bifhop of Lichfield. This houfe, which was fituated on
the banks of the river Sow, about two miles to the E. of
Scafford, was inclofed by a flrong flone wall ; fom.e remains
of the building are ftill extant. About the middle of the
fourteenth century, the Auflln friars founded a religious
eltablifhment at the fouthern extremity of the town ; a por-
tion of ground having been granted to them by Ralph, lord
Stafford, for that purpofe. This houfe was given by queen
Mary to Thomas Neve and Giles Ifam.

About a mile and a half fouth-welt from the town, on
the fummit of a hill, are the remains of the callle of the
barons of Staflbrd : the chief portion now itanding is the
keep, of which each angle is furmountcd by a fmall otlan-
gular tower. At a fmall dlllance to the fouth of the caflle
flood the manor-houfe, the ufual refidcnce of the ancient
and powerful family to which this town has given the title
of baron, vifcount, and earl, from the time of William the
Conqueror till the beginning of the hilt century, when it
became extindt ; but was again revived In the year 1 7S6, by
the elevation of earl Gower to the dignity of marquis ot
Stadord, which title is now enjoyed bv his fon, the lecond
marquis. Among the more diltinguilhed natives ot this
town we find John Staflord, a Francilcan friar, a philofo-
pher and divine of confiderable celebrity, born tounrds the
cloie of the fourteenth century ; Tlioma- Afliebi'rn, an
eminent divine of the fame century, who didingullhed him-
fe!f as a ftrenuous opponent of WicklKle and his new doc-
trines ; Edmund Stalloi d, bifhop of Exeter, and chancellor
in the reigns of Richard II. and Henry IV.; Thomas Fitz-
heibert, a learned and able writer of the fixteentli and feven-
teeiith centuries, who was born in 1552, and died in 1640, in
the 88th year of his age.

About three miles weft from Stafford, on a lofty mounti
is an intrencliment, called Blllington Bury. Its area is cir-
cular, including feveral acres, and is furrounded in fome
parts by one, and in others by two deep ditches. Mr.
Pcunant conliders this fortification as having been originally
a Britifii poll, fubfeqncntly occupied by the Saxons, whole
llations have generally the addition of borough <'r bury.

At the dlllance ot four miles fonth from Stafford, in the

angle formed by the juiiflion of the river."; Sow and Trent,

is Tixal Hall, the feat of Thomas Clifford, c!q. The prc-

leiit edifice is a plain modern brick building ; but in front

6 of

S T A

of it is an old gatewav, ornamented with three feries of co-
h.mns, built by fir Walter AHon. Behind this gateway
ftood the ancient manfion, of which fome remains are itill
vifible, ereaed by fir Edward Aiton, in the beginning ot
Henry VIII. 's reifrn. Adjoininii to the park which fur-
rounds the manfion is Tixal Heath, diftinguifhed by two
remarkable tumuli, one called the King's, the other the
Queen's Low. But why lo named, or on what occafion
conllrutled, no account is extant. Two urns, fuppofed to
be of Roman workmanlhip, were found near them early m
the lalt century. .

Adjoining Tixal is Ingeitre Hall, an old manfion, built in
the reign of queen Elizabeth, the feat of earl Talbot. Near
the houfe is the village-church, which was built in 1673, by
Walter Chetwynd, efq. the then poffeffor of this ellate.

On Hopton Heath, adjoining Ingeftre, a fevere aiftion
was fought between the parhamentary and king's forces, in
the time of the civil wars of Charles I. — Hiitory and An-
tiquities of Staffordfhire, &c. by the Rev. Stebbing Shaw,
folio, 1798. Beauties of England and Wales, Stafford/hire,
by J. Nightingale, 8vo.

Stafford, a county of Virginia, bounded N. by Prince
William county and E. by the Patowmac ; containing 9830
inhabitants, of whom 4195 are flaves. — Alfo, a townfhip
of Connefticut, in Tolland county, on the S. line of Maila-
chufetts, iz or 15 miles N.E. of Tolland. In this town-
fhip is a furnace for calling hollow ware, and a medicinal
fpring, which is the refort of valetudinarians. It contains
223J inhabitants.

Stafford, New, a townfhip of New Jerfey, in Mon-
mouth county, adjoining Dover on the S.W. and contain-
ing 1239 inhabitants.

STAFFORDSHIRE is an inland county, fituated
nearly in the centre of England, between 52 and 54 degrees
N. latitude, and between one and three degrees W. longitude
from London. It is in fhape an irregular parallelogram ;
and is bounded on the N. by Chefhire and Derbyfhire, on
the E. by Leicellerfhire, on the S. by the counties of War-
wick and Worcefter, and on the W. by Shropfhire. Its
greateft length from N.N.E. to S.S.W. is about 60 miles,
and its greateft breadth from E. to W. 38 miles. The fu-
perficial contents are about 780,800 acres, of which 100,000
are palture, 500,000 arable, and the remaining 180,800,
woods, waters, wailes, &c.

^Indent State: Hijlorical Events. — This county appertained
to the Cornavii of the Britons, to the divifion of Flavia
Caefarienfis of the Romans, and was a part of the king-
dom of Mercia during the Saxon heptarchy. Bede calls
the inhabitants Angli-Mediterranei, the midland Englilh.
The two Roman military ways, Watling-ftreet and Icknield-
ilreet, pafs through this county. The former enters it out
of Warwickfhire, near Tamworth, and running weft ward
pafies into Shropfhire. Icknield-ftreet alfo enters from
Warwicklhire at the village of Hanfworth, near Birming-
ham, crofi'es Watling-ftreet, and enters Derbyfhire at Monk's
bridge. The Roman ftations in this county that are known,
are Pennocrucium, near Stretton ; and Etocetum, at Wall
near Lichfield. But Salmon gives to Staffordfhire four
Roman ftations, which, he fays, are Mediolanum, at
Knightley; Uriconium, at Wrottelley ; Uxacona, at Wall-
Lichfield ; and Etocetum, at Barbeacon. The firft of thefe
ftations Camden pofitively fixes in Montgomcrylhire ; and
bilhop Horflcy places it on a flip of land inclofed by the
Tern and another river. Salmon afhgns Pennocrucium to
Oldbury, in Warwickfhire, and refers to Antoninus's fecond
Iter for his authority ; but Plot, Gale, Horfley, and Stuke-
ley, coincide in opinion that Penkridge is the fcite of that

S T A

ftation. The ancient inhabitants of StafTordfhire, in the
opinion of Dr. Plot, were the Iceni ; but in this he ttands
unlupported : Shaw fays that tribe was undaubtedly of
Dc'rbyfliire. Camden and Goiigh will not allow that they
extended beyond Huntingdonfhire, weftward ; while Sal-
mon confines them to Norfolk and Suflnlk. Shaw fuppofes
that the Ordovices were the original inhabitants of this dif-
tridl, and it is generally agreed that they poifefled it many
centuries before the Chriitian era. Thefe were an intrepid
warlike people, whole territories compriled a great portion
of Wales and feveral counties of England. But they were
difturbed in their poftellions by the Coriiabii, who, breaking
through the hmits of their original fettlements on the banks
of the Dee, conquered a large traCt of country to the welt
and north-weft, and ellablilhed a monarchy, of which Con-
date was the capital. The Brigantes, in their turn fubdued
a portion of the territories of this tribe a fhort time previous
to the arrival of the Romans. On this event the metropolis
was transferred from Condate to Uriconium, now Wroxeter,
where it continued a confiderable time, till the Romans ex-
tended their conquell into the interior of the country.
During the fanguinary contelts which enfued, little is re-
corded refpefting this diltrift and its inhabitants, but that
they heroically refilled the invaders, and though at length
compelled to fubmit, their courage and ardour for freedom
excited the admiration of their conquerors. The Cornabii,
after the fubjeftion of their country, appear to have been the
friends and allies of the Romans. It is remarkable that
after the dechne of the Roman power, the appellation Cor-
nabii never occurs in the annals of Englilh hiltory. Whea
the Britons experienced a fecond fubjugation by the Saxons,
and the heptarchy was eltablilhcd, StafFordlhire formed a
part of the kingdom of Mercia, which extended over all
the midland counties, and was founded by Crida in the year
585. During the repeated invafions of the Danes, thi»
county fuftained a confiderable part of the calamities confe-
quent en their cruelty and rapacity. Several fanguinary
battles took place within the kingdom of Mercia ; in Staf-
fordfhire particularly, two viftories were obtained over the
Danes in the reign of Edward the Elder. On the partition
of England between Edmund Ironfide and Canute, this
county, as part of Mercia, was awarded to the latter.
After the Norman conquell, William divided the cllates of
the Mercian earls among four of his principal followers,
Hugh de Montgomery, earl ot Arundil ; Robert de Staf-
ford, Henry de Ferrars, and William Fuz-Anfciilph ; the
lall of whom held twenty five manors in this county. The
other principal landhold rs befides the king, were tiie bifhop
of Cheller, the abbots of Wellminlter and Burton, tne
church of Rheims, and the canons ot Stafford and Wolver-
hampton. During the contention between the royal houfes
of York and Lancafter, a decifive battle was fought at
Bloreheath, in this county, between the Yorkilts under the
earl of Salifbury, and the Lancallrians under lord Audley,
when the latter, with double the force and fuperior pofi-
tion, was completely defeated, himfelf flam, and 2400 Che-
ftiire gentlemen, whofe attachment to king Henry led them
into the van, alfo fell in the action.

In the civil war of the feventeenth century, Staffordfhire
was confidL-rably engaged : Stafford furrendered to the par-
liament's forces, and Lichfield was feveral times taken and re-
taken by the contending parties. In this county Charles II.
lay concealed after the fatal battle of Worcefter, till he had
an opportunity of efcaping. The circumftances attending
his concealment', the difficulties he fuftained, and the uu-
fhaken loyalty of his friends, are amply detailed by Mr. Shaw
in his General Hiftory of Staffordllure.

Eu/e-

STAFFORDSHIRE.

Eeclefiajlical Hiflory. — Staffordfhire did not receive the
light of the gofpel till the reign of Penda, king of Mercia,
wnofe fon, Peadda, was converted to Chriftianity by the vene-
rable Bede. This vpas foon declared the ettablirtied religion
of Mercia, and the cathedral of Lichfield was founded,
where the epifcopal fee of Mercia was fixed in 669 ; but it
was foon afterwards divided into five feveral diocefes, and
Lichfield, Worcefter, Hereford, Leicelter, and Sidnacefter,
chofen for the refpeftive fees. In the year 786, at the re-
queft of king OfTa, pope Adrian advanced Lichfield to the
dignity of an arciibifliopric ; but this dillindtion was con-
tinued only till the death of Offa, when pope Leo reduced
it to its former rank. About the year 1067 the epifcopal
feat was removed to Chefter, and thence foon afterwards to
Coventry, where it continued till the end of the thirteenth
century, when Walter de Langton was appointed bifhop of
Lichfield and Coventry. From this period nothing remark-
able occurred in Staffordfhire, connected with church hif-
tory, previous to the reformation, when Lichfield cathedral
was defpoiled of the rich fhrine of St. Chad, and the fee of
Coventry feparated from it. The two bithoprics remained
diflinA till the relloration, when they were again united in
the perfon of Dr. John Hacket. Since that time the diocefe
has undergone no particular alteration. Staffordfhire, which
is comprised in this fee, contains 181 parilhes.

Civil Div'tfion. — Staffordfhire is divided into fire hun-
dreds ; Totmanflow, Pyrehill, Cuddleftone, OfHow, and
Seifdon : and contains one city, Lichfield, and twenty-three
other market-towns, 'uiz. Stafford, Wolverhampton, Wal-
fall, Burton-on-Trent, Uttoxeter, Newcallle, Leek, Stone,
Cheadle, Ecclefhall, Rudgeley, Tamworth, Tutbury, Ab-
bot's-Bromley, Breewood, Penkridge, Cannock, Wednef-
bury, Burflem, Handley-Gieen, Lane-End, and Longnor.
Ten members are returned to the imperial parliament from
this county, viz. two for the fhire, and two each for Lich-
field, Stafford, Newcaflle, and Tamworth. According to
the population furvey of the year 181 1, this county con-
tained 57,040 houfes, occupied by 295,153 perfons ; of
whom 34,011 families were chiefly employed in trade and
manufactures, and 18,361 in agriculture.

General AfpeS, Soil, and Climate The appearance of

the county varies m different diltrifts. The middle and
fouth portions are generally level : among the few excep-
tions are the hills of Dudley and Sedgeley, the quartofe
and ragftone hills of Rowley, and thofe of Clent and Bar-
beacon. The grounds of Byfhbury and Eflington, and
feme fituations near Tettenhall and Enville, as well as on
Cannock-heath, are alfo confiderably elevated. Tiie latter
portion of the county was in ancient times covered with
oak, but motl of thefe have been dellroyed : indeed fcarccly
a tree now remains to enliven the profpeft, through an ex-
tent of 2500 acres. The northern portion of the county is of
an oppofite charafter to that on the fouth. Here the furface
is molUy bleak and hilly : only a few of the eminences, Iiow-
ever, rife to any remarkable elevation. The fummit of Bun-
fter, near Ham, was found by Mr. Pitt, in the courfe of his
" Agricultural Survey," to be 1 200 feet above the level of
the Thames. The Wcevcr hills, and feme other points, he
reports as afcending even 1500 feet. The general elevation
of this diftrift above the fouthcrn is ellimated at from
one to two hundred yards. That portion of it called the
moorlands, is the commencement of that range of mountains
which extend through the centre of England, till they enter
Scotland, acquiring different appellations in their progrefi:,
and incrcafing in altitude as they approach tlie north. The
fail is extremely varied. The arable foils may be divided
generally into the argillaceeus, or lliiT and llrong clayey j
. Vol. XXXIU.

the arenaceous, or loofe, light, and fandy ; the calcareous,
or lime earth ; and a mixed or compound foil, or loam com-
pofed of the foregoing, with the addition of ilones and other
matters. The climate of this county inclines to wet : the
annual rains are calculated at upwards of 36 inches, and
thus exceed by nearly 16 inches the average computation
of rain in London. A great quantity of fnow fills in the
moorlands, which doubtlefs is a principal caufe of the
piercing cold which prevails in that diltrift.

Rivers. — Staffordfhire abounds with rivers, but none of
them are navicjablc, at lead within the county. The prin-
cipal are the Trent, the Dove, the Tame, and the Blythe.
The Trent, which may be confidered as the third river of
England, waters, in its courfe to the lea, fome of the
moil fertile and bell cultivated diltrifts of the kingdom.
During its paffage throueh Staffordfhire, its banks are
covered with luxuriant meadows. In the vicinity of Trent-
ham, the feat of the noble family of Gower, the efforts of
art have greatly added to the natural beauty of the river,
by fwelling it into an expanfive lake. Paffing the town of
Stone, it flows through a valley diverfified with a variety
of elegant parks ; of which that of Wolfey, bordering on
the chafe of Cannock, is one of the moll remarkable for
the romantic beauty of its (cenery. Purfuing its courfe,
the Trent becomes the boundary between the counties of
Stafford and Derby, till its junclion with the river Dove ;
then, crofling Derbyfhire, it runs through the counties of
Nottingham and Lincoln, and at length pours its water*
into the Humber. The Dove takes its rife among the hills
in the moorlands, near tiie points where the counties of
Stafford, Derby, and Chefter meet. From the declivity of
its channel, its waters flow with uncommon rapidity ; in
fome places it dafhes precipitately over rugged rocks ; in
others it is diltinguifhcd by gentle cafcades. It falls into
the Trent near Burton, on tlie confines of Derbyfhire.
The Tame, another river of c»nfiderable fize, fprings from
feveral fources in the vicinity of Walfall and Colcfhill, enterj
Warwickfhire near Birmingham, returns into Staffordfhire
at Tamworth, and finally joins the Trent. The Blythe
rifes in the neighbourhood of W^tley moor, in the northern
dillrift. Its courfe is nearly parallel to the Trent, into
which it falls near King's-Bromley.

Canals. — Although an inland fituation, without navigable
rivers, appears to labour under peculiar difadvantage for
the purpofes of trade ; yet in Staffordlliirc the deficiency is
amply compenfated by the number and extent of the canals,
with which this county is fo largely fupplied. The prin-
cipal are the Grand Trunk Canal, the Coventry and Oxford,
and the Birmingham Canal. Thefe, with their numcrouf
branches and ramifications, have already been particularly
defcribed. See Canal.

Lakes and Springs. — This county affords but few lakc«,
and thofe of no great confequcnce. Thofc moll worthy
notice are that of Aquilate, which extends 1S48 yards in
length, and 672 in breadth; and Ladford Pool, which
occupies the fpace of about 60 acres. Salt fprings are
found in various places. The moll confidcrable are thofe
in the parilh of Wellon, whence fait is produced, equal in
quality and colour to that of any part of the kingdom.

Minerals. — The number and value of the mineral pro.
dudlions of Staffordlhire claim particular notice. Coal is
abundant : upwards of 50,000 acres have been afcertaincd
to contain an inexhaullible fupply, near enough to the fur-
face to be eafily raifed. From the earliell times to the pre-
fent, the confumption does not appear to have exceeded a
tenth part of the whole. In the fouthern divifion of the
county, the coal dillriA extends in length from tUc interior

4T of

STAFFORDSHIRE.

of Cannock-heath to the vicinity of Stourbridge, and in
breadtli from Wolverhampton to Walfall. To t!ie north,
likewife, it abounds in the neighbourhood of Newcaltle and
the Potteries, Lane-End, Hollybrufh, Cheadle, and Ddl-
home. At Handlev-Green a very pecnhar fpecies is dug,
called the Peacock coal, from the prifmatic colours it dif-
plays. Limeilone is (till more abunda: t than coal. At
Scdnleyand Dudley-caitle hills, Rulhall and Haywood,
and on the norlh-eail moorlands, the quantity is imir.enfe.
The lime-works \ipon Caldon Low, and near the Weever
hills, are particularly extenfive. This itone is, in fome
places, of a marble quality, and capable of taking a fine
polilh. In other parts it is chiefly compofcd of trelmintho-
lopi, or petrified marine fubftances of the animal kind.
Iron ore is plentiful throughout the coal diilrift. Near
Wednefbury, Tipton, Billion, and Sedgeley, and to the
well of Newcallle, it is peculiarly excellent and abundant.
The ftrata are generallv ranged beneath a Itratum of coal.
Iron-works of great extent have been recently ellablifhed on
the banks of the Birmingham Canal ; and the trade is fo
rapidly increafing, as to afford a profpect of its precluding
the neceffity of any confiderable importation. Copper and
lead ore alio abound in this county. A copper-mine is
worked at Mixon, near Leek ; but a more important one
at Eclon-hill, near Warflow, on the eftate of the duke of
Devonlhire. This hill has likewife a confiderable vein of
lead ; and another of the fame mineral has been found near
Stanton-moor. In this part of the county, but parti-
cularly at Whifton, Oakmoor, and Cheadle, fmelting and
brafs-works are carried on to a confiderable extent. Quarries
of good free-llone for various purpofes are found in the dif-
ferent diftrifts. A durable kind for building, eafily raifed
in blocks of any dimenfion, is found a: Tixal. Alaballer
was formerly dug in great quantities, particularly on the
banks of the Dove ; but though it ftill exiils in plenty, very
few of the quarries are now wrought. This county alfo
yields various kinds of marble : that fpecies, to which the
name of rance-marble is given, abounds on Yelperfley Tor,
and the adjacent hills. Clays of every denomination are
abundant. Amblecot produces a clay of a dark-blue colour,
of which are made the bell glafs-houfe pots of any in Eng-
land. Glafs-houfcs have, in confequence, been ercfted in
the neighbourhood ; and great quantities of the clay are
fent to different parts of the kingdom. Potters' clay of
various forts is found here, particularly in the vicinity of
Newcaftle, where the potteries are chiefly carried on. Yel-
low and red ochre, and other earths ufed for colouring and
painting, are among the produdlions of this county. At
Darlalton, near Wednefbury, is a blue clay, which is fold
to glovers to dye a(h-colour. A black chalk is found in
the beds of grey marble in Langley Clofe ; and under a
rock near Hemley Hall is a reddifh earth, nearly equal to
the red chalk of France.

The farms of Staffordfhire are of all extents, from fifty
acres to five hundred ; but the number of the fmaller has
been lately much diminilhcd. The rent of land varies from
Ip. to ^os. per acre, making the average about 25J. The
cultivated lands of this county are nearly all inclofed, not
more than icoo acres Hill remaining open. The fences in
the fouthcrn part are chiefly raifed from quickfets, among
which the white thorn is moft approved.

Timber, Plantations, and Woodlands. — This county, not-
withflanding the great recent confumption, is abundantly
ftocked with wood of every defcription. Lord Bagot's
eftate, near Abbot's-Bromley, contains feveral ■ acres of
oaks, not to be furpan"ed m quality by any in the kingdom :
the timber in many of them is to the height of fixty or

feventy feet. Chillingworth eftate ranks next to this for
the value of its woods. Thofe at Beaudelert, the feat of
the earl of Uxbridge, and thofe at Llimley, the property
of lord Dudley, are alfo very 'extenfive. Teddefley has
very confiderable plantations. Manlley wood is a coppice
of fine oak. Wrottefley, Fifherwick, Trentham park,
Sandwell park, Enville, and Hilton, difplay abundance of
well-grown trees of every defcription.

Wajle Lands. — The extent of uncultivated lands in this
county is very great ; being computed by Mr. Pitt to
ainount to an hundred thoufand acres. The chief waflc
diilritts in the fouthern parts are Cannock-heath and Sutton-
Coldfield, with Swindon, Wombourn, and Fradley com-
mons. In the north are Morredge, Wetley-moor, Stan-
ton-moor, HoUington-heath, Carefwell-common, and Need-
wood forelt ; which lafl, however, has been in part recently
inclofed and cultivated.

ManufaSures and Commerce. — Various branches of manu-
fafture are carried on to a great extent, particularly in the
fouthern parts of the county : the chief are hardware arti-
cles, nails, glafs, toys, japanned good?, and potters' ware ;
with produftions in cotton, filk, leather, woollen, and
linen. The manufafture of glafs is moft confiderable in
the vicinity of Stourbridge, where many fpacious glafs-
houfes have been built. The potteries occupy an extent of
ten miles, toward the north part of the county : thefe have
acquired great reputation from the ingenious Mr. Wedge-
wood. (See Potteries.) Wolverhampton and the neigh-
bouring villages are diltinguifhed for the manufafture of
locks : buckles, fteel-toys, und watch-chains, are among the
efteeir.ed produftions of that town. The ftaple manufac-
ture of Walfall and its vicinity is chiefly fhoe-buckles, clafps,
and fadlers' ironmongery. Nail-making, in many country
parifhes, is a fource of employment to great numbers of men,
women, and children. Bilfton furnifhes a variety of plated,
lackered, japanned, and enamelled goods. At Wednefbury
the gun-trade is extenfive. At Darlafton, Willenhall, and
the adjacent villages, tobacco and fiiuff-boxes are wrought
in various modes. Stafford and its neighbourhood exhibit
numerous articles in the cutlery and leather-trade : the hat
manufafture is alfo carried on there, and in fome other
towns, on an extenfive fcale. Tin and brafs are among the
common productions of the county. The cotton manufac-
tures at Rocefter, Fazeley, Tamworth, Burton, and Tut-
bury, are very confiderable ; as is likewife the filk-trade of
Leek, and that of tape at Cheadle and Teyn. The woollen
manufafture is but comparatively trifling ; moft of the raw
wool being fold into the clothing and flocking diftrifts. The
making of linen is moftly confined to private families, for
their own ufe.

It is worthy of obfervation, that the original wooden
almanac of the Norwegians and Danes is flill in ufe in this
county, under the appellation of the Staffordfhire clogg.
Engravings of this calendar, fomething different from each
other, may be feen in Dr. Plot's Natural Hiffory of the
County, and in Camden's Britannia, by Gough. The prin-
cipal antiquities in this county are the cathedral at Lich-
field ; Tutbury caltle and church ; Dudley cafUe and
priory ; Ecclefhall caftle ; Croxton abbey ; Alton caftle ;
Wolverhampton church ; bridge and abbey, at Burton-upon-
Trent ; Darlefton caftle ; Tixal manor-houfe ; Hilton
abbey ; Rowton priory ; Uttoxeter church ; Carefwell
caftle ; Chartley caftle ; Heyley caftle.

Authorities. — Hiftory, &c. of Staffordfhire, by the Rev.
S. Shaw, 2 vols, folio, 1798, &c. an unfinilhed work.
General View of the Agriculture of the County of Staf-
ford, by William Pitt, 8vo. 1808. The Natural Hillory

1 df

S T A

»f Staffordfhire, by Dr. Plot, fol. 1686. A Map of the
County, begun in 1769, and tinlllied in 1775, by William
Gates, fix (beets. Account of StafFordfhire, in the Beau-
ties of Enrjland, vol. xiii.

STAFFURTH, a town of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Anhalt-Bernburg ; 9 miles N.W. of Bernburjr.
STAFLEFIT, a town of Pruffia ; 7 miles S. of Culm.
STAG, or Jieil Deer, or I/art, in Zoology. See Ckr-
vus Elaphas. See alfo Deer, Hart, Hunting, and
Shot.

Stag, in Rural Economy, a term applied provincially to
a young horfe.

STAG-Beetle, in Natural Hi/lory, is the Lucanus Cervus
of Linnxus ; which fee.

StAa-Evi/, or Hart, in horfes and neat cattle, a kind of
4aniverfal cramp or convulfion. See Hart.

This is a difeafe with which young horfes are not unfre-
quently affecled. It moilly comes on after much expofure
to fevere cold, or a high degree of cold moilture, where
lieat takes place fuddenly afterwards, and fometimes in
cooling too quickly after great heat. It attacks the whole
body, but more particularly the joints, with a fort of fore-
nefs, rigidity, and Itiffnefs, which caufe the animals to move
nbout in a flow, aukward, almoft lifelefs manner. They
adually fall off in their appetites, and become incapable of
performing any kind of labour, and often even the mildeft
exercife diilrefles and inconveniences them in a liigh degree.
In its removal, calomel, with opium and the powder of
gum guaiacum, may be firft had recourfe to in the form of a
ball, made up with balfam copaiva, for fome days ; when
the ule of warm cordial llrengthening drinks or drenches,
with oak or Peruvian bark in fine powder, may be found
necedary to complete the cure ; the horfe during the time
being made to take as much gentle exercife as polTible.
And the ufeof a good dry grafs pafture is not unfrequently
of great benefit in completing the removal of the dilorder.
Neat cattle are likewife frequently fubjcft to a difeafe of
the fame nature, which, after much expofure to intenfe cold,
comes on. with a Itiffnefs in the joints, which is attended
with a lunrpy fwelling on them and the legs, after a little
time, without any inflammatory appearances. This ftiffnefs
and forencfs fometimes extend over the whole body,
fo that the beafts become incapable of rifing, when down,
without aftiltance. Where the chine or back is particularly
affefted, the difeafe is moitly denominated the i:/.i;n("yi//on, •
but where the joints have more of the diforder than any
other part, it is commonly termed the joint fi/lon, or joint
evil ; and where the whole body is deranged and difordered,
it has often the name of coldfellon given it.

The difeafe is particularly liable to attack niilch-cows and
young cattle in the fpring feafon, being occafioned pro-
bably by their being kept through the winter in a low weak
Aate, and fuddenly expofed in the fpring to the extreme
coldnefs of the north and north-eafterly winds, in low damp
fituations, or other fimilar places.

In order to remove the diforder, a ball of the fame kind
as that for horfes may be given for fome days, until tiie fore-
nefs and ftiffnefs begin to go tff, when recourfe fliould be
had to fuch powders or balls as thofe recommended below,
given in a hornful or two of warm ale.

Tlie powder of gum guaiacum, in the quantity of about
an ounce, with an ounce and a half of iEthiop's mineral, or
fulphuretted quickfilver, and two ounces of the grains of
paradife, in fine powder : or, camphor in the proportion of
about a drachm and a half, rubbed with a few drops of the
fpirit of wine, to which may be added guaiacum and Peru-
vian bark in fine powder, of each about an ounce and a

ays

S T A

half, warm feeds in powder three ounces, and treacle or
honey two or three ounces, to form a fort of ball.

The drinks of this fort may be continued occafionally for
fome time. And much utility may at firll be derived from
the ufe of a comfortable houfe of fome kind or other for
containing the animals, and afterwards by their being turned
into dry warm paflurcs, when the feafon admits.

The rubbing of the fwellings in the joints with ftrong
camphorated turpentine embrocations, as frequently prac
tifed, is moflly improper, fometimes injurious, and alway!
hazardous.

Where the difeafe changes to, or puts on the appearance of
a more inflammatory nature, as that of the acute rheumatic
kind, with fever, pain, and tumefadlion of or about the
joints, it may be on fome occafions neceffary to refort to re-
medies of the camphor kind, with calomel, and a fmall pro-
portion of opium, giving at the fame time fome fort of
adive opening or purging medicines. The above cordial
llrengthening bark-powdery remedy will afterwards, for
the mod part, be of great utility.

STAG-Horn Tree, in Gardening. See Rhus.

STAG-Worms, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given to a fpe-
cies of worms produced from the eggs of a fly, and lodged in
a very ftrange place behind, and under the palate of the
ftag, or deer's mouth.

They are always found in great numbers together, and
are contained in flefhy bags, which arc placed as the almonds
of the ears in the human fpecies. The huntfmen are well ac-
quainted with thefe worms, and are of opinion that they are
the caufc of the falling off of the creature's horns ; they
eat their way to thefe, according to their opinion, through
the proper parts of tlie head, and then gnawing them round
at the roots, they are forced to fall, like a tree that is fawed
off at the bottom. This, however, is a vulgar error.

M. Reaumur has abundantly proved, that thefe worms
never attempt fo ftrange a pafl"age ; they always remain where
they are firit found till they are in a Hate to change into the
flies to whofe eggs they owe their origin, and whofe forms
they are at length to affume. Reaumur's Hill. Inf. vol. ix.
p. 8.

STAGE, in the Modern Drama, the place of aftion and
reprefentation ; mcluded between the pit and the fcencs.

The ftage anfwers to the profcenium or pulpitum of the
ancient theatre.

For an account of the Englifh flagc, fee Mvstery,
Pi,AVHOusE, and Scene. See alfo Dramatic Machinery,

and SCENOGRAPHY.

Unlicenfed ilage-plays are deemed public nuifances, and
may, upon indiftment, be fnpprefled and fined.

Stage, Laws of the, are the rules and decorums to be
oblervcd, with regard to the economy and conduft of a
dramatic performance to be exhibited on the llagc. Thefe
relate, principally, to the unities, the difpofition of the atls
and Icenes, the unravelling, &c.

Stage alfo denotes a certain dillance to which ftnfT ii to
be wheeled, at Hated prices /i<t cubic yard : the ufual llage i»
an interval of 20 yards ; but on very lleep or quite level
wheeling, they are fometimes reckoned 15 yards, and in
other cafes 2 y yards.

Stacie IJland, in Geography, a fmall American ifland,
near the coalt of Maine, not far from Cafco bay, remark-
able for being the firll land inhabited by Europeans in New
England. It is not now uninhabited.

STAGEBORG, a town of Sweden, in Ealt Gothland ;
15 miles S.E. of Nordkiopiiig.

STAGG ARD, among Sport/men, a male deer only four
years old.

4 T 2 STAGGERS,

STAGGERS.

I

STAGGERS, among Farriers, a difeafe of horfes,
wliich has fometimes been &n\omm\.e& apoplexy (which fee),
and which cor.fifts of a giddinefs in the head, and which, in
fome cafes, is indicated by madnefs. Of this difeafe authors
have defcribcd two fpecies ; -viz. the Jleepy, and the mad
ilaggers. In the firlt fpecies, the animal becomes inaftive,
and manifelh a heavinefs of the eyes, and an inclination to
fleep, the head refting in the manger ; accompanied with
coflivcnefs, and other fymptoms of fever. In the fecond
fort of ftagffcrs, the horfe, without indicating any previous
figns of difeafe, falls down apparently deprived of all vo-
luntary motion, with the eyes infenfible to light, the
breathing difficult, a great motion of the flanks, and a quick,
full pulfe. In the mad daggers the liorfe often rifes, plunges
violently in the ftable, and again falls down in an infenfible
ftate.

This difeafe is frequently occafioned by turning out a
horfe to grafs too foon, before he is well cold : where, by
hanging down his head to feed, humours are generated,
which oppreffing the brain, are the proximate caufe of this
difeafe. Sometimes it comes by over-exercife in hot weather,
which inflames the blood, &c. fometimes by noifome fmells
in the liable, excefiive eating, &c. the rupture of a
blood-veflel, or external injuries on the head.

The figns of it are, dimnefs of fight, reeling, and ftag-
gering, watery eyes, &c. At length, through extreme
pain, he beats his head againft the wall, thruils it into the
litter, rifes and lies down with fury, &c.

The moll approved remedy for this diftemper is derived
from the following treatment. Begin with copious bleeding
from a large orifice in the neck-vein, and repeat the opera-
tion, if the ftrength of the horfe admit of it, and the fymp-
toms of the difeafe require it. After bleeding adminifter
a ball, prepared of two drachms of calomel, an ounce of
Barbadoes aloes in powder, two drachms of ginger, and a
fufficient quantity of honey. Apply alfo a glyfter, pre-
pared by mixing three quarts of oatmeal gruel, three ounces
of common fait, and half a pint of olive oil. If the difeafe
continue after this treatment, put a rowel under the jaw,
and another in the chelt ; applying alfo, behind the ear,
fome bhftering liniment : let the horfe be fupported at the
fame time by malhes, or if he refufe thefe, by gruel in the
quantity of two or three quarts, frequently given. After
opening the bowels fufBciently, let the following fever-
powder be given : viz. one drachm of pulverized camphor,
a fcruple of antimonial powder, and fix drachms of pow-
dered nitre, all well mixed. When the fymptoms arc re-
lieved, maflies of bran or oatmeal may be occafionally
given, with a fmall quantity of corn : hay fliould be
fparingly allowed. Omit the powders, and give the follow-
ing reltorative ball every morning, till the horfe recovers
ftrength, taking care to keep his bowels open by malhes : the
ball is prepared of Peruvian bark and gentian, in powder,
of each Vrth of an ounce ; two drachms of ginger, one
drachm of vitriolated iron, and a fufficient quantity of honey.
The rowel under the jaw (hould be continued at leall a fort-
night after the difeafe has been removed. Attention (hould
afterwards be obferved with regard to the kind or quantity
of food, the exercife and ftable treatment.

Horfea are fubjeft to convulfions and ftaggers, arifing
from a retention of the dung and aliment ; which are indi-
cated by fwoln eyes, reeling and tottering motion, fhort
breath and cough, and irregular motion of the flanks ;
averfenefs from lying down, collivenefs, indifpofition to
ttale, and dark-coloured urine ; and fometimes jaundice.
Gibfon direfts the dung to be raked out by the hand from
the reftuBi, which dung i» generally hard, in fmall balls of

a blackifh colour, without moifture. After this operation,
adminifter plenty of emollient oily glyfters of marfhmallows,
or pot liquor, water gruel or water ; adding to three
pints or two quarts of the liquor a pint of linfeed-oil, and
half a pound of treacle ; which (hould be given milk-warm,
and repeated every day, till the dung comes away with eafe,
and in a foft ftate : accompanying this medical treatment
with diet of the bell hay, fcalded bran or chaff, or boiled
barley. When the dung comes away with facifity, and in
great abundance, the following gentle lenitive purge may be
given ; -viz. lenitive cleftuary and cream of tartar, of each
four ounces, and two ounces of common fugar, mixed in
a pint and half of hot ale ; to which, when the tartar is
diflblved, add the fugar, and laft of all the lenitive eleftuary.
Let this be given in the morning, upon an empty ftomach,
blood-warm ; and repeated three or four times, with a
refpite of two or three days between the draughts, keeping
the horfe to an opening diet, with proper exercife, till he
recovers his ufual vigour.

Mr. Boyle mentions a cure of this difeafe in horfes, by
rubbing their gums with the coach-whip till they bleed.
Works, Abr. vol. i. p. 88.

Staggers, a difeafe in (heep, in which they are moftly
confidcred as extremely liable .to move or turn themfelves
about in a quick manner.

The remedy for this diforder was formerly to drive them
to a change of grounds often, to keep the grounds from
tainting. And it has been noticed by Lifle, that thofe
lambs which die of the ftaggers do not die til! they begin to
eat grafs, and of thofe the finelt and luftieft ; whence he
concludes, that it is not the cold weatlier alone that brings
daggers, but their feeding on cold watery grafs in the
months of March and April. The difeafe was much pre-
vented by the early folding of the lambs. See GiD.

The difeafe moftly appears in the autumn, and is faid to
be produced by a variety of caufcs ; fuch as improper food,
the leaves of the oak-tree, on account of their aitringent
quality, cobwebs befprinkled with dew, and different others.
And it probably often proceeds from local affeftions, and
water in the brain. Some have likewife fuppofed that it
arifes from the operation of a poifonous grafs, the lollum te-
mulentum, which is alone met with in thofe fituations of
Scotland where the ftaggers in (heep prevail. But what
effeft fuch cafes have on the brain, to produce or caufe fuch
a difeafe, is not pretended to be explained.

Where this difeafe continues for any length of time in the
fame fheep, it is liable to become fatal.

The change of pafture is fuppofed to be the only effeiflual
remedy in fuch cafes, but the ufe of calomel and bark may
often be found of material advantage, as well as other
means which have a tendency to remove water from the
brain.

Staggers is alfo a difeafe in neat cattle, which is often
very troublefome and unpleafant in its confequences and
management. The principal feats of the diforder would
feem to be the head and the ftomach, which naturally fym-
pathize with each other. It may proceed from a variety of
different caufes, as improper and infufiicient feeding, too
much expofure to cold, drinking too largely of very cold
water, under particular circumftances, water and local af-
feftions of different kinds in the brain and parts about it,
and many others of the fame nature.

It is moil liable to attack fuch cattle as have been poorly
fed, or ftarved in the winter feafon, on their being firil
turned out upon good paftures in the early fpring ; but it
not unfrequently happens to other cattle which have been
regularly fed. It likewife occurs in very different itates and
1 2 degrees

S T A

degrees of violence, according to the circumftances and ha-
bits of body of the animals. And it occafionally takes
place in calves, and other young ftock of this fort.

The difeafe fhews itfelf by the reeling, wavering, ftag-
gering, and imperfcft gait of the animal ; by the heavy,
dull, and fluggidi motion and appearance of it ; and an in-
chnation to become drovvfy, and the refting or reclining of
the head upon any convenient place near it.

It fometimes, however, puts on a more local inflamma-
tory appearance, in which cafes the beads have commonly
a lefs heavy drowfy difpofnion, with more of the wild raving
or raging tendency and quality in their afpefts and dif-
pofitions.

In the former of thefe ftates, the difeafe may be attempted
to be removed by the giving of calomel in pretty laree
dofes, as a drachm or more to a large beaft, two or three
times in the courfe of the week, and powders compofed of
camphor rubbed with a few drops of fpirit of wine, in the
quantity of about two drachms. Common nitre, or falt-
petre in powder, two ounces and a half; and the roots of
rhubarb in powder, or fome other fimilar matter, from one
to two ounces and upwards, in the intervals between the
dofes of calomel. The bead, dnring the time, (hould be
kept moderately warm, and have good hay and warm maflies
occafionally given to it, prefcrving it as much as pofTible in
a temperate ilale in every refpeft.

In the latter itate it may fometimes be necellary to take
away blood in proportion to the fize and flrength of the
bcalts, as from one to two or tliree quarts ; after which, the
bowels may be well opened by the ufe of pretty itrong
purgatives of the faline kind ; then, where there is much
fever of the inflammatory kind attending the difeafe, a ball
compofed of tartarized antimony, in the quantity of from
half to a whole drachm, with about two drachms of cam-
phor rubbed as above, and from a drachm and a hnlf to two
drachms of prepared ammonia in powder, made up with a
little treacle, may be given in a hornful or two of warm
oatmeal gruel, once or oftener in the day to the beails, until
it difappears. In tedious cafes of this fort, with much
afleftion of the head, great relief may fometimes be gained
by the application of Itrong blilters about the head, or the
rubbing of the parts near and upon it, and on the fides
of the neck, with ftrong ointment of the blidering kind,
after the hair has been well clipped off and removed from
them.

Afterwards it v.ill only be ncced'ary to let the beafts
have a ftrengthening cordial drink or two, and the ufe
of a good dry pallure, when the feafon will admit of it.

STAGGERWORT, m /tgricullurc. See Ragwort.

STAGIRA, or Stagikus, in Andent Geography, a
town of Macedonia, in the vicinity of mount Athos, upon
the Strymonic gulf, between Amphipolis on the north, and
Acanthus on the fouth. This town was the native place of
Ariftotlc, hence called the Stagirite.

STAGN.A.NT Watery Land. See Watery Land.

STAGNO, in Geography, a fea-port town of the re-
pubhc of Ragula, on the Adriatic, the fee of a bilhop,
iuff^ragan of Ragufa : about a mile from t)ie town is a for-
trcfs, called " Stagno Piccolo," or Little Stagno ; 30 miles
N.W. of Ragufa. N. lat. 43^ 30'. E. long. 17" 59'.

STAGONIAS, a word ufcd by the old authors to ex-
prefs that fort of male frankincenfc which is in round drops,
and very clear and fine.

STAGONIUS, a name fometimes given to ftorax.

STAGS, in Geography. Several rocks on the coaft of
Ireland are fo called ; as the Stags on the fouth-eall en-
trance of Cork harbour, near Roches tower, where a light-

S T A

houfeis ereftin?; the Stags of Caftlehaven, fouth of Toe-
liead, county of Cork; and the Stags of Broadhaven, north
of Binwy-head, on the Mayo coall.

STAHL, George Ernest, in Biography, a celebrated
phyfician and chemift, was born at Anipach, in Franconia,
in Oftober 1660. He ftudied medicine at the univerfity of
,Tena, and laid the foundation of his fame, immediately after
his graduation in 1684, by commencing a courfe of private
leftures among the (Indents of that place. His advancing
reputation procured for him the appointment of phyfician
in ordinary to the duke of Saxe-Weimar in 1687. On the
ellablifliment of the univerfity at Halle, in 1 694, Frederic
Hoffmann, with his accuflomed liberality, folicited the ap-
pointment of a medical proiedorfliip for Stahl, who accepted
the office, and became the rival of that diftinguiflied phy-
fician as a teacher of medical fyitems, but not in the exer-
cife of candour and liberality towards his colleagues. Stahl
was confcious of pofleffing confiderablc mental powers, and
paid little refpeft to the opinions of others ; and he became
the leader of a f^ft or fchool of phyficians, in oppofition to
the mechanical theorifts, in which he was followed by many
eminent perfons, not only in Germany, but in other coun-
tries, as by Perrault in France, Gaubius in Holland, Por-
terfield and Simpfon in Scotland, and by Nichols and Mead
in England, notwithftanding the very fanciful nature of the
hypothcfis on wiiich his fyfiem was founded. The " Con-
fpeft us Medicinx" of Juncker was publiflied to illuilrate
his doftrines in Germany ; and a fuccinct account of the
fyftem was given by Dr. Nichols, in his work " De Anima
Medica," in this country.

Phyficians had always remarked a cert.iin power in the
animal body of refilling injuries and correfting fome of its
diforders, which they had called nature, and ins med'tcatrix
naturx, and Van Helmont had already afcribed fome degree
of intelligence to this power. But it remained for Stahl to
refer this power entirely to the rational foul, which, he
affirmed, not only originally formed the body, but is the
fole caufe of its motions, in the conllanl excitement of
which life confills. For he maintained that the foul abhors
the difVolution of its body, and therefore excites and direfts
all its motions, the vital and involuntary as well as the vo-
luntary motions, to prevent that diflblution, by obviating
putrefiftion, and expelling the corrupted humours by va-
rious appropriate organs or excretories ; in a word, that all
the funftions of the body are entirely directed by tiie mind,
which intelligently perceives the tendency of all imprefiions,
external and internal, made upon the body, and excites
fuch motions as may favour the beneficial, and obviate the
injurious influence of all caufes afting upon it. Whence he
farther contended, that difeafes, fuch as fevers and fpafmo-
dic affeftions, were in faft the motions voluntarily excited by
the rational foul, for the purpofe ot opening emunttories,
and expelling fome oflending caufe. Generally fpeaking,
therefore, it was maintained, that difeafej were falutary
efforts of the prcfiding foul, and were to be alfilled, and not
interrupted, by the interference of art : yet it was fomehow
admitted, that the mind, irom furprife, fear, or defpair,
occafioned by too fudden or vehement imprefiions made upon
it, occafionally excited adverfe motions, wlucii it was right
to moderate. Independently of the vifionary charafter of
this hypothefis, it was julUy deprecated as loading phyficians
to negleft the ufe of remedies, or to ufe only the mofl
inert and frivolous ones ; and alfo to fet little value upon the
collateral fludics of medical fciencc, even upon anatomical
refearches, which Stahl mauitained had little or no reference
to the art of heahng. And, in fat^, both he and his fol-
lowers, trulting principally to the attention and wildom of

nature.

S T A

nature, adopted that inaftive mode of airing by exp^tlahon,
la medecine expeaante, a-! the French have called it ; they
zealoufly oppofed the ufe of fome of the molt efficacious
remedies, fuch as opium, cinchona, and mercury ; and
were extremely referved, even in the ufe of general eva-
cuaiits, fuch as bleeding, vomiting, &c. although their
fyltem led them to refer almnlt all the dillurbance^ of the
motions of the fyftem to a plethora, or too great abundance
of the blood. This hypothefis was maintained by Stahl in
feveral publications, with much ability and ingenuity ; and
it continued to influence a great number of intelligent phy-
ficians for a long time. His principal medical work, in
which his fyftem is difplayed in its moft matured form, is
entitled " Theoria Medica vera, Phyfiologiam et Patholo-
giani fiftens," printed at Halle in 1708.

The merits of Stahl as a chemical philofopher are of a
much higher charafter ; and the fchool which he founded
in this fcience, after extending its influence long and univer-
fally among thofe who purlued the fame inquiries, has only
been fuperfeded of late by farther difcoveries. He was the
inventor of tlie celebrated theory of phlogtflon, which ap-
peared to explain the phenomena of combultion and iiiflam-
mabihty, and was received every where with high applaule,
and which, in fatt, occafioned Germany to become the great
fchool of chemifl;ry. It cannot be denied, indeed, although
later experiments have fubverted the groundwork, that this
hypothefis tended greatly to fimplify the ideas, and perfeft
the operations of chemifts, and entitled its author to a high
rank amongH the improvers of fcience. His principal che-
mical work was entitled, " Fundamenta Chymiae dogmatics
et experimentahs," firll printed in 1729, and feveral times
reprinted : but before that period he had publifhed feveral
other works on this fubjeft, fuch as " Diflertationes de Me-
tallurgix et Docimallise Fundamentis," 1697 ; and, in the
fame year, " Experimenta et Obfervationes 300 Chymicx
et Phyfica:," in which work he principally advanced his doc-
trine of phlogifton. He alfo publifhed ia the German lan-
guage fome eflTays " On Sulphur," and " On Salts."

Stahl was elefted a member of the Academy Nature Cu-
rioforum in 1700. He was called to vifit Frederic William,
king of Pruffia, at Berlin, m 1716; and afterwards returned
feveral times to that capital, where his reputation was very
high, and where at length he was attacked with a fatal dif-
eafe, in 1734, in the feventy-fourth year of his age. See
Eloy Did. Hilt, de la Medecine. Gen. Biog. Cullen's
Firfl; Lines. Pref. And Hoffmann's ellay, " De Difter-
entia Doftrins Stahliance et Hoffmanniana:."

STAIDENFELD, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Wurzburg ; 4 miles S. of Schweinfurt.

STAIN, a town of the county of Tyrol ; 2 miles S.W.
of Meran. — Alfo, a town of Aullria, on the Danube, con-
filling almoft wholly of one ftreet, and containing two
churches. It is near Crem;!, and governed by the fame ma-
giftrates. It is joined by a long bridge with Mautern, on
the other fide of the Danube ; 32 miles W.N.W. of Vienna.
— Alfo, a town of Auftria ; 2 miles N. of Steyr.
Stain. See Stein.

STAINABRUNN, atown of Auftria; 6milesW.S.W.
of Ehnifprunn.

STAIN BA.CH, a town of Auftria, on the Teichel ;
6 miles S. of Steyr.

STAINER, Jacob, in B'lography, a German maker of
▼ioHns of the moft fprightly and brilliant tone. His figna-
ture, pafted on the iniide of the back, is the following ;
" Jacobus Stainer, in Abiam prope CEiiopontum, 1647."
CEnopons is the Latm name of Infpruck in Germany, the
chief city of Tyrol. Thefe violins, fince folos have been

S T A

laid afide, have lofl fomewhat of their former favour, and the
Amati and Straduani violins of Cremona, which are of a
more full and rich tone, are preferred for leading a band,
playing modern fymphonies, and folo concertos a grande
crchejlra.

STAINES, or Staxes, in Geography, a market-town
in the hundred of Spelthorne, and county of Middlefex,
England, is feated on the northern banks of the river Thames,
over which there is a ftrong timber bridge at this place, con-
necting the counties of Surrey and Middlefex. It is fixteen
miles from Hyde-Park corner, and moft of its houfes extend
along the fides of the great weftern road ; but the pari(h
church, with a few buildings, are fituatcd nearly half a mile
N.W. of the chief mafs of building. The parifli confifts of
748 acres 16 perches of cultivated land, with 666 acres
I rood and 20 perches of arable land. On a ilratum of loam
is a foil of fine black mould, and gravel is found in fome
places. According to the population report of 181 1, this
parilh contained 355 houfes, and 2042 inhabitants.

In old records Staines was written Slana, a Saxon word
for a flone ; and Camden fuppofes that the name was derived
from a ftone, vrhich was fixed in, or on the bank of the river
here, to denote the extent of the jurifdiftion of the city of
London over the Thames, weltward. A ilone, bearing the
date of 1280, on the margin of the water near the church,
is Hill preferved here. An annual fair of four days was
granted in the year 1228 to the abbot and convent of Well-
minller, and is flill continued : a weekly market is held on
Fridays. The civil government of the town is veiled in two
conftables and four headboroughs. Stames bridge appears
to have been one of '.he moft ancient in the country ; fo far
back as the year 1 262, three oaka out of Windfor forell
were granted for its repairs by Henry III. ; and numerous
grants of pontage, or temporary tolls for the fame purpofe,
were made from time to time, in many of the fubfequent
reigns, as appears by the records in the Tower. Thefe tolls
were confirmed and enforced by afts of parliament in 1509
and 1597. In 1 791 an aft was palled for building a new
bridge, and allowing certain tolls to defray the expence of
the building. Under this aft a ftone bridge, of three arches,
was begun in Auguil 1792, and opened in March 1797:
but in confequence of one of the piers giving way, the
bridge was necedarily taken down. One of caft-iron was
next fubftituted, but this alfo failed, and the builders were
obliged to fupport it by wooden piles and frame-work. The
bridge in its prefent flate was completed in 1807. The
parifh church confifts of a chancel, nave, and north aifle, fe-
parated by circular columns and pointed arches. The door
of the chancel is of early Norman architefture. A fquare
embattled tower at the weft end was built by Inigo Jones in
1 63 1, as appears by an infcription on the fouth fide. In an
apartment under the gallery ftaircafe are two unburied cof-
fins, covered with crimfon velvet, and richly embelfifhed,
containing the bodies of Jeffie Afpafia, wife of F. W.
Campbell, efq. and of her brother, H. Caulfield, efq. ; the
former died in 1812, the latter 1808. Tlie Quakers, Ana-
baptifls, and Methodifts, have each a meeting-houfe in this
town. A fchool on the Lancaftrian principle of education
has been recently eftablifhed, and is fupported by voluntary-
contribution ; a convenient building has been erefted for this
purpofe Lyfons's Middlefex Parifhes, 4to. 1800. Beau-
ties of England and Wales, vol. x. Middlefex. By J. N.
Brewer.

STAINHOF, a town of Auftria; 3 miles S.W. of
Vienna.

STAINING of Bone, Horn, Hair, and Ivory. See each
article, and alfo Dyeing of Bone, &c..

Staining

I

6 T A

S T A

Staixing of Marble. See Marble, and Solutions, ^c.
^Stones.

Stain'isg of Paper and Parchment. See Paper and
Parchment.

Staining of Porcelain. See Porcelain.

Staining of Stones. See Solution, and Colours of
Stones.

Staining of Wood. See Wood and Dyeing

STAINKIRCHEN, in Geography, a town of Auftria;
4 miles N. of Schwanailadt.

STAINS, a town nf France, in the department of Pa-
ris ; 6 miles N. of Paris. — Alfo, a lake of Pruffia, in Na-
tangen ; 48 miles S.E. of Konigfberg.

STAINTZ, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 10 miles
S.E. of Voitfberg.

STAINVILLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Meuie ; 7 miles S.E. of Bar-le-Duc.

STAJO, or Staja, in Commerce, a corn meafure of
Italy, equal at Florence to 4 quarti, l6metadeli, or 32 mez-
zate. The moggio, which contains 8 iacchi, or 24 liaja, is
equal to .nbout 16 Englifh bufhels. Salt is meafured by the
ftajo, which weighs 72 lbs. Florence weight, or 54 lbs.
avoirdupois. The Itajo of Corfica is equal to 6104 cubic
inches, and 28.60 ftajo = 10 Englilh quarters. The
ftaji of Leghorn = 1501 cubic inches, and 114.60 ftaji =
10 Enghfii quarters. The ftaji of Lucca =; 1472 cubic
inches, and 116.85 '^^j' — "-' EngliOi quarters. The ftaji
of Milan = IOJ5 cubic inches, and 162.96 ftaji = 10 Eng-
li(h quarters. That of Modena ;= 4297, and 40 ftaji = 10
Englifti quarters. The ftaji of Turin =^ 2388 cubic inches,
and 73.56 ftaji = 10 Englilh quarters. The ftaji of Venice
:= 4943 cubic inches, and 34.78 ftaji ;= Englifh quarters.

STAJOLUS, among the Romans, a meafure of length,
ufed in furveying land ; it was equal to five palms and three-
fourths of a palm.

STAIRCASE, an afcent inclofed between walls, or a
baluftrade, confifting of ftairs or fteps, with landing-places
and rails ; ferving to make a communication between the
fevcral ftories of a houfe.

The dimcnfions of ftairs are differently alligned by different
authors ; in this however they agree, that they muft not be
more than fix, nor Icfs than four inches high ; nor more than
eighteen, nor lefs than twelve inches broad ; nor more than
lixteen, nor lefs than fix feet long each ftair. But thefc
meafures have only regard to fine buildings, ordinary houfcs
are excepted ; yet even in thefe, the ftairs arc not to exceed
eight inches in height, nor be lefs than nine inches in breadth,
nor three feet in length.

To reduce the dimenfions of ftairs to fome natural, or at
leaft geometrical ftandard, Vitruvius borrows the propor-
tions of the fides of a right-angled triangle, which the an-
cient fchool exprelled by the numbers 3, 4, and 5. The
firft for the perpendicular height ; the lecond for the hori-
zontal breadth ; and the tiiird for the whole flopc or incli-
nation, from the edge of one ftair to that of another.

But this rule is fet afidc, and with good reafon,4)y the
modern builders. For, on this principle, the lower the
ftairs, the narrower they mull be ; and ftairs, for inftancc,
four inches high (fuch as we find mentioned by ancient archi-
teds), muft be but five and one-third inches broad.

One rule to be regarded in the making of ftairs is, that
they be laid according to the Italian phrafe, con un tanlino
da fcarpa, i. e. fomewhat floping, or a little highell behind,
that the foot may, as it were, botli afccnd and dcfcend at
once ; which, though obfcrvcd by few, is found a lecret and
delicate deception of the pains in mounting.

The conftruftionof a complete ftaircafc is one of the moft

curious works in architefture. The common rules to be
obfcrved in it are as follow.

1. That it have a full free light to prevent accidents of
flipping, falling, &c.

2. That the fpace over head be large and airy, which
the Italians call un hel sfocato, good ventilation, becaufe a
man fpends much breath in mounting.

3. That the half paces, or landing-places, be conveniently
diitributed for repofing in the way.

4. That to prevent rencounters, &c. the ftaircafe be not
too narrow ; but this lafl is to be regulated by the quality
of the building.

5. That care be taken in placing the flaircafe, fo that the
ftairs may be diftributed, without prejudice to the reft of the
building.

The kinds of ftaircafes are various : in fome, the ftairs
are Jlraight, in others winding, in others both ways, or
mixed.

Again, oiflraight ftairs, called 2\{ofliers, fome fly direftly
forwards ; others are fquare ; others triangular ; and others
are called French flights.

Of ivinding Itairs, called alfo fpiral, or cockleflairs, fome
are fquare, fome circular, and fome elliptical. And thefe,
again, are various ; fome winding round a folid, and others
round an open newel.

Laftly, of mixed Itairs, fome are called dog-legged ; others
both wind about a folid newel, and fly about a fquare open
newel.

Stairs, Straight, are fuch as always fly, that is, pro-
ceed in a right line, and never wind ; whence their de-
nomination.

Of thefe there are feveral kinds ; as,

Dired fliers, or plain fliers, which proceed direftly from
one floor to another, without turning either to the riglit or
left ; thefe are feldom ufed, except for garret or cellar
ftairs.

Square fliers, which fly round the fides of a fquare newel,
either folid or open, having at every corner of the newel
a fquare half ftep, taking up one-fourth of a circle ; fo that
they fly from one half ftep to another, and the length of the
ftairs is perpendicular to the fide of the newel.

Triangular fliers, which fly round by the fides of a tri-
angular newel, either folid or open, having at each corner
of the newel a trapezial half ftep, taking up two-t!iirds of a
circle ; fo that they fly from one half ftep to another ; and
their length is perpendicular to the fide of the newel.

French fliers, which fly firlt diredly forwards, till they
come within the length of a ftair of the wall ; and then
have a fquare half pace, from which you immediately alcend
to another half pace, from which the ftairs fly direiUy back
again, parallel to their firft flight.

Stairs, IVinding, are fuch as always wind, and never fly ;
of thefe there is great v.iriety ; as,

Circular ivinding fairs, of which there are four kinds, viz.
fuch as wind about a folid newel, the fore-edge of each
being in a right line, pointing to the centre af the newel ;
commonly ufed in church-fteeplck, and great old houfes :
fuch as wind round an open newel, the fore-fide of each being
in a right line, pointing to the centre of the newel ; as thole
in the Monument, London : fuch as wind round a folid
newel, only the fore-fide of each an arc of a circle, either
concave or convex, pointing near to the circumference of
the newel : and fuch as refemble the laft in all other rcfpeAs,
favc that they have an open newel. Any of thefc windinij
Itairs take up lefs room than other kinds.

In ftairs that wind round a folid newel, architeiEls make
the diameter of the newel cither I, or ;, or J, or -J of that of

the

S T A

the ftaircafe, according as that is in bignefs. If very fmall,
the newel is but i, and if large a, &c.

In ftairs that wind round an open newel, Palladio orders
the newel to be one half of the diameter of the ftaircale ;
tiiough there does not appear any reafon why the newel
here Ihould not be proportioned to the ftaircafe, as in the

former. t» n j-

As to the number of ftairs in each revolution ; Palladio
orders, that, in a ftaircafe fix or feven feet diameter, the
ftairs in each revolution be twelve; if the diameter be eight,
the ftairs to be iixteen ; if nine or ten, the ftairs to be
twenty ; and if eighteen, to be twenty-four.

Ell'iptkal tuint/ing Jlairs, of which there are two kinds ;
the one winding round a folid, the other round an open
newel : they are much of the fame nature as circular ftairs,
excepting that, in the one, the newel is a circle, and, in
the other, an ellipfis.

Square luindius Jlairs are fuch as wind round a fquare
newel, cither folid or open ; the fore-fide of each fquare
being in a right line, pointing to the centre of the newel.

Triangular ivinHing ftairs are fuch as wind round a trian-
gular newel ; the fore- fide of each being a right line, point-
ing to the centre of the newel.

Calumniated luinding Jlairs. — Palladio mentions a ftair-
cafe, in Pompey's portico at Rome, fet on columns, fo as
that the light they receive from above, may dilbribute itfelf
to all parts alike.

Double -winding Jlairs. — Scamozzi mentions a ftaircafe in
this form, made by Piedro del Bergo, and Jean Coflin, at
Sciamberg, in France, in the king's palace. It is fo con-
trived, a"! that two perfons, the one afcending, and the
other defcending, ftiall never meet.

Dr. Grew defcribes a model of this kind of ftaircafe,
kept in the Mufeum of the Royal Society. The foot of
one of the ftaircafes, he fays, is oppofite to that of the
other ; and both make a parallel afcent, and within the
fame cylinder. The newel in the middle is hollow, and
built with long apertures, to convey light from candles
placed at the bottom, and on the fides of the newel into
both cafes.

Quadruple ivinding Jlairs . — Palladio mentions a ftaircafe
of this form, in the caftle of Chambor, near Bloys. It
confifts of four ftaircafes, carried up together, having each
its feveral entrance, and going up one over another, in fuch
manner, as that, being in the middle of the building, the
four ferve to lead to four apartments ; fo that the people
of the one need not go up and down the ftairs of the
other; yet being open in the middle, they all fee each
other pafs.

Mixed Jlairs are fuch as partly J{y, and partly wind;
whence fome call them ^iers and -winders. Of thefe there
are feveral kinds ; as,

Dog-legged Jlairs, which firft fly direftly forwards, then
wind a femicircle, and then fly direitly backwards, parallel
to that.

Square Jliers and winders have a fquare newel, either folid
or open ; and fly by the fides of the newel, winding a quad-
rant of a circle at each Corner.

Solid and open newelled Jliers and winders are of two
kinds ; the one winds a quadrant of a circle about a foHd
newel ; then flies by the fide of a fquare open newel ; then
winds again by the fide of a folid newel ; then flies again,
and fo alternately. The other flie» firft, then winds, and
then flies again alternately.

ST AIRING, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; four
miles W. of Voglabruck.

STAIRS, in Building, the fteps by which we afcend

S T A

and defcend from one ftory of a houfe to another. See
Staircase.

STAITH is a ftage or ftrong wooden fcafFoId, to which
coal-waggons are condufted by a rail-way, in order to (hoot
their contents into Ihips, boats, or carts.

STAKE, in Agriculture, a long piece of branch-wood,
or ftrong ftaff^ or ftick fixed upright in the ground, in
making hedges, between which the brufh-wood is laid and
interwoven in the making of them.

Stake, the name of a fmall anvil ufed by fmiths ;
fometimes it ftands on a broad iron foot, on the work-
bench, to be moved up and down occafionally ; and fome-
times it hath a ftrong iron fpike at the bottom, by which
ic is fixed to fome place on the work-bench. Its ufe is to
fet fmall and cold work ftraight, by hammering it on the
ftake, or to cut and punch upon it with the cold chiffel,
or cold punch.

Stake of a Plough. The ftake is an upright piece of
wood, pafling at Us bottom through that link of the tow-
chain which pafles through the box of the plough, and at
its upper end receiving the end of what is called the Iridic
chain, which ties it to the crow-ftaff^, or if it be not long
enough, a wyth, or cord, is ufed to tie it : it is alfo tied
to it again, a little below the pillow of the plough, by
another wyth or cord. See Plough, Pillow, Crovt-

STAVES, &C.

Stakes, in Ancient Armoury, were long and pointed
at both ends, and ufed to proteft the archers from the at-
tacks of the enemy's horfe : thefe were planted in the earth,
Hoping before them. In the firft of Edward VI. three
hundred and fifty of thefe were in the Itores of the town
of Berwick, under the article of archers' ftakes : there
were alfo at the fame time eight bundles of archers' ftakes
in Pontefrad caftle.

Stake.- Heads, in Rope-making, are pofts, about four feet
long and four by three inches fquare, with four wooden
pins fixed in the upper fide to keep the ftrands afunder.
For lines they are about two feet long and three by two
inches fquare, and have fix pins.

SrAKK-Pofts, are pofts of oak, about four feet high
and twelve inches diameter, with a mortife-hole in each,
for the ftake-heads to go in and out, to keep the rope from
the ground. They are placed about ten yards diftant from
each other, along the whole length of the rope-walk.

STAKING, Pointing, or Sharpening Hop-poles, the art
and praftice of rendering their bottom parts pointed and
fliarp, in fomewhat the manner of the common hedge-ftake,
in order that they may be fet into the ground or foil in a
firm and ready manner. See Hop, and Stacking and Pre-
Jerving Hep-poles.

ST AL.-Boat, a kind of fiftiing-boat mentioned 27 Eliz.
c. 21.

STALACTAGNIA, in Natural Hijlory, the name
of a genus of fpars. The word is derived from the
Greek raXaxlo;, Jlillatitious, or formed by dropping, and
aiyyc,-, pure.

The bodies of this genus are formed by the dropping of
water from the roofs of fubterraneaii caverns, and are the
purer fort of what are called by anthoTsJlalaSitie. They
are cryftalline fparry bodies, formed into oblong conical
figures, corapofed of various crufts, and ufually found in
form of icicles. Of this genus there are three known
fpecies. Hill.

STALACTITE, plural Stakaites, in Mineralogy, are
the pendent protuberances from the roofs or fides of
caverns, formed by the depofition of calcareous or other
earths, from the water which percolates through rocks.

Some

S T A

S T A

Some waters, that rife frohi beds of limeflone, are fo over-
charged with calcareous earth, as to form an incruftation of
Hone round any fubltance that is immerfed in them for a fhort
time ; of which we liave well-known inftances in the waters
of Matlock, in Derbyfhire, and Knarefborough, in York-
ftire: fiich are called petrifying fprings. It is by a fimilar
procefs that Italaftites are formed, by the water dropping
from fome projefting point and depofiting a part of its con-
tents ; fucceeding drops continue to enlarge the depofition,
which frequently alTumes the form of an icicle, and is fome-
times of confiderable fize.

Stalaftites form fo rapidly in fome caverns and mines as
to clofe up the entrance, and even fill up the excavation en-
tirely. The depofitions of calcareous earth formed on the
floors of caverns, by the water which drops from the roof,
are CdWeiJlii/a^milei.

Though the formation of ftalaftites apparently depends
on the mechanical depofition of earthy matter, and may
feem to admit of an eafy explanation, there are fome pecu-
liarities of ftrufture in ttalaftitical maflcs which it ia more
diffi«ult to account for.

In fome ftalaftites we may obferve a radiated diverging
cryftalline ftrufture ; in others, the lamellar ftrufture of cal-
careous fpar is obfervable when broken, and they divide
into rhombs, or the regular primitive cryftals of carbonate
of lime. The progrel's from the radiated to the regular
cryftalline ftrufture may be feen in the fame fpecimen : thus
it (hould appear, that the particles of the ftalaftite, after
they had been mechanically depofited, and formed a folid,
were capable of a certain degree of motion, which per-
mitted their cryftalline arrangement to proceed to its ulti-
mate form, or the primitive; rhomb. Some ftaliftites have
occafionally been found which were tubular ; other ftalac-
tites, that are folid, are covered with minute cryftals, and
fometimes are terminated by a knob, refembling a mu(h-
room. Stalaftites are not unfrequently formed under the
arches of bridges, by the percolation of water through the
mortar.

In the Gcyfers, or boiling fprings of Iceland and other
parts of the world, filiceous ftalaftites and ftalagmites are
formed on tlie fides of the rocks on which the water falls,
or in the bafins which furround the fprings. Thefe natural
bafins are indeed entirely formed of filiceous depofitions,
and it has been afcertained, that the waters contain a con-
fiderable portion of filcx in folution.

The larger and more compaft malfes of ftalaftites are em-
ployed in ttatuary. This fubltance was much ufcd by the
ancients, and called alabaflron and alabajlrites. The ala-
bafter of the moderns is more frequently gypfum, or ful-
phate of lime.

The alabafter from ftalaftite is fometimes of a pure
white, but this kind is not fo durable as that which is of
a light yellow colour, or veined. The iron, which is the
colouring matter, communicates to the ftonc a great degree
of hardncfs, and on this account the coloured alabaltcr was
more prized by the ancient fculptors than the pure white.
See Stonf. y^r Statuary.

STALACTITICAL, formed like ftalaftite.

STALACTOCIBDELA, m Natural Hi/lory, the
name of sf genus of fpars. The word is derived from the
Greek 5-K>,a»1o., Jlillatitious, or formed by the dropping of
water, and xii'ci'»:>,o,-, impure.

The bodies of this genus are formed by the dropping of
water from the roofs of lubterranean caverns, and are the
coarfer kinds of what authors have called ftalaftitx. They
are cryftallino-terrcne fpars, formed into oblong bodies, and

Vol.. XXXIU.

found hanging from the roofs of c^rerns and grottoes. Of
this genus there are only two known fpecies. Hill.

STALAGMITiE. See Stalactite and Stalag-

MOSCIERIA.

STALAGMITE, in Mineralogy, the depofition of
earthy matter, formed by drops of water on the floors of
caverns. The word is derived from the Greek raXay^x, a
drop. See Stalactite.

STALAGMITIS, in Botany, fo called by Murray, in
the Gottingen Tranfaftions, v. 9, from -^K%yjj.a.:, a dropping,
or dijlillation, bccaufe of the gum yielded by this tree. —
Schreb. Gen. 729. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 980.— Clafs and
order, Polygamia Monoecia, or rather Polyadelphia Polyan-
dria. Nat. Ord. Guttiferiz, Jufl'.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, deciduous, of four
roundifh, concave, coloured leaves, fleftiy in the middle,
bordered ; the two outermoft coriaceous, fmalleft ; the two
innermoft thinner and veiny. Cor. Petals four, obovate,
rather coriaceous, fringed, fpreading, larger than the calyx ;
the two oppofite ones largett. Stam. Filaments about thirty,
inferted into a fleftiy quadrangular receptacle, club-fhaped,
abrupt, fomewhat quadrangular, ereft, the length of the
corolla, united into five fets ; anthers ercft, of two round
lobes. Pijl. Germen fuperior, globofe ; ftyle ereft, thick,
ftiort ; ftigma of four inverfely heart-fliaped, fpreading, per-
manent lobes. Peric. Beriy globofe, of one cell, crowned
with the ftyle and ftigma. Seeds three, oblong, obfcurely
triangular, "terminated by a joint."

Some male flowers are interfperfed, in which there is no
germen, only the thread-ftiaped rudiment of a ftyle in fome
of them, with a prickly unequal imperfeft ftigma. Koenig
obferved the calyx to confift occafionally of fix leaves, while
the ftigma was only three-cleft. Schreber doubted whether
the ftamens were always polyadelphous.

I. S. camhogwides. " Murray Comm. Goett. v. 9. 173."
Willd. n. I. — Native of Camboja and Ceylon. A middle-
fized tree, with oppofite fpreading branches. Leaves oppo-
fite, ovate, acute, entire, flat, coriaceous, rigid, dark-green,
fmooth on both fides ; occafionally obovate. Footjlalks very
fliort. /'/oTOcr^ axillary or lateral, whorled ; the male onei
either intermixed with the others, or in a clufter by them-
felves. Murray. This tree appears nearly akin to the
Xa\thociivmus of Roxburgh, fee that article hereafter;
Ait. Hort. Kcw. v. 4. 420 ; yet we muft prefume them to
be dift'erent on account of the great authorities on which the
latter depends.

STALAGMODIAUGIA, in Natural Hi/lory, the
name of a genus of fpars. The word is derived tVoai the
Greek yxXuFf^iy:, a drop, and oi:<t)>>ic, pellucid. The bodies
of this genus are the purer kinds of what authors call fta-
lagmitx, or drop-ftones.

They are fpars found in form of fmall balls, each com-
pofcd of numerous crufts, and confiderabi) |,i llucid and ci > f-
talline. Of this genus there arc three kno .11 Ipceies. II. il.

STALAGMOS, a term ufcd by authors to cxprcfs a
diftillation of rheum from the head.

STALAGMOSCIERIA, the name of a genus of
fpars. The word is derived from the Greek ^Jt^n^Juo^, a drop,
and o-xi'fj-, opaque, and cxprcfles an op: que fpar, which has
received its form from the dropping ol water.

The bodies of this genus jra the coarfer kinds of what
are called by authors ftalagmiti, and are fmall roiii.d i;i;.lles,
compofed of numerous thin crufts, ai.d of an tpaque and
coarfe ftrufture.

Of this genus we have only two known fpecies. Hill.

Scotland affords a vaft variety of the ftalagmitsc. One

4 U CiVfl

S T A

csve, about ti^ht miles djftaiit from Aberdeen, on the Jea-
Cdc, has Its whnlc r<>i)f cruRcd over with lUlaftitic, of a
foot in lenirth, haiipini; down I'ke the fringe of a bed ; the
floor alfn is as deeply covered with conL'eries of llalagmitx ;
tlie upper coat, both of thefe and the (taladites, is of a fea-
coiiHir, but the inr er parts are as white as fal prunellx ; the
water which drops from tliefe is of a very peculiar nature,
for it is io acrnnonious, that if it touch the fkin but ever fo
flighily, it maiies it finart. N ar this cave there is another
hoHow rock, in which the Italaclita; make a very beautiful
fiijure : they are all f/rmed into long and thick columns,
and lla id perpendicularly, fo that thev reprefent the pipes
of an organ ; when broken, they are all found to be hollow
wiliiin. The rock, and all the Hone thereabouts, is of the
linnellone kind.

S I'AI. BRIDGE, in Geogrophy, a fmall market-town
in the huidcic'i of Brownfhall, in the Sherbourne div fion of
Dorfeilhire, E'gland, is fituated near the banks of the river
Stoijr, on the N. fide of the county ; 9 miles E. from Sher-
b urne, and 113 miles W.S.W. from London. The manor
was aiicie;'.tly the property of thf abbey of Sherbourne: after
the difTolution of monalteries, Edward VI. j/ranted it to the
duke of Somerfet ; on his death it pafled to the Audley
family, and afterwards to Richard, earl of Corke ; he be-
que.ithed it to his fon Robert Boyle, who refided here many
years ; and his firll chemical experiments were made in the
manor-houfe in 1647. Peter Walter, efq. clerk of the peace
for Middlefex, afterwards purchaled the manor, and in his
family it has fir.ce continued. The town of Stalbridge, and
the greater part of the parifh, are feated on a rocky llratum,
whence the vicinity is fupplicd with (tone for building and
other ufes : the principal manufaftory here is that of (lock-
ings, which is carried on to a very confiderable extent. Two
fairs are held annually, and a market weekly, on Thurfdays.
In the population report of 181 1, the number of houfes in
this parith is iluted to be 141, of inhabitants 890.

In the centre of the town is a ftone crofs, which, includ-
ing the bafe, is thirty feet high. At the top is a fquare
block, with four niches; thofe on the eaft and weft fronts
have the Crucifixion, with the Virgin, and St. John. On this
block ftood a crofs ; and from the top of the free-ftoneof the
pyramid to the hole in which this crofs was fixed, the height
is ten feet. At the bottom of this block are feveral coats of
arms ; one of them feems a chevron or fefs between three
rofes or efcallops. The pyramid itfelf is twelve feet high,
and all the angles are fluted. On one fide of it is a defaced
figure of our Saviour, with the lamb at his feet. The four
fides of the bafe are adorned with reliefs, one of which
feems to reprefent the refurredion of Chrilt, who holds a
croft in his hand. The whole ftands on three odagonal
flights of (leps, each diminilhing in the afcent. Hutchins's
Hillory of Dorfetfhire, 3 vols. fol. 1796, &c.

STALE, in ylgricuhure, a term ufed provincially to fig-
nifythe handle of any thing or kind of tool, as a fork-Hale
&c.

Stale, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the urine of
ammals : the (tale of horfes and fome other animals (hould
be carefully prelerved for ufe in the way of manure. See
Urine.

Stale alfo denotes a living fowl, put in a place to allure
and br ng others where they may be taken. See Decoy

For want of thele, a bird, (hot, his entrails taken out.
and dried in an oven, in his feathers, with a .lick thruH
through to keep ,t ,„ a convenient pollure, may fervc as
well as a live one. '

Stalb Furrow, in ylgrkuliurc, a term applied to a furrow

S T A

which has been long turned up, or in which the flice has
been for fome time expofed to the weather, in contradiilinc-
tion to that which is newly formed, or in a fre(h (late. See
SowiNf;.

Stale Seeding, the cuftom or nraftice of feeding or
fowing land which has been long turned up, or in the
ploughed (late. The praftice, though common, and held
in much edeem with fome in di(ferent places, (hould pro-
bably never be had recourfe to, except in (ome cafes with
wheat, as where a firm and (olid bottom is required in con-
fequence of the too great friabihty or loofe powdery quahty
of the foil, as in putting that crop in after potatoes, in
fome inltances, and other fimilar produfti, which are apt
to caufe a very light Hate of the mould or foil. On account
of the convenience of breaking up the lay grounds during
a part of the winter fealon in (ome fituations, ftale feeding
of the land has been praftifed, efpecially with oats and fome
other forts of feed ; but how far it has been found either
beneficial or detrimental, has not yet perhaps been fairly put
to the teit of experiment. See Sowing.

St.4le Sowing, in Gardening, the praftice of fowing or
putting in fome forts of feed into ground which has been
dug up fome time, and is in a (tale condition. This is in
fome inftances the cafe with peas, beans, and fome other
leguminous feeds, as well as thofe of fome other kinds ; but
it ought always to be as much as poilible avoided. See
Sowing of Seeds.

STALECKE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Mont Tonnerre ; i mile N.N.W. of Ba-
carach.

STALIKON, a town of Switzerland, iu the canton of
Zurich ; 6 miles S.W. of Zurich.
STALIMENE. See Lemnos.

STALING, a term ufed to fignify the aft of evacuating
the urinary bladder in the horfe or mare, ot other animal
ot the fame kind. In team as well as other horfes, it is a
humane and necelTary praftice to fufFer them to void their
urine at full leifure, and to encourage them to it by luhijl-
ling, or any other of the foothing methods which they may
underftand. The evacuation of urine is liable to interrup-
tion, profufion, and to be difeafed from various caufes, and
thereby to produce much injury to the animals.

But neither team nor other horfes are much fubjeft to ftale
blood, unlefs in cafes where they have fuftained fome hurt,
or been drained in the loins or kidnies, and when fome of
the blood-vedels about the neck of the bladder have been
ruptured or burft open, or in cafes of erofion taking place
there, or in the palTage of the urine, by means of which
fome of the finaller and more minute velfels of thefe parts
may have been laid open, and fend forth a bloody fort of dif-
charge; but when this lall happens, it is mollly very fmall
in quantity, and but of (hoit duration, commonly going off
without any aftiftance in the way of medicine.

In cafes where the urine paffes off in an intermixed bloody
'late, or blood comes away in an almod pure or clear con-
dition immediately after the ftaling of the animal, the com-
plaint may be removed, if the horfe is ftrong, well fed, and
in a full condition, by bleeding in a pretty plentiful manner,
according to the fize and date of the animal ; but if he be
of the team hard wrought kind, and low in condition, it
mud be ufed in a much more fparing way, and, in many
indances, be wholly omitted. After bleeding, and in thofe
dates of the difeale in which it is rnneccllary, the ufe of
mild adringent opiate remedies may often be employed in-
ternally with great advantage ; fuch as the red redringent
gum, in the quantity of two, three, or more drachms, ac-
cording

S T A

S T A

cordinof to rirciimftances, in fine pnwder; oak-bark, or that
of the Peruvian kind, in powder, two or three ounces ; and
powdered crude opium, from a fcruple to about half a
drachm ; mixed and made up into a ball with a little honey
or treacle, and given to the horfe once or oftener in the day,
until the bloody ftaling difcharge goes off and wholly difap-
pears, which is afcertained by the animal Italinij in a free
and perfeft manner. Other fimilar forts of altrmgent iub-
Itances and barks may likewile be made ufe of with perhaps
equal benefit, where thefe cannot be had, as well as fome
reltringent tinfturee, fuch as thofe of the above sjumniy mat-
ter and feveral others. All thefe remedies fhould conftantly
be given in large quantities of fome kinds of niucilagmous
liquids, as the free ufe of fuch iubftances is found to be
highly beneficial in all cafes of this nature.

After fuch complaints are wholly removed, the ftrength
of the animals may be reltored by the giving of fuch pow-
dery fubltances as are direfted below, m full quantities of
oatmeal or other forts of gruel, as there may be occafion.
The powder of the root of gentian, and that of Peruvian
bark, in the proportion of from one to two or more ounces ;
ginger in powder, one ounce or more ; and fometimes the
ruft, or the fait of fteel powdered, in the quantity of about
half an ounce of the former, and from one and a half to
two drachms of the latter. The horfes ftiould likewife
have a pretty free ufe of mafhes of different nourifhing
forts.

There is a profufe fort of italing in horfes of the farm,
team, and other kinds, which fometimes conftitutes and be-
comes a difeafe. See Diabetes.

STALK, among Botanijls, that part of a plant which
rifes immediately from the root, and which ufually fupports
the leaves, the flowers, and the fruit.

The term Jlalk is ufed on all occafions ; but in fpeaking
of the grades, and gramineous plants, the word culm is
ufed in its place, to diftinguifli that peculiar kind of flalk
which IS general to all thefe plants, and is not found in any
others.

The terms ufed in defcribingf the ftalks of plants are, a
Jimplc llalk, one which runs up undivided from the_ root to
the top.

Naked Vi.d\}s., one that has no leaver,

Fol'wfe Italk, one with leaves on it.

Ramofe (talk, that which fends out branches.

Ered llalk, that which rifcs ilraight up.

Oblique ftalk, that which is flanting.

Voluble ftalk, that which twills round other things.

Flexuous ftalk, that which bends.

Rcclinate ftalk, that which Hoops towards the ground.

Procumbent ftalk, that which lies on the ground.

Creeping, OT farmentous ftalk, that which enaits roots as it
runs along.

If the ftalk be rounded in (hape, it is called round ; if it
make two angles, ancipital ; if three, Irigona' ; it four,
fcfuare ; if more, polygonal.

If the ftalk be lightly ridged and furrowed on tlie fur-
face, it is faid to h*:J)riated ; if more deeply, canaliculate ;
if full of protuberances, y?airouj ; if lightly hairy, villofe ;
if more roughly, hi/pid.

In the branched iiz\]^, if the branches rife ereft, it is cx-
prefFed hy a/cendant ; if they fpread, hy diffufe ; if they are
very large, it is called branchinled.

If the ftalk divaricate, or, inllead of fending out branches,
it divide into them, it is called a compnfite ftalk. If thefe
divarications proceed by pairs, or if every branch be divided
only into two others, it is called diehotomous ; if it part into
two fcries of branches, it i« cxprcllcd by the term di/licliQus t

if it part into a multitude of ramifications, it is called yu3.
divided.

All thefe terms are ufed alfo in exprefling the different
ftates of the culm, which, having no articulations, is called
equal ; when fcaly, fquamofe.

Stalk, in ylgriculture, the ilem or ftock part of any fort
of grain, grafs, or other kind of plant that is grown as a
field crop.

The ftalks of many forts of field plants are much difpofed.
to be affefted with different kinds of vegetable dileales, as
thole of the mildew, the ruft, and feveral other forts, which
produce fpeckled, fpotted, freckled, or other appearance*
on them.

The ftalks or ftems of many different field plants of the
cabbage, borecole, rape, and other kinds, are not unfre-
quently left ftanding as very iifi.ful and neceffary fpring feed
for ewes and lambs, as well as other forts of (heep-ftock, by
the fprouts or fmall leaves which they throw out at that
leafon in fuch an abundant manner.

The cutting over the ftems or ftalks of fome forts of
plants is occafionally praftifcd in the view of increafing the
lize or quantity of their produce, as in the cafe of the po-
tatoe, and fome other fimilarly rooted kinds ; but from the
trials which have lately been made on the fubjeft, it would
feem that harm rather than good is moftly the confequence
of the praftice.

The ftalks of graffes and fome other plants of that fort
may, in fome inftances, and in particular cafes, be cut over,
cropped, or fed down by animals, efpecially of the (heep
kind, with great benefit in rendering them more fine and
more fpreading, by which the herbage as well as the fward
of the land is much improved.

There may likewife be other ways in which the manage-
ment of the ftalks in different forts of plants may probably
be beneficial in their cultivation, as by thinning, topping, and
ftripping oft' their leaves, &c.

Stalk, in Gardening, the ftem, upright, or rifingf part
of any fort of culinary vegetable or other plant which is
raifed or cultivated in gardens or pleafure-grounds. The
ftalks of garden vegetables are, for the moft part, of either
the crifp, tender, flefhy eatable kinds, or of the more hard
and ligneous forts. The former are, in moft cafes, rendered
more fuitable and proper as food by being blanched, or
having their colouring matters difcharged from them in lome
way or other, as in celery, endive, fea-kalc, and lome others.
The latter, being commonly only for temporary or future
ufe and produce, rarely require any thing to be done to
them, except the cutting and clearing away of the irregular
or decayed parts towards the clofe of the iummer, or other
fcafon ; as they are of the annual, biennial, or perennial
kind.

The ftalks of fome forts of garden plants occafionally
require to be ftopped in their growth, in order to render
them more produftive in fruit, ieod, or other matters, by
having their extreme parts twilled or cut oft, as is fometimes
praftiied with the cucumber and other fimilar plants, as well
as in the bean and other crops of that dcfcription. And
the hard folid ftalks of fome kinds of garden plants, after
they have been cut over, and their heads removed for ufe,
are ftill fuftered to ftand in their places, or to be taken up
and replanted in other fituatioiis, in the view of throwing
out or fending forth frcih crops of edible (hoots of the green
kind. See Sproi;ts, Ejculenl.

The ftalks of all garden vegetables (hould, ii. i;ciural, be

kept in as free and open a ftate of growth a - poffible, at

when too clofe or too much crowded they never luccecd fo

well, in whatever intention the plants from which they pro-

4 U 2 cccd

S T A

ceed may be raifed or cultivated. They likewife, in fome
cafce, require to rife quickly, in order to be good or ot a
proper quality. n i • j

The llalks of feveral different forts, too, Hand in need
of fupport, as all thofe of the twining and fome other
kinds.

STALKER, in Bridmaiing. See Brick.
Stalkers, in our Old miters, a kind of fi(hing-nets.
Stut. 13 Ri>.h. II. cap. 20. . r ,

STALKING, a term of confiderable import m fowl-
ing; applied to a kind of fcreen, or device to hide the
fowler, and amufe the game, while he gets within fhot.
Of fuch devices there are feveral kinds.
SrALKiSG-Hor/e, is a horfe trained up for the purpofe.
This horfe (hould be chofen of the tallcft and largeft kind ;
no matter how old he is, but he mull be well trained, and
ready at command. The horfe, being properly trained, will
walk flowly along in any fort of ground, as tlubble-fields,
moorifh places, or the banks of rivers, and will always feed,
or pretend to feed, as he is direfted. The fportfman is to
conceal himfelf and his gun behind the horfe's fore-(houlder,
bending his body low by his fide, and keeping the whole
body of the horfe always full between the fowl and himfelf:
when by this means the fportfman is come fo near to the
birds, that the gun will reach thera with llrength to kill,
he is not to attempt advancing any nearer, that they may
not be difturbed. Some recommend the fhooting over the
horfe's buttocks, and fome over his neck, but the bell way
13 under the neck, and before the breaft, for by this means
the body of the fportfman is covered by the fhoulder, and
his legs by the legs of the horfe. When the birds are Ihot,
the dog will bring them to his mafter, and as they often tall
in places where a man cannot come at them, this creature is
of very neceffary fervice.

This is the bed of all methods of ftalking ; but as fuch
a horfe is difficult to train, chargeable to keep, and is not
always to be had, there are many contrivances introduced to
fupply the place of it : among thefe, the principal are the
ttalking-wheelbarrow, the ftalking-bufh, and the ftalking-
kedge. The firll of thefe is to be thus contrived ; take a
wheelbarrow, made on purpofe of light fir, and fet round
about it boughs and bulhes in fuch a manner, that you may
fit in it, and not be dilcovered by the fowl, and drive it
along without giving them difturbance.

The ftalking-bulh is to be contrived of feveral burties well
platted together, with all their leaves on ; it is to be faf-
tened to a ftake, which is to have an iron point at the end ;
the whole is to be the height of a man, and thickly fet with
boughs all the way, from top to bottom. When the fportf-
man lees his game before liim, he is to advance flowly with
this artificial bu(h between him and them ; when he is come
within a proper diltance, he is to fix the bufii into the
ground, by running in the iron fpike, and then to (hoot
through the boughs.

The ftalking-hedge is geoerally made about nine feet
long, and a yard and a half high : it is to be made of fmall
wands, fo woven together, as to give room for the placing
cf green boughs among them, that it may refemble a great
growing hedge : this is to be carried before the fportfman,
and, in the manner of the bufh, it is to be fattened down
when near enough for the gun to kill from it.

As birds, however, are apt to have fome apprehenfion of
terror from feeing a tne or hedge move, thefe machines are
to be carried on very flowly ; and the refemblance of a real
animal, as a horfe, or cow, are better for the purpofe:
thele may be made of canvas, fupported on a flight frame,
and with uiU of hair. For phealants, woodcocks, and the

S T A

like foolilh birds, the common flat figure of a horfe will do >
but the water-fowl are generally much more fliy, and it is
neceflary, for the getting near them, to have the body made
hollow, and fluffed witli hay, or fome other matter, to keep
it out. The proper time to ufe thefe engines is either early
in the morning, or late in the evening ; for the fun-fliine in
the middle of the day very foon difcovers to the fowl the
imperfeftion of the engine.

STALL, in Rural Economy, a fort of inclofed place, in
which a horfe, cow, or any other kind of animal of the
fame or other defcription, is f«d, foddered, or kept ; as a
divifion or feparate portion in a liable, cattle-fticd, cow-
houfe, or any other building of the fame nature. See
Cattle-5/&<'^, Cow-Hou/e, and Stable.

In the flails, the cattle, in the moll improved modes, are
commonly tied up, and faftened to upright round polls of
about four inches in diameter, made perfcfily fmooth on
their furfaces, by means of loofe iron rings and Imall wooden
bows or bands, which are put round the necks of the cattle,
and Aide readily up and down in the rings on the pofts, as
the cattle may want them. The upper parts of the bows,
yokes, or bands, are moflly flat, and have two holes in tliem ;
and the bow or band parts, which are m general formed of
tough fplit a(h, have a fort of button or knob at each end
of them, which is put into the circular holes of the flat
head-pieces, when, by the fpring of the bows or bands, the
knobs or buttons are prevented from returning, by their
flipping over into nicks or notches made in one end of the
head-pieces, where they become fixed until the animal be
wanted to be let out, which is readily done by a little pref-
fure being made on the bow parts. Thefe Halls have, in
many cafes, cribs alfo contrived for the cattle to eat their
fodder out of or in. And pafl'ages are not unfrequcntly
formed in front, or before the heads of the cattle, for the
convenience and facility of giving them their fodder from,
as much faving in time and labour is thereby produced.

The flails in the cow-lheds, houfes, or linneyt, as they are
called in fome of the fouth-weflern dirtridts of the kingdom,
have their boxes or cribs fo formed, as to contain the hay,
flraw, and other fimilar matters for the cows in winter, and
the lucern, tares, vetches, and other fuch materials, in the
fummer feafon. They have alfo troughs for turnips, pota-
toes, cabbages, and other food of the fame kind. And
likewife vealing places for the calves, which are rendered 2
little dark, in order to promote the procefs of fattening
them. There are fometimes, too, large leparate ftalU or di-
vifions for fuch cows as are near calving, or have jull calved.
For young cattle-Hock they are occafionally divided, alfo for
three-years old, two-years old, and one-year old ones, in order
that the young beads may not get injured or inconvenienced
by running among the others. And the head-ways, by being
made fliorter in proportion to the fize of the diftcrent year's
growth of the animals, render them capable of all dunging
into the fame grip or gutter, and confequeiuly of being
more readily cleaned and kept in order.

The divifions or flails for the fattening of bullocks or
oxen fliould always have fufScient fpace, without allowing
any unneceflary waile of it, as where two oxen are fattened
in one flail from eight to ten feet, that is, four or five feet
to each beaft, according to the fize of the beall ufually fat-
tened. Thefe divifions, in the beds or foundations of them,
fliouId conflantly decline in a gentle manner backwards, fo
as to draw off the urine, and have a fmall rifing at the heels
of the animalf, as in the cow-flieds or houfes, and for the
fame purpofes.

There fliould be a crib or manger in each ftall, which
fliould have the conveniency of a feparate partiiiun for dif-
ferent

I

I
I

I

S T A

ferent articles of food, as meal, oil-cake, bran, chafF, and
others of the fame kind, without their mixing or being
blended with turnips, cabbages, potatoes, hay, or other
fuch matters of fodder ; and bcfides, a pump for fupplying
water to the animals, condufting or leading it to the dif-
ferent troughs which are formed for receiving it in each
of the Italls.

In fome cafes, keelers are put in every ftall for affording
water to the cattle, which have troughs of communication,
in order to convey it from pumps in the farm-yards to large
general troughs on the outfide of the ox-houles, which is
afterwards feparately condufted to each keeler, fo that all
the time and trouble in untying, tying, and driving to the
water, are ingenioufly and uiefully avoided. The keelers or
troughs, in thefe circumftances, are placed even with the
cribs or manger;:, and are moltly of the fame fizes and
dimenfions.

In conneftion with all large ranges of ox-ftalls, there
fhould always be a weighing machine, in order that the
owners may at any time inltantly afcertain what are the ftate
and progrefs of the beafts, as well as that the improvement
they make, and the expence of food, or the fleih, and the
food necellary to produce it, may be fairly compared. By
this means, the forts of cattle which give the greated quan-
tity of fleih meat with the fmallelt quantity of food, in thefe
feeding ftalls, may likewife be ufefuily and readily decided,
which is a point of the utmofl importance to the flock-feed-
ing farmer.

QlA.LL-Fed, a term applied to animals fed in the itall
with dry food, and not with grafs or other fimilar matters.

This fort of feeding is highly beneficial to the farmer, in
raifing and producing large quantities of the belt kind of
dung manure ; but is rather expenfive in the materials, and
the different convenie^cies which are neceffary for the prac-
tice of it. See the following article.

Stalj.- Feeding, the art or procefs of fattening neat cattle
in the Itall. The belt pradlice in this fort of fattening is,
probably, that of wholly confining them to the ftalls,
which is ufually termed ftall-feeding ; as by this means they
are kept quiet, and free from interruption, and of courfe
feed more quickly, and with greater regularity, which feem
to be points of great importance m thi^ fyftem of manage-
ment with thefe animals ; though there are fome who are
ilill in favour of the yard management.

In regard to the forts of food that may be employed in
the way of winter fattening the animals in this practice, the
principal of the more fucculent kinds are carrots, parfnips,
potatoes, Swedifh turnips, cabbages, common turnips,
grains, and fome others ; and of the more dry forts, oil-
cake, and other matters of that kind, oats, barley-meal,
rye-flour, bean and pea-meal, and others of the fame nature,
with different forts of ftraw and haulm cut into chaff by
means of machinery, or hay cut in the fame manner. It is
ufual with fome to employ the different meals in a ftate of
mixture in nearly equal proportions, except the bean-meal,
which, from its heating quality, is moftly made ufe of in
fmaller quantities. But on the principle of frefh forts of
food having a more powerful effeA on the fyltems of ani-
mals, when lirft applied, it may be more beneficial to have
them given in alternation, or at diftant intervals, as their
effefts may in this way be more fully experienod. And in
refpedt to the cut ftraw and hay that are made life of in this
way, the firft (hould, contrary to the practice ufually
adopted, be prep.ircd from that which is f n (h threfhed out,
and not fuch as has been long packed together, and is be-
come fuHy. The hay, inftead of being of the inferior kind,
ihould be the belt the farm affords, and fuch as is not in the

S T A

leaft injured in the fmell or tafte by keeping. It has, how-
ever, been ftated by Mr. Dark of Hereforddiire, an ex-
perienced grazing farmer, that the more inferior fort of
hay has, by the addition of a very fmall proportion of com-
mon fait, been made to be preferred to the beft, when not
prepared in that way. The quantity of it ufed with flooded
meadow hay was only about eight pounds to the ton ; and
his oxen of the breed of that diltrift did better with it than
others which had the beft hay. The whole of the advantage
is afcribed to the portion of fahne matter mixed with it,
afling as a ftimulus or condiment on the ftomachs of the
animalss.

Upon the principles of this fort of feeding, the author
of the Syftem of PraAical Agriculture has offered feveral
phyfiological obfervations, that deferve attention, but which
our limits will not allow us to infert.

In this management, it is a matter of the utmoft import-
ance for the aiiimals to be kept conftantly free from ftanding
in any dirt or naftinefs, by having the dung daily removed
and cleaned out, and their- ftandings fwept out as clean as
poflible ; being then littered down with dry clean htter, fo
as to prevent any fort of naftinefs from adhering to their
fkins, or affording them uneafinefs during their fattening.
And in order to effeft the Uttering in the moft perfeft man-
ner, as much ftraw, or other fimilar matters, ftiould be
made ufe of as can be converted into manure, as from one
to two or three tons each beaft ; as the dung will fully re-
pay the expence of it, in the improvement which it mufl
afford to the land on which it is applied. In this procefs it
is alfo of much advantage to have the cattle fheltered, and
kept in a due degree of warmth, without being too hot ; ai
when the heat is too great, there may be difadvaiitage by
too much perfpiration being produced. In regard to the
giving of the food in this procefs, the ftate of the appetites
of the cattle, or other animals, fhould be nicely watched,
and the quantities adapted, fo as that it may be eaten up per-
feftly clean. With the more fwcet fucculent forts, too
much fhould not, however, be given at a time ; but be duly
combined with fome of the dry kind. And where cut dry
meat is chiefly employed, it is the beft praftice, probably,
to keep fome of it always in the cribs or boxes, fo that the
cattle may take it at pleafure, or as they find themfelves
djfpofed.

It has been ftated, that where fucculent food is made ufe
of with cut dry meat, which is in general a more profitable
method to the farmer than that of having recourfe to corn
and oil- cake, or the different forts of meals ftated above,
carrots, parfnips, potatoes, and the Swedifh turnip, would
feem to ftand the highelt as articles for this ufe ; the com.
mon turnip and cabbages having been found much inferior
in their fattening properties. The two firil are equal to
almolt any other fort of food in this view, being capable of
fattening the largelt cattle. And the moit general pratlice
is to employ thefe roots and plants without any other pre-
paration, except that of being fometimes cut, fliccd, or
chopped, in a box for the purpofe ; giving only a fmall
proportion at a time, at three or four different periods in
the courfe of the day, in cribs properly contrived for the
purpofe ; due fupplies of fuch cut ftraw, in mixture with
hay, being, where neceffary, provided and given in the in-
tervals of fuch feeds. It is found that in this method much
lets water w ill be neceffary, than when dry meat is wholly
m^de ufe of in the procefs, as the animals arc much lefs
thirdy from the fucculeiice of the food.

Farther, the nutritious properties of the carrot have been
found very confiderable, when employed in this way ; and
this root has fome great advantages, as the animals readily

take

STALL-FEEDING.

take to il, and a great proportion of food is capable of
being raifed on the acre. It was found by Mr. Young,
in his trials with this root, that the confumption with
an ox of about fixty itone weight was per day about ten
ftone, giving in addition cut hay and chaff, or fome other
fiinilar dry material. The parfnip is aifo a root of equal, it
not fnperior, merit in this maHagement. An acre of either
of thefe roots would complete the fattening of two luch
beads as the above, if taken from the pallures in a half-
fattened condition. It has indeed been fuggelted, that
thefe two roots and the potatoe approach the neareft of any
to that of the oil-cake in their fattening properties, but are
certainly inferior to that lubftance in this intention.

The white and red beets, and the fcarcity root, or mangel
wurzel, have alio been found highly beneficial in this appli-
cation.

And there have been many trials made with potatoes in
the Itall-fattening of animals, in which it has been fully
ftieivn that, both in the raw and boiled or Iteamed Hates,
they are a root tljat occafioiially anfwer very well. It has
been found, that fmall cattle of the Wellh and Scotch runt
kind have been afcertained to confume about a bufhel each
in the courfe of the day, with from fourteen to fixteen
pounds of hay, or fome other cut dry food. In the raw
Itate, fome dry food of thefe forts is indifpenfibly neceflary,
in order to correft the purgative quality of the root ; and
when boiled or (learned, it has likewife a good effeft in af-
fording due diitention to the Itomach. When given to
milch-cows in a raw ftate, the milk is found to be greatly
increafed, but to be of a poor thin quality. There can be
no doubt, but that where the (teaming or baking of the root
can be accomphfhed at a cheap rate, and in a convenient
manner, the food will be much better fuited to the purpoles
of flail-feeding, as being much more nutrient and agreeable
to the animals.

On this fubjeft it is flated by an excellent grazier, J. H.
Campell, efq. of Charlton, in Kent, in anfwer to queries
propofed to him by Mr. Young, that too bufhels of po-
tatoes and 700 weight of hay are generally fufficient to
fatten an ox that thrives tolerably well. And in giving
the roots, they (hould at firll be ufed in fmall quantities,
which fhould then be gradually increafed to one or two
bufliels^jfr day, dry food being always intermixed, and the
proportion of hay being uniformly regulated by the effeft
which the potatoes produce on the bowels. There ought
to be at leall four or five fervings in the courfe of a day, as
according to the quantity of roots which a beaft can be in-
duced to eat with appetite, he will fatten the fooner, and
of courfe with lefs expeace to the farmer, and confequently
more profit be obtained. The hay fhould be cut once, or,
if it be not very weighty, twice along and three times acrofs
the trufs, fo as to be in fquare pieces of eight or ten inches
III proportion ; in which Hate the cattle will eat it and digeft
it more readily, while their fattening is confiderably expe-
dited. But the potatoes need not, he thinks, be cut, ex-
cept at firlt, in order to entice the bealt to eat them ; but
they ought always to be frefh and clean. Corn or meal is
not abfolutely neceflary ; but when at a moderate price, it
may be employed with advantage. But in cafe a fcowering
(hould be brought on by the ufe of raw potatoes, which
often happens, the quantity of hay, meal, or other dry food
given with them, (hould be increafed confiderably, till the
bealU become accullomed to the roots, when this incon-
venience will be removed.

Stall-feeding of bullocks with potatoes, given in different
Hates of preparation, has been for fome time extenfively prac-
tiled in Suflex, and is much approved of by many. They

there find that a beaft of from one hundred and forty to one
hundred and fixty flone weight eats from one to two bufhels
of the roots in the courfe of the day, but confumes little
hay, as not much more than ten or twelve pounds, in that
fpace of time. This root has probably not yet been tried,
by giving it when artificially fprouted ; but it would per-
haps anfwer well in this way. Some have, however, lately
begun to queftion the merit of potatoes in this mode of
cattle-feeding, as not being fo valuable, when compared
with fome other forts of food. And a careful experimenter,
who was largely in the praiftice of fattening oxen with them,
it is faid, gave them up, from the convidlion that, with
every advantage of breed, attention, warmth, and clean-
linefs, in regard to the animals, they would not pay more
than four-pence the bufhel.

Further, the Swedifh turnip, when it is cultivated in a
proper manner, is a moll valuable root, when ufed in this
intention, being very fweet and palatable to the animals,
and at the fame time poflefling more nourifhing power than
the common turnip ; of courle, going much farther. In
fome trials which we have lately attended to, it was found
to have the advantage nearly in the proportion of one-
fourth ; and in other experiments, it is faid to have gone
ilill farther in this ufe.

Alfo cabbages, in combination with dry chaffy materials
of different kinds, have been long known to anfwer well in
keeping flore animals in the winter ; and, when made ufe of
with good hay, to be capable of fattening large cattle in an
expeditious manner. It has been found by correct trials,
that the daily confumption of this vegetable is moflly in the
proportion nearly of one-fifth the weight of the animal : of
courfe, an ox weighing about fixty Hone confumes about
twelve Hone/ii?r day. In fome experiments made long ago by
Mr. Turner, detailed in the fecond volume of Mr. Young's Six
Months' Tour, an ox of eighty Hone was found to confume
fifteen flone of this plant, with the addition of half a Hone
of hay. And that with regard to its properties of feeding
oxen put to it, when in low condition, in November, they
became in a ftate of fatnefs, and ready for the market, in
the March following, having the weight of eighty ilone ;
moftly increafing in value in the courfe of four months,
about five pounds ten lliillings. It is evident that, in this
proportion, an acre of this crop of thirty tons would be
fufRcient for ftall-fattening tliree beafts of the fame fize and
weight.

And common turnips, according to Mr. Marlhall, are,
in Norfolk, given in different ways to cattle in fattening
them ; as by being drawn and thrown thinly and evenly
upon the grafs, ftubble, and other lands, in order that the
cattle may confume them in fuch fituations ; in which cafes,
they have not any allowance of hay during the whole pro-
cefs of fattening.

But another mode of giving this root to fattening cattle
is, it is faid, by means of clofe bins, or fmall cribs, with
boards or bars nearly clofe at the bottom, while the beafts
are kept in a loofe ftraw-yard. Thefe bins are difperfed
over the yard, and the turnips are put into them whole ; the
tap-root, and alfo the tops, unlefs they are frefh and pa-
latable, being previoufly cut off, fo that the fattening ani-
mals receive only the bulbs; the tops, if eatable, being
confumed by Hore cattle. And that while the bullocks
are in the yard, they have the ftraw fometimes given them
in cribs, and at others it is fcattered in fmall heaps about
the yard, twice or thrice a day : the quantity thus eaten is
very trifling ; and with the laft mentioned management, the
yard becomes evenly littered without farther trouble. But
this mode of fattening is attended with fomewhat more
2 labour

STALL-FEEDING.

labour than that of throwing turnips abroad, which, it is
thought, is the preferable management, if the foil be fufR-
ciently dry to fupport the (lock, and light enough to Hand
in need of being rendered firm by treading ; on the con-
trary, where the land is deep, and the feafon is wet or fevere,
the (traw-yard is the more comfortable place, provided it
be kept dry and well littered, and be furnifhed with open
fheds, in which the ilock can (helter themfelves. For
though the teaihe of fattening cattle abroad is greatly bene-
ficial to light foils ; yet, if bullocks, while fed in the yard
with turnips, are well littered, they will make a large
quantity of excellent manure, that will amply compenfate
for the additional labour occafioned in that way.

A Hill farther method confifts in keeping the cattle tied
up in italls, hovels, or beneath open flieds, with mangers
or troughs for receiving the turnips, which, in this cafe,
are frequently fliced, or more generally, though perhaps
lefs eligibly, cut into quarters, by means of a fmall chopper,
upon a narrow board or Itool, beneath which is a bafliet for
catching the pieces.

It has, however, been fuppofed that turnips, though
very frequently employed in the procefs of it all- feeding, are
greatly inferior to cabbages, as, befides their being more
liable to injury, they probably pofiefs the fattening pro-
perty in a lefs degree than any of the fubftances that have
been noticed above. And the proportion in which they
are conlumed by the fattening ftock has been found to be
fomething more than a third of the weight of the cattle, by
fome ; but by others, about a third in the day, as ftated in
the Gentleman Farmer. However, in other experiments,
carefully made, an ox of from feventy to eighty ftone has
been afcertained to eat fomething lefs than three hundred
weight in the courfe of the day, befides chaff and hay ; and
fmall cows of about thirty ftone, one hundred weight and
three quarters in the fame fpace of time. And in the Rev.
Mr. Clofe's trials, it was found, that when confumed in
flails or (beds, an acre of good turnips will completely
veinter-fat an ox of fifty fcore, befides affording manure for
an acre and a half of land ; but if fed upon the land, two
acres will not fatten one fo well, and the dreffing will be
partial, and of but little value. When this root is given in
the ftall, from its very fucculent nature, it becomes necef-
fary to employ as much dry food as poflible during the ufe
©f it, in order to the expeditious fattening of cattle by
fuch means.

It has alfo been praftically remarked by a late writer,
that the turnip is often employed in the fattening of fhecp,
fomewhat in this way ; and that in this application it is fre-
quently advantageous, where the management is conduftcd
with judgment. But to derive the greatell profit from this
praftice, it is probably the beil method to only make ufe of
them for fuch fheep as are in a confiderable ftate of for-
wardnefs ; as fuch as are poor, when turned to this fort of
food, are leldom found to pay well for it. Every farmer
who has applied turnip crops in this way, mull, it is faid,
have found this to be the cafe. Where the foils are fuffi-
ciently dry, the bell method of confuming them may be on
the lands, by means of hurdling ; but under the contrary
circumilanccs, they may be drawn and eaten upon a dry
piece of fward.

Turnips, as well as potatoes, have been fteamed for this
purpofe. See Steaming nf Cattle-Food.

As to the uie of brewers' grains, they can only be had
recourfe to in this way in particular fituations, as near large
towns, or other places where they can be had at a reafon-
able rate, and in fuf&cient quantity ; and of this fort of

food, that which is the produce of large dillilleries is found
the moft beneficial in this fort of feeding. The quantity
made ufe of for moderate fized beafts is ufually from a
bulhel to a bufliel and a half, three times in the courfe of
the day ; hay or cut dry food being given between the
periods of feeding with thefe matters. But this fort of
fubftance feems to be much lefs powerful in its fattening
properties, than any of thoie articles that have been men-
tioned above. Still, with good hay, it is probable that
thefe matters may be made to fatten animals in a tolerably
expeditious manner.

But befides thefe different fubftances, there are others of
a lefs fucculent quality employed in this praftice : the firft,
perhaps, in refpeft to the properties of feedng, is that of
oil-cake, that is, the refufe material left after exprefTing the
oil from linfeed. See 0\\.-Cahe.

It is afl'erted that thefe cakes have a very extraordinary
effeft on cows bcforq calving, caufing their milk to flow
more copioufly, and preparing the animal in a good manner
for the period of calving. But as the fat of bealls, fattened
on oil-cake, is not fuppofed by fome fo good for food, and
to be of a lefs firm texture, it has been advifed to fubllitute
linfeed jelly, which is infinitely fuperior, and which, when
mixed with a due proportion of hay or meal, affords an ex-
cellent compofition for ftall-feeding and fattening. This
jelly is prepared in the following manner : to feven parts of
water one part of linfeed is only put, for 48 hours ; then
boil it flowly for two hours, gently ftirring the whole, left
it (hould burn ; afterwards it ihould be cooled, and mixed
with meal, bran, or cut chaff. In the experiment of Mr.
Moody, an eminent grazier, two quarts of this jelly were
ufed per day to every large bullock, which proportion
amounts to little more than one quart of feed in four days,
and produced a great faving in the article of food in this
procefs. And in America, experiments have been made
with I'lnfced-otl, mixed with the meal of Indian corn. The
ftall-fed llcer, to which this compofition was given, was ob-
ferved to thrive rapidly, and to fweat moft profufely ; but,
through inattention, too large a proportion of oil was given
at one time with the food, which difgufted the bead, and
occafioned the experiment to be difcontinued. There can,
however, be no doubt but that linfeed or flax-feed jelly is
more agreeable to cattle than cake, while it renders them
lefs liable to furfeit, in cafe an extra quantity fhould be ac-
cidentally given ; and is lefs liable to affeft the meat with a
peculiar talte than either oil or cake, and confcquently it
merits a further trial. To each bullock, or fattening ani-
mal, about half a gallon of jelly may be given every day,
mixed with meal and cut ftraw ; but it will be rcqnifite to
change this food about a month before the bcaft is killed, to
prevent, if pofTiblc, the flefti from retaining the fl.ivour of
the oil-cake or jelly, as they, each of them, may be liable
to afTeft it in fome mcafure.

Further, where fheep are fattened with oil-cake, they
require it to be brought into a much finer ftate than for
cattle in general, and which may then be mixed with bran,
or other fimilar fubftances, and put in the troughs or cribs
for the animals to feed at.

Alfo, on the fame principle as that of oil-cake, the ufe of
linfced-oil and bran has been attempted, but probably with
lefs fucceis in the application. The confumption in this
mode, for beafts of the fmaller fize, is fomething more than
half a peck of bran three times in the day, witli a third of a
pint of linfecd-oil well ilirrod into it: with this, good hay
or cut chaff is ufnally given. But it is a mode attended
with more trouble than that of cake-feeding, without any

great

S T A

great fuperiority in the effea that is produced ; and it can
only be employed where the oil is cheap, and to be had
with convenience. l - .u

Linfeed and barley mixed and ground together, in the
proportion of two pecks of the former to two bu(hel= and a
half of the latter, have been found very beneficial >n Hall-
feeding, in Suflex, when given to fummer-foiled or pallured
animah in the yards, in the beginning ot the winter feafon.
Of this mixture each ox has two bufliels in the week given
him, befidcs wheat-chaff and hay. They fatten rapidly, it
is faid, in this way. .

And another article, equal, if not fuperior, to any ot
thefe laft kinds, in this fort of fattening, is that of oats,
which msy be given either in the ftraw or when threfhed ;
for neat cattle it is probably bell given in the former Itate,
but for (lieep in the latter, in (hallow troughs or cribs made
for the purpofc, lo as to prevent its being blown out of
them. The confumption, in this fort of food by (heep, is
ufually from two or three to four or more pounds each per
day, according to the fize and kind which are fattened ; but
with neat cattle it muft be proportioned to the animals in
different nfpeCls.

Where barley or other meals are employed, they are belt
made ufe of in their dry ftates for .Hieep, in mixture with
the cut or other matters that are given at the fame time in
their cribs or bins ; but for neat cattle they are fometimes
mixed up and blended with liquid materials in different
forms. Thefe fubftances have much effeft in promoting the
fattening of the animals j but they can feldom be made ufe
of with much profit, except for the beft fort of cattle or
flieep. Where (heep are fattening on the turnips, thefe
forts of food are alfo excellent in correfting the watery pro-
perties of that root. Several other fubftances of the dry
kind have hkewife been employed in the ftall-feeding of dif-
ferent forts of animals, fuch as the dull and combs of malt,
cut pea and bean-haulm, and other fimilar matters, which
have been found highly beneficial.

Alfo, in this practice, the ufe of food in a four ftate hal
been advifed by fome ; as in this condition, it is faid, ex-
perience has (hewn it to be ufeful in the keeping and fatten-
ing of fwinc. But experiments are ilill wanting on this
fubjeft. And on the fame principle, it has been recom-
mended as a food for large cattle, which has been done by
fermenting rye, flour, and water, into a kind of pafte, and
then diluting it with water ; and alfo, when thickened with
hay, cut fmall, it is faid to fatten quickly. This praftice
chiefly prevails in France, whence it was introduced into
this country. But concerning the efficacy of acid food in
ftall-fattening animals, there is much difference of opinion.

It may be itated, that it is now found that the walh or
refufe of malt, remaining after diftillatiou, which was for-
merly applied cxclufively to the feeding of fwine, may
be ufed in this way with prolit ; and that it has, of late
years, been applied v.'ith much fuccefs. The cattle fed
in this manner are affcrted, not only to repay the expence
of their keeping, by fattening fpeedily, but alfo to yield
a large quantity of valuable manure. This fubftance
has been extenfively and fuccefsfuUy applied in ftall-feeding
by MclUs. Hodgfon and Co., the proprietors of Boling-
brokc-Houfe di'.lillery, Batterfea, near London, where the
proprietors have erefted ftalls for fattening about 350 head
of cattle at one time, with wafh and grains, and a certain
portion of hay per diem, with the view~of enabling them to
chew the cud. They are faid, between Odober and April,
which 18 their regular working feafon ij^ the diftillery, to
fatten about 600 bullocks; having generally about 300

S T A

in the houfe tied up at one time, and about 100 in an ad-
joining orchard to take in, to replace fuch as are fold off,
or in confequence of any expectation of an approaching ad-
vance in meat. They have no ftated period for fattening
thefe bullocks, being regulated entirely by the ftate of the
markets ; but from ten to iixteen weeks are about the ufual
time, and the cattle are found to gain, upon an average,
from three to four Hone per week.

Another fubltance has been employed in this way with
equal fuccefs, which is that of moloffes or treacle ; though
the expence incurred by the ufe of this article will probably
prevent its general application. It was firll ufed in the
Weft Indies by Mr. Millington, who found it, in combina-
tion with farinaceous fubftances, and, when thefe could not
be procured, with cane-tops, oil-cake, and other articles of
dry food, together with a little hay, or not too green fod-
der, greatly to expedite the fattening of cattle in general, and
of old and decayed oxen in particular. He gave from half
a pint to a pint of moloffes twice in the day to very ftarving
animals, which had been exhaufted by continual and fe-
vcre labour for a feries of years. In adopting this article,
a gallon of oats, or other damaged grain, roughly ground,
or the fame quantity of potatoes, (hould be boiled in a fuf-
ficient proportion of water to form a thick walh. It mull
be well ftirred while on the fire, to prevent it from burn-
ing or (ticking to the fides of the veffel ; and when it be.
comes cool, the mixture is to be formed into balls of about
one pound weight each. Thefe balls are divided into two
equal portions, which, being previoufly immerfcd in the
treacle, arc given to the beafts morning and evening. They
will devour them with eagernefs, and will fpeedily thrive
and fatten by the addition of a little hay, or any green
fodder, that is not too fucculent. Farther, one or two
fpoonfuls of fait may be diffolved in the compolition, which
will contribute to prcferve the health of the animals ; and
in cafe corn cannot be conveniently procured and ground,
pulverized oil-cake, diluted in water, and feafoned with a
fmall quantity of fait, with the fame proportion of moloffes,
may be advantageoudy fubftituted. And there are pro-
bably many other refufe faccharine or fweet fubftances,
formed in different manufadtures, that might be employe^
in the fattening ot cattle in this way.

Where this lort of bufinefs is condufted on an extenfive
fcalc, it is of the greateft utihty to have a machine for the
occafional weighing of the cattle, as they advance in their
fattening ; as, without fuch affiftance, there are but few
perfons who are capable of judging whether they go on in
a profitable manner or not. But by weighing them from
time to time, at the diftance of every eight or ten days, in
the morning before they are fed, this may be correftly alcer-
tained ; and where they fall off, or do not advance in a fuf-
ficient degree to the preceding weighing, fuch changes may
be made in their food, water, and management, as are the
moft likely to promote their fattening in the mo(l perfeft
manner, and witii the greateft profit.

STALLAGE, Stallagium, in our Old Writers, the
liberty, or right of pitching and crefting ftalls in fairs and
markets, or the money paid for the fame.

STALLATI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala-
bria Ultra ; i mile E.S.E. of Squillace.

STALLED, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying tired
with eating in animals, or a kind of loathing of food in them.
It alfo fignifies fet fail m a Hough or bad road with carts or
w'aggons.

STALLING, in jigrlculture, a term applied to the
practice of foddering, feeding, and fattening neat cattle

in

S T A

in flails, or the tying or binding them up in them for any
other purpofe.

STALLION, in the Manege, in French elalon, a ftone-
horfe kept to breed. See Horse, and Breeding of Hokses.
In the reign of Henry VIL a large number of mares, as
well as geldmgs, were turned after harvell into the common
paitures, and no ftoned horfeg were allowed to mix with
them ; and it is at this day contrary to law to turn a ftoned
horfe into a common pallure. Thofe horfes which were
kept to cover mares were always confined in fafe and in-
clofed grounds, but more frequently in the ftable, and were
called " eqiii ad itabulum," by conlraAion, J}al!um. Hence
were derived the Italian term " italloni," the French
" etalon," the Englilh " ftallion," or " Italled" horfe ;
which cxpreflion prevails, and is in ufe at prefent with re-
gard to the ox, which fometimes being kept from the paf-
ture in order to be fattened, is called " the ilall-fcd" and
♦' ftalled" ox. In the reign of the fucceeding prince, par-
ticular regard was paid to the raifing of a breed of good
and llrong horfes, and laws were made for the more certain
attainment of this end. The only method of fecuring
ftrength and fize in the progeny, is to feleft the fires and
dams of a certain proportion, fize, and mould, and to permit
no mare or ftallion to breed, but under thefe reftriftions.
In order further to fecure a breed of large horfes, a fingular
kind of law was palled, which obliged every archbifhop and
duke, under penalties, to keep feven trotting ftoned horfes
for the faddlc, each of which was to be fourteen hands high
at the age of three years. Afterwards minute direiftions
were iilued, with regard to the number of horfes of the fame
kind, which were to be kept by other ranks and degrees,
each in proportion to their circumftances and ftation.

The reafons for enjoining ftone-horfes to be kept muft
have been for the fake of breeding, and for the fuperior
labour they were thought to be able to undergo ; and as
they were more expenfive to maintain than mares or geld-
ings, it being necellary to feparate and keep them apart, the
rich and noble only were required to keep them in numbers
proportioned to their rank and ability ; while the lower
people ufed geldings, for the advantage of turning them to
grafs. Brood-mares, two at leaft, were ordered to be kept
by thofe who had parks, inclofures, and other conveniencies.
Berenger's Horfemanlhip, vol. i.

STALLUPONEN, or Stai.lupehoken, in Geography,
a town of Pruffian Lithuania, the principal trade of which
confilts in cattle ; 33 miles S.E. of Tilfit. N. lat. 54° 33'.
E. long. 22° 58'.

STALOWITZ, a town of Lithuania ; 10 miles from
Pinlk.

STALTWASSER, a river of Wurtemburg, which
runs into the Lein, 2 miles S. of Welzen.

STAMBACH, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach ; 12 miles E. of Culmbach.

STAMEN, in Botany and Vegetable Phyftolegy, the an-
cient Latin name for the part in qucftion, now become
Englifli in the place of its old appellation, chive. The fta-
mens are organs of impregnation, effential to every flower,
either in the fame individual with the piftils, or in a cor-
refponding one of the fame fpecies. (See Pistillum, and
Fecundation of Plants. ) They are feated externally with
refpedl to the piftil, internally with rcfpeft to the calyx and
corolla. They are inferted either into the calyx, the co-
rolla, or the receptacle, rarely either upon the germen, or
the ftylc. Their number differs in different genera or fpe-
cies of flowers, from one to an hundred or more.

Each Stamen commonly confifts of two parts, the FlLA-
VoL. XXXIIL

S T A

MEKT and Anther ; fee thofe articles. The latter only
is eflential, being of a capfular texture, containing the Pol-
len, wliofe nature and office will be found explained in it»
proper place. The Anther, when arrived at maturity, either
burfts by the contraftion of its membranous coat, or opens
by appropriate cells for the difcharge of the pollen, of which
laft circumftance the genus Erica affords beautiful examples.
In Laurus and Leontice, even in fome fpecies of Solanum,
each cell of the anther has a proper lid. Thefe cells are
ufually two ; but in Tetratheca and Vatica they are four.
Sometimes the anther is ornamented with a crefl, or with a
pair of briftles, of both which various Erica: exhibit fpeci-
mens. In Pinus the crefts of the anthers prove ufeful far
fpecific difcrimination.

The Stamens, according to their number, Ctuation, and
proportion, furnifh the leading principles of diftinSion in
the artificial, or fexual, fyftem of Linnaeus ; fee Classifica-
TiON. — Thefe organs are liable to be changed into petals, in
what are termed double flowers ; and if that change be com-
plete, they can no longer ferve the purpofe of impregnation.

STAxMFORD, in Geography. See Stanford.

Stamford, a townftiip of Upper Canada, in the county
of Lincoln, lying on the W. fide of Niagara river, and S.
of Newark. A port of entry and clearance is eftabliftied
in this townfhip, on the N. bank of Chippawa river, near
the bridge. — Alfo, a townfhip of Vermont, in Bennington
county ; containing 378 inhabitants. — Alfo, a poft-town
of Connefticut, in Fairfield county, on a fmall ftream
called Mill-river, which difcharges itfelf into Long Ifland
found; containing a congregational and epifcopal church,
and 4440 inhabitants ; 10 miles S.W. of Norwalk, and 44
N.E. of New York. This townfhip was formerly called
" Rippowanns," and was fettled in 1641. — Alfo, a poft-
town of New York, in Delaware county, taken from Wood-
ftock, and incorporated in 1792, containing 284 families, and
1658 inhabitants ; 60 miles S.W. from Albany. — Alfo, a
poft-town in Lincoln county, Kentucky ; 628 miles from
Walhington.

Stamford IJlands, a clutter of fmall iflands near the coaft
of North Carolina. N. lat. 34° 37'. W. long. 77° 10'.

STAMINA. See Stamen.

Sta.mina, in the Animal Body, are thofe fimplc, original
part!, which exifted firft in the embryo, or even in the feed ;
and by whofe diftinftion, augmentation, and accretion by
additional juices, the human body, at its utmoft bulk, is
fuppofed to be formed.

All that is effential to the animal, are the ftamina, which
exifl in ovo ; the reft being foreign, additional, and even
accidental.

The ftamina feem to coincide with the folids, which are
furprifingly fmall in quantity.

STAMITZ, John, in Biography, the illuftrious father
of a renowned mufical family, concert-mafter and direftor of
the chamber mufic, or court concerts of the eleftor palatine
at Manheim, in 1756, was born at Teutechebrodt, in Bo-
hemia, where his father was cantor in the principal church.
It was during his time, and by his example, that German
fymphonics, in a ftylc different from the overtures of Lulli,
Handel, and the Italian opera compofers, began to be cul-
tivated and in favour all over Europe. It was under
him that the late earl of Kelly placed himfelf as a fcholar
on the violin, and a ftudent in compofition ; ,and it was alfo
under him that the Manheim band, by its ^pcrimcnts and
new effefts, became, during tliirty years, the moll celebrated
in the mufical world.
Tho genius of Stamitz was truly original, bold, and
4 X Dervousf

S T A

nervous : itiTention, fire, and contraft, in his quick moTe-
ments; a tender, graceful, and infinuating melody, in the
flow ; together with the ingenuity and nchne s ot the ac-
companiments i charadlerizehis produdions, all replete with
great cffeds, produced by an enthufiafm of genius, retined,
but not reprefled, by cultivation.

The following is a lill of his principal works, which we
advife true lovers and judge- of good mufic to purchafe
wherever they can find them : as, though more than forty years
old, in fpite of faihion and a rage for novelty, they will long
continue to be good mufic ; " VI Sonate da Camera a 2 Vio-
lini e Baflo," Noremb. 1 761. " VI Sonate a Violino Solo
e BalTo, Op. 6," Paris. " VI Concerte de Violon k plu-
fieurs Inllrum." Par. " VI Sonates choifies pour le Clave-
cin avec Violon, Op. ima." Paris. In MS. he left un-
published, fix fymphonies, twenty-one violin concertos, two
harpfichord concertos, and nine violin folos.

Stamitz, Charles, the worthy fon of fo great a father,
was born at Manheim in 1 746, and itudied under Canabich.
In 1767 he was admitted into the eleftor palatine's chapel,
as principal fecond violin. He has travelled fince all over
Europe, and given fpecimens of his fpirited compofitions and
performance, particularly on the tenor. He was in England
about the year 1780, and performed at Bach and Abel's
concerts. He compofcd a duet for a violin and tenor, which
Cramer and himfelf performed to the wonder and delight of
all hearers. This duct has often been played fince by great
performers on the tenor, violin, and violoncello. On this
inilrument, we believe Linley was the laft.

In 1770 Charles Stamitz went to Paris, where he gained
great applaufe by his compofitions and performance on the
tenor and viol d' amour. In 1785 he returned to his own
country, and exercifed his fkill and talents at Berlin, Dref-
dcn, and Helle Caflel : in all which places he continued
writing for almoft all kinds of inilruments.

Stamitz, Anthony, the younger brother of Charles,
was born in 17 J3, and became eminent likewife by his com-
pofitions and performance.

STAMMERING, in Phyfiology, an hefitation or inter-
ruption of fpcech, which feems generally to arife from fear,
cagernefs, or fome violent paffion, that prevents a child's arti-
culating rightly, by the confufion which it occafions in the
vibrations that defcend into the mufcular fyftem, fo that, find-
ing himfelf wrong, he attempts again and again, till he hits
upon the true found. It does not therefore begin, in general,
till children are of an age to dillinguith right from wrong in
refpeft of pronunciation, and to articulate with tolerable
propriety. A nervous diforder of the mufcles of fpeech
may have a like efftft. When the trick of Hammering has
once begun to take place in a few words, it will extend itfelf
to more and more from very flight relemblances, and par-
ticularly to all the firft words of fentences, becaufe then the
organs pafs in an inftant from inaftivity to aftion, whereas
the fubfequent parts of words and fentences may follow the
foregoing from allociation ; juit as in repeating memoriler,
one is molt apt to hefitate at the firft word in each fentence.
A defeft of memory from pafilon, natural weaknefs, &c. fo
that the proper word does not occur readily, alfo occafions
ftammering, and, like all other modes of fpeaking, it is
caught, in fome cafes, by imitation.

Sometimes ftammering takes place only in the utterance
of fuch words as begin with certain letters, which are ge-
nerally fome of the labial or guttural confonants, as b, p,
m, c, g, Sec. Some perfons, on the contrary, ftammer in the
utterance of all words iodifcriminately, with whatever letter
they begin, whether they be vowel or confonant, at certain

S T A

times only ; as e. g. when the fpeaker is placed iii any fitu-
ation that occafions hurry or embarrafl'ment. Agreeably to
the obfervations already made, we find that perfons of great
nervous irritability, and lively confcioufnefs, are moft liable to
ftammering. This fort of impediment is a bad habit, founded
upon this conftitutional fufceptibility : and in attempting to
remove ftammering, while every attention (liould be paid to
fuch means as phylical and medical fcience will point out for
the ftrengthening of the corporeal fyftem, it is of the utmoft
importance to induce the perfons affefted with it to reafon on
the fubjeft. Let them praftife the formation of tiie compo-
nent parts of words, (that is, fimple vocal founds and the
powers of the confonants,) fingly, and in combination, alter-
nately, till a facility and habit of fubjefting the mufcles
concerned in fpeech to the will be acquired or regained.
They ftiould be accultomed to confider that which is true in
faft, that the organs of fpeech are moved by mufcles which,
from the laws of animal economy, are the iuftruments of the
will ; though we are conlcious of an aft of the will only at
the commencement of fuch aftions.

To counteract ftammering, therefore, we rauft appeal to
the underftanding, and endeavour to aroufe the will into
vigilant and vigorous controul of the mufcles. When a hefi-
tation happens, let a volition or direft aft of this power take
place : firft to ceafe mufcular motion altogether, and then to
commence a new feries. The grcaleft deliberation and re-
colleftion fhould be ufed in ordinary converfation ; and the
aft of fpeaking, as fuch fliould be conllantly prefent to the
mind, till the wrong habit be overcome, and the right fo
confirmed as to leave no room to apprehend a relapfe. The
voice fhould be carefully pitched at that tone which nature
in the individual points out as eafieft to the organs, and moft
agreeable to the ear ; and by no means ftiould a hurried
pronunciation, or fiftitious voice, be reforted to. It (hould
be ftudioufly remembered, that we are accountable to no
one for the innocent and decorous exercife of our mufcular
powers — that over them we ourfelves alone ought to have
controul — that fpeech, on proper occafions, is not only an
innocent and a decorous, but, in the eyes of others, a ne-
cefiary and an agreeable exercife of our mufcles. Why
then be thrown into perturbation and confufion, when we
are to perform an aftion, confcftedly in our power ; and
which others have not only no right to prevent, but are de-
firous that we fliould perform i If this train of rcafoniog
be fairly entered upon, many other arguments will fuggeil
themfelves, and muft inevitably produce good.

The following direftions, with variations according to
circumftances, will be found to be attended with advantage,
if duly and perfeveringly complied with.

In order to raife a voice, or that material of which fpeech
is formed, let the vowels be praftifed in a natural key, but
with firmnefs and ftrength, for ten minutes or a quarter of
an hour, at leaft, every morning. Then let the powers of
the confonants be formed, in their order, fingly, and variouQy
combined with the vowels.

After a little reft, if imagination fupply a fubjeft, by all
means let an imaginary converfation take place for twenty
minutes, half an hour, or even an hour, in a firm and natural
tone of voice, ufing every effort of fancy, to fuppofe it di-
refted to perfons indifcriminately ; that is, fometimes to
fervants, fometimes to equals in age and rank, and fome-
times to elders, or thofe confidered as fuperior in confe-
quence and rank in fociety, from whatever caufe. But if
imagination do not furniih a topic, then let the time be
fpent in reading, in a tone as nearly approaching to the eafe of
familiar converfation as poflible, taking care to manage the
4 fancy

S T A

fancy as above. This will furnifli the lefTon : — and after an in-
terval of a few hours, the fame fort of converfation or read-
ing fhould be repeated, two or three times more in the courfe
of a day. And on mixing with real auditors, every exertion
fhould be made to alTociate the ideas of their imaginary, with
their adtual prefence.

Thefe direflions, it will be perceived, are founded upon
the principle of the allociation of ideas ; than which a more
powerful principle, in the formation of human habits, cannot
be conceived.

An ingenious writer, whofe obfervations we are now citing,
5S of opinion, that it may be laid down as an incontrovertible
pofition, that perfons poflefiing an ordinary mental capacity,
with an adequate (hare of induftry and ilrength, may cer-
tainly overcome the habit of Hammering, by means fach as
here pointed out. See " Inftruftion of the Deaf and
Dumb," &c. by Jofeph Watfon, LL.D. 2 vols. 8vo.
1809.

STAMNOS, an urn, or veffel for holding water. Some
authors have made it fignify the bucket-head, as it is called,
of thofe alembics which have no worm, but are cooled about
the head by this means.

STAMP, a term ufed in fome places for a weir, or water-
fall.

STAMP-Duties, are a tax impofed upon all parchment and
paper, on which any legal proceedings, or private inllru-
ments of almoft any nature whatfoever are written ; and alfo
upon licences for retaihng wines of all denominations ; upon
all almanacs, newfpapers, advertifements, cards, dice, and
pamphlets containing lefs than fix (heets of paper. Thefe
impoits are very various, according to the nature of the
thing ilamped.

This tax, though in many inllances very burdenfome, is
of fervice to the public in general, by authenticating inft.ru-
ments, rendering it much more difficult than formerly to
forge deeds of any ftanding ; fince, as the officers of this
branch of the revenue vary their ftamps frequently, by
marks perceptible to none but themfelves, a man that would
forge a deed of king Wilham's time mult know, and be able
to counterfeit the Itamp of that date alfo.

The firlt inititution of the flamp-duties was by ftatute
1^ 8c 6 Will, and Mar. c. 21 ; and they have fince, in many
inllances, been increafed by fubfcquent Itatutes very far
above their original amount. It would far exceed the limits
of this work to recite all the duties of this kmd that already
exifl ; but it may not be improper to mention fome of thofe
that are mod common.

By 44 Geo. III. c. 98. the feveral ftamp-duties granted
by any aft of parliament then in force were repealed, and
upon every almanac or calendar, for any time not exceed-
ing one year, was impofed the duty of is. ; for each and
every year for which almanacs or calendars for feveral
years fhall be made, publifiied, or intended, is. ; and for a
perpetual almanac or calendar, los. The calendar or per-
petual almanac in any bible or common prayer book is
fpecially exempted. Books or pamphlets ferving the pur-
pofe of an almanac or calendar are fubjcft to the fame duty
refpeftivcly, and to the fame exemptions. (Sec Almanac.)
For the Ifamp-duty on newfpapers and pamphlets, fee
NEW.sr.\PEU.s.

By 44 Geo. III. c. 98. the feveral duties before impofed
upon cards and dice made in Great Britain were repealed,
and a new duty was impofed upon fuch cards and dice, viz.
upon every pack of cards which fhall be made fit for laic or
ufe in Great Britain, 2/. (>ii. ; and upon every pair of dice
fit for fale or ufe in Great Britain, i/. See Cauds.

In one of the ads, viz, 10 Ann. <;. 19. relating to the

S T A

ftamp-duties, which are become in proccfs of time Tery
numerous and intricate, there is a claufe which brings aU
the reft within the jurifdiftion of the jufticcs of the peace,
and it is as follows : Two jufticcs refiding near the place
where any pecuniary forfeitures not exceeding 20/., or any
aft touching any of the duties under the management of the
commiffioners of the duties on ftamped vellum, parchment,
and paper, (hall be incurred, or any olfence againll any of
the fame afts (hall be committed in any wife relating to the
fame duties, by which any fum of money only may be for-
feited, may hear and determine the fame ; who (hall, on in-
formation or complaint, within a year after the feizure made
or olTence committed, fummon the party accufcd, and wit-
nefles ; and may ilTue warrants for levying the penalties
by dittrefs and fale, if not redeemed in fix days. The
faid juftices may at pleafure mitigate the penalties, the
charges being firll allovried ; fo that they do not reduce the
penalty to lefs than double duty, over and above the faid
charges. The juftice, before whom the offending perfon is
convifted, (hall levy the penalty, and apply the fame as the
aft direfts ; and in default of fufficient direftion, the fame
(hall be applied, half to the king, and half to the perfon
who (hall profecute for the fame, if within fix months after
the offence is committed ; but if after fix months, the whole
(hall go to the king (26 Geo. III. c. 82.) ; which convic-
tion (hall be filed by the clerk of the peace, and (hall not be
removable by certiorari into any other court ; but never-
thelefs fubjeft to appeal to the quarter-feffions, in fuch
manner as by any former aft is direfted. But now by the
(tat. 44 Geo. III. c. 98. f. 10. no aftion or information
fliall be commenced or filed in any court, or before any juf-
tice or juftices of the peace, for any penalty or forfeiture
under any of the (tamp afts, but in the name of the attorney,
general, or in the name of the folicitor or fome other officer
of the ilamp-duties. And all penalties and forfeitures under
the itamp-afts are to be applied to the ufe of the king, &c. ;
but the commiffioners of the (lamps may give fuch part of
the penalty to the informer a: they may think expedient.

By the 44 Geo. III. c. 98. all the duties and drawbacks
under the care of the commiffioners of the ftamps (liall ceafe
from Oftober 10, 1804, except as to the recovering of any
penalties incurred previoufly thereto ; and after that time
certain duties are made payable, as fpecified in the Ichedules
to that aft annexed. By the 4S Geo. III. c. 149. the fe-
veral duties in the fchediile (A) to the former aft annexed
are repealed, excepting in certain cafes.

By 55 Geo. III. c. 184. the duties granted by 48 Geo. III.
c. 149. are repealed, together with the duties on pawn-
brokers' licences (44 Geo. III. c. 98.), and thofe on po-
licies of infurance in the Well Indies, or elfcwhere beyond
the leas, granted in the 50th year of hh majcfty's reign,
and the per-centage duty on infurances againll fire, granted
by 44 Geo. III. c. 98, all arrears excepted. The duties
fpecified in the fchedule annexed to 55 Geo. III. c. 184.
are to be levied, and are committed to the management of
the commiffioners of ftamps, who are to provide proper
(lamps, &c. By the fame aft, any perfon aftually forging
ftamps, &c. and his aider or abettor, being lawfully con-
vifted, ftiall fuller death as a felon, without benefit of
clergy. It is further enafted, that all powers and provi-
fions of former afts, together with fines, forfeitures. Sic.
(hall extend to this aft. The provifions of former afts re-
fpefting agreements (hall be applied only to thofe that are
charged with i/. ; and it is enafted, that the .igreements
charged with a duty of lA 15J. (liall be fubjeft to the fame
regulations as deeds hereby charged with a like duty. This
aft provides, that inltruments having wrung (lamps, but of
4X2 fuffici«nt

STAMP-DUTIES.

fufficient value, <hall be valid ; except in cafes where the
(lamps ufed on fuch iiillruments (hall have been fpecially ap-
propriated to any other inftrumcnt, by having its name on
the face thereof. It is further e/iaded, that the penalty for
making, accepting, or paying bills of exchange, &c. with-
out being duly (lamped, (hall be the forfeiture of 50/. ; and
the penalty of poll-dating bills of exchange, &c. .had be
the forfeiture of lOoA The penalty for ilfumg unllamped
drafts on banker.., without fpecifying the place where
ilTued, or if poil-datcd, is lOo/. The penalty for receiving
fuch drafts i^ 20/., and on bankers for paying them, lOO/.
It is enacted, that promidory notes to bearer on demand,
not exceeding lOo/., may be re-ilTued by the original makers,
without further duty ; nor (hall fuch notes be liable to
further duty, though re-illued by certain perfons, not
ftriaiy the original makers. Notes re-ilFuable under 48 or
53 Geo. III. are to continue re-idusble till the end of three
years from the date ; the penalty on each fraud in the bufi-
nefs being 50/. The penalty on idiiing promilFory notes
for the payment of money to the bearer on demand, with
printed dates, is 50/. Notes re-ifluable for a limited period
are to be cancelled, on payment afterwards ; and notes not
re-ilfuable are to be cancelled immediately on payment.
The penalty for re-ilTuing notes, &c. contrary to law, and
for not cancelling tliera, is 50/. : the penally for taking
rotes, &c. re-ilTued contrary to law, is 20/. However,
notes and bills of the bank of England are exempted from
(lamp-duty ; and any fuch notes may be re-i(i'ued after pay-
ment, as often as it fhall be thought fit. The compofition
annually payable by the governor and company of the bank
of England, for the duties on their bills and notes, is the
fum of 3500/. for every million, and after that rate for half
a million, but not for a lefs fum than half a million, of the
faid averagement or value of their faid notes and bank poll-
bills in circulation : but when the governor and company
refume their payments in ca(h, a new averagement for the
compofition on account of (lamp-duties (hall be fubmitted
to parliament. It is alfo enadled, that the bank of Scot-
land, and royal bank of Scotland, and Britiih hnen com-
pany, may ilfue fmall notes on unllamped paper, accounting
for the duties.

It is further enafted, that re-ilTuable notes are not to be
ilTued by bankers or others, without a licence ; which li-
cences are fubjeft to certain regulations, fpeciiied in the aft.
But no banker (hall take out more than four licences for any
number of towns in Scotland. Several towns in England
may, in certain cafes, be included in one licence. Perfons
applying for licences are to deliver fpecimens of their notes ;
and the penalty for ill'uing notes without licence is 100/.

It is enafted, that promilTory notes made out of Great
Britain are not to be negociable, unlefs (lamped ; and the
penalty on circulating fuch notes is 20/. for each.

The duty on iire-infurances is to be coUefted by the com-
panies undertaking the fame, who fliall render to the com-
mi(rioner3 of (lamps ([uarterly accounts, making up fuch
accounts to their own quarter-days. Thefe companies have
an allowance for coUefting the duties of 4/. per cent, at the
head office in London or Wellminder, and of j/. per cent.
elfewhcre.

The penalty, by this aft, for not proving wills, or taking
letters of adrr.iniilration within a given time, viz. fix calen-
dar months after the deccafe of any perfou, or two calendar
months after the termination of any depending fuit, is a for-
feiture of 100/., and 10/. per cent, on the duty. Ecclcfiaf-
tical courts are forbidden to grant probates or letters of
adminidration, without allidavit of the value of effefts ; and
fuch affidavits are to be firce of ilamp-duty, and to be tiaaf-

mitted to commilfioners of (lamps ; t!ie penalty for negle(S
beino- 50/. ProviCion is made for adjufting the ttarap-duty,
when it is either too high or too low. The penalty on exe-
cutors. Sec. for not paying the full duty on probates, &c.
within a given time after difcovery of a deficiency, is loo/.,
and 10 per cent, on the deficient duty. The commilfioners
of damps may give credit for the duty on probates and let-
ters of adminidration, in certain circumftances ; and may-
extend the credit, if necelTary. A return of duty on pro-
bates, &c. is to be made in refpeft of debts, if claimed
within three years.

Articles of ccnfeftionary are exempted from (lamps, un-
lefs they be avowedly fold as medicines. The money ac-
cruing from all the duties Tifing fr#m this aft is to be paid
to the receiver-general, and by him into the exchequer.

The fchedule belonging to this aft confids of three parts :
the ^>Jl containing the duties on admilfions to offices, &c. ;
on indruments of conveyance, contraft, obligation, and fe.
curity for money ; on deeds in general ; and on other inftru.
ments not included under the following heads. The fecond
part contains the duties on law proceedings. The third part
contains the duties on probates of wills and letters of ad-
minidration; on confirmations of tedaments; on inventories
to be exhibited in the commifiary courts of Scotland ; on
legacies out of real or perfonal, heritable or moveable ellates ;
and on fucceffions to perfonal or moveable edates upon in-
tedacy. Out of this mafs of matter we fhall content our-
felves with felefting thofe articles that are moll common
and mod interefting ; referring for thofe of more rare oc-
currence, or of lefs general ir.tered, to the aft itfelf.

Under X.\\e Jirjl part we (hall begin with the duty on the
admiffion of any perfon to aft as an advocate in any of the
ecclefiadical courts, or in the high court of admiralty, or in
any of the courts of judice in Scotland, which is 50/. ; and
the fame fum on the admilfion of any perfon to the degree of
barriller at law in either of the inns of court in ^England..
On admiffion of any perfon to aft as an attorney, folicitor,
or proftor, in any court in England ; or as a fworn clerk,
clerk in court, or other clerk or officer in any court in Eng-
land, whofe bufinefs and emoluments depend, like thofe of
an attorney or folicitor, on his being retained and employed
by clients or fuitors, the duty is 25/. Thefe duties are
fubjeft to certain regulations, which we fhall not detail.
The fame fura is alfo payable on the admiffion of any perfon
to aft as a writer to the fignet, or as a folicitor, Sic. in any
court in Scotland. For the admiffion of any perfon to aft
as a folicitor, &c. in the court of feffion, judiciary, or com-
miffion of teinds in Scotland, who diall not have ferved a
clerkffiip for five years, to a writer to the fignet, or a foli-
citor, under regular articles, which ffiall have paid the
damp-duty payable by law, his admiffion (hall be charged
with A further duty of 60/. ; and if any perfon be admitted to
aft as a procurator or folicitor in the high court of admiralty
in Scotland, the commifiary court, or any inferior court in
Scotland, without having (erved a five years' clerkfhip or
apprenticediip, &c. he (hall be charged with a further duty
of 30/. Thefe payments are fubjeft to certain exemptiens.
For admifiion of any perfon as a mader in ordinary in chan-
cery, or as one of the fix clerks, or one of the curfitors of
the court of chancery in England, or as a fworn clerk, &c.
in any court in Great Britain, the duty, where the falary,
fees, &c. (hall not amount to jo/. a year, is 2/. ; between
50/. and 100/., 4/. ; from 100/. to 2C0/., 6/. ; from 200/. to
300/., 12/. ; from 3C0A to 500/., 25/. ; from 500/. to 750/.,
35 A ; from 750/. to 1000/., 50/.; from 1000/. to 1500/.,
75A ; from 1500A to 2000A, lOoA ; from 2000A to 3000A,
ijo/. ; and from 3000/. upwards, 200/. The duty for ad-

miffioB

STAMP-DUTIES.

mifilon as a notary public in England, is 30/. ; and in Scot-
land, 20/. ; for admiffion to be a member of cither of the
four inns of court in England, 25/. ; into either of the fo-
cieties called inns of chancery, 3/. ; into the college of phy-
ficians in England or Scotland, 25/. ; as a licentiate, 15/. ;
on matriculation in either of the Englifh univerfities, i/. ;
to the degree of a bachelor of arts in either Englifh univer-
fity, 3/. when conferred in ordinary courfe, and y/. when
conferred by fpecial grace, or royal mandate, or by reafon
of nobility, or out of the ordinary courfe ; to any other de-
gree in either Englifli univerfity, for regiftry, in the ordinary
courfe, 6/., out of fuch courfe, 10/. ; to the degree of
doftor of medicine in either of the univerfities of Scotland,
10/.

For the admidion of any perfon into any corporation, in
refpeft of birth, apprenticefhip, or marriage, the duty is
l/. ; but upon any other ground, 3/. For an afGdavit, the
ftamp-duty is is. 6d., fubjeft to various exemptions. For
an agreement, or memorandum of the fame, made in Eng-
land under hand only, or in Scotland without any claufe of
regiftration, on a matter of the value of 20/., or upwards,
containing no more than 1080 words, i/. ; for more than
1080 words, ll. 15/. ; and for every quantity of 1080
words after the firit, a progreffive duty of i/. 5/. This
duty is fubjeft to feveral general exemptions.

On the appointment of a chaplain, empowering to hold
two ecclefialtical benefices in England, the duty is 2/. ; on
the appointment or deputation of a game-keeper, ll. i^j.
On the appraifement or valuation of any eltate or effefts, or
any interett therein, or its annual value, or of any dilapida-
tion, or of any repairs, &c. if the valuation Ihall not ex-
ceed 50/., 2t. 6d. ; from 50/. to lOo/., ^s. ; from 100/. to
iool., JOS. ; from 200/. to 500/., 15^.; and above 500/., 1/.
For the indenture of apprenticefhip or clerkfhip (articles of
clerkfhip to attornies excepted), when the fum of money
paid to the mafter or midrefs fhall not amount to 30/., l/. ;
from 30/. to 50/., 2/.; from 50/. to 100/., 3/. ; from loo/.
to 200/., 6/.; from 200/. to 300/., 12/.; from 300/. to
400/., 20/. ; from 400/. to 500/., 25/. ; from jcoA to 600/.,
30/. ; from 600/. to 800/., 40/. ; from 800/. to 1000/., 50/. ;
from loco/. and upwards, 60/. For an indenture, without
any conlideration to the matter or miftrefs, containing more
than J080 words, i/.; and for more than that quantity, i/. 15/.
Thefe indentures are fubject to exemptions in favour of
poor children apprenticed. For articles of clerkfhip, in
order to admiffion as an attorney or folicitor in any of his
majelly's courts at Wedminlter, 120/. ; in any of the courts
of the great fefTions in Wales, or of the counties palatine of
Chefter, Lancaller, and Durham, or in any other court of
record in England, holding pleas, in which the debt or da-
mage amounts to 40/., 60/. ; and for any duplicate of fuch
articles, i/. ly/. With a view to admiflion as a fworn clerk
in the oflice of the fix clerks, or as a fworn clerk, &c. in
the office of pleas, &c. in England, 1 20/. ; and for any
duplicate, l/. l^j. Tor articles of clerkfhip, in order to
admiflion as a proftor, 120/. ; and for a duplicate, i/. i^s.
For indenture of clerkOlip, in order to admiflion as a writer
to the fignet, or folicitor in any of the courts of fclTion, &c.
in Scotland, 60/. ; and for a duplicate, i/. 15/. For in-
denture of clerkfhip, in order to admiflion to aft as a pro-
curator or folicitor in the high court of admiralty, the
commifTary court at Edinburgh, or any other inferior court
in Scotland, 30/. ; and for any duplicate, 1/. ij/.

For an inland bill of exchange, on demand or otherwifc,
not exceeding two months after date, or 60 days after light,
the duty for any fum amounting to 40/., and not exceeding

5/. Jj., IS IX. ; from 5/. 5/. to 20/., u. 6J. ; from 20/. to
■o/., 2s. ; from 30/. to 50/., 2s. 6d. ; from 50/. to loo/.,
3j. 6d. ; from 100/. to 200/., 4;. 6J. ; from 200/. to 300/.,
Jr. ; from 300/. to 500/., 6s. ; from 500/. to 1000/., 8/. 6d.;
from 1000/. to 2000/., 12s- 6d. ; from 2000/. to 3000/., ic/.;
and exceeding 300c/., i/. 5/. For an inland bill of ex-
change, to bearer or order, exceeding two months after
date, or 60 days after fight, for any fum from 40X. to 5/. jx.,
IX. ; from 5/. jj. to 20/., 2x. ; from 20/. to 30/., 2x. 6d. ;
from 30/. to 50/., 3x. 6d.\ from 50/. to 100/., 4X. 6d.',
from 100/. to 200/., 5x. ; from 200/. to 300/., 6x. ; from
300/. to 500/., 8x. 6d.; from 500/. to looo/., I2x. 6d.;
from looo/. to20ooi, !5x. ; from 2000/. to 3000/., il<s.'}
and above 3000/., ll. lox. The duty for a foreign bill of
exchange, drawn fingly jnd not in a fet, the fame duty as
on an inland bill of the faaie amount and tenor. The duty
on foreign bills of exchange, drawn in fets according to the
cuftom of merchants, is for every bill of each fet, where
the fum made payable doth not exceed 100/., Ix. 6d. ; from
100/. to 200/., 3x. ; from 200/. to 500/., 4r. ; from 500/.
to 1000/., 5x. ; from lOOo/. to 2000/., -Js. 6d. ; from 2000/.
to 3000/., lox. ; and for more than 3000/., 15X. The bills
exempt from the preceding and all other flamp-duties, are
thofe iffued by the governor and company of the bank of
England, navy-bills, bills for the pay and allowances of his
majefty's land forces, and fome others. (See Promissort
Notts. ) A bill of lading is chargeable with a duty of 3X.
A bond in England, and perfonal bond in Scotland, given
as a fecurity for the payment of any definite fum of money,
is chargeable, when the fum does not exceed 50/., with a
duty of l/. ; from 50/. to 100/., ll. lox. ; from loo/s to
200/., 2/. ; from 200/. to 300/., 3/.; from 300/. to 500/.,
4/. ; from 500/. to lOOo/., 5/. ; from lOOo/. to 2000/., 61. ;
from 2000/. to 3000/., 7/. ; from 3000/. to 4000/., 8/. ;
from 4000/. to 5000/., 9/. ; from 5000/. to 10,000/., 12/.;
from 10,000/. to 15,000/., Ij/. ; from 15,000/. to 20,000/.,
20/.; and exceeding 20,COo/., 25/. For a bond in Eng-
land, and a perfonal bond m Scotland, given as a fecurity
for the transfer, or re-transfer of any fhare in any of the
government parliamentary flocks or funds, or in the flock
and funds of the bank of England, or Eafl India company,
or of the South-fea company, the duty is tlie fame as on a
bond for a fum of money, equal to the value of the flock
or fund fecured, according to its average price, on the day
of the date of the bond, or on either of the ten days pre-
ceding.

For a bond in England, and perfonal and heritable bond
in Scotland, given as a fecurity for the payment of any
annuity, except upon the original creation and fale thereof,
or of any fum or fums of money at flated periods, not be-
ing interefl for any principal fum, nor rent referved or pay»
able upon any leale or tack, for any definite and certain
term, fo that the total amount of the money to be paid can
be previoufly afccrtained, the fame duty as on a bond of
the like nature, for the payment of a fum of money equal
to fuch total amount. For a fimilar bond, for the pay-
ment of an annuity, &c. for any indefinite period, or the
term of life, fo that the whole money to be paid cannot be
previoufly afcertained, if the annuity, «r fuii:s fecured,
fhall not amount to 10/. per annum, ll. ; from 10/. to 50/.
per annum, 2/. ; fri m 50/ to 100/, 3/. ; from 100/. to
200/., 4/. ; from zocA to 300/, 5/. ; from 300/. to 400/.,
61. ; from 400/. to joo/., 7/. ; from 500/- to 750/., 9/. ;
from 750/. to 1000/., 111.; from looc/. to 1500/., 15/.;
from 1500/. to 2000/., 2o/. ; and from 2000/. per annum
and upwards, 25/. The duties on various kinds of bonds

are

STAMP-DUTIES.

,re fubicft to various exemptions and regulations, for which
we efer to tJie Uatute. For a yearly certificate taken ou
by every perfon admitted as an attorney or folic.tor and
as a proaor, in England, and by every perfon admitted as
a writer to the fignet, folicitor, agent, attorney, or pro-
curator, in any of the courts of Scotland ; and by every
fvvorn cleric, &c. and any other clerk or officer in any of
the courts aforefaid, who fhall ad, in expeftatioa of any
fee or reward, as an attorney, folicitor, agent, prodtor,
procurator, or notary public, though not admitted or en-
rolled as Aich, if he ftall refidc in the city of London, or
city of Wcltminfter, or within the limits of the two-penny
poft in England, or within the city or (hire of Edinburgh,
who has been in pofleffion of his ofSce for three years or
upwards, 12/., or if he has not been in poffeffion fo long,
61. i or if he (hall refide elfewhere, in the firft circumftance
above ftated, 8/., and in the fecond, 4/. For a certificate
taken out yearly by a member of one of the four inns of
court in England, who afts as a conveyancer, Cpecial pleader,
draftfman in equity, or otherwife, if he (hall refide in the
city of London, Sec. as before ilated, 12/.; or if he (hall
refide elfewliere, 8/. The exemptions comprehend fergeants
at law and barrifters ; attornies, folicitors, proiftors, and
notaries public ; and other perfons afting as fuch by virtue
of any office or appointment, taking out certificates in thefe
charaftera; and public officers preparing deeds, &c. by
virtue of their office. A certificate of marriage, that of
any common feaman, marine, or foldier excepted, is charge-
able with a duty of 5/. ; and fo is the certificate of a perfon's
having received the holy facrament. The duty upon a
charter-party is i/. 15^. ; that upon collation by an arch-
bi(hop or bifhop to any ecclefiaftical benefice or promotion
of 10/. or upwards yearly value in the king's books, is 20/. ;
that of collation to any other ecclefiaftical benefice, &c.
in England, is 10/.; that of collation, or admiffion by any
prelbytery or competent authority, to any ecclefiaftical
benefice in Scotland, is 2/. For the duties on diiferent kinds
and modes of conveyance, fee the ftatute. The duty on a
debenture or certificate for entitling a perfon to receive a
drawback of duties in the cuftoms or excife, or bounty
payable out of the revenue of either, if the fame (hall not
exceed 100/., is ^s. ; from 100/. to 200/., lOJ. ; from 200/.
to 500/., il. ; and above 500/., 2/. For a declaration of
trull, &c. the duty is 1/. ijj. For every (kin or piece of
vellum, &c. upon which (hall be written the exemplifica-
tion or conftat under the great feal of the united kingdom
«f Great Britain and Ireland, of any letters patent or grant,
the duty is 5/.

For a faculty from the archbi(hop of Canterbury, or the
mafter of the faculties for the time being, or from the guar-
dian of the fpirituahties during a vacancy of the arch-
bi(hop's fee, not otherwife charged, the duty is 30/. For a
grant or letters patent under the great feal, or the feal of the
county pilatine of Lancafter, or the feal kept and ufed in
Scotland, of the honour or dignity of a duke, 350/. ; of a
marquis, 300/. ; of an earl, 250/. ; of a vifcount, 200/. ; of
a baron, 150/. ; of a baronet, loo/. ; of a conge d'elire for
any dean and chapter, for the eleftion of an archbi(hop or
bi(hop, 30/.; of the royal afl'ent to or fignification of fuch elec-
tion, or of the nomination and prefentation by his maje.fty,
in default of fuch eleftion, of any perfon to be an arch-
bi(hop or bilhop, 30/. ; of or for the reftitution of the tem-
poralties to any archbiihop or bi(hop, 30/. j of any other
honour or franchife, &c. to any perfon or perfons, body
or bodies politic cr corporate, 30/. ; and if fuch grant or
ietters patent are contained in more than one (kin, piece of

vellum, &c., then for every /kin, flieet, or piece thereof,
after the firft, a progreffive duty of 2c/. For a grant or
■warrant of precedence to take rank among nobility, under
his majefty's fign manual, 100/. ; for a grant or licence,
under the fign manual, to take and ufe a furname and arms,
cr a furn&me only, in compliance with any will or fettle-
ment, 50/. ; for arms to the fame, on voluntary application,
10/. ; and for grant of arms, or armorial enfigns only, 10/.
For a grant, under the great feal. Sec. of any definite fum
of money, not amounting to 100/., 1/. 10/. ; from 100/.
to 250A, 47. ; from 250/. to 500/., 10/. ; from 500/. ta
750/., 20/. ; from 750/. to 1000/., 30/. ; from 1000/. and
upwards, for every 500/., 5/.

The duty on a grant of any annuity or penGon, not
amounting to 100/. per annum, is l/. 10/. ; from 100/. to
200/., 4/. ; from 200/. to 40c/., 10/. ; from 400/. to 600/.,
20/. ; from 600/. to 800/., 30/. ; from 8co/. to 1000/., 40/. ;
from 1000/. and upwards, 50/. For his majefty's grant of
any office or employment, by letters patent, deed, or other
writing, the profits of which do not amount to 50/. per
annum, 2/. ; from 50/. to ico/., 4/. ; from 1 00/. to 200/., 6/. ;
from 200/. to 300/., 12/. ; from 300/. to 500/., 25/. ; from
500/. to 750/., 35/. ; from 750/. to 1000/., 50/. ; from looo/-
to 1500/., 75/.; from 1500/. to 2000/., 100/. ; from zoool.
to 3000/., 150/. 5 from 3000/. and upwards, 200/.

For inftitution to any ecclefiaftical benefice in England
upon prefentation, 2/. ; upon petition of the patron to be
admitted, if the benefice or promotion be of the yearly
value of 10/. and upwards in the king's books, 30/. ; or if
the fame (hall be of any other dcfcription, 15/.

The duty on a letter of attorney, made by a petty
officer, feaman, marine, or foldier ferving as a marine, for
receiving prize money, i» is., for receiving wages, l/. For
a letter of attorney for the fale, transfer, acceptance, or re-
ceipt of dividends in any of the government (tucks or funds,
l/. ; for that of any other kind, or commiffion or faftory,
i/. 10/.; and if more than 1080 words be ufed, a pro-
greffive duty for every loSo words, after the firft, of 1/.
For a letter of licence from creditors to a debtor, the duty
is 1/. 15J. ; and a progreffive duty for every 1080 word*
above the firft number, of i/. 5^. : for letters of marque
and reprifal, 5/. : for licence for marriage in England, if
fpecial, 5/. ; if not fpecial, lo^.: for licence to ufe the occu-
pation of an appraifer, taken out yearly, los. : for a banker
or any other perfon who (liall iliue any promiiibry notes
for money payable to the bearer on demand, and allowed
to be re-ilTued, 30/. : for cxercifing the trade of a pawn-
broker within the cities of London and Weftminfter, or
within the limits of the two-penny poft, 15/. ; and elfe-
where, 7/. 10^. For policy of adurance on life or lives,
if the fum infured (hall not amount to 500/., 1/.; from
500/. to 1000/., 2/. ; from 1000/. to 3000/., 3/. ; from
3000/. to 5000/., 4/. ; from 5C00/. and upwards, 5/. For
policy of infurance fromlofs or damage by fire togood,<, &c.
3^. percent, per annum. For policy of infurance on any (hip
or velTel, or any goods on board, &c. where the premium
(hall not exceed the rate of 20J. per cent, on the fum in-
fured, if the whole fum does not exceed 100/., tlve ftamp-
duty is is. ^d. ; if the whole fum (liall exceed lOo/., then
for every 100/., and alfo for any fradional part of 100/.,
ij. 3</. ; and where the premium (hall exceed the rate of zos.
per cent, on the fum infured, if the whole fum infured fhall
not exceed 100/., 2s. 6d. ; if it (hall exceed 100/., then for
every 100/., and alfo for any fraftional part of 100/., zs. 6d.
If the infurance be made upon any (hip or veflel, or goods,
or freight, for any other voyage befides that above men-

tioned|

STAMP-DUTIES.

tioned, from any part in the united kingdom or the adjacent
iflands, to any other part in the faid kingdom or iflands, or
for any certain term or period of time not exceeding twelve
calendar months, if the premium be 20^. per cent, on the
fum infured, and the whole fum do not exceed 100/., the
duty is 2s. 6d. ; but if it (hall exceed 100/., then for
every 100/., and for any fradional part, 2s. 6d. : and if
the premium exceed 20s. per cent, on the fum iniured, if
the whole fum (hall not exceed 100/., the duty is ^s. ; and
if it (hall exceed 100/., then for every 100/., and any frac-
tional part of 100/., of which the fame (hall confift, 5/.

For a prefentation by his majefty, or by any patron, to
any ecclefialtical benefice, &c. of the yearly value of 10/.
or upwards in the knig's books, the duty is 20/. ; and to
any other ecclefiaftical benefice or promotion in England,
10/. For a deed of procuration, i/. los. Of Promis-
sory Notes we have already given an account under that
article ; but the aft, the provifions of which we are now
reciting, has repealed the 48th of Geo. III. and made fome
addition to the ftamp-duttes. The note for payment of
any fum of money to the bearer on demand is chargeable,
for i/. IS. mth. a duty of ^d. ; from i/. \s, to 2/. 2s. with
lod. ; from 2/. 2s. to 5/. 5^. with is. ^d. ; from 5/. ^s. to
10/., with IS. gd.; from 10/. to 20/., with 2/. ; from 20/.
to 30/., with 3^. ; from 30/. to 50/., with jj. ; from 50/.
to ico/., with Ss. 6d. The promilTory note for payment
in any other manner, &c. but not exceeding two months
after date, or 60 days after fight, from 40J. to 5/. ^s., is
chargeable with a duty of is.; from 5/. ^s. to 20/., is. 6d.;
irom. 20/. to 30/., 2s. ; from 30/. to 50/., with 2s. 6d. ;
from 50/. to 100/., with 3^. 6d. Thofe notes either to the
bearer on demand, or in any other manner, but not exceeding
two months after date, or 60 days after fight, are chargeable,
from 100/. to 200/., with a duty of 4^. 6d. ; from 200/.
to 300/., with 5^. ; from 300/. to 500/., 6s. ; from 500/.
to 1000/., 8s. 6d. ', from 1000/. to 2000/., 12s. 6d. ; from
2000/. to 3000/., with 15J. ; above 3000/. with 1/. Jj-.
Thofe payable at any time exceeding two months after date,
or 60 days after fight, from 40^. to 5/. jj-., are chargeable with
a duty of IS. 6d. ; from 5/. ^s. to 20/., 2s. ; from 20/. to 30/.,
2s. 6d. i from 30/. to 50/., 3/. 6d. ; from 50/. to 100/., 4^. 6d. ;
from 100/. to 200/., 5^. ; from 200/. to 300/., 6s. ; from 300/.
to 500/., 8/. 6d. i from 500/. to 1000/., i2j'. 6d. ; from 1000/.
to 2000/., 15X. ; from 2000/. to 3000/., i/. ^s. ; exceeding
3000/., i/. los. (See Promissory Notes.) For proteit
of a bill of exchange or promilTory note, for any fum under
20/., 2s. ; from 20/. to 100/., 3/. ; from 100/. to 500/., ^s.;
from 500/. upwards, los. For every (heet on which a
proteil is written, after the firft, a progefllve duty of ^s.
For receipts from 2.'. to 5/., 2d. ; from 5/. to 10/., ^d. ;
from 10/. to 20/., 6d. ; from 20/. to 50/., is. ; from 50/.
to loo/-, I J-. 6d. ; from 100/. to 200/., 2s. 6d. ; from 200/.
to 300/., 4f. ; from 300/. to 500/., 5/. ; from 500/. to
1000/., '/s. 6d. ; from looo/. upwards, lOs. ; and in full
of all demands, los. (See Receipt.) For fettlement
upon or for the benefit of any perfon or perfons, in pof-
fefGon or reverfion, if the fum (hall not amount to 1000/.,
the duty is i/. 15/.; from 1000/. to 2000/., 2/.; from
2000/. to 3000/., 3/. ; from 3000/. to 40C0/., 4/. ; from
4000/. to 5000/., 5/.; from 5000/. to 7000/., "jl.; from
7000/. to 9000/., 9/. ; from 9000/. to 12,000/., 12/. ; from
12,000/. to 15,000/., 15/. ; from 15,000/. to 20,000/., 20/. j
from 20,000/. and upwards, 25/. For teftimonial or certi-
ficate of the admillion of any perfon to the degree of
bachelor of arts, in cither of the Engli(h univerfities, 3/. ;
to any other degree, 10/. For transfer of any (hare hi

bank ftock, or South-fea ftock, 7/. gj. ; in the ftock of
the Eaft India company, i/. 10/. ; in the ftock of any
other corporation, company, or focicty, i/. loj.

For an account of the fecond part of the fchedule an-
nexed to the 55th Geo. III. c. 184. contaming the duties
on law proceedings, we refer to the aft itfelf.

The th'trd part contains the duties on probates of walls
and letters of adminiftration, on confirmations of teltaments,
inventories, legacies, and fucceflions. The duties on pro-
bates of a will, and letters of adminiftration with a will
annexed, to be granted in England, confirmation of any
teftament and inventory to be recorded in any commiOary
court in Scotland, by the 55th Geo. III. which alters the
amounts ftated from 48 Geo. III. under Probate, are
Ihewn in the following table :

From

£

£

£

s.

J,

20

to

100

0

10

0

100

—

200

2

0

0

200

—

300

5

0

0

300

—

450

8

0

0

450

—

600

11

0

0

600

—

800

«5

0

0

800

—

1,000

22

0

0

1,000

—

1,500

30

0

0

1,500

—

2,000

40

0

0

2,000

—

3,000

50

0

0

3,000

—

4,000

60

0

0

4,000

—

5,000

80

0

0

5,000

—

6,000

100

0

0

6,000

—

7,000

120

0

0

7,000

—

8,000

140

0

0

8,000

9,000

160

0

0

9,000

—

10,000

180

0

0

10,000

—

1 2,000

200

0

0

12,000

—

14,000

220

0

0

14,000

—

16,000

250

0

0

1 6,oco

—

18,000

280

0

0

18,000

—

20,000

310

0

0

20,000

—

25,000

350

0

0

25,000

—

30,000

400

0

0

30,000

—

35,000

450

0

0

35,000

—

40,000

s-^s

0

0

40,000

—

45,000

600

0

0

45,000

—

50,000

675

0

0

50,000

—

60,000

750

0

0

60,000

—

70,000

900

0

0

70,000

—

80,000

1,050

0

0

80,000

—

90,000

1,200

0

0

90,000

—

100,000

I.3J0

0

0

100,000

—

1 20,000

1,500

0

0

120,000

—

140,000

1,800

0

0

140,000

—

160,000

2,100

0

0

160,000

—

180,000

2,400

0

0

180,000

—

200,000

2,700

0

0

200,000

—

250,000

3,000

0

0

250,000

—

300,000

3-75°

0

0

300,000

—

350,000

4.SC0

0

0

350,000

—

400,000

5,250

0

0

400,000

—

500,000

6,000

0

a

500,000

—

600,000

7,500

0

0

600,000

—

700,000

9,000

0

0

700,000

—

800,000

10,500

0

0

800,000

—

900,000

12,000

0

0

900,000

—

1,000,000

13,500

0

0

000,000

and

upwards

15,000

0

0
For

S T A

For letters of adminiftration, without a will annexed,
to be granted in England, and alfo confirmation and inven-
tory in Scotland, the duties are as follow :

From

£

£

20

to

50

50

—

100

100

—

200

200

—

300

300

—

450

450

—

600

600

—

800

800

—

1,000

1,000

—

1,500

1,500

—

2,000

2,000

—

3,000

3,000

—

4,000

4,000

—

5,000

5,000

—

6,000

6,000

—

7,000

7,000

—

8,000

8,000

—

9,000

9,000

—

10,000

10,000

—

12,000

I 2,000

—

14,000

14,000

—

16,000

16,000

—

1 8,000

1 8,000

—

2 0,000

20,000

—

25,000

25,000

—

30,000

30,000

—

35,000

35,000

—

40,000

40,000

—

45,000

45,000

—

50,000

50,000

—

60,000

60,000

—

70,000

70,000

—

80,000

80,000

—

90,000

90,000

—

TOOjOOO

100,000

—

120,000

1 2O,00O

—

140,000

140,000

—

160,000

160,000

—

180,000

180,000

—

200,000

200,000

—

250,000

250,000

—

300,000

300,000

—

350,000

350,000

—

400,000

400,000

—

500,000

500,000

—

600,000

600,000

—

700,000

700,000

—

800,000

800,000

—

900,000

900,000

—

1,000,000

£

i.

J.

0

10

0

1

0

0

3

0

0

8

0

0

1 1

0

0

15

0

0

22

0

0

30

0

0

45

0

0

60

0

0

75

0

0

90

0

0

120

0

0

150

0

0

180

0

0

210

0

0

240

0

0

270

0

0

300

0

0

330

0

0

375

0

0

420

0

0

465

0

0

5^5

0

0

600

0

0

675

0

0

785

0

0

900

0

0

1,010

0

0

1,125

0

0

1.350

0

0

i>575

0

0

1,800

0

0

2,025

0

0

2,250

c

0

2,700

0

0

3'i5o

0

0

3,600

0

0

4.050

0

0

4.500

0

0

5.625

0

0

6,750

0

0

7.875

0

0

9,000

0

0

11,250

0

0

13.500

0

0

15.750

0

0

18,000

0

0

20,250

0

0

22,500

0

0

1,000,000 and upwards

For an account of legacies and fucceffions, as under the
article Receipt, Schedule, part iii. with the following
alteration agreeably to 55 Geo. III. c. 184 ; infertin^ in-
ftead of loth Oftober 1808, the 31ft day of Auijull
1815; infertmg alfo in col. 2. hue 13 from the bottom.

S T A

9 & 10 Will. c. 25.) To this office belong a receirer-
general, a comptroller, a fecretary, and a number of clerks,
&c. &c.

STAMPALIA, or Stampal^ea, in Geography, for-
merly AflypaUa, properly fignifying the ancient city, and
called alfo Pyrrha, P'llca, and at length Theon Traleza, i. e.
the table of the gods, becaufe its foil is fertile, and it is
almoft every where enamelled with flowers, an ifland of the
Archipelago, which, in the time of Phny, was an independent
country, and where Achilles had a temple, and that fort of
worrtiip that was paid to valour, contributed to maintain
among its inhabitants the energy uecelTary for people who
are not wiUing to fubmit to the yoke of a conqueror. From
the irregular form of this ifland, it might be called the " In-
dented Ifland ;" its fliores prefenting a variety of points, or
finuofities, that form fo many coves and bays fit for the an-
chorage of fliips or boats, though we can fcarcely reckon
more than two harbours, the one to the foulh, the
other to the north. It is about fix leagues in length, and
only two in its grcateft breadth ; it is not very lofty, nor
has it any high mountains that can be difcovered at a great
dillance. Its foil, a= we have already faid, is fertile, being
of that kind which is obferved on plains and hills, and which
does not extend to the tops of fteep mountains. Stampalia
is reckoned one of the mod fertile iflands of the Archi-
pelago : its inhabitants experience the mildnefs of the
chmate and the goodnefs of the foil ; and in thefe rcfpefts
they differ in charafter from the rough iflanders of Calamo
and Lero, which are rugged countries. Its fertility, how-
ever, is checked by the empire of the Turks, to which it is
fubjeft ; and the opprefllve exaftions to which its inhabitants
are compelled to fubmit : the fliores abound with a great
variety of fifli. N. lat. 36^ 40'. E. long. 26^ 16'.

STAMPE, or Temp£, in Cojnm^rf^, a fmall copper coia
in the Weft India iflands. In the Englifli Leeward iflands
I ftampe = li dog — z^d. Leeward currency, and 8 dogs
or 4 ftampes = i bit = ^d. of the fame currency ; the
dollar in this currency being reckoned at gs. In the French
iflands, the noir or dog is = 2 fols 6 deniers = i\d. Leeward
currency, and the tempe or ftampe = 3 fols 9 deniers = 2\d.
Leeward currency.

STAMPERS and Stamping, in Coinage. See Com
and CoiKAGE.

STAMPING-Mill, or Knochlng-Mtll, an engine ufed
in the tin-works to bruife the ore fmall.

STAMPS, in Metallurgy, a fort of large peftles lifted
up by water-wheels, and ferving to beat to powder the ore*,
and refufe of ores of metals.

STAMSLO, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 15
miles N.E. of Gros Wardein.

STAMWOOD, in /Igruulture, a term applied to the
roots of trees grubbed up. Any forts of root-wood are fo
termed in different fituations and places.

STANCH, or Staunch, a name given by the country
people of Northamptonfliire, and fome other counties, to
a fpecies of foffile called felenites, from its fuppofed virtue
in ftopping fluxes of blood. See Pachodecarhombis.

STANCHING of Blood, the ftopping of blood in
cafes of wounds in horfes or other animals. This is moftly

after " deceafed." or the father or m''otVer: oTanVwi phL ^othe^i^ V k'"' °^ ^°f^"^ °^ ""' '"'^ '°''' 'P'
anceftor of the deceafed ; inftead of 2/. 10.. - J/, in P"'A'° 5^= P^^^ which are wounded.

__ ._. .3/.

ftead of 4/. — 5/., and inftead of 5/. — 61.

STAMP-Officr, an ofEce under the diredion of fix com-
miflioners, who are empowered to fubftitute inferior officers
for the management of the ftamp-duties. (5 Will, cap 21

STANCHIO, or Stancho, in Geography, an ifland
in the Grecian Archipelago, anciently known by the name
of Cos (which fee), and by fome modern geographers
^n J " ■'"^"S°-" Of 'he ancient magnificence of this
illand no traces now remain. The modern town of Stancho

S T A

S T A

is fmall ; its buildings are not particularly remarkable ;
though its fitiiation on the fea-fhore is the fame with that of
the ancient city, and its environs are (till agreeable. It is
furrounded by orchards of lemon and orange-trees, the
flowers and fruit of which are equally regaling and refreihing
to its inhabitants, and afford them a valuable article of coin-
merce. Cargoes of oranges and lemons are (hipped here,
and conveyed to different parts of Turkey, but principally
to Smyrna and Conltantinople. The harbour, which is de-
fended by a cadle, kept in bad order, though formerly fafe
and deep, can no longer receive any but fmall veflels : large
fliips remain without, in a road which has good holding-
ground, but in winter it is open to the winds, and the
fwell from the north and weft, and therefore avoided. The
population of the town of Stancho is in a great meafure
compoled of Turks : the Greeks occupy the remaining
part of the ifland, but they are not numerous. The ifland,
which is much longer than it is broad, is not very extenfive ;
but the beauty of its climate and of its foil, its fecundity,
and itanatural allurements, would render the paucity of its
inhabitants extraordinary, if we did not recoiled that it is
under the immediate command of the Turks. Some writers
have afTerted that Stancho is an ifland fubjeft to epidemical
difeafes, and dangerous to be inhabited : but Sonnini fays, that
this allertion is ill-founded. Stancho retains the high cha-
rafter for niildnefs of climate, richnefs of foil, and falu-
brioufnefs of the air, given by the ancients to Cos. Some
very high mountains command the fouth part of the ifland ;
and navigators, defirous of a flielter from the impetuous
northerly winds, find a propitious retreat in that quarter in
the little harbour of Safodino. The remainder of the
ifland is a beautiful plain, abounding with various fruits, fuch
as oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, &c. which are delicious.
The wine drawn from its grapes is delicate and agreeable.
Its excellent paftures formerly fed numerous llock?, that
furniihed wool, with which the inhabitants manufaftured
fluffs, held in high ellimation for their finenefs, and alfo for
the brilliant colours with which they were dyed. But this
kind of induftry and its benefits are lo(t. Its filk has alfo
failed ; though the climate is favourable to mulberry-trees,
and the worm which feeds on them. Stancho is famous for
a plane-tree, which covers the little public fquare in which it
is found with its antique and twilling branches, and cools it
with its impervious fliade. Its thick branches are fupported
by pillars, or rather fragments of pillars, of marble and
gr.inite ; and thefe pillars are the only ancient monuments
which the ifland affords, if wc except a few medals of little
value. Under the fltade of the plane-tree is a fountain,
which fupplies the Turks with water, and a coffee-houfe,
which furniflies a beverage that ferves tliem in lieu of wine
and every other 'fermented liquor. It is not improbable,
that ten centuries have elapfed fince this tree was planted.
N. lat. 36'' 46'. E. long. 26^ 56'. The bay of Stanchio
lies on the S.W. coail of Natolia, oppofite to the ifland.
N. lat. 36° 48' to 37^ 4'. E. long. 27° 14' to 2f 44'.

STANCHIONS, in Building. See PtJNClllON.

Stanchions, in a Ship, thole fmall pillars of wood or
iron which are ufed for various purpofes ; as to fupport the
decks, the quarter.rails, the nettings, the awnings, &c.
The firlt of thefe are two ranges of fmall columns fixed
\indcr the beams, throughout tlie ftiip's length between
decks; one range being on the (larboard, and the other on
the larboard fide of the hatchways. They are chiefly in-
teiided to fupport the weigjht of the artillery.

Stanchions of the Netlings, are either flender bars of
iron, wiiofe lower ends are fixed in iron fockcta at proper

Vol. XXXIII.

diftances ; or fquare wooden pillars, let into the upper part
of the fliip's fide. See Qxj A.v.Tv.v.Netting.

STAND, Stablestand. See Stablestand.

Stand, in Commerce, a weight from two hundred and a
half to three hundred of pitch.

Stand of Arms. See Arms.

Stand, Bee, in Rural Economy, is conftruftcd in the
form and manner of a flight flied, and made of good fea-
foned wood, fo framed, that the fore-part of the flied or
ftand may be about fix or fcven feet higli, and the hind-part
five or fix. The top, and alfo the ends and back, mull be
well covered with llrong boards. The infide (hould, like-
wife, have a lining of very thin deal-boards, and be fur-
nifhed with ftrong flielves, fo proportioned, as to fuit the
number of hives, boxes, or glafles, that are to be placed
on them. And to the front, which fliould be open, thin
fliades of wood fliould be fo formed and fixed up, that they
may be raifed or lowered, as may be neceflary for the pro-
teflion of the bees againit either heat or moifture. See
Hive.

Stand, Grain or Corn, in Agriculture, the name of fuch
as are made of framed wood, Itones, low walls, or other
contrivances, and which are raifed for placing grain upon,
in making it into ftacks.

The moll ordinary mode of forming thefe (lands is merely
that of placing two or three pieces of large timber length-
ways, and then putting fmaller ones crofs-ways at the ends,
filling up the middle parts with fmaller pieces of wood or
other materials. This is, however, a mode by no means 'o
be generally employed, as it provides no fecurity for the
bottom of the (lack. But in other cafes, a Itrong framing
of good timber is put upon polls of wood, or what is better,
of (tones, about two feet high, provided with round caps of
good flat ftoncs, and on thefe the (tacks reft in a very folid
and fecure manner, and it affords a good and fecure fupport
for the corn.

Thefe (lack-ftands are, however, much better when con-
ftrufted wholly of (lone, being built to the fame height as
in the former cafe, in a rather flanting manner outwards, and
covered on the tops with copings of oak-planking or flat
(loiies, which projeft over the edges feveral inches, and in
that way prevent the depredations of rats and mice on the
grain, as well as their lodging in the ftacks. In both thefe
modes, pieces of timber are placed as a frame in the middle,
to fupport the grain upon.

Further, in conltrufting thefe flands, the foundation
fliould be funk a confiderable depth into the ground, and the
bottoms be well laid, to prevent vermin getting to the
grain of the ftacks by working under them ; and no fort of
fubltances flinuld ever be fulfered to reft againft them, or the
loofe corn to hang down during the time of buildiag the
(lacks. It is obvious that the form of thefe ftands muft
vary according to that in which the ftacks are to be made,
which is different in different diltrifts. The circular and
oblong forms are the moft ufual ; but the long narrowr
(hape is probably to be preferred, as it is faid, in the Agri-
cultural Report of Northumberland, to keep the corn
better, more dry, and freer from heating.

It has been remarked, that on brick or ftone ftands, ftacks
of the parallelogrammical form may be built to any fiz^- ; but
that for fmall ftacks, efpecially where wood is empl. lycd,
the otlagonal form of (land (liould rather be preferred to
the circular one, as the copings may be cut with Icff wafte,
and from fmaller timber; and it isjult as ealy to build a
circular Hack on an odagonal ftand as on a circular one.
But that where ilone can be eafily procured, it is without
4 Y doubt

S T A

(Toubt the mod proper material for the bottoms ; and brick,
when properly made for the piirpofe, anfwers very well,
efp'-eiallv if proner care be taken in the laying of it. Slate
is alfo another material, where it can be had at a reafonable
expence, that may be a ver\' good fubllance for this
life. Likewife flag-ilones would anfwer extremely well ;
bnt neithe- dates nor flag-ltones are neceflary, if the
foundations be laid fufficiently deep to prevent the vermin
burrowing under them. The celebrated Mr. Bakewell made
ufe of (ta^ds of this kind with much advantage ; and other
farmers, in the fame dillrift, probably employed them be-
fore his time.

Sevral d.fferent forms of (lands of this fort are employed
en the farms of the duke of Bedford, at Woburn, and in
other places. See Stack.

Stand, Hay, «iay be formed in fomewhat the fame
manner as that for grain or corn, only it is feldom neceiTary
to have it made of fuch expenfive materials. A fimple
frame of wood is moftly fufficient, with proper hearers laid
acrofs for the fupport of the Hack. See St.'VCK and
Stacking of Hay.

STANDARD, in Commerce, is a weight, meafurc, or
coin, of acknowledged authority, by which others of the
f.tme denomination are li-^ed, compared, or adjufted. (See
Coin, Measure, and Weight.) We Ihall begin this im-
portant article with Meafures, and conclude with Co'im, in-
chiding the new ilandard weight for filver, of 1816.

When a Itandard for Iniear meafure is once eftablillied, that
for meafures of capacity is eafily deduced, by determining
their cubic or folid contents ; and from the latter, Itandard
weights may be derived, as a velfel of any certain dimen-
fions filled with pure water, at a given temperature, will
always weigh the fame in the fame latitude.

It is, however, to be remarked, that this fyftematic mode
of obtaining flandards has been feldom adopted, as they
feem to have been generally eltabliflied at the will of indivi-
duals, or by the agreement of governments. Such are
therefore called arbitrary Jlandards, to diflinguifh them from
invariable fiandards jrom nature ; that is, meafures obtained
from fome unalterable property of nature ; as the dimenfions
of the earth, the motions of the heavenly bodies, or the
laws of arravitation. Thefe Itandirds have been anxioufly
fought after by the firlt mathematicians of modern times ;
but before their labours and refearches are defcribed, it will
be proper to give an account of the palt and prefent ilate of
arbitrary Itandards, which are thofe univerfally adopted, ex-
cept in France.

The Ilandard meafures of linear extenfion of all countries
appear, from their names, to have been originally taken from
fome part of the human body, as the foot, the fathom,
&c. But as fuch mull conllantly vary with the different
fizes of men, (tandards of fome durable fubllance became
neceflary ; and it may be obferved, that in country places
where fuch are not at hand, natural meafures are flill occa-
Conally ufed, as the arm, the pace, &c. Hence fome
account of their proportions to each other cannot be unin-
lerefling or foreign to our fubjecl. The fathom is reckoned
to equal the height or ftature of a well-proportioned man :
the pace is fuppofed to equal half of the flature, the cubit
one-fourth, the foot one-fixth, and the fpan one-eighth.
The breadth of the hand is reckoned one-third of the
foot, that of the thumb one-twelfth, and of the finger one-
eighteenth. Other proportions are occafionally uftd, which,
however, are not confidered fo regular as the above ;
fnch are the head, the arm, and the girth, &c. The
Lead is particularly noticed by painteis and ftatuaries, who

S T A

reckon the fymmetry good when the whole height equals
feven heads : but it has been made to equal more than feven
and a half heads in ancient figures intended to reprefent
dignity or llrength. The proportion, however, varies con-
fiderably among different races of men, and in different
countries. The average of the European flature is from
fix to feven heads ; but that of the Kalmucks, Samoyedes,
Laplanders, Sec. is feldom more than five heads, and fre-
quently lefs.

From fuch an extraordinary variety may be traced the
diverfity of flandard meafures throughout the world. It has,
however, been the endeavour of all regular governments to
correct this inconvenience ; and hence ellablifhed llandards
have been, from the earliefl period of hidory, objedls of pe-
culiar care. They have been depofited in the fandluary of
the Jews, the temples of the heathens, and the churches of
the primitive Chriltians ; and diflinguilhed officers were
always appointed to diflribute copies of the fame, to exa-
mine thofe in ufe, and to correft or condemn fuch as were
found erroneous.

The Jews called their original lidindird fcahac, and thofe
copied from it, mejfurah haddin, or judged meafures. We
frequently read in fcripture of " the weight of the fanc-
tuary," " the meafore of the fanduary," and " the Ihekel
of the fanftuary." Numerous texts and precepts likewife
occur in the facred volume to command uniformity.

The Greeks called their flandards archetype, prototype, and
metreon tropos ; and it is laid, that at a very remote period
they had but two ftandards, namely, the Pythic and the
Olympic meafures. At Athens, fifteen officers were con-
llantly employed for the regulation of their flandards. The
ancient Romans likewife paid If ritl attention to the fame ob-
ject, and are faid to have ellablifhed one Itandard, called
menjura, in every city throughout their vaft dominions ; and
each of thofe meafures was an accurate copy of the original,
kept ia the temple of Jupiter in the Capitol, which flandard
was therefore called rapitolina.

It is flated by feveral good authorities, that the Egyp-
tians gave flandards at a very early period to the neigh-
bouring countries of Afia and Greece, from meafurementi
made of an arc of the meridian. It is obferved by Paudlon,
in his " Metrologie," that the bafe of their largefl pyramid
was made the principal flandard, which was thejoodth Dart of
a degree of the meridian, previoufly meafured for that pur-
pofe ; and Bailly, in his " Allronomie Ancienne," afierts that
the Egyptian computation of the degree nearly correfponds
with the modern meaturement of the fame arc. However
this may be, there is little doubt but that uniformity of
flandard meafures was more flri£tly eltabhfhed among the
ancients than among the moderns. The extenfive and arbi-
trary power pnfTefled by many ancient fovereigns mufl have
greatly contributed to this. Even the Chriflian emperors
were very llriil in promoting uniformity, infomuch that in the
time of Charlemagne there was but one weight and one mea-
fure throughout his empire. In fucceeding ages, however, a
great diverfity was introduced in France by the abufes of
manorial rights and feudal tenures ; and to fimilar caufes
may be afcribed much of that variety which Hill prevails in
the different flates of Italy, Germany, Spain, and moil other
countries of Europe.

Thefe remarks naturally lead us to the confideration of
the flandards of our own country.

Standards of Englifh Weights and Meafures. — The fland-
ards of Englifh weights and meafures are fuppofed to
be chiefly of Saxon origin, but their early hillory is
very imperfectly known.

Bifhop

STANDARD.

Bifhop Fleetwood obferves, in his " Chronicum Pre-
ciofuin," that " there were good laws made on the ftondards
of weights and mcafures before the Conqueft, by Edgar
and Canute, but that they were never well obferved." The
fame remark will indeed apply to many laws on the fubjeft
fubfequent to that period.

Henry I. is faid to have paid much attention to the regu-
lation of weights and meafures, and to have adjured the
Saxon gyrdy or girth, the modern yard, to the length of
his arm. This Itandard he depofited in the Exchequer at
Wellminfter, where it is (lill preftrved. As to the ftandards
of weights, they have undergone feveral alterations fince that
time. The troy weight, which is fuppofed to have taken
its name from Troyes, in France, was introduced by the
Normans, and contained at firll 7680 grains, but was after-
wards reduced to its prefent weight of 5760 grains. Be-
fore the reign of Henry VIH., the Tower or moneyer's
pound was moftly ufed for the precious metals, and was
t J dwt. Lfs than the troy pound. About the fame period
the avoirdupois weight was eftabliihed for heavy goods, in the
room of the old commercial weight, which latter is ftill re-
J tained in Scotland under the name of the yfmfierJam lueight ;
and it is worthy of remark, that the afhze of bread in Eng-
land has been conftantly fixed according to this ancient
weight by thie magiftrates ; the peck loaf newly baked being
16 lb. Amllerdam weight, which anfwers to 171b. 6 oz.
avoirdupois.

Several ftandards of weights and meafures were anciently
kept at Winchelter, from whence our corn-bu(hel derives its
name ; but in later times they have been chiefly kept in the
Exchequer, at Guildhall, and at the Tower.

Prefent State of Engl'ijl Standards — In the year 1758,
the houfe of commons appointed a feleft committee to en-
quire into the original ftandards of weights and meafures,
and to report accordingly. They were afGfted in their re-
learches by feveral eminent mathematicians and mechanifts,
who purlued the enquiry with great fyftem and ability.
Their report, which is very elaborate, contains the refults
of numerous trials and comparifons made on the feveral
ftandards kept at the Exchequer and at Guildhall, which re-
fults were by no means fatisfaclory, particularly with regard
to meafures of capacity. Their labours, however, were not
merely confined to comparifons and refcarches ; theyadjufted
with great accuracy two ftandards, namely, the yard, and
the pound troy, which are ftill carefully preferved, and con-
fidered of the firft authority. The methods taken for pre-
paring thefe ftandards are detailed at confiderable length in
their report, and are well worthy of attention. On the
queftion, whether the troy or the avoirdupois pound (hould
be the ftandard, they determined on the former, for the fol-
lowing reafons. " Becaufe troy weight is bell known to
our law ; that which hath been longeft in life ; that which is
beft known to the reft of the world ; that to which our
learned countrymen have referred, in comparing ancient and
modern weights ; and the weight which hath been fwbdivided
into the fmalleft parts. On the other hand, the avoirdupois
weight is of doubtful authority ; and though unfit to be
made a ftandard, yet the frequent ufc of it renders it neccf-
fary to afcertain how many ounces, pennyweights, and
grains troy, the pound avoirdupois ought to weigh."

The committee therefore obtained, with the utmoft ex-
aftnefs, ftandard weights of the feveral parts of the pound
troy, which were made by Mr. Harris, the king's aflay-
ma'.ter, with great fkill, and proved by a very curious appa-
ratus, contrived by Mr. Bird, the celebrated optician,
which was adapted to five different beams, and which afcer-
tained the weights, from twelve ounces down to one graid

inclufive, and that with fo much correftnefs, as to difcern
any error in the pound to the 2 3o,4oodth of the weight,
and to the sooodth part of a fingle grain. By this apparatus
the feveral parts of the ftandard pound were examined and
adjufted, in every progreffive combination ncceifary to dif-
cover their proportions to each other ; and upon all thefe
trials the feveral weights appeared fo exaft, that, to ufe the
words of the committee, " no greater degree of correftnefs
could in the nature of things be exptfted."

A copy of this ftandard pound was delivered to the houfe
of commons, and another depofited in the Mint, where it ia
ftill preferved, and alfo Mr. Bird's apparatus. With thefe
fome very accurate trials have been lately made by Mr.
Bingley, the prefent aftay-mafter. " One of thofe trials de-
ferves particular notice, as tending to confirm the proportion
b-'tween troy and avoirdupois weight, which has been dif-
ferently ttated in works of high authority, varying from
6998 to 7010 grains troy to the pound avoirdupois. It was,
however, found by the trial above-mentioned, that the avoir-
dupois ftandard pound kept in the Mint weighs exaftly
7000 grains troy ; and it was further afcertained, that this
pound of the Mint perfectly agrees with the bell ftandard
pound at Guildhall, and alfo with that, of 1588, kept at
the Exchequer ; and the agreement was the more curious,
as the Mint ftandard pound had always been kept carefully
packed up in paper, while the other two were conftantly in
ufe, and expofed to the atmofphere." Univerfal Cambilt,
vol. i. p. XV.

The ftandard yard of 1758 is ftill carefully preferved, and
was compared with feveral others by profeflbr PiAet, in
the year 1802. Thefe trials were made in the temperature
of 62°, by means of the microfcopic beam-compafs, con-
ftrufted by Mr. Troughton, capable of afcertaining dif-
ferences to the io,ooodth part of an inch; and the following
were the refults, as compared with the ftandard yard made
by the fame ingenious artift, and agreed upon by the Royal
Society as the moft accurate in its divifions and the beft me-
dium of comparifon.

Inches.

Taking Mr. Troughton's fl;andard at - 36.00000

The parliamentary ftandard of 1758, made by") , 00021

Mr. Bird, was found to be - - J

Royal Society's ftandard, made by Mr. Bird .S 5-99955

Royal Society's ftandard, made by Mr. Graham 36.00130

Exchequer ftandard ... 35-99.^30

Tower ftandard - - - - 36.00400

General Roy's ftandard for the Trigonom. Survey 36.00036

From the foregoing view it appears, that the prefent
ftandards of weights and linear meafures are in a refpeftable
ftate of correftnefs ; but it is to be obferved, that mcafures
of capacity are not fo accurate,efpecially in tlieirlubdivifions;
and the variations are greatly increafed by local cuftoms,
particularlyin corn meafures; an evil which the power of par-
liament has been hitherto unable to correft, iiolwithftanding
the fevere penalties which have been cnaftcd at difTi-ront pe-
riods to enforce uniformity. The committee of 1758 feemed
to defpair of fuccefs in this refpcft, by the remark in their
report, p. 460, " that the repeated endeavours of the legifta-
ture, ever fince Magna Charta, to compel one weight and
one meafure throughout the realm, never having proved
efl'eftual, there feems little to be cxpeftcd from reviving
means which experience has fliewn to be inadequate, and yet
it was difficult to devife any thing entirely unatlempted by
former parliaments."

Since the above period, feveral publications have ap-
peared on the fubjeft of ftandards, among which the com-
^ Y 3 nnuucations

STANDARD.

munications of fir George Shuckbuigh Evelyn, in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadions, deferve particular notice, as Tery
fcientific and accurate. Plans too liave been propoled in par-
liament, and though not adopted, are well worthy of being
recorded, as fuch may prove ufeful on future occafions.

In 1789, fir John Riggs Miller moved for a committee
of the houfe of commons " to invelligate and report on the
beit means of adopting an vmiformity of weights and mea-
fures." He fuggelted the propriety of adopting the pen-
dulum as the Itandard of Imear extenfion ; but the fubjeft
was not refumed the next fcflion. The plan, however, was
ftrongly recommended by a pubhcation of the Rev. George
Skene Keith, who propofed the decimal fyflem, which was
foon after eilablifhcd m France.

In 1814, fir George Clerk moved for a feleft committee
of the houfe of commons " to enquire into the original
ftandards of weights and meafures, &c." And, in order to
obtain information as to what were the bed means of com-
paring linear meafures with fome invariable natural ftandard,
the committee examined profeffor Playfair and Dr. W.
Hyde Wollaflon. Their report on the occafion contains
much ufeful and imp; rtant information ; and a bill founded
on it was brought into parHament. The plan was well re-
ceived, and in the beginning of the prefent year, (1816,)
the bill palled the houfe of commons without oppofi-
tion, but was lolt on the fecond reading in the houfe
of lords.

The chief objeft of this bill was to aboli(h all the prefent
meafures of capacity, except coal meafure, and to adopt one
©nly in th.'ir (lead. The propofed itandard gallon was to be
afcertained by weight ; that is, when filled with pure water
at a temperature of 62°, it was to weigh 10 lb. avoirdupois,
and this Itandard was deduced from the weight of a cubic
foot of pure water, which had been found to weigh, at the
fame temperature, 1000 ounces avoirdupois. Hence the
propofed gallon was to meafure 276.48 cubic inches. It
was likewife propofed to make the avoirdupois, infteid of
troy weight, the itandard for regulating weights; and to ad-
iuft the long meafures by the length of the pendulum.
(Other particulars of this bill, as well as the report of the
committee, may be feen in the Appendix to Kelly's Me-
trology.) . . . ,

The committee, not feeming fatisfied with the experiments
hitherto made on the pendulum, referred the confidcration of
the fubjeft to the Royal Society, who have ordered a new
meafurement of it to be made. This operation is now in
progrefs, under the direiflion of a committee, who have
felefted three members for the performance : namely. Dr.
Young, Dr. WoUafton, and Mr. Troughton. Since thefe
experiments have commenced, the earl Stanhope has moved
in the houfe of lords, that an addrefs fhould be prefented to
the Prince Regent to appoint a committee of fcientific men,
to be felefted from the univerfities and mathematical inftitu-
tions, to determine on the belt ftandards for an improved fyf-
tem of weights and meafures.

From fuch a co.operation much may be expefted, and we
hope to have an opportunity of itating important refults in
our article Weight. At prefent, we (hall proceed to (hew
what has been hitherto effefted in feeking invariable Itand-
ards from nature, and as the purpofe of thole refearches
is of a popular nature, we (hall endeavour to be as ele-
mentary and minute as the fubjeft will admit.

Jnvariabk Standards from Nature. — If arbitrary ftandards
could be preferved uniform, they would anfwer all the
ufeful purpofes for which they are intended ; but as all ma-
terial fubftances are liable to decay, methods have been
propofed for obtaining ftandards from fome unalterable

property of nature, by which loft meafures might be tC'
llored, or new fyftems eftabliftied : but it is remark-
able that, in deducing ftandards from nature, nature
oppofes many obftacles difficult to be furmounted.
Among the different methods that have been fuggelted,
two only have been purfued with any degree of fuccefs,
namely, the length of a pendulum that vibrates feconds of
mean time ; and the length of an arc or portion of the me-
ridian. If the earth had been a perfeft fphere, thofe mea-
fures might be obtained without much difficulty ; but it is a
kind of oblate fpheroid, having its equatorial diameter
longer than its axis or polar diameter. Hence the gra-
vity of bodies varies on its furface, in proportion to their
diftance from the centre of the earth ; and, therefore, a pen-
dulum muft be longer at the poles than on the equator, in
order to vibrate equal portions of time. From the fphe-
roidical figure of the earth, too, the degrees of the meridian
vary, increafing in length, hke the pendulum, from the
equator to the pole. In order to afcertain thefe variations,
many calculations and meafurements have been made by the
greateft mathematicians ; and yet, with all their accumu-
lated labours, up to the prefent time, the folutions are un-
fatisfaftory. " It appears," fays Laplace, in his Syfteme
du Monde, " that the earth differs fenfibly from an ellip-
foid : there is alfo reafon to believe that its two hemi-
fpheres are not equal on each fide of the equator." Doubts
are hkewife entertained of the uniformity of gravitation in
different longitudes, though in the fame latitude ; and alfo
of the equality of degrees of the meridian in thofe fituations.
The ratio, therefore, of any portion of the meridian to the
whole circle is uncertain.

According to fir Ifaac Newton's theory, the equatorial
diameter is to the polar as 230 to 229 ; or, in other words,
the earth's ellipticity is ^i^. This computation was made
on the hvpothefis, that the earth is an homogeneous ellipfoid j
but on the fuppofition that it is heterogeneous, the ellipticity
or oblatenefs is found to be lefs, as may be feen by the
tables contained in this article.

The meafurement of a degree of the meridian was at-
tempted at a very remote period by the Egyptians, as
already noticed ; but from the rude and imperfeft ftate of the
mechanical arts in ancient times, great doubts muft be enter-
tained of the accuracy of fuch operations. With refpeft to
the pendulum, it was not known to the ancients ; but it has
greatly engaged the attention of modern aftronomers and
mechanifts, as well as the meafurement of the meridian.
For a particular account of both, fee our articles Degree,
E.\RTH, and Pesdulu.m.

Huygens was the firft who propofed the pendulum as
the itandard for linear meafure ; that is, its length from the
point of fufpenfion to the centre of ofcillation. Tiie third
part of this diftance he termed the horary foot, which he
recommended to be the univerfal ftandard : but the varia-
tions of its length in different latitudes, as well as the great
difficulty of obtaining the exaft meafurement, above ftated,
feemed to condemn tnis plan as wholly imprafticable. The
fame ingenious philofopher propofed the method of ob-
taining tlie length of the pendulum by means of a rectan-
gular cone ; which when fufpended by its vertex, and made
to vibrate, the centre of its bafe he demonftrated to be the
centre of ofcillation, and reciprocally, if fufpended by the
centre of its bafe, its vertex would be the centre of ofcilla-
tion, fuppofing, in both cafes, that the length of the
ifochronous fimple pendulum was equal to the altitude of
the cone, or the femidiameter of the bafe. He likewife fug«
gefted, as an invariable ftandard of length, the fpace that a
heavy body would fall through in a fecond of time ; but

this,

STANDARD.

this, like the pendulum, mud vary in different latitudes,
and is, moreover, affefted by the refillaiice of the atmofphere.
The operation is, in many other rcfpefts, very difficult to
be performed with any degree of accuracy.

About the year 1778, the public attention was particu-
larly excited and directed to the fubjcft of flandards from
nature, by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufaftures, and Commerce, in London, who advertifed
a premium of ico guineas, or a gold medal, as a reward
to any perfon who would propofe an improved means " for
obtaining invariable flandards for weights and meafures,
communicable at all times, and to all nations." Among
the candidates for this reward was Mr. Hatton, who pro-
poled the application of a moveable point of fufpenfion to
one and the fame pendulum, by which he intended to ac-
complifh the full effeft of two pendulums ; and the differ-
ence of 'heir lengths was to be the required meafure. Mr.
Whitehurll improved upon his plan by means of two pen-
dulums, the vibrations of which were in a ratio of two to
one. By this method it was generally admitted, that
the difference between the rods of two pendulums, whofe
vibrations are known, is a datum from which may be
derived an invariable ftandard meafure, as well as many
other ufeful problems relative to gravitation, to falling
bodies, and to the figure of the earth. By thefe experi-
ments it was afcertained, that the length of a feconds' pen-
dulum in the latitude of London, vibrating in a circular
arc of 3° 8', is very nearly 39.119 inches, but performing
the fame motion in the arc of a cycloid, the refult would be
39.136.

Experiments, which were fuppofed to be ftill more accu-
rate, were afterwards made by Mr. Graham ; and a plan
was propofed to parliament, as before noticed, for adopt-
ing the pendulum as the llandard of length ; but it was
more warmly taken up in other countries. M. Talleyrand,
then bifhop of Autun, and Mr. Jeflerfon, the fecretary of
if ate in America, turned their thoughts very earnellly to the
fubjeft. Mr. Jefferfon propofed, in the houfe of repre-
fentatives, that the length of a pendulum in lat. 38°, which
he reckoned the medium of the United States, fhould be
adopted as a llandard on which to found a new fyilem of
weights and meafures, and his plans were approved, but
never carried into effcft.

It was firfl propofed in France, that the length of the
pendulum fhould be made the llandard, taken in the latitude
of Paris (48^ 50') ; but the latitude 45° was afterwards
preferred, as molt likely to be univerfally received, be-
ing the medium between the equator and the poles. A re-
port to this effeft was made to the National Adembly, in
which it was agreed, that the meafurement fhould be en-
trufted to a committee of fix members of the Academy of
Sciences in Paris, and to fix members of the Royal Society
of London. But this plan was afterwards rejedlcd by the
academicians Lagrange, Laplace, Lalande, Borda, Monge,
and Condorcet, who recommended a llandard from the
meafurement of an arc of the meridian. As this feeras the
molt fcientific operation, and important change that has
ever been made in any fyilem of weights and meafures, we
fhall give a full account of it here, extrafted from their
conllitutional code.

Extraft from the conllitutional laws of the new fyflem of
meafures in France.

" By a decree of the 8th of May, 1790, fanftioned the
22d of Augull, the conllituent afiembly deliring that all
France fhould enjoy for ever the advantai^e that mud refult
from an uniformity of weights and meafure, commilTioned
the Academy of Sciences to determine the length of the pen-

dulum, and thence to deduce an invariable llandard for all
weights and meafures.

" The length of the pendulum, at firfl, appeared proper
for the bafis of the fyilem of meafures, being eafy to deter-
mine, and confequently to verify, if it fhould be neceflary by
any accidents happening to the flandards ; but it was ob-
ferved, that to take, as was propofed, for the unit of mea-
fures, the length of the fimple pendulum vibrating feconds,
was to employ, in order to determine a meafure of length,
not only an heterogeneous element, — time, but alfo an arbi-
trary divifion, — the 86,40odth part of the day. A meafure
of length was therefore preferred that did not depend on
any other quantity ; and it will be feen afterwards ( Precis
des Experiences, &c.) that obfervations of the pendulum can
neverthelefs be employed as a means of verifying, and even
of finding that unit of meafure, although they have not
ferved as the bafis of its determination. An unit of meafure,
taken on the earth even, has the advantage of being perfeftly
analogous to moll of the meafures that are likewife taken
on the earth, as the dillances between points of its furface,
or the extent of portions of this fame furface : it is, in faft,
more natural to compare the diflance of one place to an-
other to the quadrant of one of the terrellrial circles, than to
the length of the pendulum. In fhort, it was obferved, that as
the 1 0,000,000th part of the quarter of the meridian, or the
metre, diftered only from the pendulum vibrating feconds
at Paris about fix miUimetres, both units would have led to
refults almofl exattly fimilar."

A fccond decree of the fame day commifTions the Academy
to appoint the moft convenient fcale of divifion for weights
and meafures, and alfo for monies.

The decree of the 26th of March, 1 791, fandfioned on the
30th, to fix an unit of meafure, natural and invariable, and
which, in its determination, contains nothing arbitrary or
pecuhar to the fituation of any people on earth, adopted,
according to the advice of the Academy of the 19th of the
fame month, the dimenfionsof the quadrant of the terrellrial
meridian as the bafis of the new fyilem of meafures.

" The quadrant of the meridian fhould be preferred to the
quadrant of the equator, on account of the great difficulties
that the neceffary operations to determine this laft element
would have prefented, and their verification, if it were ever
wifhed to have recourfe to it. The regularity of this circle
is not better afcertained, than the fimilitude or regularity of
meridians. The fize of the celellial arc anfwering to the
portion of the equator that would have been meafured, is
lefs fufceptible of being determined with precifion : in fhort,
every nation belongs to one of the meridians of the earth ;
one part only is placed under the equator."

The new fyflem of weights and meafures, founded on the
meafure of the meridian of the earth, and on the decimal
divifion, was adopted by the law of the lil of Augull 1793,
under a nomenclature and on a bafis, both of which have
fince experienced changes.

" This nomenclature, modified by the law of the 30th
Nivofe an. 2, did not admit the decimal multiples deca, heUo,
kilo, and myria, but only the fub-multiples deci and cenli. In
order to make up for this, feveral denominations in each clafs
of meafures had been adopted. Thus, the miliare exprefled
1000 metres ; t\\c grade, 100,000; the cadil cnrrefponded
with the litre, the cade to thi; kilolitre, the gravel to the
gramme, \.he grave to the kilogramme, the bar to 1000 kilo-
grammes ; and the words decicudil, cenlricadil, decicade, cen-
ticade, decigravel, cenligravet, dceibar, and centibar, expreffcd
the tenth and hundredth parts of thefe different units. The
name are was given to the meafure at prefent called hellare:
thv franc fhould be of the weight of 10 gravels, that is to fay,

double

STANDARD.

double what it now is." According to thij fimple flcetch, it
will be readily confefled that the nomenclature adopted by
the law of 1795, is more methodical, more conformable to
the principles of common numeration, and therefore more
fufceptible of all applications of the decimal calculation.

Some laws applied alfo the decimal fcale to the divifum of
the day and of the year, which did not require fuch a
change ; they have been fucceffively repealed.

Extraft from the law of the i8lh Germinal, 1795, '■^^^'
tive to weights and meafures.

Art. II. Tiiere (hall be t)Ut one (tandard of weie;hts and
meafures, — it fliall be a rod of platina, on which the metre,
the fundamental unit of the whole fyftem of meafures, (hall
be traced.

The fecond article of the law of the 19th Fiimaire, 1800,
acknowledges alfo the kilogramme for the ftandard.

Art. V. Their nomenclature is definitively adopted as
follows :

Metre, the meafure of length, equal to the 1 0,000,000th
part of the arc of the terreftrial meridian, contained be-
tween the north pole and the equator.

yire, the meafure of fuperficies for land, equal to a fquare
of ten metres each fide.

Stere, the meafure particularly intended for fire-wood, and
which fhall be equal to the cubic metre.

Litre, the meafure of capacity, both for liquids and dry
goods, the contents of which (hall be equal to the cubic
metre.

Gramme, the abfoliite weight of a volume of pure water,
equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre, of
the temperature of melted ice.

The \mit of monies (hall be called y>jnc, to replace the
name iivre. ufed hitherto.

Art. VI. The tenth part of the metre (hall be called de-
elmetre, and its loodth part centimetre ; what fhall be called
decametre is a meafure equal to 10 metres, which fupplies a
convenient meafure for furveying. HeSometre (hall fignify
the length of 100 metres. Kilometre and myr'iametre fhall
be lengths of 1000 and 10,000 metres, and (hall defignate
principally itinerary diltances.

Art. VII. The denominations of the meafures of other
kinds fhall be determined according to the fame prin-
ciples as thofe of the preceding article.

Thus, decilitre (hall be a meafure of capacity ten times
f mailer than the litre ; centigramme (hall be the lOodth part
of the weight of a gramme.

Decalitre (hall likewife be ufed to defignate a meafure
containing 10 litres ; heliolitre for a meafure equal to 100
litres ; a kilogramme fhall be a weight of 1000 grammes.

In a fimilar manner the names of all other meafures fliall
be compofed.

For a comparifon of the French and Engli(h weights and
meafures, fee our articles Measuke and Weight.

Prefent State of Standards of IVeights and Meafures in
France. — The fuccefs of the metrical fyltem adopted in
France is a fubjedl of interelting and important inquiry.
The plan was originally confidered fo excellent, that
hopes were entertained of other nations following the
example. This cxpeftatioii, however, has not been realized,
nor has that beautiful and fcientific theory been found un-
exceptionable in praftice. On the contrary, it met with
fuch oppofition on account of the Greek and Latin terms,
and the decimal divifions, that in i8ol the government
allowed the people to ufe, for a limited time, their ancient
vocabulary of names, applying them to the new ftandards,
which are ftill retained. And in 1812, a further concef-
Con was made, by the imperial government, to the pre-

judices and habits of the people. They were allowed to
continue the ancient vocabulary applied to the new ftandards,
with the word ufuel added to each : thus, two metres are the
toife ufuelle ; half a kilogramme, the livre ufuelle. Sic. : and
thefe units are not divided decimally, but into halves,
quarters, and eighths : the long meafures are alfo divided
duodecimally.

Befides the binary divifions of weights, the iivre vfuelle
is divided into ounces, gros, and grains, like the ancient
Iivre, poids de marc. Hence, the new ounce and its divifions
depart fo widely from the gramme, that the proportion
cannot be afcertained without a troublefome calculation.

Thus, after more than twenty years of troublefome ex-
periment and trial of the metrical fyltem, the only advantage
that has been gained is that of edablidiing one common
(tandard, the metre; but uniformity might as well have been
obtained by making their ancient toife, (fo univerfally
known,) their ftandard. The chi.f recommendation of
the metre, as dated in the foregoing decree, as well as by
the authors on the metrical fydem, Brillat, Briflbn, and
Tarbe, is, that (hould it be ever altered or lod, it may be
eafily redored, not by a fecond mea'^urement of the meri-
dian, but by a comparifon with the pendulum. Thus
they allow the pendulum to be the regulator of linear
meafure as well as of time, and, in (hort, the ultimate crite-
rion, and of courfe the principal dandard.

The following tables diew at one view the labours of the
greateft mathematicians and philofophers to determine
the figure of the earth, and thence to deduce ftandard
meafures. But it may be proper firft to premife, in addition
to our account of experiments on the pendulum by the
Englilh and French aftronomers, what thofe of Spain have
recently done in difterent parts of the globe, in purfuit
of the fame important objeft.

About the year 1789, the Spanilh government fent out
an expedition of two frigates, the Defcubierta and the At-
trevida, under the command of Alexander Malafpina, in
order to make experiments with the pendulum in different
parts of the world, and particularly with a view to afcer-
tain if the fouthern hemifphere differed from the northern,
as was fuppofed, and indeed warranted, by the few mea-
furements antecedently made on the fouth fide of the
equator by La Caille and Bouguer.

The new experiments were made with a deal rod pen-
dulum, and other necedary apparatus, under the direftion and
management of M. Cifcar, who appears to have been well
qualified for the undertaking. The particulars of his im-
portant labours are detailed by M. Mathieu, in the " Con-
noiffance des Terns" of the prefent year (1816), who dates
that M. Cifcar made fixteen experiments, from N. lat. 595°
to S. lat. JI^", and in very diderent longitudes ; and com-
pared them vifith the theory which Laplace eftablilhed in his
" Mecaniqiie Celefte," on fifteen meafurements of the pen-
dul im, which led, by one method of calculation to make
the earth's ellipticity -v4 t, and by another ji-. The re-
fults deduced from M. Cifcar's experiments do not determine
which is correft, but they tend to (hew that the two he-
mifphercs are nearly alike, as may be feen by the following
table of ellipticities.

As to the lengths of the pendulum, they do not differ
materially from thofe already computed, making allowance
for its being lengthened, in order to make the fame num-
ber of vibrations in a vacuum as it did in the air. The
calculations giv -n of thefe alterations, according to the
variable ftate of the atmofphere, are very curious, and well
worthy the attention of philofophers engaged in experiments
on the pendulum.

Length

STANDARD.

Length of a Degree of the Meridian in different Latitudes.

Countries.

M

fan

L.i.;;i|. i.f

iM.ali.i.rs.

Dai.s.

Latitude.

Dt^ief.

Et.-. Miles.

Peru

0

0

68.7 J r

Juan ...

'744

Peru

O

0

68.732

Bouguer - - .

1744

Peru ...

O

0

68.713

Condamiiie

•744

India ...

12

?2N.

68.743

Lambton - - -

180J

Cape of Good Hope -

33

18 S.

69.076

La Caille

1752

America ...

39

12 N.

6S.89J

Mafon and Dixon

1768

Italy - - -

43

00

68.998

Bofcovich

'7JS

Italy

44

44

69.061

Beccaria ...

1764

France ...

44

52

68.769

Biot and Arago

1808

France ...

4J

00

69.092

La Caille

1740

France ...

46

12

69.052

Delambre and Maupertuis

'793

Germany ...

47

40

69.142

Leifganig

1766

France ...

49

20

68.763

Fernel ...

152,-

France

49

22

68.94J

Picard ...

1669

France ...

49

22

69.119

Caffini

1718

France ...

49

22

69.121

Caflini -

1740

France ...

49

23

69.114

Academicians .

1744

England ...

51

30

69.146

Miidge ...

1802

England ...

52

2

69-133

Mudge ...

1802

Holland -

52

4

66.91

Snell

1620

Lapland ...

66

20

69.403

Maupertuis

1737

Lapland ...

66

20

69.292

Swanberg

1803 1

Length of

a Pendulum vi

jrating Second

s in different Latitudes.

Names of Places.

Mean

Length of

Names of Obfcrvers.

Latitude.

Pendulum.

0 1

Eng. Inches.

Equator ...

0 0

38.989

Bouguer.

Porto Bello -

9 34 N.

38.997

Bouguer.

Pondicherry

" 55

39.OOJ

Le Gentil.

Madras ...

'3 04

39.026

Sir J. Warren.

Jamaica - - .

18 00

39.019

Campbell.

St. Domingo

18 27

39-0 '7

Bouguer.

Cape of Good Hope

33 25 S.

39-083

Bouguer.

Cape of Good Hope

33 2? S.

39070

La Caille.

Touloufe

43 36 N.

39.099

Darquier.

Geneva ...

46 12

39.092

Mallet.

Vienna ...

48 12

39- "3

Leifganig,

Paris

48 50

39- "9

Bouguer.

Paris

48 50

39- ' 23

Mairan.

Paris

48 50

39-134

Borda.

Gotha ...

5° 57

39.121

Zach.

London . . -

51 32

39.121

Emcrfon.

London ...

51 32

39.128

Dcfaguliers.

London ...

5' 32

39- "9

Whiteliurft.

London . . -

5' 32

39'36

Dr. Rothcram, in a cycloid.

London ...

5' 32

39.126

Graham.

London . . -

51 32

39.200

Sir Jonas Moore,

Leyden . . -

52 09

39.140

Luloffs.

Arenfburg

58 14

39- '47

Grefchow.

Petcrlburgh

59 56

39 '63

Mallet.

Piliau

66 48

39.181

Maupertuis.

Lapland . - -

66 4S

39-'72

Academicians.

Lapland ...

67 04

39.181

Mallet.

Tabu

STANDARD.

Table of the Ellipticities of the Earth, found by different
Modes of Meafui-ement and Calculation.

Authors.

Huygens
Newton

Maupertuis, Sec.

Swanberg
Clairaut
Treifneckei- -

Laplace

Ellipticities.

Delambre

Cifcar

m

S TTT.T

I ITT

JT3
TST

Mples.

7S5.

Theory of gravity.

Meufuration of arcs.

Rotatory motion.'

Vibration of pendulum.

Occultation of llar^.

Preceffion and nutation.

Theory of the moon
f Pendulum from fifteen ex-
I periments.
f From the fame, by a
\ different calculation.
rComparifon of meridians
) mcafured in different
(_ places.

Pendulum in N. lat.

Pendulunr. in S. lat.

We have purfued this article to confider.^ble length,
as well on account of its general importaiic?, as its pe-
culiar intereft at the prcfent time, when plans are fet on
foot for eUablifhing new itandards, and improving the
Britith fyftem of weights and meafures.

From the foregoing view of the fubjeft it appears, that,
however profound and accurate the labours of the learned
have been in fearch of invariable ftandards from nature,
weights and mealures have hitherto derived but little practi-
cal advantage from their refearches, except indeed what
has been effefted in France ; and the utility of the alterations
there is queftionable, when balanced againll the great in-
convenience that has been experienced, and which u hkcly
long to continue.

The chief ufe of ftandard=: from nature is to rcilore efta-
btifhed meafures, fhould they be ever loft ; a fuppofition
highly improbable, and of which there are few examples.
In fliort, ftandards from nature can be o:ily known by
comparifon with a fcale of eftabliflied arbitrary meafures.
Tlie refearches of the learned, however, fhould be encou-
raged, as thev may likewife lead to other ufeful and im-
portant difcov-.ries in arts and fciences.

The plan of aftimilating the ftandards of different nations
has been at all times a favourite fubje£l with philofophers
and Itatefmen. Such was the benevolent but Utopian wi(h
of Budeus, an eminent author of the twelfth century, who
thus expreil'es himfclf in his work, entitled " De Re Num-
maria."

" Una fides, pondus, menfura, moneta fit una,
Et ftatus illaslus totius orbis eiit."

" One faith, one weight, one meafure, nnd one coin,
Would foon the jarring world in friendfliip join."

<' Experience, indeed, (hews (fays a late writer on Metro-
logy), that plans for aflimiiating the ftandards of different
countries, are as imprafticable and vifionary as propofals for
eftabliftiing an univerfal language. Hiitory likewife ftiews,
that while governments change with great facility their
money fyftems, their conftitution, and even their religion.,

weights and meafures feem immoveable. They are indeed
fo mixed, and, as it were, matted with every concern of pro-
pe'ty, that they cannot be eflentially altered without vio-
lence and confufion ; nor are thofc evils of a temporary na-
ture. The habits, cuftoms, and prejudices of the multitude
are not to be fpeedily changed. It was computed in
France, that in three generations their metrical fyftem would
be fully eftabliftied ; but now it feems to require more. In
England, the conftant vigilance of the legiflature for 500
years has been employed in correfting abufes rather than in
improving the fyftem. In fhort it appears, that nothing has
a greater tendency to grow worfe, or more obftinately re-
fifts improvement, than weights and meafures."

Standard of Bul/ion and Coins. — The ftandard for bullion
is a certain proportion fixed by law between the weight of
pure gold or filver in any quantity, and the weight of alloy,
which proportion is called the Jincncfs. Thus, the ftandard
finenefs of gold coins in England is 22 carats, or A^ = .f ! ;
and the ftandard finenefs ot filver coins is 1 1 oz. 2 dwt., or
|J. See our articles Ass.w, Bullion, and Coin.

Wrought gold, however, has two legal ftandards ; the one
22 carats, as above, and the other 18 carats ; the latter be-
gan in 1798, and is chiefly ufed for watch-cafes and rings.

Wrought filver has likewife two legal ftandards ; the one
II oz. 2 dwt., as above, and the other 8 dwt. better; that
is, 1 1 oz. 10 dwt. The latter, which is called new fterling,
is of ancient itanding, but feldom ufed.

Standard of Coins. — Befides the legal finenefs for coins,
there is alfo a ftandard weight fixed by law. Thus in Eng-
land, a pound troy of ftandard gold is coined into 445 gui-
neas, and of ftandard filver into62J. A law, however, has
been recently enafted (June 1816), by which the ftandard
weight of filver is altered, but the finenefs both of this metal
and of gold remains unchanged.

The new fiandard Weight of Englifti filver coin is, that
one pound troy of ftandard finenefs ftiall be coined into 66/.
Thus the weight of the new (hilling is to be 3 dwt. iSTig""'
and the other new filver coins in proportion.

No alteration is to take place tn the gold coins ; but
gold pounds are to be coined in proportion to the guinea.
Each will therefore be W of a guinea, and mult weigh
5 dwt. 3!^4 g*"* ^^ ftandard gold, and 113 gr. of pure
gold, without any allowance for remedy. But according to
the regulation which allows a guinea of 5 dwt. 8 gr. to be
a legal tender, the gold pound weighing 5 dwt. i j^ g""- "''^^
be alfo legal.

By the new law of 1816, gold is declared to be the
ftandard of value, or the meafure of property, by whicli the
par of exchange, and the value of filver and all other com-
modities, fhould be eftimated.

It has been long a queftion of doubt, whether gold or
filver fiiould be the ftandard of value. Locke and other au-
thorities ftate it to be filver ; but lord Liverpool, in his
" Letter to the King on the Coins of the Realm," obferves,
that " coins, which are the principal meafures of property,
fhould be ccmpoled of one metal only, and that this fhould
be gold."

By a law of 1799, the queftion was fettled with re-
fpeft to large payments, as it was then declared that filver
fhould not be a legal tender for any fum above 25/. ; but by
the law of 181 6, gold is the only legal tender that can be
made for any fum exceeding 42 (hilhngs.

Standarding Bullion and Coins. — The precious metals in
England, whether in bullion or foreign coins, are generally
bought and fold at fo much per ounce ftandard, which is
calculated from the affay-mafter's report of weight and
finenefs.

The

STANDARD.

2

ditto.

5

ditto.

10

ditto.

'5

ditto.

The following are the charafters generally ufed in thofe
reports.

j is I dwt. or oz.

y -

e -

^ -

^£2W/ — »S ditto.
&JS;, — 19 ditto.

Olf^_ (obolus) -1 ditto.

Rules for flanJarding Bullion and Coins. — The common
method of finding the value of fmall quantities of gold and
iilver is by allowing, from the alfay-malter's report, at the
rate of 4^. per carat, B. or W., in every ounce weight of
gold ; and at the rate of bd. per ounce, B. or W., in every
ounce weight of filver. But when filver is more than 10 dwt.
worfe, an allowance of id. per ounce mull be made for
refining.

The foUovTing are the fcales of allowance.

Scale for Gold. Scale for Silver.

I car. (4^. 1 oz. [6d.

I gr. (I J.

15 dwt. (4i</.
10 dwt. (3(/.
5 dwt. {i\d.
2idwt. [Id.

Thus, to find the value of 2 oz. of gold B. I car. i gr.
at ^.per oz. To 8/. (for 2 oz.) add ioj. for better, which
gives the value 8/. ioj'. And to find the value of 12 oz. of
filver, W. 10 dwt. at ;j. 6d. per oz. From 3/. 6s. (for
12 oz.) fubtraft 3^. for worfc, which gives the value 3/. 3^.

Rules for Jlandarding Gold. — As 22 carats are to the
affay or report of finenefs, fo is the grofs weight to the
quantity that is to be added or fubtradled from this grofs
weight, according as the report is better or worfe. If bet-
ter, tlie additional quantity is called (by the trade) betternefs,
and if worfe, the fubtraftional quantity is called ivorfenefs.

Example. — How much llaiidard gold is there in an ingot
of the following report, B. 1 car. 3^ gr. weight, 67 oz.
15 dwt. 8 gr.?

OZ. (Kvt. pr

As 22

I 3^

: 67 15 8

4

4

20

88

7

^iSS

4

4

24

Rf-

oz. (Iwt.gr.

352 30 32528X30 — 352 = 2772= 5 15 12
oz, dwt. gr.

To 67 1 J 8 grofs weight
Add 5 15 12 betternefs.

73 10 20 ftandard.

Vol. XXXIII.

The following method for ftandarding gold may be gene-
rally ufed with advantage,

oz. dwt. gr.

67 15 8 grofs weight, B. or W. i car. ji gr.
I 33 17 16

2 gr

I
1

2

=5 16 18 20

= 4 8

9 10

2)127 I 6")

•^— — > divi

11)63 1° 153

idedby 22.

5 15 12 betternefs or worfenefs, as above.

Rules for flandarding Silver As II oz. 2 dwt. are to the

affay, fo is the grofs weight to the quantity that is to be
added or fubtraiEted.

Example. — In 287 oz. of filver, W. I2idwt., how much
ftandard ?

As II
20

222

287
20

2840

dwt. gr. oz. dwt. gr.

222)71750(323 4 = 16 3 4

oz. dwt. gr.
From 287 o o grofs weight
SubtraA 16 3 4 worfenefs.

270 16 20 ftandard.

From the laft example, the reafon of the following rulf
for ftandarding filver is obvious, viz.

Multiply half the weight in ounces by the aftay in penny-
weights, and divide the produft by iii, the quotient will
be the betternefs or worfenefs in ounces.

Example How much ftandard filver in 160 ounces of

B. iSidwt.?

Half weight 80

111)1480(13 oz. 6 dwt. i6gr.
Ill

— ^— oz. dwt. gr.

370 To 160 o o grofs

333 Add 13616 betternefs.

37
20 &c.

173 6 16 ftandard.

It fliould be obfervcd, that there are fables conftrufted,
and fometimes ufed, for ftand.irding gold and filver, as may
be fcen in Foltlcthw.«.yt's Dictionary of Commerce, vol. i.
p. 388 — 398. But from the fimplicity and concifenefs of
the foregoing examples, it is maiiifcll that fucli tables can-
not much ftiorten the operation, though they may ferve to
check or prove the calculation. Univerfal Cambilt, vol. ii.

P- '93-

Standakd, in Botany and Vegetable Phi/ielogy, Vexillum,

it the folitary fuperior petal of papilionaceous flowers, ge-
nerally of a larger fize, and more confpicuous colour, than
the other petals. See Papilionaceous.

Standard, in War, a fort of banner or flags borne as a
4 Z fignal

S T A

fiejnal for joining together of the fevefal troops belonging
to the fame body. See Flag, Sec

The ftandards were originally large flags, fixed on the
tops of towers or other elevated places ; and from their
being Itationary, were called ftandards : though this term
was afterwards given to moveable eiifigus, as at prefent to
thofe borne by the cavalry.

Du-Cange derives the word horn J}anJarum or Jlantarum,
Jlandardum or Jlandak, words ufed, in the corrupt Latin, to
fignify the principal flag of an army. Menage derives it
from the G -rman, Jlander, or the Englilh, Jiand.

The ftandird is ufiially a piece of filk, a foot and a half
fquare, on which are embroidered the arms, device, or cy-
pher of the prince, or of the colonel. It is fixed on a lancet
eight or nine feet long, and is carried in the centre of t he
firll rank of a fquadron of horfe by the cornet.

The (landard is ufed for any martial enfign of horfe ;
but more particularly for that of the general ; or the royal
ftandard. Thofe borne by the foot are rather called
colours.

The ancient kiags of France bore St. Martin's hood for
their ftandard. The Turks preferve a green ftandard,
borne by Mahomet, with a great deal of devotion, as be-
lieving it to have been brought down by the angel Gabriel.
Every time it is dilplayed, all who profefs the Mahometan
faith are obliged to take arms ; thofe who refufe are to be
deemed as infidels.

SxANDARD-Gaari/. See Guard.

Standards, for the Roman, fee Signa.

Standard, Royal, in Sea Language, is a flag in which
the imperial enfigns of Great Britain, and the arms of France
and Ireland, together with the armorial bearings of Hanover,
are united and quartered. This is never hoifted unlefs when
the fovereign is aboard, and then it is difplayed at the main-
top-maft-head.

Standards, in Ship-Building, large knees of oak or
iron, fayed on the deck and againft the fide. The arm upon
the deck (lands upon a fole, and is bolted through the
beams, and clenched underneath ; and the other arm through
the fhip's fide. There is alfo a ftandard fayed on the gun.
deck, againft the apron forward, and another againft the
tranfoms abaft ; alfo one againft each riding-bitt, and one in
head upon the knee, when the piece againft the ftem does
not run high enough for the hole of the main-ftay collar.
Standards are alfo large poles, fet up endways, about ten
feet afunder, round the edges of flips, to which the fpars
are hung to fupport the ftaging. They have cleats nailed
up their foremoft and after fides, at about two feet
diftance.

Standard Trees, in Planting, are all fuch as ftand fingly,
with an upright ftem, without being trained to any wall or
other fupport. In Gardening, they are moltly diftinguifhed
into three forts ; TiSfidl Jlandards, halfjiandards, and d-warf
4andards, from their being occafionally trained in all thefe
ways ; but foreft and tall ornamental trees rarely in any
ether than full ftandards ; though in the ftirub tribe they are
occafionally formed into both half and dwarf ftandards, ac-
cording to their natural growths.

Full ftandards are fuch trees as are trained with tall,
ftraight, clean ftems, fix or feven feet high, or more, then fuf-
fered to branch out at that height all around, to form a head,
as in common ftandard apple and pear-trees, fome forelt-
trees, &c. Thefe ftiould be trained accordingly in their mi-
nor growth, by trimming off' all the lower lateral branches
gradually, as the ftem advances in height ; fuffering the
leader always to remain entire, efpecially in all f«relt-trees ;

S T A

or, if it (hould happen to fork, taking off" the worft, and
leaving the llraightell (hoot to run up, to continue the pro-
longation of the item to the height above-mentioned. In
fruit-trees, the ftem is often cut or topped at the height of fix
or feven feet, to force out a let of laterals in that part, fo as
to form a regular fpreading head of a moderate height, for the
greater convenience of gathering the fruit ; but for all- kinds
of foreft-tree ftandards, the tops (hould never be reduced,
but the leaders be permitted to remain entire to run up i«
height ; as the beauty and worth of fuch trees confift in
their lofty growth.

Moft forts of fruit-trees may be trained for full ftandards,
except vines ; though fome of them will not ripen their
fruit effeftually in this way, as peaches, neftarines, and
figs : but, on the other hand, all forts of apples, pears,
plums, and cherries, ripen their fruit freely on ftandards of
this kind.

And all forts of fruit-trees for this purpofe are moftiy
raifed by grafting, &c. on the freeft ftrong-lhootiug ftocks,
and trained with ftraight clean ftems full five or fix feet
high, as above, either the ftock trained up to that height,
and then grafted or budded, the graft or bud branching out
forming the head ; or the ftock grafted near the ground,
and the firft (hoot from the graft or bud trained up for a ftem
to the proper height, then fuffered to fend forth branches :
in either method, it is next to be confidered whether it be
intended the tree (hall form a fpreading open head, or aflume
a more erect and afpiring growth : in the former cafe, if the
leading (hoot of the graft or bud be topped at fix or fevea
feet from the ground, it will force out lateral (hoots at that
height, and commence a fpreading head, open in the middle,
fulFering, however, the whole afterwards to take their owa
growth ; and in the latter, by permitting the leading flioot
to remain entire, it will afpire in height, and the whole head
will alfume a more upright and lofty growth : in both me-
thods the heads will afterwards naturally branch out abun-
dantly, and furnilh themfelves fufficiently with bearing wood,
producing fruit, in fome forts, in two or three years from
the grafting and budding, as in cherries, apples, &c. but
pears are fometimes four, five, or fis years before they bear.
See Grafting.

It is expedient to train moft of the principal hardy fruit,
trees as full ftandards, that, when planted in continued
rows, either in gardens or orchards, by having tall ftems,
they may admit the influence of the fun and air more freely
to the heads, and permit the obtaining crops of efculent
plants, grafs, &c. from the ground under them, over which
their fpreading branches extend.

In refpeft to the management of full ftandard fruit-trees,
little is required, after the firft training, to form the ftem to
the proper height, and the firft (hoots are advanced at top, to
give the head its firft formation ; being allowed to advance
nearly in their natural order, except reducing any very irre.
gular growths, permitting the whole to (hoot in length,
and branch laterally in their own way ; by which they na-
turally form frnit-fpurs along their fides upwards for bearing.
The irregular branches muft, however, be removed, and
the heads kept properly thinned, as well as the fuckers
rubbed off from the items or other parts, and the dead
wood be wholly taken away. See Pruning.

Standard fruit-trees with high Items are fometimes
planted againft walls, and trained as wall-trees : this is prac-
tifed for high walls, fo as immediately to cover the upper
parts of them, whilft dwarfs and half ftandards cover the
bottom and middle parts, and thus every part »f the wall is
fully occupied at once : but in thefe cafes the dwarfrtree*

are

S T A

are to remain, the others being wholly deftroyed after a time.
See Wall 7V(r«.

Theft lorts of high ftandards are likewife occafionally
placed agaiiilt the ends of buildings ; fome choice lorts of
pears in particular : alio apricots in a foutherly afpe£^, and
other fruit-trees of the fame kind.

Half Jlandards are trained with ftems only three or four
feet high, and then luffered to branch out to form heads. It
is a method of training praftifed for many forts of fruit-
trees, both as detached ttandards for variety, and the con-
venience of gathering the fruit, and with fanned fpreading
heads, as 'vall-treeb for high walls, in order to cover certain
parts of them.

The method of raifmg thefe is nearly the fame as for full
{landdrds, only they are grafted or budded upon lower
ftocks, training them with upright fiigle ftems only three
or four feet high, by the (locks on which they are grafted
being trained up to that height for a ftem ; or by being
grafted or budded low in the ftock, and the firll main Ihoot
of the graft, &c. ted up for a Item, ai d toppf-d at that
height to force out bra-iches to form the head ; fullering the
heads, in thiife dcfigned a-^ detached llandard<, to branch out
all around, and run up to a fuUfpread, nearly according to
their natural mode of growth, except jut! ivforinm:^ any ill-
growing branch, as {liorteiiing the biancncs (hould be
fparingly praftiftd, as it would force out numtroiis ufelefs
fhoots, and prevent the formation of bearing wood, efpe-
cially in the apple, pear, plum, and cherry kinds

But when h.ilf ftandard; are intended for walls, they
fhould have the head trained in a fomewhat fanned manner,
to fpread to the wall like a common wall-tree. And when
it is necelTary to have thcni to form heads of as moderate
growth as poffible, efpccially in the detached half ftandavds
for fmall compartments, tliey fhould be grafted or budded
upon the more dwarfilh fort of flocks, as apples upon cod-
Lns, and pears upon quinces, &c.; in which cafe the heads
will always fhoot moderately, and never ramble wide or grow
high. See Stocks.

But thouijh a few of this fort of trees may be eligible as
detached half llandards for variety, they are not proper for
the open quarters of the garden ; as the branches coming
out low may impede the growth of tnider-crops. A few
might, however, be thinly ranged and planted along the fides
or boundary parts of large wide compartments, particularly
of thofe forts that are wrought on dwarf-flocks, which com-
monly branch more moderately, and in a lefa (preading man-
ner : as a good portion of the common codlin kind, which
naturally (hoot moderately, and are good bearers ; the
heads in which being, for the moll part, fuflerod to run in
their natural way of growth, except jufl a little occalional
regulation and pruning of their branches, as fuggeiled for
full ftandards. For walls, however, that are eight or nine
feet high, they are proper to plant between the dwarfs (>r
principal refidents, to cover the middle, or upper half of
the wall, whilft the dwarfs occupy the lower fpace. See
Wall-TVi"^^.

Half-ftandard cherries, apricots. &c. are alfo proper to
plant in forcing-frames, to produce early fruit. See
FoRCING-Frflm«.

The after-management of detached trees of tli'S fort, in
refpcA to pruning, is nearly the fame as that of the full
ftandards ; as, alter iiaving (liot out at top to form the
head, they fhould be permitted to branch both in length and
laterally nearly in their own way, except jufl pruning to
order any confidcrablc irregularity, crowding branches m the
middle, or long ramblers, and detaching all fuckers from

i5 T A

the root, llem, and head, and cutting out cafual dead wood t
and thus the regular branches remaining, at 1 ngtli will emit
fruit-fpurs abundantly in every part for bearing. And the
half ftandards agamll walls are to be pruned and managed
as other wall-trees, each according to its nature and habits
of irrovvth.

Forefl-trees, and the taller forts of the ornamental tree
kinds, are feldom or ever trained as half ftandards, but
moftly fuffercd to run up in height to their full growths, un-
lefs fome particular fort may be required to have the form of
a bufliy half itandard for fome fpecial ufe or purpofe.

Several plants of the fhrub kind, in their natural growth,
alFume lomething of the appearance of half flai d irds,
thouiih, in moll iiiflances, they are branchy to the bottom,
or rife with different ftems ; but they might be moftly trained
with a fingle clear Item to the height of three or four feet,
and be then fuffered to branch out into full heads, like half
ftandards.

Dwarf Standards. — Thefe are trained with low ftems,
only one or two feet high, and then topped, to force out
branches to form the head. Ti.ere are feveral forts of choice
fruit-trees which are trained as dwarf ftandards, with flemg
not more than one foot high, branching out at that height,
forming proportionably low heads ; they being occafionally
planted round the borders of the kitchen or pleafure-garden,
&c. inftead of efpaliers, and the heads either kept down
low by clofe pruning, or luffered to branch upward nearly
in their natural growth. Tiiefe .ire railed by grafting. See.
upon the moll dwarfifh flocks, fuch as apples on codlin or
paradife-ftocks, and pears on quinces, &c. in order to dwarf
them as much as poflible in their growth ; and as they (hoot
in height, each year's (hoots either pruned (hort, to keep
the head down, and confine it within a fmall compafs ; or
the branches permitted to fhoot in length, except jufl re-
ducing cafual ramblers and difordtrlv growers. But by too
fevere pruning, too many ufelefs (hoots are forced out an-
nually, and a fufficiency of bearing wood feldom produced,
fo that it rarely anfwers well, while by flight pruning, tlie
trees moftly flioot more moderately, and fooner form tliem-
felves into plentiful bearers in better perfeftion. Thefe
kinds of dwarf ftandards are not fo generally introduced
now, finceefpalier fruit-trees have been brought to a proper
degree of perfection in training and bearing. Tlicy might,
however, be fparingly admitted, where neceffary, in their
different forts, under proper moderate pruning, according
to their nature.

Some have dwarf ftandnrd fruit-trees in pots, for the pur-
pofe of forcinir in hot-houfcs, torcmsj-frames, hot-beds, &c.
particularly early May ard May-duke cherries, plums,
peaches, neflarines, apricots, figs, vines, goofeberrics, cur-
rants, &c. which being placed as above, in January, or early
in February, often ripen a few fruit very early in tolerable
perfection, fome of which might be brouoht to table grow-
ing on the trees in the pots. Dwarf flandard fruit-trees are
alio proper to plant out fully in the borders, in forcing-
frames and houfes. See YoKcma- Frame and Dwari'-
Trees.

Alfo the different varieties of currants and goofeberries
may be trained with a fingle item a fo.^t or more high, and
then permitted to branch out into a regular head. Keeping
the internal part always tolerably open, and the branches mo-
derntely thin ; and (hortcninfr them but fparingly. p.iriicu-
larly the goofeborry, by wliich dwarf (hrubby plants are
formed, and which become very prodiiftive.

There arc ditTerent ftirubhy plants of the evergreen and

flowering upright one-llemmed kinds, loo, which may be

4 Z a ' trained

S T A

trained as dwarf ftandards, though the greatefl number of
plants of the Ihriibby fort are the moll ornamental when
they rife in a biifhy manner, with many ftems from the bot-
tom. Thefe plants, when neceffary, are to be trained with
one ftem, which is readily accomplilhed by retrenching and
removing the fuperfluous parts, and trimming away all low
ftragghng branches, fo as to form a clear fingle ftem for a
fmatl fpace at the bottom parts, as the nature of their growth
may require, then fuffering them to branch out into full
heads.

Some of the low fhrubs of the above forts are fuppofed by
fome to appear to the bell advantage when trained in this
manner.

General Culture. — In regard to the management of
ftandard trees of the fruit kind, when they are planted out
in an irregular manner throughout the whole garden ground,
which is never, or very rarely, an eligible praftice, little is
to be done in the way of fuiting them to the nature and cul-
tivation of the ground or foil, as they muft neceflarily give
way in thefe refpedls to the forts of crops which are to be
raifed upon the different quarters or parts of the ground.
Mr. Loudon has, howi ver, fuggefted, that the bell way of
employing ftandard fruit-trees and Ihrubs in gardens, or all
/which are unfallened, is either in rows, in the manner in
vhich goofeberry plant? or bulhes are ufually fet along the
fides of the beds or borders, in particular quarters of the
ground by themfelves ; or in orchard-grounds. Standard
trees of thefe kinds, for the borders in kitchen-gardens,
fliould always, it is faid, be kept low, in order that they may
fliade the crops on the different fides as little as poflible. But
it is thought to be perhaps the beft way to have feparate dif-
tinft quarters or parts for ftandards of thefe kinds ; to have
thofeof the apple and pear forts grafted on paradife or quince-
ftocks, by which means they come fooner into a fruiting
ftate ; and by the time thofe in the orchards or on the walls
are in a full bearing condition, fuch quarters are fit to be
thrown out : and, if neceliary, other quarters might be
planted to fucceed them. In this manner, when a new gar-
den was wanted to be made, a tolerable fupply of fruit
might be had every year after the third ; it being well
known, it is faid, that apple-trees raifed on paradife-liocks,
and pears on quince-ltocks, will frequently bear the fecond
year after grafting, and very generally the third : and as
thofe to be planted in the quarters would be three or four
years old before they were removed from the nurfery, they
would commence bearing immediately.

Standard apple-trees for orchards (hould generally be of
the tall or high kind, and always grafted upon crab-llocks.
See Orchard and Stocks.

In ftandard fmall fruit-fhrubs, as the different currant
kinds, a great deal depends upon their being properly cut in,
as they fhould be permitted only to produce from Ituds or
fpurs, and from thefe, after the fhrubby bufties are four
years old, the young wood being wholly cut away during
winter. This method is, however, only neceflary and ap-
plicable to ftandard currant-ftiruhs, where large fruit is
wanted ; as when currant-trees are grown againft walls, and
the defign is to preferve fruit upon the trees from the period
of the currant feafon until the middle of winter, as is the
praftice in fome cafes, the mode is to have the fruit rather
fmaller, and the tree larger, and fo much covered with fruit
as to allow of but few fhoots. Thefe purpofes are excel-
lently accompliflied in this way in many places.

Standard forcft-trees of all forts, and deciduous and ever-
green ftandard flirubs, (hould moftly, when for ornament, be
planted out fingly, or among clumps or groups of low plants,

S T A

fo as to produce the bell and moft fuitable effefts, according
to the nature of the fituation or place, and the kind of tree
or Ihrub which is employed for the purpofe.

Standard Timber-Trees, all fuch deciduous and other
trees as are raifed in woods and other places, trained aad
left for the purpofe of forming timber. See Timber.

STANDENHEIM, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 9 miles W.S.W.
of Creutznach.

STANDIA, called alfo Dia, an idand of the Mediter-
ranean fea, fituated three leagues N.E. by E. of Candia.
It is about four miles long by two broad ; its circumference
is irregular ; in its fouth parts are three natural harbours,
where fhips of burden, bound to Candia, catt anchor and
unload a part of their cargo, becaufe the harbour of that
town is not deep enough to receive them when they are fully
laden. On their departure they alfo go and wait at Dia till
boats bring them commodities for completing their lading.
The middle harbour, called " Porto della Madona," is the
bell of the three ; a veffel may caft anchor there in from fix
or eight fathoms water up to a confiderable depth. On
doubling the E. point a fourth harbour occurs, by no means
fafe, rather (hallow and open to the E. wind, but (heltered
from the S.W. and N.W. Here a merchant veffel, caught
in a gale of wind, might take refuge. This ifland is lofty,
rugged, and entirely calcareous. The rock is naked, ex-
cept towards the lummit, where the foil feems to be fit for
the culture of the vine and the ohve-tree. In various places
a whitifti marble is found ; and here are alfo veins, feveral
feet thick, of llreaked alabafter, which is thought to be of
the greateft beauty. Rabbits are numerous in this ifland ;
and it has fome wild goats, in places that are inacceffible,
and alfo feveral cats of different colours, that probably be-
longed to veliels which have been call away. N. lat. 35° 26'.
E. long. 25° 9'. Olivier.

Standia, a town of European Turkey, in Macedonia,
in a fmall bay of the gulf of Saloniki ; 13 miles N. of La-
rili'a. — Alfo, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, on the
W. coaft. N. lat. 36° 54'. E. long. 27° 18'.

STANDING, in Navigation, denotes the movement by
which a (hip advances towards a certain objeft, or departs
from it : as the enemy (lands in (hore, the Engli(h fleet are
(landing-oft'. Sec.

Standing, in Ship-Building, a term applied to a bevelling
that is obtufe-angled, or without a fquare.

Standing yfrffjy. SeeAR.My.

Standing Coin/. See Coins.

Standing of Colours, is ufed by painters for their durable-
nefs, in oppofition tojlying.

Standing Fold, in Agriculture, a term applied to that
fort of fold, made for containing and protecting (heep,
which is of the fixed and immoveable kind, in contradiftinc-
tion to thofe which are of a moveable nature on land of the
arable or grafs kind. See Folding of Sheep, and Sheep-
Fold.

In Suffex, the ftanding fold of the late general Murray is
ftated to have been well contrived and formed. It com-
prifed an inclofcd area of fifty-feven yards in length, and
twenty in breadth, containing one thoufand one hundred and
forty fquare yards ; more than feven hundred ewes were
ufually folded in it during the night, and for that number,
it afforded a fpace of more than a yard and a half for each
(heep. It had all around it a fhed, nine or ten feet wide,
and likewife acrofs the middle part, which latter was open
on both fides. There was alfo a rack for hay put up againd
the wall, which was boarded, and furrounded the whole of

the

S T A

S T A

the fold : and another, which was double, to be eaten out
of on both fides, was placed and Itood all along the central
flied ; under which was a fmall trough or manger, in which
the fine forts of food given to the (heep were put. This was,
of courfe, a molt complete and perfeft ftanding fold for
managing and protefting thefe animals, the plan of which
may probably in fome meafure be imitated by other (hcep-
farmers with confidcrablc utility and benefit.

Standing Marruige, in the Law of Scotland, is ufed
to exprefs one actually fubfilling, though perhaps reducible
for adultery, or liable to be declared void for impotency,
or contingency of blood ; that is, confanguinity. Bayne's
Crim. Law.

Standing Part of the Skat, in a Ship, that part of it
which is made faft to a ring at the fliip's quarter. When
they fay, oiier-hak the Jheat, they mean, hah upon the Jland-
ing part ; but when they fay hale the Jheat barely, they intend
only of the running part.

Standing Part of a Tackle, is the end of the rope where
the block is feized or faltened ; as the other which is haled
is called /a//.

Standing Rigging, are thofe ropes which do not run in
any block, but are fet taught, or let flack occafionally, as
the Ihrouds, Itays, back-ltays, &c.

Standing Ropes. See Standing Ropes.

STAND ISH, in Geography, a poft-town of America,
in the diftrift of Maine, on the W. line of Cumberland
county, between Prefumfcut and Saco rivers ; incorporated
in 1785, and containing 137S inhabitants; 18 miles N.W.
of Portland.

STANDON, Stanton, or Stanelow, is a fmall market-
town and pari(h in the hundred of Braughin, county of
Hertford, England, at the diftance of one mile S.E. from
Puckeridge, and 26 N.N.E. from London. It is mentioned
by Ingulphus as having been granted to Croyland abbey in
the early part of the ninth century ; and as the place where
abbot Brithmere, about the year 1030, built a fpacious
houfe for the accommodation of himfelf and his retinue, dur-
ing his journies to London. In this parifli alfo was a pre-
ceptory of knights hofpitallers, built on lands given with
the church to that order by Gilbert de Clare, in the reign of

king Stephen : the houfe was defigned for the refidence of tered ?"

are raifed. Beauties of England and Wales, toI. vii. Hert-
fordfhire, by E. W. Brayley.

STANDS, in Rural Economy, a word applied to fuch
young timber-trees as are under fix inches timber girth, or
twenty-four inches in circumference. Tliefc are moltlv re-
fervd in cutting over young timber and other woods.

STANERN, or Stanarow, in Geography, a town of
Moravia, in the circle of Iglau ; 10 miles S. of Iglau.

STANES. See Staines.

STANESBY, Thomas, in Biography, father and fon,
two ingenious and eminent flute-makers in London during
the early part of the latl century. The flute a bee, or
comnjon flute, was fo much in fafhion during the life-time of
the eldeft Standby, who died about the year 1734, that no
fingle fong was printed without being tranfpofcd into C, or
Fq, for the flute, at the bottom of the page. The younger
Stanefby, who died in 1754, lived long enough to fee the
common flute totally thrown afidc, in favour of the German
flute, a concert inflrument, an honour which never had been
conferred on the common flute, except now and then in the
accompaniments of a fong, fuch as, " Hurti ye little war-
bling choir," on the oftave flute, and perhaps two or three
more may be found in Handel's works.

Stanefby, however, conformed to the tatte of the times,
and furnifhed prafticians on the flute traverfierc, or German
flute, with inftruments, for which the fcholars of Weidiman
and Ballicourt, the two firft public players on the German
flute in our capital, frequently and loudly call'd.

Poor Stanefby did not enrich himielf like Theodorus, a
flute-maker at Athens, father of the orator Ifocratcc, who
acquired wealth fufficient by his employment, not only to
educate his children in a liberal manner, but alio to bear one
of the heavieil public burdens to which an Athenian citizen
was liable, that of furnilhing a choir or chorus for his tribe,
or ward, at feftivals and religious ceremonies.

The fecond Stanefby was buried in the church-yard of
St. Pancras, near London, and on his grave-ftone there is a
very honourable record of the virtues of his private charac-
ter ; a circumdance which biographers fhould never negleft
to mention, as monumental praife is feldom lavifhed on
perfons of low flation : " Why fhould the poor be flat-

fome of the fillers of that order, till they were all placed
together at Buckland, in Somerfetfhire. The fcite, and
fome remains o)f the preceptory, are now conneCled with a
farm-houfc called Friars. The manor, reftory, and advow-
fon of the vicarage, as parcel of the pofi'effions of St. John
of Jerufalem, were granted 36 Henry VIII. to fir Ralph
Sadler. A hermitage was founded at Standon by William,
an Anchorite, temp. Henry I.; which Richard dc Clare,
earl of Hertford, gave to the monks of Stoke by Clare, in
Suffolk, who are faid to have had a cell here, which in
after-times appears to have become a free feciilar chapel,
and to have been the fame with the chapel at Salburn in this
parifh. Standon cliurch contains many monuments and fc-
pulchral memorials. In the ealtcrn part of the chancel are
the tombs of fir Ralph Sadler and family : on fir Ralph's
is his effigy in armour lying beneath a canopy, with his chil-
dren kneeling below. He died in 1587, aged 80. The
parifh of Standon, according to the population return in
1811, contained 1889 inhabitants; the number of hoiifes
being 254. A fair is held annually, and a market weekly,
on Fridays.

On Haven-End, an eminence in Standon lordfhip, are two
large barrows, fuppofed by Salmon to have been raifed by
the Danes. In the neighbouring parifli of Widford are two

STANFALIA, in Geography. See Stampalia.
STANFORD, or Stamford, is an ancient market and
borough-town, fituated at the louth-weltern angle of the
county of Lincoln, England, on the banks of the rirer
Welland. One parifh of the town is in the county of North-
ampton ; but the chief portion of it is built on the fide of a
hill in Lincolnfliire, and when approached from the fouth,
preients an interefting and pifturefque appearance. Several
old buildings, with towers and flceples, are feen grouped to-
gctlier. The name of the town is fuppofed to be derived
from the Saxon 5/(J("n, TiwAford. According to fome anti-
quaries, Stanford was a place of note in the time of Bladud,
f, Britilh king, many centuries before the ChriHian era. The
earliell authority upon which wc can depend, is that of
Henry of Huntingdon, a writer of the twelfth century;
who relates, that the ancient enemies of Erglaiid, the Pids
and Scots, having ravaged the country as far as Stanford to
the fouth, were there met and defeated by the Saxons under
tlic command of Hengill ; and that king Vortigern, for fucK
valour, gave to the Saxon leader certain portions of land in
the county of Lincoln. Wulphcre, king of Mcrcia, who
finifhed the monallery of Mcdes-hamlled, now Peterborough,
in a charter of lands to that abbey in the year 6''>4, afllgned
Stanford as one of ita boundaries ; and as it role progrefflvely

ether barrows, which give name to the ellate on which they in importance, fo in the year 972, in another charter to the

lame

STANFORD.

fame houfe by Edgar, it appears to have been inoreconfider-
able than Peterborough. At that period it was a niarktt-
town, and is noticed by Leland as afterwards becoming/ a
royal borough : under the Danifh monarchy it appears itill to
have maintained the rank which it originally claimed. That
it was encircled by walls, and fecured by gates at an early
period, is evident from the Saxon annals terming it Bvnipi,h ;
Florence of Worceftcr, Arx ; and by Speed's plan, where
each IS named and delineated. A c^rtle was probably erected
here by the D nes, as the above-mentioned hillorian, Henry
ot Huntingd.in, notices their lofs of it in the year 942 to
Edmund Iro.fide, and remarks, that it had then been a con-
liderable time 111 their poiitflion. Lcland, who, on the other
hand, adheres to Matthew of Wellminiler, ilates that it was
rebuilt by Elfreda, filter of Edward the Elder, on the
northern bank of the Welland, A.D. 914. Again being
poiied'ed by the Danes, they held it till the deceale of their
lail Anglo monarch, A.D. 1041, when the Britons once
more became its owners, till William the Norman overcoming
the kingdom, in 1066, it devolved to the new monarch and
his retainers. The Domefday furvey informs us, that it con-
tained one hundred and forty-one manfions, and twelve lage-
men, or civil magiftrates, who received the forfeitures arif-
ing from crimes, and held their powers within certain limits.
The cattle, in the time of king Stephen, was befieged by
Henry of Anjou, afterwards the fecond monarch of that
name, who upon taking it beltowed that and the town,
with certain feudal refervations, on one of his followers,
called Richard Humetz, to hold from the crown by homage,
tenure, and other fervices. King John pafTed them to Wil-
liam, earl of Warren, in a fimilar manner : at his death
they were granted by John, who was alfo earl, to Edward I.,
and paffed by him again to that nobleman, to revert on his
deceafe once more to the crown. Thus, after many grants
and reverfions through forfeiture or failure of mde ilTue, it
was given by queen Elizabeth to William Cecil, firit lord
Burleigh. Through the marriage of his coheirefs and jjrand-
daughter, Anne, with William, earl of Exeter, it paifl'ed to
Henry Grey, firlt lord Stamford, and after continuing in
that family ieveral defcents, was fold again to the houfe of
Cecil. In Richard III.'s time the caille was entirely de-
mohflied J and the hill, which was artificially formed by hori-
zontal layers of earth, with the flight fragments of a ilone
wall, are all the veftiges that are now vifible.

In William the Conqueror's reign, Stanford was governed
by the lagemen, or aldermen. Edward IV. gave it a privi-
lege it Hill retains, of fending two members to parliament,
and a charter was granted in the firft year of that king's
reign, when its civic officers were incorporated under tiie
names of the " aldermen and comburgefles of the firft and
fecond bench." Other charters conferred different privileges
in fucceeding reigns, till Charles II. recalling the royal char-
ters throughout the kingdom, gave a new one to Stanford,
which was afterwards confirmed by James II. Again in-
corporated by that deed, it was made to confill of a mayor,
thirteen aldermen, and twenty-four capital burgefies, by the'
name of the " mayor, aldermen, and capital burgefTes, of
the town or borough of Stamford."

For parochial and municipal purpofes, Stanford appears
to have been divided, at a remote period, into fourteen wards,
or pariflie'? ; but in I46t, fome of the churches and houfes
were confumed by fire, by the northern foldiers ; and the
religious edifices were not afterwards re-erciled. In 1547,
an aft of parliament was obtained to divide the northern
part of the town into five parifhes, St. Martin's, or Stan-
ford-Baron, being a dillinft parifli. According to the po-
pulation report of 1811, the borough contained 832 houfes,

and 4582 inhabitants; and the parifh of St. Martin's i6j
houfc^. and 937 inhabitants.

St. Michael'.s church, which Hands near the centre of the
town, is luppofid to be the moit ancient erection, part of
it having exilted antecedent to the year 123c. It has a nave
and choir, with north and fouth allies, and chancela which
extend beyond the aides. The eailern end of the choir,
which had much decayed, was, about 1705, taken down and
rebuilt by the parifliioners : in the wall were difcovered va-
rious fculptured itones, the remains of fome more ancient
religiou.s building. At the vvellern end of the nave was a
wooden tower, which was taken down and replaced by an-
other of ftone in 1761. The windows of this building were
decorated with figures and heraldic ornament , but it it
much to be regretted that they are m a lamentable ftate of
mutilation.

The church of St. Mary appears to have been built to-
wards the latter end of the thirteenth century, and poffibly^
upon the fcite of one much earlier. The upper part of the
chancel contains a monument without armorial enfigns, de-
vice, orinfcription, but Amply confilling of a ftatue in ar-
mour, lying by the fide of a female figure. This was
eredled to the memory of fir David Phillips, who bravely
dillinguifhed himfelf in the battle of Bofworth Field.

St. George's church, a large plain building, confilting of
a chancel, nave, north and fouth aifles, with a fquare em-
battled tower at the well end, was rebuilt, in 1450, by
William Bruges, the firll garter king of arms, who be-
queathed many valuable prelents to this buildisg. The re-
mains of David Cecil, high IherifF of Northamptonfhire in
1542, grandfather of the firlt lord Burleigh, are here en-
tombed.

All-Saints church is a ftrufture well proportioned, and
of large dimenfions : it confifts of a nave, two aifles, and
chancels ; one at the end of the fouth aide, and the other
at the ealt end of the nave. At the well end of the north
aide rifes the Iteeple, a lofty, handfome Hrufture, embattled,
with oftagonal turrets at the corners, and furmounted by a
fpire of a fimilar form, crocketted at the angles from the
bafe to the fummit. This church was built at the expence
of a Mr. John Brown, merchant of the Staple at Calais,
who, with his wife, are buried at the upper end of the
north aide. In the fame church, where the altar formerly
flood, are the effigies of WiUiam Browne and his wife,
who built and endowed the bead-houfe in this town.
Againft the ea(l window, a white marble monument pre-
ferves the memory of Mr. Thomas Truefdale, who lived in
the fame dwelli.rg with Mr. Brown, and emulated his ex-
ample, by founding another alms-houfe.

The church of St. John the Baptiil was rebuilt about
1452, the thirtieth year of the unfortunate Henry VI. It
has a nave, and two aifles, with a chancel at the eaft end
of the firll, and feparated from it by elegant fcreen-work.
The roof has been highly decorated with figures carved both
in wood and Hone ; and the windows contained fome ad-
mirable fpecimens of llained glafs.

Stanford formerly contained feveral monaftic ettablifll-
meiits ; and it is traditionally related that it was, at one
time, the leat of an univerfity. Hardinge, in his Poetical
Chronicles, and in " The Mirror of Magiftrates," relates
the latter circuniltance ; but this is not authenticated by
better hillorians. The only circumltances which appear to
fupport the idea of an univerfity are, that in tlie year 1 109,
JofFrid, abbot of Croyland, deputed three monks from bis
monallery for that purpofe. Camden remarks, that a vio-
lent difpute arofe between the northern and fouthern fcholara
at Oxford, in 1333, when many of the mailers and ftudents

8 retired

STANFORD.

retired to Stanford. Several of thefe, however, foon re-
turned to Oxford ; and fome time afterwrards, Edward III.
idued a writ to the (herifF of Lincolnfliire, commanding him
to proclaim at Stanford a prohibition for any perfon to
ftiidy or perform fcholaftic exercifcs, clfcwhere than in the
univerfities, on pain of certain forfeitures.

In the reign of Henry III. the Carmelites liad a mo-
naltery here, and gave public leftures on divinity and the
liberal arts, with difputations againll the Judaic faith.
Many of the clergy and higher orders of the people fent
their fons here for education ; and from this pofTibly arofe a
cuftom, which in fuccceding centuries Avas greatly followed.
Otlier religious lioufes alfo became Ichools of literature ;
and by thefe means Stanford became celebrated for liberal
inftruftion. The other public inlHtutions of learning, whicli
were fuppofed to conltitute part of the above-mentioned
univerlity, were the following: — Brazen-nofe college or
fchool, from which the college at Oxford is fuppofed to
have derived its name, was built at a remote period, and
certainly exifted early in the reign of Edward III. In 1668
it was taken down, and a charity-fchool erefted on the fame
fpot : — Sempringham-hall, fuppofed to have been founded
by Robert Luttreli, in 1262 : — Black-hall was of great an-
tiquity, and was taken down foon after 1705.

Of Peterborough-hall, Vaudey.hall, the free-fchool, and
other buildings of the fame nature, but flight information
can now be gained, excepting that the former was taken
down about 1705, and itood near All-Saints church; and
that the latter was founded in the year 1548, by Mr. Wil-
liam Radcliffe.

The fchools at prefent fupported at this place are, the
one laft mentioned, now called Radcliffe's ; another indi-
tuted by Edward Wells, in 1604, denominated Wells's or
the petty fchool ; and the blue-coat fchool.

The ancient and modern inftitutions for the fupport of the
poor are many in number : the moft prominent, is one
founded by William Browne in the reign of Richard III.,
already mentioned, which has a chapel at the eaftern end,
confecrated in 1494; the revenues of which have, of late
years, greatly increafed. Another was erefted by the will
of Mr. Thomas Truefdale, in 1700, with endowments be-
queathed to it for ever. And, in addition to thefe, are
certain charities denominated caOifes ; with various other
foundations of the like nature.

The principal public building is the town-hall, where the
civil bufinefs is tranfafted. It was built by trudees, under
an aft palled in 1776, near St. Mary's church, when the
old hall was taken down. It confilts of two handfome
fronts, containing twenty apartments, a guard-room, houfe
of correftion, and a gaol. A fmall theatre, in St. Mary's
Ilreet, was built here in 1768.

The river Welland, which runt to the fouthof thetown,
and parts it from Stanford-Baron, is navigable for boats and
barges from the fea to this place. Stanford has a market
on Monday and Friday, and fevcn annual fairs.

Stanford- Baron, already named, is feparated from the
town only by a (lone bridge, yet it is both a diilinft parilh
and liberty in the county of Northampton : hence its ori-
ginal name of Stanford beyond the bridge. In 1455 "' **•
held by the abbot of Peterborough, per iaronuim, and was
then firlt denominated Stanford-Baron. In the reign of
Athelltan it had the privilege of a mint, and fuccecding
kings alfo greatly favoured it. Although it cannot now
be difcovercd that this parilh was ever walled, yet it appears
to have been defended by five gates and a caftle, which
ftood on that part of the Roman road now called the nun's
farm. This place is defignated in the Domefday-book as

being the fixth ward belonging to Stanford, fituate in Han-
tunefcire. In the reign of^Henry II. it contained a Bene-
dictine nunnery, dedicated to God and St. Michael, by-
William, abbot of Peterborough : the annual revenues of
this houfe were 72A i8j. io^d.

By a deed of the reign of Richard I. notice is taken of
an hofpital for lepers, under the patronage of St. Egidius ;
and a houfe for knights hofpitallcrs : but their founders are
now wholly unknown. Where the alms-houfc ij now
erefted, an hofpital formerly flood, dedicated to St. John
tiie Baptift. The prefent church is a large, handfome
building, dedicated to St. Martin, and founded by bilhop
RuffcU in the reign of Edward IV. It confilts of a nave,
two cliaocels, north and fouth allies, and a fquare pinnacled
tower at the weft end of the former. At the upper end of
the north chancel are depofited the remains of Richard Cecil
and his wife, the immediate progenitors of the firft lord
Burleigh ; as alfo thofe of William Cecil, baron of Bur-
leigh, with hi'! effigy in armour on a highly ornamented
altar-tomb. In the north chancel is a (lately and large
marble monument, with llatues, &c. to the memory of
John, earl of Exeter, and his lady, both of whom died in
the year 1709.

According to Camden, the cuftom of borough Englilh
prevails in this manor ; by which the younger fon inherits
the lands and tenements poffefled by the parent, when the
latter dies intellate. Another more Angular cuftom, cha-
rafteriftic of feudal and femi-barbarous times, is ftill con-
tinued at Stanford. On a certain day, annually, about fix
weeks before Chriftmas, a bull is provided, and deftined to
be hunted by dogs and the lowell clafs of perfons through
the ttreets of the town. On fuch occafions a vail con-
courfe of people is aflembled, many dogs are brought to the
place, and the moft cruel and wanton afts are reforted to,
in order to irritate the poor animal, and thereby pro-
duce what is mis-termed fport. The bull-running, as it is
called, commences early in the morning, after a proclama-
tion is made to guard doors and windows, and warn travellers
who are palling through the town. The animal is let loofe
in the ftrcets, when dogs, men, women, and even children,
commence a boiiterous and irritating purfuit. This is fome-
times continued for hours, till the bull is provoked to mad-
nefs. At length he is killed, and the flefh fold. It is
traditionally related, that this cuftom originated in the reign
of king John, by the order of William, the fiftli earl of
Warren, who, having obfcrved a bull worried through the
town by dogs, was fo much diverted, that he gave a meadow
to the butchers of Stanford, on condition that they would
provide a bull annually for the fame purpofe. A cuftom
fomewhat refembling this prevails at Tutbury, in Stafford-
(hirc. See Tutbury.

About one mile fouth-eaft of Stanford is Burleigh or
Burgidey-houfe, the magnificent feat of the Cecil family,
and now the property of the marquis of Exeter. Tlic park
was inclofed and houfe chiefly built by lord-trcafurer Bur-
leigh, who, in a letter dated I585', fays, the " houfe is of
my mother's inheritance ; and for the building there, I have
fet my walls on the old foundations." On different parts
of the edifice are the dates of 1577, 1585, and IC87, point-
ing out the times when fuch portions of the noufe were
raifed ; but many additions and alterations have been made
at fubfcquent periods. The whole prcfentj a palace-like
appearance, and may be laid to confill of a mafs of building
furrounding a fquare court 1 10 by 70 feet. In various
rooms is preferved a large colleftion of piftures by difterent
old mafters, vrith fome few paintings by modern artifts.

Tlic park is of great extent, of varied furface, i» adorned

witk

S T A

S T A

J

with much fine timber, a large piece of water near the
foiith front of the houfe ; and at the weftern extremity, ad-
joining the great North road, is a ftately lodge of entrance,
which was erected in 1 80 1, from the defigns of Mr. Legg,
architeft. An interelling account of this feat, with a par-
ticular catalogue of the piftures, was pubhihed at Staaford,
in 1815, entitled "A Guide to Burghley-Houfe," &c.—
Survey of the Town of Stanford, by Butcher, 8vo. 17 17.
An Effay on the ancient and prefent State of Stanford, by
Howgrave, 410. 1720. Antiquarian Annals of Stanford,
by Peck, folio, 1727. The Antiquities of Stanford and
St. Martin's, by W. Harrod, 2 vols. lamo. 178J. An
Account of the public Schools, Hofpitals, and other cha-
ritable Foundations, in the Borough of Stanford, by
Thomas Blore, 8vo. 1813. This is a very interelting and
iifeful work, as calculated to preferve and give publicity to
thofe benevolent inltitutions, which were originally intended
to afford fupport to the aged poor, and inltruftion to the
lower claffes of youth.

Stanford, a poft-townfhip of Duchefs county. New
York, about 18 miles N.E. of Poughkeepfie; incorporated
in 1793, and containing 2335 inhabitants. This townfhip
is well watered and cultivated ; has many able farmers, fe-
deral mills, three houfes for worfhip, viz. for Quakers,
Baptifts, and Methodilts. In 1810, its houfehold looms
produced 12,680 yards of cloth. Its Iheep were 5564,
horfes 811, and cattle 2898. — Alfo, the capital of Lincoln
county, Kentucky; fituated on a fertile plain, about 10
miles S.S.E. of Danville, containing a Hone court-houfe, a
gaol, and about 40 houfes.

STANG, a river of Sweden, which runs into lake
Roxan, near Linkioping. — Alfo, a town of Norway; 24
miles N. of B^rga.

Stang, in Rural Economy, a word provincially fignifying
a long pole, or other piece of wood in the fame form.
Stangs are ufeful for a variety of difl'erent purpofes in the
praftice of farming.

SrAKG-Carf, in Agriculture, that fort of ftang which
conflitutes the (hafts of a cart, or the poles between which
the horfe draws. See Cart.

STANGENBERG, in Geography, a town of Pruffia,
in Pomerelia ; 15 miles S.E. of Marienburg.

STANGENGRUN, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg ; 9 miles S.W. of Zwickau.

STANGENROD, a town of Weltphalia, in the county
of Mansfeld ; 13 miles N.N.W. of Eifzleben.

STANGS KAR, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Finland.
N. lat. 59'' 45'. E. long. 26° 15'.

STANGWYK, a town of Norway, in the province of
Drontheim ; 80 miles S.W. of Drontheim.

STANHOPE, George, in Biography, an eminent divine
of the church of England, was born at Hartfhorn, in Derby-
Ihire, in 1660. He was educated at Eton, and King's col-
lege, Cambridge ; and after taking his degrees, and bear-
ing fome offices in the univeriity, he was prefentcd by lord
Dartmouth, in whofe family he had been chaplain and tutor,
to the reftory of Lewilham, in Kent. He was appointed
one of the chaplains to king William and queen Mary, and
retained the fame office in the following reign. In 1697 he
proceeded doftor in divinity, and being at the fame time
diflinguilhed for his pulpit eloquence, he was chofen, in
1 701, to preach Boyle's lecture ; and in 1703 he was pro-
moted to the deanery of Canterbury. He foraetimes
preached the letture at St. Laurence Jewry, in which he
attained to great eminence, though he followed many per-
fons of much celebrity. In 1705 he preached the Latin
fermoo before the convocation, of which body he was thrice
10

chofen prolocutor. He died in 1728, at the age of 68^
Of the publications of this learned divine, fome were tranf-
lations : thele were " Thomas a Kempis de Imitatione
Chrifti ;" « Charron de la Sageffe ;" " The Meditation*
of Marcus Antoninus ;" " EpiAetus, with the Commentary
of Simphcius ;" " Rochefoucault's Maxims ;" " St. Au-
gulline's Meditations." His mod confiderable original
work was " A Paraphrafe on the Epiilles and Gofpels,"
4 vols. 8vo. feveral times reprinted. He alfo publifhed
three fets of "Sermons on feveral Occafions ;" befidei
" Sixteen Sermons preached at Boyle's Ledlures."

Stanhope, Philip Dormer, earl of Chefterfield, a
nobleman celebrated as a great wit, Uatefman, and a man
of letters, was the eldelt fon of Philip, third earl of Chefter-
field, by lady Elizabeth Saville, daughter of George, mar-
quis of Hahfax. He was born in London, in September,
1694. He had the misfortune to lofc his mother while he
was very young, and being negletled by his father, he was
educated under the care of his grandmother, lady Halifax,
who proved herfelf quite adequate to the tafk. His ele-
mentary inllruftions were received at home from able maf-
ters, who had the advantage of finding in their pupil ad-
miiable qualities, and an ardent defire of excelling in what-
ever he undertook, and a refolution to perfevere in thetraft
in which he entered, without any regard to the obflacles
that might oppofe themfelves to his progrefs. It is faid
that lord Galway, difcerning in him, when very young, a
ftrong inchnation for political diftinftion, and at the fame
time a great love of pleafure, with a propenfity to faunter-
ing, gave him a friendly Icffon on the abfolute neceffity of
riling early, in order that he might become a man of bufi-
nefs. The admonition produced fuch an effeft on his mind,
that he immediately adopted the praftice recommended, and
adhe.-ed to it during the whole of his life. He was after-
wards, by a trifling incident, permanently cured of an im-
patience of temper, which he was fenfible would difqualify
him for the charafter and duties of a ftatefman. In his
1 8th year he was entered of Trinity^hall, Cambridge, where
he applied himfelf with great affiduity to the itudies pur-
fued in that feat of learning. He was particularly attentive
to eloquence, which he was aware was a principal requifite
in a free fenate ; and with the view of becoming a good and
a forcible fpeaker, he marked down all the fineil fpeeches
of the ancients that came in his way, in the courfe of his
reading, and formed his own ftyle and manner by tranflating
them ; a praftice which cannot be too warmly recommended
to young men likely to come into public life. On quit-
ting the univerfity, this young nobleman made the ufual
tour of Europe ; and it was at the Hague that he tirft be-
gan the cultivation of that enlarged acquaintance with man-
kind, which has been denominated feeing and knowing the
world ; but with this knowledge he acquired certain per-
nicious propenfities, which adhered to him through life :
among others was that of gaming. A vifit of fome length
to Paris further contributed to fafhion his manners, and to
render him at length that model of true politenefs, which he
exhibited in after-life to his admiring countrymen. This
was about the time of the demife of queen Anne, and he
did himfelf high honour by the affertion of thofe principles
of freedom which effefted the fucceffion of the houfe of
Hanover, and which, during the whole of his political life,
he fteadily maintained. On his return to England in 17 15,
he was prefented to the new fovereign, and appointed one
of the gentlemen of the bed-chamber to the prince of Wales.
He was elefted member of parliament for one of the Cornifb
boroughs, in the firft parliament of George I., and com-
menced a fpeaker in the debate refpefting the impeachment

STANHOPE.

ef the perfons concerned in the peace of Utrecht. Upon
this occafion he maiiifclled a juvenile violence, which pro-
duced an intimation from the oppofite fidi", that advantage
would be taken of his being under the lawful age for fitting
in parliament. Upon this hint he immediately quitted the
houle, and fet oft for Paris. On his return, he was fonic-
times the defender and (ometimes the opponent of minillerial
meafures ; but his talents, at this time, do not appear to
have made much imprefiion on the houfe or the country.
In reward, however, for his fupport of a motion for the
augmentation of the army, he was, in 1723, made captain
of the yeomen of the guards ; and it was a proof of his dif-
intereltednefs, that when adviled by his prcdeccflor, lord
Townfend, to make the polt more profitable than he had
done, by the fale of fubordinate places, he replied, " 1 ra-
ther wifh, in this inllance, to follow your lordfhip's example
than your advice." He was difmiffed from this office in
1725 ; and in the following year, on the death of his father,
with whom he had never been on terms of cordiality, he
entered the houfe of lords, and joined the oppofitioii. To
this aflembly his talents were better adapted than to the
houfe of commons. His eloquence, the fruits of much
ftudy, was lefs charafterized by force and compafs than by
elegance and perfpicuity, and efpecially by good taite, and
a vein of delicate irony, which, while it fometimes infl:ftcd
fevere llrokes, never pafied the limits of decency and pro-
priety. " It was that of a man, who, in the union of wit
and good fenfe with politenefs, had not a competitor."
Thefe qualities were matured by the advantage of a familiar
acquaintance with almoil all the eminent wits and writers of
his time ; many of whom had been the ornaments of the
preceding age of literature, while others were dellined to
become thofe of a later period. He knew how to appre-
ciate genius and talents, and was the friend of Pope, and
received him in almolt all his feledl parties at Twickenham,
where he met the firll nobility in allbciation with the mod
dillinguiihed votaries of the mufes.

Soon after the acccflion of George II. lord Chellcrficld
was nominated ambaffador at the Hague. Scarcely was any
man ever better adapted tlian his lordlhip to fill a diplomatic
fituation, as well on account ot his natural acutcnefs, and of
his conciliating manners, as his tamiharity with the modes
and ulagcs of general fociety. He was, however, at this
time but little acquainted with public bufinef , ; but pof-
fefling the laudable ambition ot rendering himfelf fully maf-
ter of whatever he undertook, he fpared no pains to acquire
the knowledge for the poll in which he was placed, and
which at that time was a very important one ; the Hague
being, in fatt, the centre of the principal political negocia-
tions carrying on throughout Europe. In the year 1730
he was appointed high Reward of the houfehold, and he was,
at the fame time, decorated with the order of the garter.
He now returned to Holland, and was inllrumcntal in form-
ing an important treaty between the courts of I>ondon and
Vienna, and the States-general. In 1732 he obtained his
recall ; and on his return, he fupported the plans of the
prime minillcr, though there does not appear to have been
any cordiality between them ; and when fir Robert Walpole
introduced his famous excifc mcafure, the earl fpokc againll
liim with all his force, and thereby gave (o much offence
that he was deprived of his offices, and he again joined the
party in oppofition. He married, in 1733, '^"^ countefs of
Walfingham, nxce or probably daughter to the duchefs of
Kendal, who had been millreis to George I. She was a
lady of great merit and accomplifliments, and by her pru-
dance contributed very much to retrieve the deranged allairs
of her lord. The noble earl did not negledt to pay his

Vol. XXXIII.

court to the prince of Wales, who attached himfelf to the
oppofers of his father's government. Of his oratorical ex-
ertions, none was more generally admired than his fpcech
kgainft the bill for granting to the lord chamberlain the
power of licenfing dramatic performances. In 1741, his
health being much impaired, he was advifed to make the
tour of the continent. In his way to the Spa, he faw, at
Bruficls, Voltaire, with whom he had contrafted a friend-
fhip in England. At Spa his reputation, and the urbanity
of his manners, drew upon him much flattering notice from
perions of dillinction ; and the manner in which he fpoke of
the rifing Frederick of Pruffia to the envoy of that monarch,
j.rocurcd for him a prefling invitation to the court of Berlin,
which he would gladly have accepted, had he not been pre-
vented by other engagements. A fhort (lay at Paris intro-
duced him to the molt dillinguilhed of both fexes for rank
and talents in that capital, where he was equally gratified
and admired.

His Itay in the fouth of France was Shortened by the ftate
of political affairs at home. The attempts of France to
ruin the houfe of Aullria were threatening deftruftion to
what was denominated the balance of power in Europe;
and the mifcarriages of the Euglifh minifters in their poli-
tical meafures fpread difcontent through the nation. This
at length produced the fall of that ftatefman, who had fo
long ruled the public councils ; and a new adminillration
was formed, in which lord Chefterfield had no place. This
omiffion was probably owing, in great part, to the perfonal
diflike of the king, who could not forget the fevere things
he had laid with refpeft to the royal partiality to the in-
terefts of Hanover, and the facrifices made of the interefts
of Great Britain to thofe of the electorate. He took an
aftive and mod decided part in oppofition to the meafures
of the miniilry, and was laid to be particularly happy in his
fpeech againll the gin-licence bill, and againfl that for con.
tinning attainders upon the poilerity of perfons convifted of
high treafon. This lall bill was introduced in confequence
of the profpeft of a new rebellion, promoted by France,
and which foon after took place. This event produced a
change \n the miniflry, and lord Chcilerfield was fent out as
amballador to the United Provinces ; a ilation which he had
before occupied with much reputation. He cfledted the
purpofe for which he was fent, viz. that of engaging the
Dutch to concur in earnell in the war againll France ; and
returned in 1745, at the time of the breaking out of the
rebellion in Scotland. He was immediately nominated to
the high (lation of lord lieutenant of_ Ireland ; an office of
great importance at this period, when there was caufe of
appreheniion from the prevalence of the Roman Catholic re-
ligion in that illand. He fet off for his government in the
end of Augull, taking with him a fecrelary, who had not
enjoyed any advantage from experience, and to whom he
faid in a tone of decifion, " Sir, you will receive the emolu-
meiits of your place, but I will do the bufinefs myfelf,
being determined to have no firll minillcr." In a fimilar
fpirit he openly declared, that if any one, during his Hay
in Ireland, Ihould make a fucceftful application for a
place in the king's gift through any channel but Ku own,
he would immediately throw up the lieutenancy. With
thefe refolutions he began his adminillration ; and by vigour
on the one hand, and conciliation on the other, by lliiA
integrity, and a frank undifgnifed fyllem of policy, lie kept
every thing quiet in that kingdom, while the filler illand
was over-run with terror and commotion. Inllead of
abridging the Catholics of their religious liberty, he fa-
voured and augmented it ; wifely judging, that the more
openly they fhcwed themfelvc* in attendance at their own
5 A places

STANHOPE.

places of worfhip, the lufs their fccret machiaations were to
be regarded. He, however, kept a vicrilaiit eye \ipon all
their proceedings, but difcouragcd idle fiifpicions and mali-
cious informations. A zealous Proteftanc once came, very
ofRcioufly, as the noble lord thought, to inform him that
one of his coachmen went privately to mafs. " Does
he?" faid the lord lieutenant : " I will take care that he
never drives me thither." Such, fays his biographer, was
lord Chefterfield's conduft in his vice-royalty, that he
quitted it with the regret of all parties ; and that, to this
day, the fpirit of his adminiftration is regarded as a model
fo'- ail who are entrufted with that important ftation. He
returned to England in April, 1746, when the rebellion
was terminated by the victory gained at the battle of Cul-
loden.

He now accepted the office of fecretary of ft ate, with the
duke of Newcallle as his coUeag'ie. Never approving, in
his own mind, of the war in which the nation was engaged,
and coiiftantly withing for peace upon reafonable terms, he
■was neverthelefs carried away, by a fuperior influence in the
cabinet, to concur in the meafures of the court, till their
ill ficcff" ind\iced him to draw up a Wrong memorial,
whicn bei .g d fregarded, he refigned his place in February,
1748, and never afterwards joined iu any adminiftration.
From this period till his death he lived as a private noble-
man, attaclied to the arts and to letters, and was looked up
to throughout Europe as inferior to none of his high rank
for biilliancy of wit, and the poHfh of cultivated fociety.
Being feized with a deafiiefs in 1752, that incapacitated him,
in a meafure, for the pleafures of f.iciety, he led a retired
life, amiifing himfelf with his books and his pen. He
engaged rather largely as a volunteer in a periodical
work, entit'ed " The World," in which his contributions
have a diltinguilhtd degree of excellence. His lordfhip
maintained a charafter for wit and talents that has few
equals. He rendered himfelf illuflrious, as we have feen,
by his eloquence in parliament, on many important occa-
fions, of viJliich there is a charafteriftic inftance of his own
relating. He was an aftive promoter of the bill for altering
the ftyle ; on which occafion, as he himfelf relates in one of
his letters to his fon, he made fo eloquent a fpecch in the
houfe, that every one was pleafed, and faid he had made
the whole very clear to them ; " which," fays he, " God
knows, I never attempted. I could juft as foon hsve talked
Celtic or Sclavonian to them as aftronomy, and they would
have underltood me jult as well." The high charafter which
lord Chefterlield had fupported through life received no
fmall injury, foon after his death, fr»m a full difplay of it
by his own hand. He left no iffue by his lady, but had a
natural fon, named Philip Stanhope, whofe education was,
for many years, a clofe objeft of his attention ; and who
was afterwards envoy extraordinary at the court of Drefden,
but who died before his father. After the death of the earl
of Chefterfield, Mr. Stanhope's widow publirtied a courfe
of letters, written by the father to the fon, filled with in-
ftruftions fuitable to the different gradations of the young
man's lite to whom they were particularly addrefled. Thefe
letters have been highly applauded, and as loudly con-
demned. They contain many admirable obfervations on
mankind, and rules of conduft ; but the author lays a
greater ftrefs on exterior accomphihments and addrefs than
on intelledtwal qualifications and fincerity, and allows a
much greater latitude to fafhionable pleafures than found
morality will admit. It has been urged in excufe for the
author, that he never intended thefe letters for publication :
they contained initruftions for a particular individual, and
they do not pretend to touch upon the more weighty points

of moraU, tl'.efc being left to the inculcation of a felefted
tutor: neverthelefs, there is fome occafional advice coming
under this liead, contained in the later letters, when the
fon was already launched upon the world, which have juitly
fubjefted the writer to fevere animadverfioii. Of thefe,
fuch as relate to truth in the commerce of fociety, under
the diilinftions fimulation and diflimulation, have been de.
fended and jultified by politicians, as abfolutely neceffary
for one who was to be trained to diplomatic habits. But
the fame apology cannot be made for a father's attempts to
fafhion his fon to politenefs, by recommendmg connections
with married women, which, however lightly regarded in
the licentious courts and capitals at which he himfelf had
been a vifitor and refident, mult ever be confidered as a
moll ferioiis violation, not only of the laws of God, but of
private friendlhip, and of the molt facred bond of focial hfe.
Thefe obnoxious parts would, in all probability, have been
fuppreffed, had the author revifcd and publilhed his own
letters. On the other hand, there are, in the courfe of the
volumes and the other works of lord Chefterfield, many ex-
amples of his ufeful and efficacious endeavours to ferve the
caule of morality. His lordfliip died in March, 1773, '"
the 79th year of his age. He had for fome time been ex-
tremely infirm, and having outlived moft of his friends and
contemporaries, he was in faft reduced to a ftate in which
he rather patiently endured life than enjoyed it. " It is
unncceffary," fays his biographer, " to add any thing to
the view already given of his moral charafter : if it was
very far from faultlefs, it certainly exhibited many excel-
lencies, which enabled him to perform important fervices to
his friends and country. In his literary capacity, he pof-
fefied wit, good fenfe, and a fine talte, in an uncommon
degree. His ftyle is of the pureft Englifli." Of his
works, which, befides thofe already referred to, contain
papers in fome of the political journals of the day, ipeeches,
llate papers, and letters, French and Englifli, a Colleftion,
in 2 vols. 4to. with memoirs of his life, by Dr. Maty, was
pubhfhed in the year 1777, to which the reader is referred
tor more minute information relating to the charafter, ex-
ertions, and works of the earl of Chefterfield.

Staxhoi'e, James, earl, a celebrated Enghth nobleman,
flatefman, and general, defcended from a very ancient
family in the county of Nottingham, eldeft fon of Alex-
ander Stanhope, only fon of Philip, the firll earl of Chefter-
field, was born in the year 1673. ^^ entered at a very
early period into the army, and ferved under king William
in the war againft France, during which, and particularly
at the fiege of Namur, he dillinguithed himfelf fo much to
the king's fatisfaftion, as to receive from his majefty a
company of foot, and foon after a commiffion as colonel
of the 33d regiment. In the war which was undertaken
for the purpofe of placing Charles II., fon of the emperor
Leopold, on the throne of Spain, colonel Stanhope, while
commanding a regiment of foot, in 1 704, at Porta I^egra,
in Portugal, wa; furroiinded by king Pliilip's army, and
he and his whole regiment were made prifoners of war.
Being exchanged, he was in the following year promoted
to the rank of brigadier-general, and in the next campaign
he gained very confiderable reputation at the fiege of Barce-
lona, under the command of lord Peterborough. General
Stanhope planned and completed the conqueft of the ifland
of Minorca. Having landed about ten miles from St.
Philip's fort, on tlie 26th of Auguil, with 3000 men, the
general caufed batteries to be erefted, and ordered a num-
ber of arrows to be fhot into the place, in which papers
were ftuck, written in the Spanifti and French languages,
containing threats that the whole garrifon (hould be fent to
9 the

STAN HO TK.

the mine?, if tliey did not immediately furrender. The
garrifon confided of 1600 men, commanded by colonel La
Jonquiere. So artfully had general Stanhope drawn up his
men, as to imprefs the minds of the enemy with the idea,
that they were bclieged by an army of at lead 10,000 fol-
diers. The Itratagem had the defired efftft. On the third
day the garrifon capitulated ; and fo completely mortified
was the Spanirti governor when lie learned the real number
of the befiegers, that he threw himfelf out of a window in
defpair, and was killed on the fpot. La Jonquiere was im-
prifoned for life, and the other French officers incurred
their monarch's difpleafure. In 1710, general Stanhope
headed the allied troops, killed the Spanifli commander
with his own hand, and placed the victorious banners of
England upon the walls of Madrid ; but before the end of
the year the general experienced a reverie of fortune, and
he, with 2000 choice Britilh troops, were made prifoners of
war at the town of Brihnega. On this account he incurred
the cenfure of the houfe of lords. Soon after the arrival
of king George 1. general Stanhope was appointed one of
the principal fecretarics of flate, and a member of the privy
council. He was alio employed in fevcral highly important
negociations. In the year 171 7 he was appointed firil lord
of the treafury, and chancellor of the exchequer ; and in a
very (hort time afterwards, he was raifed to the peerage of
Great Britain. On the 13th of December, 17 18, earl
Stanhope brought into the houfe of peers a bill for the re-
peal ot fome claufes in the Corporation and Teft a&s,
which, after a violent oppofition, was carried through both
houfes, and received the royal fanftion. This nobleman,
dilUnguilhed in the feveral capacities of general, llatefman,
and fenator, died in the year 1721, deeply regretted by the
king, whofe favourite minilter he had been, and greatly
refpefted bv the nation at large, for whofe interefts he had
ever manifeiled an unwearied and truly difmterefted zeal.

Stanhope, Vhiuv, brother of the foregoing, was
brought up to the fea-fervice, and in 1704 was promoted
to the command of the Hailings frigate, as fuccefibr to
captain Charles Parfons. After this he was appointed
captain of the Milford, in which (hip he was ferving under
iir Staford Fairborne at the fiege of Ollend, and chofcn
by that commander to bear to England the news of its fur-
render. Not long after he was fent to the Mediterranean,
where he was employed under the command of captain
Coney. He continued in the fame command during the
remainder of his life ; which, fiys his biographer, exceflive
gallantry, added to a degree of fraternal love almoll un-
equalled, 1 endered, alas ! too Ihort. Frequent mention is
made of him in hiftory, and the private journals of officers
more particularly conntfted with him in fervice and com-
mand, as an adtive, diligent, and intelligent officer. In
Augult, 1708, being left under the command of captain
Hubbard, it was determined at a council of war, held on
board the Ehzabelh at the requell of the king of Spain,
that the York and Milford fhould affifl in conveying the
tranfporta, which h.id on board lieutenant-general Stanhope
and a ftrong body of troops, from Catalonia to Minorca.
The reduftion of this illand was not only become a very
favourite objeft vvuh the king of Spain, but w.is regarded
as likely to be extremely conducive to the fuccefs of the
allied caule. General Stanhope, who commanded the land
forces deftined for this expedition, was, as has been inti-
mated, the elder brother of this gentleman, and the ties of
confanguiiiity appeared to increafe the thirlt of glory, and
ilimidattd the latter to fhare with the former in danger, as,
though a younger, he appeared a fcarcely Icfs ambitious
candidate for fame and military glory. Attending the

land-.'brces as a volunteer at the alTault of the Spanifh lines
at Fort Mahon, he there fell in the moment of vidory, on
the 17th of September, 1708. Campbell'^ Admirals.

Stamioi'k, Philip, earl, fon of the forcgomg, born
the I jth of Auguft, 17 14, fucceeded to his father's titles
wlien he was only leven years old. He was, by the will
of his father, confided to the giiardiandiip of Phdip Dor-
mer, the celebrated earl of ChellerfiL-ld, of whom we hive
already fpoken. This nobleman, as wc have feen, was fo
(Irongly attached to the fludy of the belles-lettres and claffi-
cal purfuits, as to hold vciy cheap every other fpecics of
learning ; and in conformity with this difpofition, he abfo-
lutely prohibited his young relation and ward from mathe-
matical ftudies, for wliich he inanife.'led, while very young,
a natural and ftrong attachment. NotwithHanding this in-
junction, the young lord, when advanced to more mature
years, applied himlelf to his favourite ftudy with fo much
avidity, as to become one of the firll mathematicians of the
age. His prcdilcdtion, however, for the fciences, properly
fo called, did not prevent him from attaining the molt pro-
found and extenfive knowledge of the ancient claffics. At
no very advanced period of his life, he was a complet*
mafter of the Latin and Greek languages, and could, with-
out the fmallell hefitation, repeat the whole of the Iliad,
and tiie Odyffi;y of Homer, in the original language. He
diligently cultivated an acquaintance with the poets and hif-
torians of antiquity through the whole of his life, fpending
feveral hours of each day either in claffic;il reading, or in the
invettigation of theorems in the higher and more fublime
branches of geometry. Earl Stanhope acquired, hkewife,
a complete knowledge of many modern languages, in which
he could maintain a converfation with as much fluency, as
if they had been his vernacular tongue.

A perfon fo formed for the purfuits of literature and
fcience in all its various branches, would, it may be eafily
conceived, have no great ambition to be diiUnguiflied as a
politician and ilatefman. He was, in truth, a man of the mofl
undeviating integrity, and his principles could in no inllance
be brought to bend to circumltances, nor be fwayed by any
motives from the ftrift line of reAitude. In the year 1742
we find him in his place in the fcnate, when the feveral
eltimates of the expence occafioned by foreign troops in the
pay of Great Britain were taken into confideration. Hi»
lordfhip then, at the clofe of an excellent and pathetic
fpeech, moved for an addrefs to advife and befeech his ma-
jelty, " that, in compaffion to his people, already loaded
with fuch numerous and heavy taxes, fuch large and grow-
ing debts, and greater annual expences than the nation at
any time before had ever fullained, he would exonerate his
fubjefls of the charge and burthen of thofe mercenaries,
who were taken into the fervice lall year without the ad-
vice or confent of parliament."

Earl Stanhope's name is likewife enrolled among thofe of
many other patriotic noblemen in fevcral protelts againit
meafures, which appeared to his mind hollile to the conlli-
tution of his country, and the real interells ot public liberty.
It was either in the earlier attempts made by the minilters
of his prefent majefty to (ubjugate America, or on the
queftion of the Middlefix election, that this nobleman
travelled from Geneva, wiicre he refided leveral years, to
give his vote againll the meafure, and finding his exertion
of no avail, he foon after returned to the continent, to en-
joy domedic privacy among his family and his books. At
this period his lordfliip, whofe drcfs always correlponded to
the fimplicity of his manners, was once rather rudely pre-
vented from going into the houfe of peers by a door-
keeper, who was unacquainted with his perfon. Lord
J A 2 Stanhope

S T A

S T A

Stanhope perfifled in endeavouring to get into the houfe,
wjthoiit (topping to explain who he was : and the door-
keeper, determined alfo on his part, made ufe of thefe

words : " Hvnejt man, you have no bufinefs here :

Honejl man, you can have no bufinefs in this place."

in 1774, carl Stanhope took his leave of Geneva, where
he had fpent about ten years, greatly refpefted and beloved
by all the refpeftsble people of that city. His lordfhip's
extenfive holpitalitv and beneticence are ftill remembered
with alfeftion and gratitude by many of the inhabitants of
that fmall republic. From this period his lordlhip took
but a very (mall (hare in the public tranfaflions of the
country. He divided his time between his town refidence
and his feat at Chevening, in Kent, devoting himfelf clofely
for feveral hours in the day to claffical and mathematical
ftudies, which had long become his habitual amufemcnt.

It is to be deeply regretted, that learning fo profound
and talents fo rare fliould have been apphed almoft entirely
to his own gratification, and that he had not confecrated
part of his time to the publication of the refult of thofe
refearches, which engaged his attention for more than half
a century. To his lordihip's munificence, however, the
public are indebted for the pofthiimous works of Dr. Ro-
bert Simfon ( fee his article) ; which were printed at his
own expence, and a copy or copies of which were fent to
every learned fociety in Europe, and alfo to many of the
mod didinguifhed mathematicians both of his own and
foreign countries. It appears, likewife, that Dr. Simfon
was indebted to this nobleman for the ninety-eiijhth propo-
fition of Euchd's data. To him alfo the pubhc are under
confiderable obligations for the moft complete and magni-
ficent edition of the works of the illuftrious Archimedes,
which was prepared for the prefs by the learned Jofeph
Torelli of Verana, and which was printed in 1792, at the
Clarendon prefs, Oxford.

From the circumftance of many valuable works of fcience
being dedicated to earl Stanhope, the (ubjeft of this article,
among which were Dodfon's Logarithms, and the third
volume of Dr. Prieitley's Experiments on Air, and other
branches of Natural Philofophy, we may infer that he was
the patron of feveral learned men. His lordfhip died the
7th of March, 1786, leaving behind him a fon, the prelent
earl, well known in the political as well as the fcientific world,
and a widow, with whom he had lived forty-one years. This
lady, who furvived the earl twenty-three years, was Grizel,
the daughter of vifcount Binning, filler of the late, and
aunt to the prefent earl of Haddington. She was endowed
with a fine underitanding, which Ihe had cultivated and im-
proved by the conltant perulal of the bell authors in the
Engli(h and French languages. She died, in the full pof-
feffion of her faculties, at the advanced age of ninety-fix.
It is a remarkable faft, that a year or two previous to
her deceafe, (he cut a fet of new teeth, and had her hair
renewed. She devoted much of her long life to afts of
benevolence. The writer of this article was honoured with
her acquaintance, and he hopes he may add with her friend-
(hip, during ten years of his life, and he will never ceafe,
while in poflelTion of his mental faculties, to reverence
her memory, and to hold in high eilimation her talents
and virtue'.

Stakhope, in Geography, a market-town and extenfive
parilh in the N.W. divifion of Darhngton ward, in the
county palatine of Durham, England, is fituated on the
northern banks of the river Wear, 21 miles W. from Dur-
ham, and 264 N.N.W. from London. The privilege of a
market was granted by cardinal Langley in the year 1421,
and having fallen into difufe, was revived by letters patent

in 1669, through the influence of Dr. Bafire, the then reC"
tor, and is now held on Fridays. Here were two annual fairs,
but they are difcontinued. The church is an ancient, plain
ftrufture, (landing on a rifing ground to the north of the
town. The reftory is worth about loool. per annum. On
the weft fide of the town is an eminence, called Callle-Hill,
which rifes from the Wear to the height of 108 feet. The
fummit is of an oblong figure, thirty paces in width, divided
by a ditch : another ditch defends the acclivity to the north
andeart, where the afcent is eafiell. It is traditionally faid
to have been a fortrefs of remote origin, demolifhed during
the incurfions of the Scots. The parilh of Stanhope, be-
fides the town, includes the di'.lrifts of Stanhope-Foretl
Quarter, and Stanhope-Park Quarter, as alfo the townfhip
of Newlandfide. The whole, according to the population
returns of the year 181 1, contained 101 1 houfes, occu-
pied by 6376 perfons, moll of whom are employed in the
neighbouring lead-mines. Near the town, on the lorth, is
a cavern, extending under ground nearly a mile, and faid to
abound with italattites.

At a (hort diflance weft of the town is a fpacious old
fabric, called Stanhope Hall, formerly the manor-houfeof the
ancient family of Featherftonehaiigh, the laft of whom was
flain at the battle of Hockltet.

Stanhope park, a large traA of elevated land, about twelve
miles in circumference, is an appendage to the fee of Dur-
ham, where the bilhop anciently held his great foreft-hunts,
and had his mafter of the foreft, hi-; bow bearer, and other
fubordinate officers. Leland mentions this park as beinj
" rudely inclofed with ilone."

St. John's Weardale is only a chapelry to Stanhope, but
has the privilege of a market, ellablilhed for the benefit of
the workmen employed in the lead-mines. It is feated in a
narrow part of the rale, on the fouth of the Wear. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. v. by John Britton, F.S.A.
and E. W. Bravley.

Stanhopk Prefs. See Printing.
STaNIHURST, Richard, in Biography, a divine and
hiftorian, was born at Dublin about the year 154J, of which
city his father was recorder. He was educated at the Uni-
verfity college, Oxford, after which he came to London, and
ftudied the law in Furnival's Inn, and then at Lincoln's Inn.
Returning to Ireland, he praClifed fome time at the bar;
but having abandoned the Proieilant for the Roman Ca-
tholic religion, he thought it neceifary to remove to the con-
tinent, for the purpofe of obtaining a freer exercife of the
duties which he owed to his Maker. After this he entered
into orders, and became chaplain at Brudels to Albert, arch-
duke of Aullria. He died in 1618, having obtained a very
high reputation for learning. His writings are enumerated
as follow : " Harmonia, ieu Catena dialeftica in Porphy-
rium ;" " Defcriptio Hibernic£e," inferted in Holingthed's
Chronicle ; " De Rebus in Hibernia geftis. Lib. IV." In
this work we are told he took Giraldus Cambrenfis for his
guide, and he is faid to have adopted freely the erroneous
(latements of that writer, though in fome places he has cor-
refted him from other writers. He publifhed likewife " A
Life of St. Patrick," and feveral Catholic works: of thefe,
one was entitled " Brevis Praemonitio pro futura Concertatione
cum Jacobo Ufferio." This was occafioned by a work of
Dr. Ufher, afterwards the celebrated primate of Ireland, who
was a nephew of Stanihurll : our author did not, however,
live to finith the reply thus announced. Mr. Stanihurft tried
his powers as a poet, by a verfion of the four firll books of
Virgil's jEneid in Enghfti hexameters. It is remarkable
for the uncouthnefs of its diftion and verfion. It is men-
tioned by Warton, who acknowledges that Mr. Stanihurft,

with

S T A

with all his fooli(h pedantry, was certainly a fcholar. He
had a fon, who became a Jefuit, and wrote various moral
asd religious woriis.

STANISLAUS I., Leizinski, king nf Poland, born
at Leopold i:i 1677, was fon of a diltingiiifht-d Polifh noble,
who, after occupying feveral important polls, was raifed to
that of grand treafurer of the crown. His fon, tlie fubjecl
of this article, difplayed at a very early period talents and
difpofitions which announced a charatter equally amiable
and eftimable. " His countenance," fays his biographer,
"exprelTed courage joined with fweetnefs, together with that
air of opennefs and fincerity which is more perfuafive than
eloquence itfclf. He was brave, and enured to hardfliip and
fatigue. He flept on a Itraw matrafs, required fcarcely any
perfonal fervices from his domeltics, was temperate, econo-
mical, adored by his vafl'als, and beloved by his friends."
When Charles XII. of Sweden entered Poland, for the pur-
pofe of dethroning Auguitus, Staniflaus, then palatine of
Pomerania, was deputed to that prince from the confede-
ration of Warfaw. In the conference with the monarch, he
appeared to him in fo favourable a light, that the Swede
immediately took the refolution of raifing him to the crown
of Poland, wiiich was efFefted at an eleftion held July 12,
1704, when Staniflaus was in his twenty-feventh year. The
unexpefted entrance of Auguitus into Warfaw, when the
king of Sweden was at a dillance with his army, obliged
Staniflaus to make a precipitate retreat : but by another
change he was brought back, and crowned at Warfaw with
his wife, in October 1705, and by a treaty in the following
year, Auguitus was compelled folemnly to abdicate the
crown of Poland in favour of his rival. Staniflaus remained
poflelTor of the kingdom till the fatal defeat of his patron
Charles, at Pultowa, in .luly 1709. Being now unable to
maintain himfelf in Poland, he withdrew with the Swedes
into Pomerania, and tiience croflcd into Sweden, where he
palled fome time in retirement, while negociations were
carrying on to rellore the peace of the north. As his abdi-
cation of the Polilh crown feemed a neceflary preliminary,
he readily fignified his own concurrence, and wrote to
Charles at Bender to obtain his confeiit. Not being able,
by letter, to pcrluade him, he rcfolved to try the efFeft of
a perfonal conference ; and accordingly alTumed a feigned
name, and, accompanied by two officers, proceeded for the
frontiers of Turkey. On his arrival in Moldavia he was
arreltcd, and brought before Hofpodar, who difcovered iiis
true perfon, and lent him to Bender, where he was detained
as a prifoncr, but was extremely well treated. He was
fuffered to depart in 1 7 14, when he went to Deux Ponts,
where he was joined by his family. A Saxon officer made an
attempt to airalTmatc him, but the defign was difcovered
before it could be put into execution, and he pardoned and
difmilied the confpirators. In 17 19 lie received intelligence
of the death of Charles XII., and ft-eling himfelf now de-
prived of his proteftor, he applied to the court of Frar.ce,
which gave him a retreat in Allace. Here he lived in a
ftate of great obfcurity, until his daughter, the princels
Mary, was unexpeftedly chofen as queen to Lewis XV.
This was in the year 1725, when Staniflaus removed to the
caille of Chambord. On the death of Auguitus in 1733, an
attempt was made by the French monarch to replace Stanif-
laus on the Polilli throne, and he repaired to Dant/.ic, in
order to fnpport the party which aftually proclaimed him ;
but his competitor, the fon of Auguitus, and eleflor of
Saxony, favoured by Auilria and RufTia, was more fucceil-
ful, and Stanillaus was obliged to quit Dantzic in dilguife,
and through many dangers cfcaped to Komglberg. He
Supported this reverfe of fortune with philofophital rtfig-

S T A

nation, and at the peace of 1736 he formally abdicated all
claim and pretcnfions to the kingdom, on condition of re-
taining the title, and being put into pofhfrion for hfe of the
duchies of Lorraine and Bar. Thenceforth he lived as the
fovereign of a fmall country, which he rendered happy by
the exercife of virtues, that cauled him to be named by the
general voice of his fubjefts, " Staniflaus the Beneficent."
Inltead of impofing new and oppreflive taxes, he relieved
his people from the prefl'ureof many which they had hereto-
fore borne ; yet he was able, by a prudent economy, to found
many ufeful and charitable ellablifhments, and to patronize
the arts and fciences. He was himfelf attached to litera-
ture, and wrote various treatifes on moral, philofophical,
and political topics, which were publifhed under the title of
" CEuvresdu Pliilofophe Bienfaifant," 4 vols. 8vo. Thefe
volumes were puhhflied ui 1765, and the royal author of
them died in the following year, univerfally lamented.

SiANisLAUs-AuGusTUi;, Po-\i.\TowsKi, king of Po.
land, wa? the fon of count Poniatowflvi, a Lithuanian, who,
after being in the fervice of Charles XII. of Sweden, and
of Auguitus, king of Poland, married the princefs Czarto-
rinn<a, a del'cendant of the great family of the Jagelloiis.
Staniflaus poflelled a fine perfon, and a graceful demeanour,
and was well received in the various parts of Europe which be
vifited while he was young. From England he accompanied
the ambaflador to Ruffia, where he acquired the particular
favour of Catharine, then grand duchcfs. When fhe came to
the crown, file exhibited her attachment by refolvingto raife
him to the throne of Poland on the death of Auguitus III.,
and by means of a body of Ruffian troops, his cleflion was
carried in the plain of Vola, on the 7th day of September,
1764, when Staniflaus was in his thirty-fecond year. His
talents and excellent difpofiiion gave promife of a reign
happy to himfelf and profperous to his country ; but the
overbearing influence by which he had been eledtcd, and the
radical vices of the Polilh conftitution, adted as perpetual
caufes of tumult and diliention, and thwarted all the expec-
tations and hopes that had been formed of the government
of Staniflaus. The firit diforders in this reign arofe from
rehgious differences. The non-catholics, comprifcd under
the general name of Diffidcnts, had been conllantly oppofed
in their claims of equal civil rights by the Romanilts, and
had been obliged to apply for proteftion to the Protellant
powers and the court of Ruflia, who were guarantees of the
treaty of Olivia, by which their privileges had been rati-
fied. In 1766, at a diet, the minillers of thefe powers had
prefented memoirs in favour of the Diffidcnts, and the king
feemed inclined to fupport their caufe, while the Catholic
prelates and nobles violently oppofed them. The emprefs
of Ruffia interfered effeftually by fending troops into Po-
land, which advanced to the gates of Warfaw. Confede-
racies ilartcd up to refill tliem, and the country was
plunged into civil war. The king was quite unable to quell
tliele diforders, being regarded as having been impofed on
the nation by a Ruffian force, and in 1771 an extraordinary
attempt was made on his perfon, of which a very interelling
account is given in the firll volume of Coxe's Travels into
Poland, which is thus concluded : " So extraordinary an
efcape is fcarcely to be ijarallcled in hillory, and affords
ample matter of wonder and lurprile. Scarcely could the
nobility or people at Warl'aw credit the evidence of their
fenfes, when they faw him return. Certainly neither the
rfcape of the king of France from D:imien, nor of the
king of Portugal from the confpiracy of the duke d'Avciro,
were equally amazing or improbable as that of the king of
Poland." ' <* "^ K

This attempt on the life of his majelly wa» planned by a

Pohlh

S T A

Polifh nobleman named Pulafki, who engaged three other
chiefs by a folemn oath, either to place the liing alive in his
hands, or to kill him in cafe of refiftance. Thefe perfons, at
the head of forty dragoons, entered Warfaw in difguife,
attacked and feized the king, and after having wounded him
in the head with a fabre, dragged him through the Itreets,
and carried hira out of the city. After a while the confpi-
rators were alarmed at what they had done, and they all,
except one, took advantage of the darknefs of night to make
their efcape, and at day-break the king found himfelf alone
with a perfon named Koriufl<i, and both of them on foot.
Taking advantage of the perplexity in which he faw this man
was involved, the king reprefented to him in fuch colours
the atrocity of the attempt, to which he added the promifes
of pardon and even reward, that he entirely gained him over,
and they proceeded together to a mill. From thence the
king wrote the following letter. " Par une efpece de mi-
racle je fuis fauv6 des mains des afTaffin?. Je fuis ici au petit
moulin de Mariemont. Venez au plutot me tirer d'ici. Je
fuis bleflis, mais pas fort." He was accordingly conduced
back to Warfaw, and received amidft the joyful acclamations
of the people.

Staniflaus, though retaining his crown, was unable to
quiet or direcl the diilraftions of the country : nor could
he make any effeftual oppofition to that truly infamous par-
tition of a lar-^e portion of Poland between the plunderers of
Rullia, Pruffia, and Auftria, which took place in 1773, and
which may be regarded as the firll aft of thofe open viola-
tions of every principle of national juftice, which have fo pe-
culiarly Itigmatized the times in which we live. The fame
powers enforced alterations in the Polifh conftitution, cal-
culated to perpetuate its weaknefs, and which were in vain
oppofcd by Stanidaus and the belt patriots of the country.
In 1789 he had an interview with Catharine, who deluded
him with hopes of advantae;es for the Poles, which, of courfe,
were never realized : and in 1792, the armies of RufTia and
Pruffia entered Poland, deltroyed the conftitution which had
been formed by the people, and completed that divifion of
its territories which expunged its name from the map of
Europe. In 1795 Staniflaus was obliged, by order of the
emprefs Catharine, to refign, and abdicate the crown which
fhe had hitherto allowed him to wear, and he retired to
Grodno, contented to live a penfioner on her bounty. On
the acceffion of Paul, Staniflaus was treated with great re-
fpeft. He died at Peterft)urg in 1 798, beloved and efteemed
for his qualities in private fociety.

Stanislaus, Order of St., was inftituted by Staniflaus,
king of Poland, in the year 1765. The badge of the
order is a gold crofs, enamelled red ; on the centre a medal-
lion ; on this the image of St. Staniflaus, enamelled in pro-
per colours ; on the reverfe, the letters SS in a cypher. It
is worn fcarfwife, pendent to a broad watered ribband,
edged with white. The ftar of the order is filver, in the
centre of which is a cypher of three letters, viz. S.A.R.
Cgnifying Staniflaus Auguftus Rex ; within, the following
motto, Pr^miando incitat.

STANISLOW, in Geography, a town of Auflrian Po-
land, in Galicia ; 66 miles S.S.E. of Lemberg.

STANITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Cbru-
dim ; 13 miles N. of Chrudim. — Alfo, a town of Mo-
ravia, in the circle of Brunn ; 18 miles S.E. of Brunn.

STANK, is a dam made with pile-planks, or otherwife,
to pen water.

STANKAU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Pilfen ; 9 miles N.N. E. of Pilfen.

STANLEY, Thomas, in Biography, born at Cumber-
low-Green, in Hertfordftiire, was the fon of fir Thomas

S T A

Stanley, knight. He received his early education at home,
under Edward Fairfax, the tranflator of Taflb's .Terufalem,
and was admitted a gentleman-commoner of Pembroke-hall,
Cambridge, in 1639. Having taken his degree of M. A. at
that univerfity, he went abroad, but returning durmg the
civil war, he took up his refidence in the Middle Temple.
He there purfued his ftudies with much eagernefs, and in
1651 pubhflied a volume of original poems, and a number
of tranflations in verfc from the ancient and modern lan-
guages. Turning his attention to graver topics, in 1655
he publifhedthefirlt volume of the work by which he is cniefly
known, " The Hiftory of Philofophy ; containing the Lives,
Opinions, Aftions, and Difcourfes of the Philofophers of every
Seft." This was followed by three other volumes ; they were
afterwards republifhed in one volume folio ; and in 174^, a
quarto edition was given to the public. After the favour-
able reception which this work met with, the author pub-
lilhed an edition of iEfchylus, which was pubhflied in Lon-
don in 1663, the text of which was copied into De Pauw's
edition of 1745. ^^ ^^^^ '" London, April 12, 1678,
leaving behind him farther monuments of his indullry and
erudition, in manufcript, confifting of " Commentaries on
.ffifchylus," in 8 vols, foi.: " Adverfaria ; or Remarks on
Paflages in various ancient Authors :" " Preleftions on the
Charafters of Theophraftus :" and a Latin treatile on the
firit-fruits and tenths of the fpoils mentioned in the Epiftle
to the Hebrews. He had been married to a Northampton,
fliire lady, co-heirefs to a good eltate, and he Ich a fon, who
pnbliflied, at an early age, a tranflation of .^Elian's " Various
Hiilories."

Stanley, John, bachelor in mufic, was bom in 1713.
At two years old he totally lolt his fight, by falling on a
marble hearth with a china bafon in his hand. At the age
of leven he firll began to learn mufic, as an art that was
likely to amufe him, but without his friei;ds fiippofing it
poflible for him, circumltanced as he was, to make it his
profeflion. His firlt mafler was Reading, a fcholar of Dr.
Blow, and organift of Hackney. But his father finding
that he not only received great pleafure from mufic, but had
made a rapid progrefs, placed him with Dr. Greene, under
whom he ftudied with great diligence, and a fiiccefs that
was aftonifliing. At eleven years of age he obtained the
place of organill of All-hallows, Bread-ftreet, and in 1726,
at the age of thirteen, waselefted organift of St. Andrew's,
Holborn, in preference to a great number of candidates.
In 1734, the benchers of the honourable fociety of the
Inner Temple elcfted him one of their orgamfts. Thefe
two places he retained till the time of his death. Few pro-
felfors have fpent a more aftive life in every branch of his
art than this extraordinary mufician ; having been not only a
mo!t neat, pleafing, and accurate performer, but a natural
and agreeable compofer, and an intelligent inftruftor. He
was the conduftor and foul of the Swan and Ca'Ue concerts
in the city, as long as they fubfiiled. Upon the death of
Handel, he and Mr. Smith undertook to fuperintend the per-
formance of oratorios during Lent ; and after Mr. Smith re-
tired, he carried them on, in conjunftion with Mr. Linley,
till within two years of his death, in 1786. This ingenious
and worthy profeflbr, whofe blindnefs excited the pity, and
performance the admiration, of the public for fo many years,
will be long lamented by his furvivmg friends ; for they have
loll in him, exclufive of his mufical talents, a molt intelli-
gent and agreeable companion, who contributed to the
pleafures of fociety as much by his converfation in private,
as by his profefiional merit in pubhc. He was fucceeded in
his office as mailer of the king's band, by Mr., afterwards
fir William Parfons. See Paradis, Mademoi/elh.

Stanley,

S T A

S T A

Staxle\, ill Geography, a townfhip in the parifh of
"Wakefield, Yorkdiire. See Wakefield.

STANMORE, Great, a parifh in the hundred of
Gore, and county of Middlefex, England, is lo miles
N.W. from London. It comprifes 1400 acres of land, the
greater part of which is occupied as meadow and palture,
but about 250 acres itill remain in common. From the
number of Roman antiquities found within this parifli, it is
conjectured by Camden, Stukeley, and Reynolds, that the
llation called SuUoniacae was at Brockley-hill. During
the Anglo Roman dynalty, this part of Middlelex, and a
great part of Hertfordftiire, were covered with woods : in-
deed, at the time of compiling the Domefday furvey, it
appears to have been chiefly forcft. Fitz-Stevens, who
wrote about 1 170, fays that an immenfe forett extends itfelf
to the north of London, " and is full of the lairs and coverts
of beafts and game." The village of Stanmore is of con-
fiderable extent, and confifts chiefly of houfr^ erected on the
fides of the great road from London to St. Albans. There
are fome handfome manfions and villas within the parifli ;
the chief of which is Stanmore-houfe, the elegant feat of
the countefs of Aylesford. The houfe is feated in an ex-
tenfive park, diftinguiflied for its varied furface and fine
woods. A villa called the Grove, the refidence of Charles
Poole, efq. was pofleiled by Aaron Capadoce in 1802, who
died herein that year, at the age of loj.

The prefent church of Stanmore was completed in
1632, at the fole expence of fir John Wolilenholme, knt.
It is built of brick, and among other monuments is one by
Nicholas Stone, commemorating the builder of the church.
It contai!is a Itatue of the decealed, finely executed, and
coit 200/. (See Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting.) In
the parifh of Stanmor.-Parva is Canons, an ancient and ce-
lebrated feat of the Brydges family. This citate was ren-
dered noted by James Brydges, duke of Chandos, who was
paymafter of the forces to que.-n Anne, and who, having ac-
cumulated great wealth, rclolved to build two magnificent
houfes, to furpafs any of the ducal refidences in England.
One wa? commenced in Cavendifli-lquare, London, but
never finiflied ; the other at Canons. Three architects
were employed, Gibbs, James, and Shepherd ; and Vertue
defcribes the houfe as " a noble fquare pile, all of ilone ;"
ornamented w\th llatues, bulls, paintings, &c. Italian artitts
were employed to ftucco and pamt the walls and cielings, and
aprofufion of marble was uled in pillars, floors, &c. In the
ereftion and decoration of this noble manfion, and in plant-
ing the ground, it is rehited that not Itfs than 250,000/.
were expended. Correfponding with the building were the
domeftic ellablifliment and (lyle of living within the houfe :
all was grandeur and oltentation. The duke dined in pub-
lic, and was attended by a band of mufic and a military
guard. This parade excited the envy and fatirical animad-
verfions of Pope and fome other poets. In Pope's fatire
on Falfe Talle, the character of Timon is fuppofed to be
intended for the duke. Tlie fplendid manfion jult men-
tioned was taken down, and tlic materials fold by auction, in
1747 ; and a fmall but neat villa was afterwards built by
Mr. Hallet, and which is now the property and refidence
of fir Thnma; Plumer. Beauties of Enijland, vol. x.
pt. 4. Middlefex. By J. N. Brewer, 1816.

STANNARIES, Stannaiua, the mines and works
where tin is dug and purified : as in Cornwall, Dt'vonlhire,
&c. There are f<uir courts of the flannaries in Devonfliire,
and as many in Cornwall, tor tlie adminiltration of jullice
among the timers. See Stunnary-Qitvwx^.

ST ANNE L, in Ornithology, an Englifh name of a fpe-
cies of hawk, more commonly known by the names of the

keJlreU or the tuindhovcr ; and called by Latin authors tin-
nuiicuhs and cenchris.

STANNER-WORT, in Agriculture, the common name
of a troublefome weed in arable as well as grafs-lands. See
Rag-wort.

STANNUM, Tix. See Tin.

STANOVAIA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in
the government of ToboHk ; 8 miles S.W. of Ifchim.

STANOVITZKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Novgorod ; 48 miles N.W. of Tcherapovetz.

STANSTEAD, a townfhip of Lower Canada, bounded
W. by lake Memphramagog, and S. by Vermont : fettled
by about 750 inhabitants, a promifcuous emigration from
various parts of the United States.

S TANSTED, a town of Virginia ; 5 miles N. of Fal-
mouth.

STANTONS, a town of North Carolina ; 8 miles W.
of Guildford.

STANTZ, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Unterwalden, of which it was formerly the capital, on the
lake of Lucerne; 8 miles S.E. of Lucerne. N. lat. 46°
51'. E. long. 8° 10'. — Alfo, ariverof Stiria, which runs
into the Muehr, 20 miles E.S.E. of Luttenberg.

STANZA, in Poetry, a certain ftated number of grave
verfes, containing fome perfeft fenfe, terminated with a reft
or paufe. '

The word is Italian, and literally fignifies a ftand or ita-
tion, becaufe of the paufe to be made at the end of each
ftanza, or complete fenfe.

What the couplet is in fongs, and the Jlrophe in odes, the
Jlan-ia is in the great and graver pieces, as epic poems, &c.
Indeed, the Italians fcarcely write any poems but they divide
them into flanzas. There are Itanzas of four, fix, eight,
ten, twelve, and fourteen verfes, and fometimes of an un-
even number of verfes, as five, feven, &c. But thefe laft
are fomewhat more difficult to execute, by reafon of the three
verfes to one rhyme. The French lay it down as a rule, that
if the firft ftanza begin with a mafculine or feminine verfe,
the fecond is to begin and end with the fame.

Every ftanza ought not only to contain a perfedt fenfe,
but to be terminated with fome lively and ingenious thought,
or fomejuft and pertinent refleftion.

Stanzas were firft introduced from the Italian into the
French poetry about the year 1580, and thence they were
transferred into the Englifh.

The ufe of ftanzas in tragedy, or comedy, is condemned
by all the bell critics ; for though we fpeak verle on the
ftage, it is ftill prefumed we are fpeaking profe. Stanzas
fliew a degree of ingenuity on the part of the poet, which
has nothing of nature in it on the part of the actor. Add
to this, that flanzas are not fit to exprefs every thing :
wrath, threatening, &c. fit very ill on a regular ftanza ;
though irrefolution, reveries, and every thing that leads the
adlor to think on what he is to refolve, agree well eiiough
with the uneqvial cadence of the ftanza.

STANZIONE, Cavalikre M.\.ssimo, in Biography,
was born at Naples in 1585, and wax a diitiple of G.B. Ca-
raciolo : he alfo received inilruCtions in trelco paintnig from
Belifario Cofe'^zio, one of the molt eininent .irtifts of his time,
and indeed feems to have been exccedinirly Itndioiis rf ;he
works of all the great painters <it Ins day. He vifited Rome,
and in Itudying the works of Annibal Caracci, became inti-
mate with Guido Rhciii, into whole Ityle iie fell witii lo much
fueeels, that he obtained the name of // Guiilo Rheni di
Niipoli.

It was in his native city that he principaiiy vxerted his
ability in original produdions, and waa ruuKed among its

ablelt

S T A

aWeft artifts. Spagnoletto became jealous of him, and is
faid by Lanzi to have been guilty of a grofs piece of per-
fidy to deilroy the pifture he had painted in competition
with his Defcent from the Crofs, for the Certofa. The
fubjea of his picture was Chrill with the Maries, which
havmg fomewhat changed in tone, and become darker,
Spagnoletto perfuaded the monks to permit him to clean it ;
when he ufed fome noxious preparation, which nearly de-
ilroyed the work. Upon application to Stanzione to re-
medy the mifchief, he refufed, declaring it fhould remain as
it was, that the author of fo difgraceful a procedure might
reap the jull fruits of his perfidy.

Among the confiderable works executed by Stanzione at
Naples, are the cielings of the churches of St. Paolo and
del Gefu Novo, and a large picture at the Certofa, repre-
fenting St. Bruno prefenting the regulations of his order to
his monks. The fmall cabinet piftures by him are numerous,
and much efteemcd. He died at the age of 71, in the year
1656.

STAPEDIUS, or STAPiDSius, or Slapidis Mufculus,
in Anatomy, the fmallell mufcle in the body, fituated in the
tympanum of the ear. See Ear.

STAPELBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the county of Wernigerode ; 6 miles W. of Werni-
gerode.

STAPELIA, in Botany, an extenfive and very fingular
genus of African plants, fo named by Linnaeus, in honour
of Dr. John Bodaeus a Stapel, the laborious and learned
Dutch editor of Theophrallus. His edition of this ancient
author, publiflied in folio at Amfterdam, in 1644, is the
belt which has appeared. — Linn. Gen. 121. Schreb. 169.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1277. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 2. 84. Brown Tr. of the Wernerian So-
ciety, V. I. 23. Jufl'. 146. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 178. —
Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Contortx,
Linn. Apoc'meue, Jufl". Afclcpiadea, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, in
five acute fegments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, large,
thick, divided more t-Iian half way into five broad, flat,
pointed fegments, iumetimes with intermediate teeth. Nec-
tary (or Crown of the ftamens) double; the outer in five
fegments or leaves, various in different fpecies ; inner of
five leaves, alternate with the outer, undivided, fometimes
obfolete ; all much (horter than the petal. Stam. Fila-
ments five, flat, fliort, more or lefs connefted ; anthers
fimple at the point ; " mafles of pollen attached by their
bafe, cartilaginous and pellucid at one margin." Br. P'tjl.
Germens two, ovate, flat on the inner fide ; ftyles none ;
common (tigma pointlefs. Per'ic. Follicles two, nearly cy-
lindrical, fmootli, taper-pointed. Stsds numerous, imbri-
cated, comprefled, crowned with fine hairs.

Efi'. Ch. Corolla of one petal, five-cleft. Neftary a
double ftar, covering the organs of impregnation. Com-
mon ftigma pointlefs. Follicles two, fmooth. Seeds co-
mofe.

Such is the Linman genus of SlapeUa, preferved entire
by the late Mr. Dryander, in Ait. Hort. Kew., though
Mr. Brown has feparated fome genera from it. (SeeHuER-
NiA and PiARANTHus. ) We have already, under thofe ar-
ticles, ventured to exprefs an opinion that the original genus,
on account of its very diftinft habit, and the varieties of
ftrufture in its neftary or crown, might beft. remain undif-
turbed. We fliall therefore confider it under that point of
view, giving examples of its various feftions. Linnxus has,
even in the fourteenth edition of Syfl:. Veg.,but five Stapeliit ;
Willdenow has forty-nine, moilly adopted from Mr. Maf-
fon's rich and fplendid illultration of this genus, publifhed

S T A

in 1796, with forty-one coloured folio plates. As this able
coUeitor fent mod of his difcoveries to Kew, forty-four
fpecies appear in Mr. Aiton's work. They are all natives
of the deferts of Southern Africa, except three found by
Forfltall in Arabia Felix, and one by Roxburgh in India.
Their habit is extremely fucculent, toothed, angular, and
gibbous, without leaves. Flowers lateral, italked, various
in fize, parti-coloured, generally of a dark and fpeckled
hue, often remarkable for an extraordinary fetor, refembling
carrion, rotten cheefe, corrupted water, or fuch delegable
odours, and grateful perhaps to the Hottentots, to whofe
country thefe flowers belong. The Stapelne are eafily culti-
vated in pots, in a dry Itove, with very fparing fupplies of
water, and as much fun as our fl<ies will afford. They
bloflom pretty freely, at various feafons, and if their odour
can be tolerated, their beauty will amply repay the mode*
rate care they require.

Seftion 1. Corolla fimple, Jive-cleft, Us edges hairy. Twenty
fpecies.

S. ciliata. Fringed Buff Stapelia. Willd. n. i. Ait.
n. I. Maflbn Stap. 9. t. i. Thunb. Prodr. 46. — Stem
procumbent. Teeth of the branches fpreading. Surface
of the corolla papillary ; its margin fringed ; fegments
ovate, acute. — Native of very dry fituations at the Cape of
Good Hope, below the hill called Bochland Berg. It flowers
in our gardens from Oftober to Dscember. lL\itfem is
branched, procumbent, taking root here and there, with
ftiort, eteGi branches, ftained with brown, intermixed with a
lefs glaucous green than in moit other fpecies ; its length
about a foot. The teeth of the branches are unufually large
and fpreading, fomewhat unequal and irregular. Flotuers
folitary, near three inches wide, buS^-coloured ; violet in the
centre. Hairs of their fringe minutely club fhaped.

S. hlrfuta. Hairy Stapelia, or Carrion Flower. Linn.
Sp. PI. 316. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Mifc. v. i.
28. t. 3. (Afclepias africana aizoides, flore pulchre fim-
briato ; Commel. Rar. 19. t. 19.) — Branches afcending,
quadrangular, with ereft teeth ; flowering at the bafe. Co-
rolla hairy at the margin and centre ; fegments ovate, acute,
tranfvcrfely corrugated. — Native of the Cape. Introduced
very early from thence, by the Dutch, into the gardens of
Europe, where it has everfince been preferved. The^ow^r
is large andhaudfome, of a dark chocolate crimfon, llreaked
acrofs vfith yellow ; the marginal fringe refembling grey fur.
Its fcent is fo like carrion, that flefli-flies lay their eggs upon
it, and the maggots are ftarved for want of tl;eir proper
food. Sir John Hill aflerted, in an exprefs diflertation, that
thefe flies are a peculiar fpecies, whofe maggots feed on the
flower. For which falfehood he is itigmatized by the great
entomologill Fabricius, as " damnandts memtria Johannes
Hill."

S. fororia, Maflbn, t. 39 ; grandiflora, t. 1 1 ; ambigua,
t. 12 ; and AJlerias, t. 14 ; are nearly related to hirjuta, in
the fize and general afpeft of their flowers, but all fufE-
ciently diltinft.

S. pulvinata. CufliioB-flowered Stapelia. Mafl'on Stap.
13. t. 13. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 6. Curt. Mag. t. 1240.
— Stem procumbent. Branches quadrangular, with ereft
teeth ; flowering at the bafe. Corolla hairy at the margin ;
its rounded fegments fliorter than the diameter of the tumid

fliaggy centre Native of the Cape, in bufhy places at

Camiesberg. Majon. The Dutch inhabitants call this fpe-
cies the Arabian Rofe, notwithftanding its fetor. For fize
and beauty it is indeed confpicuous, and though akin to
hirjuta, and to the other fpecies we have juft named, is dif-
tinguifhed by the very tumid, fliaggy, cufliion-likc centre
of the_/?cwfr, and the Ihort, rounded fegments of the limb,

each

STAPELIA.

each tipped with a fharp point, of a different colour from
its diilt.

S. divaricala. Straddling Stapelia. Mafl'on Stap. 17.
t. 2Z. WillJ. n. 10. Ait. n. 9. Curt. Mag. t. 1007.^ —
Branches bluntly quadrangular, tapering, fpreading. Co-
rolla very even ; its fegments lanceolate, pointed ; revolute
and diftantly fringed at the margin. — Sent by Mr. Maffon,
from the Cape, in 1793. The habit is flender, lax, and
fpreading. Flowers fmaller than any of the foregoing,
being but two inches wide, of a deep flefh-colour, polifhed,
peculiarly fmooth ; their fegments narrow, and fo much re-
flexed, that the hairs on their edges may eafily efcape
notice.

S. parviflora. Small-flowered Stapelia. Maflbn Stap.
22. t. 35. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 16. — Branches acutely
quadrangular, with recurved teeth ; flowering in the upper
part. Segments of the corolla lanceolate, fringed, ftiorter
than the flower-ftalk. — Native of bufhy parts of Namaqua
land. The branched^cnij- are ereft and llout, bright green,
with large, compreiled, hooked teeth. Flowers not half an
inch broad, yellow, hairy, on deflexed ^vtr'^lejlalks, fcarcely
an inch in length.

S. glandultflora. Glandular-flowered Stapelia. Maffon
Stap. 16. t. 19. Ait. n. 18. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 23.
t. 71. (S. glandulifera ; Willd. n. 20.) — Branches quadran-
gular, with upright teeth. Segments of the corolla ovate,
acute, covered with club-fhaped glands, and fhorter than the
flower-ftalk. — Found in the deferts about Nord Olifanl's
river, by Mr. Maffon, vi'ho fent it to Kew in 1795. ^'
flowers there late m autumn. The Jlems are green, ereft,
fomewhat downy at the edges. Flowers above an inch
broad, tawny or yellowifh, clothed with ereft club-fhapcd
glands, of a rery Angular appearance. Crown of thejtfa-
tnens orange and black.

Seftion 2. Corollajlmply Jive-cleft, fmooth-edged. Twenty-
two fpecies, to which fome are added in Hort. Kew. and
Curt. Mag.

S. pedunculata. Long-ftalked Stapelia. MafTon Stap.
17. t. 21. Willd. n. 2 1. Ait. n. 19. Curt. Mag. t. 793.
• — Branches bluntly angular, toothed at the top. Segments
of the corolla lanceolate, acute, with tufts of pendulous
glands at the bafe. Flower-ltalks twice as long as the
branches. — Native of dry places at Cam'xes berg. Majfon.
The branches are glaucous, tumid, with blunt, often obli-
terated angles, rather notched tiian toothed, except at the
end. Floiuer-Jlalks five or fix inches long. Floixiers an
inch and halt, or two inches, wide, with narrow convex
fegments, of a more or lefs deep or variegated brown, ac-
companied at the bafe by pendulous tufts of trembhng black
glands. The centre of lhi:Jlo<wer is alfo black.

S. Gordoni. Gordon's Stapelia. Maffon Stap. 24. t.40.
Willd. n. 23. — Corolla orbicular, very flightly five-cleft.
Stem branched, round, with copious fpinous tubercles. —
Gathered in Groot Namaqua Land, near Orange river, by
Mr. Gordon, from whom Mr. Maflon received a drawing
of this very fingular fpecies, it bemg the only one of the
genus he had not himfclf fcen and examined. The Jlem is
reprefcnted ereft, branched, a foot high, green, very thick
and obtufe, bclet all over with blunt tubercles, each bearing
a prominent thorn. Floiuers above two inches wide, of a
pale nearly even brown, very fmooth, convex, with five very
(hallow acute lobes, and a little blackifli crown in the
middle. 'Vhe Jlalk is hardly an inch long.

S. pili/era. Hairy-tubercled Stapelia. Linn, Suppl. 171.
Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 21. Maffon Stap. 17. t. 23. —
Branches eredt, round, tumid, with copious tubercles, each
Vol- XXXIII,

tipped with a briflle. Segments of the corolla ovate,
pointed, fmooth. Flowers felfile, fcattered. — Native of very
dry hills, in the deferts at the Cape of Good Hope. The
Hottentots are faid to eat it, knowing it by the name of
Guaap. The habit of the plant is very like the lall, only
the tubercles are fmaller in proportion, and bear briflles
niltcad of thorns. ThL-Jloivers are fmall, half an inch broad,
fmooth, of a dark purplifh-brown, with a black and
yellow crown, furrounded by a red circle. This fpecie*
confirms the genus of the lall, if there could be any doubt
on that fubjeCt.

S. arliculala. Jointed Stapelia. Maffon Stap. 20. t. 30.
Willd. n. 26. Ait. n. 22 — Branches fpreading, round,
teffellated with pointed tubercles. Flowers nearly feflile ;
their legments triangular, papillary. — Native of the country
of Roggeveldt, at the Cape of Good Hope. The Hotten-
tots eat it raw ; the Dutch Icttlers pickle it with vinegar.
This is of a glaucous, often reddifh, hue, and Angularly tef-
fellated, growing in a proliferous ilragghng form ; its
ftrufture akin to the two lafl. Flowers very fmall ; their
parts not clearly inteUigible frcnn Maflon's figure, nor have
we feen a recent fpecimen. They are fcattered about the
toothed fummits of the branches.

S. mammillaris. Prickly Stapelia. Linn. Mant. 2. 216.
Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 23. (S. aphyllos, ad nodos mam-
millaris, llolculo rubello, liiiquis pendulis ; Burm. Afric. 27.
t. II.) — Branches ereft, roundifh, with copious fpinout
tubercles. Flowers llalked ; their fegments lanceolate,
fmooth. — Native of the Cape, from whence it was fent to
Kew, by Mr. Maffon, and haying flowered there, prove*
very diltinft from the laft, to which he fufpefts, in his work,
it might belong. The tubercles are prominent, and their
/pines very flout, even more fo than in S. Gordoni, which thii
fpecies nearly equals in ftature. The Jlowers however arc
much fmaller, and totally different in the form of their
fegments.

S. pulla. Black-flowered Stapelia. Maffon Stap. 21.
t. 31. Willd. n. 30. Ait. n. 26. — Branches imperfeftljr
hexagonal, ereft, with fpreading fpinous teeth. Segments
of the corolla lanceolate, revolute, fmooth. — Native of
the hot fandy deferts called Karroo, at the Cape of Good
Hope. Brought to Kew by Mr. Maffon, in 1774. This
is fomewhat related to the laft, being, though lefs tuber-
culated, and more angular, furnifhed with fimilar fpines.
Tiie Jlowers alfo feem fimilarly formed. They grow,
feveral together, on fhort aggregate flalks, and are pale
externally, but almofl black on the upper furface of their
narrow, taper, almofl ereft, fegments.

S. adfcendens. Fall Indian Stapelia. Roxb. Corom.
V. I. 28. t. 30. Willd. n. 31. (Caralluma ; Brown Tr.
of the Wern. Soc. v. 1. 25.) — Branches quadrangular, af-
cendiiig, toothed, flowering about the fummit. Segments
of the corolla ovato-lanceolate, pointed, revolute, fmooth.—
Found among bufhes, on high dry barren ground in the
Eaft Indies, flowering in the wet feafon. The Telingas,
according to Dr. Roxburgh, call it Car-allum, and cat the
young tender branches raw, though they arc bitter and fait
to the tafle. Thcjlems are perennial, flender, a foot or two
high, branched, tlieir angles befet with afcending teetli.
Flowers near an inch in diameter, Icattered, on fliort
llalks, towards the ends of the branches. Segments of the
corolla green in the lower half ; dark purple in the other
part ; pale beneath. We can form no idea of the ilrufture
of the crown, or neighbouring parts, from the figure, nor
has Dr. Roxburgh ventured to explain them. Mr. Browu
defcribes the crQiun ae of ten leaflets, in a fimple feriea ;
5 B iWf

STAPELI-A.

five of them oppofite to the anthers, and undivided ; the
lad deeply divided, awl-fhaped. With much refpeft for
his opinion, we think the plant ought not to he feparated
from Stapelia, and therefore we need fay nothing- of his
generic name.

S. incarnata. Flefli-coloured Stapelia. Linn. Suppl. 171.
Willd. n. 33. Ait. n. 27. Maffon Stap. 22. t. 34.
(Eiiphorbium ereftum, quadrangiilare, fpinofum, ramis la-
teralibus rotiindis foiiofis ; Burm. Afric. 15. t. 7. f. I.) —
Branches quadrangular, ereft, toothed, flowering about the
fummit. Segments of the corolla lanci-olate, flat, pointlefs,
fmooth. — Found by Thunberg and Maflbn, in dry fandy
fields at the Cape. About a foot high, glaucous, much
ftouter than the lalt. Flowers numerous, nearly feffile,
fcattered about the upper part of each branch, each half
an inch broad, pale pink or white. The Hottentots are
faid to eat the branches.

S. punSata. Purple-dotted Stapelia. Mafibn Stap. 18.
t. 24. Willd. n. 34. Ait. n. 28. — Stem proliferous, de-
cumbent, with oblong, fomewhat quadrangular, toothed
joints. Corolla bell-fhaped, with lanceolate acute feifments ;
papillary on the upper furface. — Native of the Namaqua
lands, in Southern Africa. Sent to Kew in 1795, where
it flowers moft part of the autumn. This is one of a tribe,
of which Mr. Maflbn has deicribed feveral more fpecies,
whofe_y?^mj- are compofed of oblong or elliptical, proliferous
joints, or branches, and vthoieJJowers, fupported by longifli
Jlalks, have lanceolate acute legments, dotted or glandular
all over their upper furface. In the prefent inilance the
corolla, about an inch in diameter, has a bell-(haped tube,
externally of a blueifli-white. The upper fide is pink, with
purple dots. The^ower-Jlalis, Rear two inches long, grow
three or four together, and are of the fame pink hue as the
corolla

S. geminata, Maflbn t. 25, and decora, t. 36, are, in habit
and general charafter, allied to the lafl.

S. piSa. Painted Stapelia. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1 169.
Ait. n. 34. (S. variegata ; ,Iacq. Mifc. v. 1. 27. t. 4.)^
Branches finiple, afcending, quadrangular, with fpreading
teeth. Segments of the corolla ovate, pointed, corrugated ;
the annular centre very rugged. Five leaflets of the crown
cloven. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence
MelTrs. Loddiges are faid to have introduced it into the
Englifli coUeftions. The ftrufture of the neftary however
induces us to believe, with Dr. Sims, it is what Jacquin has
figured as 5. variegata of Linnxus, hereafter mentioned.
This belongs, with the real variegata, to no lefs diftindl a
tribe of fpecies than the laft. Their Jlems, compofed of
numerous fimple ereft branches, have a tufted habit ; their
colour is lefs glaucous than in moft others ; the teeth of
their branches are numerous, and ttrongly marked, fpread-
ing in four rows. Flowers about two inches v/ide, on de-
flexed {oMtiTy Jlalks, yellow, either tranfverfely ftreaked or
dotted with a chocolate-brown ; their fegments broad,
rugged or warty. Crown of X.\\e Jiarnens various in the
different fpecies. The colouring of the prefent flower is
darker, and more blotched, than ufual.

S. verruco/a. Warty-flowered Stapelia. Maflbn Stap. 11.
t. 8. Willd. n. 39. Ait. n. 3J. Curt. Mag. t. 786 ?—
Branches fimple, afcending, bluntly quadrangular, with
fpreading teeth. Segments of the corolla ovate, pointed,
warty ; the centre concave, with a rough pentagonal ele-
vation.— Found in dry ground at the Cape. Akin to the
laft, but the corolla is warty, or tuberculated, not tr.uif-
verfely corrugated. We cannot but have fome doubts
concerning the fynonym of the Botanicil Magazine, as the

reprefentation there of the crown of the ^onver is not re-
concilcable to Mr. Mallbn's figure. One or the other
muft be incorredl^ In the branches we fee no important
difference.

S. irrorala, Maflbn t. 9, is one of the fame tribe, and
perhaps nearer the plant ot the Botanical Magazine.

S. variegata. Variegated Stapelia. Linn. Sp. PI. 316.
Willd. n. 42. Ait n. 37. Curt. Mag. t. 26. ( Fntil-
laria crafl"a, prom mtorii Bonse Spei ; Stapel. Tlieophr.
335.) — Stem branched upwards, quadrangular, with fpread-
ing teeth. Segments of the corolla ovate, pointed, cor-
rugated ; the annular centre concave, rugged. Leaflets of
the crown all undivided. — Native of the Cape, from
whence it was early brought to Europe. This is moft
akin to S. piSa ; but if the obfervations of our friend
Dr. Sims be, as ufual, correft, the leaflets of the crown, or
neSary, being all undivided in the true variegata, eflentially
diltinguifh it. 'V\\\i Jlower fmells like rotten chetfe. It
is prettily fpotted with brown on a yellow ground. We
dare not rely on all the old fynonyms, the crown not
being accurately exprefled ; efpecially as there are feveral
fpecies, fo eafily to be confounded with the prefent, which
may have been cultivated, without being well diltinguifhed.

S. bufonis. Curt. Mag. t. 1676, is one of thefe uncertain
fpecies, nearly akin to the pi8a. They require to be all
compared m a living ftate, particularly with regard to the
ftrucf ure of the crown.

Seftion 3. Corolla with Jive intermediate teeth. Six
fpecies, to which one is added in Hort. Kew. This ledioii
comprehends Mr. Brown's genus Huernia. See that
article.

S. campanulata. Bell-fliaped Stapelia. Mafl'on Stap. 1 1.
t. 6. Willd. n. 43. Ait. n. 38. Curt. Mag. t. 1227,
and t. 1661 ! — Corolla bell-fliaped, with ten teeth, rough ;
its tube internally bearded. Branches with four comprcfled
toothed angles. — Native of dry ground at tlie Cape, from
whence feveral colleftors have received living plants. The
branches are thick, afcending, fomewhat tufted, with four,
or more, very prominent, comprefled angles, befet with
large, acute, comprefled, projeAing teeth. Flowers two
inches wide, with a perfectly bell-ftiaped tube, which is
lined, and almoft filled up, with converging, glandular,
purple hairs ; limb in five pointed (hallow lobes, with as
many very fmall intermediate ones, its inner furface cream-
coloured or buff^, dotted with purple. We cannot account
for this fpecies being given a fecoi.d time in the Botanical
Magazine without anv reference to the former figure, which
beft agrees with Mr. Maflfon's, and with the fpecimens we
have feen.

S. reticulata. Netted Stapelia.- Mafl'on Stap. 9. t. 2.
Willd. n. 48. Ait. n. 43. Curt. Mag. t. 1662.— Corolla
with ten teeth ; its tube internally bearded, and furrounded
with a tumid ring. Branches with five comprefled angles,
befet with hooked teeth. — Found in hollows of rocks,
near north OliJanCs river, at the Cape. The numerous,
rather hooked teeth of the branches, diff^er fomewhat from
the laft. Maflbn's figure ot x\k Jiower is more flriking,
and more faithful, than that of the Magizine. The corolla,
beautifully variegated with crimfon and dark purple, is
marked with a kind of net-work. The ri. g round its
mouth, or tube, is Angularly tumid ; the latter is filled
with purple ha-rs, as in S. campanulata.

S. lentigiiioja. Freckled Stapelia. Sims in Curt. Mag.
t. 506. Ait. n. 44.- Corolla with ten teeth; its tube
btU-fliaped, naked, furrounded with a tumid rin^. Slemi
branched in the upper part, five-angled, witti hooked teeth.

Brought

S T A

S T A

Brought by Mr. Maflon from the Cape to Kew in 17951
tliough it does not occur in his work. The ^ower moll •
agrees with his guttata, but the habit of the plant is very
different.

Sedion 4. Flowers not yet obj'erved. One fpecies.
JVil/denoiv ■

S. clavnta. Club-fhaped Stapeha. Willd. n. 49. —
" Stem fimple, thicit, club-fhaped, reticilated with obfcure
warts, flowering at the lummit." — Gathered by governor
Patterfon, in fandy fields beyond Kopperlerg, at tlie Cape.
He has delineated the fruit only in his travels, tab. 8, ac-
cording to the German edition, cited by Willdenow.

Wc beg leave to obferve that tlie two (irft fedlions t-jf the
prefent genus are entirely artificial, the fringe of the corolla
not leading to any natural affinities of fpecies.

Stapeli.'V, in GiirJtni/ig, contains plants of the fucculent
perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are, the
hairy ilapelia (S. hirfuta) ; and the variegated ftapclia (S.
viriegata).

Method 0/ Culture. — Thefe forts of plants are readily in-
creafed by cuttings or (lips of the young braiiche';, which
ftiould be expofed a few days in a dry covered place to heal
over the cut part, a^d be then planted in pots, filled with
light, poor, dry, frtfh, fandy earth, with lime rubbidi,
plunging them in the tan-bed of the ftove, where they foon
itrike root. When they are well rooted, they may be re-
moved into feparate pots, replunging them in the bed till
frefh rooted, when they may be placed on the tops of the
flues, or on the fhelves in the hot-houfe. They are alfo
capable of being preferved in the greenhoufe. Thev have
a fine effedl in their leaflcfs, protuberant, warted appear-
ance, and the beauty of their flowers, which are large,
ftellatcd, variegated, fpotted, and differently (Iriped.

STAPES, in Anatomy, one of the fmall bones of the
ear, exaftly refembling in fhape the iron part of a ftirrup.
See Ear and Cuanium.

STAPHISAGRIA, in Botany and Gardening. See
Delphinium.

Staphlsackia, in the Materia Medica. See Staves-
acre.

STAPHYLiEA, in Botany, abridged by Linnxus from
Staphylodendrum of Toiirnefort and of ancient authors, de-
rived from o■Ta,■t/^>^, (7 lunch, or clujler, and htt^K, a tree,
becaufe the cluttered fruit of this fhrub refcmbles a bunch
of grapes in it> mode of growth. — Linn. Gen. 148. Schreb.
198. WiUd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1497. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 377. Prodr. Fl. Gric. Sibth. v. i. 208.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 171. Purfh v. i. 129. Jufl'. 377.
Touriuf. t. 386. Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 391. lUultr.
t. 210. Gacrtii. t. 69. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Tri-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilatii, Linn. Rhamni, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cnl. Perianth inferior, of one k-af, five-cleft,
concave, rouiidilh, coloured, the fizc of the corolla. Cor.
Petals five, oblong, ereft, like the fegments of the calyx.
Neftary at the receptacle of the fruftification, in the bafe
of the flower, concave, urn-ftiapcd. Stam. Filaments five,
oblong, eredl, the length of the calyx ; anthers fimple,
Pifl. Germen fuperior, thickifli, three-cleft ; (lyles three,
fimple, a little longer than the (lamens ; ftiemas obtufe,
contiguous. Peric. Capfules three, inflated, flaccid, united
longitudinally by a future, pointed at the tip, burfting in-
wardly. Seeds two, bony, globular, with an oblique point,
and an orbicular excavation at the fide of the orifice.

Obf. In S. pinnata the germen, inilead of being three-
cleft, is moftly bifid, and there are generally but two cap-
fules.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five fegments. Fetali five.

Capfules inflated, joined together. Seeds two, globofe,
with a fear on one fide.

1. S. occidentalit. Jamaica Bladder-nut. Willd. n. I.
Swartz Ind. Occ. v. i. 566. (Arbor jamaicenfis fraxini
alatis foliis, flonbue pentapetalis corymbofis ; Pluk. Aim.
45. t. 269. f. I.) — Leaves doubly pinnate. Capfules tri-
angular. Seeds folitavy. . Stem arboreous. — Native of
fields in the mountainous parts of Jamaica, flowering in the
fpring and autumn. A tree from twenty to thirty feet in
height, with a fnioolh trunk, and round, fmoothifli, fliining
branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked ; leaflets two or three
pair, ovate, pointed, ferrated, fmooth, fhining. Slipulas
two, between each pair of leaflets, fmall, incurved. Floiuers
in terminal, ere£t, lax clutters, white, fragrant, three on
each ftalk. Capfules fcarcely inflated.

2. S. pinnata. Bladder-nut Tree. Linn. Sp. PI. 3R6.
Engl. Bot. t. 1560. "Schmidt. Arb. t. 80." — Leaves
pinnated. Styles and capfules but two. — Native of the
louth of Europe ; but of fuch rare occurrence in this
country as to be fcarcely deemed indigenous, although it is
admitted into the Britifli Flora. It bloffoms in May or
June, and perfefts fruit rather late in the autumn. Stem
ftirubby, five or fix feet high, branched, fmooth. Leaves
unequally pinnate ; leaflets five, oppofite, ovate, ferrated,
acute. Slipulas large, membranous, brownifli. Floivers
in terminal, compound, drooping clullers, bell-ftiaped, pale
yellow. BraSeas fetaceoiis, membranous. Capfules two,
rarely three, membranous, inflated, each containing two
large, globular feeds, which when ripe are hard, light
brown, and look as if varniflied.

The general appearance of this /hrub fomewhat refembles
that of the common Afli.

3. S. trifolia. Three-leaved Bladder-nut. Linn. Sp.
PI. 386. "Schmidt. Arb. t. 81." — Leaves ternate.—
Native of dry hills, in rocky fituations from New York to
Upper Carolina, flowering in May and June. Purjh. Stem
ftouter than in the lall fpecies ; the older branches grey ; the
younger green, fmooth. Leaves three together, ovate,
pointed, ferrated, the terminal one largeft. Flowers pro-
duced from the fides of the branches, in longer duller*, but
on fliorter fl;alks, of a clearer white, and fomewhat larger
than in the laft.

Staphyl.«a, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
deciduous, flowering, flirubby kind, of which the fpecies
cultivated are, the five-leaved bladder-nut (S. pinnata);
and the thice-leaved bladder-nut (S. trifolia).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, fuckers, layers, and cuttings. The feeds fliould be
fown as foon as they become ripe, in the autumn, in a bed
of common earth, to the depth of an inch : they fliould be
kept clear from weeds, and refrefhed in dry weather with
water frequently. In the following autumn or fpring, the
large plants fliould be removed into nurfery-rows, at two
feet apart, and one foot diitant in the rows, to remain till
of fufficient growth for the ftirubbery. The fuckers may
be feparated and taken up in autumn, or early in the fpring,
with root-fibres to them, and planted in nurfery lines in the
above manner. The layers may be put down from the
young branches, being either (lit or twitted ; and, when
properly rooted in the following autumn, be planted out in
the nurfery as above. The cuttings (hould be made from
the lower parts of the young fliooti of the j)reccJing year,
planting them in a (hady border in the autumn, and water-
ing them frequently during the fpring and fiimmer, when
the weather is dry ; and when well rooted, in the autumn
following, planting them out in the nurfery-rows as above,
or where they arc to remain. They aflord oruainent and
5 fi a variety

S T A

Yariety in the (hrubbery parts of pleafure-grounds, as well
as in fome other parts, by their long pendulous bunches of
flowers, and bladder-fhaped capfules, which have a lingular
appearance and effeft in the autumnal fcafon.

STAPHYLE, a word ufed by the old Greelt writers,
fometimes to exprefs a grape, and fcmetimes a difordc-r ot
the uvula, which confifts in an extenuation of its fuperior
part, and a tumour of the inferior, whence it hangs down in
the (hape of a grape. The uvula, or gargarcon, is aKo
thus called by fome writers.

STAPHYLEPARTES, the name of a chirurgical in-
ftrument, in ule among the ancients for elevating the uvula.
It is mentioned by Paulus ./Egineta.

STAPH YLINUS, in Jnatomy, the mufcle of the uvula,
commonly called azygus. See Deglutition.

Staphylinus, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the common daucus fylnjejlris, wild carrot, or bird's nelK

Staphylinus, in Entomology, a genus of infects of the
order Coleoptera. The generic charafter is a' follows :
Antenna; moniliform ; four feelers ; (hell half a= long as the
body ; wings folded up under the fhells ; tail not armed
with a forceps, furnilhcd with two exfertile veficles. The
infefts of tliis genus are extremely rapacious, devouring not
only the infedtt of other genera, but frequently each other.
Many of them, when attempted to be caught, turn up the
tail. The jaws are ftrong and exferted, with which they
bite and pinch very hard : moft of them are found in damp
raoift places, among fubftances, and a few upon flowers.
There are about i8o ipecies, feparated into three fedtions,
according as their feeler? are filiform, hatchet-fhaped, or
clavate. Of thefe we fliall notice but very few that are not
to be found in this country.

Species.

A. All the Feelers JH'iform.

Aureus. Head, thorax, and (hells, covered with ferru-

finous down ; the abdomen is black, with cinereous bands,
t is found in Slam.

* HiRTUS. Hairy, black ; thorax and hind-part of the
abdomen yellow. Found in fandy (ituations, in this country,
and other parts of Europe.

* MuRlNUS. Pubefcent, cinereous, clouded ; abdomen
and legs deep black. It is found in this country, among
decayed carcafes and dimg. The (hells are blue, and po-
li(heQ beneath. The larva is fix-footed, naked, and of a
pale hue. The head and three fird fegments of the abdo-
men chefnut-brown ; tail with two jointed briltles, and a
cylindrical tubercle beneath.

* Olens. Black, opaque, immaculate ; head broader
than the thorax. This is an Englilh infeft, but found like-
wife in many parts of the European continent.

* Maxillosus. Pubefcent, black, with cinereous bands.
The jaws of this infeft are as long as the head ; the antennx
are dill longer ; the (hell covers one third of the abdomen ;
the legs end in fraall tufts of hair.

* Erythropterus. Black; (hells, bafe of the antennae,
and legs, are red ; the head and thorax are unpolilhed,
black ; (hells with two triangular fpots ; each fide is com-
pofed of a few gilded hairs.

* PoLiTus. Black ; thorax and (hells poli(hed ; thorax
with a line of impre(red dots. This infect, when firft
caught, fcatters a very fragrant odour.

* Brunnipes. Black ; legs, bafe and tip of the an-
tennx, ferruginous ; the antennas are black, the firll and two
laft joints are ferruginous ; the eyes are white.

Makginatus. Black ; fides of the thorax and legs are

S T A

yellow. It is fomething lefs than the S. politus, and of a
gloHy-black.

Alpinus. Black ; bafe of the antennsc, (hells, and legs,
livid. It inhabits the higheit mountains of Lapland, on the
birch. The body of this fpecies is more dcprelfed than is
the cafe with regard to others : the antennas are black, and
pale at the bafe ; the abdomen is black.

* Bi-PUSTULATus. Black ; (hells with a ferruginous
dot behind.

Bi-guttatus. Black ; fhells with a whitilh dot ; the
eye^ are prominent. It inhabits the (hores of the Baltic.

* FusciPES. Black ; thorax roundiih ; (hells and legs
piceous ; the body is fmall and thick ; the edges a little
blackilh.

* Atricapillus. Thorax rufous ; (liells brown, with
a white dot and hinder margin.

Sanguineus. Gibbous, black ; (hells fanguineous ;
antennae thicker towards the top. This is found chiefly m
France. The antennae are as long as the body ; the head is
rough ; the (hells are ilriate at the bafe ; legs yellowifli ;
thighs brown ; body fometimes chefnut-brown.

*Caraboides. Yellow, immaculate.

* RuGosus. Black ; thorax and (hells rugged. It is
larger tlian the next. The head is flat ; the thorax de-
prefled, with longitudinal wrinkles.

* PicEus. Black ; thorax deprefled, with three railed
lines ; the (hells are piceous.

Flavl's. Black ; edges of the thorax and (hells yellow ;
the latter with a brown fillet and outer margin ; antennx
and legs yellow.

Littoreus. Black ; (hells grey on the fore-part ; legs
rufous. It inhabits the fea-(hores.

B. Hind-feelers halchet-Jlmped. OxYPORUS.

* RuFUS. Rufous ; head and hind-part of the Ihells and
abdomen are black. It is found chiefly on fungi, in this
and other European countries.

* LuNULATus. Yellow ; (hells black, pale at the bafe
and tip. It inhabits Europe, on fungi. Head is black ;
the tip of the abdomen is marked with a white rmg.

* Merdarius,^ Black ; thorax and fhells rufous. It is
found in this and other European countries.

* Chrysomelinus. Black; thorax rufous; (hells tef-
taceou^, the margm at the bafe is black.

* Rufipes. Gloffy-black ; legs rufous. It is found in
the northern parts of Europe.

* Hypnorum. Glofly-black ; margin of the thorax,
(hells, and legs, teftaceous ; the body is black, glabrous,
and poliihed

* Margi.mellus. Gloffy-black; margins of the thorax
and fhells ferruginous. This is a very fmall infeft.

C. Fore-feelers cla-eate. P^flSDERUS.

* RiPARius. Rufous ; (hells blue ; the head and end of
the abdomen are blackifh. This is figured in Donovan's
Englilh Infefts.

* Klongatus. Hind-part of the fiiells and legs fulvous.
FulgesjCENs. Glofly-black ; (hells and ends of the legs

teftacet>us ; head (lightly puntlurcd. The head is marked
with numerous fmaU imprefled dots.

STAPH YLIS, a name given by fome authors to a fort
of cup, or boat, made for feeding young children, and con-
trived with a fpout in form of a grape or nipple.

STAPHYLODENDRON. See Staphvi:,;ea.

STAPHYLOMA, is the name given, in Surgery, to that
difeafe ot the eye, in which the cornea lofes its natural tranf-
parency, rifesi above its proper level, and even projefts be-

tweett

S T A

s r A

Iween the eye-lids, in the form of a whitlfli pearl-coloured
tumour, which is attended with total lof? o! fight.

The malady commonly refults from fome violent fpccies
of ophthalmy, particularly that which is termed purvlent,
and affefts children, and that which is confeqiient to the
fmall-pox. As Scarpa obferves, the itaphyloma is one of
the moft ferious dileales to which the eye-ball is fubjeft ;
for, to the total and irremediable lofs of fight, are added all
the evils which neceffarily refult from the protuberance of
the cornea in advanced cafes. The inability of clofiiig the
eye-lids, the expofure of the eye-ball to the contaft of the
air and extraneous matter lufpended in ir, tlic friflion of
the eye-lafhes againft the tumour, the incelTant flux of tears
down the fubjacent cheek, render the eye painful and in-
flamed ; fympathetically induce ophthalmy in the found
one; and caufe ulceration both on the difeafed part of the
eye, and on the lower eye-lid and cheek.

The opacity being irremediable, the onlj- furgical objeft
is to prevent the inconveniencies arifing from the pro-
tuberance of the difeafed cornea. In recent cafes, when
the tumour docs not projeft forward, it is bell to do nothing.
In inveterate cafes, the prominent part of the cornea mult
be cut off. Scarpa recommends doing the operation as far
from the conjunftiva as the cafe will allow. This eminent
iurgeon introduces a knife, like that ufed in the extraftion
of the catarad, completely acrofb the ftaphyloma, at the
dittance of one line and a half, or two lines, from the centre
of the tumour.

The lower half of the promir.ence is to be detached, by
pufhing the knife onwa'-d, till its edge comes imt through
the membrane below ; then the flap is to be turned up with
a pair of forceps, ad the incifion rendered completely cir-
cular with the lame biiloury. The aqueous humour, cryf-
talline lens, and fome of the vitreous humour, ufually efcape
immediately after the operation, and the eye conlequently
becomes fo diminifhcd as to allow the eye-lids to be (hut.
Ophthalmy and fuppuration of courfe fucceed. Emollient
poultices are now to be applied, until the violence of the in-
flammation has abated, the quantity of matter is diminiftied,
and the wound manifelts a difpofition to heal : then they
may be left off; and occafionally touching the fore with the
argentum nitratum, and applying a pledget over the eye,
will complete the cicatrization.

Mr. Ware thinks, that the portion of difeafed cornea,
taken away in the foregoing manner, is too diminutive to
allow the cryilalline lens to efcape, without bruifing the
iris; and that it fometimes does not prevent the eye from
becoming again dillended with an aqueous fiiiid. He has,
therefore, .idvifed the circular incifion of the cornea to be
made about a quarter of an inch from the junftion ot that
membrane with the fclerotica. Scarpa fuUe Malattie prin-
cipali degli Occhi. Ware in Tranf. of the Med. Society uf
London, vnl. i. art. 6. Cooper's Firlt Lines of Surgery.

STAPHYLOSIS, a protuberance or protrufion of the
choroid coat of the eye.

STAPIDACEUS Musculus, in jlnatomy, a name
riven by Duverney, Douglas, and many others, to the
mufcle of the (tapes of the ear, called by oXher% Jlapidis
mufculus, and by Albinus Jlapidium. See STAPEDIUS and
Ear.

STAPLE, Stapula, primarily fignifies a public place,
or market, whither merchants, &c. are obliged to bring
their goods to be bought by the people ; as the Grcve, or
the places along the Seine, for the wines and corns at Paris ;
whither the merchants of other parts are obliged to bring
thofe commodities.

VoUius and Menage derive the word from Jlaplus, which
i& found in the Ripuary laws, fignifying a place where juf-

tice is adminiftcrcd. Others derive it from the Germac
Jlaple, or \^3X'm Jlapula, which Boxhornius derives farther
from the German Jlapdcn, to put in a heap. Others again
have obferved, that the Engliih word ftaple is, in the civil
law Latin ityle of former times, Xermed Jlabile emporium,
i. e. a fixed port or mart for the importing of merchandize.
And hence probably, they fay, the contraftcd word Jlaple
(ufed, with fome Imall variation in the orthography, all
over Europe) had its derivation.

Staple alfo fignifies a city or tow», where merchants
jointly agree to carry certain commodities, as wool, cloth,
lead, tin, &c. in order to their beng commodioufly fold by
the great. In England, ilaples were fettled and appointed
to be conitaiitly kept in fevcral towns, to which places mer-
chants and traders were to carry goods to fell in thofe parts.
See Merchanis of the S taple.

The itaple commodities of England were chiefly wool,
leather, cloth, tin, lead, &c. ; though by ftaple goods are
now generally meant any proper faleable commodities, not
eafily fubjeft to perifh ; or fuch wares and merchandize at
are the natural and ufual produd or manufafture of any
city or country.

The ftaples in the Levant, called by the French efchclltt,
i. e. Jcales, are fuch cities where the Engliih, French,
Dutch, Italians, &c. have confuls, faftors, and magazines ;
and whither they fend veffels regularly each year. The
principal of thefe are Smyrna, Alexandretta, Aleppo,
Seyda, Cyprus, Sailee, Alexandria, Cairo, Tunis, Al-
giers, Tripoh, the Morea, Capdia, and the iflands of the
Archipelago. See Factory.

Staple, Law of the. See Law.

Staple, Merchants of the, in the Hijlory of Engli/h Com-
merce, a denomination given to the firft and molt ancient
commercial fociety in England, from their exporting the
ftaple wares of the kingdom, which were wool, fkins, lead,
and tin, in their rough ftate for manufaifturc. This fociety
is laid to have had its rife in the year 1248 ; and it appears
to have had the legal form of a corporation before the I 2th
year of Edward II. A.D. 1319; as there are records in
the pipe-ofRce of the Exchequer, which mention, that it was
aftually a corporation, with the title of the mayor and con-
ftables of the ilaple of England, who then had tlieir ftaple
at Antwerp, for conducing the faleof Englifh ftaple wares,
and the importation of fuch foreign goods as were wanted
at home. However, in 1328, by 2 Edw. III. cap. 9. it
was cna6ted, that the ftaples, on both Cdes of the fea,
(hould cealc, and that all merchant-ftrangers, &c. might go
and come with their merchandize into England, after the
tenor of the Great Charter. In 1336 the ftaple of wool
was again fixed in Brabant; in 1341, at Bruges; and in
1348, at Calais; whither, and to no other place, all mer-
chandize exported from England, Wales, and Ireland,
cither by denizens or aliens, were to be (hipped from Eng-
land and there knded. The cuftoms from this ftaple are faid
to have then amounted to upwards of 60,000/. ftcrling
yearly. Inl353, Edward I II. removed the ftaple of wool
from Bruges to Weftminller, Canterbury, Cluchefter,
Exeter, Wincheftcr, Briltol, Lincoln, York, Norwich,
Newcaftle, and Hull, for Engl.ind ; and to Dublin, Cork,
Waterford, and Drogheda, for Ireland. And it was
enaded by 27 Edward III. called \\k Jlatutc of the Jlaple,
that all ftaple wares" for exportation Ihould be firft broui;ht
to fome of thefe places only, where the cuftom (liould be
paid, and exported by merchant-ftrangers only, under an
oath not to hold any ftaple thereof beyond fea ; which pri-
vilege was extended by 31 Edward III. to denizens al(o.
Calais, however, ftill remained a ftaple.

In thefe ttaple-towni, ccurti of law-merchant were efta-
' bliftted.

S T A

blilhed, by the faid itatute, for determininfr all mercantile
affairs, and for puni(hing and amercing offtiide s. The
principal matters under the cognizance of thefe courts were
fuch as pertained to the five (laple commodities of England,
viz. wool and wool-fels or flieep-flcins, leather, lead, and
tin. From the year 1375, the Itaple of Weftminft.r feems
to have been removed to the place calL-d StapIe-lnn, in
Holborn ; when Calais, which hid been for many years a
principal ffaplc-port for dilpcrling, in more early times,
the Englidi wool, lead, and tin, and, in later times, the
Englifli' woollen manufaftuies, under the conduft of the
Merchant-Adventurers, into the inland countries of the
NetherlandF, France, and Germany , was loft to this country.
In 15S8, the flaple for wool, &c. was eftablifhcd at Bruges ;
and queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign, granted
a new charter of confirmation to the corporation of the
mayor and conftables of the ftaple of Englai-d, of all fuch
privileges as they did, might, or ought to have enjoyed be-
fore the lofs of Calais. However, king James 1., in i6o4.>
granted a new charter to the Merchant-y!?c/T'cn/«rfrj, (which
fee,) and in 1617, confirmed all theirformer powers and privi-
leges for trading to the Netherlands and to Germany, with
the woollen manufafturesof England, exclufively of all who
were not free of their company ; in confequence of which,
the merchants of the ftaple, who had before been declining,
by the manufafture and exportation of our woollen cloth,
were brought to ruin. And when at length it was judged
expedient to enaft a total prohibition of the exportation of
our wool, it is no wonder that the ftaplers' company (hould
become extinft. At this day they exift only in name ;
though they maintain the form of a corporation by annually
elefting the officers of their company, according to the di-
reftion of their ancient charters. Tliis nominal corporation
is kept up by thofe who deal in wool (Itill called wool-
ftaplers), and who, in their corporate capacity, poffefs a
fmall fum in the public funds, the mtereft of which lerves
to defray the expence of their meetings and elections. But
they never had a hall, or office of their own, withi:i the city
of London, like other trading companies, although the Inn
of Chancery in Holborn is fo denominated from their ware-
houfes, which were formerly fituated there ; as was alfo an
office and warehoufe of theirs, which, fince the ereftion of
the new bridge at Weftminfler, has lolt its place, as well as
name of wool-ftaple, at the upper part of Cannon-Row.
Anderfon's Hift. Com. vol. i. See Customs.

Staple, Statute. See Statute, and the preceding article.

Staple Articles of Food, in Agriculture, are all thofe
which are of a firm and folid nature, texture, and quality,
and which afford due fupport in the feeding and foddering
of all forts of domeftic animals of the live-ftock kind ; in
contradiftinftion to thofe which are of a watery acd lets
firm ftrufture and confiftence, that fupply nourifhment and
fupport to fuch animals in an inferior and lefs perfedl man-
ner ; as corn, hay, tares, and fome other fimilar forts of
food, in comparifon with thofe of the more futculent root
and grats kinds.

Staple of Land, a term fignifying the particular nature
and quality of it, in regard to the texture, confidence, and
compofition of its parts as a foil. In this way, there are
heavy or ftrong ftapled lands, thofe of a medium or mid-
dling Itaple, and light or thin ftapled lands, according as
the particles of the mouldy or powdery materials, of which
they are couftituted, may have more or lefs tenacity, ad-
hefive firmnefs, and fofidity among themfelves, and more or
lefs thicknefs. By this means, the differences in the ftaples
of lands, as foils, become of very material importance to
the farmer, as they fhew and teach him not only the nature
of the crops that may be grown upon them to the mol^

S T A

profit and advantage, and with the leaft danger, or greateft
chance of fuccefs, but the manner in which they may be
the motl beneficially and effeftually cultivated for the raifing
and producing of them. Belides, the differences in the
ftaples of lands, as foils, are the chief or principal means
by which the common farmer is able and capable of judg-
ing of, and deciding in refpeft to, the quahties of land as
farms, as well as of their nature and values in the view of
purchafing them. See Soil.

Staple, Iron, in Rural Economy, a fmall piece af iron,
in which the outward part is moftly either of the curved or
fquare form, having two long fharp ends, points, or prongs;
which are driven into wood or any other fimilar material.
Staples of this fort are very ufeful for many different pifr-
pofes about farms, as faftening gates, fecuring doors, and
many others of the fame nature.

Staples, or Keel-Staples, in Ship- Building, are generally
made of copper, from fix to twelve inches long, and about
one and a quarter inch broad, with a jagged hook at each
end, which are driven into the fides of the main and falfe
keels to faften them.

STAPLE-Rope, a term for ropes made of hemp not in-
ferior to clean Peterfburgh.

STAPLETON, Thomas, in biography, was born of
a good family at Henfield, in Suflex, in 1535. He was
educated partly at Canterbury and partly at Winchefter,
and was then entered of New college, Oxford, of which
he became a perpetual fellow. In the reign of queen Mary
he obtained a prebend of Chicheffer, but on the acceflron
of Elizabeth, his fleady attachment to the Roman Catholic
religion caufed him and his family to remove to Louvain.
Here he ftudied theology, and afterwards yifited Paris and
Rome. Returning to Louvain, he employed hinifelf in
writing books till 1572, when he was invited to Douayi
where Piiilip II. had founded an univerfity. After taking
the degree of doftor in theology, he was prefented to a
canonry in that town, and was made royal profeffor of the
holy fcriptures. A diftafte to the world induced him to
enter among the Jefuits, who fent him to Louvain. This
Ctiiation did not at all accord with his talle, and he returned
to the canonry of Douay, whence, in 1590, he was called to
occupy a royal profellorfhip at Louvain : he was afterwards
nominated to the deanery of Hilverbeck, near Bois-le-Duc, a
preferment of confiderable value, the profits of which placed
him in good circumftances. He had now acquired a high
reputation by his writings, which procured him an invita-
tion to Rome from pope Clement VIII. ; but he felt hira-
felf too old for fuch a change, and being befet with in-
firmities, he was led to decline the honour intended hiui.
He died in 1598, at the age of fixtythree. He was a very
voluminous writer, and his works, when collefted, formed
four volumes folio, which were printed at Paris in 1620.
They all relate to the principles and controverfies of the
Romifh religion, and the eulogies of its afiertors. One of
the molt known was entitled " Propugnaculum Fidei primi-
tivas Anglorum," which was tranllated into Englifh under
the title of Stapleton's " Fortrefs of Faith." He gave
an Englifti vcrfion of Bede's Church Hiftory.

STAPLING of Wool, in Rural Economy, the art or
procefs of iorting and adjufting its different properties and
qualities in the fame fleece, or in the whole quantity, fo as
that thofe of the fame kind, and which are proper for the
fame ufe and intention in the manufactures, may be put
together in the molt ufeful and appropriate manner.

The Highland Society of Scotland has lately offered a
premium for an effay on the belt mode of executing the
bufinefs, and the advantages that may be derived from it to
that country. See Wool.

STAPODIA,

8 T A

S T A

STAPODIA, nr The Brothfrt, in Geography, two iflets
fn the Grrcian Archipelago ; 6 milt-s E. of Mycone. N.
lat. 37' 32'. E. long. 36^42'.

STAPi'EN, a place of Iceland, farther along the coaft
towards the W. than Sradarltad (which fee) ; fituated on
the brow of a range cf curioufly columnar rocks, large in-
fiilated mafVe; of which tl^rd in the fea, i:i various lingular
fornr;. Stappen, like Bui^erftad, is a trading ftation, and
confilU of a merchant's houfe, two or three ftore-houfe=,
and a few cottages, inhabited by fifhermen. Trie coall in
the neighbourh od of Stappen is very remarkable ; prcfent-
ing, for an extent of about two miles, flriking and beau-
tiful columnar appearances, both in the cliffs which form
the (hore, and in the numerous infulated rock-: which appear
at different diltances from the land. The rantfcs of columns,
which m general are about 50 feet high, and perfectly re-
gular in their forms, are varioufly broken, in conlcquciice of
their expofure to the action of the f'a. In iome places
large caves have been formed ; and in two of thefe the light
is admitted by fiflures in the roof, producing a very fingn-
lar and llriking effeft. In general, the columns have a ver-
tical polition ; but in different places they are difpofed in
bundles upon one another in all diredfinns. In feveral in-
ftances they appear diverging from a centre ; and they af-
fume, in ftiort, every form wtiich fuch rocks can be ima-
gined to take. About a mile and a half W. of Stappen,
there is a curious perforated rock, forming a det.iched arch
of conCdera'jle magnitude, the view through which is fmgu-
larly pifturefque, comprehending in the foreground many
of the infulated mafles of columnar rock, and in the dif-
tance, the fine range of mountains which itretches along the
peninfula towards the ealt. On the beach at Stappen were
feveral fharks, that had been taken for the fake of the oil
of the liver, and the llcin. Of the fkin fhoes were made ;
and fome parts of the flefh were occalionally fmoked, and
ufed as food by the natives. But what they ef^.eem a de-
licacy, prefents a moil horrible odour to ilrangers. Mac-
kenzie's Travel? in Iceland.

STAR, Stella, in AJlrommy, a general name for all
the heavenly bodies.

I The liars are diftinguilhed, from the phenomena of their
motion, &c. into fixed and erratic.

Stars, Erratic, or Wandering, are thofe whofe diftances
and places, with regard to each other, are continually
changing. Thefe are what we properly call planets.
Though to the fame cUfs may likewife be referred what we
popularly call hlming liars, or comets.

Star.s, Fixed, called alfo, by way of eminence,_y?arj, are
thofe which have been generally obfcrved to keep the fame
diftance with regard to each other, or becaufe (except fome
few) they do not appear to have any proper motion of
their own.

The principal points that have come under the confider-
ation of allronomers concerning the fixed (tars, arc, their
dijlance, magnitude^ number, nature, and motion.

Stark, Diflance of the Fixed. The fixed liars are bodies
exceedingly remote from us ; indeed lo remote, that we have
no dillance in the planetary fyllem to compare to them.

Their immenfe dillance is argued hence, that they have
no fenfible parallax, that is, that the diameter of the earth's
orbit bears no fcnlible proportion to it ; but th'y arc f'-en
the very fame in all the points of it. M. Hnygcns (Cof.
raotheor. lib. iv.) attempts to determine the diflaixe of the
flars, by making the aperture of a telefcope fo fm.ill, at
that the fun through it appears no bigger th.n Sirins.
In this ftate he found the fun's diameter to be as i to 27.664
of hie diameter, when fcen with the naked eye. Were the

fun's diftance, then, 27,664 times as great as it is, it would
be feen of the fame diameter with Sirius ; fo that, allowiag
Sirius to be equal in magnitude with the fun (which is a
very reafonable fuppofition), the dillance of Sirius from
the earth will be found to be to that of the fun from tlie
earth, as 27,66410 1. On which principle, Sirius will be
657,020,000 fcraidiameters of the earth diflant from our
earth.

Mr. Jamec Gregory invefligated the diftance of Sirius,
by fuppofing it of the fame magnitude with the fun, and
of the fame diameter with .Jupiter in oppofition, as may be
feen at large in Gregory's Aflr. lib. iii. prop. 47. ^

CafTini (Mem. de I'Acad. aim. 1717), from comparing
Jupiter and Sirius, when viewed through the fame tele-
fcope, inferred, that the diameter of that planet was ten
times as great as that of the liar ; aid the diameter of Ju-
piter being 50", he concluded that the diameter of Sirius was
about 5" ; luppofing then that Sirius is equal to the fun in
magnitude, and the di'tance of the fun from iis to be about
10,000 diameters of the earth, and the apparent diameter
of Sirius being to that of the fun as i to 384, the dillance
of Sirius from the earth becomes equal to 3,840,000 dia-
meters of the earth.

Thefe methods of Gregory, Huygens, and Caflini, are
conjedtural and precarious, becaule they fuppofe that the
fun and Sirins are equal in magnitude, and principally be-
caufe they take it for granted, that the diameter of Sirius
is determined with fuflicient exadlnefs.

Mr. Micliell has propofed an enquiry into the probable
parallax and magnitude of the fixed flars, from the quan-
tity of light which they affi.rd us, and the particular cir-
cumltances of their fituation. With this view he fuppofes,
that they are, at a medium, equal in magnitude and natural
bngiitnefs to the fun ; and then proceeds to enquire what
would be the parallax of the fun, if he were to be removed
fo far from us, as to make the quantity of the light, which
we fhnuld then receive from him, no more than equal to that
of the fixed liars. Accordingly, he aflumes Saturn in op-
pofition, exclufivrly of his ring, (and when the earth and
this planet are at their mean diltaiicet from the fun,) as equal,
or nearly equal, in light to the mod luminous fixed liar.
As the mean dillance of Saturn from the fun is equal to
about 20S2 of the fun's femidiameter«, the denfity of the
fun's light at Saturn will confequently be lefs than at hit
own furface, in the proportion of the fquare of 2082 (or
4,334,724) to I. If Saturn, therefore, was to refleft all
the light that falls upon him, he would be lefs luminous in
the fame proportion ; and, befides, his apparent diameter,
in oppofition, is at moll but 105th part of that of the fun,
and, confequently, the quantity of light which we receive
from him, muft. be again diminilhed in the proportion of
the fquare of 105 (or 11,0251 to i. By nuiltiplying thefe
two numbers together, we (hall have the whole of the light
of the fun to that of Saturn, as the fquare of nearly
220,000 (or 48,400,000,000) to I : and removing the fun
to 220,000 times its prefent dillance, he would llill appear
.It leall 3s bright as Satnrn, and his whole parallax upon
the diameter of the earth's orbit would be lefs than 2":
a"d this mull be aMunied for the parallax of the brighteft
of the fixed liars, upon the fuppofition that their hght does
not exceed that of Saturn.

By a finnlar computation it may be found, that the dif-
tance at which the fun would afford us as much light a«
we receive from Jupiter, is not lefs than 46 000 times his
jir'-fent dillance, and his whole parallax m that calc, upon
the diameter of the earth's orbit, would not be more than
9"; the hght of Jupiter and Saturn, as feen from the

earth,

STARS.

earth, being in the ratio of about 22 to i, when they are
both in oppofition, and fuppofiniT them to refled equally
in proportion to the whole of the light that falls upon them.
But if Jupiter and Saturn, inftead of reflecting the whole of
the light that falls upon them, (hould really refleft only a
part of it, e. g. a fourth or a fixth, which may be the cafe,
their diftances, computed above, muft be increafed in the
proportion of 2 or 2i to l, to maice the fun's light no more
than equal to their's ; and his parallax would be lefs in
the fame proportion. Suppofmg, then, that the fixed liars
are of the fame magnitude and brightnefa with the fun, it
is no wonder that their parallax (hould hitherto have efcaped
obfervation ; fince, if this is the cafe, it could hardly
amount to 2", and probably not more than i" in Sinus
himfelf, though he had been placed in the pole of the eclip-
tic ; and in thofe that appear much lefs luminous, e. g.
y Draconis, which is only of the third magnitude, it could
hardly be expefted to be fenfible with fuch inftruments as
have hitherto been ufed. However, Mr. Michell fuggelU,
that it is not imprafticable to conitruft inftruments, capable
of dillinguilhing even to the 20th part of a fecor.d, pro-
vided the air will admit of that dcgrfee of exaftnefs. This
ingenious writer apprehends, that the quantity of light
which we receive from Sirius, does not exceed the light
which we receive from the leall fixed ftars of the fixth mag-
nitude, in a greater proportion than that of 1000 to i, nor
in a lefs proportion than that of 400 to i ; and the fmaller
ftars of the fecond magnitude feem to be about a mean pro-
portional between the other two. Hence, the whole paral-
lax of the lead fixed Itars of the fixth magnitude, fuppofing
them of the fame fize and native bignefs v/ith the fun,
ftiould be from about 2"' to 3"', and their dillance from
about eight to twelve million times that of the fun : and
the parallax of the fmaller ftars of the fecond magnitude,
upon the fame fuppofition, (hould be about 12'", and their
dirtance about two million times that of the fun.

This author farther fuggefts, that, from the apparent
fituation of the ftars in the heavens, there is the higheft
probability (the odds againft the contrary opinion being
many million millions to one) that the ftars are coUefted
together in clufters in fome plactc, where they form a kind
of fyftem, whilft in others there are either few or none of
them, whether this difpofition be owing to their mutual
gravitation, or to fome other law or appointment of the
Creator. Hence it may be inferred, that fuch double
ftars, &.C. as appear to confill of two or more ftars placed
very near together, do really confift of ftars placed near
together, and under the influence of fome general law: and
he proceeds to inquire, whether, if the ftars are collefted
into fyftems, the fun does not likewife make one cf fome
fyftem, and which are thofe, among the fixed ftars, that
belong to the fame fyftem with himfelf.

Thofe ftars, he apprehends, which are found in clufters,
and furrounded by many others at a fmall diltance from
them, belong probably to other fyftems, and not to ours.
And thofe (iars which are furrounded with nebulae, are
probably only very great ftars, which, on account of their
luperior magnitude, are fingly vifible ; while the others,
which compofe the remaining part of the fame fyftem, are
fo fmall as to efcape our fight. And thofe nebulae in
which we can difcover either none or only a few ftars, even
•with the afliitance of the beft telefcopes, are probably fyf-
tems that are ftill more diftant than the reft.

For other particulars of this inquiry, we muft refer to
Phil. Tranf, vol, Ivii. art. 27. p. 234, &c.

As the diftance of the fixed ftars is beft determined by
ilteir parallax, various roetheds have been purfued, hitherto

without fuccefs, for inveftigating it ; and the refult of the
moft accurate oblervations has given us little more than a
diftant approximation, from which we may conclude, that
the neareli of the fixed ftars cannot be lefs than 40,000
diameters of the whole annual orbit of the earth diftant
from us.

Tne method pointed out by Galileo, and firft attempted
by Hooke, Flamltead, Mulineux, and Bradley, of taking
diftances of Itars from the zenith that pafs very near it,
has given us a much jufter idea of the iramenfe diftance of
the ftars, and fiirnilhcd us with an approximation to the
knowledge of their parallax, that is much nearer the truth
than we ever had before.

Dr. Bradley aflures us (Phil. Tranf. N° 406, or Abr.
vol. vi. p. 162.), that, if it had amounted to a fingle fecond,
or two at moft, he (hould have perceived it in the great
number of obfervations which he made, cfpecially upon
y Draconis ; and that it feemed to him very probable, that
the annual parallax of this (tar is not fo great as a fingle
fecond, and confequer.tly, that it is above four hundred
thoufand times farther from ;;s than the fun.

But Dr. Herfchel, to whofe ingenuity and induftry in
exploring the heavens aftronomy is already m.uch indebted,
and from whom much more may be expedled, remarks, that
the inftrument ufed on this occafion, being the fame with
the prefent zenith feftors, can hardly be allowed fufBcienl
to (hew an ancfle of one or even two feconds with accuracy :
and befides, the (lar on which the obfervations were made,
is only a bright ftar of the third or fmall ftar of the fecond
magnitude ; and, therefore, its parallax is probably confi-
derably lefs than that of a ftar of the firft magnitude : fo
that we are not warranted in inferring that the parallax
of the ftars in general does not exceed i", whereas thofe
of the firft magnitude may have, notwithftanding the refult
of Dr. Bradley's obfervations, a parallax of feveral feconds.

Moreover, the method of zenith diftances is liable to
confiderable errors, on account of refraftion, the change of
pofition of the earth's axis arifing from nutation, precefTion
of the equinoxes, and other caufcs, and the aberration of
light.

Dr. Herfchel has propofed another method, by means of
double ftars, which is free from thefe errors, and of fuch a
nature, that the annual parallax, even if it (hould not ex-
ceed the tenth part of a fecond, may ftill become vifible
and be afcertaincd, at leaft to a much greater degree of ap-
proximation than it ever has been done. This method,
which was firft propofed in an imperfetl manner by Galileo,
and has been alio mentioned by other authors, is capable of
every improvement which the telefcope and mechanifin of mi-
crometers can furnifli. In order to obtain a general idea of
it, let O, E, (P/ateXX. JJronomy, fg. 8.) be two oppo-
fite points of the annual orbit, taken in the fame plane
with two ftars a, b, of unequal magnitudes. Let the angle
aO bhe obferved when the earth is at O, and a E 3 be ob-
ferved when the earth is at E. From the difference of thefe
angles, if there (hould be any, we may calculate the paral-
lax of the ftars, according to the theory fubjoined. Thefe
two ftars ought to be as near each other as poffible, and alfo
to differ as much in magnitude as we can find them.

Dr. Herfchel's theory of the annual parallax of double
ftars, wnth the method of computing from thence what is
generally called the parallax of the fixed ftars, or of fingle
ftars of the firft magnitude, fuch as are neareft to us, fuppofes,
frji, that the ftars, one with another, arc about the fize of
the fun : and, Jecondly, that the difference of their apparent
magnitudes is owing to their different diftances, fo that the
ftar of the fecond, third, or fourth magnitude, is two, three,

or

STARS.

or four times as far off as one of the firft. Tliefe principles,
which he premifes as pollukta, hare fo great a probability
in their favour, that they will hardly be objefted to by thofe
who are the leaft acquainted with the doftrine of chances.
See Mr. Michell's Inquiry, &c. already cited. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ivii. p. 234. 236, 237. 240. And Dr. Halley on the
Number, Order, and Light of the Fixed Stars. Phil.
Tranf. vol. xxxi. or Abr. vol. vi. p. 148.

Accordingly, let O E (PIaU\X. yljlronomy. Jig. 9.) be
the whole diameter of the earth's annual orbit ; and let a, b, c,
be three ftars fituated in the ecliptic, in fuch a manner,
that they may be feen all in one line O abc, when the earth
is at O. Let the line O j^<: be perpendicular to O E, and
draw P E parallel to <: O : then, if O a, ab, b c, are equal
to each other, a will be a ftar of the firll magnitude, b of
the fecond, and c of the third. Let us now fuppofe the
angle O a E, or parallax of the whole orbit of the earth, to

When the flars are any where out of the ecliptic, fituated
fo as to appear in one line Oabc perpendicular to O E, the

maximum of parallax will ftill be exprelled by — ^^ P ;

M m
but there will arife another additional parallax in the con-
junftion and oppofition, which will be to th.u which is found
90" before or after the fun, as the fine (S) of the latitude
of the ilars feen at O is to the radius (R) ; and the effeft
of this parallax will be divided into two parts ; half of it
lying on one fide of the large liar, the other half on the
other fide of it. This latter parallax, moreover, will be
compounded with the former, fo that the diftance of the
itars in the cor.junftion and oppofition will then be repre-
fented by the diagonal of a parallelogram, of which the two
femi-parallaxes are the fides ; a general expreffion for which

be i" of a degree ; then we have P E a = O a E = 1": and ^^'^^ ^^
becaufe very fmall angles, having the fame fubtenfe O E,
may be taken to be in the inverfe ratio of the lines O a,
Ob, Oc, &c. we fhall have ObE= i", OcE = \", &c.
Now when the earth is removed to E, we (hall have P E ^ =
EbO = i", andPEa-PEi5=aEi = i": ;. e. the ftars
a, b, will appear to be i" diftant. We alfo have P Ec = E<rO
= ;", and PEa- PEf = aE,: = 4"; i.e. the ftars a, ::,
will appear to be >" diftant, when the earth is at E. Now,
fince we have i E P = i", and <r E P = -!", therefore bEP
~cEP = bEc = :^"- 5" = i-"; ;, e. the ftars b, c, will
appear to be only ^" removed from each other, when the
earth is at E. Whence we may deduce the following ex-
preffion, to denote the parallax that will become vifible in
the change of diftance between the two ftars, by the removal
of the earth from one extreme of its orbit to the other. Let
P exprefs the total parallax of a fixed ftar of the firft mag-
nitude, M the magnitude of the largeft of the two ftars, m
the magnitude of the fmalleft, and p the partial parallax to
be obferved by the change in the diftance of a double ftar ;

then will p = --:^ P ; and /, being found by obferva-

M

+ '

for the ftars will ap-

SS

2mM ^1 ^ RR

parcntly defcribe two ellipfes in the heavens, whofe tranf-
verfe axes will be to each other in the ratio of M to m
i^S- '°-) ^"'i A J, B b, C c, D (/, will be contemporary
fituations. Now, if i Q be drawn parallel to A C, and
the parallelogram b gB Q be completed, we (hall have b Q
= ^CA — ^ca— ^Cc — i/, or femi-parallax 90° before
or after the fun, and Bi may be refolved into, or is com-
pounded of, b Q and b q ; but b q = l^H — ^b d = the
femi-parallax in the coiijunclion or oppofition. We alfo

have R : S :

:^Q:^? = J|;

therefore the diftance B b (or

D </J = \/ Jl\ -f- ^ ; and by fubftituting the value

of ^ into this expreffion, we obtain

tion, will give us P :=

pM>

-M

E. gr. Suppofe a ftar of the firft magnitude ftiould have
a fmall ftar of the twelfth magnitude near it : then will the

partial parallax we are to expeft to fee be , or

12 — I

44th of the total parallax of a fixed ftar of the firft magni-
tude ; and if we ftiould, by obfervation, find the partial
parallax between two fuch ftars to amount to 1", we (hall

I X I X 1 2

have the total parallax P = = i".o909. If the

ftars are of the third and twenty-fourth magnitudes, the par-

24. — ^ 21

tJal parallax will be — = — P : and if, by obfervation,

3 X 24 72

p is found to be a tenth of a fecond, the whole parallax will

I X ^ X 24.
come out 5 ~ =©".3428.

*4 ~ 3

Farther, fuppofe the ftars, being ftill in the ecliptic, to
appear in one line, when the earth is in any other part of its
orbit between O and E ; then will the parallax ((ill be cx-
prefled by the fame algebraic formula, and one of the maxima
will ftill lie at O, the other at E : but the whole efleft will
be divided into two parts, which will be in proportion to
each other as radius — fine to radius -f- fine of the ftars'
diftance from the nearcit coniuodion or oppofition.

Vol. XXXin.

^RR+''

as above. When the ftars are in the pole of the ecliptic,
b q will become equal to b Q, and B b will be .7071 P

-j-j — . Again, let the ftars be at fome diftance, e. g. 5",

from each other, and let them both be in the ecliptic. This
cafe is refolvable into the firft ; for imagine the ftar a
(fg. 1 1 .) to ftand at .r, and in that fituation the ftars x, b, c,

will be in one line, and their parallax exprefl'ed by -^ — P.

But the angle aE x may be taken to be equal to a O x ;
and as the foregoing formula gives us the angles .r E b,
X E c, we are to add a E x or j" to xEb, and we (hall have
aEb. In general, let the diftance of the ftars be d, and
let the obferved diftance at E be D ; then will D = //-)- /,
and therefore the whole parallax of the annual orbit will be

_.. DMm-JMm
t'xpreflcd by ry- — = "•

'^ ' m — M

Suppofe the two ftars now to differ only in latitude, one
being in the ecliptic, the other, e.g. 5" north, when feen at
O. This cafe may alfo be refolved by the foimer ; for
imagine the ftars b, c, {Jig. 9.) to be elevated at right angles
above the plane of the figure, fo that aO b, or aO c, may
make an angle of 5" at,0 ; then inftcad of the lines Ojbc,
Ea, Eb, Ef, E P, imagine them all to be planes at right
angles to the figure ; and it will appear, that the parallax
of the ftari in longitude inuft be the Came as if the (iiiall ftar
had been without latitude. And fince the H.vs b, c, by the
motion of the earth from O to E, will not cliaiii;e their lati-
tude, we (hall have Uic following conllxuttiuu tor finding
5 C the

STARS.

the diftance of the ftars at, ac, at E, and from thence the
parallax P. Let the triangle a b i [Phte XX. jlftroncmy,
fg. 12.) reprcfent the fituation of the ilars ; a ^ is the fub-
tenfe of 5", the angle under which they are to be feen at O.

■M

The quantity ^/3 by the former theorem is found "Vv— - P>

^hich is the partial parallax that would have been feen by
the earth's moving from O to E, if both ftars had been in
the ecliptic ; but on account of the difference in latitude, it
will be now reprefented by a, 3, the hypothenufe of the tri-
angle ab^: therefore in general, putting ab = d, and a ,3

= D, we have

s/^^^

dd X Mto

= P.

Hence, D
given, we

m — M
being taken by obfervation, and d, M, and
obtain the total parallax.

If the fituation of the ftars differs in longitude as well as
latitude, we may refolve this cafe by the following method.
Let the triangle ab ^ [Plate XX. AJlromrr.y, fi^. 13.) repre-
fent the fituation of the ftars, ab — d being their diftance
Veen at O, a S 1= D their diftance feen at E. Tii?.t the
change 3,3, which is produced by the earth's motion, will

be truly exprefted by — j^-j P, may be proved as before,

by fuppofing the ftar a to have been placed at a. Now let
the angle of pofition ba-j. be taken by a micrometer, or
by any other method fufficiently exaft ; then, by folving
the triangle a ix, we fhall have the longitudinal and lati-
tudinal diff^erenccs a » and ^ a of the two ftars. Put a a
1^ X, h a. =:i y, and it will be .v -f i ;3 = a q, whence D =:

* +

M

M;

P + >.^ ; and

/D^-^

xM

cM>

M

sf

If neither of the ftars (hould be in the ecliptic, nor have
the fame longitude or latitude, the laft theorem will ftiU
ferve to calculate the total parallax whofe maximum will lie
in E. There will, moreover, arife another parallax, whofe
maximum will be in the conjunftion and oppofition, which
will be divided, and lie on different fides of the large ftar ;
but as we know the whole parallax to be exceedingly fmall.
It will not be necellary to mveftigate every particular cafe of
this kind ; for, by reafon of the divifion of the parallax,
which render^ obfervr.tions taken at any other time, except
where it is greateft, very unfavourable, the forixuili would
be of httle ufe. Dr. Herfchel clofes his account of this
theory with a general obfervation on the time and place
where the maxima of parallax will happen.

When two unequal ftars are both in the ecliptic, or, not
being in the ecliptic, have equal latitudes, north or fouth,
and the largelt ftar has moft longitude, the maximum of the
apparent diftance will be when the fun's longitude is 90°
more than the ftars, or when obferved in the morning : and
the minimum when the longitude of the fun is 90^ lefs than
that of the ftar, or when obferved in the evening. When
the fmall ftar has moft longitude, the maximum and mini-
mum, a!' well as the time of obfervation, will be the revcrfe
of the former. When the ftars differ in latitude, this makes
110 alteration in the place of the maximum or minimum, nor
in the time of obfervation ; i. e. it is immaterial whether the
largeft ftar has the leaft or the greateft latitude of the two
ftars. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxii. parti, art. 11.

The diftance of the ftar y Draconis appears by Dr. Brad-
ley's obfervations, already recited, to be at leaft four hun-
dred thoufand times that of the fun, and the diftance of the
jieareft fixed ftar not lefs than forty thoufaad diameters of

the earth's annual orbit : i. e. the former is diftant from ih<"
earth at leaft 38,000,000,000,000 miles, and the latter not
lefs than 7,600,000,000,000 miles. As thefe diftances are
immenfely great, it may not be unamufing to compare them
with the velocity of fome moving body by which they may be
meafured.

The fwifteft motion we know of is that of light, (fee
Light,) which pailes from the fun to the earth in eight
minutes thirteen feconds, and yet this would be above fix
years traverfing the firft fpace, and nearly 1^ year in palling
from the neareil fixed ftar to the earth. A cannon-ball dif-
charged from a twenty-four pounder, with two-thirds its
weight of powder, which moves at the rate of about nineteen
miles in a minute (fee Gun), would be three million eight
hundred thoufand years pafTmg from y Draconis to the earth,
and feven hundred and fixty thoufand years pafling from the
neareft fixed ftar. Sound, which moves at the rate of about
thirteen miles in a minute, would be five million fix hundred
thoufand years traverfing the former diftance, and one mil-
lion one hundred and twenty thoufand palling through the
latter.

The- celebrated Huygens purfued fpcculations of this
kind fo far, as to believe it not impoflible, that there may be
ftars at fuch ir.conceivable diftances, that their light has not
yet reached the earth fince its creation.

Dr. Halley has alfo advanced, what he fays (Phil. Tranf.
No. 364. or Abr. vol. vi. p. 41 8. ) feems to be a metaphys-
eal paradox, "oiz.. that the number of fixed ftars muft be
more than any finite number, and fome of them more than
at a finite diftance from others : and Mr. Addifon has juftly
obferved, that this thought is far from being extravagant,
when we confider that the univerfe is the work of infinite
power, prompted by infinite gooduefs, having an infinite
ipace to exert itfelf in ; fo that our imagination can fet no
bounds to it.

Stai(.s, The Magnitudes of the Fixed, appear to be very
different, which difference may probably arife, not only
from a divcrfity in their real magnitudes, but principally
from their diftances, which are different.

The ftars appear of a fenfible magnitude to the bare eye,
bccaufe the retina is affected not only by the rays of light
which are emitted direftly from thcin, but by many thou-
fands more, which, fallii.g upon our eye-lids, and upon the
aerial particles about us, are reflected into our eyes fo
ftrongly, as to excite vibrations, not only in thofe points of
the retina where the real images of the ftars are formed, but
alfo in other points at fome diftance round about. This
makes us imagine the Itars to be much bigger than they
would appear, if we faw them only by the few rays which
come direiflly from them, fo as to enter our eyes without
being intermixed with others.

Any one may be fenlible of this by looking at a ftar of
the firfl magnitude through a long narrow tube, which,
though it takes in as much of the fky as would hold a thou-
fand fuch ilars, fcarcely renders that one vifible.

The more a telefcope magnifies, the lefs is the aperture
through which the ftar is feen, and confequently the fewer
rays it admits into the eye. Since, therL-fore, the ftars ap-
pear lefs in a telefcope which magnifies 200 times, than they
do to the bare eye, infomuch that they feem to be only indi-
vifible points, we may infer that they are at immenfe dif-
tances from us, and alfo that they fhine by their own proper
light. If they fhone by borrowed light, they would be as
invifible without telefcopes as the fatellites of Jupiter are :
for thefe fatellites appear bigger when viewed with a good
telefcope than the largeft fixed ftars do.

The liars, on account of their apparently vai-ious mag-
I nitudcs.

STARS.

iiiludes, have been diftributed into feveral clafles, called
magnitudes.

The fii-ft clafs, or ftars of the firft magnitude, are thofe
which appear largeft, and may probably be neareft us.
Next thefe, are thofe of the fecond magnitude, and fo on to
the fixth, which comprehends the fmalleil ftars vifible to the
naked eye. All beyond thefe are called tehfcopic ftars. Not
that all the ftars of each clafs appear juftly of the fame
magnitude ; there is great latitude in this refpeft ; and thofe
of the firll magnitude appear almoft all different in luftre
and fize. Other ftars there are, of intermediate magnitudes,
which aftronomers cannot refer to one rather than another
clafs, and therefore they place them between the two.

Procyon, for inftance, which Ptolemy makes of the firft
magnitude, and Tycho of the fecond, Mr, Flamftead lays
down as between the firft and fecond.

Thus, intlead of fix feveral magnitudes, we may fay there
are almoft as many orders of ftars as there are ftars ; fuch a
difference being obfervable in the magnitude, colour, and
brightnefs of them.

Whatever room there may be to hope, that we may fome
time or other be able to difcover the parallax of a few
among the fixed ftars, yet at the fame time it feems probable,
that we ftiall never be able to difcover any fenfible magni-
tude in their apparent diameters, which, even in Sirius, if
his native brightnefs is not lefs than that of the fun, muft
be confiderably lefs, whatever be his parallax, than the hun-
dredth, probably than the two hundredth part of a fecond ;
£b that it could fcarcely be diftinguiftiable with a telefcope,
upon the former fuppofition, that iliould magnify fix, or,
upon the latter, with one that fhould magnify twelve thou-
fand time?. Nor can we well expect to find their apparent
diameters from any occultation by the moon, fince the dia-
meter of a hundredth part of a fecond would be covered by
the moon, if it entered direftly, in lefs than the fiftieth part
of a fecond of time, and, therefore, a Itar can hardly enter fo
obliquely, as to appear to vanifti by degrees ; no ftar, pro-
bably, which the moon can pafs over, fubtcnding an angle
half fo great. Nor is it likely there can any thing be deter-
mined from occultations by any of the planets. And,
therefore, there feems to be little chance of difcovering with
certainty the real fize of any of the fixed ftars, and we muft
be content to deduce it from their parallax (if that fhould
ever be found) and the quantity of light which they afford
us, compared with that of the fun. Dr. Herfchel, however,
informs us, that with a magnifying power of 6.1.50, and by
means of his new micrometer, he found the apparent diameter
of a Lyrx to be o".355.

The ftars are likewife diftin^iiiflied, with regard to their
fituation, into njlerifms, or conjiellutwtis, which arc nothing
'but aflemblages of feveral neighbouring ftars, confidcrcd
as conftitutingfome determinate figure, as of an animal, &c.
and denominated from it ; a divifion as ancient as the
book of Job, in which we find mention of Orion, and the
Pleiades, &c. See Constkllation.

Befides the ftars thus dilliiiguiflicd into magnitudes and
conftellations, there are others not reduced to cither. Thofe
not reduced into couftcllations, arc called informa, (which
fee,) or unformed Jlars ; of which kind feveral, fo left at
large by the ancients, have been fince formed into new con-
fteliations by the modern aftronomers ; as Cor Caroli, by
Dr. Halley ; Senium Sobiefci, by Hcvelius, &c.

In defcribing the particular ftars, it will be moft conve-
nient to begin with fuch as never fet in our climates, and we
may then refer the fituations of others to their pofitionswith
refpeft to thefe.

The Great Bear is the moft confpicuous of the conftella-

tions which never fet ; it confifts of fevfn ftars, placed Lke
the four wheels of a waggon, and its three horfes, except
that the horfes are fixed to one of the wheels. The two
hind-wheels are the pointers, which direft us to the pole-
ftar, in the extremity of the tail of the Little Bear : and fur-
ther on, to the conftellation Cafliopeia, which is fituated in
the milky way, where it is neareft to the pole, and which
confifts of feveral ftars, nearly in the form of the letter W.
The two northernmoft wheels of the Great Bear, or wain,
point at the bright ftar Capella, the goat, in Auriga. De-
fcending along the milky way from CafTiopeia, if we go to-
wards Capella, we come to Algenib, in Perfeus ; and a little
further from the pole we find Algol, or Medufa's head : but
if we take the oppofite direftion, we arrive at Cygnus, the
fwan ; and beyond it, a little out of the milky way, is the
bright ftar Lyra. The Dragon confifts of a chain of ftar*
partly furrounding the Little Bear ; and between Caffiopeia
and the Swan is the conftellation Cepheus.

Near Algenib, and pointing directly towards it, are two
flars of Andromeda, and a third is a little beyond them. A
line drawn through the Great Bear and Capella paffes to the
Pleiades, and then, turning at a right angle towards the
milky way, reaches Aldebaran, or the bull's eye, and the
flioulders of Orion, who is known by his belt, confifting of
three ftars, placed in the middle of a quadrangle. Alde-
baran, the Pleiades, and Algol, make the upper, and Men-
kar, or the whale's jaw, with Aries, the lower points of a W.
In Aries we obfcrve two principal ftars, one of them with a
fmaller attendant.

A line drawn from the pole, midway between the Great
Bear and Capella, pafies to the Twins and to Procyon ; and
then, in order to reach Sirius, it muft bend acrofs the milky
way. Algol and the Twins point at Regulus, the lion's
heart, which is fituated at one end of an arch, with Dene-
bola at the other end.

The pole-ftar and the middle horfe of the wain direct us
to Spica Virginis, confiderably diftant : the pole and the
firft horfe nearly to Ardlurus, in the waggoner, or Boote».
Much further fouthwards, and near the milky way, is
Antares, in the Scorpion, forming, with Ardlurus and Spica,
a triangle, within which are the two ftars of Libra. The
Northern crown is nearly in a line between Lyra and Arc-
turus, and the heads of Hercules and Serpentarius are be-
tween Lyra and Scorpio.

In the milky way, below the part neareft to Lyra, and on
a line drawn from ArClurus through the head of Hercules,
is Aquila, making with Lyra and Cygnus a confpicuous
triangle. The laft of the three principal ftars in Andronuda
makes, with three of Pegafus, a fquare, of which one of the
fides points to Fomalhaut, fituated at a confiderable diftance
in the fouthcrn fifli, and in the neighbourhood of the whale,
which has already been mentioned.

By means of thefe allineations, all the principal ftars that
are ever vifible in Britain may beeafily recognifid. Of tiiole
which never rife above our horizon, there are feveral of the
firft magnitude ; Canopus, in the fliip Argo, and Achernar,
in the river Eridanus, arc the moft brilliant of them ; the
feet of the Centaur, and the Crofier arc the next ; and, ac-
cording to Humboldt's obfcrvations, perhaps fome others
may require to be admitted into the fame clafs.

Thole ftars not reduced to clad'es or magnitudes, are called
nebulous ftars, being fuch as only appear faintly in clufters,
in form of little lucid nebul*?, or clouds. See Ni;hl i-.t:.

Ptolemy fets down five cloudy ilar , viz. one at the ex-
tremity of the right hand of IVrfeus, which appears, tiimugh
the telefcope, thickly fet wi'h ftars ; one in the middle of the
Crab, called Prxfepe, or the Manger, in which Galileo
5 C 2 counted

STARS.

counted above forty ftais ; one unformed near the fting of
the Scorpion ; the eye of Sagittarius, in which two ftars may
be feen in a clear fky with the naked eye, and feveral more
with the telefcope ; and one in the head of Orion, in which
Gahleo counted twenty-one ftars.

Flamitead obferved a cloudy itar before the bow of Sagit-
tarius, which confifts of a great number of fmall ftars, and
the ftar d above Sagittarius's right ftioulder is encompalled
with feveral more.

Caflini and Fiamftead difcovered one between the Great
and Little Dog, which is very full of ftars, vifible only by
the telefcope.

But the moll i-emarkable of all the cloudy ftars is that in
the middle of Orion's fword, in wliich Huygens, and fince
Dr. Long, obferved twelve ftars, feven of which (three of
them, now known to be four, being very clofe together)
feem to fhine through a cloud, very lucid near the middle,
but faint and ill-defined about the edges. (See Galaxy,
Magellanic Clouds, and Lucid Spots.) Caflini is of
opinion, that the brightnefs of thefe proceeds from ftars fo
minute, as not to be diftinguiftiedby the beft glafles : others
more probably think, they are large fpaces in the ether
through which a lucid medium is difiufed. Although moft
of thefe fpaces are but a few minutes of a degree in breadth,
yet, fince they are among the fixed ftars, they are probably
fpaces not lefs than our whole folar fyftem ; \n which there
feems to be a perpetual uninterrupted day, which may fur-
nifti matter of fpeculation, as well to the curious naturalift,
as to the aftronomer.

There are alfo feveral ftars which appear fingle to the
naked eye, but are difcovered by the telefcope to be double,
&c. Of thefe feveral have been obferved by Caflini, Hooke,
Long, Ma&elyne, Hornfby, Pigott, Mayer, &c. ; but Dr.
Herfchel has been much the moft fuccefsful in obfervations
cf this kind. Befides the (kill and induftry by which he is
no lefs diltinguifhed than other aftronomers who have been
employed in celeftial obfervations, his fuccefs has been
chiefly owing to the very extraordinary magnifying powers
of the Newtonian feven-feet refleftor which he has ufed, and
the advantage of an excellent micrometer of his own con-
llruflion. The powers which he has ufed have been 146,
227, 278, 460, 754, 932, 1 159, 1536, 2010, 3168, and even
6450. His obfervations appear to commence with the year
1776, but almoft all of them were made in the years 1779,
1780, 1781 ; and they have been fince continued with the
fame fkill and general afliduity. For the refult, we refer to
the articles Double Stars, Galaxy, Heavens, Nebula,
Nebulosity, and the fequcl of this article.

Star, Double, or a Binary Sidereal Sjjlem, is formed by
two ftars fituated fo near to each other, as to be kept toge-
ther by their mutual gravitation. The two bodies may
revolve round their common centre of gravity in circles,
or in fimilar eUipfes, the dimenfions of their orbits being pro-
portional to their relative quantities of matter. From a fe-
ries of obfervations on double ftars. Dr. Herfchel has found
that they have changed their fituations with regai'd lo each
other, that the one performs a revolution round the other,
aud that the motion of fome of them is direft, while that
of others is retrograde. In the courie of obfervations pur-
fued for twenty-five years, he difcovered that in more than
fifty of the double ftars, there is a change cither in the dif-
tance of the two ftars, or in the angle made by a line join-
ing them with the direftion of their daily motion, which he
calis " the angle of pofition." The interefting obfervations
that have been publiftied (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxiii.) relate to
fix double ftars, a, Geminorum, y Leonis, e Bootes, ^ Her-
cuUs, i Serpentis, and y Virginis. In refpeft to the firft

of thefe, Caftor or a Geminorum, the angle of pofition was
found to have diminiftied in the fpace of 43 years 142 days,
45° 39' '■> ^""^ irom the regularity of its decreafe, he thinks
it highly probable that the orbits in which the two ftars
move round their common centre of gravity are nearly cir-
cular, and at right angles to the line in which we fee them ;
and that the time of a whole apparent revolution of the fmall
ftar round Caftor will be nearly 342 years and 2 months, in
a retrograde direftion. From the year 1778 to 1 803, he
never could perceive any variation in the diftance of the two
ftars, which was uniformly i^ of the diameter of the large
one. The diftance of the two ftars which compofe y Leonis
has undergone a decided change from February i6th, 1782,
to March 26th, 1803. The diameters of the two ftars were
as 5 to 4. The angle of pofition had diminilhed in this time
from 7" 37' N. following, to 6° 2 1' S. following. From the
interval between the two ftars, the ratio of their diameters,
and the variation in the angle of pofition, Dr. Herfchel has
found that the apparent orbit of the fmall ftar is elliptical,
and that it performs a whole revolution in about 1 200 years,
in a retrograde direftion. The beautiful double ftar of
£ Bootes is compofed of two ftars, one of which is of a light
red, and the other of a fine blue, having the appearance of
a planet and its fatellite. The diftance between the two ftars,
obferved with a power of 460, and an aperture of 6.3 inches,
in 1781, was I5 the diameter of the large ftar, and in 1803,
the interval had increafed to i|- of that diameter. The ratio
of the fize of the ftars is as 3 to 2. The angle of po-
fition appeared to have fuffered a change of 12° 33', in the
fpace of 22 years and 207 days. From thefe fafts Dr.
Herfchel concludes that the orbit of the fmall ftar is ellip-
tical, and performs its revolution, according to the order
of the figns, in 1681 years. The double ftar 1^ Hercules is
compofed of a greater and a lefler ftar ; the former being of
a beautiful blueilh-white, and the latter of a fine afti-colour.
On the 1 8th July, 1782, the interval between the two ftars
was one half the diameter of the fmaller one, with a power of
460. On the 2ift July of the fame year, their diftance re-
mained the fame, but with a power of '987 ; they were one
full diameter of the fmall ftar afunder. In 1795, Dr. Her-
fchel found it difficult to perceive the fmall ftar. In the
month of Oftober 1795', however, he faw it diftinftly with
a power of 460. In 1802, he could no longer perceive the
fmall ftar, but in a clear night in September of that year,
with a power of 460, the apparent difc of ^ Hercules feemed
to be a lictle lengthened in one direition. With the ten-feet
telefcope, and a power of 600, it had the appearance of a
lengthened, or rather wedge-formed, ftar. With a power of
2140, he again examined it on the 1 ith of April, 1803, and
found the difc a little diftorted ; but he was convinced that
not more than three-eighths of the apparent diameter of the
fmall ftar was wanting to a complete occultation. The
angle of pofition, on the 21ft July, 1782, was 20° 42' north
following.

The double ftar of ^Serpentis has, like i Bootes, undergone
a confiderable change in the angle of pofition, without any
variation in the diftance between the two ftars. On the 5th
September, 1782, the angle of pofition was 42° 48' fouth
preceding ; and on the 7th February 1802, it was 61° 27'
fouth preceding, having fuftained a diminution of 18° 39' in
the fpace of 19 years and 155 days. Hence the period of a
complete revolution of the fmaller ftar will be about 375
years.

The double ftar of y Virginis, which has long been known
to aftronomers, io compofed of two ftars, which Dr. Herfchel
at firft confidered as nearly equal, though he has fince afcer-
taiaed that the one is a little larger than the other. Their

diftance,

STARS.

diftance, which is about ai diameters, has continued the
fame for 2 1 years, while the angle of pofition has varied
confidcrably. On the 2 id November, 1781, the angle of
pofition was 40° 44' fouth following, or rather north pre-
ceding, fiRce the other ftar was afterwards found to be the
fmallerof the two ; and on the 15th April, 1803, the angle
of pofition was 30° 20' north preceding, having fuffered a
diminution of 10° 24' in 21 years and 145 days. From an
obfervation of Mayer's, however, in 1756, Dr. Herfchel has
found the angle of pofition for that year to be 54° 21' 37"
north preceding, which gives a motion of 24° 2' in 47 years
and 105 days. Hence he concludes, that a complete revo-
lution ie performed in about 708 years.

For a catalogue, fuch as our limits would allow, of the
principal double ftars, fee the article Dol'bi.k Slars.

For an account of clullering ilars, clulleru of itars, and
groups of ilars, and alfo treble, quadruple, quintuple, and
multiole lyftems of ftars, we rauft refer to the articles
Galaxy and Heavens ; and for a more particular detail,
and catalogues of them, to Dr. Herfchel's papers, or to the
2d volume of Fergufon's Aftronomy, by Dr. Brewfter.

Stars, Infulatcd, a name applied by Dr. Herfchel to
thofe celeltial bodies which are in a great degree out of
the reach of the attractive force of other ftars, fuch as our
Sun, Arfturus, Capella, Lyra, Sirius, Canobus, Markab
Bellatrix, Menkar, Shedir, Algorah, Propus, and probably
many others. It is obvious that no two Itars in the uni-
verfe can be altogether out of the fphere of each other's
attraction ; but in the cafe of Sirius and our fun, which,
upon the fuppofition that their mafles are equal, and that
the former has a parallax of i", would take 33 millions of
years to fall to one another by their mutual attion, we are
entitled to fay that they are infulated. Infulatcd ftars are
confidered by Dr. Herfchel as the centres of extenfive
planetary fyltems like our own ; an opinion which he de-
duces from analogy, and from the nature of other fidereal
combinations. Inllead of fuppofing, therefore, as has gene-
rally been done, that every ftar in the firmament is encircled
with planets, fatellites, and comets. Dr. Herfchel believes
that the infulated ftars alone are fursouiided with fuch
numerous attendants.

Stars, called NchuU. (See Nebul;e, Nebulosity»
and the articles to which we have above referred.) Mr.
Michel! has ftiewn, from the computation of probabilities,
that it is many million million chances to one, that the ftars,
which appear to form double ftars, &c. clufters and nebulae
in the heavens, are really coUefted together into feparate
fyftems. In the cafe of the Pleiades, for example, he
computes that it is joo.ooo to i, that no fix ftars out of
the number of thofc that are equal to the fainteft of them
in fplendour, fcattered at random in the whole heavens,
fliould be within fo fmall a diftance from each other as the
Pleiades are.

A fimilar opinion was maintained by profefibr Kant and
M. Lambert, who fuppofed that all the itars in the univerfe
are collefted into nebulie ; and that all the infulated or
fcattered itars which appear in the heavens, belong to the
particular nebula in which our fyftem is placed. Wc are
indebted, however, folely to the genius and induitry of
Dr. Herfchel, for perfecting thefe fagacious views, and fup-
porting them by a body of evidence amounting nearly to
demonftration. He has obferved the pofition, magnitude,
and (trufture of no fewer than 2500 nebulae. He generally
detefted them in certain direftions, rather than in others ; and
in many parts of the heavens there were vacant fpaces, both
preceding and following the nebulous itrata. Dr. Herfchel
fuppofes the nebula in Cancer, and that of Coma Berenices,
to belong to two ftrata which are nearcft the nebula of the
Milky Way.

The foUovping catalogue of nebulse, copied from Dr.
Brcwiler's edition of Fergufon's Aftronomy, is founded
chiefly on the obfervations of Meflier, as given in the
" Connoiil'ance dcs Terns" for J 784, the more recent obfer-
vations of Dr. Herfchel being always added. The Jirjl
column contains the number of the nebulse, and the time
wiien the obfervation was made ; the fccond and third, its
right alccnfion and declination for that time, which are
more convenient than their longitude and latitude for finding
them on a celeltial globe. The fourth, its diameter in
degrees and minutes ; and the lalt, foine general remarks on
its appearance. All the nebulae in this clafs may be feen
with good telefcopes of a moderate iize.

Catalogue of 103 Ncbulx-, the Pofitions of which have been determined by Meffier.

No. and

Year

Pofiiion of the Nebulae.

Riglit Afcen.

Dc'cliiiarion.

Didmet.

General Remarl^s.

when

inD

egrees.

.,bf«veJ.

1 75*8 .

Above the Bull's fouth- 1
ern horn, weft of ^ - j

In the head of Aquarius, \
near the 24th ilar - j

80

0 33

2. 45

27 N.

( A whitiih light, elongated like the Hame of
^ a taper. It exhibited a mottled nebu-
l. lofity to Dr. Herlchel.
/ It is like the nucleus of a comet, iur-

2.

1760.

320

17 0

I 47

0 S.

4'

l^ rounded with a large round nebula. Dr.
L H. refolved it into liars.

1 It is round, bright in the centre, and fades
J away gradually. It exhibited a mottled
L nebuiofity to Dr. H.

3-

1764.

Between Ardturus and]
Cor Caroli - -J

202

51 19

39 32

57 N.

3'

4-

Near Antares

242

16 56

25 55

40 S.

2-V

A mafs of (in.iU ftars.

5.

Near 6 Serpent

226

39 4

2 57

16 N.

3'

Around nebula. Refolved into ftars by Dr. li.

6.

Between the bow of Sa-"^
gittarius and the tail of >
Scorpio - - -J

261

10 39

32 10

34 i'-

>5'

A mafs of fmall ftars.

7-

Near the preceding -

264

30 24

34 40

34 S.

30'

A mafs of fmall ftar?.

8.

Between the bow of Sa-~j

c An elongated mafs of ftars. Near this mafs

gittarius, and the right >
foot of Ophiuchua -J

267

29 30

24 21

10 S.

30'

} is the 9lli of Sagittarius, wliicli is cncir-

l, cled with a faint light.

STARS.

No. and
Vear
when

obferved.

PoCtion of the Nebula.

9-
10.

II.
12.

»4-
15-

1 6.
17-

i8.
19.

20.

21.
22.

23-

24.

25.

26.

27.
28.

29.
BO-
S'-

32-
33-

34-

35-
36.

37-

38-
39-
40.

41.

]

}

wpuiuciius J
bow of Sa-T
nd the right >
hiuchu3 -J

In the right leg of Ophiu- )
chus - - - \

In the girdle near 30 )
Ophiuchus - - j

Near K. Antinous -

Between the arm and the 1

left fide of Ophiuchus J
In the girdle of Hercules,

between two ftars of the

8th magnitude
In the drapery over the)

R. arm of Ophiuchus j
Between the head of Pe-

gafus, and that of the

Little Horfe

Near the Serpent's tail

North of the bow of Sa-I
gittarius . . .J

Above the preceding

Between Scorpio and the 1
R. foot of Ophiuchus J
Between the bow of Sa
gittarius and
foot of Oph
Near 1 1 Sagittarius
Near 25 Sagittarius -
Near 65 Ophiuchus -
Near the end of the bowl
of Sagittarius in the >
Milky Way - -j
Near the preceding, near I
21 Sagittarius - -J
Near n and 0 Antinous

Near 14 of the Fox -

A degree from x Sagit- 1
tarius - - . j

Below y Cygni
Near 41 Capricorn -

In Andromeda's girdle

Below the preceding
Below the head of theT

N. Fifh and the Great

Triangle ...
Between Medufa's head

and the left foot of

Andromeda
Near /j. and « Caftor
Near p Bootes

Near the preceding -

Near a- Auriga
Near the Swan's tail
At the root of the Great 1
Bear's tail - . j

Below Sirius

Right Afctn.
ill Degrees.

256 20 36
251 12 6

279 35 43
248 43 10

248 18 48

Declination.

18 13 26 s.
3 42 18 S.
631 I S.
2 30 28 S.

36 54 44 N.

261 18 29! 3 5 45 S.
10 40 3 N.

13 5' 44 N.

16 14 44 S.

17 13 14 S.
25 54 46 s.

22 59 10 S.

22 31 25 S.
24 6 II S.
iS 45 55 S.

iS 26 o S.

19 5 o S.
9 38 14 S.

319 40

'9

271

'5

3

271

45

48

271

34

3

252

I

45

267

4

5

267

275
265

3'
28

42

35
39

50,

Diamet.

270 26 O

274 25 o
278 5 25

297 21 41 1 22 4 o N.
272 29 30; 24 57 II S.

303 54 29
321 46 18

7 26 32

7 27 32
20 9 17

36 51 37

88 40 9
80 II 42

84 15 12

78 ID 12
320 57 10

182 45 30

98 58 12

37 II 57 N.
24 19 4S.

39 9 32 N.

38 45 34 N.
29 32 23 N.

41 39 32 N.

24 33 30 N.
34 8 6N.

32 II 51 N.

36 II 51 N.

47 25 o N.

59 23 50 N.
20 33 o S.

3'

4'
4'
3'
6'

7'

3'
8'
5'

General Remuks.

IS'

I' 30'

10'
2'

4'

2'

2'

40'

2'

'5'

«5'

20'
9'

9'

'5'

y Round and faint ; but refolved by Dr. Her-

/ ichel into Itars-

f A tine and round nebula. Refolved into

I ftars by Dr. H.

f A mafs of many fmall liars, mixed with a

j^ faint light.

J Round and faint. Near it is 3 ftar of the

( 9th magn. Refolved by Dr. H. into ftars.

f Round and bright in the middle. Refolved
[ by Dr. H. into ftars.

f Round and faint. Near a ftar of the 9th
I magn. Refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

{Round and bright in the centre. Refolved
into ftars by "Dr. H.

{A mafs of fmall ftars, mixed with a faint
light, refolved by Dr. H.

A train of faint light, with ftars.

f A mafs of fmall ftars furroundcd with
\ nebuiofity.

Round, and refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

f A mafs of ftars of the 8th and 9th magni-
fy tude, furrounded with nebuiofity.

The fame as the preceding.

Round, and refolved mto ftars by Dr. H.

A mafs of ftars very near each other.

r Great nebuiofity, containing feveral ftars.

< The light is divided into feveral parts.
(_ Refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

-A. mafs of fmall ftars.

A mafs of fmall ftars.

f Oval. It exhibited a mottled nebuiofity to

i Dr. H.

Round, and refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

A mafs of 7 or 8 fmall ftars.

Round, and refolved into Har? by Dr. H.

f It refemblcs two cones of light joined at tiieir

< bafe, which is 15' broad. Refolved into
I ftars by Dr. H.

Round, without ftars, a:id with a faint light.

( Its light is uniform and whitifti. It exhibited
I a mottled nebuiofity to Dr. H.

A mafs of fmall ftars.

A mafs of fmall ftars near Caftor's left foot.
A mafs of fmall ftars.

{A mafs of fmall ftars with a nebuiofity, re-
folved into liars by Dr. H.
A fquare mafs of fmall ftars.
A mafs of fmall ftars.

Two ftars very near one another

A mafs of fmall ftars.

STARS.

No. and

Year

Pofilioli of the Nebulae.

Right Afcen.

D

eclinaiion.

Diamet.

General Remarlu.

when

ii) Degrees.

i)bfervcd.

1765.

42.

Between 3 and c in Orion's 1
fword - - -J

80 59 40

5

34 6S.

G

f A beautiful nebula, containing fcTcn fmall
I ftars.

1769.

43-

Above the preceding

Si 3 0

5

26 37 S.

A ftar furrounded with nebulofity.

44-

Between y and i Cancer

126 50 30

20

31 38 N.

A mafs of fmall ftars.

45-

The Pleiades -

5j 27 4

23

22 41 N.

Clufter of itars.

46.

1 Between the G. Dog's T
j head and the hind feel ■ |

1771.

"2 47 43

14

19 7 S.

A mafs of ftars, with a little nebulofity.

of the Unicorn - - j

47-

Near the preceding -

116 3 58

14 50 8 S. 1

A mafs of fmall ftars.

48.

Near the three Itars at theT

root of the Unicorn's >
tail - - -J

Near p Vn-go . - .

120 36 0

I

16 42 S.

A mafs of fmall itars.

49.

184 26 58

9

16 9N.

See Mem. Acad. 1779.

A mafs of fmall ftars belov7 the Unicorn's
right thigh.

50.
1772.

Above S Great Dog

102 57 28

7

57 42 S.

"Double. The two atmofpheres, whofe cen-

5'-

J Below r, Great Bear. T
3 Near the ear of the •

tres are 4' 35" diftant, touch one another,

1774-

200 5 48

48

24 24 N.

and are bright in the middle. The one

Northern Greyhound -J

is fainter than the other. Refolved into
itars by Dr. Herfchel.

'Mafs of ftars, mixed with a nebulofity, ac-
cording to Dr. H. This clufter appears
like a lolid ball, confifting of fmall ftars,

[ quite coraprelied into one blaze of light.

52-

Below d Caffiopeiae

348 39 27

60

22 12 N.

j with a great number of loofe ones fur-
(_ rounding it.

53-

Near 42 Berenice's hair

195 30 26

19

22 44 N.

Round, and refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

1777.

54-

1778.

55-

In Sagittarius

280 12 55

30

44 I S.

G

Faint and bright in the centre.

In Sagittarius

291 30 25

31

26 27 S.

A white fpot, refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

55.

Near tlie Milky Way

287 0 I

29

48 14 N.

Faint, and refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

T779.

57-

Between y and $ Lyra

281 20 8

32

46 3N.

Round, and confifting of a mottled nebulofity.

58.

In Virgo ...

186 37 23

>3

2 42 N.

Very faint, without any ftar.

59-

Near the preceding

187 41 38

12

52 36 N.

Very faint, without any ftar.

60.

111 Virgo ...

i88 6 53

12

46 2 N.

Brighter than the two preceding.

61.

In Virgo . - .

182 41 5

5

42 5N.

Very faint.

f Like a comet, with a brilliant centre, fur-

62.

In Scorpio ...

251 48 24

29 45 30 S.

\ rounded with a faint light. Refolved into

I ftars by Dr. H.

^'3-

Ill the Canes Venatici

196 5 30

43

12 37 N.

Very faint.

64.

In Berenice's hair

191 27 38

22

52 31 N.

Faint.

1780.

65.

In the Lion

166 50 54

'4

16 8 N.

Faint, but refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

66.

Very near the preceding

167 II 39

H

12 21 N.

Very faint, but refolved into liars by Dr. H.
r A mafs of ftars, with nebulofity. It is a

67.

Below the fouthern claw'
of the Crab

129 6 SI

12

36 38 N.

J clufter, pretty much compreiled, in which
1 Dr. H. has obierved 200 ftars at once,
I with a power of 157 in his great refleflor.

68.

Below the Crow

186 54 33

25

30 20 S.

2'

Very faint.

69.

Below the left arm of Sa-
gittarius

274 II 46

32

3' 45 S.

2'

Faint, like the nucleus of a fmall comet.

70.

Near tiie preceding

277 13 16

32

3' 7S.

2'

Near four telefcopic ftars.

7i-

Between y and i Arrow

295 59 9

18

13 0 N.

3' 30"

Very faint, and refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

72.

Above the tail of Capricorn

310 20 49

'3

20 51 S.

3'

Faint, but nfolvcd into ftars by Dr. H.

73-

Near the preceding -

3" 43 4

'3

28 40 S.

f Three or four fmall ftars, containing a little
\ nebulofity.

STARS.

No. and

1

Year

PoCt-.oa of the Nebute. «'?*!5 '^f"""

Declioatiou. |

Diamet.

General Remarks.

when

111 Degrees.

ubferved.

1

74-

Near ti in the ftring that|^
conne£ls the Fifhes -j

21 14

9

14 39 35 N.

Verv faint, but refolved into ftars by Dr.
Hcrfchel.

75-

Between Sagittarius and 1
the head of Capricorn j

298 17

24

22 32

23 s.

Compofed of fmall liars, with nebulofity.
Mechain makes it only nebulous.

76.

In Andromeda's right foot

22 JO

47

50 28

48 N.

2'

'Compofed of fmall ftars, with nebulofity.
Small and faint.

77-

In the Whale -

37 52

33

0 57

43 S.

A mafs of fmall Itars, containing nebulofity.

78.

In Orion

83 53

35

0 I

23 s.

3'

"A mafs of Itars, with two bright nuclei,

furrounded with a nebulofity.
r A fine nebula, bright in the centre, and a

79-

Below the Hare

73 49

2 24 42

57 S.

i little difFufed. Refolved into a mottled
(, nebulofity by Dr. H.

80.

1781.

81.

Between g and 3 Scorpio -

240 59

48

22 25

13 s.

2'

Round and bright in the centre, like a comet.

Near the ear of the Great \
Bear - . -j

24 N.

f A little oval, bright in the centre, and exhi-
1 biting a mottled nebulofity to Dr. H.

144 27

44

70 7

f Faint, and elongated, with a telefcopic ftar

82.

Near the preceding -

144 29

22

70 44

27 N.

< at it/i extremity. It (hewed a mottled ne-
(. bulofity to Dr. H.

83-

Near the Centaur's head -

201 8

13

28 42

27 S.

Very faint.

84.

In Virgo ...

'83 30

21

14 7

I N.

f Bright in the centre, and furrounded with
\ nebulofity.

85.

Above and near Spica

183 35

21

19 24

26 N.

Very faint.

86.

In Virgo

183 46

21; 14 9

52 N.

The fame as N° 84, and near it.

87.

In Virgo . . -

184 57

6

13 38

I N.

As luminous as the preceding.

88.

In Virgo ...

185 .5

49

>5 37

51 N.

Very faint, and like N° 58.

89.

Near N^ 87 -

186 0

36

•3 46

49 N.

Very faint.

90.

In Virgo - - - 186 27

0

14 22

50 N.

Like the preceding. •

91.

Abuve the preceding

Between the knee and the 1
left leg of Hercules -J

186 37

0

•4 57

6 N.

Fainter than the preceding.
fA beautiful nebula, bright in the centre,
.j and furrounded with great nebulofity.
(. Refolved into ftars by Dr. H.

92.

257 38

3

43 2 1

59 N.

5'

93-

Between the Great Dog]
and the Ship . - j

113 48

35

23 19 45 S.

8'

A mafs of fmall ftars.

94.

Above Cor Caroli

190 10

46

42 18

43 N.

2' 30"

Bright in the centre, with a diffufed nebulofity.

95-

In the Lion, above / -

•58 3

5

12 50

21 N.

Very faint.

96.

Near the preceding -

158 46

20

12 58

9N.

Fainter than the preceding.

97-

Near ^ Great Bear .

165 18

40

56 13

30 S.

2'

Very faint. Anothernear it, and another ne ary.

98.

Above N. wing of Virgo -

I 80 50 49

16 8

15 N.

Very faint.

99.

On the N. wing of Virgo .

.81 55

19

>5 37

12 N.

f Brighter than the preceding. Between two
\ ftars of the 7th and 8th magnitude.

100.

In the ear of corn in Virgo

1S2 59

'9

16 59

21 N.

Like the preceding.

lOI.

Between the left hand of'
Bootes and the tail of •
the Great Bear

2CS 52

4

55 24

25 N.

7'

y Very faint. Difcovered by Mechain. Mot-
(^ tied nebulofity, according to Dr. H.

102.

Between 0 Bootes and i
Dragon

-

-

-

-

Very faint. Difcovered by Mechain.

103.

Between ; and I Caffiopeije

-

-

-

-

A mafs of ftars.

Star, Nebulous, is a luminous point, furrounded with an
immenfe vifible atmofphere. Dr. Herfchel thinks, that the
central point is a ftar, from its complete refemblance to a
ftar of equal magnitude. Allied to thefe are planetary nebulae,
or circular fpaces in the heavens, uniformly luminous, re-
fembling a planetary difc. The light of one of thefe
nebuls, 15" in diameter, was hardly equal to that of a ftar
of the 8th or 9th magnitude. Hence Dr. Herfchel fup.
pofes, that they can fcarcely be bodies like our fun, as a
part of the fun's difc, 15" in diameter, would exceed the
greateft luftre of the full moon. If, on the other hand, he
obferves, we fhould fuppofe them 10 be groups or clufters

of ftars, at a diftance fufEciently great to reduce them to
fo fmall an apparent diameter, we (hall be at a lofs to ac-
count for their uniform light, if clufters ; or for their circu.
lar forms, if mere groups of itars. Perhaps they may be
rather allied to nebulous ftars ; for, (hould the planetary
nebulce, with lucid centres, be an intermediate ftcp between
planetary nebulse and nebulous ftars, the appearances of
thefe different fpecies, when all the individuals of them are
fully examined, might throw a confiderable light on the
fubjeft. The clafs of planetary nebulx with centres differs
only from the laft in having a bright central point. See

NEBUtOSlTY.

8 Catalogue

STARS.

Catalogue of Two Hundred and Eighty-eiglit of the Claf:. of Biitjht Nebulx, according to the Obfervations of
Dr. Herfchel : — F. fignifying following, P. preceding, N. north, and S. fouth.

5i

Differ.

of R^gbt

z

Differ, of Right

1

c

Stars i:y wliich the Nebula?

Afcer.f.

on in'J'ime

Difference in

c

Stars by wliich the Nebula;

Afcenfion inTime

Difference in 1

3

may be found.

between lite Ne-

Declination.

5

may be fuuiul.

between the Ne-

Declination. |

o

bulteai

(J (lie Star.

.~

buIieandtheStar.

M.

S.

D.

M.

M. S.

D.

M.

I

82 J Ccti .

2

17 F.

0

8N.

58

19 Eridani -

5 9F.

I

22 S.

2

3 Leonis

18

7 P-

I

12 S.

59

15 I Navis

64 18 F.

0

21 N.

3

34 Sextantis-

28

55 P-

0

13 S.

60

19 Eridani -

6 51 P.

0

16 N.

4

28

27 P.

0

10 S.

61

6 Sextantis -

8 42 P.

0

31 N.

5

81 Leonis

2

42 P.

0

7 N.

62

S5 < Ceti - -

0 25 P.

0

37 N.

6

64 Virginis -

33

;6F.

0

I S.

63

80 Ceti

5 .2F.

0

'^l;

7

49 Leonis -

126

45 F.

0

40 S.

64

8 1 f Eridani

,5 9 P.

0

2 N.

8

322/ Virginis

2

CO F.

0

48 N.

65

3 1 Crateris -

23 30 F.

0

52 N.

9

10 r Virginis

3

12 F.

0

35 S.

66

12 Hydrx -

25 2 F.

I

7^;

lO

33

37 F.

0

4N.

67

8 )i Corvi -

37 17 P-

2

loN.

II

5 Coma: Berenices

I

30 P.

2

II S.

68

53 Virginis -

12 40 P.

I

4^-

12

6 Coni32

9

12 F.

0

98.

69

II 4 P.

I

34 N.

13

69 Leonis

7

57 P-

0

2N.

70

106 Virginis -

I 2 F.

0

5^^-

14

29 y Virginis

0

43 F-

I

23 N.

71

19 0 Librs -

0 3 P.

I

+ M

15

3

23 F.

0

58 N.

72

23 Leonis min.

13 7 F.

0

13 N.

16

10

34 F.

0

13 N.

73

13 Can. vena

50 17 P.

0

22 S.

17
18

S 46 ;■ Leo - -\

15
16

50 F.
i8 F.

I
I

32 s.

29 S.

74
75

13 Can. vena

43 5 P-
40 35 P-

I
I

II S.
9S.

19

1 1 Com:e

10

30 P.

0

46 N.

76

38 3 P-

0

5^ XT*

20

73 ?; Leonis -

8

52 F.

I

57 S.

77

34 '5 P-

0

23 N.

21

25

31 F.

I

49 S.

78

27 Urfx

7 46 F.

0

+ ?/

22

34 Virginis -

22

24 P.

0

.7S.

79

33 52 F.

I

17 N.

23

18

24 P.

0

19 S.

80

67 10 F.

0

46 N.

24

30 f Virginis

I

42 P.

0

5S.

81

41 Leonis min.

0 6 P.

I

40 N.

25

34 Virginis -

4

45 F.

0

40 S.

82

14 b Comas -

37 40 P-

0

'4 XT*

26

52 K. Leonis

3

45 P-

2

9S.

83

2 1 g Comae -

0 10 F.

I

12 N.

27

46 i Leonis -

18

47 F.

0

43 S.

84

19 34 F.

0

5^^-

28

34 Virginis -

19

36 P.

i

8 N.

85

40 Comae

5 9F.

0

18 N.

29.

73 ?; Leonis -

I

9 P.

0

30 S.

86

39 Leonis min.

13 14 P.

0

^9^-

3°-

31 I rf Virginis

17

41 P.

0

32 N.

87

44 Leonis min.

9 30 F.

I

1 N.

31-

31 1 </ Virginis

8

0 P.

0

37 N.

88

13 30 F.

0

I N.

32

5

II P.

0

28 N.

89

14 b Comas -

8 18 P.

0

^JN-

33

9 0 Virginis

3

12 F.

I

39 N.

90

6 30 P-

I

57^-

34

59 ^ Virginis

20

42 F.

0

^'^xr*

91

15 c Comas -

I 10 F.

0

19 N.

35

34 Virginis -

3'

42 P.

I

jN.

92

9 11-

0

19 S.

36
37

!

II

24 P.

0

20 N.

93
94

31 Com«
6i Urfje -

2 56 F.
0 6 F.

I

2

24 N.
17 N.

38

32 zd Virginis

1 1

36 P.

0

0 N.

95

35 0 F.

2

7^-

39

51 6 Virginis

21

36 P.

0

'+x;

96

14 Canum -

5 30 F.

I

12 N.

40

5

48 P.

0

2 N.

97

7 58 F.

0

47 N.

4'

28 Virginis .

9

24 F.

I

2 N.

98

36 50 F.

0

12 S.

42

26 X Virginis

30

27 F.

0

8 N.

99

27 v Bootes

13 46 P.

I

46 S

43

49 S Virginis

28

6 P.

0

^'l;

100

41 Ceti

13 43 F.

0

48 N.

44

51 e Ophiutlii

7

18 F.

0

0 N.

101

67

17 19 P-

0

25 N.

45

43 Ophiuchi

6

36 P.

0

+ ^-

102

21 37 F.

0

,3 s.

46

0

54 F.

I

46 N.

103

14 Delphini -

16 10 P.

0

3^-

47

I m Aquilat

17

48 F.

0

33^;

104

93 4- Aqua.

I 8 F.

0

42 N.

48

43 d Saj^'ittarius -

114

6 P.

I

44 N.

105

47 Ceti

26 24 F.

0

37 S.

49

10 y Sagittarius -

2

18 P.

0

23 N.

106

89 T

38 10 F.

I

24 S.

5°

19 i' Sagittarius

3

0 F.

0

33 S.

107

20 Eridani -

4 3 F-

I

4S.

51

22 X Sagittarius -

3

12 F.

0

13 s.

108.

III J Pifcium

34 22 P.

0

I S.

J

52

17 Delphini

6

0 F.

2

24 N.

109.

12 Eridani -

7 17 P-

2

54 N.

53

66 i; Cygni -

78

6 F.

0

5, S.

no.

9 Ceti

44 0 P-

0

47 S.

54

35 V Andromeda -

18

^6 F.

I

26 S.

1 1 1.

43 3 P-

0

6S.

ss

. (56 Pegafi -

17

59 P-

0

2 N.

112

5 y Arictis -

5 48 F.

0

17 S.

56
57

■ [■ 4 ^ Leoni? -

0

46 F.

I

29 S.

"3
114

66 4th 0- Can.
18 Leonis min.

18 22 F.
'3 39 P-

I
0

34 N.

35 S.

Vol. XXXIIL

SD

STARS.

z

Differ. o( Rifibt

■^

Differ, of Riglu

1

c

Stars by wMch the Nebulae

'\fcenfioniiiTiin-

DllTerenre in

c

Stars tiy wliich the Nebulae

Afcenfioii luTimc

Difference in 1

a-

n ay W found.

iietween the Ne-

Declination.

z-

may be found.

Iietwfen tlie Ne-

Declination. |

ft

ljul;p and the Star.

r*

bul:eand llicS(ar.

M. S.

n.

M.

M. .'.

D.

M.

"?

5 47 P-

I

10 N.

'75-

13 Canum -

46 3 P.

2

28 N.

ii6
117

■;!" - • ■

II 5 F.

I

1 N.

176.
J77-

")

if^ 33 P-

I

26 N.

118
119

46 Urfe

31 lit i/Virginis -

3 41 P-
6 0 P.

I
0

32 s.

55 N.

178.
179.

is . . .

7 3^^ F.

O

12 S.

120

30 M Crateri -

9 0 P.

0

17 N.

180.

20 - - -

29 9 F.

3

15 N.

121

13 n Virginis

18 15 P.

0

19 S.

181.

40 13 F.

I

11 N.

122

57 ^ Eridani

4 0 P.

0

22 N.

182.

1 Serpentis

17 22 P.

o

2 S.

'23

60 a- Virginis

52 27 P.

0

30 S.

.83.

II 19 P.

o

I N.

124

39 S7 P-

0

3S.

,84.

8 Librs -

8 21 P.

I

ijS.

125

39 12 P.

I

6S.

185.

19 X Bootes -

11 6 F.

o

I N.

126

108 - - -

0 35 P-

I

15 N.

186.

47 14 P-

1

20 N.

127

no ...

I 47 P.

0

23 S.

187.

20 15 P.

I

14 N.

128

3 37 F-

0

30 s.

188.

38 2d A

13 24 P.

2

44 N.

129

26 X -

9 46 F.

0

41 s.

US9.

24 g -

3 57 F.

0

23 S.

130
131

14 i Crateri -

26 35 F.
0 29 F.

0

I

3S.

3N.

190.
191.

[■ Canum 6 m.-

11 32 F.

I

II s.

»32'

26 Hydras -

I 44 F.

0

4N.

192.

3 Lacertz -

80 46 P.

2

32 N.

I33-

49 g Virginia

16 4 P.

0

18 N.

193-

54 $ Androm.

1 26 P.

0

5-^^-

134-

13 27 P.

0

13 N.

194.

':6 Urfa

3 19 F.

o

^S-

I3J-
ij6.

1 68 . -

32 2 P.

0

II N.

195.
196.

67 - - -

4 49 F.
7 '7 F.

0
0

2 N.
38 N.

137-
138.

41 Lyncis -
102 e Hydrae -

3 13 F-
33 45 F.

0

I

8 N.

27 N.

197.
198.

[ 8 Canum .

3 3^ P-

o

19 N.

139-

1 1 s Virginis

12 I F.

I

21 s.

199.

15 Leo min.

32 . F.

o

24 S.

140.

39 55 F.

0

31 S.

200.

59 2d T Canum

4 29 P-

o

29 N.

141.

45 50 F.

1

3'^;

2or.

63 X Urfe -

0 5 F.

0

.7S.

142.

37 - . .-

6 35 P-

0

oN.

202.

0 47 F.

o

^v.-

143-

43 S Virginis

4 55 F.

2

7S.

203.

59 - - -

7 42 F.

o

^1 N.

144.

109 ...

25 58 P.

0

54 N.

204.

9 - - -

16 27 P.

2

■7N.

.45.
146.

\

25 14 P.

I

27 N.

205.
206.

3 Canum .

22 18 F.
>4 39 P-

3

I N.
35 N.

147.

43 Ophiuchi

8 54 P.

I

17 S.

207.

14 0 P.

32 s.

148.

24 a. Serpentis

22 26 P.

r

16 s.

2C8.

9 9 P-

32 N.

149.

40 f Ophiuchi

0 14 F.

I

32 N.

209.

3 33 P-

6 S.

i;o

27 53 F.

0

36^/

210.

60 Urfz

46 0 F.

o

9N.

iji.

71 I Pifcium

21 41 F.

I

41 N.

211.

II Canum

5 47 F.

58 S.

152.

24 1 Arietis -

16 23 P.

0

•zoN.

212.

60 Urfi

50 50 F.

58 S.

153

59 2d V Ceti

23 16 P.

0

6S.

213.

19 X Bootes -

no 25 P.

48 N.

'54

14 Triang. -

I 23 F.

0

59 N.

214.

17 K -

8 26 P.

56 N.

•>S-

32 Eridani -

7 49 F.

I

I s.

2 I J.

Neb. II. 757

3 27 P.

i+S.

ij6.

1 2 g Perfei -

I 41 P.

I

10 s.

216.

22 Urfe -

13 5^ P

3

4,S.

JJ7-

90 V Pifcium

28 9 F.

0

13 N.

217.

54 PL-rfei

9 2> F.

0

46 N.

158.

48 » Eridani

4 32 P-

I

46 s.

218.

63 Auriga: .

26 43 F.

o

20 S.

159.

20 s Cairi(>peia

8 30 F.

0

33 N.

219.

,-j Uvfe -

5 33 F.

o

36 N.

160.

20 y Virginis

6 17 P.

2

19 S.

220.

64 7 Urfs .

43 59 P-

0

20 S.

161.

6 ComsE

12 58 F.

0

55 s.

221.

21 41 P.

0

37 S.

162.

29 Coma:

10 35 F.

0

2N.

222.

20 20 P.

o

35 S-

163.

20 Sextantis

8 29 P.

0

22 S.

"3-

6 4 F.

2

4) S.

164.

38 Leo min.

2 54 P.

0

36 s.

224.

I Canum -

9 19 P-

3

10 S.

i6j.

6 Canum -

15 42 P.

0

25 N.

225.

8 31 P.

o

46 S.

166.

I 20 P.

0

23 N.

226.

64 7 Urfse .

33 32 P-

o

34 S.

167.

10 n Urfse -

13 43 F.

I

30 S.

227.

15 28 P.

2

37 N.

168.

34 /* -

4 9 P.

0

6S.

228.

5 20 P.

2

24 N.

169

6 Canum .

16 i6 P.

0

53 N.

229.

3 46 F.

I

47 N.

170.

20 - - .

28 12 F.

I

6 N.

230.

83 Urfe . .

20 24 F.

O

27 N.

171.

53 2d w Bootes

49 57 P-

I

10 N.

23'-

24 34 F.

o

10 N.

172.

31 Leo min.

25 2 F.

0

3S-

232.

■

27 7 F.

o

16 N.

173

86 19 F.

0

23 N.

233-

44 Urfa-

1 14 F.

o

16 S.

174.

53 1 Urf* - .

46 14 F.

0

24 N.

234-

74 Urfae - ,-

1 31 F.

o

28 S.

STARS.

z

Differ, of Riglii

z

Differ.

of Kiijht

^■"*

1

p

Siars by »Iiic!i the Nebulae

AfcenfioninTime

Difference in

3

Stars by ulucb the Nebulae

Afcenfi

>n iriTmi^

Difference in 1

g^

may be found.

heiween the Ne-

Declitiuiiuii.

fS

may be found.

beiwce

1 the Ne

Decliintion. I

r*

biiljeanii the Star.

bulaear

ff the Star.

M. S.

D. M.

M.

S.

D.

M.

^ss-

12 1 Draconis

66 52 P.

2 3S.

264.

14

18 P.

I

36 N.

236.

59 56 P-

2 13 S.

26J.

37 Urfs

16

16 P.

I

jN.

237-

54 10 P.

0 52 s.

266.

>3

35 P-

0

II S.

238.

69 Urfas, Hev.

27 55 P.

0 32 s.

267.

39 Urfs

II

21 F.

0

10 s.

239-

28 10 F.

0 17 S.

268.

12

46 F.

0

4S.

240.

•

28 34 F.

0 17 S.

269.

18

I F.

0

29 N.

241.

19 Hyd. Crat. -

>4 43 P-

0 57 s.

270.

35

36 F.

I

42 N.

242.

15/Urfx .

I J 40 P.

0 21 S.

271.

35

54 F.

0

55 N.

2^3-

77 ! Urfx -

I 47 F.

2 25 N.

273.

Georgiura Sidii3 -

0

5i P-

0

6N.

244.

39 Urfe

36 44 F.

0 40 N.

273-

A double liar

5

4j F.

0

39 S.

245.

39 27 F-

I 58 N.

274.

10

'3 F.

0

24 S.

246.

66 Urfse

29 19 P.

0 20 N.

275-

5 Draconis, Hev. -

I

32 F.

0

13 N.

247.

28 13 P.

2 0 N.

276.

2

45 F.

0

12 N.

248.

7 5 P-

2 52 N.

277.

6

20 F.

0

20 N.

249.

17 Urfs

9 0 P.

3 43 N.

278.

II

5 P-

0

15 s.

250.

4 47 P-

3 •7N.

279.

10

28 P.

I

38 N.

251.

76 Urfx

50 48 P.

2 3S.

280.

16 ^ Urfat min.

51

33 P-

0

3 N.

252.
253-

41 II P.
41 46 P.

0 34 S.
0 51 S.

281.

T Appf. Sculpf. ■)
L.C.9J. - /

I

47 P-

0

27 N.

254-

69 Urfae, Hev.

. 47 P-
19 26 F.

I 8 S.
I I N.

282.

208 N. Camelop. ")
ofBode'sCat. J

153

15 P.

2

43 S.

256.

21 33 F-

0 ,3N.

283.

113

40 P.

3

4S.

2j7-

12 Eridani -

16 58 F.

I 58 S.

284.

85

18 P.

0

23 s.

258.

47 X Perfei -

3 -ii P-

I oN.

285.

24 d Urfae -

J3

,4 F.

I

53 S.

259.

17 Hydrx Crat. -

18 31 F.

0 a; N.

286.

30

0 F.

I

8 S.

260.

23 h Urfx -

I 49 P.

0 34 S.

287.

I \ Draconis

4

37 P-

I

13 N.

261.
262.

^i of Connoif.
I X Draconis

3 7 F.
2 6 P.

I 35 S.
2 41 S.

288.

184 Camelop. of "1
Bode's Cat. i

II

58 P.

2

34 S.

263.

4 Draconis -

22 48 P.

0 23 s.

A table of nebulse in the fouthern hcmifpherc, by La
Caille, may be feen in the " Connoiflance des Terns" for
1784, p. 270.

Stars, The Number of, appears to be vaftly great, almoft
infinite ; yet have allronomers long ago afcertained the num-
ber of thofe vitible to the eye, which are found much fewer
than one might imagine. See Catalogue of the Stars.

Of the 3000 contained in the Britannic Catalogue, there
are many only vifible through a telefcope ; nor docs a good
eye fcarcely ever fee more than a thoufand at the fame time
in the clearelt heaven ; the appearance of innumerable more,
frequent in clear winter nights, arifing from our fight's
being deceived by their twinkling, and from our viewing
them confufedly, and not reducing them to any order. Yet,
for all this, the llarn are really almoft infinite. See Halley
on the Number, Order, and Light of the fixed Stars, Phil.
Tranf. N°364, or Abr. vol. vi. p. 148.

Riccioli makes no fcruple to afiirm, in his New Almageft,
that a man who fhould fay there are above twenty thoufand
times twenty thoufand, would fay nothing improbable.

For a good telefcope, direfted to almoll any point of the
heavens, difcover.s numbcn. that arc loll to the naked fight ;
particularly in the Milky Way, which Dr. Herfchcl has
afcertained to be an aflemblage of fiars, too remote to be
fingly feen, but fo clofely difpofed as to give a luminous
appearance to that part of the heavens where they ar«. See
Galaxy.

In the fingle conftellation of the Pleiades, inllead of 6, 7,
or 8 ftars feen by the beft eye, Dr. Hooke, with a telefcope
12 feet long, told 78, and with larger glad'eii many more
of different magnitudes. And F. de RlKita, a Capuchin,

affirms, that he has obferved above 2000 flars in the fingle
conftellation of Orion.

The fame author found above 188 in the Pleiades. And
Huygens, looking at the ftar in the middle of Orion's
fword, inllead of one found it to be twelve. Galileo found
80 in the fpace of the belt of Orion's fword, 21 in the
nebulous ftar of his head, and above 500 in another part of
hiiB, within the compafs of one or two degrees fpace, and
more than 40 in the nebulous ftar Prsefepe. See Magniludet
of the Stars, fufra.

If aa ordinary telefcope, therefore, will, in feveral parts
of the heavens, difcover ten times as many ftars as are vifible
to the naked eye, what may not be expefted from the im-
proved magnifying powers of modern times ?

Stars, The Changes that have happened in the, are very
confiderablc ; contrary to the opinion of the ancients, who
held, that the heavens and heavenly bodies were incapable
of any change, the matter of which being permanent and
eternal, infinitely exceeding the hardnefs of diamonds, and
not fufceptible of any different form. And, iu effefl, till
the time of Arillotle, and even two hundred years after-
wards, there had no change been obferved. The firft wai
above I 20 years before the incarnation ; when Hipparchus,
difcovering a new ftar to appear, was firft induced to make
a catalogue of the liars, that pofterity might perceive any
future changes of the like kind. (See Catalogue. ) The
number of ftars which are afcertained to be variable,
amoiu.ts only to 15 ; while thofe which arc fufpeftcd to be
variable, amount to 37.

In the year 1572, Cornelius Gemma and Tycho Brahe

obferved another new ftar in the conftellation CaOiopeia,

5 D 2 which

' i

STARS.

which was, likewife, the occafion of Tycho's making a
new catalogue. Its magnitude and brightnefs, at firil,
exceeded that of the biggeft of our liars, Sirius and Lyra ;
it even equalled that of Venus when neareft the earth, and
was feen in fair day-light. It continued fixteen months ;
towards the latter end of which, it began to dwindle, and at
laft, viz. March, 1573. totally difappeared, without any
change of place in all that tmie.

Leovicius tells us of another ftar appearing in the fame con-
ilellation about the year 945, which refembled that of 1572,
and quotes another ancient obfervation, by which it appears,
that a new ftar was feen about the fame place m 1264.

Dr. Keil takes thofe to have been all the fame itar : and
he conjectures its period to be 150 years ; but though it did
not appear at the end of this period, this might be owing to
its having different degrees of lultre at different periods.
Right afc. in 1786, o" 13' o". Declin. N. 62= 58'.
Greatelt and leaft magn. i — o.

Fabricius, in 1596, difcovered another new ftar, called
thejlel/a mira, or wonderful ilar, in the neck of the Whale,
which has been fince found to appear and difappear periodi-
cally, feven times in fix years, continuing in the greateft
lullre for fifteen days together ; and is never quite extin-
guiftied. Its courfe and motion are defcribed by BuUialdus,
in a treatife printed at Paris in 1667. R. afc. in 1786,
2*' 8' 33". Decl. S. 3° 37' 25". Greateft and leaft magn.
2 — o. Period, determined by Caflini, 334 days : feen
by Mr. Goodricke of the 2d magnitude, Auguit 9th,
1782, and by Mr. Pigoct of the 8.9 magn. Dec. 30, 1782.

Dr. Herfchel has lately, -viz. in the years 1777, 1778,
1779, 1780, made feveral obfervations on this ftar, an ac-
count of which may be feen in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixx.
part ii. art. 21. He makes its period 331* 10'' 19'.

The variations of Algol, or ,3 Perfeus, were firft obferved
by Montanari. In 1693, Maraldi could not perceive any
change in its brightnefs ; but in 1694 he faw its variation
from the fecond to the fourth magnitude. Its period was
firll difcovered by Mr. Goodricke to be 2* 20'' 48' 56".
He found that its brightnefs, at its minimum, is diflerent in
different periods ; and Pigott perceived, that, at its maximum
of brightnefs, it is fometimes more luminous than a. Perfei,
and at other times lefs brilliant. R. afc. 1786, 2'' 54' 19".
Decl. N. 40' 6' 55". Greateft and leaft magn. 2 — 4.

The 420th ftar in Mayer's Catalogue, fituated in the
Lion, was found to be variable by M. Koch, being in
February, 1782, of the feventh magnitude ; in April, 1783,
of the ninth; and in April, 1784, of the tenth. Mr.
Pigott could not fee it, and it mull therefore have difap-
peared. R. afc. 17S6, g^ 36' 5". Decl. N. 12^ 25' o".
Greateft and leaft magn. 6 — O.

Star in Hydra, as far call of t as s^ is weft of y, the
30th Hydra of Hevelius, and probably the ift of the Ba-
lance, according to Flamftead, was difcovered to be variable,
in 1784, by Maraldi; and he made its period two years.
According to Pigott, it is of the fourth magnitude at its
full brightnefs, and for a fortnight fuffers no perceptible
change. It takes about fix months to increafe from the
tenth to the fourth magnitude, and about the fame time
to return to the tenth ; fo that it may be regarded as invi-
fible to the naked eye during fix months. R. afc. 1786,
1^^ 18' 4". Decl. S. 22° 9'. 38". Greateft and leaft
magn. 4 — o. Period 494 days.

In the year 1604, 17th Odober, Kepler, and feveral of
his friend?, faw a new ilar near the heel of the right foot of
Serpentarius, particularly bright and fparkling ; and took
notice, that it was every moment changing into feme of the
colours of the rainbow, except when it was near the ho-
rizon, at which time it was generally white. It furpaffed

5

Jupiter in magnitude, but was eafily diftinguilhed from it
by the fteady light of that planet. It began to diminifti,
and ceafed to be vifible, Oftober i8th, 1605, ^"d ''^s not
been feen fince that time ; though Mr. Pigott has ex-
amined that part of the heavens with great care fince the
year 1782. R. afc. i7'> 18' o". Decl. S. 21° 10' 30".
Greateft and leaft magn. i — o.

Simon Marius difcovered another in Andromeda's girdle,
in 161 2 and 1613 ; though Builialdus fays, it had been feen
before in the 15th century.

The variations and period of S Lyrse were difcovered by
Mr. Goodricke. R. afc. 18'' 42' 1 1''. Decl. N. 33- 7' 46".
Greateft and leaft magn. 3 — 4.5. Period, not accurately
afcertained, 6"* 9''.

The new ftar difcovered by Don Anthelme in the Swan's
head, on the 20th of June, 1670, foon reached the third
magnitude, and, after feveral variations, difappeared in
1672. It was obferved of the fixth magnitude, by Hevelius,
in the years 1671, 1672 ; but fince that time has not been
feen, though Mr. Pigott muft have detected it, if it had
been of the tenth or eleventh magnitude. R. afc. 19'' 38' 58".
Decl. N. 26^ 48' 30". Greateft and leaft magn. 3 — o.

The ftar r, Antinoi was difcovered to be variable by Mr.
Pigott, who alfo determined its period. It continues 40''
at its greateft brightnefs, 30'' at its leaft, 66'' on its decreafe,
and 36'' on its increafe. R. afc. 19'' 41' 34". Decl. N.
0° 28' 14". Greateft and leaft magn. 3.4 — 5. Period
7'i 4I' 15'.

The ftar x '" the Swan's neck was difcovered to be
variable by Kirch, in 1686. Maraldi, CafTini, and M.
le Gentil, make its period 405 days ; whence Pigott con-
cludes that its period is variable, who ftates that it con-
tinues a fortnight at its full brightnefs. It takes about
3^ months to increafe from the eleventh magnitude to its
maximum brightnefs, and to decreafe to the eleventh again ;
fo that it may be regarded as invifible for fix months. At
its gre.itell luftre, it is fometimes of the fifth, and, at other
times, of the feventh magnitude. R. afc. 19'' 42' 21".
Decl. N. 32° 22' 58". Greateft and leaft magn. 5 — 0.
Period 396'' 21''.

The changeable ftar near ■>• in the Swan's breaft was ob-
ferved by William Janlenius and Kepler in 1600: it be-
came, 111 time, lo fmall as to be thought to have entirely
dilappearcd, until the years 1657, 1658, and 1659, whea
it recovered its former lullre and magnitude; but it foon
decayed. Pigott concludes, from the obfervations of the
17th century, that it continues about five years at its full
brightnefs ; that its luftre decreafes rapidly during, two
years ; that it is invifible to the naked eye during four years ;
and that it increafes flowly during feven years. At the end
of the year 1663, it was at its minimum brightnefs. From
November, 1 781, to 1786, Pigott always faw it of the
fixth magnitude ; though he fufpefts, that in 17S5, 1786,
it had rather decreafed. R. afc. 20*' 9' 54". Decl. N.
37° 22' 37". Greateft and leaft magn. 3 — o. Period
18 years.

The variation and period of J Cephei were difcovered by
Mr. Goodricke, and the period has been confirmed by Mr.
Pigott's obfervations. Its variations are not eafily per-
ceptible, unlefs at its minimum and maximum brightnefs.
R. afc. 22'' 21' o". Decl. N. 57° 20' o". Greateft and
leaft magn. 4.3 — 4.5. Period j"* S*" 37^'.

The variation and period of the ftar 64 or a Hercules
were difcovered by Dr. Herfchel, by comparing it with
X Ophiuchi. R. afc. 17" 4' 54". Decl. N. 14° 38'. Pe-
riod of variation 60:5 days.

The period and variations of a ftar in Sobicfiii's fliield,
having nearly the fame right afcenfion as the ftar /, and

fituated

STARS.

fituateJ about a degree farther fouth, were difcovered by-
Mr. Pigott, who h'di given the refult of his obfervations in
a table. R. afc. in 1796, 18" 36' 38". Decl. S. 5° 56'.
Greatell and leaft magn. 5 — 78. Period 62 days.

The ftar in the Northern Crown, ranked of the fixth
magnitude by Bayer, but omitted in Flamltead's Catalogue,
was fufpefted by Mr. Pigott, in 1783, to be variable ; and
his fufpicions were confirmed in the fpring of 1795, when
it became invifible. He faw it on the 20th of June in this
year, of the g. loth magnitude ; and in fix weeks afterwards,
it attained its full brightnefs ; and on the nth of Auguft,
1795, it was of the 6.7th magnitude, and fo continued for
about three weeks. In 3^ weeks it dccreafed to the
9. loth magnitude, and a few days afterwards it difappeared.
In April, 1796, it re-appeared ; and on the 7th of May it
reached the 9.10th magnitude, increafing as it had done on
the 20th of June, 1795. At its maximum brightnefs, it
exhibited great unfteadinefs. It then increafed, as before,
till it reached the 7.8th magnitude ; wavering between
thefe two magnitudes till Augufi, 1797. R. afc. in 1796,
15" 40' II". Decl. N. 28^ 49' 30". Greateft and leaft
magn. 6.7 — o. Period loi months.

The ilars that are fuppofed to be variable are the fol-
lowing: viz. Hevelius's 6 CafliopeicE ; R. afc. o'' 23' 16".

Decl. N. 60° 50'. Greateft and leaft magn. 7 — o:

46 or I Andromeds, fufpefted to be different ftars ; R. afc.
I** 9' 46". Decl. N. 44° 24'. Greateft and leaft magn.
4.5 — 5.6 : Flamftead's jo or v Andromedx ; R. afc.

in 1692 and 1693, it appeared of the fourth magnitude;
obferved by Mr. Pigott frequently fince 1782, without the
leaft variation ; always of the fourth magnitude, a little
brighter than 6, and decidedly brighter than i ; made by La
Caille of the fourth magnitude. R. afc. 6'' 54' 5". Decl.

-Pollux,

l" 24' 16". Decl. N. 40° 20' 15". Greateft and leaft

magn. 4.5 — o: Hevelius's 41 Andromcdse, probably

the fame with Tycho's Andromedae ; alfo, Flamftead's 50,
of the 4.5th magnitude ; Flamftead's t, of the fifth mag-
nitude; Flamftead's 49 and 52, and Hevelius's 41, all
three of the fame briglitnefs, are of the 5.6th magnitude.
A ftar between Hevelius's 41 and Flamftead's 52 is rather
lefs than the fixth magnitude : Tycho's 20 Ceti, pro-
bably X '" the Whale's belly, of the 4.5th magnitude, and
of the fame brightnefs as the three 1 Aquarii, which difap-
peared in the time of Hevelius ; R. afc. l^ 39'. Decl. S.

13° 20'. Greateft and leaft magn. 5 — o: Flamftead's

55 Andromeda, marked nebulous in his catalogue, obferved
to be a ftar of the fixth magnitude; R. afc. l'' 40' 30".

Decl. N. 39'' 40' 3". Greateft and leaft magn. 6 — o :

a- or the 17th Eridani, according to Ptolemy and Ulugh
Beigh, could not be feen by Flamftcad in 1691 and 1692 ;
but in 1782, 1783, and 1784, Mr. Pigott obferved in this
place a ftar of the feventh magnitude, without any variation
of brightnefs ; R. afc. 2'' 42'. Decl. S. 9° 40'. Greateft

and leaft magn. 4 — o: Flamftead's 41 Tauri, the 26th

of Ulugh Beigh, and the 43d of Tycho, fufpcfted by Caf-
fini to be new and variable, was feen by Ulugh Beigh and
Tycho, and found by Mr. Pigott, in 1784 and 1785,
to be of the fifth magnitude, as Hevelius made it, but
of the fixth magnitude, according to Flamftead ; R. afc.
3" 53' 27". Decl. N. 27° o' 39". Greatell and leaft

m.ign. 5 — 8 : The ftar 2° 15' N. of 53 Eridani, was

believed by Caftini to be a new ftar, and was not vifible
in 1664; but in 1784, Mr. Pigott obferved it to be lefs
than a: and </, brighter than A, and equal to J- Eridani ;
R. afc. 4'- 29'. Decl. S. 12° 30'. Greateft and leaft

magn. 4 — o: Flamftead's 47 Eridani was alfo fup-

polcd by Caffini to be a new one ; but in 1784 it appeared
to Mr. Pigott lefs than 46 Eridani. R. afc. 4'' 23' 54".

Decl. S. 8° 41' 40". Greateft and leaft magn. 4—0 :

The ftar y of the Great Dug is marked by Tycho,
Bayer, Hevelius, and Flamftcad, as of the third magnitude :
invifible in 1670, according to Maraldi and Montauari, but

S. I ^° 19' 36". Greateft and leaft mae". 3 — o ;
or ^ Gemini, was undoubtedly brighter in 1783, 1784, and
1785, than Caftor ; both made by Hevelius of the fecond
magnitude: Flamftead makes Caftor of the firft, and Pol-
lux of the fecond magnitude : La Caille makes Caftor of
the 1. 2d, and Pollux of tlie 2.3d magnitude: and Bradley
makes them both of the firft magnitude. R. afc. 7'' 32' 1 1".

Decl. N. 28° 31' 38". Greateft and leaft magn. 1—3 :

The ftar f Lconis is marked by Tycho, Bayer, Flamftead,
Mayer, and Bradley, of the fourth magnitude ; could
fcarccly be feen by Maraldi and Montanari in 1693 ; always
feen in 1783, 1784, and 1785, of the fifth magnitude, lei*
than A and t, and perhaps rather brighter than h and
ui Leonis. R. afc. 9'' 20' 4". Decl. N. 12° 14' 23".

Greateft and leaft magn. 5.6 — o : The ftar ^), Leonis is

faid to have difappeared in 1667, when it was feen by Mon-
tanari ; obferved by Maraldi in 1691, when it was very fmall ;
from 1 784 to 1786, always feen by Pigott of the 5.6th mag-
nitude, lefs than w, and brighter than /', Flamftead's 46th ;
made by Hevehus of the fifth, and by Flamftead of the
fixth magnitude. R. afc. 9'' 32' 3". Decl. N. 14^ 59' 36".

Greateft and leaft magn. 5.6 — o : The ftar 25 Leonis

was found by Mr. Pigott to be miffing in 1783, nor could
he lee it in 1784 and 1785. R. afc. 9" 46' 8". Decl. N.

12" 20' 36". Greateft and leaft magn. 6.7 — o : Bayer's

/ Leonis and Tycho's 16 Leonis was invifible in 1709 ;
and could not be feen by Pigott in 1785; nor is it the
/ Leonis of other catalogues. R. afc. 9 ' 52' 30". Decl.

N. 15° 30'. Greateft and leaft magn. 6 — o: * of the

Great Bear is marked of the fecond magnitude by Tycho
and the prince of Hefle ; but Heveliu";, La Caille, and
Bradley, mark it of the third. From 1783 to 178611 appeared
to Pigott as a bright fourth magnitude, rather lefs than 1,
equal to a, and rather brighter than k Draconis : Flamftead
makes it of the 2.3d magnitude. R. afc. 12'' 4' 45". Decl.

N. 58° 13*24". Greateft and leaft magn. 2 — 4: The

ftar n Virginis, though not in the charts of Bayer, was ob-
ferved by Ricciolus ; was not feen by Flamftead on the 27th
of January, 1680, though he muft have obferved it on the
)2th of May 1677, and fome years afterwards, as it is in his
catalogue; obferved frequently in 1784 and 1785, by
Pigott ; but it always appeared of the fixth magnitude, as
it is marked by Flamftead ; by Bradley it is of the fifth mag-
nitude. R. afc. 12'' 7' 43". Decl. N. o^ 24' 16".

Greateft and leaft magn. 6 — o: Bayer's ftar of the fixth

magnitude, 1° S. of y Virginis, could not be feen by Ma-
raldi, and looked for in vain by Pigott in May, 1785.
R. afc. I 2'' 53'. Decl. S. 10°. Greateft and leaft magn.

6—0 : The ftar in the Virgin's northern thigh is marked

by Ricciolus as of the 6th magnitude ; cculd not be feen by
Maraldi in 1709, nor by Pigott in 1785. R. afc. 13° 29'-f.

Decl. 8. 0° 30'. Greateft and leaft magn. 6 — o: 91

or 92 Virginis, the firft fuppofed by Pigott to be miffing
in 17S5 ; the other is of the 6.7th magnitude. R. afc.
13'' 43' 43". Decl. N. 2° 5' 50". Greateft and leaft magn.

6 — o : The ftar n Draconis is at prefcntonly of the 4th

magnitude, though Hevelius, Flamftead, and Bradley, m.irk it
of the third ; Pigott and Herfchel think it to be variable; La
Caille marks it of the third magnitude. R. ale. I3''58'^36'.
Decl. N. 65° 24' 8". Greatell and leaft magn. 2—4 :

Bayer's ftar in the Weft Scales of Libra, could not

be found by Maraldi, nor by Pigott in 1784 and 1785.

R. ale.

STARS.

R. afc. 14° ^3' 30". Decl. S. 13° 26'. Greateft and leall

magn. 4 — 7 : Ptolemy's and Ulugh Bcigh's N° 6 of the

unformed liars in Libra, is marked of the fourth magni-
tude, and neverthelefs does not appear in any modern cata-
logue ; in 1785, Mr. Pigott ofc-'n obferved a ttar of the
fevcnth magnitude very near its place, rather lefs than Flam-
ilead's 41. R. afc. 15" 29' + . Decl. S. 20" 30'. Greateft

and leaft magn. 4 — 7 : The ilar k Librae is marked by

Tycho and Bayer as of the fourth magnitude ; Hevelius
fays that it had difappeared : in the years 1783, 1784, and
1785, Pigott always found it of the fifth magnitude; but
Flamltead marks it of the fourth. R. afc. 15'' 29' 39".

Decl. S. 19° 58' 27'. Greatelt and leaft magn. 4 — 5 :

Tycho's II Librx could not be found by Hevelius and
Pigott ; the latter thinks that it never exifted, and that it is
the X, with an error of 2^ in loni^itude. R. afc. 15'' 37' 30".

Decl. S. 19° 30'. Greateft and leaft magn. 4 — o :

The ttar 33 Serpentis was found to be mifling in 1784 and
1785, by Pigott. R. afc. ij"" 38'. Decl. N. 17^ 14'.

Greateft and leaft magn. 6 — o : Bayer's ftar, near ; of

the Great Bear, could not be feen by Caffini ; nor could
Pigott find any ftar near the e brighter than the 7.8th mag-
nitude. R.afc. 16" 15'. Decl.'N.82°45'. Greateft and

leaft magn. 6 — o : The ftar p, or Ptolemy's and Ulugh

Beigh'8 14th of Ophiuchus, or Flamftead' 36th, is faid to
have difappeared before 169J ; could not be found by He-
velius ; but Pigott found it in 1784 atid 1785 of the 4.5th
magnitude, much brighter than 39, rather brighter than 51
and 58, and lefs than 44. R. ale. 17'' 2' 14". Decl. S.

26^ 15' 37". Greateft and leaft magn. 4 — o : Ptolemy's

ijth Ophiuchi. R. afc. 17^ 18' +. Decl. S. 20° 35'.

-Ptolemy's iSthOphiuchi.
10'. Greateft and leaft

Greateft and leaft magn. 4 — o:-

R. afc. 17" 22'. Decl. S. 24'
magn. 5 — o. Thefe two laft-mentioned ftars feem to have
difappeared; however, Mr. Pigott tlitnks that the 13th
Ophiuchi is Flamiiead's 40th, and that the 1 8th Ophiu-
chi (hould be marked with north inftead of fouth lati-
tude, which would make it coincide nearly with Flamftead's

58th : The ftar t Sagiltarii is thought by Dr. Hcrfchel

and Mr. Pigott to be variable ; in 17S3, 1784, and 1785,
he obferved it to be of the 2.8th magnitude, and brighter
than TT Sagiltarii. Hevelius makes it of tiie fourth, and
La Caille of the 2.3d magnitude. K . afc. 1 8'' 42'. Decl.

S. 26° 32' 34". Greateft and leaft magn. 2 — 4: The

ftar 6 Serpentis was obferved by Tycho, Bayer, Hevelius,
and Flamftead, to be of the third magnitude ; according to
Montanari, it was of the fifth ; it was frequently obferved
in 1783, 1784, and 1785, by Pigott, without any percep-
tible change of luftre, always of the fourth magnitude, lefs
than J Aquils and P Ophiuchi ; La Caille makes it of the
4.3d magnitude. R. afc. iS"" 45' 35". Decl. N. 3° 56' 36".

Greateft and leaft magn. 4 — 5 : Tycho's 27 Capri-

corni could not be feen by Hevehus nor by Pigott. R.
afc. 211^ 41' o". Decl. 8. 14° 28' o". Greateft and leaft

magn. 6 — o: Tycho's 22 Andromedce, at the end of

the chain, was, as CafTini obferves, fo fmall, that it could
fcarcely be feen : Pigott could find no ftar in its place near
the two r Cygni, in 1784 and 1785. R. afc. 21'' 43' 30".

Decl. N. 49° 15'. Greateft and leaft magn. 4 — o:

Tycho's 19th Aquarii was marked as mifling by Hevelius,
Ror could Flamftead fee it with his naked eye ; Pigott is con-
fident that it IS the fame with Flamftead's 56th, marked
y by Bayer, from which it is only i^° diftant. R. afc.
22''25'. Decl. S. 15° 55' o". Greateftandleaft magn. 6 — o:

« The ftar 0 And.omedae is, according to Pigott, lefs

than 0- Cephei, equal to ^ CalTiopeix, or perhaps brighter
than it, and brighter than A, r, or > AndromedK. R. afc.

22'' 52' 6". Decl. N. 41° 10' 45". Greateft and leatt

magn. 4 — 6 : La Caille's 483 Aquarii was found by

Pigott mining in 1778, nor could he fee it in 1783 or 1784.
R.afc. 22" 55' 40". Decl. S. 8° 50' 45".

The following 13 itars are ranked by Dr. Herfchel
among thofe that are loft, or have undergone fome great
change; -uiz. 80 and 81 Hercules; 71 Hercules; 55 Her-
cules ; 56 Cancer ; 19 Perfeus ; 108 Pifces ; 73 and 74.
Cancer ; 8 Hydrs ; 26 Cancer ; 62 Orion ; 34 Berenice's
Hair ; and 19 Berenice's Hair. The following ar-: rec-
koned by Dr. Herfchel among thofe that have undergone
a change of magnitude fince the time of Flamftead : viz.
a Draconis, a, Ceti, ^ Serpentis, n in the Swan, the 2 of
the Great Bear, y, Bootes, i Dolphin, /S Triangle, y Eagle,
<7 Sagittarius, J of the Great Dog, k Serpent, k Serpenta-
rius, /S of the Little Hoife, J Dolphin, s Bootes, i in the
Arrow, ^ in the Great B?ar, « Great Bear, ift and 2d
Hydrs^, y Lyra;, 31ft and 34th of the Dragon, 44 Cancer,
96 Tauri, 62 Aries, 12 and 14 Lynx, 38 Perfeus, 6 Per-
feus, i Unicorn, 23 Gemini, 26 Orion, and J Lion. The
following are marked by Dr. Herfchel among the ftars that
have recently become vifible ; I'iz. a ftar in the end of the
Lizard's tail, of the 4-5th magnitude ; the ftar of the
eighth magnitude following r Perfeus, probably new ; a ftar
near the head of Cephens, not given by Flamftead ; a con-
fiderable ftar in a direftion from the 68th to the 61ft Gemini,
not in Flamftead's catalogue ; a ftar of confiderable bright-
nefs, preceding the firft of the Little Horfe, not given by
Flamftead ; a confiderable ftar, following the firft of the
Sextant, and another following the 7th, not in Flamftead's
catalogue ; a remarkable ftar between (S and ^ Hydra, not
given by Flamftead ; a ftar nearly l° 30' N. following
o Hercules, in the direction of i and v, and of the 4-5th
magnitude, not given by Flamftead ; a ftar of the 6th mag-
nitude, about 3° S. preceding 7 Bootes, and another of
the fame fir.e, preceding X, not obferved by Flamftead.
Phil. Tranf. for 1783, vol. Ixxiii. p. 247, Sec.

From the old catalogue?, it is certain that many of the
ancient ftars are not now vifible : this has been particularly
remarked with regard to the Pleiades : and it is equally cer-
tain, as we have now (hewn, that fome have become vifible.

M. Montanari, in his letter to the Royal Society in 1670,
obferves, that there are now wanting in the heavens two ftars
of the fecond magnitude, in the ftern of the ftiip Argo and
its yard, which had been feen till the year 1664. When they
firft difappeared is not known ; but he aftures us there was
not the lealt ghmpfe of them in 1668. He adds he has ob-
ferved many more changes in the fixed ftars, even to the
number of a hundred.

Many other changes in the ftars have been taken notice of
by Caffini, Maraldi, and other obfervers. See Gregory's
Aftr. lib. ii. prop. 30, and the preceding part of this
article.

As none of thefe ftars could ever be perceived to have
tails, it is plain they could not be comets ; cfpecially as they
had no parallax, even when largeil and brighteft. It is not
improbable tiiat the periodical Itars have vait clufters of dark
fpots, and very flow rotations on their axes, by which
means they mull difappear when the fide covered with fpots
is turned towards us. And as for thofe which break out
on a fudden with fuch luftre, thefe may, perhaps, be funs
whofe fuel is almoft fpent, and again fupplied by fome of
their comets faUing upon them, and occafioning an uncom-
mon blaze and fplendour for fome time; which has been
conjeftured to be one ufe of the cometary part of any
fyftem.

M. Maupertuis, in his'Differtation on the Figures of the

Celeftial

STARS.

Celeftial Bodies (p. 6i — 63. )> is of opinion, tliat fome
ftars, by their prodigious fwift rotation on their axes, may
not only aflume the figures of oblate fpheroids, but that by
the great centrifugal force ar'fing from Uich rotation'!, they
lij^y become of the figures of mill-ftoncs, or be reduced to
flat circular planes, f) tliin, as to be quite invifible when
their edges are turned towards us, a' Saturn's ring i; in fuch
pofition. But when very eccentric plamts or co nets go
round any flat ftar in orbits much inclined to its equator, the
attraftion of the planets or comets in their pcniiciions mult
alter the inclination of the axes of that itar; on which ac-
count it will appear more or lefs large and luminous, as its
broad fide is more or lefs turned towards us. And thus he
imagines we may account for the apparent changes of mag-
nitude and luftre of thole ftars, and likewife for their ap-
pea-ing and dilappeaiing.

Hevelius (Cometograi)h. p. 380.) apprehends, that the
fun and ftars are furrounded with atmofpheres, and that,
whirling round their axes with great rapidity, they throw
off great quantities of matter into thofe atmofpheres, and
thereby caufe great changes in them ; and that thus it may
come to pafs, that a ftar, which when its atmofphere is clear,
fhines out with great luftre, may at an<ither time, when it is
full of clouds and thick vapours, appear grejtly dimiiiifhed in
brightnefs and magnitude, or even become quite invifible.

The periodica! variation in the light of the ftars has alfo
been afcribed to the interpofition of the planets which cir-
culate around them ; but it is by no means probable, that
thefe planets, even if they do exill, are lufficiL-ntlv large to
obftrudt anv large portion of their light. Even when feen
from the earth, the light of our own fun is not fenfibly im-
paired, when Mercury and Venus are pafting over his difc.

The ingenious Mr. Pigott has ventured a ftep farther
than any of his prcdtceilors in this branch of attronomy.
In his inveftigation of the phenomena exhibited by the va-
riable ftar of Subieflii's ftiield, the periodical changes of
which are affefted by very fingular anomalies, he fuppofes,
that the greater part of its dilc is unenlightened ; and that
a few luminous fpot", placed at certain intervals, produce,
by the rotation of the ftar, all, the variations which have
been obferved. Mr. Pigott fuppofes, that the body of the
ftars is dark and folid ; that iheir rotation on their axes is
regular; and that the furroui;ding medium is occafionally
generating and abforbing its luminous particles, by a pro-
cefs fimilar to what Dr. Hcrfchel fuppofes is going on in
the atmofphere of the lun. He imagines, that thefe lu-
minous panicles are fparingly dilperfed in the atmofphere
of the variable ftar of Sobielki, from the circumftance of its
diminiftiing even to the ninth magnitude ; and as the dura-
tion of its full luftre continues only about 9^ days, while it
performs a complete rotation in 62 days, he confiders the
luminous fpots to be f imewhat circular, and of no great
extent. Since this fmall portion of light may naturally be
fuppofed to diminifti and finally difappear, Mr. Pigott
imagines, that this may have been the caufe of the difap-
pearance of the new ftars of 1572 and 1604. Hence he
concludes, that there are others which have never fliewn a
glimpfe of brightnefs ; and that there are " primary in-
vifible bodies, or unenlightened (lars, that have ever remained
in eternal darknefs." Following out this notion, Mr. Pi-
ott conceives, that clulters of thefe dark bodies may be
ound, .".nd by intercepting " all more diltant rays," may
appear like dark fpaccs in the heavens, fimilar to what has
been obferved in the foufhern hemifpherc.

Star.s, As for the Nature of the fixed, their immenfe
diftance leaves u^ greatly at a lofs about it. What we can
gather for certain from their phenomena is as follows :

1 . That the fixed ftars are greater than our earth : be-
9

I

caufe, if that was not the cafe, they could not be vifible at
fuch an immenfe diftance.

2. The fixed ftars are farther diftant from the earth than
the farthe!t of the planets. For we frequently find the
fixed ftars hid behind the moft diftant of the planets: and
befides, they are fuppofed to have no parallax, which the
planets have.

3. The fixed ftars ftiine with their own liirht ; for they
are much farther from the fun than the rcmoteft planet, and
appear much fmaller ; but fince, notwithftaiiding this, they
are found to fhine much brighter than fuch planet, it is evi-
dent they cannot borrow their light from the fame fource aa
that does, viz. the fun ; but fince we know of no other
luminous body befide the fun, whence they might derive their
light, it follows, that they ftiine with their own native light.

Belides, it is known, that the more a telefcope mag-
nifies, ti.e lefs is the aperture through which the ftar is feen ;
and, confequently, the fewer rays it admits into the eye.
Now fince the ftars appear lefs in a telefcope which mag-
nifies two hundred times, than they do to the naked eye,
infomuch that they feem to be only mdivifible points, it
proves at once that the ftars are at immenfe dillances from
us, and that they fhine by their own proper light. If they
fhone by borrowed lifjht, they would be as invifible without
telefcopes as the fatellites of Jupiter are ; for thefe fatellites
appear bigger, when viewed with a good telefcope, than
the larijeft fixed ftars do. Hence,

1. We deduce, that the fixed ftars are fo many funs ; for
they have all the charafters of funs.

2. That, in all probability, the ftars are not fmaller than
our fun.

3. That it is highly probable, that each ftar is the centre
of a fyllem, and has planets or earths revolving round it, in
the lame manner as round our fun, ;'. e. it has opaque bodies
illuminated, warmed, and cherifhed by its light. As we
have incomparably more light from the moon than from all
the ftars together, it is abfnrd to imagine that the ftars were
made for no other purpofe than to caft a faint light upon the
earth ; efpecially fince many more require the affiftance of a
good teleicope to find them out than are vifible without
that inUrument. Our fun is furrounded by a fyftem of
planets and comets, all which would be invifible from the
neareft fixed ftar ; and from what we already know of the
immenfe diftance of the ftars, it is eafy to prove, that the
fun, feen from fuch a dillaiice, would appear no bigger than
a ftar of the firft magn-itude.

From all this it is highly probable, that each ftar is a fun
to a lyftem of worlds moving round it, though unfeen by
us ; efpecially as the doArine of a plurality of worlds is
rational, and greatly manifefts the power, wifdom, and good-
iiefs of the great Creator.

How immenfe, then, does the univerfe appear ! Indeed,
it muft either be infinite, or infinitely near it.

Kepler, it is true, denies that each ftar can have its
fyftem of planets as our's has ; and takes them all to be fixed
in the fame furface or fphere ; urging, that were one twice
or thrice as remote as another, it would appear twice or
thrice as fmall, Inppofing their real magnitudes equal;
whereas there is no difterence in their apparent magnitudes,
jullly obferved, at all. But to this we oppofe, that Huy-
gens has nut only ftiewn that fires and flames are vifible at
diftances where other bodies, comprehended under equal
angles, difappear; but it (hould likewile feem, that the
optic theorem about the apparent diameters of objeii^s,
being reciprocally proportioiul to their diftances from the
eye, does only hold while the diameter of the object hsa
fome (enfible ratio to its dillaiiee.

As for periodical ftars, &c, fee Chan^et, &c. of&TAV.s,fupra,

Stars,

STARS.

Stars, Motion of the. The fixed ftars have two kinds
of apparent motion ; one called the firft, common., or diurnal
motion, arifing from the earth's motion round its axis : by
this they feem to be carried along with the fphere, or firma-
ment, (in which they appear fixed,) round the earth, from
eaft to wefl, in the fpace of twenty-four hours.

The other, called the feconil, or proper motion, is that by
which they appear to go backwards from well to eaft, round
the poles of the ecliptic, with fuch flownefs, as not to
defcribe above a degree of their circle in the fpace of
72.,years, or 50 feconds in a year.

This apparent motion is owing to the recetlion of the
equinoftial points, which is 50 feconds of a degree in a year
backward, or contrary to the order of the figns of the zodiac.

Some have imagined, but it is unknown on what grounds,
that when they are got round to the points whence they
firft departed, nature will have finiftied her courfe, and the
ilars having performed their career, the heavens will remain
at reft ; unlefs the Being, who iirft gave ihem motion, ap-
point them to begin another circuit.

On the footing of this calculation, the world fhould laft
about 30,000 years, according to Ptolemy; 25,816, ac-
cording to Tycho ; 25,920, according to Riccioli; and
24,800, according to CafTmi.

In confequence of this fecond motion, the longitude of
the ftars will be always increafing.

Thus, e.gr. the longitude of Cor Leonis was found by
Ptolemy, A.D. 138, to be 2° 30'; in 1115, it was ob-
ferved by the Perfians to be 17° 30'; in 1364, by Al-
phonfus, 70° 40' ; in 1586, by the prince of Htfle, 24" 11';
in 1601, by Tycho, 24° 17'; and in 1690, by Mr. Flam-
ffead, 25^ 31' 20" ; whence the proper motion of the ftars,
according to the order of the figns in circles parallel to the
echptic, is cafily inferred.

It was Hipparchus who firft fufpefted this motion, upon
comparing the obfervations of Timocharis and Ariftyllus
with his own. Ptolemy, who lived three centuries after Hip-
parchus, demonftrated the fame by undeniable arguments.

Tycho Brahe makes the iiicre.ife of longitude in a cen-
tury l°25'; Copernicus, 1^23' 40" 12'"; Flamftead and
Ricciolus, 1° 23' 20" ; BuUialdus, 1° 24' 54" ; Hevelius,
1° 24' 46" 50'" ; whence, with Flamftead, the annual increafe
of the longitudes of the fixed ftars may be well fixed at 50".

From thefe data, the increafe of the longitude of a ftar
for any given time is eafily had ; and hence the longitude of
a ftar for any given year being given, its longitude for any
other year is readily found : e.gr. the longitude of Sirius, in
Mr. Flamftead's tables, for the year 1690, being 9° 49' i";
its longitude for the year 1724 is found by multiplying
the interval of time, u/z. 34 years, by 50" ; the product
1700", or 28' 20", added to the given longitude, will give
the longitude required, 10° 17' 21". By means of this cor-
reftion, applied as the cafe requires, the longitudes of the
ftars, tranfcribed from any tables, may be adapted to the
prefent or any given time.

The principal phenomena of the fixed ftars, arifing from
their common and proper motion, befides their longitude,
are their altitudes, right afcenfions, declinations, occult-
ations, culminations, rifings, and fettings. See AltitudEj
Ascension, Declination, and Occultation.

Some have fuppofed that the latitudes of the ftars are in-
variable ; but this fuppofition is founded on two affump-
tions, which are both controverted among aftronomers ; one
is, that the orbit of the earth continues unalterably in the
fame plane, and confequeiitly that the ecliptic is invariable,
the contrary of which is now very generally allowed. See
Ecliptic.

The other alTumption is, that the ftars are fo fixed as

to keep their places immoveably. Ptolemy, Tycho, and
others, comparing the obfervations of ancient aftronomers
with their own, have adopted this opinion. But from the
refult of the comparifon of our bett modern obfervations,
with fuch as were formerly made with any tolerable degree
of exaftnefs, there appears to have been a real change in the
pofition of fome of the fixed ftars, with refpedl to each
other ; and feveral ftars of the firft magnitude have already
been obferved, and others fufpefted to have a proper mo-
tion of their own.

Dr. Halley (Phil. Tranf. N° 355, or Jones's Abr. vol. iv.
p. 225.) has obferved, that the IJuIl's eye, Sirius, and Arc-
turus, are now found to be about half a degree more
foutherly than the ancients reckoned them : that this dif-
ference cannot anfe from the errors of the tranfcribers, be-
caufe the declination of the ftars, fet down by Ptolemy, as
obferved by Timocharis, Hipparchus, and himfelf, fhew
their latitudes given by him are fuch as thofe authors in-
tended ; and it is fcarcely to be believed, that thofe three
obfervers could be deceived in fo plain a matter. To this
he adds, that the bright ftar in the ftioulder of Orion has,
in Ptolemy, almoft a whole degree more foutherly latitude
than at prefent : that an ancient obfervation, made A.D.
509, at Athens, as Bullialdus fuppofes, of an appulfe of
the moon to the Bull's eye, ftiews that ftar to have had lefs
latitude at that time than it now has ; that as to Sirius, it
appears by Tycho's obfervations, that he found him 4^
more northerly than he is at this time. All thefe obferva-
tions, compared together, feem to favour an opinion, that
fome of the ftars have a proper motion of their own, which
changes their places in the fphere of heaven : this change of
place, as Dr. Halley obferves, may ihew itfelf in fo long a
time as 1 800 years, though it be entirely imperceptible in
the fpace of one fingle century ; and it is likely to be fooneft
difcovered in fuch ftars as thofe juft now mentioned, becaufe
they are all of the firft magnitude, and may, therefore,
probably be fome of the neareft to our folar fyftem. Arc-
turus, in particular, aff^ords a ftrong proof of this : for if
its prefent declination be compared with its place as deter-
mined either by Tycho or Flamftead, the difference will be
found to be much greater than what can be fufpefted to
arife from the uncertainty of their obfervations. See Arc-
TURU.S, and Mr. Hornft^y's Inquiry into the Quantity and
Direftion of the proper Motion of Arfturus, Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixiii. part i. p. 93, &c.

Upon the whole, we have reafon to conclude, that there
is not, ftriftly fpeaking, zuy Ji.vetl ftar in the heavens ; and
to admit the general motion of all the ftarry fyftems, and
confequently of the folar one among tlie reft.

For an account of Dr. Bradley's obfervations, fee the
fequel of this article.

Dr. Herfchel has alfo lately obferved, that the diftance
of the two ftars forming the double ftar y Draconis, Fl. 24
and 25, is 54" 48'", and their pofition 44° 19' N. preceding.
Whereas, from the right afcenfion and declination of thefe
ftars in Flamftead's Catalogue, their diftance, in his time,
appears to have been j' ii".4i8, and their pofition 44° 23'
N. preceding. Hence he infers, that as the difference
in the diftance of thefe two ftars is fo confiderable, we can
hardly account for it, otherwife than by admitting a proper
motion in one or the other of the ftars, or in our folar fyf-
tem : moft probably, he fays, neither of the three is at reft.
He alfo fufpefts a proper motion in one of the double ftars
in Cauda Lyncia media, Fl. 38, and in 0 Ceti, Fl. 68. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixxii. parti, p. 117. 143. 150.

It is reafonable to expeft, that other inftances of the like
kind mull alfo occur among the great number ef vifible
ttars, becaufe their relative pofitions may be altered by

various

STARS.

^^rious means. For if our own folar fyftem be conceived
to change it? place with refpeA to abfolute fpace, tliis
might, in procefs of time, occafion an apparent change in
the asngular diftanccs of the fixed ftars ; and in fuch a cafe,
the places of the nearefl (tars being more affefted than of
thofe that arc very remote, their relative pofition might
feem to alter, though the ftars themfelves were really im-
moveable : and vice •verfii, we may furmife, from the ob-
ferved motion of ihu ilars, that our fun, with all his planets
and comets, may have a motion towards fome particular part
of the heavens, on account of a greater quantity of matter
coUefted in a number of flars and their iiirrouuding planets
there fituated, which may perhaps occafion a gravitation of
our whole fular fyltem towards it. If this lurmife ftiould
have any foundation, as Dr. Herfchel obferves, ubi/uprn,
p. 103, it will fhew itfelf in a ferics of fome years ; as from
that motion will arife another kind of hitherto unknown
parallax (fuggefted by Mr. Michell, Phil. Tranf. vol. Ivii.
p. 252.1, the inveltigation of which may account for fome
part of the motions already obferved in fome of the princi-
pal itars ; and for the purpofe of determining the direftion
and quantity ot fuch a motion, accurate obfervations of the
didance of ftars that are near enough to be meafured with
a micrometer, and a very high power of telefcopes, may be
of confiderable ufe, as they will undoubtedly give us the
relative places of thofe ftars to a much greater degree of
accuracy than they can be had by tranfit inltruments or fee-
lers, and thereby much fooner enable us to difcover any ap-
parent change in their fituation, occafioned by this new kind
of fyftematical parallax, jf we may fo exprefs the change
arifing from the motion of the whole folar lyftem. For an
account of Dr. Herlchel's theory of the annual parallax of
double ftars, w'ith the method of computing from thence
what is generally called the parallax of the fixed ftars, or of
fingle ftars of the firft magnitude, fuch as are ncarell to us,
fee the preceding part of this article, under Dtftance of the
Star.s.

On the other hand, if our fyftem be at reft, and any of
the ftars really in motion, this might likewife vary their ap-
parent pofitions ; and the more fo, the nearer they arc to us,
or the fwifter their motions are, or the more proper the di-
reftion of the motion is to be rendered perceptible by us.
Since then the relative places of the ftars may be changed
from fuch a variety of caufes, confidering the amazing dif-
tance at which it is certain fome of them are placed, it may
require the obfervations of many ages to determine the laws
of the apparent changes even of a llngle ilar ; much more
difficult, therefore, muft it be to iettle the laws relating to
all the moft remarkable ftars.

When the caufes which afleft the places of all the ftars in
general are known, fuch as the precellion, aberration, and
nutation ; it may be of fingular ufe to examine nicely the
relative fituations of particular liars, and elpecially of thofe
of the greateft luftre, which, it may be prelumed, lie nearell
to us, and may therefore be lubjetl to more linfible changes,
either from their own motion, or from that of our fyftem.
And if at the lame time that the brighter ftars are compared
with each other, we likewiic determine the relative pofitions
of fome of the imallcft that appear near them, whole places
can be afcertained with fufiicient exactncfs, we may perhaps
be able to judge to what caufe the change, if any be ob-
fervable, is owing. The uncertainty tiiat we are at preleiit
under, with refpcCl to the degree of accuracy with which
former aftronomers could oblerve, makes us unable to deter-
mine feveral thing 'clat !ng fo this fubjedt ; but the im-
provements which have of late )-ars been mauc in the me-
thods of taking the pi -"e!! of f|ie heavenly bodies are fo
great, that a few year, n.ay hereatter be fuliicient to fettle

Vol. XXXIII.

fome pomts, which cannot now be fettled, by comparing'
even the earlieft obfervations with thofe of the prefent age.

The firft pcrfon who pointed out the method of invc-fti-
gating the parallax of the ftars, by taking thedit'.ai.cea from
the zenith of thofe that pafs very near it, was Galileo. The
execution of this method was alfo attempted by Hnke,
Flamftead, Molyneux, and Bradley. See Dtftance of the
Staus, fiipra.

Dr. Hooke communicated feveral obfervations on the ap-
parent motions of the fixed ftars ; and as this was a matter
of great importance in aftronomy, feveral of the learned
were defiroui of verifying and confirming his obfervations.
An inftrument was accordingly contrived by Mr. George
Graham, and executed with lurprifing exaftnefs.

With this inftrument the liar -/, in the conftellation Draco,
vvas frequently obferved by Mellrs, Molyneux, Bradley, and
Graham, in the years 172J, 1726; and the obfervations were
afterwards repeated by Dr. Bradley with an inftrument con-
trived by the fame ingenious perfon, Mr. Graham, and In
exaft, that it might be depended on to half a fecond. The
refult of thefe obfervations was, that the ftar did not always
appear in the fame place, but that its diftance from the
zenith varied ; and that the difference of the apparent place*
of Themis, the third fatcUite of Jupiter, amounted to 21
or 22 feconds. Similar obfervations were made on other
ftars, and a like apparent motion was found in them, pro-
portional to the latitude of the ftar. This motion was by
no means fuch as was to have been expected, as the cfTcd of
a parallax ; and it was fome time before any way could be
found of accounting for this new phenomenon. At length
Dr. Bradley refolved all its variety, in a fatisfaftory manner,
by tlie motion of light and the motion of the earth com-
pounded together. See Light, and Phil. Tranf. N° 406.
p. 364, or Abr. vol. vi. p. 149, &c.

Our excellent aftronomer. Dr. Bradley, had no fooner
difcovered tlie caufe, and fettled the laws of the aberration
of the fixed ftars, than his attention was again excited by
another new phenomenon, w-. ax\ annual change of declina-
tion in fome of the fixed ftars, which appeared to be feiifibly
greater than a preceffion of the equinoctial points of 50" m
a year, the mean quantity now ulually allowed by aftrono-
mers, would have occafioned.

This apparent change of declination was obferved in the
ftars near the cquinodtial colure, and there appearing at the
fame time an efl'eft of a quite contrary nature in fome ftars
near the lolftitial colure, which feemed to alter their declina-
tion lefs than a precefiion of 50" required. Dr. Bradley was
thereby convinced, that all the phenomena in tiie different
ftars could not be accounted for merely by fuppofing that
he had allumed a wrong quantity for the precefiion of the
equinodtial points. He had alfo, after many trials, fufficient
reafon to conclude, that thefe fecond unexpected deviations
of the ftars were not owing to any imperfection of his in-
ftruments. At length, from repeated obfervations, he b'gan
to guefs at the real caufe of thefe phenomena.

It appeared from the doctor's obfervations, during his
refideiicc at Wanftcad, from the year 1727 to 1732, that
fome of the ftars near the foMitial colure had changed their
declinations y" or 10" lefs tiiai. a prccciriou of 50 would
have produced ; and, at the fume tiine, that o;>,iMii near the
cquinodtial colure had altered theirs about ihe unit quantity
more than a like preceffion Wviuld have occafioned ; the
north pole of the equator feeniini; to have appro..eaed the
flara which come to the meridian witi the fun about the
vernal equinox and the winter folftite ; 41. J to luve recn'.ed
from thofe which come to the meiidian with '''c fun about
t.he autun iial equinox and the lutrmer folltice.

From the confid'-'aljoii of tln.ic clrcumftaIlC^.^, and the
{ £ luuution

STARS.

iltuation cf the afcending node of the moon's orbit when he
firll began to make his obfervations, he fufpcfted that the
moon's aftion upon the equatorial parts of the earth might
produce thefe efFeas. For if the preceffion of the equinox
be, according to fir Ifaac Newton's principles, caufed by
the adions of the fun and moon upon thofe parts ; the
plane of the moon's orbit being, at one time, above ten
degrees more inclined to the plane of the equator than at
another, it was reafonable to conclude, that the part of the
whole annual preceflion which arifes from her iclion, would,
in different years, be varied in its quantity ; whereas the
plane of the ecliptic, in which the fun appears, keeping al-
ways nearly the fame inclination to the equator, that part
of the prccefTion which is owing to the fun's aftion, may
be the fame every year ; and from hence it would follow,
that althout^h the mean annual preceffion, proceeding from
the joint adions of the fun and moon, were 50" ; yet the
apparent annual preceffion might fometimes exceed, and
fometimes fall iliort of that mean quantity, according to the
various fituations of the nodes of the moon's orbit.

In the year 1727, the moon's afcending node was near
the beginning of Aries, and confequently her orbit was as
much inclined to the equator as it can ?X any time be ; and
then the apparent annual preceffion was found, by the doc-
tor's firft year's obfervations, to be greater than the mean ;
which proved, that the Itars near the equinodial coliire,
whofe declinations are mod of all affeded by the preceffion,
had changed theirs above a tenth part more than a pre-
ceffion of 50" would have caufed. The fucceeding year's
obfervations proved the fame thing ; and in three or four
years time the difference became fo confiderablc, as to leave
no room to fufped it was owing to any imperfeftion either
of the inftrument or cbfervation.

But fome of the ftars that were near the folllitial colure
liavint? appeared to move, during the fame time, in a manner
contrary to what they ought to have done, by an increafe of
the preceffion ; and the deviations in tliem being as remark-
able as in the others; it was evident that fcmething more than
a mere change in the quantity of the preceffion would be re-
quifite to folve this part of the phenomenon. Upon com-
paring the obfervations of liars near the folllitial colure
that were almoil oppofite to each other in right afcenfion,
they were found to be equally affeded by this caufe. For
whilft y Draconis appeared to have moved northward, the
fmall fl'ar, which is the 3Jth Camelopardah Hevelii in the
Britifh Catalogue, feemed to have gone as much towards
the fouth ; which fhewed, that this apparent motion in both
thofe ftars might proceed from a nutation of the earth's
axis ; whereas the companfon of the dodor's obfervations
of the fame ftars, formerly enabled him to draw a different
conclufioii with refpeft to the caufe of the annual aberra-
tions arifing from the motion of hght. For the apparent
alteration in 7 Draconis, from that caufe, being as great
again a.i in the other fmall ftar, proved that that did not
proceed from a nutation of tlie earth's axis ; as, on the con-
trary', this may. Upon making the like comparifon between
the obfervation of other ftars that lie nearly oppofite in
right afcenfion, whatever their fituations were with refped
to the cardinal points of the equator, it r.ppeared that
their change of dechnation was nearly equal, but contrary ;
and fuch as a nutation or motion of the earth's axis would
effed.

The moon's afcending node being got back towards the
beginning of Capricorn in the year 17,52, the ftars near the
equinodial colure appeared about that time to change their
declinations no more than a preceffion of 50" required ;
whiHl f >me of thofe near the folftitial colure altered theirs
above 2" in a year lefs than they ought. Soon after, the an-

6

nual change of declination of the former was perceived to

be diminifhed, fo as to become lefs than 50" of preceffion
would caufe ; and it continued to diminifh till the year
1736, when the moon's afcending node was about the be-
ginning of Libra, and her orbit had the leail inclination to
the equator. But by this time, fome of the ifars near the
folllitial colure had altered their declinations 18" lefs fince
the year 1727, than they ought to have done from a pre-
ceffion of 50". For "/ Draconis, which in thofe nine years
would have gone about 8'' more foutherly, was obferved, in
1736, to appear 10" more northerly than it did in the year

1727-

As this appearance in y Draconis indicated a diminution
of the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the
ecliptic, and as feveral aftronomers have fuppofed that in-
clination to diminifh regularly ; if this phenomenon de-
pended upon fuch a caufe, and amounted to 18" in nine
years, the obliquity of the ecliptic would, at that rate, alter
a whole minute in thirty years ; which is much faller than
any obfervations before made would allow. The dodor
had therefore reafon to think, that fome part of this motion
at lealt, if not the whole, was owing to the moon's adion
upon the equatorial parts of the earth, which, he conceived,
might caufe a libratory motion of the earth's axis. But as
he was unable ro judge, from only nine years' obfervations,
whether the axis would entirely recover the fame pofition
that it had in the year 1727, he found it neceffary to con-
tinue his obfervations through a whole period of the moon's
nodes ; at the end of which he had the latisfadion to fee,
that the itars returned into the fame pofitions again, as if
there had been no alteration at all in the inclination of the
earth's axis, which fully convinced him that he had gueffed
rightly as to. the caufe of the phenomenon. This circum-
flance proves likewife, that if there be a gradual diminution
of the obliquity of the ecliptic, it does not arifc only from
an alteration in the pofition of the earth's axis, but rather
from fome change in the plane of the ecliptic itfelf ; becaufe
the liar-, at the end of the period of the moon's nodes, ap-
peared in the fame places, with refped to the equator, as
tiiey ought to have done if the earth's axis had retained the
fame inclination to an invariable plane.

The dodor having communicated thefe obfervations, and his
fufpicion of their caufe, to the late Mr. Machin, that excellent
geometer foon after fent him a table, containing the quantity
of the annual preceffion in the various pofitions of the moon's
nodes, as alfo the correfponding nutations of the earth's
axis ; which was computed upon the fuppofition that the
mean annual preceffion is 50", and that the whole is go-
verned by the pole of the moon's orbit only ; and, therefore,
Mr. Machin imagined, that the numbers in the table would
be too large, as, in fad, they were found to be. But it ap-
peared that the changes which Dr. Bradley had obferved,
both in the annual preceffion and nutation, kept the fame
law, as to increafing and decreafing, with the numbers of
Mr. Machin's table. Thofe were calculated upon the fup-
pofition, that the pole of the equator, during a period of
the moon's nodes, moved round in the periphery of a little
circle, whofe centre was 23° 29' diftant from the pole of the
ecliptic ; having itfelf alfo an angular motion of 50" in a
year about the fame pole. The north pole of the equator
was conceived to be in that part of the fmall circle which
is fartheit from the north pole of the ecliptic, at the time
when the moon's afcending node is in the beginning of
Aries ; and in the oppofite point of it, when the fame node
is in Libra.

If the diameter of the little circle, in which the pole of
the equator moves, be fuppofed equal to 18", which is the
whole quantity of the nutation, (which fee,) as coUeded from

Dr.

STARS.

Dr. Bradley's obfervations of the ftary Draconis, then all the
phenomena of the feveral Itars which he obferved will be very
nearly folved by his hypothefis. But for the particulars of
his folutioii, and the application of his theory to the prac-
tice of adronomy, we mud refer to the excellent author
himfelf, our intention being only to give the hittory of the
invention.

The correftions arifing from the aberration of light, and
from the nutation of the earth's axis, mult not be neglefted
in aftronomical obfervations ; fince fuch negledis might
produce errors of near a minute in the polar dillances of
fomc Itars.

As to the allowance to be made for the aberration of
light, Dr. Bradley afl'ures us, that having again examined
thofe of his own obfervations, which were moft proper to
determine the tranfverfe axis of the ellipfis which each (tar
feems to defcribe, he found it to be nearelt to 40" ; and
this is the number he makes ufe of in his computations relat-
ing to the nutation.

Dr. Bradley fays, in general, that experience ha's taught
him, that the obfervations of fuch Itars as lie nearelt the
zenith, generally agree bell with one another, and are there-
fore the fittelt to prove the truth of any hypothefis. Phil.
Tranf. No. 4S5. vol. xlv. p. i, &c.

Monfieur d'Alembert has publifhed a treatife, entitled
«' Recherches fur la Prcceflion dcs Equinoxes et fur la Nu-
tation de la Terre dans le Sylteme Newtonien," 4to. Paris,
1749. The calculations of this learned gentleman agree, in
general, with Dr. Bradley's obfervations. But Monfieur
d'Alembert finds, that the pole of the equator delcribes an
ellipfn in the heavens, the ratio of whofe axes is as 4 to 3 ;
whereas, according to Di'. Bradley, the curve delcribed is
either a circle or an ellipfis, the ratio of whole axes is as 18
to 16.

From this digrefllon we fliall return to the proper motion
of the itars and folar lyllem. This motion was firll ob-
ferved, as we have already iuggeltcd, by Dr. Halley, and
afterward'! by Le Monnier and Caffini. Tobias Mayer had
the merit of giving the firll explanation of this proper mo-
tion ; he compared the places of about eigiity itars, as de-
termined by Roemer, with his own obfervations, and he
found that the greater number of them had a proper motion.
He was apprized that this change of place in the pofition of
the ftars might be explained by a progrelTive motion of the
fun towards one quarter of the heavens ; but the refult of his
obfervations notaccording with this hypothefis, he concluded,
that many centuries might elapfe before the true caufe of
this motion is explained. The pofiibility of a folar motion
was fuggedcd, upon theoretical principles, by the late Dr.
Wilfon of Glalgow ; and M. de la Laiide deduced the fame
opinion from the rotatory motion ot the fun ; liut another
kind of argument has completely confiruK-d thefe con-
jeftures.

If the fun has a m.otion in abfolute fpace, directed to-
wards any quarter of the heavens, it is obvious tliat the liars
in that quarter mull appear to recede from eacli other, while
thofe in the oppofite region feem gradually approaching.
The proper motion of the Itars, therefore, in thofe oppofite
regions, as afcertained by a comparifon of ancient with mo-
dern obfervations, ought to correlpond with this hypothefis.

Dr. Herfchel has examined this fubjcdl with his ufual
fuccefs, and he has certainly difcovcred the direttion in
which our fyitem is gradually advancing. He found that
the apparent proper motions of about forty-four llarb out of
fifty-fix are very nearly in the dire£tion which flioidd rcfult
from a motion of the fun towards the conllellation Hercules,
or, more accurately, to a point in the heavens, whole right

afcenfion is 250' 52' 30", and whofe north polar dillancc u
40'' 22'.

Dr. Herfchel, in ellabliihing this motion of the (tarry and
folar fyftems, begins with principks drawn from the theory
of attraftion, which evidently oppofe every idea of abiolute
reil in any one of the liars, when once it is known that fome
of them are in motion ; for the change that mud arife by
fuch motion, in the value of a power which afts invcrfely a>
the fquares of the dillances, mud be felt in all the neighbour-
ing liars ; and if thefe be influenced by the motion of the
former, they will again affedl thofe that are next to them,
and fo on till all are in motion. Now as we know that
feveral ftars, in divers parts of the heavens, do aflually
change their place, it will follow, that the motion of our
folar fydem is not a mere hypothefis ; and this confidcration
will be confirmed by the reafons that induce us to fuppofe,
that mod of thofe very ftars which have been obferved to
move, to be fuch as are nearelt to us ; and, therefore, their
influence on our fituation would of itfelf be a powerful argu-
ment in favour of the proper motion of the fun, if it had
been originally at red. Moreover, it feems very natural,
that the changes which are obferved to take place among
the ftars ; fuch as the increafe of magnitude in many, and
the gradual difappearance of others ; the periods of fome not
befwre obferved, and the dillances of many that are adtually
changing, while many more are fnfpcftcd to have a confider-
able motion ; afford a itrong lufpicion that moll probably
every itar in the heavens is more or lefs in motion. Allow-
ing the proper motion of the ftars, it mud f lUow, that our
fydem, with all its planets and comets, tint is, the folar
fydem, is not lefs liable to fuch a general aijitation as is
found to obtain among all the other celedial bodies. Adro-
nomcrs have already obferved what they call a proper mo»
tion in feveral of the fixed liars, and the fame may be fup-
pofed of them all. We ought, therefore, to relolvc that
which is common to all the dars, which arc found to have
what has been called a proper motion, into a fin.ile real mo-
tion of the folar fydem, as far as that will anfwer the known
facts, and only to attribute to the proper motion of each
particular dar the deviations from the general law the itars
feem to follow in thofe movements.

By Dr. Maflielyne's account of the proper motion of
fome principal liars, we find that Sirius, Caitor, Procyon,
Pollux, Regulus, Ardturus, and a. Aquilae, appear to have
refpeclivcly the following proper motions in right alcenfion ;
-o".63;— o".28;-o".8o; - o".93 ; -o".4i ; - i".40;
and -|- o".57 ; and two of them, Sirius and Artlurus, in de-
clination, W2. i".20 and 2".oi, both fouthward.

Since the apparent motions of thefe feven liars may be ac-
counted for, either by fuppofing them to move jud as they
appear todo, orelfe by fuppofing the lun alone to have a mo-
tion in a direction fuch as Dr. Herfchel aifigns to it, we are no
more authorifed to fuppofe the fun at red than we fliould be
to deny the diurnal motion of the earth, except in this refptcl,
that the proofs of the latter are very numero;is, whereas the
former reds only on a few though capital telliinonies. Our
author finds from other confiderations, founded on a t.ible by
M. de la Lande of the proper motion of twelve Itars, both
in right afcenfion and declination, for fifty years, (Phil. Tranf.
vol.lxxiii. p. 270, S:c.), that this motion of the fun, or
folar fydem, is direfted towards the liar \ Herculis ; and he
mentions fome very llriking circumilanccs in the quanlilics
of the real proper motions of the ftars that deferve notice,
I'ird, Arfturus and Siriun being the larged of the liars, and
therefore probably the nearelt, ought to have the moll ap-
p;irent motion, both in right afcenfion and declination, which
\i agreeable to obfervation. Next, in regard to the ri^ht
^ E 2 afcealiou

STARS.

afcenfion only, Arfturus being better fituated to (hew its
motion, ought to have it much larger, which we find it has.
Aldebaran, both badly fituated and confiderably fn:ialler than
the two former, ought to (hew bat little motion. Procyon,
better fituated than Sirius, though not quite fo large, (hould
have almoll as much motion ; for, on fuppofiug it farther off
becaufe it appears fmaller, the effeft of the furt's motion will
be led'ened upon it ; whereas, on the other hand, its better
fituation will partly compenfate for its greater diftance.
I Cygni, very favourably fituated, though but a fmall Itar,
(hould (hew it confiderably as well as a, Aquils ; whereas
|S Cygni (hould have but little motion ; and y Pifcium,
bed fituated of all, (hould have a great increafe of right
afcenfion.

In the laft place, a very (Iriking agreement with the hy-
pothefis is difplayed in Caftor and Pollux. They are both
pretty well fituated ; and we accordingly find that Pollux,
for the fize of the flar, (hews as much motion in right
afcenfion as we could exped : but it is remarkable, and
feemingly contrary to our hypothefis, that Callor, equally
well placed, (hews no more than one half of the motion
of Pollux. Now, if we recoUeft that the former is a
double ftar, confifting of two ftars not much dilFerent in
fize, we can allow but about half the light to each of them,
which affords a ftrong prefumption of their being at a
greater diftance, and therefore their partial fyftematical
parallax ought to be fo much lefs than that of Pollux, which
agrees wonderfully with obfervation. Not to mention the
great difficulty in which we (hould be involved, were we to
fuppofe the motion of Cailor to be really in the (tar ; for
how extraordinary muft appear the concurrence, that two
ftars, namely, thofe that make up this apparently fingle ftar,
(hould both iiave a proper motion fo exactly alike, that in
all our obfervations hitherto they have not been found to
difagree a fingle fecond, either in right afcenfion or declina-
tion, for fifty years together ! Does not this feem ftrongly
to point out the common caufe, the motion of the (olar
fyftem ?

As to the quantity of the folar motion. Dr. Herfchcl fijr.
gefts the following hints. From the annual parallax of the
fixed ftars, which, from oblervations, he finds much lefs than it
has hitherto been proved to be, we may certainly admit, that
the diameter of the earth's orbit, at the diitance of Sirius or
Arfturus, would not nearly fubtend an angle of one fecond ;
but the apparent motion of Ardturus, if owing to a tranflation
of the folar fyftem, amounts to no Ids than 2". 7 a-year, as will
appear if we compound the two motions of i' 1 1" in right
afcenfion, and i' 55" m dechnation, into one fingle motion,
and reduce it to an annual quantity. Hence we may, in a
general way, eftimate, that the folar motion can certainly
not be lels than that which the earth has in her annual orbit.

By confidering the motion of the fatellites round their
primary planets, and of the primary planets round the lun.
Dr. Herichel is led to fuppoie that the proper motion of
the fun is not reftihneal, but that it is performed round fome
diftant and unknown centre. Alth ugh we may not ac-
quiffce in the hypothefis, that there is any immenle central
body of fufficient magnitude to carry round it all the fyftems
with which allronomers have filled the regions of fpace, yet
we may fuppofe, with M. de la Lande, that there is a kind
of equilibrium amang all the fyftems of the world, and that
thiy have all a periodical circulation round their common
centre of gravity. See Phil. Tranf. vol. xcv. p. 233 — 256.
Lalande's Altron.tom. iii.

The following table contains the proper motion of 36
of the principal fixed ftars in right alcenfion and declination,
according to the accurate obfervatioiis of Dr. Mftdielyne.

I

Table of the Annual Proper Motion of 36 Stars in Righf
Afcenfion and Dechnation.

5"

Annual pro-

Annua! proper

Names of the Stars.

3_

per Motion in
Right Afeen-

Motion \n
Declination.

c

fion.

?

Seconds.

Seconds.

y Pegafi

2

— 0.09

- 0.15 N.

a. Arietis

2-3

+ 0.10

+ 0.07 S.

a Ceti -

2

— 0.12

- 0.08 N.

Aldebaran -

I

+ 0-03

+ 0.12 S.

Capella

I

+ 0.21

+ 0.44 S.

Rigel -

I

— 0.03

- 0.16 N.

& Tauri

2

-f- O.OI

+ o.ioS.

a Orion

I

+ CO]

— 0.13 N.

Sirius

I

— 0.42

+ 1.04 S.

Caftor

2

-0.15

+ 0.44 S.

Procyon

t.2

- 0.80

+ 0.95 S.

Pollux

2

— 0.74

0.00

a Hydrae

2

— 0.C9

— 0.14 N.

Regulus

I

— 0.22

- 0.08 N.

5 Leonis

1.2

-0.57

+ 0.07 S.

,S Virginis

3

+ 0-74

+ 0.24S.

Spica Virginis

I

— 0.02

— 0.19 N.

Ardlurus -

I

- 1.26

+ 1.72 S.

' 1 a LibrK - - -J

6

2

— 0.1 1

— 0.1 1

_ 0.18 N.
— 0.1 J N.

X Cor. Bor. -

2-3

+ 0.26

+ 0.03 S.

a Serpentis -

2

-f O.II

— 0.19 N.

Ant ares

I

0.00

- 0.26 N.'

K Herculis

2

0.00

— 0.23 N.

a Ophiuchi -

2

+ o.c6

+ 0.05 S.

B Lyrse

I

+ 0-23

— 0.27 N.

y) f

3

- O.II

- 0.16 N.

a SAquilx - -J

1.2

+ 0.48

- 0.54 N.

0} I

3-4

— 0.03

+ 0.35 S.

f ei Capricorni - <

3
3

0.00
+ 0.05

- 0.28 N.

- 0.26 N.

a Cygni

1.2

— 0.08

— 0.03 N.

a Aquarii

3

- 0.08

— 0.19N.

Fomalhaut -

1.2

+ °-35

— o.c6 N.

a Pegafi

2

— 0.06

- 0.18 N.

a Andromeda:

2

+ 0.08

+ 0.06 S.

In the following table we have given the proper motion
of nine principal fixed ftars in longitude and latitude, ac-
cording to the moit recent oblervations of Dr. Malkelyne,
including the preceffion, &c.

Names of the Stars.

.Annual Increufe

Annual Variation

of I^'ngitude.

of Latitude.

a Arietis

II
50.271

II

+ 0.180

Aldebaran -

50.204

— 0.:!I7

Pollux

49.470

+ 0.280

Regulus

50.004

■f 0.200

Spica Virginis

50.059

+ 0.080

Antares

50.1 J 1

+ 0.167

a Aquilce

50.870

+ 0-372

Fomalhaut -

50.717

+ 0.013

a Pegafi

50-133

+ 0.165

Gatalogu

STARS.

Catalogue of 6cx3 principal Stars, vifible at Paris, for the Beginning of iSio, after the lateft Obfcrvations, by

Michael Lalande, Nephew.

Names and Magtiitutles ot" the

Mean

Richt .'Vf

celifioii, Jan. 1.

1810.

Annual

Mea

. Uei.

linatiun.

Aonual

Stars.

e

Variation.

Jan. 1,

1810.

Vnriation.

H.

M.

D.

M.

S.

D.

M.

S.

88 y Pegafus - 2

0

3

0

51

55

46.0

'4

7

38 N.

4- 20.0

8 I Cetu3 - 3

0

9

2

26

10

45-9

9

52

38 S.

— 20.1

15 X CafTiopeia - 4

0

22

5

34

22

49.6

61

52

52 N.

4- 20.0

17 ^ Cafliopeia - 4

0

26

6

36

4'

49.0

52

50

59 N.

4- 1

9.9

30 t Andromeda 4

0

28

7

8

10

47.2

28

16

^' ^•

4- 1

9.9

31 'i Andromeda 3

0

29

7

17

57

47.8

29

49

13 N.

4- I

9.8

18 a Cafliopeia - 3

0

30

7

26

54

49.8

SS

29

36 N. •

4- 1

9.8

16 /3 Cetus - 2

0

34

8

30

43

45-2

»9

I

5' ^;

— 1

99

34 ^ Andromeda 4

0

37

9

»9

21

47-3

23

'3

55 N.

4- 1

9.8

24 >i Cafliopeia - 4

0

38

9

25

9

52.8

56

48

23 N.

4- 1

99

63 .5 Pifces - 4

0

39

9

42

27

46-3

6

33

3N.

4-

9-7

35 >i Andromeda 4

0

39

9

50

38

48.8

40

2

3> N.

4-

9-7

27 y Cafliopeia - 3

0

45

11

•9

SS

52 7

59

41

9 N.

4-

9.6

37 /x Andromeda 4.3

0

46

II

33

38

49.0

37

27

38 N.

4-

19.6

71 i Pifces • 4

0

?3

13

16

25

46.6

6

5«

^^^Z

4-

[9.5

« Polaris - 2.3

0

54

13

38

17

204.4

88

17

40 N.

4-

19.J

31 -n Cetus - 3.4

0

59

14

45

28

449

II

II

24 S.

—

19.4

43 /3 Andromeda 2

0

59

14

46

52

49-9

34

36

38 N.

4-

19.3

35 5 Cafliopeia - 4

0

14

54

7

53-0

54

8

7 N.

+

19.4

86 ^ Pifces - 4

4

'5

57

4

46.6

6

34

7 N.

4-

19.3

46 Andromeda 4.5

11

17

48

6

51.9

44

31

48 N.

4-

19.1

37 I Cafliopeia - 3

>3

18

22

12

56.4

59

H

39 N.

4-

19.0

45 5 Cetus - 3

'5

18

37

53

44.9

9

9

^^xT-

—

19.0

48 Andromeda 5

16

19

5

I

523

44

25

19 N.

4-

18.9

49 1 Andromeda 5

19

19

41

24

52.9

46

I

23 N.

4-

.8.9

99 r, Pilces - 4

21

20

20

0

47.8

14

21

46 N.

4-

18.8

102 ■z Pifces - 4.5

27

21

45

36

47-5

II

9

^^^,-

4-

18.6

)o6 V Pifces - 4.5

32

22

53

18

46.5

4

3«

21 N.

4-

18.5

54 <fi Andromeda 4

32

22

57

18

551

49

43

37 N.

+

1S.5

52 T Cetus - 3.4

35

23

48

5S

43-5

16

56

38 s.

—

18.3

no c Pifces - 4.5

35

23

50

34

47.2

8

1 1

5. N.

4-

.8.4

45 E Cafliopeia - 3

4'

25

12

55

62.3

62

43

40 N.

4-

1 8. 1

55 ^' Cetus , .- 3

4-

25

3>

12

44.2

11

16

37^;

—

18.1

2 a Triangularis B 3.4

42

25

34

7

50.6

28

38

54 N.

4-

1 8.1

5 y Aries middle 4

43

25

46

53

48.8

18

21

34 N.

4-

1 8.1

6 ^ Aries - 3

44

26

2

28

49-4

19

52

28 N.

4-

18.0

50 / Cafliopeia 4.5

47

26

5'

57

72.7

7«

29

34 N.

4-

17.9

113a Pifces - 3

52

28

3

22

46.3

I

5°

30 N.

4-

17.6

57 y Andromeda 2

52

28

4

18

54.6

4'

24

42 N.

4-

17.6

213 K Aries - 3

56

29

7

16

50.2

22

33

31 N.

4-

'7-5

4 ^ Triangularis B 4

58

29

34

9

52.6

34

5

0 N.

4-

'7-4

9 y Triangularis B 4

6

3'

30

46

52.6

32

57

40 N.

4-

17.1

68 0 Cetus 2 - 10

10

32

26

J9

45-2

3

50

40 S.

—

16.9

35 Cafliopeia, Hev. 4

'3

33

23

5'

71.1

66

32

19 N.

f

It. 8

72 p Cetus - 4

2

«7

33

56

30

43-3

»3

9

6 S.

—

16.6

73 1" Cetus - 4

2

18

34

3'

4

47-4

7

36

12 N.

4-

6.7

76 0- Cetus - 4

2

23

35

46

15

425

16

4

57 S.

—

(-•J

82 5 Cetus - 3

2

30

37

26

16

45-8

0

29

48 S.

—

5-9

83 t Cetus - 3

2

30

37

iS

37

43-2

12

40

^'l;

—

5-9

13 9 Perfeus - 4

2

3«

37

49

10

59-7

48

25

0 N.

4-

5-9

1 35 Mouc. Lyf. - 4

2

32

38

5

2

52.2

26

53

3.i N.

+

s.s

STARS.

Names and Magnitudes of the

Mean

Right Afcenfion, Jan. 1.

1810.

Annual

Mean Declination,

An

nual

Stars.

Variation.

J

an. 1,

1810.

Vari

atiun.

H.

M.

D. M.

s.

D.

M.

S.

86 y Cetus . 3

2

33

38 22

5

46.4

2

25

50 N.

+

'5-7

87 fi Cetus - 4

2

35

38 40

1 1

48. 0

9

18

22 N.

+

15-7

89 TT Cetus - 3

2

35

38 46

14

42.6

14

40

2 S.

—

15.6

I t' Eridanus - 4

2

36

39 3

28

41.5

19

22

57 S.

—

iS.6

39 y B. Lys - 4

2

37

39 9

24

52-7

28

27

5N.

+

.5.6

■n Perfeus, 9 Hev. 4

2

37

39 13

51

64.0

55

5

50 N.

4-

,,-.6

16 P' Perfeus - 4

2

39

39 39

26

55-7

37

3'

44 N.

+

^5-5

41 "/ A. Lys - 4

2

39

39 42

26

52-3

26

28

IS N.

+

'5-4

18 T Perfeus - J

2

41

40 12

57

62.4

5'

58

39 N.

+

-^53

2 t' Eridanus - 4

2

42

40. 36

>7

40.7

21

47

3. S.

—

15.2

21 Perfeus - 4.5

2

46

41 26

48

53-9

31

9

41 N.

+

15.0

22 T of Perfeus - 4

2

47

41 39

50

56.6

38

53

36 N.

-i-

15.0

3 « Eridanus - 3

2

47

41 47

17

43-8

9

39

32 s.

—

ly.o

91 ^ Cetus - 4

2

50

42 23

8

47.8

8

8

^6 N.

+

14.8

23 y Perfeus •• 3

2

51

42 46

44

63-7

52

45

'13 N.

4-

14.7

92 a Cetus - 2

2

52

43 5

20

46.7

3

20

15 N.

4-

14.7

25 (> Perfeus - 4
1 1 Eridanus - 4

2

53

43 15

37

56.6

38

5

44 N.

_L

H-6

2

54

43 30

«5

39-7

24

22

28 S.

—

14.6

10 p' Eridanus - 4

2

55

43 4+

13

43-9

8

20

59 S.

—

14.5

26 /S Perfeus, var. 2.5

2

56

43 57

48

57.S

40

12

54 N.

+

14.5

27 X Perfeus - 4.5

2

57

44 10

54

59-4

44

7

«^-

+

14.4

57 ^ Aries - 4

3

I

45 I'

41

50.8

'9

0

2 N.

+

14.2

12 Eridanus - 3.4

3

4

45 59

53

37-7

29

44

38 s.

—

13-9

13 ^ Eridanus - 3

3

7

46 39

8

43-5

9

31

56 S.

—

13.8

33 a Perfeus - 2

3

II

47 42

1 2

63.0

49

10

30 N.

4

^3-5

16 Eridanus - 3.4

3

1 1

47 45

57

39-8

22

27

19 S.

—

•3 5

97 Jt- Libra - 4

3

1 1

47 47

50

46.7

2

59

4N.

+

J3-5

2 Gira. Hev. - 4

3

'4

48 26

44

71.0

59

15

^^^•

+

13-3

I 0 Taurus - 4

3

15

4S 39

3

48.1

8

21

II N.

4-

13-3

4 Gira. Hev. - 4.5

3

16

48 53

56

67.2

54

46

59 N.

-1-

13.2

2 1 Taurus - 4

3

17

49 13

14

48-3

9

3

49 N-

+

•3-1

35 0- Perfeus - 5

3

17

49 i'^

37

62.3

47

19

41 N.

+

'3-1

5 _/■ Taurus - 5

3

20

50 5

56

49.2

12

16

38 N.

+

12.9

17 Eridanus - 4.5

3

21

50 17

54

44.4

5

44

I S.

—

12.8

37 4- Perfeus - 5

3

23

50 45

38

62.8

47

32

57 N.

-t-

2.7

18 ! Eridanus - 3

3

24

50 59

47

42-3

10

6

29 S.

—

2.6

19 Eridanus - 4

3

2;

51 20

59

39-5

22

16

35 S.

—

2-5

10 Taurus - 4.5

3

27

5' 47

48

45-9

0

12

23 S.

—

2.4

39 ^ Perfeus - 3

3

29

52 21

45

63.0

47

10

8 N.

■ 4-

2-3

41 V Perfeus - 4

3

32

53 4

56

60.3

4'

58

1 N.

i-

2.1

23 ^ Eridanus - 3

3

34

53 32

18

42.9

10

24

50 S.

—

2-5

25 1 Pleiades - 3

3

36

54 3

7

53-1

23

30

29 N.

+

1.8

26 ^ Eridanus - 4

3

37

54 17

27

42.3

12

42

.7S.

'•7

27 Eridanus ■ - 4

3

39

54 40

10

38.7

23

48

59 S.

— 1

1.6

44 i Perfeus - 3

3

42

55 33

12

55-9

31

18

32 N.

4- 1

1.4

46 P. Cat. 1712 5

3

42

55 35

0

63.8

47

iS

6 N.

+ ]

1.4

g Eridanus - 4

3

42

55 35

18

33-6

36

46

5. .S.

— 1

■•3

45 E Perfeus - 3

3

45

56 17

7

59.6

39

26

59 N.

+ 1

1.2

33 Eridanus - 4.5

3

46

56 24

23

38.1

25

10

a8 S.

— I

i.i

34 y Eridanus - 3

3

49

57 17

32

41.8

14

3

21 S.

— I

0.9

35 X Taurus - 4

3

50

57 32

27

49-5

1 1

56

42 N.

+ I

C.8

36 i Eridanus - 4

3

52

57 57

24

38.2

24

.^3

39 S.

— I

07

47 X Perfeus - 4

3

52

58 7

13

66.0

49

49

22 N.

4- I

0.6

38 V Taurus - 4

3

53

58 15

52

47-5

5

27

15 N.

4- '

0.6

37 A' Taurus - 4.5

3

53

58 22

10

52.8

21

33

10 N.

4- I

0.5

STARS.

Names and Maghiiuiles of the

Mean

Riglit Afcenfioi), J

in. 1,

1810.

Annual

Mean Ueclinaiion,

A

inual

Siars.

Variation.

J

an. 1,

1810.

Var

iHtiuII.

II.

M.

I).

M.

5;,

D.

M.

S.

Jl ft Perfeus

4

4

I

60

14

54

65.,

47

54

50 N.

+

lO.O

38 0 Eridanus

4

4

3

60

38

55

43-7

7

20

26 S.

9.9

49 jn Taurus

4

4

5

61

18

24

48.5

8

24

28 N.

+

9-7

54 y Taurus

3

4

9

62

•4

52

51.0

15

9

31 N.

+

9.4

41 Eridanus

3-4

4

1 1

62

40

35

33-8

.H

16

5S.

9.2

61 J" Taurus -

3-4

4

12

62

59

49

515

17

5

16 N.

+

9.1

64 S- Taurus

4.6

4

'3

63

17

17

51.4

16

59

42 N.

+

9.1

42 f Eridanus

3-4

4

H

63

33

20

44.6

4

II

34 S.

—

9.0

43 d Eridanus

4

4

17

64

'3

31

33-6

34

28

3S.

—

8.7

74 E Taurus

3-4

4

18

6+

23

0

52-3

18

44

52 N.

+

8.6

87 Aldebaran

I

4

25

66

'5

25

51.4

16

7

I N.

+

8.0

47 Eridanus

-

4

25

66

15

45

43-'

8

38

14 S.

8.1

50 u' Eridanus

4

4

26

66

3°

53

35-3

3°

9

18 S.

8.0

48 » Eridanus

4

4

27

66

42

26

44-7

3

44

57 S.

8.0

51 C. Eridanus

4

4

28

67

0

42

45.0

2

5'

42 S.

—

7-9

52 u^ Eridanus

4

4

28

67

2

32

34-9

30

57

29 S.

7.8

53 Eridanus

3-4

4

29

67

22

) I

40.9

14

40

59 S.

—

7.6

54 Eridanus

3

4

32

68

2

0

39- 1

20

2

35 S.

—

7-5

9 Canielopardalis
57 p Eridanus

4

4

3?

68

48

53

87.8

66

0

5N.

4-

7-3

4

4

36

69

0

4

44-7

3

36

41 S.

7-2

I Orion

4

4

40

69

52

57

48.2

6

37

10 N.

+

7.0

2 r' Orion

^

4

40

70

4

55

4S.8

8

33

52 N.

+

6.9

3 Orion

4

4

41

70

16

26

47-7

5

i6

17 N.

+

6.8

4 0' Orion

4-5

4

42

70

26

5i

50.6

13

55

28 N.

+

6.8

8 z Orion

4

4

44

71

5

22

46.6

2

7

15 N.

+

6.5

3 . Auriga

4

4

45

71

9

29

58.1

32

51

13 N.

4-

6.5

9 0- Orion

4-5

4

46

71

25

27

50.4

13

12

20 N.

+

6.4

10 Canielopardalis

4-5

4

47

71

38

42

79.1

60

8

5.N.

4-

6.4

7 E Auriga

4

4

48

72

5

iS

64.2

43

31

42 N.

+

6.2

10 Orion

4-5

4
4

49

72

10

36

46.4

I

24

47 N.

4-

6.2

8 ^ Auriga

4

49

72

18

21

62.4

40

47

5N.

4-

6.1

102 I Taurus

4

4

52

72

56

1 1

53-5

21

18

21 N.

4-

5-9

10 ti Auriga

4

4

53

73

18

10

62.6

40

57

48 N.

4-

5.8

2 ( Lepus

4

4

57

74

2 r

•3

37-9

22

38

0 S.

—

5-4

67 $ Eridanus

3

4

59

74

37

40

43-9

5

20

29 S.

—

5-4

69 X Eridanus

4

5

0

75

0

4'

42.8

9

0

21 s.

—

5-2

Capricornus

I

5

3

75

40

4

66.2

45

47

24 N.

4-

4.6

5 /i Lepus

4

5

4

7^

5

57

40.2

16

26

18 S.

—

4-9

19 Rigel

I

5

5

76

21

7

43-1

8

25

49 S.

—

4-7

20 r Orion

4

5

8

77

5

49

43-5

7

3

33 S.

—

4-5

112 (3 Taurus

2

5

14

. 78

34

20

56.7

28

26

3N.

4-

3-9

2S 1) Okioh

3

5

15

78

43

55

45.0

2

34

53 S.

—

4.0

24 y Orion

2

5

'5

78

44

8

48,1

6

10

I N.

4-

3-9

9 B Lepus

3-4

5

20

80

I

37

i^-5

20

55

9S.

—

i-5

34 I Orion - •

T

5

22

80

34

30

45-7

0

27

oS.

—

3-3

36 u Orion

4

5

23

80

41

10

43-4

7

26

59 S.

—

3 "3

1 1 a Lepus

3

5

24

81

5

14

39-5

•7

58

I S.

—

3'

! Columba

4

5

24

81

7

0

3'-8

35

36

56 S.

—

3«

39 X Orion

4

5

25

Si

10

8

49-3

9

47

50 N.

4-

3-1

44 1 Orion

3-4

5

26

81

32

9

43-8

6

2

34 S.

—

3-0

123 ^ Taurus

3

5

26

81

34

24

53-5

T 1

0

57 N.

4-

3-0

46 ■ Orion

2

5

27

81

38

36

45-4

I

20

I S.

—

2.9

125 Taurus

5

5

28

81

59

28

55-5

25

46

45 N.

4-

2.S

48 0- Orion

4

5

29

82

18

7

45-0

2

43

7S.

—

2-5

50 ^ Orion

2

5

31

82

47

36

4) -2

2

3

12 S.

—

2.6

STARS.

Names and Magnitudes of the

Mean

Right Afcenfion, Jar

. I, ISIO.

Annual

Mei

, Docl

ination,

Annual 1

Stars.

Variation.

Jat

1. 1.

ISIO.

Variition. 1

II.

M.

D.

M.

s.

D.

M.

S.

a Columba

2

33

83

11

33

3-5

34

lO

57 S.

—

2.4

Ij y Lepus -

3-4

37

84

8

6

37-4

23

31

7S.

—

2.1

132 Taurus -

4

37

84

20

22

55.0

24

29

33 N.

+

z.o

14 ^ Lepus -

4

38

84

35

7

40.6

14

54

5S.

—

1.9

53 X Orion -

2-3

39

84

41

II

42.6

9

44

45 S.

—

1.9

15 5 Lepus -

3-4

43

85

47

II

38-3

20

54

^^T-

—

1-5

33 i Auriga - -

4

44

85

58

14

73-7

54

15

14 N.

+

1-5

0 Columba

3

44

86

4

0

l'^--^

35

50

50 S.

—

1.4

58 a Orion -

I

45

86

13

18

48.6

7

21

39 N.

4-

1.4

34 (S Auriga -

2-3

46

86

23

53

66.0

44

54

48 N.

4-

1-3

37 S Auriga- -

3-4

47

86

41

32

61. 1

37

II

12 N.

4-

1.2

16 1 Lepus -

4

48

86

S^

18

40.9

'4

12

37 S.

—

i.i

y Columba

4

51

87

42

3

31.8

l^

18

^^l;

—

0.8

61 /^ Orion -

4

52

87

58

56

49-3

9

38

14 N.

4-

0.8

1 H. of G. Prop.

5

53

88

8

32

54.6

23

>5

45 N.

4-

0.7

67 V Orion -

4-5

57

89

10

48

$"^■1

14

46

50 N.

4-

0-3

18 S Lepus -

4

58

89

23

21

40.6

14

IS

42 S.

—

03

2 Lynx

4

6

3

90

42

42

79-3

59

3

41 N.

—

0.2

7 » Gemini -

2-3

6

3

90

51

5

54-4

22

32

58 N.

—

0-2

13 fj. Gemini -

3

6

11

92

51

SS

54-5

22

35

57 N.

—

1.2

I <? Canis Major

2-3

6

'3

93

15

15

34-4

29

59

7S-

4-

I.I

8 Monoceros

4

6

14

93

25

28

47.6

4

40

49 N.

—

1.2

2 /3 Canis Major

2-3

6

H

93

34

59

39-6

17

52

18 S.

+

1.2

3 X Canis Major

4

6

15

93

47

32

32.8

33

20

48 S.

4-

'•3

18 » Gemini -

4

6

18

94

25

12

53-3

20

19

18 N.

—

1-5

13 Monoceros

4

6

23

95

39

22

48.5

7

27

42 N.

—

1.9

24 r Gemini

2-3

6

27

96

40

57

51.9

16

33

oN.

—

2.4

15 Monoceros

4

6

3'

97

37

40

49-5

10

3

+5^-

—

2.6

42 Camelopardalis

4-3

6

31

97

46

8

94-5

67

45

41 N.

—

2.6

27 I Gemini

4

6

32

98

3

29

55-3

25

18

27 N.

-~

2.8

43 Camelopard.ilis

4-5

6

33

98

17

21

97.8

69

5

14 N.

—

2.8

31 p Gemini

4

6

35

98

39

21

50.5

'1

5

30 N.

—

30

9 Sirius

I

6

37

99

II

34

39-8

16

27

49 S.

■ 4-

4.2

18 Monoceros

4

6

38

99

29

•4

46.8

2

36

44 N.

—

3-3

34 S Gemini

4

6

40

100

3

47

59-5

34

10

37 N.

~

3-5

13 x^ Canis Major

4

6

43

100

41

12

33-5

32

17

43 S.

4-

3-7

18 jx Canis Major

4

6

47

lOI

51

8

41. 1

13

48

22 S.

+

4- J

20 I Canis Major

4

6

48

loi

54

59

40.0

16

48

54 S.

4-

4.1

21 E Canis Major

3

6

51

IC2

47

22

35-3

28

43

15 S.

-I-

4.4

43 ^ Gemini

3

6

53

103

\i

29

53-4

20

50

21 N.

4-5

22 Canis Major -

4

6

54

103

32

16

35-7

2-

40

II S.

4-

4-7

24 0- Canis Major

4

6

55

'03

46

20

37-4

23

33

47 S.

4

4-7

23 > Canis Major

2

6

SS

103

47

23

40.7

15

21

39 S.

+

4.8

25 J Canis Major

2

7

I

105

9

59

36-5

26

5

ss^.

4-

5.2

55 0 Gemini

3

7

9

107

1 1

27

53-9

22

'9

15 N.

—

5-9

^ Argo Navis

3

7

10

107

36

31

31-7

36

45

45 S.

4-

6.0

60 » Gemini

4

1

14

TC8

28

43

56.1

28

9

56 N.

—

6.3

31 n Canis Major

2

7

•7

IC9

8

38

35-6

28

56

25 S.

4-

6.6

^ /3 Canis Minor

7

17

109

12

34

4"-9

8

39

45 N.

—

6.7

66 u Callor

1.2

7

22

110

36

4S

57.8

32

17

35 N.

—

7.0

69 u Gemini

4-)

7

24

1 1 1

%

59

y,.(>

27

iS

30 N.

—

7-1

Procyon

1.2

7

29

112

20

•3

47.1

5

42

13 N.

—

8-5

26 Monoceros -

4

7

32

113

2

32

43-0

9

6

56 S.

4-

7.8

77 X Gemini

4

7

33

''3

14

26

54-5

24

50

37 N-

—

7-9

78 p Pollux -

2-3

1

34

"3

25

3

55-3

28

28

27 N.

7-9

STARS.

Names and Magnitudes of the

Mea

1 Right Afcenfion, J

an. 1,

IBIO.

Annual

Mean Uetliriaiiiin,

A

unual 1

Stars,

Vaiiation.

J

an. 1, 1810.

Variation. 1

H.

M.

n.

M.

s.

D.

M. S.

7 1 Argo Navis

3-4

7

4'

■1?

'9

33

37-8

24

23 26 S.

+

8.6

9 Argo Navis

4

7

43

"5

44

33

41.7

'3

23 57 S.

4-

8.7

1 1 e Argo Navis

4

7

49

"7

10

22

38.6

22

22 48 S.

-f-

9.1

13 Argo Navis

4

7

J2

118

5

35

46.8

2

Scr 55 N.

9.4

^ Argo Navis

> 2

7

57

119

13

36

3'-5

39

28 22 S.

+

9.8

14 -I.' Cancer

4

7

59

119

44

53

5'i-5

2(1

4 3' N.

9.9

15 t Argo Navis

3-4

7

59

119

5'

55

3^-4

23

45 49 S.

+

10. 0

57 Camelopardalis

5

8

3

120

39

44

80-0

63

4 46 N.

10. 1

17 0 Cancer

3-4

8

6

121

32

59

48.9

9

45 45 N-

10.5

I 0 Urfa Major

4-5

8

14

123

35

46

76.6

61

20 24 N.

—

10.9

30 Monoceros

4

8

16

124

2

25

45.0

3

17 36 S.

+

II. 2

4 ^ Hydra

4

8

28

126

53

48

47.8

6

21 33 N.

12.0

43 y Cancer

4

8

32

128

4

4

52.4

22

8 ?6 N.

—

12.4

7 7) Hydra

4

8

33

128

19

15

47.1

4

4 25 N.

—

12.4

47 S Cancer

4

8

34

128

28

0

51.4

18

50 41 N.

—

12.7

31 Monoceros

4

8

34

128

35

3

44.1

6

33 21 S.

+

12.5

II i Hydra

4

8

3"

129

10

37

47-9

7

6 30 N.

12.6

16 ^ Hydra

4-5

8

45

»3i

20

9

47-7

6

39 43 N.

—

13.2

60 a' Cancer

4

8

46

131

23

9

49-3

12

20 39 N.

'3-2

9 1 Urfa Major

3

8

46

13'

32

II

6j.2

48

46 45 N.

—

'3-3

65 a,^ Cancer

4

8

48

132

I

'3

49.4

12

35 6N.

'3 5

10 n Urfa Major

4

8

48

132

4

0

59.6

42

31 39 N.

—

'3-4

12 K Urfa Major

3-4

8

5'

132

3'v

0

62.3

47

53 57 N-

—

'3-5

17 Urfa Major. Hev

• 4

8

54

133

36

4

57.8

39

12 14 N.

—

13.8

76 X Cancer

4

8

57

134

21

44

48.8

11

25 34 N.

—

14.0

22 6 Hydra

4

9

4

136

6

57

46.7

3

6 42 N.

—

14.4

38 Lynx

4

9

1^

'36

44

41

56.5

37

35 59 N-

—

14.5

40 Lynx

4

9

9

137

21

44

55-5

35

1 1 20 N.

—

14.7

I X Leo

4

9

14

138

23

27

52.7

26

59 42 N.

—

14.9

24 d Urfa Major

4-5

9

17

139

21

54

83-3

70

39 18 N.

—

15. 1

30 a Hydra

2

9

18

'39

33

43

44.2

7

50 26 S.

4-

15.1

25 S Urfa Major

3-4

9

20

140

I

4

61. 1

52

32 6 N.

15.9

4 X Leo

4

9

21

140

12

49

51.6

23

48 3 N.

—

15.4

5 f Leo

4

9

22

140

25

25

48.7

12

8 12 N.

—

15.4

nJ. Argo Navis

4

9

23

140

48

0

35-4

39

38 21 S.

4-

^5-5

35 1 Hydra

4

9

3°

142

32

6

45-9

0

17 6 S.

4-

15.9

14 0 Leo

4

9

31

142

44

59

48.2

10

45 5N.

—

15.9

17 ( Leo

4

9

35

'43

45

H

5^-5

24

38 38 N.

—

16.1

29 V Urfa Major

4

9

37

144

20

46

66.2

59

55 3°N.

—

16.2

24 fjL Leo

3

9

42

145

28

59

51.8

26

53 46 N.

—

16.5

27 » Leo

4-5

9

48

146

59

47

48.5

13

20 49 N.

16.8

29 T Leo

4

9

50

'47

32

21

47-7

8

57 4N.

—

16.9

30 n I,.eo

3

9

57

149

'4

24

49.2

17

41 7 N.

—

17.2

15 Scxtanj

4

9

58

149

33

5

46.0

0

33 " N-

—

172

32 Regains

1

9

5«

149

33

34

48.2

12

53 3° N-

—

17.2

41 A Hydra

4

10

I

150

19

54

43-9

II

25 6 S.

4-

17.4

33 \ Urfa Major

3-4

10

6

'5'

23

47

55-3

43

5' 3°N.

—

17.6

36 <■ Leo

3

10

6

'5'

3'

29

50.4

24

21 36 N.

—

17.6

y' Argo Navis

4

10

7

'5'

41

33

37-6

4'

10 53 S.

4-

18.0

41 y Leo

3

10

9

152

22

10

50.0

20

47 52 N.

—

'7-7

34 n Urfa Major

3

10

II

152

44

23

54.1

42

27 2 N.

—

17.8

42 ^ Hydra

4

10

" 7

'54

'3

33

43-5

'5

52 6 S.

4-

18.0

47 f Leo

4

10

2^

'5?

4'

54

47-4

10

16 58 N.

—

18.2

37 Leo Minor

3

10

28

156

59

56

51.1

32

57 34 N.

—

18.5

4 V Hydra and C.

10

40

160

3

48

44.2

'5

12 10 S.

4-

18.8

Voi,. XXXIU.

?F

STARS.

Names and Magnitudes

of the

Mean Rijrht Afcenfion, Jan. I ,

1810.

Annual

Mean Declination,

A

inual 1

S^ais.

Variation.

J

in. 1, ISIO.

Variatioii. 1

H.

M.

n.

M.

S.

D.

M. S.

54 Leo

4-5

10

45

161

J9

32

49.2

25

45 39 N.

—

19.0

48 ;3 Urfa Major

- 2

10

50

162

34

26

55-7

57

23 53 N.

—

19.1

7 a Hydra and C.

- 4

10

5"

162

37

58

44.1

17

17 15 s.

+

I9.I

50 « Urfa Major

- 2*

10

52

162

58

26

57-3

62

46 25 N.

—

19-3

63 X Lpo

4-5

10

^S

■63

48

13

46.8

8

21 45 N.

—

19.2

524. Urfa Major

3-4

10

59

164

43

58

51.4

45

31 43 N.

—

193

II B Hydra and C.

3-4

II

2

i6y

34

51

43-9

21

47 20 S.

-t-

19.4

68 i Leo

2-3

II

4

,6y

59

45

48.2

21

33 47 N.

—

19.6

70 9 Leo

- 3

II

4

166

3

49

47-4

16

28 3N.

—

19.4

74 ? Leo

- 4

II

7

166

45

7

45.8

2

36 49 S.

4-

19.5

53 1 Urfa M; jor

- 4

II

8

167

0

14

48. S

32

iS 51 N.

—

19-5

54 » Urfa Major

- 4

II

8

167

2

47

49.1

34

7 45 N.

—

19.5

12 ^ Hydra and C.

- 4

II

10

.67

?7

42

44.9

•3

45 5S.

+

19.5

■J-] T Leo

4-5

11

II

167

50

0

46.5

7

4 II N.

—

19.6

78 1 Leo

- 4

II

H

168

30

6

46.8

11

34 34 N.

—

19.6

14 ( Hydra and C.

- 4

1 1

'5

168

45

18

45-3

9

49 3 S.

+

19.6

1 5 y Hydra and C.

- 4

II

15

168

50

58

44.8

16

38 26 S.

+

19.6

84 T Leo

- 4

1 1

iS

169

32

25

46-3

3

54 6 N

—

19.7

I A Draco

3-4

II

20

i6g

59

50

55-9

70

22 43 N.

—

19.7

87 /r Leo

4-5

II

21

170

9

9

45.8

I

57 14 S.

+

19.7

19 1 Hydra and C.

3-4

11

24

170

55

13

44.0

30

48 20 S.

+

19.8

21 9 Hydra and C.

4

II

27

171

45

42

45-5

8

45 2S.

+

19.8

91 V Leo

4

I I

27

171

4^

17

46.0

0

13 28 N.

—

19.9

27 f Hydra and C.

4

II

35

173

47

8

45-4

17

17 40 S.

+

19.9

63 X Urfa Major

4

II

36

173

59

31

48.4

48

49 59 N.

—

19.9

3 V Virgo -

4

I I

36

'74

I

J7

46.2

7

35 46 N.

—

19.9

93 Leo

4

II

38

174

32

35

46.7

21

16 31 N.

—

19.9

94 /3 Leo

2

1 1

39

174

50

21

46.0

15

38 4N.

—

20.0

5 ^ Virgo - -

3

11

41

175

1 1

54

46.9

2

50 8 N.

—

20.0

28 /S Hydra and C.

4

II

43

175

49

56

45.0

32

51 2 S.

4-

20.0

64 y Urfa Major -

2

11

44

>75

56

38

48.1

54

45 3N.

_

20.0

30 ri Hydra and C.

4

1 1

46

176

35

li

45-6

16

5 3°S.

+

20.0

I a, Corvus

4

1 1

59

179

39

29

45.8

23

40 3 S.

+

20.0

2 E Corvus

3-4

12

0

180

5

35

45-9

21

a 44s.

+

20.0

69 I Urfa Major -

3

12

6

181

29

22

45.2

58

5 20 N.

—

20.0

4 y Corvus

4

12

6

181

30

46

46.1

16

29 4S.

■1-

20.0

15 1 Virgo

3-4

12

10

182

32

50

46.0

0

23 27 N.

—

20.0

16 f Virgo

3-4

12

11

182

40

34

55-9

4

22 27 N.

—

20.0

7 J Corvus

3-4

12

20

185

0

44

46.4

15

27 17 S.

+

20.0

9 (S Corvus

3

12

24

186

6

26

46.8

22

20 35 S.

+

19.9

y X Draco

3

12

25

186

'9

41

39-7

70

50 15 N.

—

19.9

23 K Chevcl

4.

12

25

186

20

31

45.0

23

40 41 N.

—

»9-9

29 7 Virgo

3

12

32

188

0

30

45-3

0

24 19 S.

+

19.9

77 ( Urfa Major -

2

12

46

191

24

23

39-9

56

59 36 N.

—

19.6

43 ^ Virgo

3

12

46

191

3°

36

45.6

4

26 5N.

—

19.6

12 Cor Caroli

3

12

47

191

46

50

42.7

39

20 50 N.

—

19.6

47 = Virgo

3

12

53

193

10

48

45.0

II

59 3 N.

—

19.5

51 0 Virgo

3-4

13

0

•95

I

47

46-3

4

31 14 S.

+

19.4

53 Virgo -

4-5

13

2

195

29

25

47-4

15

9 59 S.

+

19-3

61 Virgo

4-J

13

8

197

7

28

47-7

17

14 39 S.

—

19.2

2 y Con. Hyd. -

3

13

9

197

9

10

48-3

22

9 50 S.

+

19.2

» Centaurus

3

13

10

197

29

'9

50.2

35

42 12 S.

+

19.1

67 a Virgo

I

13

15

198

47

58

47.2

10

9 53 S.

+

19.0

79 ^ Urfa Major -

2

13

16

199

3

49

36-3

55

55 19 N.

—

18.9

79 ^ Virgo

3

13

25

201

"5

20

46.0

0

22 48 N.

—

1,8.7

STARS.

Names and Magnitudes of the
Siars.

Mean Right Afcenfion. Jan. I,

1810.

Annual

Mean Declinatiun,

Annual

Variation.

Jin. I, Ibio.

Variation,

H.

M.

D.

M.

S.

D. .M. .s.

V Centaurus - 4

13

38

204

32

24

5i-^

40 43 59 S.

+ l8.2

4 T Charles's Wain 4

13

38

204

33

29

43-2

18 24 a N. •

- l8.2

2 G Centaurus - 4

«3

38

204

37

10

51.4

33 29 41 S.

+ 18.2

85 M Urfa Major - 2

13

40

205

0

26

35-4

50 15 57 N.

- 18.2

5 i> Ch. Wain - 4

'3

40

205

4

38

43-2

16 44 42 N.

- 18.2

8 « Ch. Wain - 3

13

46

206

24

31

42.9

19 31 17 N.

- 18.4

j' 6 Centaurus - 2.3

13

56

208

53

15

52-3

35 25 40 S.

4- 18.0

II a Draco - 3

13

59

209

48

40

24-3

65 17 14 N.

- 17.4

98 K Virgo - 4

14

5

210

41

38

47.6

9 22 58 S.

-f- 17-2

99 ' Virgo - 4

14

6

211

30

56

46.9

5 5 3S.

+ I7-I

17 X Ch. Wain - 4

14

7

211

39

56

32.2

52 41 0 N.

— 17. 1

18 Arfturus . I

H

7

211

44

56

40.9

20 10 38 N.

— 19.0

100 X Virgo . 4

H

9

212

12

39

48.3

12 29 178.

+ 17-0

19 X Ch. Wain - 4

14

9

212

17

25

34-5

46 57 5j N.

- 17.0

21 » Ch. Wain - 4

14

9

212

21

31

32.2

52 14 54 N.

— 16.9

105 ^ Virsjo - 4

14

18

214

36

24

46.2

I 22 58.

+ i6.y

23 8 Ch/Waiu - 4

'4

19

214

41

3

31.0

52 44 5 N.

- 16.5

25 p Ch. Wain - 4

14

24

21;

54

37

1 38.8

31 12 41 N.

- 16.2

27 7 Ch. Wain - 3

'4

24

216

6

20

36-3

39 8 41 N.

- 16.2

5 a Urfa Minor - 4

14

28

217

I

33

- 4-7

76 32 30 N.

— 16.0

29 rr Ch. Wain - 3.4

H

32

217

57

0

42.1

17 14 26 N.

- 15.8

30 ^ Ch. Wain . 3

14

32

218

I

7

42.7

H 33 5 N.

- 15.8

107 (u Virgo - 4

14

33

218

15

49

46.9

4 49 20 8.

+ 15-8

109 Virgo . 4

14

i7

219

9

45

45-3

2 4a 6 N.

- 15.6

36 £ Ch. Wain - 3

14

37

219

10

18

39-2

27 52 54 N.

- 15.6

9 a^ Libra - 2.3

14

40

220

5

48

49-5 ■

15 14 39 S.

+ 15-3

37 1 Ch. Wain - 4

14

43

220

39

21

41.2

19 Si SI N.

- 15.2

19 J Libra - 4

'4

51

222

42

36

47.8

7 45 17 S.

4- I4-8

7 i3 Urfa Minor - 3

14

51

222

51

10

- 4-8

74 56 0 N.

- 147

20 y Libra or Sagit. 3.4

14

5i

223

H

37

52.2

24 31 29 S.

+ 14-6

42 $ Ch. Wain - 3

14

55

223

41

53

33-8

41 8 49 N.

- H-5

24 1 Libra - 4

'5

I

225

21

10

50.8

19 3 41 S.

+ 14-1

27 /3 Libra - 2.3

15

7

226

41

55

48.0

8 40 19 S.

+ i3-8

49 ^ Ch. Wain - 3

'5

8

226

57

34

36.1

34 I 55 N-

+ '3-7

'5 I^upus - 4

15

9

227

14

10

58.2

39 56 52 S.

+ 13-6

31 F Libra - 4

•5

H

228

28

47

48.4

9 37 44 S.

+ '3-3

51 fx Ch. Wain - 4

iJ

17

229

19

48

340

38 3 3 N.

- 13-1

1 1 Urfa Minor - 4

'5

17

229

20

3

- 2.4

72 30 50 N.

- 131

3 /3 Corona - 4

ij

20

230

0

I

37-2

29 46 J N.

- 12.9

12 1 Draco - 3.4

15

21

230

lO

57

19.6

59 38 7N.

- 12.8

13 y Urfa Minor - 3

If

2!

230

16

55

- 3-'

72 30 36 N.

- 12.8

35 ^* Libra - 4

»5

22

230

33

5

50.4

16 II 50 S.

-)- 12.8

y Lupus - - 3

•J

23

230

37

48

59-1

40 30 54 s.

+ 12.8

38 y Libra - 3.4

ij

25

231

13

43

49.S

14 8 42 S.

+ 12.6

39 Libra - - 4

'5

26

231

22

43

54-0

27 29 41 S.

+ 12.5

13 5 Serpens - 3

ly

26

231

25

57

42.8

II 11 0 N.

- 12.5

j; a Cor. B. 2.3

'5

27

231

39

40

38.2

27 21 42 N.

- 12.5

40 Libra - 4

'5

27

231

45

«3

54-7

29 8 28 S.

+ 12.4

43 X Libra - 4

'J

31

232

45

'7

51-5

19 3 5 S.

+ 12.2

7 ^ Corona - 4

15

32

233

3

25

33-8

37 '5 4' N.

— 12. 1

44 n Libra - 4

15

33

233

21

3

50-3

ly 3 22 S.

4 12.0

8 y Corona - 4

'J

35

233

4'

33

377

26 54 21 N.

- II. 9

24 a Serpens - 2.3

IS

35

233

43

44

44.2

7 • J5N.

- 11.9

27 \ Serpens - 4

ij

37

234

18

28

43-6

7 57 25 N.

- 11.7

28 /9 Serpens - 3

'5

37

234

21

•7

■4'-3

16 0 32 N.

- "-T

SF 2

STARS.

Names »nd Magnitu'les of the

Mean

Right AfcenCon, Jan. 1 ,

1810.

AiiMual

Mean Dei

lination,

A.

mual

Siars.

Vbfiatluiu

Jan. 1,

leio.

Variaiion. 1

H.

M.

D.

M.

S.

D.

M.

s.

32 /x Serpent

4

15

40

234

55

44

46.7

2

50

17 s.

+

TI.5

35 K Serpens

4

IJ

40

235

2

53

40.4

18

44

18 N.

—

n.5

37 ( Serpens

3-4

15

41

235

20

»3

44-5

5

3

31.N.

—

n.4

10 ^ Corona

4

15

42

235

24

29

37-7

26

39

32 N.

—

II. 4

45 X Libra

4

15

42

235

34

46

51.8

19

35

'5^;

+

II.4

38 p Serpens

4

IJ

43

235

43

53

39-5

21

33

30 N.

—

i'-3

46 6 Libra

4

15

43

'^^

45

18

S0.7

16

9

40 S.

+

"•3

^ () Scorpio

4

15

45

236

17

36

55.0

28

38

50 s.

+

II. 2

6 T Scorpio

4

15

47

236

50

4'

53-9

25

33

19 S.

+

11.0

n Lupus -

4

15

47

236

53

25

58.8

37

50

24 s.

+

11. 0

48 4- Libra

4

15

47

236

53

28

50.0

13

43

12 S.

+

II. 0

41 y Serpens

3

15

47

236

55^

II

41.0

16

17

51 N.

—

II. 0

7 j Scorpio

3

15

49

237

16

46

52-7

22

4

8 S.

+

10.9

16 1^ Urfa Minor

- 4

15

51

237

46

58

- 36.8

78

22

22 N.

+

10.6

51 |3 Libra

4

15

54

238

28

59

49.2

10

5°

15 S.

+

lo.s

44 IT Serpens

4

15

54

238

3'

38

38.6

23

20

27 N.

—

10.5

8 /S Scorpio

2

15

54

238

36

7

52.0

19

16

27 S.

+

10.5

9 u' Scorpio

5

15

56

238

55

40

52. 2

20

S

3^^;

+

10.4

13 fl Draco

3-4

15

58

239

35

26

17.1

59

4

31 N.

—

10.2

14 V Scorpio

4

16

I

240

14

32

51.9

18

57

19 s.

+

lO.O

I i Ophiuchus

- 3

16

4

241

5

57

47.0

3

11

40 s.

+

9-7

iS Scorpio

4

i6

5

241

19

3'

48-3

7

51

II s.

+

9.6

2 E Ophiuchus -

3

16

8

■J42

4

9

47-3

4

13

8 S.

+

9.4

20 0- Scorpio

4

16

10

242

24

53

54.2

25

7

27 s.

+

9-3

20 7' Hercules

3

16

'4

243

23

5

39 <5

«9

36

32 N.

—

9.0

22 T Hercules

4

16

'4

243

30

32

26.8

46

46

9 N.

—

9.0

Antares

I

16

18

244

26

36

54-9

25

59

54 S.

+

8.7

■

8 <p Ophiuchus -

4

16

so

245

4

10

51.2

16

1 i

10 S.

4-

8.5

10 \ Ophiuchus

- 4

16

21

245

20

5

45.2

2

24

39 N.

—

8.4

14 « Draco

3-4

16

21

245

21

^5

II. 8

61

56

50 N.

—

8.2

27 /3 Hercules

3

16

22

245

30

47

38.7

21

54

42 N.

—

8-3

29 A Hercules

4

16

24

245

55

55

42.1

11

54

24 N.

—

8.2

.

23 T Scorpio

3-4

16

24

246

I

6

55.6

27

48

29 S.

4-

8.2

£3 ^ Opliiuchug

2-3

16

27

246

40

36

49-3

10

10

.7S.

+

8.0

3j (T Hercules

4

16

28

246

59

46

28.9

42

50

8 N.

—

7-9

I J A Draco

4

16

28

247

6

15

- 2.6

69

1 3

47 N.

—

7.8

40 (f Hercules

3-4

16

34

248

3'

48

33-8

3'

57

16 N.

—

7.0

44 n Hercules

3-4

16

36

249

5

40

30.6

39

J7

27 N.

—

7-2

26 t Scorpio

3

16

38

249

28

17

58.5

33

56

0 S.

4-

7-J

(u' Scorpio

3

16

39

249

45

18

60.4

37

42

23 s.

+

7.0

fi'' Scorpio

4

16

39

249

52

>9

60.4

37

40

43 S.

4-

7.0

2J i Ophiuchus

- 4

16

45

251

•5

22

42.4

10

29

22 N.

—

6-5

27 X Ophiuchus -

4

16

49

252

lO

17

42.7

9

40

52 N.

—

6.2

58 ( Hercules

3

16

53

253

'5

.8

34-4

3'

12

50 N.

—

5.8

35 n Ophiuchus

3

16

59

254

52

23

5'-4

'5

28

41 S.

4-

5-3

22 I Urfa Minor

■ 4

«7

6

2C6

28

5

- 990

82

'9

51 N.

—

4.6

64 ot Hercules

3

17

6

256

29

49

41.0

•4

37

I N.

—

4.6

65' 5 Hercules

3

17

7

256

48

26

36.8

25

4

24 N.

—

4.6

22 ^ Draco

4

17

8

257

3

58

2.2

65

56

58 N.

—

4-5

67 T Hercules

3-4

J7

8

257

6

33

31-2

37

I

52 N.

—

4-5

40 p Ophiuchus

- 4

17

10

257

24

13

53-4

20

^^

40 S.

4-

4.4

53 » Serpens

4

«7

10

257

32

II

50-3

12

38

29 S.

4-

4-4

42 9 Ophiuchus

4

17

10

257

35

•5

55-1

24

47

48 S.

4-

4.4

70 Hercules

4

17

13

2^8

16

11

369

24

41

54 N.

—

41

75 p Hercukb

4

17

17

259

17

4

3°-9

37

19

46 N.

3-8

STARS.

Names and .Magnitudes of the

Mean

Right A{

fenfion,Jan. 1.

1810.

Annufil

Mean Uee

linitiim,

.\«

nual 1

.Stars.

Variation.

Jan. 1,

1810.

Vdriition. 1

II.

N.

D.

.\1.

s.

D.

M.

s.

3+ u Scorpio

4

«7

18

259

27

53

60.3

37

7

43 S-

+

3-7

JJ ^ Scorpio

3

17

21

260

10

41

60.7

36

56

59 i:;

4-

3-5

55 a Ophiuchus -

t

17

26

261

3>

44

41.6

12

42

32 N.

—

30

23 5 Draco

3

17

26

261

32

13

20.1

52

26

50 N.

—

3-0

55 1 Serpens

4

17

27

261

40

4'

5 '3

'5

'5

57 s.

+

3.0

57 jii Ophiuchus -

4

17

28

261

52

5°

48.7

7

59

26 s.

+

2.9

24 »' Draco

4

17

28

262

6

39

17.2

55

19

7N.

—

2.8

25 V* Draco

4

17

29

162

7

57

•7-3

Sy

18

25 N.

—

2.8

K Scorpio

3

17

29

262

20

19

62.1

38

SS

I S.

+

2.7

85 Hercules

4

17

34

26i

31

iS

25-3

46

6

52 N.

—

2-3

60 /3 Opliiuehus

4

'7

34

263

3'

20

44.4

4

39

24 N.

—

2-3

1462 1 Scorpio

3

'7

34

263

34

29

62.6

40

2

.4S.

4-

2-3

y Telefcopium -

4

«7

37

264

■3

57

60.9

36

57

59^;

-+-

2.1

28 u Draco

4

'7

38

264

31

7

- 5-6

68

50

40 N.

—

1.9

62 7 Ophiuchus -

3

«7

38

264

35

32

45.1

2

47

23 N.

—

2.0

86 ji* Hercules -

3-4

17

39

264

45

0

35-4

27

5°

40 N.

—

1.9

64 V Ophiuchus

4

>7

49

267

8

32

49-3

9

■44

10 S.

4-

l.t

91 8 Hercules

3

>7

io

267

26

5

30-7

37

16

58 N.

—

0.9

32 i; Draco

3

17

50

267

ii

52

16.2

56

54

20 N.

—

0.9

g2 f Hercules

4

17

50

267

Si

47

34-7

29

16

36 N.

—

0.9

57 ^ Serpens

4

17

5°

267

~36~

41

47.2

3

39

56 S.

+

0.9

67 0' Ophiuchus

4

17

51

267

47

0

44.9

2

57

10 N.

—

0.8

68 A" Ophiuchus

4

17

52

268

I

46

4-5

»

19

15 N.

—

0.7

33 y Draco

3

'7

52

268

2

5'

20.4

51

30

58 N.

—

0.8

y' Sagittarius -

4

>7

J3

26R

•3

16

57-3

29

34

27 S.

4-

0.7

95 Hercules

4

17

53

268

21

43

38.0

21

36

25 N.

—

0.6

10 y' Sagittarius

3-4

'7

54

268

24

6

57-7

30

24

39 S.

+

0.6

70 P Ophiuchus -

4

17

56

268

57

50

45.0

2

33

40 N.

—

0.4

34 4-" Draco

4-5

17

5S

269

37

23

- .5.8

72

I

ij N.

—

0. 1

103 0 Hercules

4

18

0

270

2

0

35-0

28

44

44 N.

"~"

0.0

13 jA.' Sagittarius

4

18

2

270

36

I

53-8

21

5

45 S.

—

0.2

B Telefcopium

- 4

18

5

271

1 1

37

60.9

36

48

10 S.

—

0.4

19 5 Sagittarius -

3

18

9

272

I 2

26

57.6

29

^•1

44 -''•

—

0.7

58 n Serpens

3-4

18

1 1

272

52

'3

46.4

2

56

14 S.

—

c-3

20 f Sagittarius -

2-3

18

1 2

272

53

27

59.6

34

27

^' M

—

0.9

109 Herc-les

4

18

i^

273

54

I

3S.0

21

41

45 N.

4-

>-3

22 \ Sagittarius -

4

18

16

274

3

40

55-5

25

30

49 S.

—

1.2

44 X Draco

4

18

24

276

6

22

- ,7.8

72

39

2 N.

+

2.2

I m Aquila

4

18

25

276

'3

3

48.9

8

21

"^^xt"

—

2.1

3 » Lyra

I

18

31

277

37

35

304

38

36

50 N.

+

2.9

23 i Urfa Minor

4

18

.H

278

23

31

-282.2

86

34

16 N.

4-

3-2

27 t> Sagittarius

4

18

34

278

26

41

56.2

27

10

21 S.

* —

2.9

6 / Aquila

4

18

37

279

16

22

47.6

4

^0

22 S.

3-2

1 1 1 Hercules

4

18

38

279

39

26

39-5

'7

58

48 N.

4-

3-3

10 /3 Lyra

2-3

18

43

2 Ho

45

56

33-2

33

8

58 N.

4-

3-6
36

34 0- Sagittarius

2-3

18

43

280

52

1 1

55-9

26

3'

10 S.

—

6^ 6' Serpens -

3-4

18

47

281

4'

36

44.6

3

58

0 N.

-r

4.0

12 J' Lyra

3-4

18

48

281

57

54

3'-3

3<5

39

52 N.

XT

H-

^.l

47 0 Draco

4

18

48

282

5

49

«3-'

59

9

34 N.

+

4.2

38 ij* Sagittarius •

3

18

5'

282

37

44

57-4

30

8

.98.

~

4-3

13 t Aquila

34

iS

5«

282

44

5^>

40.8

'4

49

18 N.

4-

4.4

12 i Aquila

4

18

52

282

52

57

48.0

5

59

J9 «•

—

4.4

14 - Lyra

4

18

5-

282

57

29

33-6

1 ■>

20

1 1 N.

4-

4.4

50 Draco

4-9

i3

52

283

6

12

-27.8

75

1 2

10 N.

4-

4.6

1 39 0 Sagittarius

4

18

53

283

19

23

53-«

22

0

22 S.

STARS.

Names and Magnitudes of the

Mean

Right Afcenfioii. Jan. 1.

1810.

Annual

Mean Dec

linatiun,

Annual

Stars.

Variation.

Jan. 1,

ISIO.

Variation,

H.

M.

D.

M.

S.

D.

M.

S.

40 T Sagittarius -

4

18

55

283

46

5

56-3

27

56

0 S.

—

4-7

16 \ Aquila

3-4

18

56

284

2

26

47-7

5

9

18 S.

—

4.8

52 V Draco

4-5

18

57

284

9

57

- 10.5

7«

2

29 N.

+

4.9

17 ^ Aquila

3-4

18

57

284

10

8

41-3

»3

35

28 N.

+

4.8

41 v Sagittarius -

3

18

58

28A

36

52

53-5

21

18

49 S

—

4.9

57 S Draco

3

«9

12

288

7

3

0.6

67

19

39 N.

4-

6-3

I X Cygnus

4

'9

13

288

10

33

20.7

53

I

21 N.

+

6.2

30 0 Aquila

3

19

16

28S

58

43

45-3

2

44

47 N.

+

6.5

60 T Draco

4-5

19

19

289

47

«>

-15.6

72

59

56 N.

+

6.8

58 TT Draco

4

•9

20

289

55

5

4.9

65

21

0 N.

+

6.8

6 Vulpecula

4

'9

21

290

1 1

57

37-4

24

•7

23 N.

+

6.9

6 S Cygnus

3

19

23

290

45

52

36.2

27

34

6 N.

+

7.0

38 n Aquila

4

19

25

291

12

2

43-6

6

59

14 N.

+

7-2

39 X Aquila

34

•9

27

291

39

58

48.4

7

26

19 S.

—

7-4

41 i Aquila

3-4

19

27

291

43

23

46.6

I

41

50 S.

—

7-4

13 9 Cygnus

4

'9

3'

292

50

9

24.1

49

47

9 N.

+

7.8

^ a Sagitta

4

'9

32

292

54

I

40.2

17

35

II N.

+

7.8

6 0 Sagitta

4

19

33

293

7

41

40-3

17

2

42 N.

+

7.8

61 0- Draco

4-5

19

33

293

10

9

- 2.8

69

20

48 N.

+

7-9

50 y Aquila

3

19

37

294

18

22

42.7

10

9

34 N.

+

^■3

1 8 2 Cygnus

3

•9

39

294

45

28

28.0

44

40

25 N.

+

8.+

^^ a. Aquila

1.2

19

42

295

22

38

43-9

8

22

3^^-

+

8.9

55 V Aquila

3

19

43

295

4«

50

45-8

0

31

'^^N-

+

8.6

60 ^ Aquila

3

«9

46

296

29

39

44.2

5

56

29 N.

+

8.6.

12 y Sagitta

4

19

50

297

34

33

39-8

18

59

6 N.

+

9.2

63 9 Aquila

3-4

20

300

22

31

46.5

I

22

3. S.

—

lO.I

5 a' Capricornus

3-4

20

7

301

46

34

50.0

'3

5

7 S.

—

0.6

30 0- Cygnus

4

20

7

301

49

54

28.2

46

14

49 N.

+

0-5

6 a' Capricornus

3

20

8

301

52

31

50.1

13

7

25 S.

—

0.6

9 (S Capricornus -

3

20

10

302

34

52

50.7

15

22

16 S.

~~

[0.8

37 7 Cygnus

3

20

15

303

5'

7

32.2

39

39

16 N.

+

1.2

41 i Cygnus

4

20

22

3° 5

24

33

36.6

29

44

33 N.

+

1.6

2 £ Delphinus

4

20

24

306

2

• 0

43-0

10

39

59 N.

+

1-7

4 ^ Delpliinus

4

20

26

306

36

21

41.9

14

I

4. N.

+

1.9

71 Aquila

4

20

29

307

7

48

46.4

I

45

33 S.

— J

2.1

6 /S Delphinus

3

20

29

307

9

32

42.1

13

56

36 N.

+ 1

2.2

9 a Delphinus

3

20

31

307

42

10

41-7

15

•5

0 N.

4- 1

2.2

1 1 J Delphinus

3-4

20

35

308

38

46

41.9

14

24

5N.

4

2-5

50 X Cygnus

2

20

35

308

44

18

30.6

44

36

25 N.

+

2.6

2 E Aquarius

4

20

37

309

20

46

48.7

10

10

j.S.

—

2.7

12 y Delphinus -

3-4

20

38

309

27

46

41.7

15

26

5^S-

4

2-7

53 ^ Cygnus

3-4

20

39

309

37

51

3'5-3

33

15

5^S-

4

3-2

54 ^ Cygnus

4

20

40

310

0

8

34-9

35

48

3S-

4 )

2.8

3 « Cepheus

4

20

4J

310

20

55

18.4

61

6

2 N.

4

3-°

6 (X Aquarius

4

20

42

310

35

i7

48.5

9

41

9S.

— 1

3-0

58 » Cygnus

4

20

50

3'2

31

21

33-4

40

26

30 N.

4

3-5

62 1 Cygnus

4

20

58

314

30

*l

32->

43

10

30 N.

4

4.0

5 y Equuleus

4

21

1

315

16

26

43-5

9

22

30 N.

4

4.2

64 (^ Cygnus

4

21

5

3.6

12.

47

38-4

29

27

13 N.

4

14.4

7 ^ Equuleus 4

4

21

5

316

18

24

43-7

9

14

47 N.

4

4-4

8 a Equuleus

3-4

21

6

3.6

34

47

44-9

4

28

13 N.

4

4-5

65 T Cygnus

4

21

7

316

48

8

35-5

37

14

17 N.

+

4.6

67 0- Cygnus

4

21

10

3»7

29

22

35-2

^l

36

12 N.

1-

4-7

I < Pegafus

4

21

'3

318

19

29

41.4

18

59

^'^^r

4

4.9

1 10 /8 Equuleus

4

21

>3

3'8

21

51

44-5

6

0

24 N.

4 1

4.9

STARS.

Names and Magnitudes

of ihe

Mean Ridit Afcenfion, J

an. 1,

1810.

Annual

Moan Declination,

Annual

Siars.

Variation.

.)

an. 1,

1810.

Variation.

H.

M.

D.

M.

S.

D.

M.

.S.

5 a Cepheus

3

21

H

3«8

30

25

21.6

61

46

j8 N.

+ 14.0

34 ^ Capricornus

4

21

16

3'8

56

5fi

5^-5

23

13

31 S.

- »5-i

- ^5-3
+ 15.7

22 ^ Aquarius

3

21

22

320

23

12

47-4

6

23

59 S.

8 (3 Cepheus -

3-4

21

26

321

32

•7

'2-3

69

43

40 N.

39 i Capricornus -

4

21

26

321

36

24

50.6

20

18

33 S.

— iv7

73 f Cygnus

4

21

27

321

42

37

33-6

44

45

23 N.

J 1

+ 15.7

40 7 Capricornus

3-4

21

3°

322

23

12

50.1

17

5°

49 S.

- 15.8

9 < or u Pifces A

4

21

34

323

23

45

54.0

33

53

3S.

— 16.0

8 ( Pegafus

3

21

35

323

42

47

44.2

9

0

38 N.

4- 16.2

80 v' Cygnus

4

21

35

323

50

24

31-7

50

19

37 N.

4- i6.2

78 jj. Cygnus

3-4

21

36

323

54

44

39-7

27

53

27 N.

4- 16.2

10 6 Pegafus

4

2 I

36

324

0

41

40.5

24

46

41 N.

4- 16.2

49 ^ Capricornus -

3

21

36

324

8

5

49-9

16

58

57 S.

- 16.2

10 e Pifces A

4

21

37

324

8

20

53-2

3'

46

II S.

- 16.2

y Grus -

3

21

42

325

35

42

54-9

38

14

59 S.

- 16.5

34 a Aquarius

3

21

56

329

0

16

46.2

1

H

13 s.

— 17.2

33 » Aquarius

4

21

56

329

2

24

48.7

14

47

3S.

— 17.2

14 /x or » Pifces A

4

21

57

329

18

53

52.9

33

54

30 S.

— 17.2

24 1 Pegafus

4

21

5«

329

32

29

41-3

H

25

22 N.

4- 17-2

26 6 Pegafus

4

22

I

330

9

12

45.1

5

16

6N.

+ '7-4 -

21 ^ Cepheus

4-5

22

4

331

4

J7

30.8

57

16

3N.

+ 17-5

43 6 Aquarius

4

22

7

33'

41

57

47-5

8

43

28 S.

- '7-5

23 e Cepheus

4

22

8

332

0

35

31-7

56

5

57 N.

+ 17-7

48 y Aquarius

3

22

12

332

57

32

46.4

2

20

22 S.

- '7-9

52 ■3- Aquarius

4-5

22

16

333

53

36

45-9

0

25

8 N.

+ 18.0

yj (f Aquarius

4

22

19

334

45

37

46.2

0

59

17 S.

- 18. 1

17 /S FifcesA

3

22

21

335

10

4

5'-5

33

18

53 S.

- 18.2

5 Lacerta -

5

22

22

335

24

20

37'0

46

44

16 N.

+ 18.2

27 0 Cepheus

4-5

22

22

335

32

4

32-9

57

26

43 N.

4- 18.2

7 Lacerta

4

22

23

335

52

10

36.2

49

18

32 N.

4- 18.3

62 1 Aquarius

4

22

26

336

23

49

46.2

1

5

30 S.

- 18.4

18 F Pifces A

4

22

30

337

31

46

50.0

28

I

46 s.

- 18.5

42 ^ Pegafus

3

22

32

337

59

49

44-7

9

50

38 N.

+ 18.6

44 >i Pegafus

3

22

34

338

3'

35

41.9

29

13

53 N.

4 18.7

47 X Pegafus

4

22

37

339

20

50

43-0

22

34

12 N.

4- 18.7

48 IX Pegafus

4

22

41

34°

12

33

43-0

23

36

6N.

4- 18.8

73 A Aquarius

4

22

43

340

40

26

46.9

8

35

9S.

— 18.9

32 I Cepheus

4

23

43

340

44

14

31.6

65

12

12 N.

4- 18.9

76 i Aquarius

3

22

45

341

8

18

47-9

16

49

38 S.

— 18.9

Fomalliaut

1

22

47

341

46

51

50.1

30

37

34 S.

- 18.9

I 0 Andromeda -

3-4

22

53

343

18

3

40.8

41

18

28 N.

4- 19-2

53 (3 Pegafus

2

22

54

343

38

31

43-4

\27

3

21 N.

+ 19-4

4 /3 Pifces

4

22

54

343

33

5

45-<5

2

48

3N.

4- 19-2

54 a Pegafus

2

22

55

343

49

30

44.6

H

II

9 N.

4 19.2

88 c"- Aquarius

4

22

59

344

49

27

48.1

22

II

59 S.

- '9-3

90 i^ Aquarius

4-5

23

4

34"^

7

8

46.5

7

4

6S.

- 19-4

6 7 Pifces

4

23

7

346

49

3'

45.8

2

H

joN.

+ >9-5

16 X Andromeda

4

23

28

352

4

25

43- «

45

25

55 N.

+ 19-8

I 7 1 Andromeda

4

23

29

352

12

43

43-4

42

13

3N.

4- 19-8

19 y. Andromeda

4

23

31

352

46

11

43-5

43

16

58 N.

4- 19.9

35 y Cepheus

3

23

32

352

54

53

35-5

76

34

16 N.

4- 19.9

29 Pifces

5

23

52

358

I

14

46.0

4

5

I S.

— 20.0

33 Pifces

4

23

56

358

54

6

46.0

6

46

10 S.

— 20.0

21 a Andromeda

2-3

23

59

359

38

48

46 .-o

28

2

28 N.

4- 20.0

1 I 0 CalTiopcia -

2-3

23

59

359

46

32

46.8

58

6

4N.

4 19-8

S T A

S T A

To learn to know the feveral fixed ftars by the globe, fee
Globe.

The parallax and diftance of the fixed ftars, fee under Pa-
rallax and Distance.

Stars, Circumsolar. See CiRCUMPOLAR.

Star, Falling, in Meteorology, a meteor, the explication
cf which has puzzled all philofophers, till our modern dif-
coverics in eleftricity have led to the moll probable account
of it. Signor Beccaria makes it pretty evident, that it is
an eleftrical appearance, and in proof of this pofition he
recites the following faft. About an hour after funfet, lie,
and fome friends that were with him, obferved a falling liar
direfting its courfe towards them, and apparently growing
larger and larger, but it difappeared not far from them ;
when it left their faces, hands, and clothes, with the earth,
and all the neighbouring objeds, fuddenly illuminated with
a difFufed and lambent light, attended with no noife at all.
During their furprize at this appearance, a fervant informed
them that he had feen a hght ftiine fuddenly in the garden,
and efpecially upon the ftream which he was throwing to
water it. All thefe appearances were evidently eleftrical ;
and S. Beccaria was confirmed in his conjedlure, that electri-
city was the caufe of them, by the quantity of electric mat-
ter which he had feen gradually advancing towards his kite,
which had very much the appearance of a falling liar. Some-
times alfo he faw a knid of glory round the kite, which fol-
lowed it when it changed its place, but left fome light, for
a fmall fpace of time, in the place which it had quitted.
Prielll. Eleft. vol. i. p. 434. 8vo. See Ignis Faluus.

Star, Morning. See Morning.

Star, Place of a. See Place.

Star, Pole. See Pole.

Stars, Twinkling of the. See Twinkling.

Stars, Unformed. See Informes.

Star, in EleSricity, denotes the appearance of the elec-
tric matter on a point into which it enters. Beccaria fup-
pofes that the itar is occafioned by the difficulty with which
the eleftric fluid ii extricated from the air, which is an elec-
tric. See Brush.

Star, in Fortification, a little fort, with five or more
points, or faliant and re-entering angles, flanking one an-
other, and their faces 90 or 100 feet long.

Formerly, Itar-forts were frequently made in lines of cir-
cumvallation, after two or three redoubts. See Redoubt
and Sconce.

Star, in Heraldry, denotes a charge frequently borne on
the fhield, and the honourable ordinaries, in the figure of a
ftar. It differs from the mullet, or fpur-rowel, in that it is
not pierced as this lall is.

It ufnally confills of five rays or fpokes. When it has
fix or eight, as among the Germans and Italians, particular
mention muft be made of them in blazoning.

Stars, on Medals, are marks of confecration and deifi-
cation, being intended as fymbols of eternity. F. Joubert
fays, they fometimesexprefs the children of princes reigning,
and fometimes the children dead ; and placed in the rank of
deities.

Star, in the Manege. White flan in the forehead are
elleemed good marks in all horfes, except white and grey
ones : where nature fails to produce this good criterion, our
jockies have frequently recourfe to art. See Horse.

The method of making ftars, prattifcd among the Dutch,
it to roaft a large onion in hot afhes, and when near
thoroughly done, to divide it in two, and dip it in fcalding
hot walnut-oil. This done, they immediately apply the
flat fide of it to the place the ftar is to be on, and keep it
there half an hour. After taking it off, they anoint the

fcalded place with ointment of rofes ; in a ftiort time, the
fcarf-lkin falls off, and white hair grows up in its room ; but
the middle always continues bare of hair, which is the certain
charafteriftic of an artificial ftar.

The method moft ufed among us is to (have the hair from
the place it is to be made on ; then to apply a little oil of vitriol
with a feather, or the like, paffing it lightly over the bald
place. This eats away the root"! of the former hair, which
will be fuccecded by white. The fore is healed up with
copperas, and green ointment.

Star, To make a Black, on a white or other coloured
horfe, wafti the place to be changed frequently with fern-
roots and fage, boiled in ley ; and thev fay it will breed black
hairs. The fame may be done by beating four milk, galls,
and ruft, together, and anointing the part with it.

Star, A Red, is made with an ounce of aqua fortis, a
penny-worth of aqua vitse, and filver to the value of
eighteen-pence, all heated together in a glafs, and the place
anointed with it. This immediately turns the hair to a
perfeft red ; but it lafts no longer than till the horfe calls his
coat.

Star, or Starr, Starrum, in our Old Writers. All the
deeds, obligations, &c. of the Jews, were called ^^jrra, and
writ for the moll part in Hebrew alone, or in Hebrew and
Latin ; one of which yet remain? in the trcafury of the ex-
chequer, written in Hebrew without points, the fubitance
of which is expreffed in Latin juft under it, like an Englifh
condition under a Latin obligation : this bears date in the
reign of king John ; and many ftarrs, as well of grant and
releafe, as obligatory and by way of mortgage, are pleaded
and recited at large in the Plea Rolls.

Before the baniftiment of the Jews under Edward I.,
their contrails and obligations were denominated flarra, or
ftarrs ; which, by an ordinance of Richard I., preferved by
Hoveden, were commanded to be enrolled and depofited in
chefts, under three keys, in certain places ; one and the mofl:
confiderable of which was in the king's exchequer, at Weft-
minfter ; and no ilarr was allowed to be valid, unlefs it were
found in fome of the faid repofitories.

The word ftarr is a contraction from the Hebrew fchetar ;
a deed or contrail.

Star, in Pyrotechny, a compofition of combuftible mat-
ters ; which being borne, or thrown aloft into the air, exhi.
bits the appearance of a real ftar.

Stars are generally ufed as appendages to rockets, a num-
ber of them being ufually enclofed in a conical cap, or co-
ver, at the head of the rocket, and carried up with it to its
utmoft altitude, where the ftars taking fire, are fpread
around, and exhibit an agreeable fpedlacle. For their com-
pofition, fee Pyrotechny.

Star is alfo a badge of the orders of the Garter and Bath.

Star, Order of the, or Our Lady of the Star, an order
of knighthood, inftituted by king John II, of France in the
year 1 351, in imitation of the order of the Garter, not many
years before eftabliftied in England by king Edward III.,
fo denominated from a ftar they wore on the ftomach.

At firll there were but thirty knights ; but the order, in
time, became depreciated by the multitude of perfons ad-
mitted without anvdiftindlion. Fur which realon Charles VII.
when grand-maftcr thereof, quitted it, and gave it the che-
valier de Guet, knight of the watch at Paris, and his
archers ; who ftill wear a ftar 011 their coats. But this ac-
count is contradiiled by others ; who will have the order in-
ftituted by king Robert, in 1022, in honour of the Holy
Virgin, and to have fallen in dilregard during the wars of
Philip de Valois.

Others fay, that Lewis XI. having inftituted the order

of

S T A

S T A

of St. MicJiael, this order was abob'Hied by his fon
Charles VIII.

The enfijjn of this order was the four capital letters
M. R. A. v., embroidered in gold within a fquare on the
left bread of the knight's garment ; between the letters a
miiilet of eight points, the point in bafe wavy; and larger
than the otlier ; over the mullet a crown, compofed of
fleurs-de-lis and balls. The collar was three rows of gold
chains ; thereon rofes enamelled white and red, and placed
alternately.

Juftiniani mentions another order of the Star, at Mefiina,
in Sicily, called alfo the oriitr nf the Crefcent. This was
inltituted in the year 1268, by Charles of Anjou, brother
of St. Louis, king of the Two Sicilies.

According to cithers, this order was inftituted in 1 351,
when the princes of the houfe of Anjou being driven out of
the kingdom of Naples, and Sicily falling again under the
dominion of the kings of Aragon, this order, it is faid,
was eftablifhed in lieu of that of the Crefcent, which was
then aboli(hed,as is this order alfo. The badge of the order
was a ilar of eight points, furmounted with a mullet of eight
points.

Others will have it inftituted in 1464, by Renatus, duke
of Anjou, who took the title of king of Sicily. At leall
it appears, from the arms of this prince, that he made fome
alteration in tlie collar of the order ; for, inftead of fleurs-
de-lis, and ilars, he only bore two chains, whence hung
a crefcent, with the old French word lo% ; which, in the
language of rebus, fignified loz in a crefcent.

The order, being funk into obfcurity, was raifed again by
the people of Mefiina, under the name of the " Noble Aca-
demy of the Knights of the Star," reducing the ancient
collar to a fingle Itar, placed on a forked crofs ; and the
number of knights to flxty-tvvo. Their device was mon-
stuant regibus astra viam : which they exprefi'cd by

MR
the four initial letters * with the ftar in the middle.
AV
Star, Order of the Polar. See Polar.
Star of yllexandria, in Botany. See OrMitiiogalvm.
STAK-y///>/f. See Chrysophvllum.
St AR- F/omer. See Oknithogai.um.
Stak- Hyacinth. See Scilla.
Star of BethUhcm. See Ounitiiogalum.
Star nf the Earth, the name of a plant famous for its
virtues in curing the bite of a mad dog. The original ac-
count of its nature and virtues feems to be this : king James
fent to the Royal Society a dried fpecimen of a plant,
which had been fent to him as the plant with which his uogs
had been cured when bitten by a mad dog, and the name by
which this was called was Jlar of the earth.

This plant was fo ill dried, that it was not cafily diftin-
guifhed ; but at length Mr. Ray ffiund it to be the fefamoides
falamanticum magnum. It does not iecm, however, clear,
that this was the plant vulgarly known by that name, but
rather that it was gathered by fome ignorant perfon ; neither
the name ftar of the earth at all agreeing with it, nor any
account having been given before of its having fuch virtues.
Dr. Grey, in his Complete Farrier, greatly recommends the
ftar of the earth in the cure of this bite, and the plant he
means is plainly the coronopus, or buck's-horn-plantain ; and,
upon the whole, it feems that this hit mentioned is the plant
properly called by this name, as its virtues have always been
celebrated even in this cafe, and its leaves always are dif-
pofcd on the earth in the form of the rays of a liar. It is
to be added to this, that the countefs of Si'ftolk's pow-
der, fo famous in many places for this terrible dileafc, and
Vol. XXXIII.

by which ferral perfons have been known to be cured, is
principally tmpofed of this plant. Phil. Tranf. N^ 450.
p. 155.

Star-F1/ called alfo the Sea-JIar, in Ichthyology, is the
general nam for the Linnaan genus Asteri.^.s ; under
which term le feveral fpecies are enumerated without de-
fcription. 'here are more than forty fpecies, leparated into
fediions, accrding an the individuals are lunate, ftellate, or
radiate.

A. Lunate,
Species.

NoBiLis. Granulous, with a ridge round the margin,
the diflc of wlch is glabrous. It is found in the North feas.

PuLVlLLU. Lubricous, with an entire iiinple margin.
This is foundn the North feas. It is defcribed as having
a body conve above, covered with a (mootli fanguineous
flcin tratifverfty in particular parts ; befet towards the mar-
gin with foft btufe white fpines, about the fize of a grain
of millet-feed, and divided into ten arcae ; the margin is not
articulate, buirough in the angles, with about ten acute
papiUx ; beneth, the body is concave, fmooth, whitilh,
with a rofy tiije, and hollowed by five grooves each fide,
covered with brizontal batons. It tinges warm water with
a tawny coloui

MiLiTARis. Every where granulous, with a granulous
margin. It is'ound in the North feas.

Luna. Onicular, entire. It inhabits India. The body
is compreffed, aid every where fprinkled with raifed dots.

B. Stellate.

*Papposa. This fpecies has from twelve to fourteen
rays, the edgesof which are furrounded with (hort fafcicu-
lar procedis ; tie furface is muricate. It inhabits the Eu-
ropean and Afetic feas. The body above is ferruginous,
the difli fpottec with white ; the rays are paler at the ends ;
beneath whitifh with paler papilla and black grooves down
the rays ; the (ifli is tinged with red ; the rays are from
II to 15 ; it islanceolate, and a little convex above.

Si'ONGiosA. This fpecies is roughifti ; with five femi-
cylindrical obtue rays, unarmed at the edge;;. It inhabits
the Greenland Teas, and is not three-quarters of an inch in
diameter. The body is of a pale reddilh, with a very mi-
nute and red central protuberance above, and rough, with
minute crowded fpines ; the rays are infleftcd at the edges.

* Rubens. Lax, with five lanceolate, convex rays, co-
vered above witl fingle fpines, difpofed in rows. This is the
Aiterias hifpida of Pennant. It inhabits the ocean, and is
from nine to fourteen inches in diameter. The body above
is red, pale orange, ycllowifii, cinereous or black, fome-
times violet ; it has from four to fix rays, with four rows of
papilla: beneath ; the tubercles are fomctimes fcatterid, or
difpofed in rows. In fome of the individuals there are no
prickles, and in fome no briftles.

''■ Siii'OsiTA. With five round rays, reticulate beneath,
and covered above with peftuiate prickles. This is the
Afterias fpinofa of Pennant. It is very fmall, and found in
the European feas.

Endeca. With nine rays, every where covered with
peAinate prickles. There is a variety of this fpecies. It
is found in the North feas ; and the rays are from five to
nine.

MiNUTA. With fix rays, the edges wiili diilaiu, pro-
jeAing, fafcicular pnicefies. It inhabits the Norlhem feas.
The body is of a pale yellow ; about two lines and a half
in diameter ; and flat on each fide.

5 G • GtA-

S T A

* Glacialis. With five angular rays, tfjangles with
prickly protuberances. It inhabits the Ndh feas, and
feeds on oyiters. The rays are thick and lan(oIate. The
body, when alive, is rufous, undulate with wije, fometimes
cinereous brown, or green ; the di/lc above witlubercles dif-
pofed in a circle, beneath hollow : the tentr.ila are nume-
rous, pellucid, with a row of fmall pinnulein each fide ;
the back is marked with a round Itriate operdum or lid.

*Clathrata. With five Ihort thick raj; hirfute be-
neath, and cancelled above. It inhabits the liropean feas ;
and is defcribed and figured in Pennant's Brifh Zoology.

EcHiNiTiiS. With twenty rays, each wit two rows of
fuckers, and numerous large and fmall movedle fpines. It
inhabits Batavia. The diik as well as the ras are covered
with fmall moveable fpint-;.

Reticulata. Rays four, reticulate wit^ prickles. It
is found in the Indian feas.

Phrygiana. This fpecies is every whre befet with
papilla, which are beneath of a rofy colou, It is found
on the coalts of Norway.

Nodosa. With five convex rays, longitucfnally elevated,
and muricate : it is met with an the coalts ofihe Indian feas.

* Violacea. Lax, with a grey-browi furface, and
violet tubercles ; it has five rays. InhabitSthe European
and Northern feas. The body has fometints a violet fur-
face, and marked fometimes with violet ubercles only ;
thefe are either difpofed in rows, or irregUarly fcattered ;
the diflv is orbicular ; the rays lanceolate'aid reddifli at the
tip ; beneath yellowifh in the grooves.

Sangl'inolenta. Above fanguineousj the rays are
tipt with white. It inhabits the North feas

Perforata. Unarmed ; with perforaed dots on the
back. This alfo is an inhabitant of the Ncrth feas.

Aranciaca. Difli broad ; rays five, fib-depreffed, and
prickly at the margins : in the Mediterraneal and North feas.

* Equestris. Five rays ; dilk reticutte, and perfo-
rated with dots ; tubercles five; margin ful-articulate ; be-
neath a fingle row of tentacula : an Europtan fpecies.

La;viGATA. With five femi-cylindrical obtufely eight-
angled, unarmed rays. It inhabits the Mfditerranean and
Indian feas. The rays are covered with otfolete warts, and
between them, at the fides, are hollow das ; beneath, the
warts are difpofed in quincunx.

*Membranacea. With five broad' membranaceous
rays, extremely thin and flat. Inhabits tie European and
Mediterranean feas. The rays are rough, with tubercles ;
beneath with five elevated convex ribs.

Granulosa. Pentangular, unarmed, each fide teffel-
late with granulations, the margin is join(ed. It is found
oil the coafts of the ifland of Santa Cruz.

C. Radiate.

Rosea. Rough, with reticulate granulations; rays
round. This fpecie., is found in the Belgic and Norway
feas, and is reckoned extremely elegant. Body above of a
rich rofe-colour, fometimes inclining to orange, with
blackifli dots between the granulations ; beneath whitilh,
with dilated grooves ; a quadruple row of tentacula, and
five rows of divergent pinnules ; rays white at the tip.

Pertu.sa. Rough, rays round, with a narrow, gibbous
bafe. This inhabits the North feas.

* Ophiura. Difk fcaly ; fcale of the angles ferrate.
It inhabits the ocean, is very fmall, and moves (lowly. The
body above is generally grey, reddilh, or violet, rarely
vrhite ; glabrous, with five rays ; the di(k is orbicular ; the
rays are four times as long as the body, (lender, quadrangu-
lar, flexuous, and covered with a fingle row of fcales. It

S T A

has been afTumed, rather than proved, that the mifchievous
effefts which at certain times of the year are produced by
eating the common mufcle, are occafioned by their having fed
upon this fpecies of allerias.

AcuLEATA. With glabrous prickles ; it is fhorter than
the diameter of the rays. It inhabits the ocean. It has
five rays. The body varies in colour ; it is in (hape orbicu-
lar, with minute fcales beneath, fix of which refemble a corol.

CiLiARis. With rough fpines, longer than the diameter
of the rays. It inhabits the Indian and North feas.

* Sph.'ERUlata. With five flender-jointed rays, hirfute
on the fides ; with a fmall globular head between the bafe
of each ray. It inhabits the European feas. The body \t
pentangular, indented, fmooth above the aperturCi beneath
it is five-pointed.

* Pentapiiylla. This fpecies is known by five (lender
rays, hirfute at the fides, and teflellate above, and below
green, fometimes with (ky-blue. It inhabits the Britifh
coalts. The body is regularly pentangular.

*Varia. With five hirfute rays, annulate with red;
the body is circular, with ten radiate llreaks ; the ends are
lozenge-form. This alfo is found on our own coalts, as
are the four that follow.

* Aculeari.s. This fpecies is known by its five (lender,
hirfute rays ; the body is rouod, with alternately broad and
narrow ilreaks from the centre.

* Hastata. With five hirfute, jointed rays ; the body
is pentagonal and indented, brownilh-red, with ten ochra-
ceous Itreaks, five flender, with javelin-fhaped extremities.

* Fl.ssA. With five flender, hirfute rays ; the body is
circular, with five equi-diitant dents, penetrating deep into
the fides, and five light-coloured llreaks from the centre.

* Nigra. This alio has (I'te hirfute olive rays, telfellate
with deeper (hades : the body is pentagonal, black, with
five radiate itreaks of white.

Tenell.\. With ten pectinate rays above ; and filiform
ones beneath, which are thickcr.ed at the joints. It is
found on the coalls of Santa Cruz. The body is white ;
the Item of the rays is longer.

* Pectinata. With ten peftinate rays above, and
fewer filiform ones beneath ; the joints are equal ; diflc
fmooth above. It inhabits the European and Indian feas.
The body is covered above with five unequal valves ; the
colour is of a deep red ; the filiform rays beneath are termi-
nated by an incurred claw.

Multiradiata. This fpecies has ten palmate, fub-
quadrifid, peAinate rays above, and numerous filiform ones
beneath ; the diflc is granulate : inhabits the Indian ocean.

* Caput Medus.ie. With five divided and fub-divided
rays ; difk and rays granulate ; mouth deprelFed. This
fpecies inhabits moft feas, and is an extremely curious fea-
animal ; the five rays dividing into two fmaller ones, and each
of thefe dividing again into two others ; which mode of re-
gular fub-divifioQ is continued to a valt extent, gradually de-
creafing in fize, till at length the ramifications amount to
many thoufands, forming a beautiful net-work. Its colour
is fometimes pale or reddifh-white, fometimes brown.

EuRYALi. Rays divided and fub-divided ; dillv papillous,
and with the rays granulate ; the mouth is a little raifed.
It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.

Oligcetes. Rays very long and fimple, with two acute
moveable Ityles at each joint. Found near Curafiba, ad-
hering to gorgonix. The body is pentangular, minute,
ochraceous, and rather hard.

NiGRiTA. With five jointed rays, covered with imbricate
fcales above, and lateral patulous ramifications ; the diilc is
obtufely pentangular and granulate.

Tri-

S T A

S T A

Tricolor. With five jointed rays, pe£linate at the
fidc.s ; tlie ramifications ^re rouijh ; the diflc is liifpid. It is
found on the codll of the Fcroe iflands.

FnAciLis. Dilk (ibicular, muncate, fpinoiis on the
back : rays five, joinud and pettir.ate at the fides ; the
ramifici.tirns ferruto-munciite : ti.urid in the North feas.

Tiie moft trcqiient kind of Itarhfli is tliat which has five
rays, uhich iflue in tiie manner of lo n^any vermiform, or
worm-like procefies : thefe therefore are cd\\edj!f//a vermi-
formes, or the worm-Z/ifi; ltar-fi(h. Another kind, nearly ap-
pruaching to ttie nature of tliefe, lias more than five rays,
and from the fides of thefe other tranfverfe procelles are pro-
duced, which are covered with an extremely fine kuid of
down, or hairinefs ; thefe ar« called the ba'try ftar-fi(h. A
third kind is called the ajlrophyla, or plant-like (lar-fi(h : this
is compofcd of a body from whence there arife a great num-
ber of braiiches, which divaricating more and more, are at
length increafed, or divided into a prodigious number ; and
thefe being cyliiidric in figure, refemble very much the
branches of plants. Several of the fpecies of the ilar-fifh
are eatable, and fome of them afford a very good nourilh-
ment. Some are prefcribed by phyficians as ingredients in
plafters.

Every ray of the ftar-fifh is furni(hed with fo very large a
number of legs, that they cover the whole furface : they
are difpofcd in four ranges, each of which contains about
feventy-four ; fo that the whole ray contains three hundred
and four, and confequently the fifii has, upon all five of its
rays, no lefs than fifteen hundred and twenty legs. With
all this numerous train of leg?, however, the animal moves
but very (lowly ; and indeed they are fo foft and feeble, that
they fcarcely deferve the name of legs, and, more properly
fpeaking, they are only a iort of horns, hke thofe of our
garden-fnails, but they ferve the animal to walk with, and
are therefore called leg?. Mem. Acad. Par. 1710.

The amazing property of reproducing the eliential parts,
when lolt, extends to the ilar-hlli. M. Reaumur, on the
difcovery of th:s property in the polype, obfervcd thefe other
animals, as they lay on the fhores of P016I0U and other places,
and often found that fpecies of ftar.fiih which is very com-
monly known, and which has naturally five rays or arms,
with only three or four, one or two being wanting ; and on
tiking up and examining thefe mutilated ones, nature was
always found reproducing the hmb that w as wanting ; and on
cutting and breaking other llar-fifh into feveral parts, it was
but a very little while before the broken parts cicatrized, and
every part remained alive. Phil. Tranf. N° 464. Append.

The arborefcent Itar-filh, Jlella arborefccns, or caput meilufn
of LinnsEUs, is one of the curiofities of nature, found m
feveral cabinets of natural rarities. See MtDUSA: Caput,
and fupra. Grew, Muf. Reg, Societ. part i. fetl. 5.
cap. 4. p. 122.

This has been found in the north of Scotland, and on the
coalt of Cornwall. See BAiKET-F(/5.

&T\n-Gaz,er, the Englifh name of the urancfcopus.

Stak-.S'/io/, the common name of a gelatinous fijbltance
often found lying on the fmf^ce of the earth, and called by
iomejlar-jelly, vxAJlar -fallen.

The vulgar have been always of opinion, that this was
produced from that meteor which they call a falling-ttar ;
others have imagined it a vegetable fubllance, and fuppofcd
it grew out of the earth ; but it is probably the half-
digelled food of herons, bitterns, crows, fea-inews, and coddy-
moddics, principally when they have fed upon frogs or
earth-worms.

The heads of frogs arc found whole in maHes of this
matter, and alfo parts of worms : thefe birds, when (hot,

difgorge a fubftance of the fame kind. This is gela-
tinous, like a thick mucilatre of gum tragacanth, and cold
to the touch. In it are often yellow fpecks and fmall clots,
like grumous blood. It fmells like putrid flefh, when kept,
and is principally found in mifty mornings, and in wet
weather, in autumn, winter, and fpring. Moreton's North-
ampton, p. 353.

Mr. Boyle lays, he has feen this jelly refolved, by digef-
tioii only, into a permanent liquor, and that a phyfician of
his acquaintance extolled it as a fpecific, outwardly applied
to wens. Works, Abr. vol. i. p. 310.

SrAR-Shot, in Artillery, confills of four pieces of iron,
whofe bafes, when feparate, form the quadrant of a circle ;
fo that the whole being joined forms a cylinder equal to
the fhot of the cannon. Each of thefe pieces is furnifhed
with an iron bar, the extremity of which is attached to a
fort of link, as keys are llruiig upon a ring. Being dif-
charged from the gun, the four branches or arms extend
every way from the link in the centre. Thefe are ufed in
the feafervice, and chiefly defigned for deihoying the fails
and rigging ; but their flight and execution are very pre-
carious at any confiderable diltance.

Star .J/anf, AJieria, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a
kind of extraneous foffil, of a very regular figure and fl:ruc-
ture, and approaching very much to the nature of the en-
trochi, having the fame fubllance and inner iirudure, and
being much of the fame fize, though different in form : it
comprehends the afleropodia and the appendicuU, or wires
of the alterise. The allerire aie by many affirmed to be
the fofTile radii of the ftar-fifh of the decempede, or ten-
rayed kind : others have thought that (ome fpecies of them
have been the remains of the common coriaceous kind*.
The encrinos, or liliuiii lapideum, feems to be a j^art of one
of the ten-rayed kinds; and the trochitse, and entrochi, are
plainly owing to the fragments of feveral of thefe kinds.
Linkius, de Stellis Marin.

Mr. Ellis has particularly defcribcd, and ilhiilrated by
figures, folfils of this kind, as well as the animals or ftar-
filh to which they belong ; but as the item of the animal,
the fpecimen of which he examined, and from which hi»
defcription is taken, was broke off Ihort at the bottom,
he is in doubt whether it moves about iw the fea, or is fixed
to rocks and fliells by a bafe, like corals, fponge?, and
keratophytons. Phil. Tranf. vol. lii. part i. art. ^6.

The afleropodia (fee Asteropodium ), in fubllance and
inner flruAure, agree perfectly with the Ihells of the echi-
nitoe, found in our chalk pits, and with the alteria: and
entrochi ; thefe bodies being all compofed of obliquely-
arranged plates of a tabulated fpar : the feveral parts of
which they are compofed are all convex on one fide, and con-
cave on the other ; but they are of very diffueut fliapes, being
fomctimes roundifh, fometimcs oblong, often quadrangular,
and not unfrequently of different numbers of angles. They
have frequently two, fometimes more, ridges running acrofs
them, and fometimes they have tubercle?, or (mall pro-
tuberances, ftanding either on their upper or under fide ;
they are fometimes found fingle, but more frequently com-
pound, or arranged into fmaller or larger parcels, being placed
over one another in the manner of the tiles of a houfe, and
fcem truly to have been originally part of an imbricated
fliell, or crult of fome fpecies of fca-fifh. They arc in
thefe compound mafles even very evidently fragments, and
are ufually of irregularly broken figures, though fometimes
they refemble, in fome degree, parts of the rays of one
or other of the kinds of ttar-filh. They are ufually found
loofe from the ailerii, though lying among them ; but
fometimes the afleria; are reg'ilarly fixed on ihem, jull ai

'he

444074

S T A

the entrochi on the modioli, and are plainly fcen to have
originally grown out of them.

The aileropodia feem properly the bafes of the afterix,
and the aftenne thewifelves are branches of them. The
afterix are fhort, and have commonly fomewhat crooked
angular columns, compoled of feveral joints, each refem-
blinyj the figure of a radiated itar, with a greater or fmaller
number of rays' in the different fpecies : they are ufually
found of about an inch in length, and of the thicknefs of
a goofe-quill. Some of them Lave five angles or rays, and
others only four, and in fome the angles are equidiftant,
while in others they are irregularly fo ; in fome alfo they
are (hort and blunt, while in others they are long, narrow,
and pointed ; and fome have their angles fo very Ihort and
obtufe, that at firft fight they may be taken for entrocho-
afteriae. The feveral joints in the fame fpecimen are ufually
all of the fame tliicknefs ; this, however, is not always the
cafe, but in fome they are larger at one end, and in others
at the middle, than in any other part of the body ; and
fome fpecies have one of the rays bifid, fo as to emulate
the appearance of a fix-rayed kind.

All th.e alterioe are naturally fulcated between the angles,
but this in a very difierent degree ; fome are very little fo,
while others are cut fo deeply, that the fingle joints of
them referable the rovs-els of a fpur. One end of the
column is frequently found finely engraved along the edges
of the angles, or rays, while the other end is fmooth, or nearly
fo ; and the fame is often the cafe alfo in the fingle joints.
Not unfrequently, alfo, one end of a column is indented,
and the other has five ftrix, running from a hollow centre
to the fulci between the rays. They are found of various
fizes and colours ; the longelt feldom arrive, however, at two
inches ; and they are found of all the intermediate bulk from
this down to the length of a barley-corn : they are not un-
frequently found, alfo, comprefled and flattened, as is com-
mon to the foffils that have been formed in animal moulds.

They are ufually bedded in ftrata of clay, though not
unfrequently in thofe of a lax lort of quarry-ilone, and
fometimes in a harder. They ufually have fea-fhells, and
other marine remains, lying about them ; and fometimes
thefe flielis adhere to the afterias, and when feparated from
them, do no injury to the afterias, but themfelves fhew a
mark of the figure of the body, or part of the column,
when a part has been always wanting in the (hell.

From the columns of the afteria; there are fometimes pro-
pagated certain fmall branches, like thofe of the entrochi ;
thefe are called by authors appendicuU ajlcriarum, or the
wires of the alteria;.

S T A

Thefe are fometimes two incbes long, and the lar<J-e!t or
thickeft joint always adheres to the alleria, all the fucceeding
ones growing fmaller, and the brancli more tapering toward
the end. In their natural fituation on the alleria, they Hand
in regular circles at different diftances one above mother :
there is always one wire in each of the fulci, or channels of
the body, and thefe ttand evenly againft one another.

Thefe wires or appendiculx are very feldom, however,
found in this their native ilate, or fixed to the bodies of
the alleria: ; they are commonly found broken off, and lying
loofe among them, either in fragments of different lengths,
or in fingle joints, immerftd in ftone, or lying among the
ftrata of clay.

The afteriae may be reduced to two kinds ; the firft,
thofe whofe whole bodies make the form of a ftar ; the
fecond, thofe which in the whole are irregular, but which
are adorned, as it were, with conftellations in the parts.

Dr. Lifter, for diltinftion fake, only gives the name
ajler'ta to the former fort, diilinguiftiing the latter by the ap-
pellation of ajlroiles ; the other naturalilts generally ufe the
two indifcriminately. The afteria fpoken of by the an-
cients appears to be of this latter kind.

The quality of moving in vinegar, as if animated, is
fcarcely perceivable in the aftroites, but is fignal in the afteria.
The former mull be broken in fmall pieces before it willmove ;
but the latter will move, not only in a whole joint, but in two
or three knit together. Plott, Nat. Kift. Oxford.

StlAn-Thiflle, in Botany. See Centaurea CalcUropa.

Star-//^o)/. See Aster.

SrAR-Wor/, American, or Trailing, of Vera Cruz. See
Tridax.

Sta r- H^orl, BaJlarJ, a fpecies oi Buphtkalmum ; which fee.

STAR-/^or/, Tello'U!, a fpecies of Inula; which fee.

iiT.\R-C bomber. Court of. See Court.

SrAK-Fort, or Redoubt, in Fortijicatien. See Star,
Redoubt,' and Fort.

STARADI, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia ; 42 miles E. of Ifnik.

STARAPHAXAT, a name ufed by fome of the old
writers fur any medicine that reftrains fluxions from the
eyes, nofe, or fauces.

STARA-RUSA, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
the government of Novgorod, near lake Ilmen ; 56 miles
S. of Novgorod. N. lat. 57^40'. E. long. 31° 50'.

STARASELLA, a town of Italyi in Friuli ; 8 miles
N.E. of Friuli.

STARBOARD, in Sea Language, is the right-hand
fide of a (hip, when looking forward from the ftern.

END OF VOL. XXXIII.

PriolMl by A. Strahan,
Ncw-Strtet-Squarr, Luiiilun.

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