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VOL. XXXIV. ei dog Wi" — wa otis (22 ss 6s te be i a , i y ’ vi 4 | ie ; PRIPERTTLL GAs Vike OW ee a THE CYCLOPA,DIA; OR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF Arts, Sciences, and Witerature, sY ABRAHAM REES, D.D F.RB.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSONAL GENTLEMEN. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, ’ BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. ———— EE IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. XXKIV. I LONDON: Printep ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Parernoster-Kow, F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J- CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND As ARCH, CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KiNGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J- BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO, J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WIITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819. OR, TARCH, a fubitance which is extra&ted from wheaten flour, by wafhing it in wate. All farinaceous feeds, and the roots of moft vegetables, afford this fubftance in a greater orlefs degree ; but it is mott eafily obtained from the flour of wheat, by moiftening any quantity thereof with a little water, and kneading it with the hand into a tough patte: this being wafhed with water, by letting fall upon it a very flender ftream, the water will be rendered turbid as it runs off, in confequence of the feculaor ftarch which it extraés from the flour, and which will fubfide when the water is allowed to ftand at reft. The refiduum of the flour, which remains after the water has extraé¢ted all the fecula, and runs off colourlefs, will be found to be gluten; which fee. The ftarch fo obtained, when dried in the fun, or by a ftove, is ufually concreted into {mall maffes of a lon figure and columnar fhape, which have a fine white colour, leaely any {mell, and very little tafte, If kept dry, ftarch in this {tate continues along time uninjured, although expofed tothe air. It is not foluble in cold water ; but forms a thick pafte with boiling-hot water, and when this pafte is allowed to cool, it becomes femitran{fparent and gelatinous, and being dried, becomes brittle, and fomewhat refembles gum. Starch, although found in all nutritive grains, is only perfeé&t when they have attained maturity, for before. this it is in a ftate approaching to mucilage, and fo mixed with faccharine matter and elfential oils, that it cannot be ex- trated in fufficient purity to contrete into mafles. Wheat, or fuch parts of it as arenot ufed for human food, are ufually employed for manufa@uring ftarch, fuch as the refufe wheat and bran ; but when the fineft ftarch is required, good grain muft be ufed. This, being well cleaned, and fome- times coarfely bruifed, is put into wéoden veffels full of water to ferment: to affift the fermentation, the veflels areexpofed to the greateft heat of the fun, and the water is changed twice Voi. XXXIV. Printed by A. Strahan, ' New-Street Square, London. —=— VCLOPADIA: A NEW a Gy, during eight or twelve days, according to the feafon. en the grain burfts eafily under the finger, and gives out a miky white liquor when {queezed, it is judged to be fuffi- cieitly foftened and fermented. In this ftate, the grains are takjn out of the water by a fieve, and put into acanvas fack, andithe hufks are feparated and rubbed off, by beating and rubling the fack upona plank : the fack is then put into a tub filled with cold water, and trodden or beaten till the wat¢ becomes milky and turbid, from the ftarch which it take| up from the grain. A fcum fometimes fwims upon rface of the water, which mutt be carefully removed ; the vater is then run off through a fine fieve into a fettling- vefle} and frefh water is poured upon the grains, two or three\times, till it will not extract any more ftarch, or be- come\coloured by the grain. The water in the fettling- veffela being left at reft, precipitates the ftarch which it held jufpended ; and to get rid of the faccharine matter, which| was alfo diffolved by the water, the veflels are ex- pofed to the fun, which foon produces the acetous ferment ation, and takes up fuch matter as renders the ftarch more pure and white. During this procefs, the itarch for fale in the fhops receives its colour, which confiits of {malt mixed with water Fa a {mall quantity of alum, and is thoroughly incorporatedwith the ftarch; but this ftarch is unfit for medicinal pwrpofes. When the water becomes completely four, it is poured gently off from the ftarch, which is wafhed feveral tim afterwards with clean water, and at laft is placed on linen cloths fupported by hurdles, and the through, leaving the ftarch upon the cloths, in prefled or wrung, to extraét as much as poffible ter; and the remainder is evaporated, by cutting the ftarfi into pieces, which are laid up in airy places, upon a floor#f plafter or of flightly burnt bricks, until it becomes compltely dried from all moifture, partly by the accefs of B warm to drain ra y STARC Tn wintery by the floor imbibing the moifture, effe the dew heat of a ftove mutt be employed to (ie ae . Laftly, the pieces of dried ftarch are he D a re the outfide craft, which makes inferior TI » and theleces are broken into {maller pieces for fale. enced cat remains in thé fack after the ftarch is ce ales hick the hulks and the glutinous part of the aby Wire atvund very nutritious food for cattle. Rae French \ufacturers, according to Les Arts et cnaklea’ puns nore economical method, as they are he frett Y lterece an acid water for the fermentation Beech tvidias ae *) ufe the moft inferior wheat, and the air ailfal of hse T his water they prepare, by put- ponndbice ie Yi water into a tub, with about two Baten nica: fer 4 as fome bakers ufe to make their then Ridced and Fete water ftands two days, and is deen aa ates ee pailful of warm water added to rae oe To ote tH ‘0 tle tll it is clear, it is poured off crn 4 Seek er ae in the fermentation of the ma- mee eee ac ue ™ poured into a tub, and about as fills the eaatdes ce. upon it as will fill the tub half Ee seats . ‘tub is then filled up with the half Seay Tacks ent refufe wheat, and the othe) ae a q lef. *ontinues to fleep and fermen § ays, or les, ‘ording to the ftrength of th leaven-water, and accordin i i . ) dtl reuirentas cat ie difpofition of the weathe Unaterials have been fufficient* sag fermented, an ‘tuous matter, which is t2 ou of the grain, will be {, {wimming on the furfac, having been thrown up by th, This muftie : e tation. {cummed ; > ieee : off; and the fermerj grain, being taken outof ve, placed over a fettlig- the tub, is put into a fine hair, tub, when fair water is poured, gy it, and wafhed throgh Cneans the ftarch is caried ao fieve into the tub ; by whi through the fieve with the wate i i Senet of the grain are i. Weep oy se e water ftands in the fettli, comes clear at top ; when it is ar eaeaene ve she! a leaving at the bottom a white fedir,; which is the Rach The water which is taken off is a and is called Giee water: this is the proper leaven forve firit fteepinge ¢ the materials. The ftarch now obtaiy mutt fe Pibsed marketable ; for which purpofe, as uch water is pured upon it as will enable it to be poundtand broken ie with a fhovel, and then the tub is filled UP Vh fair water te days after this, the water is laded OUfrom the tub, and the {tarch appears in the bottom, butyyered over hi a dark-coloured and inferior kind of itapalecimohiaa talker off, and employed for fattening hogs. The amiainaee of the fediment, which is good ftarch, is Waed feverallemes to remove all the inferior ftarch ; and Yan this Py Bane. about four inches of thick ttarch fhoulge found at the bottom of each tub: but the quantity var, according to the goodnefs of the meal or bran which haveen ufed S It is evident that the refufe wheat, when emplag for walkin ftarch, ought to afford more, the whole beg yfed pie the bran or hutks ; but the ftarch fo extra ig te s of an inferior quality to that which is extraGted ont a of good wheat, particularly in the whitenefs i its‘colour The itarch in the different tubs is brought togety into ane and there worked up with as much water as J] aiflolee at into a thin pafte, which is put into a filk fieve, \q ftrained through with frefh water. This water is fettled in tub, and afterwards poured off, but before it is fo complet (evsled as to lofe all its white colour: this renders the ttath which is depofited ftill finerand whiter, and the {tarch whicks de a3 fited by the water fo poured off is of a more common nality ftarch thus purified is taken’ out of the bottom of this, and put into wickerbafkets, about 18 inches lony an deep, rounded at the corners, and lined with linen elc which are not faftenel to the bafkets. The water drrom the ftarch throug: the cloths for a day, and the bai are then carried up © apartments at the top of the hd where the floor is mde of very clean white plafter ; ay e windows are throya open, to admit a current of a Here the bafkets areturned downwards upon the yitfloor, and the linen cloths, not being faltened to 2 [kets, follow the ftari, and, when taken off, leave ave or cakes of {tarch, which are left to dry a little, id e then broken intc fmaller pieces, and left on 1e plter-floor till very dr. But if the weather is at all umicthe ftarch is removd from the platter-floor, and preadut upon fhelves, inn apartment which is warmed dy a ove, and there it rmains till perfectly dry. The pieces ‘e afterwards fcrapd, to remove the outfide cruit, which akes common ftarc]; and the {eraped pieces being again bken fmall, the ftarh is carried to the ftove, and {pread at to a depti: of thee inches, on hurdles covered with clhs. The flarch mit be turned over every morning and eveng, to prevent it frm turning to a greenifh colour, which itvould otherwile dc Thofimanufa¢turers wh are not provided with a ftove, make ufiof the top of a bker’s oven to fpread the ftarch _ upon; aij after being thoughly dried here, it is ready for fale. Starchmay be made fim potatoes, by foaking them about an our in water, andaking off their roots and fibres, then rublng them quite cln by a ftrong brufh; after this they are educed to a pv, by grating them in water. This pulps to be colletein a tub, and mixed up with a large quatity of clear wer: at the fame time, another clean tub tuft be providec and a hair-fieve, not too fine, muft be foported over iby two wooden rails extended acrofs the tb. The pulpnd water are thrown into the fieve, and te flour or ftzh is carried through with the water; frex water muftien be poured on, till it runs through quie clear. Thefufe pulp which remains in the fieve, beingboiled in wat, makes an excellent food for animals; anithe quantityf this pulp is near feven-eighths of all the poatoes employ. The liquoi which has pled through the fieve is turbid, and of a darkfh colour, fm the extra@tive matter which is diffolved in i, When its fuffered to reft for five or fix hours, all thi:matter depts or fettles to the bottom, and the liquor whch remains to be poured off as ufelefs ; and a large quantity of frefh ver is thrown upon the flour, and {tirred up: it s then fett] fora day, and the water being poured off, thr flour will: found to have again fettled in a whiter ftate. But to imyve it, another quantity of water is poured on, ind mixeap with it; in which itate it is pafled through a fine filkeve, to arre{t any {mall quantity of the pulp which mayave efcaped the firft hair-fieve. The whole mui afterwa be fuffered to ftand quiet, till the Hour is entirely fett, and the water above become perfe&ily clear ; but if t water has any fenfible colour or tafte, the flour muft beafhed again with frefh water, for it is abfolutely neceflarpat none of the extra@tive matter be fuffered to remain Wit. The flour, when thus ob- tained pure, and drainerom the water, may be taken out of the tub with a woo fhovel, and placed upon wicker- frames covered with pr, to be dried in fome fituation properly defended fromui{t. When the manufaée of ftarch from potatoes is at- tempted in a large wafome kind of mill muft be ufed to 6 reduce | STARCH. reduce them to a pulp, as the grating of them by hand is too tedious an operation. Almill invented by M. Baume is very complete for this purptfe. In its general {tructure it refembles a large coffee-mill\ the grater confilts of a cone of iron-plate, about feven inche}in diameter, and eight inches in height, the exterior furface of which is made toothed, like arafp, by piercing holes through the plate from the infide. This cone is fixed upon a vertiql axle, with a handle at the top to turn it by; and is mouned on the pivots of the axle, within a hollow cylinder of phte-iron, toothed withinfide like the outfide of the cone; the {malleft end of the interior cone being uppermoft, and the lower or larger end being as large as the interior diameter d the hollow cylinder. A conical hopper is fixed to the hollow cylinder, round the top of it, into which the potatpes are thrown; and falling down into the {pace between the outfide of the cone and the infide of the hollow cylinder, they are ground, and reduced to a pulp, when the interior cone is turned round by its handle; and as the lower part of the cone is fitted clofe to the interior diameter of the cylinder, the potatoes mult be ground toa fine pulp before they can pafs through between the two. The machine, when at work, is placed in a tub filled with water; and as falt asthe grinding proceeds, the pulp mixes regularly with the water, ready for the procefs before defcribed. Mr. Whately of Cork has alfo propofed a mill for the fame purpofe, on a different plan. The grater is a cylinder, with its axis horizontal, and turned by a handle at one end, with a fly-wheel to regulate the motion. A hopper is placed over the cylinder, into which the potatoes are thrown, and are grated by refting upon the cylinder, as it revolves round. ‘here is alfo an horizontal box oppofite to the cylinder, into which the potatoes are received from the hopper, through a fliding-door ; and a moveable end, which is fitted to the box, is prefled forwards towards the cylinder by a lever and weight, fo as to force the potatoes contained in the box againit the cylinder, which, being kept in conftant motion, grates away the potatoes into a pulp with great rapidity, and it falls into a box beneath. In the year 1796, lord William Murray obtained a patent for manufaturing ftarch from horfe-chefnuts. The method was to take the horfe-chefnuts out of the outward green prickly hufk, and either by hand, with a knife or tool, or elfe with a mill adapted for the purpofe, the brown rind was carefully removed, leaving the chefnuts perfeétly white, and without the {malleft {peck. In this flate the nuts were rafped or ground to a pulp with water, and the pulp wafhed with water through a coarfe horfe-hair fieve, and twice afterwards through finer fieves, with a con{tant addi- tion of clear cold water, till all the ftarch was wafhed clean from the pulp which remained in the fieve ; and the water being fettled, depofited the ftarch, which was afterwards repeatedly wafhed, purified, and dried, in the fame manner as the potatoe-{tarch before defcribed. We are not in- formed if this manufaGture has been carried into effe&. The four, naufeous, milky liquor obtained in the procefs of ftarch-making, appears, upon analyfis, to contain acetous acid, ammonia, alcohol, gluten, and phofphate of lime. The office of the acid is to diflolve the gluten and phofphate of lime, and thus to feparate them from the ftarch. Starch is ufed along with fmalt, or ftone-blue, to ftiffen and clear linen. The powder of it is alfo ufed to whiten and powder the hair. | Tt is alfo ufed by the dyers, to difpofe their {tuffs to take golours the better. Starch is fometimes ufed inftead of fugar-candy for mix- ing with the colours that are ufed in ftrong gum-water, to yoake them work more freely, and to prevent their cracking. It is alfo ufed medicinally for the fame intentions with the vifcous fubftance which the flour of wheat forms with milk, in fluxes and catarrhs, under various forms of powders, mix- tures, &c. A drachm of flarch, with three ounces of any agreeable fimple water, and a little fugar, compofe an ele- gant jelly, of which a fpoonful may be taken every hour or two. Thefe gelatinous mixtures are likewife an ufeful in- jeétion in fome diarrheeas, particularly where the lower in- teftines have their natural mucus abraded by the flux, or are couflantly irritated by the acrimony of the matter. Starch is the common vehicle for the exhibition of opium per anum. By 43 Geo. III. c. 68. fched. (A), upon, every hun- dred weight of {larch imported a duty is impofed; and by 49 Geo. III. c. 98. fched. (A), a further duty upon every hundred weight is impofed. No perfon fhall be a maker of ftarch within the limits of the head-office of excife in London, unlefs he occupies a tenement of 10/. a year, or upwards, for which he fhall be affefled in his own name, and alfo pay to the poor-rates ; nor elfewhere, unlefs he pay to the church and poor; or if there are no fuch rates, to the rate on houfes and windows, under the fame penalty as for making {tarch without entry. (19 Geo. IT1. c. 40. f. 3. 26 Geo. III. c. 51. f. 20.) By 43 Geo. III. c. 69. fched. (A), every flarch-maker fhall take out a licence, for which he fhall pay 5/., and re- new the fame annually within ten days before the end of the year, on pain of 30/, 24 Geo. III. c. 41. fell. 2. Places of making ftarch are to be entered, under penalty of 200/. (24 Geo. III. c. 48. fefl, 2.) All rooms and places, veflels and utenfils, fhall be marked and numbered, on the penalty of 50/. (19 Geo. III. c. 4o. f. 12.) Flour, and other materials, found in any private place, and all pri- vate utenfils and veflels for making or keeping ftarch, unen- tered, fhall be forfeited, or their value. (10 Ann, c, 26. {. 22.) Every ftarch-maker fhall caufe his name to be painted over his door, or on fome confpicuous part of the front of his houfe, with the addition of farch-maker, on penalty of 1oo/. (24 Geo. III. c. 48. fefl. 2.) Officers may at all times enter and furvey, and make return to the commiflioners, leaving a true copy of the quantity, if demanded, under his hand, with the maker; and if he leave not fuch copy, after it has been dereanded in writing (12 Geo. I, c. 28.), he fhall forfeit 40s. (10 Ann. c. 26. f. 14.) Notice of emptying the vats, and of taking the waters out of the tubs, fhall be given, on pain of forfeiting 1oo/, (19 Geo. III. c. 40.) The maker fhall ufe regular, {quare, or oblong boxes only, for boxing and draining his green ftarch, before it is dried in the ftove, on pain of 1o/.; and give notice of box- ing, and an account of drying, &c. Nor shall he remove any ftarch after it is dried, before it be weighed, &c. by the officers, on pain of 200/. (4 Geo. Il. c. 14, 19 Geo. III. c. 40.) All ftarch, before it be put into any ftove or place to dry (except for crulting), fhall be put in papers, tied up with {trings, patled over with a piece of paper of a dif- ferent colour, and ftamped by the officer, under penalty of rool. (26 Geo. III. c. 51.) Forging or ufing forged ftamps incurs a forfeiture of 500/. (26 Geo. III. c. 51.) The maker fhall have juft {cales and weights, on pain of to/.; and if he fhall ufe infcfficient fcales or weights, he fhall forfeit 100/. (19 Geo. IIT. c. 44.) Removing ftarcle before due notice is prohibited by 10 Ann. c. 26, f. 19. And if it be removed before it is weighed by the officers, the perfon fo offending fhall forfeit 200/. (19 Geo. III. ¢, 40.) Andif any dealer in ftarch fhall receive more than 28 lbs, not duly marked, he fhall forfeit zoo/. 24 Geo. III. c. 48. 10 Ann. c. 26. f. 16. Clandeftine manufaéture, or concealing of ftarch, expofes the party concerned, unlefs he can make it appear that the B2 duty “=< ST A. duty has been paid, to a forfeiture of so/.: and ob{truct- ing the officer in entering, feizing, &c. the fame, incurs a forfeiture of rool. (4 Geo. II. c. 14., 23 Geo. II. c. 21.) And by 19 Geo. III. c. 40. if the maker thall conceal any ftarch, with intent to defraud his majefty of the duties, he fhall forfeit 100/. Weekly entry fhall be made, on pain of so/.; and the duties fhall be cleared within one week after entry, on pain of double duty. No ttarch fhall be im- ported, except in packages containing at leaft 224 lbs., on pain of forfeiture, and of so/. from the matter of the veffel. (42 Geo. ITI. c. 93.) Starch that hath paid the duties may be exported with a drawback of the duties. (10 Ann. c. 26. 27 Geo. III. c. 13.) The officers of excife or cuftoms may feize any {tarch or hair-powder, with the horfe and package, fufpeéted on good reafon to have been privily made, or imported without payment of duty, or relanded after drawback ; and if the party doth not make it appear that the duty hath been paid, they fhall all be forfeited, with an additional forfeiture of 5/. for every hundred weight. (4 Geo. II. c. 14.) If any perfon fhall knowingly harbour or conceal any ftarch unlawfully imported, or relanded after fhipping for exportation upon debenture, he fhall, whether he claim any property in it or not, forfeit 5o0/. for every hundred weight, together with the goods and package. (23 Geo. II. c. 21.) No perfumer, &c. fhall make ufe of, or offer to fale, any hair-powder made of or mixed with ala- batter, talc, platter of Paris, whiting, lime, &c. ({weet {cents only excepted), on pain of forfeiting the fame, and 5o0/, (12 Ann. ftat. 2. c. 9.) And if any maker of hair- powder fhall mix any powder of alabafter, &c. (rice firft made into ftarch, and {weet {cents only excepted), he fhall forfeit the fame, and go/. (12 Ann. ftat. 2. c.g.) Or if any one make or fell any raade with {uch materials, he fhall forfeit the fame, and 20/. (4 Geo. II. c. 14.) Or if he fhall have in his pof- feflion, for making, mixing, or counterfeiting hair-powder, any materials befides ftarch, or powder of ftarch, or rice made into ftarch, he fhall forfeit the fame, and 1o/, Places for making hair-powder are to be entered, and officers may enter and furvey them, under a penalty of 20/, 4 Geo. II. c. 14. Rivers! maker of ftone-blue for fale fhall make entry of his name, place of abode, place of manufa@ure and keeping, and materials, on pain of 50/. (26 Geo. III. c. 51.) Officers may enter and furvey without obftruction, under penalty of 50/.: nor fhall any flour, meal, or other ingredients (other than for colouring the fame), be ufed, except ttarch for which the duties have been paid, on pain of forfeiting the fame and 1oo/. Nor fhall any maker of ftone-blue or hair-powder for fale receive into his poffeflion any ftarch in papers not ftamped, under pain of forfeiting 10s. a pound, together with the fame: and if any maker fhall keep above 28 lbs. of ftarch or hair-powder in any unentered place, the fame fhall be for- feited and alfo 50/. 26 Geo. III. c. 51. All the preceding forfeitures fhall be fued for, levied, and mitigated, as by the laws of excife, or in the courts at Weltmintter ; and be diftributed, half to the king and half to the profecutor. STARCHY Matter of Roots, Plants, and Seeds, in Rural Economy, is a material which forms a principal part of a great number of efculent articles of different kinds, upon which their nutrient properties and qualities probably in a great meafure depend when ufed as the food of man, or em- ployed in the feeding and fattening of feveral different kinds of domeftic animals. See Srarcu. Thus, it is afcertained to exilt in confiderable quantities in the root of the potatoe and fome other roots, in many different plants of the edible kind, and to contftitute the 5 a STA ste(t part of molt grains, pulfe, and feeds which are em- yed as food. It is met wthin a large proportion in the dent nourifhing vegetable fubftances which are known anade ufe of under the nanes of fago, falep, arrow-root, teca, caflava, and fome ohers. In regard to the roots, pls, and perhaps feeds, deived from weeds, it is known to and much in the root of arum maculatum, or wake robin, of: wild or Englifh hyaciith, of white bryony, of meadow {ah, and of a variety of «thers. It is very predominant in nerous wild plants, an: moft probably in molt of their fee: ‘Humphrey Davy coneives, that this matter or coagu- latenucilage, which forns the greateft part of all grains andeds which are ufed i the way of food, is generally comed with gluten, oil, r albuminous matter. In corn, withluten ; in pulfe, fuc as peas and beans, with albu- mino matter ; and in rap-feed, lint-feed, hemp-feed, and the nels of moft nuts, with oils. He found that one hundi parts of good fullgrained wheat fown in the au- tumn,fforded feventy pats of {larch and nineteen parts of gln: that one hunced parts of wheat fown in the {pringielded feventy of fuch and twenty-four of gluten : that t fame number o/ parts of Barbary wheat gave feventyour of ttarch and wenty-eight of gluten: and that an equnumber of parts‘ Sicilian wheat afforded feventy- five of arch and twenty-ae of gluten. He has alfo tried differen’pecimens of Noh American wheat, all of which have ccained rather me gluten than thofe of Britifh growth. In general, it ifaid, the wheat of warm climates aboundsnore in gluterand infoluble parts; and is of greater bcific gravity, Irder, and more difficult to grind, than thaof others: andiat the wheat of the fouth of Eu- rope, ir »nfequence of »ntaining a larger proportion of gluten, ispeculiarly fitt: for making macaroni, and pre- parationsf flour in whic a glutinous quality is confidered as an exceence. In fomerials made onarley, he obtained, from one hun- dred partcof a full, f, Norfolk fort, feventy-nine of ftarch, fixof gluten, d eight of hufk; the remaining feven parts onfifting ofveet or faccharine matter. The fugar in bary is fuggetl as probably the chief caufe why it is more p»per for mahg than any of the other forts of grain. It 1 ftated th Einhoff, in his minute trials on barley-meal, ‘ound in the thoufand eight hundred and forty parts, three undred anlixty of volatile matter, forty-four of albumen, wo hundriof faccharine matter, one hundred and feventy ¢ mucilag nine of phofphate of lime, with {ome albumer, one hured and thirty-five of gluten, two hundred and fixty of Ik, with fome gluten and ftarch, two thoufand five hured and eighty of ftarch noc quite free from glen, and:venty-eight parts of lofs in the whole. And that rydforded to the fame experimenter, in the fame number qarts, two thoufand five hundred and twenty of meal, m hundred and thirty of hufk, and three hundred nd nineof moifture: the fame quantity of meal, on being analyfe gave two thoufand three hundred and forty-five of ftareone hundred and twenty-fix of al- bumen, four hundred | twenty-fix of mucilage, one hun- dred and twenty-fix ofccharine matter, and three hundred and fixty-four of glu not dried. The remainder hufk and lofs. The firft of thefe-iters obtained from one thoufand parts of rye, which wzrown in Suffolk, fixty-one parts of {tarch and five of glut One hundred part oats, from Suffex, afforded him fifty-nine parts of fta, fix of gluten, and two of faccha- rine matter. One thoufand partf peas, grown in Norfolk, alfo af- forded STA forded him five hundred and one parts of ftarch, twenty-two of faccharine matter, thirty-five of albuminous matter, and fixteen parts of extract, which became infoluble during the evaporation of the faccharine fluid. From three thoufand eight hundred and forty parts of marth beans, (vicia faba,) the litter writer is {tated to have obtained one thoufand three hundred and twelve of itareh, thirty-one of albumen, and one|thoufand two hundred and four of other matters which may be conceived to be nutritive ; fuch as gummy, itarchy, fibrousmatter, analogous to animal matter. | The fame quantity of kidney-eans ( phafeolus vulgaris) is faid to have afforded him, one thoufand eight hundred and five parts of matter analogous t$ ftarch, eight hundred and fifty-one of albumen and mat approaching to animal matter in its nature, and feven hundred and ninety-nine of mucilage. From the fame number of part of lentils he is alfo ftated to have obtained one thoufand tyo hundred and fixty parts of ftarch, and one thoufand four hundred and thirty-three of a matter analogous to animal matter, which is deferibed as a glutinous fubitance infoluble in water; but foluble in alcohol when dry, having the appairance of glue; probably, it is fuppofed, a peculiar modification of gluten. Different tuberous, bulbous, atd common roots contain a large portion of ftarchy matter, but it probably abounds moft in the potatoe. It is faid that thefe roots in general afford from one-fifth to one-feventh of their weight of dry ftarch. And that from one hundted parts of the common kidney potatoe Dr. Pearfon obtained from twenty totwenty- three of ftarch and mucilage: the fame number of parts of the apple potatoe afforded fir Humphrey Davy in various trials, from eighteen to twenty parts of pure ftarch. From five pounds of feveral other different varieties, in the trials of another experimenter, from twelve to eight ounces and a quarter of ftarch have been obtained. It is added, that from the analyfis of Einhoff, it appears that feven thoufand fix hundred and eighty parts of potatoes afford one thoufand one hundred and fifty-three of {tarch, five hundred and forty of fibrous matter analogous to ftarch, one hundred and feven of albumen, three hundred and twelve of mucilage ia the ftate of a faturated folution: in the whole, two thoufand one hundred and twelve parts. So that a fourth part of the weight of the potatoe at leaft may, it is fad, be con- fidered as nutritive matter. Hence its very great utility as an article of food for man, and its great applicition in the feeding and fattening of animals. The propriety of encouraging the produGtion of ftarch from ufelefs roots, plants, and produ@s, has been fome time fince fuggeited by Mr. Pitt in his Account of the Agricul- ture of Staffordfhire, and which is {aid to equally apply to the preparation of this fubttance from any other vegetable which may not be a leading article of food, as well as to the produ€tion of hair-powder, pafte, and other articles generally made from wheat. : STARCKENBERG, in Geography, a town of the county of Tyrol; 13 miles N.E. of Totdeclh STAREIN, a town of Auttria; 4 miles S. of Hardegg. STARENBERG, a town of Upper Bavaria, on the Wurmiee; 14 miles N.N.E. of Weilhaim. STARGARD, or Srarocanp, a town of Pruffian Pomerelia, fituated on the Fers; now belonging to Fruffia ; 20 miles S. of Dantzic. N.lat.53°59!. E. long. 18°20). STaRGARD, or Old Stergard, a town of Germany, which fives name to a circle in the duchy of Mecklenburg; 55 miles S.E. of Guftro. N. lat. 53°30! E. long. 13°17’. STA Srarcarn, or New Stargard, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, capital of a duchy, and like- wife of the whole Hinder Pomerania. Its vicinity produces corn and efculent vegetables in great plenty. As it lies on the Ina, it has a free communication with the Baltic. It is a large And well-built town, containing two churches, with one in the fuburb, and a conventual church, where Lu- therans, Germans, and French Calvinitts, perform their public worfhip. Near the town is a noble college, founded in 1631, by burger-ma{ter Peter Groning, and improved with regard to its conftitution in 1704. Here are hkewife a free-fchool, with divers good manufactures and a contider- able trade; 74 miles N.E. of Berlin. N. lat. 53°28’. E. long. 15° 2c!. STARI-BESUSITZ, a town of Croatia; 30 miles W. of Bihacs. STARIGARD, a ruined town of Servia; 12 miles S.S.E. of Novibafar. STARIKILIA, a town of European Turkey, in Do- bruzzia, on a branch of the Danube; 6 miles E. of I{mail. STARING Coazt, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying the fame as hidebound. See HipEsounp. STARITZ, in Geography, a river of Silefia, which runs into the Billau, near Freywald, in the principality of Neifle. STARITZA, atown of Ruflia, in the government of Tver, on the Volga; 44 miles S.W. of Tver. N. lat. 56° 24!, E. long. 35° 14/. STARK, a county of Chio, containing the feven fol- lowing townfhips, viz. Canton, with 846 inhabitants ; Kull- back, with 332; Nimmifkillen, with 385; Ofnaburg, with gor; Plane, with 527; Sandy, with 198; and Tufcarawa, with 145: amounting in all to 2734. STARKEA, in Botany, received that name from the pen of profeflor Willdenow, in honour of the Rey. Mr. Starke, a clergyman at Gros T/chirna, m Silefia, who has paid great attention to the cryptogamic plants of that country, and is the author of an eflay on By/us Jolithus, in the firlt volume of Sims and Konig’s Annals of Botany.— Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2216. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 118.— Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-/uperflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite difcoidee, Linn. Corymbifera, Jull. Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, imbricated, with nume- rous, linear-lanceolate, {traight feales; the inner ones gra- dually longer ; the innermoft with elongated, {mooth, very narrow points. Cor. compound, radiated. Florets of the difk not very numerous, perfect, tubular, funnel-fhaped, with an equal, five-cleft, reflexed mb ; thofe of the radius numerous, ligulate, emarginate, female, {preading, twice as long as the difk. Stam. in the perfect florets, Filaments five, capillary ; anthers united into atube, prominent in the mouth of each floret. Pi. in both kinds of florets, Ger- men inverfely conical; flyle capillary, longer than the co- rolla ; {tigmas two, linear, deeply feparated, revolute. Peric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds folitary to each floret of the difk and radius, inverfely conical. Down fimple, feffile, capillary, f{mooth. Recept. clothed with fine hairs, nearly equal to the feed-down. Eff. Ch. Receptacle hairy. Down feffile, fimple. Calyx imbricated. Florets of the*radius numerous, linear. 1. S. umbellata. Umbel-flowered Starkea. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Amellus umbeliatus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1276. Amen. Acad. v. 5. 407. Swartz Obf. 310. Solidago? n. 1; Browne Jam. 320. t. 33. f. 2.)—Native of the cooler woods and mountains of Jamaica, a beautiful and uncom- mon plant. Brown. Miller appears to have cultivated it in 1768. Linnzus, juftly unwilling to multiply genera, re- ferred this plant to 4mellus, at the fame time remarking how very STA very different it was from the 4. Lychnitis. In this cafe the habit, fupported by the charaéter of the hairy, not chaffy or {caly, receptacle, {urely authorizes a feparation. The flem is herbaceous, erect, from two to three feet high, fomewhat angular, clothed with denfe white cottony down, intermixed with brown hairs; leafy in the lower part; forked at the fummit, the central branch longeit. eaves oppolite, ftalked, ovate, acute, finely and fharply ferrated ; tapering at the bafe ; green and f{mooth, though covered when young with deciduous cettony down, on the upper fide; always very white, foft, and denfely woolly, beneath ; fomewhat triple-ribbed, with many branching veins. J /ower-/lalks feveral, at the top of each branch, fimple, hairy and downy, an inch or two long, forming a fort of umbel, with a few lanceolate bradeas at its bale. Calyx half an inch long, fomewhat cottony. The flowers are yellow, an inch in diameter. Browne fays the talte of the herb is aftringent, leaving a fweetnefs upon the palate, not common in this clafs. He fuppofed it mult be a fine vulnerary, Its cot- tony texture, no doubt, would contribute to flanch the blood of a frefh wound. STARKENBACH, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigingratz ; 11 miles N.N.E. of Gitf{chin. STARKENBERG, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen; 17 miles E.S.E. of Kanigfery.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Sarre; 1 mile N. of Traarbach. STARKS, a townthip of America, in the diftri& of Maine and county of Somerfet, on the W. fide of Kenne- beck river, containing 828 inhabitants; 35 miles N.W. of Augutta. STARKSBOROUGH, a town of the ftate of Ver- mont, in Addifon county, containing 726 inhabitants; 12 miles E. of Ferrifburg. STARKSTADT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigingratz; 8 miles W. of Branau. STARLACKEN, a town of Pruflia, in the province of Bartenland; g miles S. of Bartenttein. STARLING, or Srare, in Ornithology. See StuRNus. The common ftarling is about the fize of the common black-bird ; the weight of the male being about three ounces, and that of the female fomewhat lefs; the bill, in old birds, is yellow; the whole plumage black, very re{plendent, with changeable blue, purple, and copper; each feather being marked with a pale yellow fpot ; the letler coverts are edged with yellow, and flightly glofled with green; the quill- feather and tail are dufky; the former edged with yellow on the exterior fide, the lait with dirty white; the legs are of a reddifh-brown. Thefe birds breed in hollow trees, eaves of houfes, towers, cliffs, and high rocks over the fea ; they lay four or five eggs of a pale greenifh-afh colour ; they feed on worms and infeéts, and, it 16 faid, will get into pigeon-holes, and fuck the eggs; in winter they afiemble in large flocks: their flefh js fo bitter, as to be {carcely eatable ; they are very docile, and may be taught to fpeak. Pennant. Mr. Ray mentions a beautiful {pecies, defcribed by Bon- tius under the name of the Indian itarling, or furnus Indicus. This is of the fize and fhape of our common itarling, but is variegated with a deep blue, a lead-colour, and a pale grey, and has on its head a very beautiful yellow creft. It learns to imitate the human voice, and talks much better than the parrot, but is troublefome in being over noify. SrarLinG Colour, a particular colour of a horfe. Cotour. STARO, in Commerce, a corn meafure in Italy. At Mantua, a {taro of corn weighs 8olbs. ; and 86 fuch meafures are = 85 Englifh buthels nearly, or $0.94 ttari = 10 Eng- See STA quarters, and each ftaro = 2125 cubic inches. At Fer- » 93-22 ftari = 10 Englih quarters, and each ftaro = 5 cubic inches. At Florence, 118.70 fari = 10 Eng- quarters, and each {taro 1449 cubic inches. See an Dry Measures. LARODUB, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the gnment of Novgorod Severlkoe; 44 miles N. of Nov- gi Sieverfkoe, N. lat. 52° 35’. E. long. 33° 44’. (A ROSELO, a tow: of Ruflia, in the government ologilev ; 20 miles N.NW, of Rogatchev. ‘AROSTE, in Modern Hiflory, a name given in Po- lato the governors of sities and caftles, They are ap- ped by the king to fuprintend his revenues, and to ad- mier juftice in his nam. The diftrict f{ubje& to the jurction of each is caltd flarofly. -However, there are fortarofts who have no urif{diction. ‘ARSCH, in Geoyrésy, a town of Moravia, in the cirof Znaym; 15 mile N. of Budweifs. ART Bay, a bayof the Englifh Channel, on the coalf Devonfhire, betwen Dartmouth and Start Point. Ser Point, a cape o England, on the S.E. coaft of the inty of Devon; gniles S. of Dartmouth. N. lat. 50°. W. long. 3° 3’- S.RTING, amon Brewers, the putting of new beer,: ale, to that whch 1s decayed, to revive it again. Srrine, in the Meege. A horfe is faid to be ttart- . ing, itifh, or timoror, that takes every objet he fees to be herwife than it is upon which he ftops, flies out, and {ks fuddenly to ne fide, infomuch, that the rider cannotyake him com near the place where the obje& is. T; fault is morccommon to geldings than ftone- horfes. Such horfes al as have bad eyes are moft fubje& to it, avell as thofe tat have been kept a long time in a ftableithout airing out thefe lat are eafily cured of it. When y: have a {kitti horfe, never beat him in his con- fternatic but make im advance gently, and with foft means, tthe fcare-crw that alarms him, till he recovers it, and jins aflurance STAIZ, in Geraphy, a town of Moravia, in the circle of naym; 25 1les N. of Znaym. STAWZOVA, bay or gulf of the Frozen ocean, on the coi of Ruffia N. lat. 68° 16’. E. long. 40° 14'. STAREGUT ay, a bay on the S.W. coalt of Jamaica, , of Staryut Point. Srarviur Porat, cape on the S.W. coat of Jamaica. N. lat. 17 58'. Wlong. 77° 45!. STARING ¢o cath, a kind of punifhment ufed by the peopleof Arag fome ages ago; and it is reported by Tavernir, that t chief ladies in the kingdom of Ton- quin are at his dayaryed to death for adultery. STARVITZ, iGeography, a town of Silefia, in the principality f Grotu; 3 miles N. of Patfchkau. STARZiL, aver of Wurtemberg, which runs inte the Neckar,5 milessove Rotenburg. STASA‘ITZ/ a town of European Turkey, in Botnia; 22 niles Sf Banjaluka. STASFURT, own of Weftphalia, in the duchy of Magdeburg ; 20 ms S. of Magdeburg. N. lat. 51° 53/. E. long. 11°45). ‘ STASIDA, a till ifland in the Mediterranean; 8 miles N.W. of Scarpan N,. lat. 35° 53/. E. long. 269 44! STASIS, in Aent Geography, a town of Afia, in the Perfide ; built upa large rock. _ Srasis, a worded by phyficians to exprefs a ftagna- tion of the humou STASNAS, ‘Geography, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland ; 22 rs W. af Canta : ‘ STATE, STATE. STATE, or Esrare, an empire, kingdom, province, or extent of country under the fame government. See Estate. A {tate or nation, for in this place we confider the terms as fynenimous, is 3 body politic, or a fociety of men united together to promote their mutual fafety and advantage by their union. From the very defign that induces a number of men to form a fociety that has its common interelts, and ought to a@ in concert, it 1s neceffary that there fhall be eltablithed a public authority, to order and dire what ought to be done by each in relation to the end of the aflo- ciation. This political authority is the fovereignty ; and he, or they, who are invefted with it, are the fovereign. It is evident, therefore, from the very aét of the civil or political affociation, that each citizen fubjects himfelf to the authority of the entire body, in every thing that re- lates to the common welfare. ‘The authority of all over each member mutt, therefore, effentially belong to the body politic, or to the ftate; but the exercife of that authority may be placed in different hands, according as the fociety fhall ordain. If the body of the nation keeps in its own hands the empire, or the right of command, it is a popular government, or ‘ democracy ;”’ if it refers it to a number of citizens, or to a fenate, it eltablifhes a “ republic,” an ‘ oligarchy,”’? or an “ ariftocracy ;” or if it confides the government to a fingle perfon, it is a “ mo- narchy ;”? and this monarch may be limited or abfolute. See Socrety, SOVEREIGN, and SOVEREIGNTY. Every nation that governs itfelf, whatever may be the forms of that government, without any dependence on a foreign power, 1s a ‘¢ fovereign ftate.”? Its rights are the fame as thofe of any other ftate: and if it be fovereign and independent, it muit govern itfelf by its own authority and laws. Indeed, thefe are fynonimous expreffions. Thofe ftates may be reckoned in this clafs, which have neverthe- lefs bound themfelves to another more powerful by an un- equal alliance: and thefe unequal alliances may be infinitely varied. But whatever they are, provided the inferior ally referves to itfelf the fovereigaty, or the right of governing its own body, it ought to be confidered as an independent ftate, that keeps up corref{pondence with others, under the authority of the law of nations. Thus, a weak ftate feeks protection from one that is more powerful, and from grati- tude enters into engagements to perform feveral offices equi- valent to that protection, referving to itfelf the right of government and fovereignty. Thus alfo, though a weak ftate may pay tribute to a foreign power, and by fo doing in fome degree diminifh its dignity, yet {till its fovereignty may fubfift entire. In fome cafes, fovereignties have been given in fief, and fovereigns have voluntarily rendered them- felves feudatories to others; yet if the homage leaves in- dependency and fovereign authority in the admini{tration of the ftate, and only means certain duties to the lord of the fief, or even a mere honorary acknowledgment, it does not prevent the ftate, or the feudatory prince, from being ftriGly fovereign. Two fovereign ttates may alfo be fub- je&t to the fame prince, without any dependence on each other, and each may retain all its national rights, free and independent. In fhort, feveral fovereign and inde- pendent ftates may unite themfelves together by a_per- petual confederacy, without each in particular ceafing to be a perfect ftate. They will form together a deni re- public ; the deliberations in common will offer no violence to the fovereignty of each member, though they may, in certain refpeéts, put fome conitraint on the exercife of it, in virtue of voluntary engagements. But a people that has pafled under the dominion of another, can no longer form a ftate, and in a direé&t manner make ufe of the law of nations. Such were the people and kingdoms which the Romans rendered fubjeét to their empire 3 moit, even of thofe whom they honoured with the name of friends and allies, no longer formed ftates. Within themfelves they were géverned by their own laws and magiltrates; but without, they were obliged in every thing to follow the orders of Rome; they dared not of themfelves make either war or an alliance, and could not treat with nations. The prefervation of a nation confilts in the direétion of the political aflociations of which it is formed ; and the perfection of a nation is found in what renders it capable of obtaining the end of civil fociety, and a nation is in a perfect itate, when nothing neceffary is wanting to arrive at that end. he end of civil fociety is procuring for the citizens whatever their neceflities require, the conveniencies and accommodations of life, and, in general, whatever con- {titutes happinels ; with the peaceful pofleflion of property, a method of obtaining juftice with fecurity, and, in fhort, a mutual defence again{t all violence from without. In order to form a juft idea of the perfection of a ftate or na- tion, every thing muit confpire to promote thefe ends. The fundamental regulation that determines the manner in which the public authority is to be executed for the at- tainment of thefe ends, is what forms the * conftitution of the ftate.”? The conititution is, in fat, nothing more than the eftablifhment of the order in which a nation propofes to labour in common for obtaining thofe advantages with a view to which the political fociety was eftablifhed. The laws are regulations eitablifhed by public authority to be obferved in fociety, All thefe ought to relate to the wel- fare of the ftate and of the citizens. The laws made di- reGly with a view to the public welfare are the ‘ political laws ;”’ and in this clafs, thofe that concern the body itfelf, and the being of fociety, the form of government, the manner in which the public authority is to be executed ; and thofe, in a word, which together form the conftitution of the ftate, are the ‘ fundamental laws.”? The * civil laws” are thefe that regulate the conduét and behaviour of the citizens among themfelves, The conititution and its laws are the bafis of the public tranquillity, the firmeft fupport of the public authority, and pledge of the liberty of the citizens. But this conftitution is a vain phantom, and the belt laws are ufelefs, if they are not religioufly ob- ferved. The nation ought then to watch very attentively, in order to render them equally refpeéted by thofe who govern, and by the people dettined to obey. ‘To attack the conftitution of the ftate, and to violate its. laws, is a capital crime againft fociety ; and if thofe guilty of it are invefted with authority, they add to this crime a perfidious abufe of the power with which they are entrufted. From the principles here ftated, we may infer, that a nation has aright to forth, maintain, and perfect its conftitution, and to regulate at pleafure every thing relating to the govern- ment, while no perfon has a right to hinder it. Govern- ment is eftablifhed only for the fake of the nation, witha view to its fafety and happinefs. If any nation is diffatif- fied with the public adminiftration, it may reduce it to order, and reform the government. The nation may do this, but not any difcontented and querulous malcontents. The body of a nation has a right to call to account thofe at the helm, who abufe their power; but if the nation be filent, it is not the bufinefs of a {mall number of citizens to put the ftate in danger under the pretence of reforming it. If the nation be uneafy under its conftitution, it has a right to change it. If it be afked, what ought to be done if the people are divided 2 mal, A divided? According to the common method of ftates, the opinion of the majority mutt pafs, without difpute, for that of the whole nation; otherwife it would be impoffible for the fociety ever to take any refolution. It appears then, for the fame reafon, that a nation may change the contti- tution of the ftate by a majority of votes, and whenever there is nothing in this change that can be confidered as contrary to the act of the civil affociation, or to the inten- tion of thofe united under it, all are bound to conform to the refolution of the maiority. But if the queftion be to quit a form of government, to which alone it appeared that the people were willing to fubmit, on their entering into the bonds of fociety; if the greateft part of a free people, after the example of the Jews in the time of Samuel, are weary of liberty, and refolved to fubmit to the authority of an abfolute prince, the citizens more jealous of that privilege, fo invaluable to thofe who have tafted it, though obliged to fuffer the majority to do as they pleafe, are under no obligation at all to fubmit to the new govern- ment: they may leave a fociety, that feems to have diffolved itfelf, in order to be united under another form ; and have aright to retire elfewhere, to feli their lands, and take with them all their effects. After all it may be obferved, that great changes ina ftate being delicate and very dangerous affairs, and that frequent changes being in their own nature prejudicial, a people ought to be very circumfpeé in doing it, and never be inclined to make innovations without the molt prefling reafons, or an abfolute neceflity. The {pirit of inconftancy which prevailed among the Athenians, was always contrary to the happinefs of that republic, and was at length fatal to that liberty of which they were fo jealous, without knowing how to enjoy it. Vattel’s Law of Nations, b. 1. State, Civil. See Civit. State, Free. See FREr. SraTe is alfo ufed for the policy or form of government of a nation. Hence, minitters of {tate, reafons of ftate, &c. See GOVERNMENT. STATE, Council of, in Modern Hiflory, was projected by the ftates of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, in conjunétion with William I. prince of Orange, and ereéted, in 1584, with ample authority. All affairs of ftate, the army, and revenue, were entrulted to the care of this council; but the ftates, growing jealous of this extraordinary power, reduced it gradually ; and by a new inftru@tion, in 1651, the difpo- fition of military affairs, and the command of the army, were in part transferred to the ftates-general, with the ad- wice of the council. In this council, the provinces were reprefented by fuch a number of deputies as bore fome pro- portion to the quota of money which each contributed for the fupport of the whole, Groningen excepted. Guelder- land had one, Holland three, Zealand two, Utrecht one, Friefland two, Overyffel one, and Groningen two. Thefe were all changed every three years, except the deputy from the nobility of Holland, and the two from Zealand, who enjoyed their potts for life. Here every member had a de- cifive voice, and prefided for a week in his turn, without regard to the rank of the provinces. The governors or fkadtholders of the provinces had a feat, but no decifive vote in this council, in which affairs were determined by a ma- jority of voices. Sec SrADTHOLDER. Srate of a Difeafe, the fame with acme. STATED Winp. See-Winp. STATELY, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to be ftately, that goes with a proud, ftrutting gait. STATEN Istanp, in Geography, an ifland belonging to the United States of America, and forming the county of 6 TRA Richmond, in the fate of New York. It is fituated below the bay of New York, and is the fouthern extremity of the {tate. It is of ancient date, having been reprefented by two members in the colonial legiflature in 1691. The centre of Staten Ifland is about 11 miles S.W. of New York ; it is about 14 miles long, and its greate{t breadth is about 8 miles ; the area is about 77 fquare miles, or 49,280 acres, It is bounded on the N. and W. by Newark bay and Brunf- wick river; E. and S. by Hudfon river and the Atlantic ocean. Its fouthern extremity is in N. lat. 40° 29/, and the weftern extremity 16! W. long. from New York. The towns are, Caftletown, containing 1301 inhabitants ; Northfield, including 1595; Southfield 1007, and Weftfield 1444 inhabitants; the whole population being 5347, and the number of electors 509.. The county of Richmond is hilly and broken, including fome extenfive traéts of good arable land. Its infular fituation, and the benefit it affords to mariners, have given it celebrity, and feveral privileges to its inhabitants. The furrounding waters abound with a variety of fifth. The quarantine ground for fhips entering the port of New York lies in this county. It fends one member to the houfe of aflembly. Sraten Lanp, an ifland at the extremity of South America, feparated from Terra del Fuego by the ftrait of Le Maire. In the appearance of Staten Land, when Cook vifited it in January 1769, he did not difcover the wildnefs. and horror afcribed to it in the account of lord Anfon’s voyage. On the N. fide, Hawkefworth fays, in his detail of this voyage (vol. ii. p. 64.), are the appearances of bays or harbours; and the land was deftitute neither of wood nor verdure, nor was it covered with fnow. The ifland feemed to be about 12 leagues in length, and 5 broad. On occafion of another voyage he vifited it in January 1775, and gives the following account of it. (Second Voyage, vol. ii. p- 200.) Staten Land lies nearly E. by N. and W.by S., and is ten leagues long in that direction ; and no where above three or four leagues broad. The coatt is rocky, much in- dented, and feemed to form feveral bays or inlets. It fhews a furface of craggy hills which {pire up to a vat height, efpeci- ally near the weft end. Except the craggy fummits of the hills, the greateft part was covered with trees and fhrubs, or fome fort of herbage, and there was little or no {now on it. The currents between Cape Defeada and Cape Horn fet from W. to E., that is, in the fame direétion as the coaft ; but they are by no means confiderable. To the E. of the cape their ftrength is much increafed, and their direction is N.E. to- wards Staten Land. They are rapid in Strait Le Maire, and along the S. coaft of Staten Land, and fet like a torrent round Cape St. John, where they take a N.W. direétion, and continue to run very {trong both within and without New Year’s Ifles. S.lat. 54° 40!. W. long. 65°. STATER, an ancient filver coin, weighing four Attic drachms, and worth about three fhillings or three fhillings and a penny fterling. See Dracum. There was alfo a gold coin under this name: that of Cyzicus was much valued, having on one fide the figure of a woman’s head, and on the other that of the head of alion ; in weight it was equal to two drachms, and in value to twenty-eight filver drachms of Athens. The gold itater of Athens was equal in value to twenty drachms, and adrachm of gold was equal to about ten of filver. The xeuco:, gold piece, gold ftater, or * Philippus,”? as it was called in compliment to Philip of Macedon, was a di- drachm ; and there is reafon to believe, that it pafled for twenty filver drachms on its firft appearance ; but in later times for twenty-five Greek drachme, or Roman denarii. That the gold coins of Philip, called «¢ Philippi,’? were di- drachms, » TA drachms, we know from ancient authors, and from the great number of them that {till remain ; and that the eves, or chief old coin of Greece, was of the fame weight, 1s alfo evident Som ancient authors. Being of twenty filver drachmas, it was anciently worth 15s. ; but valuing gold now at a medial price of 4/. per ounce, it is intrinfically worth 1/. at prefent. But we have larger gold coins than the xeuzo:, or didrachm. The dixevro; of Alexander and of Lyfimachus weighs its double, or about two hundred and fixty-fix grains, and afled for forty filver drachmas, or 1/. 10s.; now worth 2/. Of Lyfimachus, Antiochus ILI., and of fome of the Egyp- tian monarchs, we have even the rpasarne, or quadruple euros, weighing about five hundred and thirty grains, and current for eighty drachmas of filver, 3/., now worth 4/. fter- ling. We have alfo minuter coins, fuch as the nusxeucos, or half the xevz0:, of Hiero I. of Syracufe, and of Pyrrhus, which weighed three drachmas, and pafled for ten filver drachmas, or 7s. 6d.; now worth los. :—alfo, the z:]x¢lo- xeveos, or quarter of the Philippus, of Philip, Alexander, and Lyfimachus, weighing thirty-three grains, and pafling for five drachmas of filver, 3s. gd., now worth intrinfically Gees and alfo gold coins of Greece {till {maller, and which could not have pafled for more than two drachmas of filver. STATERA Romana, or fteelyard, a name given to the _ Roman balance. STATES, aterm applied to the feveral orders, or claffes, of a people, aflembled to confult of matters for the public good. See Esrarte. i STATES-GENERAL, the name of an aflembly, confifting, under the former government, of the deputies of the Seven United Provinces. In this aflembly, the deputies of each province, of what number foever they were, had only one voice, and were efteemed as but one perfon, the votes being given by pro- vinces. Each province prefided at the aflembly in its turn, according to the order fettled among them: Guelderland prefided firft, then Holland, &c. - This aflembly was the reprefentative of the fovereignty of the Union, which refided properly in the general aflembly of the ftates themfelves of all the feveral provinces; but as that aflembly ordinarily confifted of feven or eight hundred perfons, it was refolved, after the departure of the earl of Leicefter, in order to avoid expence, and the confufion of fo numerous a body, that the provincial eltates fhould, for the future, be ordinarily reprefented by their deputies, under the name of the States-yeneral ; who were always to refide at the Hague, and who alone were called ttates-general. STATES-GENERAL of France, aflemblies which were firft called A.D. 1302, and were held occafionally from that pe- riod to the year 1614, when they were difcontinued, till they were fummoned again at an interefting period, viz. in the year 1789. (See France.) Thefe ftates-general, however, were very different from the ancient aflemblies of the French nation under the kings of the firlt and fecond race. There is no point with refpe& to which the French antiquaries are more generally agreed, than in maintaining that the ftates-general had no fuffrage in the pafling of laws, and poffeffed no proper jurifdiGion. The whole tenor of the French hiftory confirms this opinion. The form of pro- ceeding in the ftates-general was this: the king addreffed himfelf to the whole body affembled in one place, and laid before them affairs on account of which he had fummoned them. The deputies of each of the three orders, of nobles, of clergy, and of the third eftate, met apart, and prepared their ‘ cahier,’”’ or memorial, containing their an{wer to the propofitions which had been made to them, together with the reprefentations which they thought proper to lay VoL. XXXIV. STA before the king. Thefe anfwers and reprefentations were confidered by the king in his council, and generally gave rife to an ordonnance. Thefe ordonnances were not ad- dreffed to the three eltatesin common. Sometimes the king addreffed an ordonnance to each of the eftates in particular, Sometimgs he mentioned the aflembly of the three eftates. Sometimes mention is made only of the affembly of that eftate to which the ordonnance is addreffed. Sometimes no mention at all is made of the aflembly of eftates which fug- gelted the propriety of enaéting the law. Thus the flates- general had only the privilege seeping and remonttrating ; the legiflative authority refided in the king alone. Srares of Holland, an allembly confifting of the deputies of the council, or colleges of each city ; in which refided the fovereignty of that province. Originally, none but the nobility, and the fix principal cities, had feats, or voices, in the ftates. Afterwards they were the deputies of eighteen cities. The nobility had the firft voices, which were pronounced by the grand penfionary, as penfionary of their order. The other provinces of the Union had likewife their ftates, reprefenting their fove- reignty, deputies from which made what they called the States-general. STATESBURG, in Geography, a poft-town’of South Carolina, and the capital of Clermont county, on the E. fide of Beech creek, which unites with Sharks creek, and difcharges itfelf into the Wateree, a few miles below the town. It contains 10 or 12 houfes, acourt-houfe and gaol; 20 miles S. by E. from Camden. STATES’-LAND, a township of Hancock county, in the diftri&t of Maine, containing 71 inhabitants. STATESVILLE, a poit-town of Iredell county, in North Carolina ; 441 miles from Wafhington. STATHEL, in Agriculture, a term fometimes employed to fignify any fort of ftaddle for either corn, hay, ftraw, or any other kind of farm produce. See STappLE and STAND. STATHENI, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, in the number of thofe who were {ubjugated by Alex- ander. STATHEUSIS, formed of sabeuw, J heat, a word ufed by the old writers to exprefs the torrefaction, or roa{ting of fome medicines before a flow fire, as is done frequently at prefent with rhubarb, &c. STATHOLDER. See Srapruotper. STATICAL Baroscore. See Baroscore and Ba~ ROMETER. STaTIcAL is fometimes applied in a peculiar fenfe to the experiments made as to the quantity of perfpiration, and other excretions of the human body. We have a very particular account of fome experiments of this kind in the Philofophical Tranfa&tions, N° 472, or Abr. vol. ix. p. 475, made by Dr. John Lining of Charles Town, in South Carolina. SraticaL Hygrofcope. See Hycroscopsr. STATICE, in Botany, a name adopted from the Greeks, whofe sr1xn is reported to have been fo called from sariZwy to flop, or arreft, becaufe of its aftringent quality. What the ancient plant may have been, can fcarcely be guefled with any probability. The modern application of the name to our Thrift, or Sea-Gilliflower, feems to have originated with Dalechamp, whom Tournefort followed. Hence it has become appropriated to a fine and extenfive genus, whofe wiry and entangled {tems, fo well formed to impede the progrefs of a foot paflenger, may literally almoft juitify its prefent ufe.—Linn. Gen. 153. Schreb. 205. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1522. binges Mill. Diét. v. 4. Sm. Fi. Brit. STATICE, Brit. 340. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth: v. 1. 210. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 179. Purfh 212. Jufl. 92. Tourn. t.177. Lamarck Iluitr. t. z19, Gertn. t. 44. (Li- monium; ‘l'ourn, t.177.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Plumbagines, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Involucrum different in the different fpecies. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, funnel-fhaped ; its tube contracted; limb undivided, plaited, membranous, dry, and permanent. “Cor. funnel-fhaped, of five petals, tapering downwards, combined at the bafe, dilated up- wards, obtufe, fpreading. Stam. Filaments five, awl- fhaped, fhorter than the petals, and inferted into their claws; anthers incumbent. Pi. Germen very minute ; ftyles five, thread-fhaped, {preading ; ftigmas acute. Peric. Capfule oblong, fomewhat cylindrical, membranaceous, with five points, of one cell, {plitting at the bafe only into five valves, clothed with the permanent calyx, and crowned with its filmy border. Seed folitary, elliptic-oblong. Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, undivided, with a plaited filmy border. Petals five. Capfule fuperior, of one cell, of five valves at the bafe. Seed folitary. Obf. Limonium of Tournefort, the numerous recently diftinguifhed or difcovered {pecies of which now compole the bulk of the genus before us, was characterized by its difperfed, not capitate, flowers. The fpecies of Statice in the Species Plantarum of Linnzus are 14; in the laft edition of Sy/. Veg. 22. Willdenow has 37, to which five are added in the Prodr. Fi. Grec., and one in Purfh. Three are natives of Britain. They are nearly all perennial, herbaceous, rarely fhrubby ; natives chiefly of Europe or Africa, two only being found in North America. Their habit is rigid. Leaves fimple, moftly radical, generally entire and undivided. F/owers copious, retaining much of their colour and beauty when dried. We fhall particularize all the Britifh, as well as the new {pecies, inter{perfing fome of the moft beautiful or remarkable ones befides. S. Armeria. Common Thrift, or Sea-Gilliflower. Linn. Sp. Pl. 394. Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit. n. 7. Engl: Bot. t. 226. (Caryophyllus marinus minimus; Lob. Ic. 452. Ger. Em. 602.)—Stalks fimple, capitate. Leaves linear. Awns of the calyx minute.—Native of muddy fea-fhores, marine rocks, or moift boggy fituations on the loftiett mountains, throughout Europe, as well as of the fea-coaft ,of North America, flowering in July and Auguft. Light- foot well denominates it, for this reafon, ‘the mo{t humble and mott lofty of plants.’’ It alfo bears the {moke of Lon- don better than moft plants, and from its thriving in almoft any fituation, has obtained the name of Thrift. It often ferves for edgings in country, as well as town, gardens. The woody root bears thick tufts of lax, linear, channelled, fmooth, deep-green eaves. The flalks are about a fpan high, fimple, round, each invefted, at their firft protrufion, by a tubular membrane, foon torn from its bafe, and carried up along with the terminal round head, of numerous, pink, inodorous flowers, whofe bafe is furrounded with an in- volucrum of many leaves, in three rows. ‘The permanent calyx is of a pale fhining brown, or nearly white, its points tipped with five minute, fearcely rough, awns. We are not fatisfied that the larger plant, made the leading variety in Willdenow and Aiton, and figured likewife in Lobel’s Lcones 452, may not be a diftinct {pecies; perhaps the fol- lowing. S. alliacea. Garlick-like Thrift. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 6. t. 109. Willd. n. 3. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 294, un- publifhed.—Stalk fimple, capitate. Leaves linear-lanceo- late, fomewhat three-ribbed. Awns of the calyx rigid, rough.—Found by Cavanilles on various mountains of Spainy and by Sibthorp on mount Athos and Hymettus. The herbage is larger than the laft ; the eaves more or lefs lanceo- late. Heads of flowers hardly fo large, entirely white in the Greek, as well as Spanith, {pecimens; the ca/pw having in thofe of Dr. Sibthorp a hairy tube, not defcribed by Cavanilles : its awns are elongated and rough. S. Limonium. Common Sea-Lavender Thrift. Linn. Sp. Pl. 394. Willd. n. 6. Fl. Brit..n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 102. Fl. Dan. t. 315. (Limonium, et L. parvum; Ger. Em. 411.)—Stalk panicled, round. Leaves obovato- lanceolate, fmooth, withcut ribs, tipped with a decurrent awn.—Common about muddy fea-fhores throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in July and Augult, (See Limonium). This {pecies varies greatly in fize and luxurtance, or perhaps fome of its reputed varieties ought to be confidered as diftinét. Ufually its aves are three or four inches long and one broad, tapering downward, lea- thery, fomewhat waved, very fmooth, rather glaucous. Stalk near a {pan high, hard and rigid, panicled, bra¢teated, its branches ending in clofe imbricated /pikes of handfome blue flowers, whofe calyx is pale pink in a recent ttate, white when dry, deftitute of awns; its tube clofely en- veloped in a flout, fheathing, membranous-edged involijcrum, of a fingle leaf. : S. caroliniana. Carolina Sea-Lavender Thrift. Walt. Carol. 118. Purfh n. 2.—* Stalk round. Panicle much branched, divaricated. Calyx acute. Leaves lanceolate- oblong, bluntifh, fmooth, flat-edged.”»—In falt-marfhes along the fea-coaft, from New Jerfey to Carolina, flowering in Auguit and September. Flowers blue. Purfh. We are not certain of having feen this fpecies; which Linnzus appears to have confounded with the laft. Mr. Walter ob- ferved the feparation of the capfule into five valves at the bafe; a character of Juffieuw’s PLumBaAGiINEs. See that article. S. bellidifolia. Daify-leaved Thrift. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 733. Fl. Gree. t. 295, unpublifhed.— Stalk panicled, round. Leaves obovato-{patulate, abrupt, fmooth. Calyx bluntifh, without awns. — Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp; on the fhores of Rhodes, and feveral iflands in the Archipelago. The roof is woody, crowned with large tufts of f{preading, green, abrupt or emarginate /eaves, an inch or inch and half long, convex at the edges, very fmooth. Stal a foot high, panicled copioufly nearly from top to bottom, rather zigzag. Flowers purple, loofely fpiked. Calyx with a hairy tube, and white limb, with five brown ribs. Petals emarginate, S. globularifolia. Globularia-leaved Thrift. Desfont. Atlant. v. 1. 274, by the defcription. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 734. Fl. Grec. t. 296, unpublifhed. (Limonium medium, globularie folio; Barrel. Ic. t. 793, 794.)—Stalk panicled, round; with level-topped branches. Leaves obovato-fpatulate, pointed, f{mooth. Calyx aeute. —Native of Barbary and Sicily, by the fea-fide. The eaves ave more glaucous than in the lait, fomewhat bor- dered, acute, and tipped with a fharp point. Branches of the panicle fhorter, more denfe and level-topped. Flowers rather {maller, and of a lighter purple. Calyx hairy, and. fimilarly coloured, but the fegments of its limb much nar- rower, more taper and acute. The common flower-flalk a not begin to branch fo near the bafe, nor is it fo out.” S. fpaihulata. Spatula-leaved Thrift. Desfont. At- lant. v. 1. 275. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1617. Ait. Epit. 375--—Stalk panicled, round. Flowers clofely fpiked, all turned 6 . se STATICE. turned upwards. Calyx bluntifh. Leaves fpatulate, ob- tufe, pointlefs, fmooth, glaucous.—Native of the coaft of Barbary. Flowered in Auguft 1811, in, the garden of Mr. W. Pringle at Sydenham. Mr. Aiton marks it as in- troduced in 1804. ‘his differs from the laft in having blunt /eaves, without points, in which re{peé& it alfo differs from §. Limonium, and a reputed variety thereof, found on the coait of England, which lait is perhaps Barrelier’s t. 789, and very nearly accords with our prefent plant, in its crowded {pikes of flowers twice the fize of the latt, and a much lefs branched /fla/t. We have not been able to afcertain how far this and Vahl’s auriculefolia, Willd. n. 12, are diitinG@t. Specimens from Narbonne, fuppofed to be the latter, agree in every thing with the figure of /pathulata, except in having a point to the leaf. S. /atifolia. Broad-leaved Thrift. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 250. Willd. n.g. Ait. n. 7. (Limonium folio Enulz, flabellis tenuiffimis ramofiffimis, floribus parvis ceruleis ; Gerber’s MSS.) — Stalk panicled, very much branched, rough. Leaves downy, with minutely {tarry hairs. Calyx Fotakee pointed, without awns.—Native of Ruffian Tartary, on the banks of the Don, near Afoph. It flowered in Sion gardens, under the care of Mr. Hoy, in 1788, as mentioned in the Linnean Tranfaétions, fo that the date of 1791 in Hort. Kew. is an error, though the name of Mr. Bell, as the introducer of the plant, is pro- bably right. his fpecies is diftinguifhed by the great fize ef its oblong /eaves, a foot or more in length, befprinkled with flarry tufts of foft hairs, and the vaft profufion of its fmall blue flowers, which compofe a {preading, rather level- topped, panicle, often two feet wide. It is a hardy pe- rennial, flowering from May to July. Willdenow gives as a fynonym §. coriaria, Pallas Ind. Fl. Taur. and remarks that the lower branches are barren, as in S. reticulata and others. This is net very evident in our {pecimens, though it may poffibly be fo, S. oleifolia. Olive-leaved Thrift. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 735, excluding probably the fynonym of Willdenow. (Parvum Limonium narbonenfe oleefolium; Lob. Ic. 295. Limonium parvum; Ger. Em. 411.) —Stalk panicled, round; its lower branches barren. Leaves oblong-fpatu- late, obtule, fmooth, with fcarcely any point.—Native of the fea-eoalts of the fouth of France, Italy, and Greece. The rosts are woody and tufted. eaves an inch or inch and half long, not above a quarter of an inch broad in any part ; tapering at the bafe; minutely dotted on both fides ; a little hooked, or reflexed, but not awned, at the ex- tremity. Svems a foot high, more or lefs, roughifh ; their branches copious, zigzag and fomewhat divaricated, about half of them all naked and barren; the upper ones bearing level-topped, rather lax, /pikes of flender flowers, all turned ene way. Tube of the calyx flender, hairy; the fegments of its limb ovate, acute, awnlefs. S. dichotoma. Many-forked Thrift. Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 37. t- 50. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 736. (Limonium minus olee folio, xcavxaazdov; Barrel. Ic. t. 790.)—Stalk ereét, panicled ; its branches rough with points; the lower ones barren, in many capillary fegments. Leaves obovate, fmooth.—Native of Spain, about two miles from Madrid, according to Cavanilles. Dr. Sibthorp found it in Greece. The /eaves are four times as large as the laft, and perfe&ly wobtufle. Stem eighteen inches rd its lower branches re- peatedly and minutely forked, almoit like S. reticulata, but not proftrate. Inflorefcence like the laft. Ca/ya with a hairy tube. lowers pale blue. Willdenow quotes Barrelier’s t, 790 for his oleefolia; a {pecies whofe branches are de- feribed as angular and winged, and which, therefore, does not anfwer to Scopoli’s oleefalia, Del. Infub. v. r. t. 10, nor are we able to determine what Willdenow intended. S.. reticulata. Matted Thrift or Sea-Lavender. Linn. Sp. Pl. 394. Willd. n. 16. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 328. Hill Fl. Brit. t. 25. £. 2.—Stalk proltrate, pa- nicled, Zigzag 5 its branches rough with points; the lower ones barren. Leaves wedge-fhaped, rather acute, without points.—Native of falt-marfhes on the north coalt of Nor- folk, flowering copioufly in July and Auguft. It is alfo found in the fouth of Europe. ‘This is fmaller than the laft, and differs in having the ffems quite proftrate, their barren branches much ftouter, matted and entangled to- gether. Flowers light purple, few in each /pike. Calyx hairy below. Willdenow makes the preceding a variety of this, nor can we be politive of the contrary. S. falmaris. Humble Froited Thrift. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 737. Fl. Grac. t. 297, unpublifhed.—Rough with hoary dots. Stalk panicled, round, ere&, and rather clofe. Leaves fpatulate, obtufe.—Gathered by Dr. Sib- thorp on the fea-coaft of Afia Minor. The root is woody, crowned with many tufts of numerous {preading /eaves about an inch long, frofted as it were, and rough with tubercles, like the whole herbage.. Stems many, three or four inches high, compofed of four or five alternate, ere&t, fimple, lax fpites of handfome pink flowers, without any barren or orked ranches. The calyx is {mooth, brown, with fhort ovate fegments. 3 S. echioides. Buglofs-leaved Thrift, Linn. Sp. Pl. 394, excluding Magnol’s fynonym., Willd. n. 17? Ait. n.13?2 Fl. Grac. t. 298, unpublifhed.—Rough with hoary dots. Stalk panicled, round, jointed, very much branched, zig- zag, divaricated. Leaves {patulate.—Native of the fhores of Cyprus and Crete. The root is ftrong and woody, crowned with many rofe-like tufts of frofted /eaves, much like the laft. The ffems, however, are very different, a foot or more in height, bufhy, repeatedly branched, ftout, and ftrongly divaricated, almoft at right angles. Spikes very zigzag and lax. lowers light purple. Calya: with a hairy tube, and white obtufe limb, whofe fegments are very fhallow. Linnxus confounded this with the following, which he appears ta have known from Magnol’s wore only. S. ariflatz. Awned Annual Thrift. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 739. Fi. Gree. t. 299, unpublifhed, (Li- monium minus annuum, bullatis foliis, vel echioides ; Magn. Monfp. 157. t.156. Tourn. Inft. 342.)—Stalk panicled, round, dotted; its branches loofely fpiked. Leaves obo- vate, rough. Calyx of the fruit awned.—Native of the fea-fhores of the fouth of France, and ifland of Cyprus. The root is fimple, fmall, and annual. Leaves feveral, radical, an inch,or two long, green, rough with tubercles, Stalks feveral, from fix to twelve inches high, ereét, branch- ing from near the bottom into numerous long, flender, {preading, lax /pikes of {mall pink flowers. Calyx with a fmooth tube; its membranous limb fo delicate, that it foo leaves the ftrong brown ribs, in the form of naked awns. S. fpeciofa. Plantain-leaved Thrift. Linn. Sp. Pl. 395. Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 14. Curt. Mag. t. 656. (S. n. 15; Gmel, Sib, v. 2. 221. t. gt. f. 1.)—Stalk panicled ; its branches angular and fomewhat winged. Flowers crowded. Bracteas dilated, pointed, longer than the blunt crenate calyx. Leaves obovate or lanceolate, pointed.— Frequent throughout Siberia, in open, dry, hilly places, Gmelin. Sometimes feen in our gardens, but feldom long preferved. The root is marked as biennial. The /eaves are roughifh to the touch, ufually about two inches long and one broad, Sva/k from fix to eighteen inches high, ereét ; C2 fimple, STATICE. fimple, naked, and almott round, in the lower part; but terminating in a large, angular-branched, denfe panicle, of handfome pink flowers. General and partial bradeas ovate with a fharp point, the latter moft dilated and membranous at the edges. Tube of the ca/yx hairy, concealed, like the flattifh involucrum, by the bracteas; its limb white, mem- branous, obtufe, crenate, not lobed, nor awned. S. con/picua, Curt. Mag. t. 1629, appears to us, with- out any doubt, a variety of this with narrow eaves ; there being in reality no material difference in the braéeas. S. arborea. Tree Thrift.—Stem arboreous, leafy. Leaves obovate, ftalked. Flower-{talks panicled; their branches angular and winged. Flowers crowded. Braéteas ovate, fheathing, much {horter than the involucrum.—Ga- thered on the maritime rocks at Buraao and Ramb/a in the ifle of Teneriffe, by Mr. Maflon, whofe fpecimen, given to the younger Linneus, is marked “ Statice arborea of So- lander ;?’ but we find nothing publifhed under this name. The Spaniards call the plant Siempreviva del mar. The flem is faid to be arborefcent, fix feet high. The branches are round, woody, one-third of an inch in diameter, fcarred with the crowded bafes of old foot/alks, refembling thin annular flipulas. Leaves fix or eight at the end of each branch, {preading every way, two or three inches long, and about half as broad, obtufe, {mooth; wavy at the edges ; tapering at the bafe into a rigid angular foot/falk, dilated and clafping the ftem at the bottom. //ewer-/talks terminal, folitary, a foot or more in length, comprefled and winged, bearing a very large compound corymbofe panicle, of in- numerable crowded flowers, whofe partial {talks are dilated into a wedge-fhaped, leafy, two-lobed form. Braéeas fhort, ovate, membranous, the partial ones in pairs, fheathing the bafe of the involucrum, which is thrice their length, involute, coriaceous and ribbed, refembling that of S. Limonium and its allies. Tube of the calyx {mooth, concealed in the in- volucrum; limb of a delicate light permanent blue, in the dried fpecimen, {preading, with five red ribs, and as many fhallow lobes. We can difcover nothing of the colour of the corolla. This noble plant would be a great acquifition to our greenhoules, S. Echinus. Prickly Mountain Thrift. Linn. Sp. Pl. 395- Willd. n. 20. Fil. Gree. t. 300, unpublifhed. (Echinus, id eft Tragacantha altera; Alpin. Exot. 57. t. 56. Limonium cefpitofum, foliis aculeatis; Buxb. Cent. 2. 18. t. 10.)—Branches clothed with awl-fhaped, {pinous leaves. Flowers fomewhat {piked. — Found by Buxbaum in the deferts of Media, flowering in July. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it on the Sphaciote mountains of Crete, as well as on the Bithynian Olympus. The long and woody black root is crowned with denfe tufted leafy ems and branches, two or three inches high. eaves about an inch long, fpreading every way, rigid, linear, channelled, {mooth, entire, with a fpinous point. lowers of a bright pink, very beautiful, three or four together, in terminal, folitary, nearly feffile, fpikes. Znvolucrum of two fheathing pointed leaves. Calyx white, with five brown ribs, a {mooth tube, and a pentagonal, fcarcely lobed, border. Such indeed is the alpine plant, found by Alpinus and Sibthorp. The fower-ftalk in the figure of Buxbaum is elongated, naked, and fomewhat branched, a fpan long; but the Linnzan fpecimens, intermediate between the two, prove this to be a mere variety, owing to fituation. It is pity this elegant fpecies is unknown in gardens. S. purpurata. Purple Cape Thrift. Willd. n. 22. Thunb. Prodr. 54. (S. peregrina; Berg. Cap. 80?)—Stem fhrubby, leafy. Leaves obovate-wedge- fhaped, three-ribbed, flalked, pointed, fmooth. Panicle Linn. Mant. 59. level-topped; its branches roughifh, fomewhat angular, without wings.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. The habit of this plant approaches that of our la{t {pecies but one, S. arborea, but its fize is lefs. The fas is fhrubby, with round, fmooth, woody branches, leaty towards their extremities. Leaves {cattered, rounded, obtufe or emar- ginate, with a {mall point; {mooth on both fides, with three {trong equal ribs; tapering down gradually into a rigid fooifa/k, whofe dilated, membranous, fheathing bafe furrounds the ftem. Each deaf is about two inches long ; the footfalks about half as much. Panicle corymbofe and level-topped ; its branches quite deftitute of wings, rough with minute points; the ultimate ones zigzag and moft an- gular. Braéeas roundifh-ovate, acute, with a membranous edge. lowers not very numerous. Calyx with a hairy tube, and broad, membranous, purple border, which is very flightly angular rather than lobed. Corolla purple. Bergius’s defcription hardly anfwers to the Linnzan plant, except perhaps what he fays concerning a variety. S. echiotdes has no refemblance to purpurata. S. rofea. Rofe-coloured African Thrift.—Stem fhrubby, leafy. Leaves obovate-oblong, fingle-ribbed, talked, pointed, rough on both fides. Branches of the panicle rough, fomewhat angular, without wings. Flowers crowded.—We are obliged to fir Samuel Young, bart. of Formofa, Berks, for {pecimens of this beautiful fpecies,. gathered at St. Helen’s bay, on the coaft of Africa. Its fize, fhrubby habit, and leafy éranches, agree with the lat ; but the roughnefs of the whole plant, and particularly both fides of the /eaves, with minute tubular points, the want of lateral ribs in the foliage, and the far more abundant, crowded flowers, whofe permanent calyx is rofe-coloured, rather than purple, induce us to confider it as diftiné. The tubular riblefs involucrum, with two fhort fheathing membranous-edged braGeas at its bafe, is the fame in both thefe {pecies. , S. monopetala. Sicilian Shrubby Thrift. Linn. Sp. Pl. 396. Willd. n. 27. Ait. n.20. (Limonium lignofum, &c.; Bocce. Sic. t. 16, 17.)—Stem fhrubby, leafy. Leaves lanceolate, flefhy, fcaly, with fheathing italks. Flowers diftantly fpiked. Corolla monopetalous; its tube longer than the calyx.—Native of uncultivated ground in Sicily, as well as the fouth of France. It is not an unfrequent green- houfe fhrub, flowering in July and Augutt. Boccone fays the red woody root is fometimes thicker than a man’s leg. The flems are bufhy, but diffufe, unlefs artificially fup- ported. Leaves numerous, obtufe, an inch or two long, various in breadth, thick, riblefs, glaucous and minutel {caly all over, tapering down into a footflalk, whofe bafe is cylindrical and fheathing. Flowers large, pink, in folitary or aggregate lax /pikes. Involucrum very hard‘ and tight, nearly concealing the calya and its {mall border. Claws of the petals combined. S. finuata. Scollop-leaved Thrift. Willd. n. 34. Ait. n. 22. Curt. Mag. t. 71. Fi. Gree. t. 301, unpublifhed. (Limonium folio finuato ; Ger. Em. 412.)—Stems herbaceous, winged. Radical leaves finuated; thofe of the ftem awl-fhaped, decurrent, three ina whorl. Calyx undivided, without awns.—Native of Sicily, Barbary, and Paleftine. Dr. Sibthorp found it very frequent on the inundated fhores of the Greek iflands, and fufpected it might be the real sesroniov of Diofcorides. The modern Greeks call it rewPacis. In gardens it has been known ever fince the days of Parkinfon, but feldom endures long, even in a greenhoufe. ‘The numerous radical Jeaves are pinnatifid, with numerous rounded lobes, green, obtufe, and hairy, three or four inches long. Stems de- cumbent, Linn. Sp. Pl. 306. STATICE. eumbent, a fpan long, branched, with leafy wings, and whorls of narrow acute leaves, about an inch in length. Flowers crowded, in level-topped hairy tufts, all turned upwards. Leaves of the involucrum three-pointed. Limb of the calyx cup-fhaped, undivided, of a delicate lilac- purple, elegantly contrafted with the pale yellow mono- petalous corolla, The latter, however, foon pafles away, the calyx only retaining its form and colour when dry. Martyn, in his Hitt. Plant. Rar. t. 48, exhibits a variety of this plant, whofe /eaves are but partially finuated. S. cuneata. Wedge-fhaped Thrift. Ge finuatay ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 397. Limonium caulibus alatis, afplenii foliis minds afperis, calycibus acutioribus flavefcentibus; Shaw Afric. n. 363.)— Stems herbaceous, winged, leaflets. Leaves radical, fomewhat finuated. Calyx acutely five-cleft, awned.—Gathered by Shaw in Barbary, where, as he tells us, the Arabs call it E/ Khaddah; and by Haflelquift in Paleftine. We cannot but confider this as a diftin& {pecies, on account of its nearly fmooth herbage, want of /lem-leaves, and the greatly dilated wedge-fhaped braéeas, much more confpicuous than in the laft. The involucrum moreover is of a much firmer texture, with rigid, recurved, {pinous points; but above all the yellowifh, not purple, limb of the calyx has five acute lobes, the ftrong ribs of which, foon de- nudated, as in our S. ariflata, become recurved briftly awns. S. lobata. Lobed Spinous Thrift. Linn. Suppl. 187. Willd. n. 35.—Stems herbaceous, without wings. Leaves radical; finuated. Calyx undivided, without awns.—Na- tive of Barbary. This fpecies is hardly known, except in the Linnean herbarium. The fpecimen came from Mo- rocco. The roof is fimple, long and taper, apparently an- nual. Leaves all radical, au inch and half long, hairy, much like thofe of S. finuata. Stalks round, three or four inches long, decumbent, panicled, with an awl-fhaped leaf or two at their divifions. Bra&eas wedge-fhaped and de- current, as in the laft, but much fmaller, and rough at the edge with hooked prickles. Leaves of the involucrum rough, with long, {pinous, {preading points. " Limb of the calyx white or yellowifh, hike the laft; but entire and without awns, like S$. _/inuata. S. mucronata. Curled Thrift. Linn. Suppl. 187. Willd. n. 37. Ait. n. 23. L’Herit. Stirp. Nov. 25. t. 13.—Stem branched, winged with a triple crifped border. Leaves radical, ovate, pointed. Flowers {piked, crowded, all turned one way.—Native of the coalt of Barbary, flower- ing in July, Sometimes kept in greenhoufes. The partly decumbent /lems are much branched, and remarkable for their crifped, not very broad, wings. Leaves on longifh Sootfalks, ovate, but tapering at the bafe, flightly wavy at the margin, rather glaucous or fcaly.. Flowers blueith- purple, crowded, in aggregate level-topped /pikes. Braéeas, as well as involucrum, reddifh, obtufe, pointlefs, concave, not keeled ; their margins broad and membranous. Limb of the calyx {carcely pentagonal, neither lobed nor awned. A very diftin@ fpecies, unlike any of the reft. Sratice, in Gardening, compreherids plants of the hardy, herbaceous, and under-fhrubby kinds, of which the {pecies cultivated are, the thrift, or fea-gilliflower (S. armeria) ; the fea-thrift, or fea-lavender (S. limonium); the heart- leaved fea-lavender (S. cordata); the matted fea-lavender (S. reticulata) ; the rough-leaved fea-lavender (S. echivides) ; the plantain-leaved fea-lavender (S. f{peciofa); the Tar- tarian fea-lavender (S. tartarica)y the triangular-ftalked fea-lavender (S. pe€tinata) ; the narrow-leaved fhrubby fea- lavender (S. fuffruticofa); the broad-leaved fhrubby fea- lavender (S. monopetala); the cut-leaved fea-lavender - ferulacea); and the {collop-leaved fea-lavender (S. nuata). : 4 In the firft fort there are feveral varieties: as with red flowers, with fcarlet flowers, with white flowers; great thrift with red flowers, with white flowers; and {mall fea- pink, with flefh-coloured flowers. The fecond {pecies has alfo feveral varieties: as common great feg-lavender, great late-flowering fea-lavender, olive- leaved fea-lavender, deep blue-flowered fea-lavender, and white-flowered fea-lavender. In the twelfth or laft fort there are two varieties, which differ in their leaves, ftems, and flowers. Method of Culture.—-All the forts of thefe plants are ca- pable of being increafed by parting or flipping the roots. This, with the firft kind, fhould be performed in the autumn, or very early {pring feafon, planting them immediately as edgings, or in the borders: they fhould not, however, be parted too fmall. And when planted out as edgings, a quantity of flips fhould be obtained in thefe feafons from old plants, by flipping or dividing the off-fets of their roots, each flip being furnifhed with roots and tops; then, having made up the edge of the bed or border even and firm, plant- ing them either with a dibble in one range, two or three inches diftance in the row; or to form at once a clofe edging, fo near as to touch one another, or in a {mall trench, clofe, as in planting box-edgings. Thefe edgings fhouid, every fummer, immediately after flowering, be trimmed with garden-fhears, or a knife, to cut off all the decayed flower-ftalks clofe to the bottom; likewife to trim in any projecting irregularity of the edging, at the fides or top; alfo, when it fpreads confiderably out of the bounds, it fhould be cut in evenly, on each fide, in due proportion; per- forming thofe trimmings in moift weather, and not too late in autumn, otherwife the drought of fummer, or the cold of winter, will be apt to injure them when newly cut, and caufe them to have a fhabby difagreeable appearance. But when thefe edgings grow confiderably out of bounds, or become very irregular, it is neceflary to take them up, flit the plants fmall, and immediately replant them as before, in a neat regular edging. They fometimes require replant- ing every three or four years in this manner. The fecond forts may likewife be increafed by parting the roots in the autumn or {pring, preferving fome mould to them, and planting them out again immediately, being placed in an eaft border, where the foil is loamy. They may alfo be raifed from feeds obtained from abroad, fowing them on a fimilar border, keeping the plants clean ; and when of fufficient growth, planting them out in pots. It is the common praétice, in treating the fecond fort, ac- cording to Martyn, to confider it as a greenhoufe plant ; and it appears to the greate{t advantage in a pot, as it is much difpofed to throw up new flowering-ftems. By hav- ing feveral pots, fome plants will be in flower throughout the fummer: on this account, and for the fingularity of its large blue calyx, it is a plant that merits attention. The echioides is alfo a greenhoufe plant. The eighth, ninth, tenth forts, &c. may be increafed by planting cuttings of the young fhoots, in July, in a fhady border, watering them frequently. When the plants have a little growth, they fhould be taken up, and placed in feparate pots, filled with light loamy mould, putting them in the fhade till re-rooted. The plants of thefe forts muft be removed into fhelter in the autumn; but they only re- quire protection from hard froit, of courfe may be placed with myrtles, and other hardy greenhoufe plants, where they often continue to flower a great part of winter, and make a pretty variety. Thefe forts afford ornament among other potted more hardy greenhoufe plants, and produce a pleafing diverfity. All the other common forts are ufeful in increafing the variety, when planted out in the common ground, Sr A ground, in a rather funny fituation, where they generally laft the longelt. STATICS, Srarice, formed of isnys, J weigh, abranch of mathematics, which confiders weight or gravity, and the motion of bodies arifing from it. Thofe who define mechanics the fcience of motion, make {latics a fubordinate part of it; viz. that part which con- fiders the motion of bodies arifing from gravity. Others make them two diftin& doftrines, rettraining me- chanics to the doctrine of motion and weight, in reference to the ftruéture and power of machines; and {tatics to the do@rine of motion, confidered merely as arifing from the weight of bodies, without any immediate refpect to machines. On which footing, ftatics fhould be the doc- trine or theory of motion; 2nd mechanics, the application of it to machines. For the laws of ftatics, fee Gravity, Descent, &c. Sratics, Statici, in Medicine, a kind of epileptics, or perfons feized with epilepfies. Statics differ from cataleptics, in that thefe laft have no fenfe of external objets, nor remember any thing that pafles at the time of the paroxy{m; whereas the fta- tici are all the while taken up with fome very ftrong, lively idea; which they remember well enough when out of the fit. STATICULA, among the Romans, thofe little figures with which it was ufual to adorn their drinking cups, called Seypht. STATICULI, among the Romans, a kind of dancing pantomimes. See PANTOMIME. STATION, in Geometry, &c. a place pitched upon to make an obfervation, take an angle, or the like. An inacceflible height, or diftance, is only to be taken by making two ftations, from two places whofe diftances are known. In making maps of provinces, &c. tations are fixed on all the eminences, &c. of the country, and angles taken thence to the feveral towns, villages, &c. In.furveying; the inftrument is to be adjufted by the needle, to anfwer the points of the horizon at every. {tation ; the dittance from the la{t {tation to be meafured, and an angle to be taken to the next flation; which includes the whole bufinefs of furveying. In levelling, the inftrument is retified, that is, it is placed level at each ftation, and obfervations made forwards and backwards. We have a method of meafuring diftances at one {tation in the Philofophical Tranfactions, N° 7, by means of a telefcope. But the practice of this method does not an- {wer to the theory, Sration, Line of, in Perfpecive. See Line. STATION, in Affronomy, the pofition or appearance of a planet, inthe fame point of the zodiac, for feveral days. Ass the earth, whence we view the motions of the planets, is out of the centre of their orbits, the planets appear to proceed irregularly ; being fometimes feen to go forwards, that is, from weit to eaft, which is called their direéion ; and {ometimes to go backwards, or from eaft to welt, which is called their retrogradation. Now between thefe two ftates there mutt be an inter- mediate one, in which the planet neither appears to go backwards nor forwards, but to ftand ftill, and keep the fame place in her orbit ; which is called her lation. Srarvion, in Britifh Hiflory. The ftationes, or lations, fortreffes ereGted along the line of Severus’s wall, were fo called from their {tability, and the ftated refidence of gar- rifons. They were alfo called caffra, which hath been con- verted into chefres, a name which many of them {till bear. Thefe were by far the largeft, itrongeft, and moft magni- SrA ficent of the fortretles, which were built upon the wall, and were deligned for the head-quarters of the cohorts of troops which were placed there in garrifon, and.from whence de- tachments were fent into the adjoining caltles and turrets. Thefe tations, as appears from the vettiges of them, which are {till vifible, were not all exaétly of the fame figure, nor of the fame dimenfions; fome of them being exa@ly {quare, and others oblong, and fome of them a little larger than others. Thefe variations were no doubt occafioned by the difference of fituation, and other circumftances, The ftations were fortified with deep ditches and ftrong walls, the wall itfelf coinciding with, and forming the north wall of each ftation. Within the {tations were lodgings for the officers and foldiers in garrifon ; the {malleft of them being {ufficient to contain a ee or Goo men. Without the walls of each {tation was a town, inhabited by labourers, artificers, and others, both Romans and Britons, who chofe to dwell under the prote@ion of thele fortrefles. The number of the itations upon the wall was exaGtly eighteen ; and if they had been placed at equal diftances, the interval between every two of them would have been four miles and a few paces: but the intervention of rivers, marfhes, and mountains ; the conveniency of fituation for ftrength, pro- f{peét, and water; and many other circumttances to us un- known, determined them to place thefe ftations at unequal diftances, The fituation which was always chofen by the. Romans, both here and every where elfe in Britain, where they could obtain it, was the gentle declivity of a hill, near a river, and facing the meridian fun. Such was the fituation of the far greateft part of the ftations on this wall. In general we may obferve, that the ftations ftood thickeft near the two ends and in the middle, probably be- caufe the danger of invafion was greateit ia thefe places. But the reader will form a clearer idea of the number of thefe ftations, their Latin and Englifh names, their fitua- tion and diftance from one another, by infpeCting the fol- lowing table, than we can give him, with equal brevity, in any other way. The firft column contains the number of the ftation, reckoning from eaft to weit; the fecond contains its Latin, and the third its Englifh name: and the laft its diftance from the next ftation to the welt of it, in miles, furlongs, and chains. No. Latin Name. Englifh Name. Lisl Deel; 1 | Segedunum Confins’-houfe E pelancs 2 | Pons Alii Newcattle 2010 3 | Condercum Benwell-hill ORG! 5 4. | Vindobala Rutchefter 7.10. 35 5 | Hannum Halton-chefters Sides) 6 | Cilurnum Walwick-chefters | 3 1 8 7 | Procolitia Carrawbrugh Agi a Sr 8 | Borcovicus Honfetteeds Ty Bs) g | Vindolana Little-cheiters Reo 4 to | ARfica Great-chetters 2 1 63 11 | Magna Carrvoran Z 0) "OQ 12 | Amboglanna Burdofwald (sme matt 13 | Petriana Cambeck 26" 6 14 | Aballaba Watchcrofs Fini tebe) 15 | Congavata Stanwix Cine 16 | Axelodunum Brugh ieee) 17 | Gabrofentum Brumbrugh Ea he Bi 18 | Tunnocelum Boulnefs Clrolo Length of the wall | 68 3 3 See WALL. STATION, } f STA Station, Svatio, in Church Hiflory, is applied to the Faft of the fourth and fixth days of the weck, that is, Wednefday and Friday; which many among the ancients obferved with much devotion, till three of the clock in the afternoon. St. Peter of Alexandria, in his Canonical Epiille, can. 15, obferves, that it was appointed, conform- ably to ancient tradition, to fait weekly on thofe days ; on Wednefday, in memory of the counfel the Jews took to put our Saviour to death; and on Friday, on account of his paflion. Some regard to which is {till had by the church of England. See AsstineNce. Svrartion is alfo ufed in the church of Rome, for a church where indulgences are to be had on certain days. It was St. Gregory that fixed the ftations at Rome, i. e. the churches where the office was to be performed each day of Lent, and on folemn featt-days. Thefe {tations he marked down in his Sacramentary, as they now ftand in the Roman Miffal; appropriating them chiefly to the patri- archal and titular churches: but though the ftations were fixed, the archdeacon did not fail, at each ftation, to pub- lith to the people the following ftation. SraTion is alfo a ceremony in the Romifh church, in which the priefts or canons go out of the choir to fing an anthem before the crucifix, or the image of our Lady. This ceremony is afcribed to St. Cyril. Station, Statio, szss:, in the Ancient Mufic, was fome- times ufed for any fixed pitch, or degree of found, whether produced by intention or remiffion. Sration-Line, in Surveying. See Line and Survey- ING. STATIONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the interior of Etruria, according to Strabo. STATIONARII, were men, thus called in the middle ages, who trafficked in books, made large fortunes by lend- ing them out to be read, at exorbitant prices, not in volumes, but in detached parts, according to the eltimation in which the author was held. STATIONARY, in Afronomy, the ftate of a planet when it feems to remain immoveable in the fame point of the zodiac. ‘The planets having fometimes a progreflive, and fometimes a retrograde motion, there will be fome point in which they appear ftationary.. Now a planet will be feen ftationary, when the line, that joins the earth’s and planet’s centre, is conitantly direéted to the fame point in the heavens, that is, when it keeps parallel to itfelf. For all right lines drawn from any point of the earth’s orbit, parallel to one another, do all point to the fame ftar; the diftance of thofe lines being infenfible, in comparifon of that of the fixed ftars. Saturn is feen ftationary at the diftance of fomewhat more than a quadrant from the fun; Jupiter at the diltance of 52°; and Mars at a much greater diftance; Venus at 44°, and Mercury at 28°. Saturn is ftationary eight days, Jupiter four, Mars two, Venus one and a half, and Mercury a half; though the feveral {tations are not always equal; becaufe the orbits of the planets are not circles, which have the fun in their centre. Stationary Fevers, an hypothetical term, ufed by Sydenham to denote thofe fevers which continue to pre- vail through a certain number of feafons, as conneCted with fome particular conftitution of the atmofphere, according to his fuppofition; and giving a particular epidemic cha- ra¢ter to the maladies of thofe feafons; and as contra{ted with thofe cafual and fhort occurrences of particular dif- eafes, which are now and then intermixed with the prevalent epidemics, and which he denominated intercurrent fevers. SE A (See Sydenham, Obfervat. Medice circa Morb. Acuit. Hiftoriam et Curat. fe. i. c. 2, arid feét. vi. c. 1.) Ale though he was able to trace feveral fucceflive changes in epi- demic conititutions, or ftationary fevers, at different periods of his practice ; he is compelled to admit, that thefe changes could not be afcribed to any fenfible variations of the at- mofphere, fuch as heat and cold, drynefs and humidity ; and adopted, therefore, a conjeéture, that they originated in fome occult and inexplicable contamination of the air by certain effluvia from the bowels of the earth. See SYDENHAM. STATIVA, among the Romans, a ftanding camp kept for the defence of the frontiers of the empire. Thefe camps gave rife to a great many towns, which took their names from the legion ftationed there. STATILUS, Pustiius Parinus, in Biography, an emi- nent Roman poet, was born at Naples, in which city his father was fettled as a teacher of oratory, and was in great reputation both for his lectures and poetry, in which he gained feveral prizes. Statius was born probably about the year A.D. 61. He early difplayed a lively difpofition and good talents, and foon became a votary of the mufes with fo much fuccefs, that during his father’s life he ob- tained the crown in the poetical contefts of his native place. He was thrice a victor in the poetical games celebrated at Alba. The poems which he addrefled to feveral of the principal perfons in Rome, are proofs of the friendfhips which he contraéted with men of rank in that city; anda piece, which he recited in the quinquennial games initituted by Nero, and renewed by Domitian, procured for him a golden crown from that emperor, and the honour of ad- miffion to his table. He was vanquifhed at a conteft in the Roman games, on which ‘eccafion he recited a part of his principal work, the Thebaid. According to Juvenal, he was heard with delight by a crowd of auditors im other public recitations of this poem: the fatirift at the fame time intimating, that notwithftanding this applaufe, the author might have ftarved, had he not fold his ** Agave,’” apparently a new compofition, to a celebrated a¢tor, a favourite of Domitian. He poflefled a {mall eftate and country houfe near the feite of the ancient Alba, and lived in a decent {tate of mediocrity. Having no children of his own, he adopted a fon, whofe death he tenderly laments in one of his mifcellaneous poems. The time of his own death is not known; but it is thought to have been about the year 96, when he was only 35 years of age. He is not even mentioned by any contemporary poet, except Juve- nal. Martial, who celebrates many other poets, takes not the leaft notice of him. The exilting works of Statius cou- fit of the «¢ Sylvz,”” or mifcellaneous pieces, in five books ; the ‘¢ Thebaid,”” an epic poem, in twelve books; and two books of an unfinifhed poem, entitled « Achilles.”” « They all,” fays his biographer, “* difplay a confiderable fhare of genius and real talent, but are vitiated by the falfe talte which then began to infeft Latin poetry, and gave a turn to turgid and unnatural thoughts and expreflions. Severak pieces in the ‘ Sylvz’ are, however, pleafing and elegant. His principal work, the ‘ Thebaid,’? holds no mean rank among epic poems, and once it was a great favourite among the remains of antiquity. For this preference it was in- debted to its {welling fentiments, verging to bombalt, and to the favage and fanguinary character of its incidents, which fuited the times of chivalrous turbulence. But with thefe faults it exhibits {trokes of the real fublime, and con- fiderable force and noveity in natural defcription, efpecially ” in the fimilies.”? The beit editions are thole of Cafpar Bar- thius, 4to. 1664; of Veenhuyfen, Lug. Bat. 8vo. 1671 2 an BTA and the Delphin, 2 vols. gto. 1685. of the “ Sylvz” is highly efteemed. STATO della Chiefa, State of the Church, or Popedom, a name given to the dominions of the pope in the central part of Italy. Thefe dominions were bounded on the N. by the Venetian States, on the E. by the Adriatic and part of the kingdom of Naples, on the S. by the Medi- terranean, and on the W. by the Mediterranean, the duchy of Tufcany, and the duchy of Modena; and contifted of feveral {tates or provinces. See EccrestasTicaL State. The fecular power of the popes is traced back to the age of Pepin and Charlemagne; and the forged collection of papal refcripts, publifhed in the 9th century under the name of Ifidorus, led to fucceflive accumulations of domi- nion. The {mall territory, granted in the eighth century, was increafed by the acquifition of Benevento in the eleventh, after which there was a paufe; and the popes themfelves were cont(trained to refide at Avignon, In 1513 Bologna was acquired by Julius If. ; the marquifate of Ancona fol- lowed in 15323; Ferrara in 1598; and Urbino in 1626. But fince the French revolution, the temporal power of the pope was annihilated by Bonaparte (fee Irany); and again reftored after the expulfion of the French emperor. Where the papal power predominates, no great induftry can be expected, and the foil is not likely to derive much ac- ceffion to its natural fertility from cultivation. The principal, and, indeed, almoft the only exports from the Papal {tates, are a fuperior kind of alum, prepared from a whitifh argil- laceous rock at Tolfa, near Civita Vecchia, from which place alfo is exported puxxolana (which fee). The chief city of the papal territory is Rome (which fee); and its revenue has been computed at about 350,000/. {terling ; but by exactions in foreign countries it is {aid to have been raifed to 800,000/., fubje&, however, to a large debt, being 8 per cent. intereft; and this ftrikingly evinces a defet of induftry and profperity. See LEccurstasticaL State, Iraty, and Porr. Strato de Gi Prefidit, a name given to a part of Tuf- cany, which was ceded to Philip II. king of Spain, and belongs to Naples. It is fituated on the coait of the Medi- terranean, and confilts of the towns of Orbitello, Porto Hercule, the principality of Piombino, and the ifiand of Elba, with a few villages. By the peace figned at Flo- rence, between the king of Naples and the French re- public, this country was given to France. See Napizs and Tuscany. STATORES, among the Romans, made a part of the emperor’s life guard. : STATUARY, Srarvuaria, a branch of fculpture, employed in the making of ftatues. Statuary is one of thofe arts in which the ancients furpafled the moderns: indeed it was much more popu- lar and more cultivated among the former than the latter. It is difputed between ftatuary and painting, which of the two 1s the moft difficult, and the moft artful. See ScuLPTuRE. The invention of ftatuary was at firft very coarfe. Leon Battifta Alberti, who has an exprefs treatife on ftatues, imagines, that it took its rife from fomething cafually ob- ferved in the produétions of nature, that, with a little help, feemed difpofed to reprefent the figure of fome animal. The common ftory is, that a maid, full of the idea of her lover, made the firft eflay, by the affiftance of her father’s implements, who was a potter. This, at leait, is pretty certain, that earth was the firft matter upon which ftatuary was practifed. Sratuary is alfo ufed for the artificer who makes Markland’s edition STA ftatues. Phidias was the greatelt ftatuary among the an- cients ; and Michael Angelo among the moderns. STATUARY Column. See CoLuMN. SraTuaARy Fountain. See Founrain. SratuAry Marble, among our artificers, the name of the fofter white marble ufually wrought into ftatues, the fame with the Parian marble of the ancients. STATUE, Srarua, a piece of fculpture in full relievo, reprefenting a human figure. Daviler more fcientifically defines ttatue, a reprefentation in high relievo, and infulate, of fome perfon ditting uifhed by his birth, merit, or great actions; placed as an ornament in a fine building, or expofed in a public place, to preferve the memory of his worth. In ftriétnefs, the term ftatue is only applied to figures on foot ; the word being formed from the Latin flatura, the fize of the body ; or from flare, to fland. Statues are formed with the chiflel, of feveral matters, as ftone, marble, plalter, &c. They are alfo caft of various kinds of metal, particularly gold, filver, brafs, and lead. For the method of catting ftatues, fee FounpEry of Statues. Dedalus, the fon of Upalmus, who lived not only be- fore the fiege of Troy, but even before the expedition of the Argonauts, among many other notable contrivances afcribed to him, is faid to have been the inventor of {tatues. And yet it is certain, there were ftatuaries before him ; only it was he who firft found how to give them aétion and motion, and to make them appear as if alive. Before him, they made them with the feet joined together, never intend- ing to exprefs any ation. He firft loofened the feet of his, and gave them the attitudes of people walking and a¢ting. The Phoenicians are {aid to have been the firft who ereéted ftatues to the gods. The Greeks fucceeded in their ftatues beyond the Romans, both the workmanthip and the fancy of the Roman ftatues being inferior to the Grecian. In- deed we have very few remaining that have efcaped the in- juries of time. Statues are ufually diftinguifhed into four general kinds. The firft are thofe lefs than the life; of which kind we have feveral ftatues of men, of kings, and of gods themfelves. The fecond, thofe equal to the life ; in which manner it was that the ancients, at the public expence, ufed to make fta- tues of perfons eminent for virtue, learning, or the fervices they had done. The third, thofe that exceed the life; among which, thofe which furpafs the life once and an half, were for kings and emperors; and thofe double the life, for heroes. The fourth kind were thofe that exceeded the life twice, thrice, or even more ; and were called colofiu/es. Every ftatue refembling the perfon it is intended ta repres fent, is called flatua iconica. See SCULPTURE. Starve, dllegorical, that which, under a human figure, or other fymbol, reprefents fomething of another kind, as a part of the earth, a feafon, age, element, temperament, hour, &c. Statue, Caryatic. See CARYATIDES. Statur, Colofl. See Conossus. Sratugs, Curule, thofe which are reprefented in chariots drawn by bige, or quadrige, that is, by two or four horfes ; of which kind there were feveral in the circufes, hippo- - dromes, &c. or in cars, as we fee fome, with triumphal arches, on antique medals. Statur, Equeffrian, that which reprefents fome illuf- trious perfon on horfeback ; as that famous one of Marcus a at Rome, and that of king Charles I. at Charing- rofs. J Sratur, Greek, denotes a figure that is naked and an- tique, peta STA tique, it being in this manner the Greeks reprefented their deities, athlet2 of the Olympic games, and heroes. The reafon of this nudity, by which the Greek ftatues are diftin- guifhed, is, that thofe who exercifed wreftling, in which the Greek youth placed their chief glory, always performed naked. The ftatues of heroes were particularly calied dchillean ftatues, by reafon of the great number of figures of that prince in moit of the cities of Greece. -Sratue, Hydraulic, any figure placed as an ornament of a fountain, or grotto, or that does the office of a jet d’eau, a cock, fpout, or the like, by any of its parts, or by any attribute it holds. The like is to be underitood of any ani- mal ferving for the fame ufe. Statue, Pedeffrian, a ftatue ftanding on foot; as that of king Charles II. in the Royal Exchange ; and that of king James II. in the Privy-Gardens. Sratue, Perfian. See Persian. Statues, Roman, is an appellation given to fuch as are clothed ; and which receive various names frem their various drefles. Thofe of emperors, with long gowns over their armour, were called flatue paludate ; thofe of captains and cavaliers, with coats of arms, thoracate ; thofe of foldiers, with cui- rafles, Jericate ; thofe of fenators and augurs, trabeate; thofe of magiftrates, with long robes, fogate ; thofe of the peo- ple, with a plain tunica, sunicate; and laftly, thofe of women, with long trains, /lolate. The Romans had another divifion of ftatues, into divine, which were thofe confecrated to the gods; as Jupiter, Mars, Apollo, &c.; serves, which’ were thofe of the demi-gods ; as Hercules, &c.; and Augufli, which were thofe of the emperors; as tkofe two of Cefar and Augultus, under the portico of the Capitol. -Sratues, Foundery of. See FounDERY. Sratues, Pedeffal of. See PepesTat. Statues, Plinth of. See Puntu. SratuE, Repairing a. See Repair. STATURE, the fize, or height of man; derived from the Latin fatura, of flare, to fland. The ftature, or pitch, of a man, is found admirably well adapted to the circumftances of his exiitence. See Dwarr and Grant. It is a common opinion, and has been fo ever fince Ho- mer’s time, that people in the earlieft ages of the world much furpaffed the moderns in ftature; and, it is true, we read of men, both in facred and profane hiltory, whofe pitch appears furprifing: but then, it is true, they were, even then, efteemed giants. The ordinary ftature of men, Dr. Derham obferves, is, in all probability, the fame now as at the beginning; as may be gathered from the monuments, mummies, &c. ftill remaining. The oldeft monument in the world is that of Cheops, in the firft pyramid of Egypt, which, Mr. Greaves obferves, fearcely exceeds the meafure of our ordinary coffins. The cavity, he fays, is only 6.488 feet long, 2.218 feet wide, and 2.160 deep: from which dimenfions, and thofe ef feveral embalmed bodies obferved by him in Egypt, that accurate writer concludes, there is no decay in nature ; but that the men of this age are of the fame ftature as thofe three thoufand years ago. To thefe, we have other and later inftances to add from Hakewell: the tombs at Pifa, which are fome thoufands of rg old, are yet no longer than ours. The fame may be aid of Athelftan’s in Malmfbury church; and of Shéba’s in Paul’s, of the year 693, &e. The like evidence we have from the ancient armour, Vou. XXXIV. . STA fhields, veffels, &c. dug up this day ; ¢. gr. the brafs helmet dug up at Metaurum, fits one of our men; yet it is allowed to have been left there at the overthrow of Afdrubal. Add, that Auguitug was five feet nine inches, which was the mea-~ fure of our queen Elizabeth; only the queen exceeded the emperor by two inches, allowance being made for the dif- ference between the Roman and our foot. STATUS de Manerio, in Ancient Records, denotes all the tenants, and legal men, within the lands of a manor, affembled in their lord’s court to do their cuftomary fuit, and enjoy their rights and privileges. STATUSIN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the circle of Natangen; 20 miles N.W. of Lick, STATUTE, Srarvrum, in its general fenfe, fignifies a law, decree, ordinance, &c. Starurk, in our Laws and Cuffoms, more immediately fignifies an aft of parliament, made by the three eftates of the realm; and having the force of a law. See Law and PARLIAMENT. Statutes were anciently proclaimed by the fheriff, but upon the invention of printing, this method was difcon- tinued. Every body is obliged to take notice of an aét of parliament at his peril. Statutes are either general or /pectal, public or private. A general or public a¢t is an univerfal rule, that regards the whole community ; and of this the courts of law are bound to take notice judicially and ex offcto; without the ftatute being particularly pleaded, or formally fet forth by the party who claims an advantage under it. Special or private acts are rather exceptions than rules, being thofe which only operate upon particular perfons, and private concerns; fuch as the Romans entitled /énatus-decreta, in contradiftin@tion to the /enatus-confulta, which regarded the whole community : and of thefe the judges are not hound to take notice, unlefs they be formally fhewn and pleaded. Statutes are alfo either declaratory of the common law, or remedial of fome defects in it; and there is alfo a fubor- dinate divifion of remedial a€is into enlarging and reflraining ftatutes. See DecLaraTory and RemepIAL. The principal rules laid down by the learned Blackftone for the conftruétion of ftatutes are the following. As there are three points to be confidered in the conftruc- tion of all remedial ftatutes, viz. the old law, the mifchief, and the remedy ; that is, how the common law ftood at the making of the a¢t; what the mifchief was for which the common law did not provide ; and what remedy the parlia- ment hath provided to cure this mifchief; it is the bufinefe of the judges fo to conftrue the act, as to fupprefs the mif- chief and advance the remedy. (3 Rep.7. Co. Litt. 11. 32.) A ftatute which treats of things or perfons of an inferior rank, cannot by any general words be extended to thofe of a fuperior. (2 Rep. 46.) Penal ftatutes muft be conttrued ftriétly. Statutes againft frauds are to be liberally and beneficially expounded. (3 Rep. 82.) One part of a ftatute muit be fo conftrued by another, that the whole may (if poffible) ftand. A faving, totally repugnant to the body of the act; is void. (1 Rep. 47.) Where-the common law and a ftatute differ, the common law gives place to the fta- tute ; and an old ftatute gives place toa new one. (11 Rep. 63.) If a ftatute that repeals another, is itfelf repealed afterwards, the firft ttatute is thereby revived, without any formal words for that purpofe. (4 Inft. 325.) Ads of parliament derogatory from the power of fubfequent parlia- ments bind not. And, laftly, aéts of parliament that are impoflible to be performed, are of no validity ; and if there arifg out of them collaterally any abfurd confequences, mani- D feftly ® T A fettly contraditory to common reafon, they are, with regard to fuch confequences, void. 8 Rep. 118. The method of citing aéts of parliament is various. Many of our ancient ftatutes are called after the name of the place where the parliament that made them was held; as the ftatutes of Merton and Marleberge, of Weftmintter, Gloucetter, and Winchelter. Others are denominated en- tirely from their fubjeét; as the {tatutes of Wales and Ire- land, the articuli cleri, and the prerogativa regis. Sgme are diftinguifhed by their initial words, as the ftatute of guia emptores, and that of ctrcum/pece agatis. But the moft ufual method of citing them, efpecially fince the time of Ed- ward II., is by naming the year of the king’s reign in which the {tatute was made, together with the chapter or particular a&, according toits numeral order ; as 9 Geo. II. c. 4. For all the a&s of one feflion of parliament taken together, make properly but one itatute; and, therefore, when two feffions have been held in one year, it is ufual to mention ftat. 1 or 2. Thus, the bill of rights is cited as iW. & M. it. 2. c. 2, fignifying that it is the fecond chap- ter, or act of the fecond {tatute, or the laws made in the fe- cond feffions of parliament, held in the firft year of king William and queen Mary. Blackft. Com. book i. Abridgments of the itatutes have been made by feveral, from Magna Charta to the times of the refpective abridgers. The firft by Raftal, publifhed in 1559; the fecond by Pulton, in 1606; the third by Wingate, in 1641; and others fince by Hughes, Manby, Wathington, Boult, Nel- fon, Cay, &c. SratutTE is alfo a term provincially employed to fignify a hiring day for farm-fervants. Srarutes of a Corporation, are thofe bye-laws, or private regulations, which it is empowered to make for its own better government, and which are binding upon the members, unlefs contrary to the laws of the land, and then they are void. This right of making bye-laws, under the preceding reltri€tion, was allowed by the law of the Twelve Tables at Rome; but no trading company is, with us, allowed to make bye-laws which may afle&t the king’s prerogative, or the common profit of the people, under the penalty of 4c/. unlefs they be approved by the chancellor, treafurer, and chief juftices, or the judges of affize in their circuits ; and even though they be fo approved, {till, if contrary to law, they are void. Blackft. Com. book i. SratutTe, Acceffory by. See Accussory. STaruTE, Aédion upon the. See Action. Sratute, Guardian by. See GUARDIAN. Srarute-Merchant is a bond of record, purfuant to the ftatute 13 Edw. I. de mercatoribus, acknowledged before one of the clerks of the ftatutes-merchant, and mayor, or chief warden of the city of London; or two merchants of the faid city for that purpofe affigned; or before the mayor, ehief warden, or matter, of other cities or towns; or other fufficient men for that purpofe appointed ; fealed with the feal of the debtor, and of the king, which is of two pieces, the greater to be kept by the mayor, chief warden, &c. and the lefs by the faid clerks. Its effe& is, that if the obligor pay not the debt at the day, execution may be awarded againit his body, lands, and goods; and that the obligee fhall hold the fame tillthe debt be levied. See Sra- TUTE-Staple. Sratute-Seffons, called alfo Petit/effions, in Law, are meetings in every hundred, to which conftables repair, and others, both matters and fervarts, for deciding differences between mafters and fervants, rating of wages, beftowing people in fervice, who, being fit to ferve, either refufe to feek, or cannot get matters. rome! ines | Starute-Staple is a fort of ftatute-merchant, relating to merchants and merchandizes of the abe ; which fee. The ftatute-ftaple is of two kinds ; proper and kis ida The proper is a bond of record, acknowledged before the mayor of the ftaple, in the prefence of one or more contftables of the ftaple ; by virtue of which the creditor may forthwith have execution of the body, lands, and goods, of the debtor, on non-payment, This and the ftatute-merchant are both fecurities for debts, originally permitted only among traders for the benefit of commerce ; by which the lands of the debtor are conveyed to the creditor, till out of the rents and profits of them his debt may be fatisfied, and during {uch time as the creditor fo holds the Jands, he is tenant by ftatute-merchant, or fta- tute-{taple. Improper is a bond of record, or recognizance, founded upon the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. of the nature of a proper ftatute-ftaple as to the force and execution of it, and acknowledged before one of the chief juttices ; or, in their abfence, before the mayor of the ftaple, and recorder of London; which extends the benefit of the mercantile tranfaction, already mentioned, to all the king’s fubjects in eneral. STATUTO Mercarorio, a writ for the imprifoning him that has forfeited a ftatute-merchant bond, until the debt is fatisfied ; and of thefe writs there is one againft lay perfons, and another againit perfons ecclefiaftical. C SratutTo Stapule, a writ that lies to take the body to prifon, and feize upon the land and goods of one who hath forfeited the bond called ftatute-ftaple. STATUTUM de Laberariis, an ancient writ for the apprehending fuch labourers as refufe to work according to the ftatute. ° gas STAVANGER, in Geography, a fea-port town of Nor- way, in Chriftianfand, fituated on a bay of the North fea ; anciently the fee of a bifhop, but removed, after the town was burnt in the year 1688, to Chriftianfand ; 86 miles S. of Bergen. N. lat. 58°56’. E. long. 5° 44!. STAVANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of European Sarmatia, according to Ptolemy ; who alfo gives the fame name to a people in the northern part of Aria. STAVELOT, in Geegraphy. See STABLO. STAVENAU, a town of Brandenburg, in the Mark of Pregnitz ; 7 miles N.W. of Perleberg. STAVENHAGEN, a town of the duchy of Mecklen- berg ; 24 miles E. of Guftrow. N. lat. 53°40’. E. long. 12° 4s/. STAVEREN, a town of Holland, and the moft ancient of Friefland, fuppofed to have been built one year before the commencement of the Chriftian era, and to have taken its name from an ancient idol, worfhipped by the inhabitants, called «* Stavon.”? Great part of the ancient town having been deftroyed by the fea, the inhabitants rebuilt it in the place where it now ftands, as being lefs expofed. It was anciently a very rich, powerful, and populous city, with the beft harbour in that country. The ancient kings of Frief- land made it their ordinary refidence, in a palace built b Richolde, the firft king, about the year 400. Radbode VI. after he had conquered all the country as far as Utrecht, called his conqueits the Kingdom of Staveren, which fhews the flourifhing {tate of the town at that time, and was the occafion of its being included in the league of the German Hanfe towns. It was furrounded with walls and ditches, about the year 339, by Obidalde VI. duke of Friefland. It is fince reduced very much from its ancient grandeur, the harbour being choaked up ; however, there remains enough of its former fplendour to make it a confiderable 9 town 3 STA town; and they ftill carry on fome trade, efpecially in fifhing, and in paflage-boats over the pools and lakes of the neighbourhood. In 1799, the town was taken by the Britifh fleet ; 40 miles N. of Amfterdam. N, lat. 52° 56!.- E. long. 5° 16'. STAVERN. See FrepericKsvorn. STAVERS. See Sraccerrs. STAVES, Flag. See Frac-Staves. Sraves, Levelling. See Levervinc-Staves. Staves, Zip. See Tipr-Staves. STAVESACRE, Sraruisacria, in Botany ; for the characters, fee DrLPHINiIUM. Stavefacre, Delphinium aphifagria, grows in Provence, Languedoc, and many other fouthern parts of Europe. The feeds, which are the only part of the plant directed for medicinal ufe, are ufually imported here from Italy ; they are large, rough, of an irregular triangular figure, and ofa blackifh colour on the outfide, but yellowifh within ; their {mell is difagreeable, and fomewhat fetid ; to the tafte they are very bitter, acrid, and naufeous. Their virtues are extracted partially by water, and completely by reétified {pirit. ‘ Thefe feeds feem to have been known to the ancients, by whom they were employed as a mafticatory: for, on being chewed they excite a copious flow of faliva, and on this ac- count were recommended in tooth-aches, and other painful affeGtions of the face and gums. The ancients alfo pre- {cribed them with a view to their emetic and cathartic effects in dofes of ten or fifteen grains : but the deleterious narcotic ualities of {tavefacre were difcovered to be fo powerful as to foie its internal ufe. Schultz, only by keeping it fome time in his mouth to relieve a tooth-ache, was for a time deprived of his fenfes ; and Hillefeld has related, that a dog, by taking five feruples of thefe feeds, became convulfed, and foon died. Stavefacre is now, therefore, confined to external ufe in fome kinds of cutaneous eruption, but more efpecially for deftroying lice and other infeéts ; and by its efficacy in this way, this plant, in moft of the European languages, is diftinguifhed by the name of loufe-wort. STAUFF, in Geography, a cattle of Germany, in the principality of Naffau Saarbruck Ufingen.—Alfo, a caftle of Germany, in the principality of Anfpach, with a citadel ; 30 miles S.E. of Anfpach. STAUFFEN, a town of the Brifgau, on the Mehli- bach; 24 miles N.N.E. of Bale. N. lat. 48° 54!. E. long. © 438i. $TAUFFENBURG, atown of Upper Heffe ; 5 miles N.N.E. of Gieffen. N. lat. 50° 4o!._ E. long. 8° 45). ' S§STAVITESTI, a town of Walachia ; 42 miles E.S.E. ’ of Tergofyl. we STAUNTON, 2 poft-town of America, in the ftate of Virginia, and capital of Augufta county ; fituated on the S.E. fide of Middle river, a water of Patowmac, N. of Maddifon’s cove. It contains about 160 houfes, moftly conftruéted of ftone, a court-houfe and gaol; 100 miles S.W. by S. of Winchefter.—Alfo, one of the principal branches of Roanoke river, which rifes on the weftern fide of the Blue Ridge, where it has the name of Roanoke, but when it has pafled through the ridge, it takes the name of Staunton, and preferves it to its confluence with Dan, there refuming the name of Roanoke. It might be made navigable for 100 miles from its mouth. It receives feveral ftreams. Sraunton’s J/land, a {mall ifland near the eaft coaft of China. N. lat. 36° 47'. E.long. 122° 13’. STAVRES HOVED, a cape of Denmark, on the eaft STA coaft of the ifland of Fyen. 10° 46!. STAURI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in the environs of Hyrcania. Pliny. STAUROLITE, Granatite of Sauffure and Werner, and Staurotidg of Hatiy, in Mineralogy, a {tone of the filiceous genus according to Kirwan, of a reddifh or blackifh-brown colour, which eee always cryftallized. Its cryftals are of an hexahedral prifmatic form, four faces of which are the largeit, meeting in pairs, and forming two obtule angles, meafuring 129°. The prifm is either entire or truncated on the obtufe angles. It is not uncommon to find two cryf- tals penetrating each other obliquely, or at right angles, fo as to form a crofs; fometimes even three prifms are thus arranged, forming a triple crofs, whence its name of * Crofs- ftone.”’ Its furface is {mooth or uneven, and its luftre varies confiderably. Internally it is more or lefs fhining, with a luftre between vitreous and refinous. Its fraéture, parallel to the axis, is imperfectly lamellar ; in the oppofite direc- tion it is fmall-grained uneven, pafling to conchoidal. It is brittle, and fomewhat harder than quartz. Sp. gr. 3.28. Expofed to the blowpipe, it undergoes no other change befides that of fritting a little on its furface. Its compo- nent parts, according to an analyfis by Vauquelin, are N. lat. 55° 29'. EE. long. 33. Silex. 44. Alumine. 3.84 Lime. - : 13- Oxyd of iron. 1. Oxyd of manganefe. 94-84 5-16 Lofe 100. This mineral is found in St. Gothard, in Switzerland, in {mall cryftals, imbedded in micaceous f{chiftus, and accom- panied with cyanite : in Brittany, near Quimper, in middling- fized cryftals, imbedded in a micaceous clay, apparently produced by the decompofition of fome primitive rock ; alfo at St. Jago of Compottella, in a primitive rock. Avikin. STAUROPHORI, LraveoPoeoty compounded of TUULO a crofs, and ¢zeu, L carry, in Church Hiflory, certain eccle- fiattics, whofe bufinefs it was to carry the crofs in pro- ceffions. STAUROPHYLAX, Lraveodurct, derived from SAUL, a crofs, and Quracow, I keep, a dignified officer in the church of Conftantinople, to whofe care the keeping of the crofs, found by St. Helena, was committed. STAUROPOL, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Simbirfk, on the Volga; 44 miles S.S.E. of Simbirfk. N. lat. 53° 44'. E. long. 48° 58'—Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Caucafus, on the Volga; 88 miles W.N.W. of Ekaterinograd, N. lat. 44° 56’. E. long. 41° 50!. STAVROS, or Sravuros, anciently Stagira, a town of European Turkey, in Macedonia, the native place of Ariftotle ; fituated in the gulf of Contefa; 46 miles E.S.E. of Saloniki. STAUROTIDE, in Mineralogy, the name given by Haty to granatite. See SrauRovire. STAUSEE, Fort, in Geography, an American fort, juit above the falls of the Niagara, and eight miles above Queen’s Town. 1D STAU: STA STAUSTADT, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Underwalden; 6 miles S.E.. of Lucerne. STAXIGO Harsour, a bay of Scotland, on the eaft eoalt of the county of Caithnefs; 1 mile N. of Nofs Head. STAXIS, a word ufed by the ancient phyficians to, ex- prefs a diftillation of the blood in drops from the nofe. A {ftaxis, in the do&rine of crifes, is jultly condemned as indicating a weaknefs and decay of {trength in nature ; whereas, on the contrary, free and copious difcharges of blood from the nofe are efteemed good indications, and often make happy criles. STAY, in Sea Language, a big ftrong rope employed to fupport the mafts on the fore-part, by extending from their upper end at the malt-head towards the fore-part of the fhip, as the fhrouds are extended to the right and left, and behind it. The ftays are denominated from the mafts, as the lower ftays, topmatt flays, top-gallant ftays, flag-{taff or royal ftays, &c. Back-flays, breaft, fhifting, and flanding, are ftays which fupport the topmatts and top-gallant-malts from aft: they reach from the heads of the topma{t and top-gallant-matft to the channel on each fide of the fhip, and affilt the fhrouds, when ftrained by a prefs of fail, The fhifting back-ftays change according to the a¢tion of the wind upon the fails, whether aft or upon the quarter. Bob-/lays are itays ufed to confine the bowfprit down upon the ftem, and countera& the force of the flays which draw it upwards. Stay-/ail jlays are thofe on which the ftay-fails are extended. The jibSiay is fimilar to the ftay-fail ftays, and extends the jib. The martingale-flay {upports the jib-boom, as the bob-ftays fupport the bowiprit. Preventer-/pring-flays are {ubordi- nate ftays to fupport their refpeétive ftays, and fupply their places, in cafe of any accident. he praétice of placing the {pring-ftays before the foremoft crofs-trees, and of bringing the catharpins and futtock-fhrouds to the malt, is now ftritly forbidden in the navy, as the placing of the {pring-ftay before the foremoft crofs-trees was with a view to feparate it from the ttanding ftay: it is for the future to be effeted, by placing the collars five or fix feet apart on the bowfprit. Stiatic-flays are ropes ufed for hoitting or lowering burdens in or out of fhips. Stay-ropes have four itrands, with a heart running through the middle, which keeps the rope true; and when hawfer-laid as a rope, pre- vents it from ftretching, and the ttrands have each their proper bearing. The itays are made of fine yarn, fpun from the beft topt hemp. Twenty threads a-hook make a rope three inches in circumference, and fo in proportion for any fize. ‘The yarn is warped to the length and fize for the {tay wanted. The ftrands are warped long enough for one ftrand to make two, when hauled about and hung upon the back-hook. By this an eye is left for the upper end of the {tay to go through and form a collar, to go over the matft-head. For ftays of nine inches in circumference, each ftrand fhould be 34 inches, and fo in proportion. The heart muft be near the fize of the ftrand, or the rope will not lie round andtrue. Particular attention fhould be paid to makirg the ftays, as on them the fafety of the mait, &c. greatly depends. Main, fore, and mizen-topmaft, and fome top-gallant-maft-tays, are cable-laid. The ftay of the fore-matt, called the fore-ftay, reaches from the maft-head towards the bow{fprit-end; the main- ftay extends over the fore-caftle to the fhip’s ftem; and the mizen-ftay is ftretched down to that part of the main-matt which lies immediately above the quarter-deck ; the fore- topmatt-ftay comes alfo to the end of the bow/prit, a little a Fe beyond the fore-ftay ; the main-topmatt-ftay is attached to the head or hounds of the fore-maft ; and the mizen-topmalt- itay comes alfo to the hounds of the main-maft; the fore- top-gallant-ftay comes to the outer end of the jib-boom; and the main-top-gallant-ftay is extended to the head of the fore-topmatt. Stray a Ship, To, or bring her on the Stays, is to manage her tackle and fails, fo as that fhe cannot make any way forwards, which is done in order to her tacking about. Sray, in the Manege. To ftay, or fultain your horfe, is to hold the bridle firm and high. We likewife ftay or fuftain a horfe with the in-leg, or in-heel, when he makes his croupe go before his fhoulders upon volts; as alfo when we hinder him to traverfe, and ride him equally, keeping him always fubjeét, fo that his croupe cannot flip out, and he cannot lofe either his cadence, or his ground, but marks all his times equal. Sray-Sail, in a Ship, a fort of triangular fail extended upon a ftay. See Sait. Sray-Sail-Stay-Tackle. See TACKLE. Sray-Tackle Pendants. See PeNvants. STAYNER, Sir Ricwarn, ix Biography, was the gal- lant commander of a fhip of war during the protetorate ; and, in conjunétion with captain Smith, took a Dutch Eaft India ihip of 800 tons burden, having on board four chefts of filver. In 1656 he was appointed to the command of - three frigates, and with this {mall {quadron he fell-in with the Spanifh flotilla, confifting of eight fail, of which he captured two, burnt one, funk another, and drove two on fhore.. ‘The treafure captured on this occafion amounted to fix hundred thoufand pounds fterling, fo that captain Stayner returned to England not only crowned with glory, but laden with wealth. In the following year he again failed with the fleet, under the chief command of Blake, for the purpofe of intercepting the Spanifh Welt India fleet, which had taken fhelter in the bay of SantaCruz. On re- connoitering the force and pofition of the enemy, the Eng- lifh admiral found it impoffible to bring off the enemy’s fhips, though he thought they might be deftroyed. Stayner was immediately detached to begin the attack, and being fupported by Blake with the remainder of the fleet, the Spaniards were, in a very few hours, driven out of their fhips and brea{t-works. The former were inftantly taken polleffion of by the Englifh, and, as they could not be brought off, they were all fet on fire, and burnt to the wa- ter’s edge. ‘¢ The whole adtion,” fays lord Clarendon, ‘«‘ was fo miraculous, that all men, who knew the place, wondered that any fober men, with whatever courage en- dowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly perfuade themfelves to believe what they had done ! while the Spaniards comforted themfelves with the belief that they were devils, and not men, who had deftroyed them in fuch a manner.’”? Cromwell thought fo highly of the conduét of captain Stayner, that he immediately con- ferred on him the honour of knighthood. On the reftora- tion, fir R. Stayner had a command under Montague, afterwards the earl of Sandwich, was again knighted, and was conftituted rear-admiral of the fleet. He firft hoifted his flag in the Swiftfure, and afterwards in the Mary. After this, the nation being at peace, no opportunity was offered to this brave man of adding to thofe fervices which he had already rendered his country ; and it is thought he diet very foon after. Campbell’s Lives of the Admirals, : vol, iv. ST. CLAIR, in Geography. See Crair.—Alfo, a townfhip in Butler county, in the ftate of Ohio, containing 118@ STE 2180 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip in the county of Co- ‘lumbiava, Ohio, containing 1003 inhabitants—Alfo, a county of the Illinois territory, containing 9 townfhips and 007 inhabitants. : : STEADMAN’s Creek, a river of America, in New York, which runs into the Niagara, above Fort Schlofler. STEADY, a word of command at fea, given by the pilot to the man at the helm, in a fair wind, to keep the fhip fteady in her courfe, without deviating to the right or left, or making angles (or yaws, as they call them) in and out. The helmfman accordingly anfwers /leady ; thus de- noting his attention and obedience to the pilot’s orders. STEAL, in Agriculture. See STave. STEALING«an Heirefs. See Forcrwre Abduéiion. Sreatine, in Zaw. See Larceny. STEAM, ina general fenfe, is a term ufed to fignify the vifible cloudinefs arifing from the condenfation of aqueous vapour. In thofe arts and manufactures where the vapour of water is employed, fuch as fteam-engines, the term {team is ufed for water in its ela{tic form, at or above the temperature of 212°, and when it is invifible. It is in this form that we can properly call it fteam ; as we fhall thew, that in the vifible mifty form in which we fee it in the atmofphere, both in the form ef clouds, and as it pafles from a warm medium into a colder one, it is not fteam but water in minute glo- bules. Some have confined the word fteam to the vapour of wa- ter not lefs than 212°, as if water did not aflume the elaftic form at a lower temperature ; conceiving it to exert the full force of {team the moment it arrives at that point, and to be wholly converted into water when reduced below the fame. Nothing, however, can be more abfurd than this notion: {team can exift at the loweft known temperature. At 50° below the cypher of Fahrenheit, if the barometer could fhew it, the prefence of ice would afford an elaftic fluid of fome force. We want no other proof of this faét than the experiments of different philofophers to afcertain the force of aqueous vapour, anfwering to different tem- peratures; and before we proceed further on our fubje&, it may not be amifs to give the table of thefe faéts, formed by Mr. John Dalton of Manchefter. In order to make SEE thefe experiments, Mr. Dalton took a barometer of the common fize. The mercury was firft boiled, to free it from air, He then put a little water into the tube, and poured it out again, leaving its fides wet; and next intro- duced the mercury, inverting the tube fo as to exclude the air. The water, being the lighteft fluid, rofe above the furface of the mercury about one-eighth of an inch. He then furrounded the tube, from the top downwards, with another tube, 14 inchés long and 2 inches diameter ; form- ing a cavity between the tubes, capable of holding water of dificren temperatures. The temperature of this water was conitantly marked by a thermometer placed in it ; and the elafticity of the vapour, in the upper part of the barometer, was con{tantly marked by the height of the mercury. The outer tube being of glafs, the whole could be feen. This apparatus was ufed for all the temperatures below 155°. For the higher temperatures, as high as 212°, he ufed an outer tube of tin, with a fiphon barometer. Thefe refults he found to agree with fimilar experiments made with the air-pump. The air-pump was provided with a mercurial gage of confiderable extent. Some water was firft made to boil in a Florence flafk, in which a thermometer was placed. In this ftate it was put under the receiver, and then the air being withdrawn, the {team alone affeéted the barometer; the thermometer, at the fame time, marking the temperature. From thefe faéts Mr. Dalton conftru&ted his table. The altitudes of the mercury, anfwering to the degrees of tem- perature, he found not to have a coni{tant ratio; nor did they vary by any regular progreflion. When the degrees were in arithmetical progreflion, the columns of mercury anfwering thereto were not in the fame, but fomething ap- proaching to a geometrical feries. ‘The increafe, although not ftriétly geometrical, of the ratios themfelves diminifhed regularly, which enabled him to calculate with {ufficient exaGinefs thofe degrees which he could not afcertain by experiment. We feldom find any ef nature’s laws attended with any thing fo indefinite; and Mr, Dalton very pro- perly obferves, that the defe&t is not in nature, but in the imperfect fcale of our thermometers, which, M. de Luc and others have fhewn, do not mark equal increments of heat. Taber STEAM. Tanre of the Force of Wapour from Water in every Temperature, from that of the Congelation of Mercury, or 40° below Zero of Fahrenheit, to 325°. Force of Vapour | Weight of Vapour Force of Vapour} Weight of Vapour} -p : , Force of Vapour | Weight of Vapou' Peapes in Thdhas oF in a Cubic Foot patie in Inches of in a Cubie Foot Menino in Tnchet of in F Cubic Noor 4 Mercury. of Space. / Mercury. of Space. 2 Mercury. of Space. — 40° 1013 -1096 49 363 3.061 104 2.11 17-79 — 30 +020 +1686 50 375 3-162 105 2.18 18.79 — 20 +030 +2530 5 388 3.238 106 2.25 18.97 — 10 +043 3626 2 +401 3-457 107 2.32 19-55 — — —- 53 415 3-499 108 2-39 20.15 rs) 064. +5397 54 +429 3.617 109 2.46 20:74 I .066 +5566 55 443 3-735 110 2.53 21433 2 .068 -5734 56 458 3-862 Til 2.60 21.92 3 071 +5987 57 +474 3-997 112 2.68 22.26 4 :074 6274 58 +490 4.130 113 2.76 23.24 5 -076 -6409 59 507 4.242 114 2.84 23-95 6 -079 -6666 60 +524 4-419 115 2.92 24.39 7 -082 -6915 61 +542 4-540 116 3-00 25-30 8 085 -7168 62 «560 4.722 117 3.08 25-97 9 -087 7337 63 +578 4.874 118 3-16 29.31 10 Frefole) “7590 64 -597 5-034 119 3-25 27-40 II +093 -7843 65 -616 5-194. 120 3-33 28.08 -12 096 -$096 66 635 5-355 121 3-42 28.84 13 +100 8433 67 -655 5-523 122 3-50 29.51 14 «104. 8773 68 -676 5-700 123 3-59 21.17 15 -108 -QII4 69 698 5.886 124 3.69 31.11 16 112 9445 79 +721 6.080 125 3-79 31-99 17 -116 -9782 71 745 6.282 126 3.89 32.80 18 20 1.120 72 <7 Ovens 6.493 127 4.00 33.73 19 124 1.457 73 -790 6.712 128 4.1 34-66 20 +129 1.878 74 -823 6.940 129 4.22 35-58 21 +134 1.130 15 851 7.176 130 4-34 36.58 22 +139 1.172 76 880 7-421 131 447 37-69 23 +144 1.214 77 “gto 7.677 132 4.60 38-79 24 +150 1.265 78 +940 7-594 133 4-73 39-88 26 156 1.315 79 -971 8.188 134 4.86 40.98 | 26 162 1.366 80 1.00 8.466 | 135 5.00 (42-16 27 168 1.416 81 1.04 8.770 136 5-14 43°34 28 +174 1.467 82 T0700 7 9-023 137 5-29 44.61 29 180 1.518 83 I.10 9-276 138 5-44. 45-87 30 186 1.568 84 1.14 9-614 139 5-59 47-14 31 +193 1.620 85 1.17 9.867 140 5-74 48.40 == —. — 86 I-21 10.20 141 5.90 49:75 3 200 1.686 87 1.24 10.45 142 6.05 50.31 33 +207 1.745 88 1.28 10.79 143 6.21 51-37 34 +214 1-804. 89 Tez 11.13 144 6.37 53-72 35 +224 1.863 go 1.36 11.46 145 6.53 55-06 36 +229 1.931 gI 1.40 11.80 146 6.70 56.53 37 237 1.998 g2 1.44 12.14 147 6.87 57-33 38 +245 2.066 93 1.48 12.48 148 7.05 59-45 39 +254 2-142 NY 2O4; 1-53 12.90 149 9.23 60.97 42 +263 2.217 95 1.58 13.32 150 7.42 62.57 41 273 8 2.302 96 1.63 13.75 151 7.01 64.17 42 283 2.353 97 1.68 14.16 152 7.81 65.86 43 294 2-479 98 1.74 14.68 153 $.01 67.55 44 +305 2.572 99 1.80 15.18 154. 8.20 69.15 45 316 2-664 100 1.86 15.68 155 8.40 70.84 46 328 2.702 101 1.92 16.19 156 8.60 72.52 47 -339 2.858 102 1.98 16.69 157 8.81 74.29 48 0351 2.960 103 2.04 17.20 158 9.02 76.06 STEAM. TABLE—continued. Jeig la ‘orce of Vapour | Weight of Vapour Force of Vapour | Weight of Vapo spe gpl eo precy Hoot ag: iu gee ica in a Cubic Foot Bewre re in Inchas rt in a Cubic Fost | ia Mercury. of Space. r Mercury. of Space. oa Mercury. of Space. 159 Q-24 31-21 263.20 270 77.85 656.53 160 9-46 31.83 267.39 271 78.89 665.30 161 9-08 32-46 272.74 272 79-94 674.16 162 9-91 33-09 275-72 273 80.98 682.93 163 10.15 33-72 284.37 274. 82.10 692.37 164 10.41 34-35 289.68 275 83.13. | 7o1.06 165 10.68 34-99 298.88 276 84.35 711.38 166 10.96 35-63 300.81 277 85.47 720.79 167 11.25 36.25 305.70 278 86.50 729-48 168 11.54 36.88 311.02 279 87.63 739-01 169 11.83 37-53 316.50 280 88.75 748.45 170 12.13 38.20 322.15 281 89.87 7157-90 171 12.43 38.89 327.63 282 90.99 767.34. 172 12.73 39-59 336.87 283 92.11 770.97 173 13-02 40.30 339.86 284 93-23 786.23 174 13-32 41.02 345-93 285 94°35 795-68 175 13.62 41-75 352.09 286 95.43 805.21 176 13.92 42.49 358.33 287 96.64 814.99 177 14.22 43-24 364.65 288 97-80 824.78 178 14.52 44.00 371.06 289 98.96 - 834.56 179 14.83 44.78 377-64 290 100.12 844.34 180 1515 45-58 384.39 291 101.28 854.12 181 15-50 46.39 391.22 292 102-45 863.99 182 15.86 47-20 398.05 293 103-03 873.94 183 16.23 48.02 404.96 294 104.80 883.81 184 16.61 48.84 411.88 295 105.97 893-68 185 17.00 49-67 418.88 296 107-14 903-54. 186 17-40 50.50 425.18 297 108.31 913-41 187 17.80 51.34 432.96 298 109.48 923-28 188 18.20 52.18 440.05 299 110.64 933-06 189 18.60 53-03 447.21 300 111.81 942.93 190 19-00 53-88 454-38 301 112.98 952-79 191 19-42 54.68 461.13 302 114.15 962.99 192 19.86 55-64 468.35 303 115.32 972-53 193 20.32 56.42 476.26 304. 116.50 982.15 194 20.77 57-31 482.98 305 117.68 992-43 195 21.22 58.21 490.90 306 118.86 1002.38 196 21.68 59-12 491.91 307 120.03 1014.53 197 22.13 60.05 506.42 308 121.20 1020.12 198 22.69 61.00 514.43 309 122.37 1034-98 199 23.16 61.92 522.19 310 123.53 1041.76 200 23.64 62.85 530.33 311 124.69 1051.55 201 24.12 63-76 537-70 312 125.85 1061.36 202 24.61 64.82 579.98 313 127.00 1071.03 203 25.10 65.78 554-74. 314 128.15 1080.73 204 25.61 66.75 562.92 315 129.2 1090.24. 205 26.13 67-73 571-18 316 130.43 1099-95 206 26.66 68.72 579-53 317 131.57 1109.57 207 27.20 69-72 587.97 318 132.72 1119.27 208 29.74 710.73 596.48 319 133.86 1125.55 209 28.20 71674. 605.00 320 135-00 1138.50 210 28.84 72.76 603.60 321 136.14 1148.11 211 29.41 73.407 617.06 322 137.28 By ey > 212 30.00 74-79 670.72 323 138.42 1167.34 75.80 639.24 324 139-56 1176.95 30-60 76.82 647.84 325 140.70 1186.57 ee STEAM. In anfwer to fome references which may be required, we have thought proper to add a third column to this table, fhewing the weight of aqueous vapour contained in a cubic foot of {pace, when a fuflicient quantity of water 1s prefent at the given temperature. This column has been formed on the fa&t, that when the force of vapour is 30 inches, the aqueous vapour in a cubic foot of {pace is equal to 253 grains. And fince the denfity mutt be as the preffure ; therefore, as 30 inches is to 253 grains, fo is the force of vapour of any other degree to the number of grains in the cubic foot at the fame. This table, from 30° to 212°, was the refult of careful experiment. Thofe below and above were determined by calculation, and will doubtlefs be much more correé& than by experiment, from the great difficulty and uncertainty which the high and low temperatures would occafion. For a. more detailed account of Mr. Dalton’s experiments, fee the Manchefter Tranfaétions, vol. v., and Nicholfon’s Journal, vols. vi. and vii. Thefe will be found a valuable reference in all praétical applications of fteam, and will not be of lefs importance in afliftine any inquiry into the procefs of evaporation, as con- nected with the arts of life, and the natural evaporation in the air. With a view to affift our conception of the nature of fteam, or of the elaftic vapour of water, we fhall condenfe a number of faéts, which may be very proper to commit to memory. 1. A cubic inch of water forms a cubic foot of fteam, when its elafticity is equal to 30 inches of mercury. 2. One pound of Newcaftle coal converts feven pounds of boiling water into fteam. 3. The time required to convert a given quantity of boil- | ing water into fteam, is fix times that required to raife it from the freezing to the boiling point, cr from 32° to 212°, fuppofing the fupply of heat to be uniform. 4. When a quantity of water is expofed to a given tem- perature, the quantity of fteam formed in a given time will be as the furface, all other things being equal. ‘The quan- tity will alfo be jointly as the force of vapour anfwering to each degree of heat, and the furface. The depth of water evaporated, in a given time, will be as the force of vapour, whatever the furtace, if the mafs be uniformly of the fame temperature. When the force of vapour is 30 inches, and the tem- perature at 212°, this degree being juft preferved only, the depth evaporated is 1.3 inch in one hour. This will be near the truth for this temperature. For lower tempera- tures, the rules given with the table will point it out. 5. When a quantity of water is raifed to the boiling point, or 242°, it requires as much heat to cive it the elaftic form as would raife the fame water goo® higher. If its vo- lume were not changed by the heat, that is, if it could be prevented from expanding, its temperature would become ¥112°, with the fame quantity of caloric. Thus, agreeably to fact the 3d, the heat required to convert water of 212° into {team, is fix times that required to raife the temperature from 32° to 212°. 6. The fame weight of water, in the form of fteam, con- tains the fame quantity of heat, whatever may be its tem- perature or denfity ; that is, the temperature at which the fteam is’ formed, added to the degrees required to give it the elaftic form, is always a conftant quantity. ‘The mean- ing of this is, that if a given weight of aqueous vapour, at 100° for inftance, were comprefled till its elafticity became equal to that at 212°, no heat being allowed to efcape, its temperature would become 212° by the condenfation ; and 4 it would, of courfe, contain the fame heat as fteam formed at the fame temperature, viz. 212 + goo, as mentioned in the laft faG. In viewing the fecond column of the table, and com- paring it with the temperature in the firft column, we fhall be far from concluding that all the fteam in the cylinder of a fteam-engine is condenfed by the beft means employed. Owing to the circumftance of the rapid decreafe of the force of vapour from the boiling point, fome have been led to imagine that there is no medium between fteam at 212% and liquid water. By referring to the table, we fhall fee that, by a decreafe of temperature from 212° to 180°, the column of 30 inches is reduced to 15. This column is again bifeéted or reduced to 7.5, by the temperature falling to 150°%.5. At 124°.5, the fteam exerts a force equal to 3.75 inches of mercury ; and this will be reduced to 1.875, at the temperature of 100°.5. : We here fee the importance of Mr. Watt’s difcovery of condenfing his tteam in a feparate veflel. The {pring of the refidual vapour in his cylinder, after condenfation, is only equal to the force of vapour anfwering to the temperature of his condenfer, while the cylinder itfelf is kept at 212° nearly. i the old method of condenfing in the cylinder, fo much cold water would be added as would reduce the temperature as low as Mr. Watt’s condenfer, in order to produce as perfeét a vacuum; and on filling the cylinder again the next time, it would require to be raifed to its ori- ginal heat, at. the expence of frefh fteam. The effe& of cold water in condenfing fteam, whether in the cylinder or a feparate veflel, may be eafily known by calculation, and the aid of the preceding table. . Let C = the capacity of the veflel containing fteam in cubic feet. ; the weight of a cubic foot of fteam. the weight of condenfing water. its temperature. the degrees of heat to convert water into fteam. d = the temperature of the fteam. t = the refulting temperature, fuppofing 4 and d to be fenfible heat before the experiment, and ¢ the fame afterwards. n = capacity of fteam for heat, water being 1. Then, according toa theorem for finding the refulting temperature by mixing bodies of different temperatures to- qT +(b+4)CSn g+CSn out as if the fteam in the veffel, after mixture, were con- denfed into water; when, in fa&, the heat is divided be- tween the remaining {team and the water, one part giving the whole a common temperature, and the other in tics form giving elafticity to the vapour. But, according to fact the 6th, as before given, this fteam contains as much heat above its own temperature as would raife it to 1112°: hence the real temperature added to the latent heat will be equal ¢. The conclufion from thefe fats will be, that ne mn gether, ¢= ; 2% in this, will come Ms be nearly in the fame ratio with the denfity of the fteam, before and after condenfation, and, therefore, as the re- fpeétive force of vapour. If p be the force of vapour of the fleam before the experiment, and f that after con- i hb+d ; ? denfation ; then dc = oe and f= a If we now : i STE now refer to the table with this force of vapour, we fhall find the temperature after condenfation, To illuitrate this theorem by an example, LetC = i cubic foot. S = 253 grains, the weight of a cubic foot of fteam. 7 = 253 grains of water. ‘=~ 60. 4 = 900. ai ratss ji—1 10: pe ac (4 +d)SCn g+CS8Sna = oa 253 Xx 60 + (goo? Spe2N2°) XM 2hGOe Oo) po 253 + 253 x -9 a BLI2-+-==-30 558. athe eet Ben — : ce a of mercury. Now, the temperature an{wering to this force of vapour, in the table, is equal to 177°.5. ‘The quantity of iteam of this denfity will be as p to f; therefore, as 30:15 :: 253 : 126.5 grains; hence the whole weight, which was 558 — 126.5, = 431.3 grains, the weight of water. Hence, if the capacity of the fteam-veflel be known, and the degree of condenfation at the fame time be given, the fupply of cold water for that purpofe‘may be afcertained. This will be 7 = ae CSn. We have before hinted at the vulgar idea of there being no medium between fteam at 212° and liquid water. A doGrine Lida gs favourable to fuch an opinion is at prefent held by feveral philofophers of eminence. The elaftic form of water, at all temperatures below 212°, is fuppofed to be a folution of water in air. Does any thing like this appear to be the cafe in the detail of Mr. Dalton’s experiments, to determine the force of vapour of fleam at different tem- peratures? We would afk, where was the air to diffolve the water above the column of mercury, in which water and mercury alone exifted? It is admitted on all hands, that fteam at 212° can exift independent of air; and where have we become acquainted with any rule, that aqueous vapour cannot exift in a feparate ftate at other tempera- tures? This is certainly the cafe with refpe@ to water ; and it is highly probable, that a portion of all the folid and liquid matter on the globe exifts in the elaftic form, in proportion to the temperature. What is the {mell we per- ceive from meited metals, and at a much lower temperature with fome of the metals? This is very confpicuowfly ob- ferved in heating copper-plates and fheet-lead. The odour of caft-iron is particularly ftriking. There can be no doubt that elaftic mercury exilts in the fpace above the mercury in a barometer, fince the con- denfed mercury is feen frequently to coat the interior fur- -. f = 15 inches Thefe appearances would be oftener obferved, if it were not for the difficulty with which evaporation takes place, from the body affording the vapour being furrounded with vapour of its own and others. The prefence of any elaftic fluid mechanically refifts further evaporation, to a degree more than is conceived. If water be expofed to a vacuum, a quantity of vapour depending upon the temperature would ina little time occupy the {pace ; the firft portion would pro- je&t itfelf with great rapidity, and the laft very lowly. The temperature being raifed, would caufe fucceflive portions to rife, the limit being what we have fhewn in the table. If « You. XXXIV. AM. at any temperature the vapour, already fufpended over the water, be removed by a current or by an air-pump, the procefs would be greatly facilitated, as we obferve in the drying of the ground in a brifk wind. This fhews that the vapour of water refifls evaporation more than the air itfelf 5 perhaps in, the fame medium, its retarding power increafes as the denfity. ‘The advocates for the folution of water in air have faid, that the capacity of air for moifture is in- verfely as the denfity, whether this difference of denfity arifes from the nature of the gas, or from rarefaction. It ought very properly to be afked, at what degree of rarefaGtion is the diflolved water a maximum? ‘The moft probable anfwer would be, at the limit of rarefaGtion. This is contrary to all laws of folution. If air can chemically combine with water, every particle of air may combine with. a particle of water; and the quantity of water in a given {pace would be the greateft, when the air was the denfett. If we had no direét proof that a given {pace will contain the fame quantity of water, whether air be prefent or not, the hypothefis of the chemical folution of water in air could not be defended. We have feen that the quantity of water in a given {pace is as the force of vapour in inches of mercury, becaufe the denfity muft be as the preflure. Mr. Dalton has afcer- tained by experiment, that the rate of evaporation, at a given temperature, is as the force of vapour at the fame. See Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. vil. p. 5. This fa& leads to the conclufion, that fince the denfity is alfo as the force of vapour, the velocity of difperfion through the air is the fame at all temperatures. Since, however, the atmofphere always contains fome moifture, the neat evaporating power will be as the difference between that force of vapour an{wering to the temperature at which dew would begin to fall, and the temperature to which the evaporating fubftance is expofed. That point in the at- mofphere when dew falls, is called by Mr. Dalton the dew-point. The manner of finding this is as follows : Take a tall cylindrical bottle, about one foot high and three inches in diameter; or, if this is not at hand, a common decanter. Fill it with water fo much colder than the air, that the bottle may appear mifty, when it is put into it, If no appearance of this mift is obferved, the water is not cold enough; and ice, or fome freezing mixture, mufl be added to it. The bottle, when filled, muft contain a ther- mometer. When the dew appears upon it, wipe it off with a clean dry cloth; and continpe to do fo till no more dew appears. Then obferve at what degree the thermometer ftands in the bottle, which will never be greater than the temperature of the air, which muft alfo be noted. ‘Then find in the table the force of vapour at the temperature of the dew-point, and alfo the force of vapour an{wering to the temperature of the atmofphere, or that of the mafs which is the fource of the vapour. The difference between thefe two columns of mercury will be expreflive of the rate of evaporation, In order to obtain abfolute data for thefe procefles, we fhall make ufe of Mr. Dalton’s faéts, which were derived from careful and judicious experiments, Heexpofed water to different temperatures, to obferve the weight evaporated in a given time. Thefe veflels were of a cylindric form, one being 3% inches in diameter, and the other fix inches, The lefler veflel, when the water in it was jult made to boil, loft from 35 to 45 grains per minute; this difference being occafioned by a greater or lefler current of air pafling over it. The quantities eyaporated at different temperatures were found to agree exactly with the force of vapour, : From STEAM. From a veffel of fix inches in diameter, he found that at 212° the mean quantity evaporated in one minute was 154 grains. Then fince the mean of the fmall veffel was about 40, if the quantity be as the furface, we ought to have Lo) (6) ., which is very near; for if the fmall veffel 40 (3-25)* had been 3.05, then the two fquares would have been in the ratio of 154 40 Mr. Dalton has conftruéted a tableon thefe data, which, from its great utility in all inquiries relating to the moifture in the atmofphere, cannot fail to be acceptable. Tasia, faewing the Force of Vapour, and the full evaporating Force for every Degree of Temperature from 20° to 85% exprefled in Grains of Water raifed per Minute, fuppofing no Moilture in the Atmofphere at the Time. Evaporating Force in Grains per Minute. Force of ; Tae Napa Leff Greater eller Extreme. i Extreme. 120 154 189 2 -67 82 54 -69 86 ‘ 56 71 .88 58 7k “Ox 60 77 “94 -62 °79 97 65 82 1.02 -67 86 1.05 70 Froye) 1.10 72 93 1.13 “74 “95 1.07 47 “99 1.2% -80 1.03 1.26 -83 1.07 1.30 -86 I.I1 1.35 +90 I.14 1.39 -92 1.18 1-45 95 1.22 1.49 -98 1.26 1.54 i 1.02 1.31 1.60 1.05 1.35 1.65 | 1.09 1.40 by | 1.13 1.45 1.78 1.18 1.51 1.85 1.22 1.57 1.92 1.26 1.62 1.99 1.31 1,68 2.06 1.36 1.75 2.13 1.40 1.80 2.20 1-45 1.86 2.28 1.50 1.92 2.36 TGS 1.99 2.44 2 «401 1.60 2.06 2.51 In order to apply thie table to praétice, in finding the rate of evaporation at any time, fuppofe the dew-point found, as above direéted, to be 45°, and the temperature of the air at the fame time 70°, We find in this table, that the mean rate of evaporation at 45° is 1.62 grains in a minute ; the rate at 70° being 3.72. Then 3.7 — 1.62 = 2.08 grains, the quantity evaporated in a minute, under fuch circumftances. If the example were to afcertain the rate of any artificial evaporation, the temperature of the mafs expofed muft be taken, inftead of the temperature of the air. It muft alfo be obferved, that if a brifk wind pre- vails, the graius evaporated muft be taken from the column marked greater extreme.’? If there be no wind, look at Evaporating Force in Grains per Minute. Force of Temp. Vapour. Leff A er reater Extreme. oie: Extreme. els +415 1.66 2.13 2.61 54 +429 1.71 2.20 2.69 55 +443 1.77 2.28 2.78 56 458 1.83 2635 2.88 57 “474 1.90 2-43 2.98 58 +490 1.96 2.52 3.08 59 +507 2.03 2.61 3.19 60 524 2.10 2.70 3-30 61 542 2.17 2.79 3-41 62 +560 2.24 2.88 3-52 63 -578 2.31 2.97 3-63 64 “597 2.39 3-07 3-76 65 -616 2.46 3-16 3-87 66 -635 2.54 3:27 3-99 67 655 2.62 3537 4.12 68 676 2.79 3°47 4.24 69 -698 2.79 3-59 4-38 70 721 2.88 3-70 4.53 71 7145 2.98 3.83 4.68 72 77° 3-08 3-96 4-84 73 796 3.18 4.09 5.00 74 823 3-29 4-23 5-17 75 851 3-40 4:37 5-34 76 880 3:52 Ae 52 5:53 77 g10 3-65 4.68 5-72 78 940 3.76 4:83 5-91 79 971 3-83 4-99 6.10 80 1.00 4.00 5-14 6.29 81 1.04. 4.16 5-35 6.54 82 1.07 4.28 5-50 6.73 83 1.10 4:40 5-66 6.91 84 1.14 4.56 5.86 7-17 85 1.17 4.68 6.07 7.40 oa the ‘¢ lefler extreme’? column; and in a moderate breeze, take the “mean” column. By this means we are enabled to afcertain, at any time, not only the rate of evaporation, but the quantity of water contained in a cubic foot of {pace. From the decreafe of temperature in the upper regions of the atmofphere, and the greater decreafe of the force of va- pour at thofe temperatures, the greateft parts of the water which rifes from the earth will be precipitated at a very {mall height. : If the temperature were taken by a thermometer, the de- grees of which fhould fhew equal increments of heat, aqueous vapour at any temperature would become of half this den- fity, STEAM. fity, by a decreafe of temperature equal to 25°. And fince, at the intervals of every fix miles above the furface of the earth, the preilure, and of courfe the force of vapour, is halved ; the quantity of water in a cubic foot of {pace muft diminifh very faft with the height. At the tempera- ture of 50°, when the atmofphere contains as much moifture as the temperature will admit, it contains only 3.5 grains in a cubic foot; and if the temperature upward were to vary no more than 25° for every fix miles, at 20 miles high there would be little more than one grain of water in a cubic foot of {pace. But the temperature is known to vary much more rapidly ; and hence we fhould have much lefs water in the fame fpace, on account of the condenfation refulting from this greater decreafe. Still, however, fome portion of water muft exift in the very limits of our atmo- {phere, in a ftate of {team or vapour of fome denfity ; and is vapour is ftill within the limits of fact the 5th, before given, viz. If {uch vapour were compreffed till its denfity was equal to 253 grains in the cubic foot, its temperature would be 212°, whatever might be its temperature previous to its compreflion. The fame thing, 2s Mr. Dalton has very ingenioufly fuppofed, would be the cafe with the air itfelf; that is, if the rareft part of our atmofphere were condenfed to the denfity of that at the furface, its tempera- ture would alfo become the fame. This change of tem- perature in elaftic fluids, by rarefaétion or condenfation, is evidently owing to a change in their f{pecific heat. We have lately heard of a fact, which has excited the curiofity of fome philofophers, and furprifed others, which is as fol- lows. ‘When fteam, of very confiderable denfity from pref- fure, is made to iflue from the mouth of a pipe, a perfon may place his finger clofe to the aperture, without feeling any unpleafant effet from the heat. The fenfible heat of this fteam, which would otherwife a&, is abforbed by the fudden change of fpecific heat, by the expanfion of the fteam. This fa&t is very analogous to an experiment which has been long known. When the bulb of a thermometer is placed within the nozzel of a pair of bellows, and a blaft fent through them, the mercury rifes above the common temperature; but if the bulb be placed at a little diftance from the nozzel, the mercury falls below the common temperature. In the firft inftance, the air was compreffed, and the heat given out; in the fecond, heat was abforbed, and confequently the temperature lowered. The cold pro- duced by the exhauftion of the receiver of the air-pump is to be explained in the fame way. The change of temperature of the atmofphere is donbt- lefs more regular at confiderable elevations, than near the furface; hence the air in which we live is frequently in a ftrong evaporating ftate, while condenfation is taking place in the fuperior regions. This gives rife to numerous clouds, which are nothing more than water in {mall globules, havin loft their elattic form by condenfation. The changes of temperature, which take place from the various currents arifing from the a@tion of the fun upon the earth, materially and conftantly change thefe appearances ; fometimes caufing the difappearance of opaque clouds, and at other times darkening the air by fudden condenfation. We can but, therefore, regard the water in the air as exifting in two ftates, namely, in the liquid and in the elaftic itate, be- tween which there can be no medium: for evaporation or condenfation muft be the refult of the flighteft change of temperature ; at leaft we may conclude, that one of thefe procefles will commence with the change, and will pro- greflively go on till as much water is either precipitated or taken up as the temperature will admit. Evaporation, as we have before obferved, can never be inffantaneous: even if the air did not mechanically refift it, the prefence of the vapour already formed would have that effet. Although there appears to be no medium between water and fteam, the actual precipitation of the water is progreflive; and is more or -lefs rapid at different times. ‘The clouds which appear to be fufpended in the atmofphere are conftituted by an aflemblage of {mall globules of real water, which in vacuo would be precipitated with a rapidity agreeing with the laws of. falling bodies; but in confequence of the re- filtance of air, their defcent ie retarded, being dependent upon the ratio between their furface and folidity. There are good reafons for fuppofing that thefe globules are prevented from uniting by the prefence of electricity, as we know that they mutt repel one another when they are fimilarly ele€trified. On the contrary, when particles are intermixed having contrary ftates of eletricity, the con- denfation will be much facilitated, as we perceive in rain immediately fucceeding thunder. Tn all thofe fituations where fteam undergoes condenfae tion, we do not fee water immediately precipitated. The mifty appearance is caufed by {mall globules of real water falling towards the earth with a {mall but progreffive velo- city. If the change of temperature caufing the condenfa- tion be very flow, the globules are extremely {mall in the firft inftance, and are with more difficulty united. This is doubtlefs the cafe with all bodies which are perfeé& liquids. Globules of mercury are united with greater difficulty the {maller they are. The ftate in which mercury exits in lard in the form of unétion, is in thefe minute globules pro- duced by the mechanical action in mixing it. If boiling water be poured upon mercurial ointment, the fat is fepa- rated and floats upon the water: this may be poured off, and the mercury will be left in minute globules, which are united with great difficulty. It occupies a much greater {pace than when united, having the appearance of froth. Such is the ftate of water forming the white fleecy clouds which we frequently obferve at a great height ; the denfe dark-coloured clouds being compofed of larger globules, which feldom remain long before they are more completely formed into drops of rain. The clouds, therefore, are not to be confidered as abfo- lutely fufpended, but as water in globules of different magnitudes, falling with a velocity in the inverfe ratio of their magnitudes. There is nothing hypothetical in this idea, fince it is within the limits of calculation to afcertain the magnitude even of particles of lead falling through any aflignable {pace in.a given time. We cannot demon- {trate the principle better than by folving the following roblem. What mult be the diameter of a globule of water, to be capable of falling one inch in a fecond, after it has acquired an uniform velocity. Let c =the fpecific gravity of the air through which the {team falls, water being 1. p= 3-1416, &e. g =the {pace a body falls in one fecond by gravity, v = the velocity. x = the diameter of the globule which is required. Then, fince the particle will ceafe to be accelerated whes the refiftanee is equal to its weight, the velocity at that point will be v, which it will uniformly retain; ail other things remaining equal. The {pace fallen through to give v, 2 will he =: 5 pecan pe é ; Pp p" x* this, multiplied by *— , will give*;—,, the 4. Sg | ee centent SS eee STEAM, content of the cylinder of air; and a = the weight g of the cylinder. This would be equal to the refiftance, if the furface prefented to the refifting medium had been a plane perpendicular to the direétion. ‘The refiftance of fuch a furface to that of the fpherical one, is as 1 to 2. Hence the refiftance will be EROS 16.¢ The weight of a globule of water of the diameter a, Px a will be pxt = CPE cig = ES eben, ince Olona 8 ¢g v = 1 inch, g = 194 inches, c = .co18, p = 3.1416, we we 3 Ke IX a x cols cara ro) 3 x .0018 x 3.416 Bia = .00001093 of an inch, and in weight only .eo0000000000027 of a grain. When we confider how inconceivably {mall the atoms of water mutt be, it will be eafy to conceive globules of water much fmaller than the above calculation gives. We are quite aware of the difficulties attendant on the beit theory of clouds and rain. If the view we have given is {upported by faéts and obfervation, which at prefent ap- pears to be the cafe, we may expect it to ftand on firmer grounds than has hitherto been the fate of numerous hypo- thefes, as it is free from any thing gratuitous or hypo- thetical. Steam is at prefent applied to many economical purpofes, as well as in various manufactures, independent of its im- portant office in the fteam-engine. In dyeing, bleaching, and many other fimilar departments, itis ufed to communicate heat to water, inftead of having feparate fire-places and boilers. The veflels to. contain hot water, which were formerly feparate pans or boilers, are now fupplied from one principal clofe boiler, fimilar to thofe ufed for fteam-engines, by feparate {team-pipes. When the economy of the fteam is confidered an objeé, the pipes for conveying the fteam fhould be cafed with wood, or otherwife covered with fome bad conductor of heat, which will not be attraéted by the heat of 212°. The boiler, which fupplies the fteam, fhould be placed lower than any refervoir of water which it has to heat, as in that cafe the water, which may fometimes condenfe in the pipes, may run back into the boiler. This affords a little economy, by faving the degrees of heat between the hot water and the cold, with which the boiler is fupplied. Another advantage is in the pipes not being liable to be choaked by the condenfing water not being allowed to get out of the way of the fteam. For heating water in brew- houfes, wafh-houfes, dyeing-vats, &c. the {team-pipe comes dire&tly into the water, the {team paffing into the fame making a loud noife, like the rapid cracking of awhip. For heating large baths and buildings, the fteam is condenfed in the pipes which pafs round the baths or around the rooms, and the water fhould in this cafe run back into the boiler. The pipes, or other metallic veffels in which the fteam is condenfed for the purpofe of warming rooms, fhould be. coated with paint, the blacker the better. This is found to give out heat much more rapidly than the metallic furface, and in a {till greater excefs above a polifhed metallic furface. When fteam is employed for the purpofe of heating water, the fupply for a given quantity of water will be eafily calculated by the data already given. Let L = the heat required to convert water into fteam at goo°. W = the weight of the water to be heated by tteam. T = its temperature. ¢ =the temperature to which it is required to be heated. S = the weight of fleam required. 4 = the temperature of the fteam. GL+4)S+weT hed ae Then .# = Sara ra and S = se Ww. A fimple rule for finding the quantity of fteam required to raife a given weight to any given temperature arifes out of this formula. Multiply the water to be warmed by the difference of temperature between the cold water and that to which it is to raifed for a dividend. Then to the tem- perature of the {leam add goo, and from the fum take the required temperature of the water. This laft remainder being made a divifor to the above dividend, the quotient will be the quantity of fleam, in the fame terms as the water. What quantity of fleam at 212° will raife 100 gallons of (212 — 60) x 100 152 goo 0 17 gallons of water, formed into fteam. This qfantity of fteam from a boiler containing about 27 cubic feet, with a fire applied to the belt advantage, will be furnifhed in 2 hours and 16 minutes, fuppofing no heat to be loft by the heated mafs being expofed. The coal confumed for this purpofe will be about 23 or 24lbs., depending on its quality. The theorem above given will apply to any temperature above 212°, when the iteam is under greater preflure than 30 inches of mercury. It will alfo appear from the table of the force of vapour, that any degree of heat fhort of endangering the veffels, may be given by {team under dif- ferent degrees of preflure. Such means are at prefent em- ployed for evaporating water from fugar, falt, and other fluids requiring a greater degree than 212. It will be equally obvious, that an uniform heat may be kept up be- low 212°, by adjufting the fteam-cock through which the medium to be heated is fupplied. In giving heats above 212°, the veflels fhould be completely fteam-tight, and very ltrong. The boiler fhould have a fafety-valve, which fhould always be kept clean and free to a. Steam is employed to great advantage for culinary pur- pofes. It is made to communicate with veflels in the form of boilers, as a fubftitute for having fires under them, which is a great advantage, both in the economy of fuel, and in avoiding at the fame time the nuifance of afhes and fmoke. The moit convenient application of fteam for eulinary pur- poles is, when it dire&tly aéts upon the fubftance to be heated. This has been generally effected by placing the fubitance, whether meat or vegetables, in a veilel without water, and allowing the fteam to enter and condenfe upon it. The moft convenient apparatus of this kind we have yet heard of, con- fifts of a caft-iron plate about 30 inches or three feet {quare, itanding horizontally in a recefs in the wall, like a table. Round the edge of this plate is a groove, about half an inch wide and two inches deep. Into this groove fits an inverted tin-veflel, like a difh-cover. This is capable of being ele- vated and deprefled by a pulley and chain, having a goun- terpoile, water at 60° up to 212°? STEAM. terpoife, in order to expole the table at any time. The eam comes under the table and enters in the centre. The difhes to receive the heat are placed on any part within the groove, the fteam being common to all. The water re- fulting from the condenfation runs into the groove, and at a point fhort of the top runs off. The water which. re- mains forms a complete water-lute, to preyent the efcape of fteam. The table being placed in a recefs, like a com- mon ftone hearth, a {mall Rie is placed over it to take away any fteam that may efcape when the cover is lifted up. The great quantity of hot water required in a fcullery fhould be perpetually kept up by a fupply of fteam. For this purpole a large cylindrical veffel of calt-iron fhould be elevated in a corner of the fcullery, in order that water may be drawn from it by acock. This vetlel fhould be connected from the bottom with a cold-water ciltern, the bottom of which is level with the top of the cylinder, by which the latter is kept conftantly full. The hot-water cylinder is clefed firmly at the top, and therefore, when the air is allowed to efcape, the water rifes to the top. If now a pipe be conneéted with the top, coming down to where it is to be drawn off, if any portion be drawn out here, as much will come in at the bottom of the cylinder from the refervoir above. So far we have defcribed this cylinder without its fteam-veilel. Within this cylinder, and about the middle, is a diftin@ veflel, nearly of the width of the cylinder; but having a free fpace round the inner veffel about an inch wide. The depth of the inner yeffel muit be about one-fixth that of the outer one. This inner veffel muft have no connetion with the outer one, and muft be fo water-tight, that although it is furrounded with the water of the outer one, none fhould get in. The inner veffel is on one fide conneéted by a pipe with a fteam-boiler, having another pipe to allow the condenfed water to. run off, which may be preferved as diflilled water, and is valuable for many purpofes, The heat arifing from the condenfa- tion is communicated tothe water in the outer veflel, the hotteft being at the top, where the mouth of the exit-pipe is placed. When, therefore, a portion of hot water is drawn from the cock, the pipe of which comes from the top of the veffel immediately under the cover, an equal quantity comes in at the bottom from the refervoir. ‘This ufeful apparatus is the invention of an ingenious economift of Derk » and is at prefent in vfe in his kitchen. When {team is properly applied to the warming of baths, the economy is fo great, that if it were known, thefe ex- are luxuries would foon become more fafhionable. The eam is condenfed in pipes about two. or three inches in diameter, which are placed round the bottom of the bath. ‘Thefe pipes are concealed in a recefs, which is afterwards covered by thin {tone plinths, perforated with holes to allow the water to circulate. We fhall point out the economy of thefe baths, by giv- ing fome faéts of a bath in common ufe. Its fize is about 10 feet {quare, and its depth fuch as to contain about 520 cubic feet. The fteam at 212°, to firft raife it from 32° to 96°, will be found by the above theorem to be as much as will condenfe it into 33 cubic feet of water. This will be produced by 38olbs. of coal, including /that required to raife the 33 cubic feet of water from 32° to 212°, which 4 always about jth of what will afterwards make it into eam. Suppofing the bath to have double doors, and a {mall fy- light inftead of common windows, it will be found, when the outer air is 45°, that the bath will not cool more than 4° in 24 hours. To reftore this every day, will require only z,th of what was required to raife it from 32°. This will be about 23.5lbs. Suppofing the whole of the water to be changed by a regular inlet and outlet every 14 days, then the weekly fupply of coal for fuch a bath will be about 35olbs. It is fuggefted by Dr. Darwin, that the art of boil- ing vegetables of all kinds in fteam inftead of water, might probably be managed to advantage, as a greater degree of heat might be thus given them, by contriving to increafe the heat of the fteam after it has left the water; and thus the vegetable mucilage in roots and feeds, as in potatoes and flour-puddings, as well as in their leaves, ftems, and flower-cups, might be reudered probably more nutritive, and perhaps more palatable ; but that many of the leaves of vegetables, as the fummits of cabbage-{prouts, lofe their green colour by being boiled in fteam, and look like blanched vegetables. This etiolation of fome vegetables by fteam is probably owing to its diffolving their colouring matter, which may then become decompofed, and may ren- der them lefs agreeable to thofe who choofe by the eye rather than the palate; which green colour is, however, heightened by boiling them in fome hard waters which con- tain diflolved lime or fea-falt, or by a flight admixture of common falt with foft water; an effet which ia owing to the evaporation of a part of the marine acid, and to the remaining alkali which was the bafis of it, when applied to blueifh vegetables converting them into green, as in the common experiment of adding falt of-tartar to fyrup of violets, or according to the cultom of fome cooks who add a little pot-afh, or fixed vegetable alkali, to the water in which young peas are boiled, to make them green, and afterwards a very little fugar to fweeten them. And the fame effeét of making vegetables green, when boiled in an- other kind of hard water, is probably produced by the lime which abounds in them, and which, like the vegetable alkali, when the aerial acid which was united with it eva- porates, is faid to convert blueifh vegetable colours into green ones. Steam has likewife lately been applied in gardening to the purpofe of forcing plants of different kinds in the winter feafon, in order to have their produce at an early period, as to the cucumber, and fome other vegetables of a fomewhat fimilar nature; but the exa& manner of its application in this intention, fo far as we know, has not yet been commu- nicated to the public ; it is, however, by fome mode of flues, pipes, and other contrivances for conveying and containing it, fo as that its heat may be uninterruptedly, equally, and regularly afforded to the roots of the plants which it is defigned to puth forward into the fruiting ftate. It is faid to have been ufed in {ome inftances in different parts of Lan- cafhire with great fuccefs. But how far the expence and advantage of fuch a method may admit of and encourage its being introduced into general praCtice, have not, probably, yet been well or fully afcertained. If it fhould be found capable of perfeétly fucceeding in this ufe, on more full and corre& experience, it will, however, conftitute not only a neat and clean, but an elegant mode of forcing plants into fruit at early feafons. It has been found that fubterranean fteams often affect the furface of the earth in a particular manner, and promote or retard vegetation more than almoft any thing elle. Srram-LEngine, or Fire-Engine, a machine very generally employed in this country as a firlt mover of other engines and machines, its mechanical force or moving power be- ing obtained from the expanfion or contraction of the fteam of boiling water. Until of late years this machine was called the fire-engine, becaufe it is in reality actuated by the fire which caufes the water to boil. a € STEAM-ENGINE. The fteam-engine is an invention highly creditable to human genius and induttry, and is amongift the moft valu- able applications of philofophical principles to the arts of life. The invention of a fhip, with all her acceffories, and the degree of knowledge requifite to conduét her through a diftant voyage, are more itriking inftances of the power of the mind of man, and of his enterprifing difpofition ; whether we confider the number of feiences which mutt be applied to praétice in the conttruction and manage- ment of a veffel; or the advantages which mankind have derived from fuch an invention, and the improvements which it has occafioned in the ftate of civilization, by uniting, in a great degree, all the inhabitants of the globe in one fociety, who mutually fupply each other’s wants, and who all contribute their fhare to the general ftock of knowledge. The fteam-engine follows next to the fhip in the feale of inventions; but in an Englifh Cyclopedia it will take the lead, from the circumttance of its being whoily in- vented, and brought into general ufe, by our own country- men, within the {pace of a fingle century ; and alfo as having been the principal means of effeéting thofe great improve- ments which have taken place in all our national manu- fa&tories within the laft thirty years; and the increafe of our commerce which has enfued. The art of navigation is the refult of the combined in- genuity and experience of all nations, from the earlieft period of hiftory to the prefent time ; and the fucceffive and almott imperceptible improvements by which it arrived at its prefent ftate of perfection, have many of them been the produtions of accident, and for which we do not ex- a@ly know to whom we are indebted. But the fteam- engine is the Invention of a few individuals, all of them Englifhmen, and brought into general ufe within a century. In the firft beginning it was the refult of reflection, and the produétion of a very ingenious mind ; and every altera- tion in its conftru€tion and principle was alfo the refult of philofophical enquiry. General Principle of the Steam-Engine.—The force of the fleam-engine is derived from the property of water to ex- pand itfelf, in an amazing degree, when heated above the temperature at which it becomes changed into fteam, or vapour, which being an exceedingly elattic fluid, it can be retained within the clofe veffel or boiler to which the heat is applied, even when it has an expanfive force fufficient to make it fill, if left at liberty, 20 or 30 times the {pace in which it is confined. In this {tate the fteam will exert a proportionate force or preffure to burft open the fides of the veffel in which it is retained; which force may be ap- plied either to expel or raife up water from any veilel into which the confined {team is admitted, or to give motion to a moveable pifton, which is fo accurately fitted to the in- terior capacity of {uch veflel, as not to permit the efcape of the {team between them. Another fource of the power of the fteam-engine is the facility with which fteam of a great expanfive force can be cooled by the application of cold water, and condenfed into the {mall quantity of water from which it was ort- ginally produced. A partial vacuum can thus be made, in a very large veffel, in an inftant, and even in the fame veflel, which was, a moment before, filled with confined fteam, exerting a great force to efcape. The preflure of the at- mofphere which tends to fill up this vacuum, can be made to produce the afcent of water into the veffel to any height lefs than twenty-four or twenty-five feet. Or the preflure of the atmofphere may be made to give motion to a pilton, by admitting the atmofpheric air to prefs upon one fide of Iz the pifton, whilft there is a vacuous {pace formed by the condenfation of the fteam which filled the cylinder on the other. Notwithftanding the great variety of different conftruc- tions of the fteam-engine, they all derive their force from one of thefe two principles, or from the combination of the two: but before entering upon any defcription of the manner in which thefe forces are applied, it is neceffary to have clear ideas of the nature of fteam, and of the law by which it expands by heat, in order to form a precife judgment of what paffes in the interior part of a fteam- engine when it isat work. In the common acceptation of the word fteam, it is that hot white vapour which we fee every day rifing in a cloud from a tea-kettle or boiling-pot ; but this is not exaétly the ftate of the fteam employed in an engine; it is there perfe&tly tranfparent, and is more or lefs hot than boiling water, according as it is retained under a leffer or greater degree of compreflure. The ordi- nary preflure of the atmofphere, bearing upon the furface of water, will retain it in a ftate of fluidity, until it is heated to what is generally called the boiling point, and is marked 212° in Fahrenheit’s thermometer. If the heat is increafed above that degree, and if the water is unconfined, except by the preflure of the atmofphere, the water imme- diately affumes the aeriform ftate, and flies off in elaftic vapour, which we call fteam; but if the fame water is re- lieved from the preflure of the atmofphere by enclofing it in a clofe veflel, and exhaulting the air from it, a certain portion of fteam or vapour will rife from the fame at any temperature, even when it is as low as freezing ; and if this vapour is conveyed off from the veffel as faft as it rifes, the water, although cold, will boil, and fuch vapour will rife as fatt as the boiling kettle does in the open air. If the vapour is retained in the veflel, it will only accumulate, until it has acquired a certain degree of elaftic force to prefs upon the furface of the water, which will then ceafe to yield any “more vapour, until the heat is farther increafed, or that the vapour is drawn off to relieve the water from the preflure which confined and retained it in its fluid ftate. On the other hand, water which is retained in a clofe veffel, under a greater degree of preflure than that cccafioned by the preflure of the atmofphere, will not boil or rife in vapour, until it becomes heated to a higher temperature than 212° It is even probable, that water might be comprefled to that degree, that it would not boil until heated red-hot ; but this would require fuch an enormous {trength in the veilel which fhould contain the {team, that it is far beyond the prac- ticability of an experiment. In this manner the reader is to bear in mind, that vapour or fteam, when confined in clofe veffels, is always more or lefs elaftic, in proportion to the degree of heat which is applied to it ; or, in other words, that the temperature of the {team is an exaét index of the elaftic or expanfive force with which it prefles upon the furface of the water, and againit the interior furface of the veflel which contains it. The following tables fhew the law by which the ex- panfive force increafes with the increafe of the temperature. They were made from the experiments of Mr. John Dalton, which he publifhed at length in the “ Memoirs of the Literary and Philofophical Society of Manchefter,’? and experiments have been alfo made in France by M. Betan- court, which do not differ from this table fo much as to affect the refults in any great degree, when applied to prac- tice, in calculating the force of iteam-engines. Thefe ex- periments were made by enclofing water in a clofe veflel, from which the air was carefully exhaulted, fo as to make a vacuum. A thermometer was applied, fo as to indicate the a STEAM-ENGINE, the temperature of the iaterior of the veflel; alfo there was a communication made from the veflel to the lower part of a fiphon barometer tube, that is, an inverted glafs fiphon filled with mercury, from one leg of which the preffure of the atmofphere was excluded, and the other leg com- municated with the interior of the veffel. In this way, when there was a vacuum in the veflel, the furface of the mercury in the two legs of the fiphon would itand at the fame level, becaule it would not be prefled upon at all on either fide ; but when any vapour was raifed in the vefiel, it would prefs upon the interior furface thereof, and alfo upon the furface of the mercury in one of the legs of the inverted fiphon; and as the furface of the mercury in the other leg would not be prefled upon at all, the mercury would mount in one leg and defcend in the other, and the difference of the level between the two being meafured, would exprefs the elaltic force of the vapour, which was found to increafe with the increafe of the heat, according to the fecond calumn of the table. For the convenience of eftimating the force of the vapour, we have added the third and fourth columns to Mr. Dalton’s table. The third, to exprefs the preffure by the altitude of a colunin of water, inftead of mercury $ and the fourth column to fhew the preflure upon each {quare inch of the furface upon which the vapour aéts, in pounds avoirdupois and decimals. The table alfo thews, in the three laft columns, the difference of preflure between the vapour and atmofpheric air in three different terms, viz. in tlie column of mercury, column of water, and in pounds on the fquare inch. Inthe firft table, which is for every 10° of temperature up to 212°, or the heat of boiling water when in the open air, the three laft columns fhew how high the pref- fure of the atmofpheric air, when the barometer is at 30 inches, will force up mercury or water in a tube, which at the upper end communicates with the vetfel containing the vapour, and the lower end is immerfed in the mer- cury or water. And in the fecond table, which is for the degrees of heat above 212°, the fame columns fhew to what height the force of the vapour will caufe mercury or water to mount up in a tube, which at the lower end communi- cates with the veflel containing the fteam, and the upper end is open to the atmofpheric air. Taste of the expanfive Force of the Vapour of Water, or Steam, when enclofed in a clofe Veffel, and relieved from the Prefflure of the Atmofphere ; taken at every 10° of Temperature, from the Congelation of Mercury, or 40° below the Zero of Fahrenheit, up to 212°, or boiling. Prefflure of the Atmofphere, or the Force which it will exert Preffure of the Vapour, or the Force which it will exert to raced. _ , E : a eh a Ei into a vacuous Space. } Sapa " Ha conte ns ere pees Barometer Fahrenheit's - Thermometer. Column of Column of Water. Preffure per fquare Column of Column of Water, | Preffure per fquare Mercury. ; Inch. Mercury. Inch. Inehes. F. In. Lbs, Oz. Inches. Ft; in: Lbs. Oz. —40) .O1 Co E ° 29.987 33 10.63 14 10.5 — 3012 +02 ° +27 ° 29.98 33 10.53 14 10.45 —20( x +03 ° 4 ° 29-97 33° 10-4 14 10.37 — 10 5 043 ° 58 ° 29-957 33 «10.22 14 10.27 or? -064 ° +87 ° 29-936 33. «9-93 14 10.1 10 +09 Oo 1.22 ° 29.91 33-958 14. 9.9 20 +129 o 175 ° 29.871 33. 9.0 14 9Q.6 30 -186 Q) | 25 ° 29-814 23, . 83g 14 9-16 32 (freezing. ) =z Quite fo) 29.8 33 «8 14- 8.04 40° +263 On aes ° 29-737 33.733 14 8.6 50 375 Oj. Sex Q 29.625 Bon pot T44 7270 60 +524 Oo Jl ° 29.476 33 «37 14 665 70 721 o «9.8 ° 29.279 aa) Ts TA 5s 80 ig 11.56 ° 20. Bz 1Qs24 14 2.77 go 1.36 1. 65 ) 23.64 Azuee 22 2\6 14 2 Ioo 1.86 ZT ° 28.14 31 95 Nee 2.2 ric 2.53 2 10.25 I 23.47 31. 0.5 AEN Le 120 3-33 3 I 27.67 Zo. k. 13. 0.6 130 4-34 4 10.75 2 25-66 2 fo) ip oa 140 5-74 6. 2 24.26 294 It 13.6 150 7-42 8 45 3 22.58 25, 6.25 ATH) OS 160 9-46 Io «8. 4 20-54 2 2. 10 0.7 170 12.13 ie? scaly 5 17.27 rte avi 8 11.9 180 15.15 17). tek 7 14.85 16 9.25 Wo Ae2 190 19.00 = n41 web 35: 9 11. WA4 752.5 ee 200 23.64 26 868.5 6.36 We Beds ZEA CG 210 28.84 azn oe 1.16 ie Oo. (8.7 212 (boiling. ) 40. 33. 10.75 the vapour and the atmofphere equal. TasLe STEAM-ENGINE. Tasce of the expanfive Force of Steam, when enclofed in a clofe Veffel, taken at every 5° of Temperature, from 212° of Fahrenheit, or boiling, up to 325°. ‘ , Temperaturein Degrees of Fahrenheit’s r Thermometer. into a vacuous Space. Column of Column of Water. Inches. wt. a Lbs. 212 (boiling. ) 30. ; 14 215 31-83 ‘ : B28 34-99 225 38.20 230 41-75 235) 45-58 49-67 53-58 58.21 62.85 67-73 72.76 77-35 83.13 88.75 04:35 100.12 FOS 97 111.81 117.68 123559 129.29 135. 140.70 ~ =e He NM OM P ORM NTIW R H DHAOO OR ANN _ ~ Hiflory of Invention of the Steam-Engine—The great bale ecco fleam has Cie long Hoowntid the BRE cr called the aeolipile (fee that article); and its property of condenfation was alfo experienced in the ufe of the fame inftrument: the manner commonly practifed for filling the ball with water being to plunge it into cold water, when heated and filled with fteam; by which means the {team is condenfed, and forms a vacuum fufficient to draw the water into the ball, although the orifice is fo fmall that water could not be introduced by any other means. At the fame time, the true principles of its a€tion were fo little under- ftood, that the fteam which iffued from it, when placed on the fire, was fuppofed to be air produced by the decom- pofition of the water; and nearly all the old philofophers, who have defcribed this inftrument, propofed to employ it for blowing furnaces. The firtt idea of employing this force of fteam to produce motion was by Brancas, a phi- lofopher of Rome, who contrived a great number of different kinds of mills to be worked by the fteam coming from a large aeolipile, and blowing againft the floats or vanes of a wheel. We are obliged to this author for a number of other ingenious inventions, which he dedicated to M. Canci, governor of Loretto, in 1628, and publifhed his work (Le Machine) at Rome the year following. The reprefentation of his fire-machine is given in the twenty-fifth plate ; but the force which he could have thus obtained from fteam would have been found altogether inconfiderable, if he had ever put it in practice, Preffure per {quare Mereury. Inch. Preffure of the Steam again{t the Atmofphere, when the Preffure of the Steam, or the Force which it will exert to enter Barometer is at 30 Inches, or the Force which it will exert to efcape from the clofe Veffel into the open Air. Column of Column of Waters. Preffure per fquare Mercury. Inch. Oz. Inches. Pr. In. ‘Lbs. Oz. the {team equal to the atmofphere. 1.83 °o 15 4-09 8.20 T1455 15.58 19.67 23.88 28.21 32.85 37-73 42.76 47:85 bse 58.75 64-35 70.12 75°97 81.81 87.68 93°53 99-29 105.00 110.70 co “OO a ~ 13 Il Io 1c 14 2 8 15 7 I 43 ~ -_ MULRW OH QOWOU HMR ON HOW ORPYUO PHO MONA OW FIONN ORAUUO ~ a] The firft real {team-engine was invented by the marguis of Worcefter; but it was only for raifing water, and that by the expanfive force of fteam alone. The next engine was by captain Savery, and operated, both by the expanfive force and the preffure of the atmofphere, to fill up the va- cuur which was produced by the condenfation of the fame fteam, after it had ceafed to operate by its expanfion. Thefe aGions were employed alternately to raife water. The third inventor, Newcomen, abandoned the force of expanfion, and only employed the condenfation of the fteam to obtain a vacuum, and caufe the preflure of the atmo~ {phere to a€t, unbalanced upon a pifton, fitted into a cy~ linder ; and as the force was thus exerted upon a moveable pifton, his machine is capable of being applied to give mo- tion to pumps or other machines, whereas his predeceflors were obliged to confine themfelves to the raifing of water. Soon after this invention, engines were propofed with pif- tons to be a€tuated by the expanfive force of the fteam only, without the vacuum. Laitly, Mr. James Watt invented the engines now in general ufe, which are a¢tuated both by the preflure of fteam, and the vacuum atting at the fame time upon the oppofite furface of the pilton. We owe too much to thefe inventors, as well as many others, to pafs over their difcoveries with fuch flight notice ; and fhall, therefore, give a detailed hiltory of the progrefs of this valuable invention, drawn from the belt authorities we have been able to obtain. BJ .c 46 The Marquis of Worcefler’s Steam-Engine.—The earlieft defcription 6 STEAM-ENGINE. defcription which we have of a machine for raifing water by fire, employed in raifing fteam from boiling water, is from the marquis of Worcelter, who, in the reign of king Charles I1., and in the year 1663, publifhed a {mall pam- phlet, entitled « A Century of the Names and Scantlings of the Marquis of Woreelter’s Inventions,” written in 1655. This little work, it appears, was addrefled to the king and parliament, and publifhed with a view to obtain an en- couragement from the public for the profecution of 100 +projetts, which it details. No. 68. of this Century con- tains as follows :—* 68. An admirable and mott forcible way to drive up water by fire; not by drawing or fucking it upwards, for that mult be as the philofopher calleth it intra fpheram aéiivitatis, which is but at fuch a diftance. But this way hath no bounder, if the veflel be ftrong enough : for I have taken a piece of a whole cannon, whereof the end was burit, and filled it three-quarters full of water, ftopping and ferewing up the broken end, as alfo the touch- hole; and making a conftant fire under it, within twenty- four hours it burft, and made a great crack ; fo that hav- ing a way to make my veilels, fo that they are ftrengthened by the force within them, and the one to fill after the other, I have feen the water run like a con{tant fountain ftream forty feet high: one veflel of water, rarefied by fire, driveth up forty of cold water. And a man that tends the work is but to turn two cocks, that one veflel of water being confumed, another begins to force and re-fill with cold water, and fo fucceffively the fire being tended and kept con{tant, which the felf-fame perfon may likewife abun- dantly perform in the interim between the neceflity of turning the faid cocks.’’ This paflage certainly contains a defcription of an engine for raifing water by the repellent power of fteam; and from his eiprtion, of one veffel of water, converted into fteam, forcing up forty veflels of cold water to the height of forty feet, it is very probable that he had actually tried the ex- periment by a working model. The marquis concluded his Century of Inventions by a promife to dake to pofterity a book, wherein under each head the means of putting his feveral inventions in execution were to be defcribed, with the affiftance of plates; but as this work never appeared, we can only judge of his abilities by this {pecimen. He appears to have been a perfon of much knowledge and ingenuity ; but his obfcure and enig- matical account of thefe inventions feems not fo much in- tended to initru& the public as to raife wonder; and his encomiums on their utility and importance are, to a great degree, extravagant, refembling more the puff of an adver- tiling tradefman, than the patriotic communications of a gentleman. The marquis of Worcefter was indeed a pro- jeGtor, and very importunate and myfterious withal in his applications for public encouragement. It does not appear that he met with any public encourage- ment to his propofitions; and though, at firft fight, it feems furprifing that an invention, by which the {team of boiling water is ftated to be capable of producing a power equal to that of gunpowder, fhould be negle&ed for almoft forty years ; yet if we confider that the greater part of this Century of Inventions confifts of things highly in the ftyle of legerdemain, and fome of them abfolutely impoflible, and contrary to all eftablifhed rules of fcience, we need not fo much wonder at the negleé& which the whole experienced. For example, the 99th number of the Century is as follows : « How to make one pound weight to raife an hundred as high as one pound falleth, and yet the hundred pounds de- feending doth what nothing lefs than one hundred pounds ean effect.” Vor. XXXIV. Tt muft be alfo further confidered, that thefe projects were publifhed at a time when true fcience was beginning to take place of empirici{m. The Century of Inventions appeared about three years after the eftablifhment of the Royal Society, during the time of Mr. Boyle, Dr. Hooke, Dr. Wallis, fir Chrif- topher Wren, fir Ifaac Newton, and others equally flcilled in calculations, as in the inventive parts of mechanics. Under all thefe circumttances, it is not altonifhing that the marquis’s propofitions in general fhould meet with a cool reception, or that this celebrated invention fhould be con- demned to obfeurity, amongit the other wonders with which it was accompanied. We do not with it to be underftood, that all the mar- quis’s propofitions, except the fire-engine, are of the fame nature as No. 99: on the contrary, feveral have been re- invented, and proved true, fince the marquis’s time; for example, fhort-hand telegraphs, floating baths, carriages from which the horfes can be difengaged if unruly, com- bination locks, fecret efcutcheons for locks, candle-moulds, &c. It is alfo probable that others may be brought to perfeGtion ; yet the greater part is fo much in the ityle of the wonderful, that it is to be wifhed that the marquis had publifhed nothing but No. 63, which at once would have rendered his name immortal, and without any tarnifh or alloy to the glory of fo great an invention. Captain Savery’s Steam-Engine.—The next attempt upon record is that of captain Thomas Savery, a commiflioner of the fick and wounded, who, in the year 1698, obtained a patent for a new invention for raifing water, and occafioning motion to all forts of mill-work, by the impellent force of fire. This patent bears date the 25th July, in the tenth year of the reign of William III., that is 1698. The pa- tent {tates that the invention will be of great ufe for drain- ing of mines, ferving towns with water, and for working all forts of mills. In June 1699, he fhewed a working model of his engine to the Royal Society, and in their Tranfaétions for that year, viz. N° 253, vol. xxi. there is the following regifter. “Mr. Savery, June 14th, 1699, entertained the Royal Society with fhewing a fmall model of his engine for raif- ing water by the help of fire, which he fet to work before them: the experiment fucceeded according to expectation, and to their fatisfa€tion.”” The above is accompanied with a copper-plate figure, with references by way of defcription, from whence it ap- pears, that the engine then fhewn by captain Savery was for raifing water not only by the expantive force of fteam, like the marquis of Worcefter’s, but alfo by the condenfation of fteam, the water being firft raifed by the preffure of the at- mofphere to a given beigl from the well into the engine, and ‘then forced out of the engine up the remaining height by the expantfive force of {team, in the fame manner as pro- pofed by the marquis. This aétion was performed alter nately in two receivers, fo that while the vacuum formed in one was drawing up from the well, the preflure of the fteam in the other was forcing up water into the refervoir; but both receivers being fupplied by one fuétion-pipe and one forc= ing-pipe, the engine could be made to keep a continual ftream, or fo nearly fo as to fuffer very little interruption. The inventor afterwards publifhed an account of his en= gine in a {mall book, entitled «« The Miner’s Friend, or an Engine to raife Water by Fire deferibed, and the Manner of fixing it in Mines, with an Account of the feveral Ufes it is applicable unto, andan Anfwer to the ObjeCtions made againft it,” printed at London in 1702, by Thomas Savery, gentle F mak. —— STEAM-ENGINE., man, This little book was feparately addrefled to king William III., to whom the engine had been fhewn at Hamp- ton Court, to the Royal Society, and alfo to the Mine Ad- venturers of England, who were invited to adopt the im- vention. This engine difplays much ingennity, and is almoft as perfe& in its contrivance as the fame kind of engine has ever been made fince that time: we have on that account copied the principal figure, and captain Savery’s own defcription, as given by Dr, Harris, in his Lexicon Technicum. See Platel. Steam-Engine, fig. 1. Captain Savery’s Defcription of his Fire-Engine.—« A de- notes two furnaces, whole fire-places are marked B 1 and B 2, and their common funnel or chimney C. “¢ In thefe two furnaces are placed two veflels of copper, which I call boilers, the one a larger, as L, the other a {maller, as D. “ Thefe boilers have each a gauge-pipe, as G and N, of which G goes within eight inches of the bottom of the {mall boiler, but N reaches only half way down into the great boiler. *« By thefe pipes, before the engine can work, you mult fill the {mall boiler quite full, and the great boiler two- thirds full of water, Then light the fire under the large boiler at B 1, and make the water therein boil, by which means the fteam of it being quite confined muft needs be wonder- fully compreffed, and therefore will, on the opening of a way for it to iflue out (which is done by pufhing the handle Z of the regulator from you), rvfh with a great force through the fteam-pipe O 1, into the receiver P 1, driving all the air before it, and forcing it up into the force pipe through the clack R 1, as you will perceive by the noife and rattling of the clack; and when all the air is thus driven out, the receiver P 1 will be very much heated by the fteam, When you find it is thoroughly emptied, and is grown very hot, as you may both fee and feel, then pull the handle Z of the regulator towards you, by which means you will {top the fteam-pipe O1, fo that no more fteam can yet come into the receiver P'1, but you will open a way for it to pafs into O2, and by that means fill the other receiver P 2 with the fleam, as the other was before. : *¢ While this is doing, let fome cold water be poured on the firft-mentioned receiver P 1, by which means the fteam in it being cooled and condenfed, and contraéted into a very little room, and confequently preffing but very little (if at all) on the valve or cock R11, at the bottom of the receiver P 1, there is nothing there to counterbalance the preflure of the atmo!phere on the furface of the water, in the lower part of the fucking-pipe T, wherefore it will be prefled up, and afcend into, and fill the receiver P 1, driving up before it, as it rifes, the clack or valve R 3, which afterwards falling down again and fhutting clofe, hinders the defcent of the water that way. «‘ Then (the receiver P 2 being in the mean time emptied of its air) pufh the handle of the regulator from you, and the force of the {team coming from the boiler, will a& upon the furface of the water contained in the receiver P 1, where it forces or preffes hard upon it, and {till increafes its elaf- ticity or {pring until it exceeds the weight of the column of water in the receiver and pipe S, which then it will necef- farily drive up through the paflage QR, 1 QQ, into the force-pipe S, and at laft difcharge it out at the top, as is reprefented in the figure. “« After the fame manner, though alternately, is the re- ceiver P 2 filled and emptied of water, and by this means a regular {tream is kept continually running out at the top of the force-pipe S, and fo the water is railed very eafily from the bottom of the mine, &c. to the place where it is des figned to be difcharged. ** Only I fhould add, that after the engine begins to work, and the water is rifen into and hath filled the force-pipe Sy then it fills alfo the little ciftern X, and by that means feeds the pipe Y Y, which I call the condenfing pipe, and which can be turned fideways over either of the receivers, and will then be open: by this cold water is conveyed down from the force-pipe to fall upon the outfides of the receivers when thoroughly heated by the {team, in order to condenfe the {team within, and make them fuck (as it is ufually called) the water out of the well up into the receiver. « Alfo a little above the ciftern goes the pipe E, to con- vey water from the force-pipe into the lefler boiler D, for the purpofe of replenithing the great boiler L, when the water in it begins to be almelt confumed. Now when there is need of doing this, turn the cock E, fo that there can be no communication between the force-pipe S and the lefler boiler D; and putting in a little fire under the {mall boiler B 2, the water will there grow prefently hot ; and when it boils, its own fteam, which hath no vent out, prefling on its furface, will force the water up the pipe H, through K, into the great ‘boiler L, and fo long will it run till the furface of the water in the boiler D gets to be as low as the bottom of the pipe H, and then the fteam and water will run together, and by its noife, and rattling of the clack I, will give him that works the engine fufficient afurance that the imall betler hath emptied and difcharged itfelf into the greater one L, and carried in as much water as is then neceflary ; after which, by turning the cock E again, you may let new cold water out of S into the leffer boiler D, as before, and thus there will be a conftant motion and a continual fupply of the engine, without fear of decay or diforder. ** Alfo, to know when the great boiler wants replenifhing or not, you need only turn the gauge-cock N, and if water come out there is no need to replenifh it, but if fteam only come, you may conclude there is want of water; and the like will the cock G do in reference to the leffer boiler D, fhewing when it is neceflary to fupply that with frefh water from S; fo that in working the engine there is very little fill or labour required : it is only to be ipjured by either a ftupid or wilful negleét.”” The engine above defcribed does not differ effentially from that reprefented in the print in the Philofophical Tranfactions, but it is more neatly put into form, and im- proved in fome of the minor particulars. For inftance, the original engine had only one boiler, and there was no means of fupplying it with water, to replace the wafte occafioned by the evaporation of the fteam, without ftopping the ation of the engine whenever the boiler was emptied to fuch a degree, as to rif the burning of the veflel. And after the boiler was replenifhed, the engine could not begin to work again, until that water which was introduced cold was made to boil. The engine which we have juft defcribed from the Miner’s Friend has a fubfidiary boiler, in which a quantity of water is reduced to a boiling heat in readinefs for fupplying the great boiler, and the power of the fteam raifed in the fub- fidiary boiler is employed to force the water contained in it into the other, or great boiler, which a¢tuates the engine : by this means the tran{pofition of the feeding water is not only inftantly performed, but being at a boiling heat, it is immediately ready to produce fteam for carrying on the work. There is alfo another grand improvement in the conftruction of this engine. His firft engine was worked by four feparate cocks, which the operator was obliged to tura A STEAM-ENGINE. turn feparately at every change of ftroke; and if he turned them wrong, he was not only liable to damage the engine, but he prevented its effect, and loft a part of the operation ; whereas in this fecond engine the communications are made by the double fliding-valve, or regulator, as it has fince been called. This is a brafs plate, fhaped like a fan, and moving on a centre withinfide the boiler, fo as to flide horizontally in contact with the under furface of the cover of the boiler, to which it is accurately fitted by grinding, and thus at pleafure opens or fhuts the orifices or entries to the fteam- pipes of the two receivers alternately. This regulator acts with lefs fri€tion than that of a cock of equal bore ; and by the motion of a fingle handle backwards, at once opens the proper fteam-pipe from one receiver, and clofes that which belongs to the other receiver. The contrivance of the regulator has fince proved of more confequence, as having been univerfally adopted in the cylinder engines. Captain Savery, in the Miner’s Friend, above referred to, in addition to the defcription of his engine, enumerates the following ufes to which it may be applied, and which he defcribes rather fully, as follows; viz. r{t, to raife water for turning all forts of mills; zdly, fupplying palaces, noble- men’s and gentlemen’s houfes with water, and giving the means of extinguifhing fires therein, by the water fo raifed ; ‘gdly, the fupplying cities and towns with water; 4thly, draining fens and marfhes; sthly, for fhips; 6thly, for drain- ing mines of water; and 7thly, for preventing damps in the faid mines. Dr. Harris, in his account of the fire-engine, {peaks of captain Savery as one that he was acquainted with, and as a perfon of great merit and ingenuity. He firft mentions another machine of Savery’s, for rowing a fhip in a calm by paddle-wheels placed at the veflel’s fide, of which the cap- tain publifhed an account in 1698; and it is worthy of remark, that the fame kind of wheels, when aétuated by improved fteam-engines, is the only method, amongft an infinite number of others, which at prefent has been found to aufwer for rowing veflels. Dr. Harris, in proceeding to the fire-engine, fays, “ The other engine is for raifing water by the force of fire, in which he has fhewn as great ingenuity, depth of thought, and true mechanic {kill, as ever difcovered itfelf in any defign of vhis nature.” Notwith- ftanding this, Dr. Defaguliers has endeavoured to take away all the merit of the invention of the fire-engine from captain Savery, as if he had merely copied it from the marquis of Worcetter. The account given by Dr. Defaguliers has been fo fre- quently copied by different writers, that it is generally con- fidered as correct; and we therefore think it a piece of juttice to the memory of captain Savery, to fet his preten- fions in a clearer light than has been generally done. The doétor fays, “* Captain Savery having read the marquis of Worcefter’s book, was the firft who put in praétice the raifing water by fire, which he propofed for the draining of mines. His engine is defcribed in Harris’s Lexicon, (fee the word Eneryz,) which, being compared with the mar- quis of Worcelter’s defcription, will eafily appear to have been taken from him, though captain Savery denied it ; and the better to conceal the matter, bought up all the marquis of Worcetter’s books that he could purchafe in Paternofter-Row, and elfewhere, and burned them in the prefence of the gentleman, his friend, who told me this. He faid that he found out the power of fteam by chance, and invented the following {tory to make people believe it ; wiz. that, having drank a flafk of Florence at a tavern, and thrown the empty flafk upon the fire, he called for a bafon of water to wafh his hands, and perceiving that the little wine left in the flafk had filled up the flafk with fteam, he took the flafk by the neck, and plunged the neck of it under the furface of the water in the bafon, and the water of the bafon was immediately driven up into the flafk by the pref- fure of the air. Now he never made fuch an experiment then nor defignedly afterwards, which I thus prove :— «TI made the experiment purpofely with about half a glafs of wine in a flafk, which I laid upon the fire till it boiled into fteam ; then putting on a thick glove to prevent the neck of the flafk from burning me, I plunged the mouth of the flafk under the water that filled a bafon, but the preflure of the atmofphere was fo ftrong, that it beat the flafk out of my hand with violence, and threw it up to the ceiling. As this muft alfo have happened to captain Sa- very, if ever he had made the experiment, he would not have failed to have told fuch a remarkable incident, which would have embellifhed his ftory.”” This conclufion of the doéor’s is altogether unphilofo- phical, and does not at all invalidate captain Savery’s account. We know that the marquis of Worcetfter gave no hint cons cerning the contraétibility or fudden condenfation of fteam, upon which all the merit of the modern engine depends. The marquis of Worcelter’s engine was aétuated wholly by the elaftic power of fleam, which he either found out, or proved by the burfting of a cannon, in part filled with water; but he gave not the leaft hint that fteam fo expanded is capable of being again fo far contra¢ted in an inttant, as to leave the fpace it occupied in a veflel in a great meafure a vacuum. This grand difcovery was referved to captain Savery, and his account of its accidental origin is not at all improbable. The captain tells us in the Miner’s Friend, that he did not bring his defign to bear, until after a great number of fatiguing inquiries: and he attually ereéted feveral machines before he obtained his patent in July 1698. Many objections were made again{t the grant of that patent being pafled ; but in the hearing of thefe objeCtions, the difcovery of the marquis of Worceiter’s prior claim was not mentioned : and, indeed, it is certain that the account given in the Century of Inventions could not inftru& a perfon who was not fufficiently acquainted with the pro- perties of iteam to be able to invent the machine himfelf. Defaguliers feems to have been too hafty in concluding that the captain had never made fuch an experiment as that of the wine-flafk, becaufe, in the fingle inftance in which he tried it himfelf, he found the effeét of the condenfation took place ina much higher degree than reported by the captain. It is not difficult to conceive that a very {mall difference in the heat of the fteam which filled the flafk, and other circum- ftances, might create the whole of the difference in the refult. And, on the whole, there is no reafon to hefitate in believing that the captain a€tually took his hint of the condenfation of fteam from fuch an accident, and being of a very mechanical genius, he would naturally turn his thoughts towards the confideration of fuch a power; and the moft obvious application of it would be to a machine on aconftruGtion fimilar to that defcribed by the marquis. Or, if he really had been acquainted with, and confidered the marquis’s engine, he would eafily fee that the new principle of condenfation might, with great advantage, be combined with the former, and thereby produce an effect more power- ful than either of them could do alone. The only thing in the do&er’s account which cannot now be difproved is, that captain Savery deftroyed the marquis of Worcefter’s books, Even if this is true, it may be accounted for 5 the captain mutt, firft or laft, have become acquainted with what had been before made public by the marquis of Wor- F2 celter 5 STEAM-ENGINE. eelter ; and after having in his books {poken of his invention, and his new power or caufe of motion, and finding the marquis’s inventions to be but little known, he might be tempted, in order to fecure the whole credit and expected advantage to himfelf, to buy up the marquis’s books and burn them. But the grounds for this aflertion are very flight, and will never prevent the conclufion, that the great principle of obtaining force from the preflure of the atmofphere, by the condenfation of the fteam of boiling water, was a difcovery for which we are indebted to captain Savery, who had alfo the merit of firft reducing it to prac- tice in a moft complete manner, in combination with the prior difcovery of the marquis. M. Amontons? Fire-Wheel.—The French writers who have treated of the fteam-engine, feldom fail to mention Pa- pin and M. Amontons as the firlt inventors of the method of raifing water by fteam, and fpeak of Savery as a perfon who put their ideas in execution, and brought them to perfe¢tion : we think it right on this account to {tate what was done by M. Amontons and Papin, although the attempts of the latter to employ the force of fteam are not entitled to any notice, either from their originality, or from their real merit. It is probable, that the news of the patent granted to Savery in 1698, for raifing water, and occafioning motion to. mill- work by the impelling force of fire, excited the attention of the French academicians, before the means by which it was to be accomplifhed were made public, fo as to be known abroad, and that they were thus induced to attempt the fame thing ; for in June 1699, which is the fame month that captain Savery fhewed his machine at work before the Royal Society, M. Amontons delivered a memoir to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, entitled « A commodious Way of fubftituting the Action of Fire inftead of Men and Horfes to move Machines.”’ This may be regarded as the firlt attempt to produce a circular motion by the means of fire, otherwife than by the aeolipile, or the fly of a fmoke-jack : but as the motion of M. Amontons’ wheel was to be produced by the alternate dila- tation and contra@tion of air, and not of the fteam of boil- ing water, it is nothing in common with Savery’s machine, except that the firft caufe of motion is that of fire. M. Amontons’ fire-wheel, as he called it, confilts of a number of clofe buckets, or chambers, placed in the circum- ference of a hollow wheel, and communicating with each other by valves opening in one direétion ; and a fufficient quantity of water is put into thefe buckets to fill about one half of the number; another circle of fimilar buckets, but of larger dimenfions, are placed on the outfide of the circle of the former buckets ; thefe large buckets contain air, and each one has a pipe conduéted from it to one of the water- buckets which are nearer to the centre: a part of the circum- ference of the wheel, which is about the level of the centre, is expofed to the fire of a furnace, fo that each air-bucket that pales will be heated ; and alfo the lower part of the wheel is immerfed in a ciftern of cold water, fo as to cool the fame bucket again. The aétion of the machine may eafily be underftood, The air contained in the large bucket which is oppofite the fire becomes heated and expanded, and by the pipe of communication it enters into that water- bucket which is at the lower fide of the wheel, and prefling upon the furface of the water therein, caufes it to mount up through the other chambers, in the direction in which the valves open from one chamber to the next ; the water, being thus accumulated in the chambers at one fide of the wheel, will give it a preponderating power to turn round upon its axis. ‘This motion brings another air-bucket oppofite to the fire, and the air therein expands in its turn, and again elevates the water in the interior chambers as much as it had defcended by the motion of the wheel; a continual fucceffion 1s thus kept up, and the air-buckets which have pafled the fire defcend into the cold water, and the air is thereby cooled and reduced to its former bulk. By the communication with the water-buckets, the preflure of the expanded air is removed from within them, and puts them in a fituation to repeat their a¢tion. This machine is ingenious, and if a better application of fire, by rarefying water into tteam, had aot been difcovered, it is poflible ‘hat the invention of M. Amontons might have been further profecuted. From his computations it would appear, that the machine he propofed would a& with a confiderable power ; but as he exhibited no working model, or actual trial, it was never proved that the machine, if put into practice, would be capable of producing any thing near the effe& promifed by his calculations. Leupold, in his “ Theatrum Hydraulicarum,”’ 1724, propofed an improved form of this fire-wheel ; and fteam-engines have been fince made with mercury, or fluid metal, contained within a hol- low wheel, which is to be always kept on one fide with the mercury by the force of the fteam: they have not been found to equal other modes of applying the force of fteam. Such of our readers as are curious to know more of the conftruétion of M. Amontons’ machine, can confult the ori- ginal memoir ; and they will alfo find a’ full account of it, with a figure, in Martin and Chambers’s Abridgment of the Philofophical Hiftory and Memoirs of the Royal Aca- demy of Sciences at Paris, vol. i. Papin’s Pretenfions to the Invention of the Steam-Engine.— M. Papin, to whom the French attribute the invention of the fteam-engine, was a doctor of phyfic, and profeflor of mathematics at Marpurg, in Germany, and in 1680 he was eleGed a fellow of the Royal Society of London, In the following year, and whilft in London, he invented and pub- lithed a method of diffolving bones, and other animal folids, in water, by confining them in clofe veffels, which he called digefters, and which he made fufficiently ttrong to retain the {team and prevent all evaporation, fo as to acquire a great degree of heat. About the fame time Dr. Hooke, the moft inquifitive experimental philofopher of that in- quifitive age, obferved that water could not be made to ac- quire above a certain temperature in the open air, and that as {oon as it begins to boil, its temperature remains fixed, and an increafe of heat only produces a more violent ebullition, and a more rapid wafte. Papin’s experiments with his di- getter rendered the elaftic power of fteam very familiar to him, and when he left England, and fettled as profeflor of mathematics at Marpurg, he made many attempts to em- ploy this force in mechanics, and even for raifing water. By his own account, it appears that he had made fome experiments with this view in 1698, by order of Charles, landgrave of Heffe, but without effe€ting any thing. This is all the reafon the French have to confider him as the firft inventor of the fteam-engine. Nine years after Savery’s pa- tent he publifhed an account of his invention, in a traét, en- titled «* Ars nova ad aquam ignis adminiculo efficaciflime elevandum””—“ A New Method of raifing Water by the Force of Fire,’’ printed at Caffel, 1707. This machine, whichis defcribed in Belidor’s “* Architecture Hydraulique,”? vol. ii. does not eflentially differ from that of the marquis of Worcelter, but is far lefs perfe&t than Savery’s: it works wholly by the repellent power of fteam : the only advantage is, that the receiver being made cylindrical, the fteam is fe- parated from the cold water by a floating pifton, and that the water is made to flow in fome degree conttantly, by being thrown into a large air-veflel. In this publication, Papin admits STEAM-ENGINE, admits that he had feen a draft of Savery’s engine, but fays, that in the year 1698 he made a great number of experiments, by order of his ferene highnefs Charles, landgrave of Hefle, in order to raife water by the force of fire, which he com- municated to feveral perfons, and particularly to M. Leibnitz, who anfwered, that the fame thought had occurred to him- felf. He alfo acknowledged that captain Savery was about that time working upon the fame fubje¢t in England, and that Savery had firtt publifhed the fruit of his refearches; that from 1698 the affair had lain dormant till the year 1705, when he received a letter from M. Leibnitz, then in Lon- don, which contained a draft of captain Savery’s engine, and defired Papin’s opinion upon it. On fhewing this draft to the landgrave, he ordered Papin to refume the work, and perfec the inventions which he had begun ; and which Papin then publifhed, not with a view to make it fuppofed that captain Savery had taken the thoughts from him, but to fhew the world its obligation to the landgrave, in having jirft formed a defign fo ufeful, and in having brought it to its prefent degree of perfeétion ; and he labours much to fhew that his engine is preferable to that of captain Savery. Al- though we mutt allow Dr. Papin to compliment his patron and himfelf upon the fuccefs they met with, after encoun- tering many unforefeen difficulties and experiments, which fucceeded, as he tells us, guite contrary to their expectations, yet it cannot be allowed that Papin’s experiments in 1698 were the firlt, becaufe the marquis of Worcefter’s publication was earlier by no lefs than thirty-five years; nor were they probable to have been fo early as Savery’s beginning, fince we cannot fuppofe that he would be at the expence of a pa- tent, without fome previous experiments to confirm his {pe- culation, or that he could bring his engine to the degree of perfection in which he exhibited it to the Royal Society on the 14th of June, 1699, in lefs than a year, at a period when workmen were not ready or fkilful in the execution of fuch machines as they now are in this country. We have copied the figure of Papin’s engine from Belidor, that our readers may be able to compare it with captain Sa- very’s, and judge of the authority upon which M. Boffut has faid in his Hydronamique, that the firft notion of the fteam- engine was certainly owing to Dr. Papin, who had not only invented the digefter, but had, in 1695, publithed a little performance defcribing a machine for raifing water, in which the piftons are moved by the vapour of boiling water, alternately dilated and condenfed. Now the fact is, that Papin’s publication on the fteam-engine was in 1707, in which he concedes the invention to Savery. He had occa- fionally before that publifhed feveral inventions in the A&ta Eruditorum, in which cylinders and piltons were to be em- ployed, but they were not intended to be worked by fteam, but by gunpowder and air, as we fhall fhew hereafter. Defcription of Papin’s Engine.—The intention of Papin’s fteam-engine was to turn a water-wheel by a ftream of water ifluing with violence from an aperture or jet, the force of fteam being employed to throw the water into an air-veflel, from which it was to iflue by the re-aétion of the comprefled air. A {pheroidical veffel, A, (fg. 2.) of which the longeft axis is fuppofed to be 26 inches, and the leffer axis 20 inches, is placed in a furnace, fo that the fire can furround every part: this veffel or boiler, which is made of copper, fhould be two-thirds full of water, which is introduced by a tube B: a fiphon, C D, communicates from the boiler A toa eylinder GH, of 20 inches in diameter, and about the fame in height, which performs the office of the barrel of a ump, and in which plays a copper pifton, S T, mde hol- ow within, that it may float upon the water: the bafe of this cylinder, which has no bottom, is joined to the extremity of acurved tube, I K O, which goes through the bottom of another cylinder, M N, of three feet in height, and 23 inches diameter, which is clofed at all parts, fo that the air cannot enter. A veflel Y, made like a funnel at the top, is adapted to the tube I K O, and ferves to introduce water into the body of the pump G H, beneath the piiton ST, which water can never rife above the pifton. A cock at E alternately opens and fhuts the communication through the fiphon C D, between the boiler A, and the body of the pump G H. When the communication is open, the fteam formed in A paffes into the upper part of the body of the pump, and prefles the pifton, which difplaces the water: this water cannot return into the veflel Y, becaufe a valye at R prevents it; it therefore rifes by the tube I K O, and difcharges itfelf into the cylinder MN, where it fills a part of the {pace occupied by the air contained in that cylinder, which, in confequence, acquires a great elafticity, As foon as the piiton is arrived at the bottom of the body of the pump, the cock F isto be fhut, to ftop the paflage of the fteam, and another cock, P, at the top of the body of the pump, is to be opened, to permit the efcape of the fteam which has performed its office ; then the weight of the water with which the vetlel Y is always filled, opens the valve R, and introduces itfelf into the body of the pump GH, and makes the pifton S T to rife up again: the water con- tained in the tube K O is uot to be confidered in this effe@, becaufe a valve at K prevents it from defcending. When the water which is introduced into the body of the pump is come to an equilibrium with the water in the veflel Y, the cock P is to be fhut, and E isto be opened; the fteam comes again to prefs on the pifton, which it forces to de- {cend, and, as in the former inftance, expels the water through the tube K O into the cylinder MN, where it cannot introduce itfelf without furmounting the refiftance arifing from the elatticity of the air of which it comes to occupy the place. The cylinder M N, which is three feet high, can contain about 86 cubic feet of water, or about 2.86 cubic feet at every foot in height; therefore, when it is filled to within two feet of the top, the air will be reduced to occupy only one-third of the fpace in which it was at firft fhut up, and it will have acquired an elafticity capable of making it fuf- tain a column of water of 64 feet, in addition to the 32 feet with which it is in equilibrium in its ordinary ftate of compreflion: under thefe circumftances, if the cock Q is opened, the water will fly out, at the firft inftant, with the fame velocity asif it was 64 feet high in the cylinder M N; but by degrees, as the water pafles out, it will be driven with lefs velocity, becaufe the air occupying a greater {pace, its elafticity diminifhes: but according to Papin’s ftatement, there fhould always be at leaft a foot of water in the cylinder, and the air, in its {malleft condenfation, fhould not occupy more than two-thirds of the {pace which it oc- cupies in its natural ftate; and in that cafe it will have a fufficient preflure to fuftain a column of 16 fect of water. M. Papin’s machine is, on the whole, far inferior to the en- gine of captain Savery, as it wants the advantage of the grand principle of condenfation, and is only a return to the marquis of Worcetter’s idea: it cannot therefore be called an improve- ment on Savery’s, although it mutt be allowed that the fepa- ration of the hot fteam from the cold water by a diaphragm, pifton, or float, is a confiderable improvement on the marquis of Worcefter’s, and would be alfo an advantageous addition to Savery’s, if the condenfing water could be as well applied to run down the outfide of a cylindrical veffel as an oval one. Long after Papin’s publication, fome Englifh engineers made this addition to captain Savery’s engine, and attempted to STEAM-ENGINE. to introduce it in oppofition to the cylinder or atmofpheric engines, of which we fhall hereafter {peak ; but the con- fumption of fuel was too great to balance the advantage of fimplicity in the itructure of the engine. Captain Savery muft have been employed a confiderable time with his machine prior to the 14th of June 1699, and even previous to his patent, as may be inferred from his Miner’s Friend, printed in the year 1702, where, in his addrefs to the Royal Society, he fays, that fince the time he exhibited his model to them, ‘I have met with great dif- ficulties and expence to inftru€& handicraft artificers to form my engines according to my defire ; but my workmen, after much experience, are become fuch matters of the thing, that they oblige themfelves to deliver what engines they make me exactly tight, and fit for fervice, and as fuch I dare warrant them to every body that has occafion for them.” In his addrefs to the gentlemen adventurers in the mines of England, he fays, that the frequent diforders and cum- berfomenefs of water-engines then in ufe “ encouraged me to invent engines to work by this new force; that though I was obliged to encounter the odde/? and almott infuperable difficulties, I {pared neither time, pains, nor money, till I had abfolutely conquered them.’ Application of Savery’s Engine, and its Defeds.—Refpect- ing the real ufe which was made of captain Savery’s in- vention, it appears that a number of {mall engines were ereéted, under the authority of the patent, for the fupply of noblemen’s and gentlemen’s feats in different parts of Eng- land, and for fuch purpofes they fucceeded very well; but for the fupply of towns, and the drainage of mines, where great quantities of water, and great perpendicular preflures were required, they were not well adapted. With refpect to the raifing water for turning mills, an application which readily fuggeited itfelf to the ingenious inventor, we do not think it was ever attempted, for at that period there were f{carcely any mills which could have fupported the expence of the erection, and maintenance of fuch engines, even where coals were cheap. For the drainage of fens they were not well adapted, be- caufe the height to which water is moft generally required to be raifed in fuch cafes is {mall, and the quantity very great; on this account feveral engines would always be wanted for one drainage, and a great part of the power would be loft, becaufe the perpendicular height would be very much lefs than the height to which the atmofphere would raife the water. To fhips we may conjeéture that they never were applied, and this reduces their ufe to a very {mall compais. The principal reafons why they could not be fo generally employed in mines as the captain was led to expect, and which he laboured to bring about, was, that the working part of the engine muit neceflarily be placed from 22 to 26 feet above the bottom of the mine; andif, by any accident, the water fhould happen to rife above that level, the engine would be drowned and irrecoverably loft, without fome other engines to recover it. As the power of {ution in this engine cannot extend more than 26 feet, the reft of the perpendicular lift mutt be obtained by the expanfive force of the fteam; and for every 33 or 34 feet of altitude of this column, a preffure equal to the atmofphere muft be exerted on the infide of the boiler and receivers, tending to burit them open. It is not found praéticable, in conftant work, to force the water by fteam of more than three atmofpheres’ preffure, or about 67 feet above the engine; and this limits the whole ower of an engine, on Savery’s plan, to about go feet. Qn this account it would require a feparate engine for every 14 fathoms of the depth of a mine, and they muft raife from one to another; but if any one engine is de- ranged, the reft mutt ftop likewife. Another difficulty was in the quantity of water which could be raifed with fafety: the fize of his largett boiler did not exceed 30 inches diameter, and the capacity of the re- ceiver could be but fmall; and, therefore, the generality of mines would require more than one engine at the fame level. The charge, trouble, and difficulty, attending fuch a num- ber, would naturally prevent their introduétion, even in cafes where they would really have been of great fervice. Add to this, the confumption of fuel in Savery’s engines was enormous, compared with the modern engines; and they were always in danger of blowing up, particularly when they were employed to raife water to any confiderable height. Suppofe, for inftance, the water is to be raifed 100 feet ; 25 may be done by fuétion, and the remaining 75 feet muft be lifted by the force of the fteam. To effeét this, the preflure within the veflel mufl be more than three atmo- {pheres ; and it will be feen by our table, that every {quare inch of the interior furface of the boiler and receiver will be preffed with a force of more than 32 pounds, tending to burft them open. This moderate height will, therefore, require very {trong vellels, and all the joints mutt be made with the greateft care ; for although it is true that the pref. fure is much lefs than is ufualin pumps, and other hydraulic machines, in which there is a greater column of water, yet there is much greater danger of the veflels being burit by fteam of fuch great elafticity, than by an equal preflure of a column of water; becaufe the force of the iteam is always liable to be fuddenly increafed to a very great extent, on any acceflion of the heat ; and the heat alfo tends to weaken the vetlels, particularly the boiler, which fooner or later aes be reduced in thicknefs at the bottom, and will then urft, According to Mr. Dalton’s experiments, from which we have formed our tables of the expanfive force of fteam, it muft be heated to a temperature of 287° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, before it can overcome a column of water of 75 feet in altitude; and as this fteam muft come immediately in contaét with the furface of the cold water in the receiver, which is perhaps as low as 40°, the condenfation of the fteam is exceflive for fome time, and muft continue until the furface of the water acquires nearly the fame temperature as the fteam; which, however, it will foon do, becaufe the heat is tranfmitted downward very flowly in fluids. When the furface of the water is fufficiently heated, the fteam, which before was condenfed as fat as it came in contaé& with the water, will begin to prefs upon the water ; and as the heat and elatticity increafe, it will lift the column. But when it has expelled any of the water from the receiver, a new fource of condenfation is produced, from the cold furface of that part of the receiver which was before filled with the cold water ; and this condenfation will be even more rapid than the former, becaufe the veffel, being neceflarily made of metal, will tranfmit the heat more rapidly than the water did, and delay the procefs of forcing out the water until the interior furface of the receiver is made as hot as the fteam. Captain Savery feems to have been fully aware of this, as he fays in the ‘ Miner’s Friend,” that you may fee on the outfide of the receiver how the water goes out, as well as if it was tranfparent; for as far as the {team is contained within the veflel, fo far it is dry without, and fo hot as fearcely to endure the leaft touch of the hand; but as far as the water is, the faid veflel will be cold and wet where any water has fallen on it, which eold and moitture vanifh 7 STEAM-ENGINE. vanifh as faft as the fteam, in its defcent, takes the place of the water. Alfo, he fays, the force of the fteam prefles upon the furface of the water, which furface, being only heated by the {team, it does not condenfe. Improvement upon Savery’s Engine.—The rapid condenfa- tion which muit take place, when fteam of a great elattic force is brought into immediate contact with the water, is an infuperable bar to the railing of water to any confider- able height, on Savery’s plan. The mott obvious improve- ment was to employ a cylindrical receiver, with a floating pifton, in the manner of Papin’s: but this was only a partial remedy, becaufe the condenfation from the fides of the veffel {till took place; and it was not until the pilton was made to fit exaétly into the cylindrical receiver, and the water kept out of it altogether, that the fteam-engine was rendered an efficient machine. But this change, which was invented by Newcomen, introduces much complexity into the work. It becomes neceflary to have a feparate receiver, with a pilton, or, in other words, a pump, to raife the water, and alfo machinery to communicate the motion of the tteam-pifton to that of the pump. The fimplicity of Savery’s engine, and the certainty of its ation, rendered it very defirable to obviate its defects fo far that it could be employed for mines, even after the more perfect engines were introduced. ‘To avoid returning to the defcription of Savery’s engine, we fhall give a brief account of thefe at- tempts, before proceeding to the other engines. The firft improvement of Savery’s engine was to intro- duce a {mall jet of cold water into the infide of the receiver, to perform the condenfation, inttead of throwing cold water upon the outlide of ‘he receiver: by this means a more per- fe& condenfation is obtained, and with a lefs wafte of cold water than by the original plan. The water is conveyed by a {mall pipe, which branches out from the great forcing- pipe, and enters into the receiver, where it turns down, and terminates with a ball, perforated in all direGtions, like the fpout of a watering-pot, fo as to difperfe the water in a fhower within the receiver. A cock is placed to {top the communication at pleafure; and this cock is opened to ad- mit the cold water, when the fteam is to be condenfed. But it mutt be obferved, that water cannot enter through this cock into the receiver the firft inftant that it is opened, becaufe the preflure of the water in the force-pipe mult be lefs than that of the fteam within the receiver, and, therefore, the injeGtion will not commence until after the fteam-cock is fhut, and then the condenfation, or lofs of heat, which always takes place within the receiver from the coldnefs of the water, will very foon diminifh the heat, and confe- quently the preflure of the {team fo far, that it will no longer balance the preflure of the fame column of water, which it had juft before lifted into the force-pipe. This being the cafe, the injeftion-water begins to run, and falls in a fhower through the fteam contained in the receiver. The fudden effect of this fhower to produce the condenfation is really furprifing. The injeétion, being a portion of the fame water which has juft before quitted the receiver, mutt have the fame temperature as that which was then in conta& with the fteam; and the difference in the rapidity of the condenfation arifes only from the difperfion of the water into drops. When the cold water is contained in the lower part of the veflel, the furface only of the water is expofed to the fteam, and foon becomes fo heated that it will not condenfe with that great rapidity which it does at firft. On the other hand, a quantity of water difperfed in drops will be completely expofed to the fteam, and will take up therefrom, in an inftant, as much heat as will reduce the temperature of the iteam, and increale the heat of the in- jeCtion-water, until they approach to an equality of tems perature. This being the cafe, it will eafily be feen that the degree of condenfation which can be obtained within the receiver will be in a ratio to the coldnefs and quantity of the injection-water ; but the quantity required for injection is far lefs than when applied on the outfide of the receiver, becaufe the receiver will not tranfmit the heat of the {team through it fo quickly, but the water muit run down the outfide of the receiver, and defcend into the well, without being much warmed, and without having extraGed much heat from the {team within. The next improvement in Savery’s engine was the addi- tion of the fafety-valve to the boiler. This was invented by Papin for his digefter, to permit the fteam to efcape from the boiler into the open air, when it arrives at {uch a devree of preflure as to endanger the rupture of the veflels. The fafety-valve, which is fhewn in the figure of Papin’s engine, fig. 2, is nothing more than a valve Opening out- wards, and well fitted to clofe an aperture which is made in the top of the boiler, and is kept fhut by a weight or a lever, which is loaded with a weight, capable of flidin upon the lever in the manner of a fteelyard ; fo that the preffure of the weight upon the valve can be regulated at pleafure, according to the ftrength of fteam which is re- guired; but, in all cafes, it muft be loaded fo as to permit the {team to lift it up and efcape, when it arrives at a pref- fure which would endanger the boiler or receiver. With a view to ftrengthen the boiler, hoops and internal radiating bars were tried, according to the idea of the marquis of Worcelter ; but, this was found of very little fervice, be- caufe, on account of the condenfation of the fteam, it is much better to divide the mine into engines of from 70 to 8o feet lift, according to captain Savery’s firlt propofition, than to attempt ufing fteam of that degree of elatticity, which will require any fuch precaution, In the Philofophical Tranfaétions, N° 461, there is an account of a new way of producing fteam of a great pref- fure. The boiler confilts of an inverted conical veflel of iron, to the bafe or upper part of which a clofe and ttrong copper-head or hemifphere is joined by rivets all round: the lower part, or cone, is fet in a reverberatory-furnace, to receive a fufficient heat from the flame to make it red-hot. The water is introduced into this boiler in a number of fmall {treams, or jets, which are injected into it by a pipe, which defcends through the cover, or f{pherical top, of the boiler ; and in the middle of the cone feveral {pouts are fixed, radiating from it like the arms of a wheel: the pipe mutt be carried up above the boiler, fo as to have a column of a fufficient height to overcome the preflure of the fteam, and alfo enter into the boiler with a confiderable force ; and by the radiating {pouts it is difperfed in a fhower upon the interior furface of the iron cone, and is thus converted into {team, which flies up to the copper-head, and is carried off by a pipe to the engine. The inventor propofed to make the tube with the radiating fpouts to revolve, for the purpofe of diftributing the water more completely ; but he probably never tried the experiment, or he would have found that the boiler would have been foon deftroyed by the rapid oxydation of the iron which mutt take place from throwing water upon it when red-hot ; and copper would have melted. In 1717, Dr. Defaguliers made an engine on Savery’s plan in an improved form. He fays, that in confidering Savery’s engine with Dr. Gravefande, they thought there was a great watte of {team, by its con{tantly a¢tirg upon the receivers without intermiffion, the fteam becoming ufelefs until it had heated the furface of the water in the re- ceiver, and alfo to a certain depth below the furface : Bee if it were fo contrived, that after the fleam had prefled up one receiver full of water, inftead of being thrown into another, it fhould be confined in the boiler till the receiver was refilled by the atmofphere, and thus turned upon the water, the fteam would have acquired fo much force from its confinement, that it would prefs fuddenly upon the fur- face of the water, and difcharge a confiderable portion of it even before it had heated the furface. In purfuance of this idea, they had a model made which could either be ufed with one or two receivers, and found, on experiment, that one receiver could be difcharged three times in the fame time that two could be difcharged once. They alfo learned that captain Savery had made an engine at Kenfington with only one receiver, which aéted very well. Defa- guliers then made feveral engines with a {pherical boiler, provided with a fafety-valve, and a receiver of about one- fifth of the capacity of the boiler, and of a cylindrical figure, tall, and of {mall diameter in proportion. The fteam and the injeGtion-water were alternately admitted into the receiver at top through a double-patlaged cock, the handle of which being turned towards the boiler, ad- mitted fteam; or, being turned towards the force-pipe, admitted the jet of cold water; but only one of thefe paf- fages could be open at the fame time. The fmall branch from the force-pipe which conveyed the inje&tion-water to the double-paflaged cock, had another cock in it to adjuft the aperture, and regulate the quantity of water which fhould flow into the receiver. The fuétion-pipe and force- pipe were the fame as Savery’s; but the valves were con- veniently fituated, fo as to be readily acceffible when they required repairs. Dr. Defaguliers tells us that he made feven of thefe engines: the firlt was for the czar Peter the Great, for his garden at St. Peterfburgh, where it was fet up. The boiler of this engine was {pherical (as they were all in his way where the fteam was fo much ftronger than air), and held between five and fix hogfheads; the receiver held one hogfhead, and was filled and emptied four times in a minute. The water was drawn up by {uction, or the preflure of the atmofphere, twenty-nine feet high out of the well, and then prefled up eleven feet higher. The pipes were all of copper, but foldered to the fuction-piece with foft folder, which held very well for that height ; but he did not venture'either upon a greater quantity for that height, or a greater height for that quantity ; for if the quantity was larger than above, the boiler mutt have been greater, and the fteam of the fame force would have had a greater furface to a& upon, which might have burft the boiler, or would have required it to be made much thicker. Another engine of this fort, which he put up for a friend in 1730, drew up the water twenty-nine feet from the well, and then it was forced up by the preflure of the fteam twenty-four feet higher, into a ciftern holding about thirty tons, placed at the top of a tower, in order to run down again through a pipe or conduit, and play feveral jets in the garden. But fometimes, no jets being played, the water was difcharged at the height of fix or eight feet out of the force-pipes to fill the ponds and water-meadows in dry weather, which it did with a lefs ftrength of ftream than what drove the water into the tower; or if the fame fteam was kept up, it would make eight or nine ftrokes in a minute, inftead of about fix, as when the water was driven up into the ciftern. Upon the iafety-valve there was a fteelyard, the place of whofe weight fhewed the ftrength of the fteam, and how high it was capable of raifing water ; but when the weight was at the very end of the fteelyard, the fteam, being then very ftrong, would lift it up and go out at the valve, rather than damage the boiler. T'wenty- STEAM-ENGINE. five years after this engine was made, a man, who was entirely ignorant of the nature of the engine, without any in{truétions, undertook to work it; and having hung the weight at the farther end of the fteelyard, in order to collec more fteam, to make his work the quicker, as alfo a very heavy plumber’s iron upon the end of the {teelyard, the fteam not being able to lift the fafety-valve, the {teelyard, loaded with all this unufual weight, burft the boiler with a great explofion, and killed the poor man who {tood near with the pieces that flew afunder. Thefe accounts fhew how high, and in what quantity, this kind of fire-engine can fafely raife the water. About as much fire as a common large parlour-fire was fufficient to work this engine, and raife fifteen tons per hour ; fo that if the ciftern was kept full, the jets could be made to play to entertain friends at any time, and then a man being fent to light the fire under the boiler, the engine would raife water to fupply the jets before the ciftern was empty. M. De Moura, of Portugal, fent an engine to the Royal Society upon the principle of Savery’s, but provided with apparatus to make it felf-a€ting, and to open and fhut the valves at the proper inftant. The receiver, boiler, fteam- pipe, and injeétion-cocks, are the fame as we have before defcribed, together with the fuction and forcing-pipes, and their valves. What is peculiar to this engine is, a float within the receiver, compofed of a light ball of copper, which is not loofe therein, but faftened to the end of an arm or lever, which is made to rife and fall by the float, while the other end of the arm is fixed to an axis, and con- fequently, as the float moves up and down, the axis is turned round one way or the other. This axis is made conical, and pafles through a conical focket, which is fol- dered to the fide of the receiver, and upon that end of the axis which projeéts beyond the focket ; and, therefore, at the outfide of the receiver is fitted a fecond arm, which is alfo moved backwards and forwards by the axis, as the float rifes and falls. By thefe means, the rifing and falling of the furface of the water within the receiver communicates a correfpondent motion to the outfide, in order to aétuate the reft of the gear, which regulates the opening and fhut- ting of the fteam and injection-cocks. A {mall ciftern is foldered to the outfide receiver, and, being kept full of water, furrounds the joint, or conical focket, through which the axis of the float pafles: this keeps the axis and focket air- tight. The ciftern is conftantly kept full of water by means of a fmall leakage from the force-pipe, through a wooden peg, and the drops are conduéted by a packthread down to the ciitern. A {mall weight is applied to the arm on the outfide of the receiver, to counterpoife the float within ; alfo upon the fame arm is a flider, which being fet nearer to, or farther from the axis, will rife or fall a greater or lefs fpace, as may be required; when the float within rifes or falls, and the flider can be fattened by a {crew at any part. A chain is attached to the flider, and gives motion by means of a fhorter chain to a balance, or tumbler, which moves on an axis, and opens and fhuts the cocks. The firft-mentioned chain paffes ever two pullies, fupported by two arms, that are faftened to the fide of the receiver, which give a chain a proper horizontal direGtion : in order to move the balance to the end of the chain, a weight is fattened fufficient to raife the balance to a perpen- dicular pofition, and alfo to overcome the fri€tion of the float, and its axis with the pullies and chain. The balance moves upon an axis, which is fupported in pieces projeing from the receiver ; and it has three arms, one of which applies with a roller to the handle of the fteam-cock, a fecond a&ts upon the lever of the injeGtion- 4 cock, sf . STEAM-ENGINE. cock, and a third fhort arm has a piece of chain, to link it to the chain before-mentioned, at the part where the fame extended horizontally between the two pullies. The arms, which a& upon the cocks, are fo placed, as to fhut the fteam-cock the moment before the injeCtion is opened, and wice verfa. To put the engine in motion, prefs down the arm of the axis, which raifes the float within the receiver, and the coun- ter-weight of the chain will bring the balance over to the tight fide, and in its motion will open the fteam-cock, and fhut the injection-cock : ulfo open a fmall gauge-cock in the top of the receiver, that the air may be difcharged by the entrance of the {team into the receiver. This being done, fhut the air-cock, and let go the arm of the balance: the weight at the end of the chain will bring over the balance to the left, and in its motion will fhut the fteam-cock and open the injeGtion-cock, to admit a {mall jet of cold water into the receiver, which prefently condenfing the {team into water, in a great meafure leaves a vacuum in the receiver. In this fituation the preffure of the atmofphere will caufe the water to mount through the fuction-pipe into the receiver, where, as its furface rifes, it makes the float afcend, and depreffing the arm on the outfide of the receiver, draws the chain and raifes the balance, till it has pafled the perpendicular, when it will fall over fuddenly by its own gravity : in falling, the roller of one of its arms takes hold of the handle of the fteam-cock, and opens it, whilft the other one fhuts the in- jeGtion-cock. This fall of the balance takes place when the receiver is almoft filled with water, and the balance cannot return till the furface of the water therein fubfides, and fuffers the float to defcend. This takes place as foon as the fteam ceafes to be condenfed by the cold receiver, and acquires fuflicient elaftic force from its heat to fill the receiver and drive out the water from the forcing-pipe. When the furface of the water defcends the float finks, and fuffers the counter- weight to draw up the chain. By the fhort chain it draws the balance beyond the perpendicular towards the left, when it falls of its own accord ; and in falling, the one arm takes hold of the handle and fhuts the fteam-cock, whil{t the other opens the injeftion-cock, as before. In the “¢ Machines approuvées par |’ Academie for 1744,” is a defcription of an engine by M. Genflanes, which very clofely refembles M. De Moura’s, but is more completely defcribed. Mr. Blakey’s Engine on Savery’s Principle—Long after fteam-engines fuperior to Sayery’s had become general, an ingenious engineer, Mr. Blakey, made many attempts to introduce Savery’s engine in an improved form. He obtained a patent in 1766, from the f{pecification of which it appears, that his improvement was to employ oil floating upon the furface of the water in the receiver, to form a pilton or difk between the hot fteam and the cold water, to prevent the fteam being condenfed as foon as it touches the furface of the water; or air was to be admitted into the receiver for the fame purpofe. In this cafe, two receivers were to be ufed, one in the fame fituation as Savery’s, which was to receive the air; and the hot fteam, when admitted into it, forced the air to defcend by a pipe to the fecond receiver, which was at the bottom of the well, and expel the water therefrom, and elevate it in the force-pipe. By this means he hoped to prevent the fteam coming in contaét with the water, and avoid the condenfation. Mr. Blakey afterwards made fome alteration in the form of his engine, which is defcribed as follows by Mr. Fergufon: (fee Platel. fig. 3.) Eis the boiler, fet in a furnace fo as to be furrounded with flame: F is the gauge-cock, to afeertain the depth of water in the boiler: D the fteam- Vor. XXXIV. pipe, to which is foldered the cock and funnel C, for filling the boiler before the engine is fet to work: I is an air- veflel, and ‘TT an injection-pipe, which pafles through acrofs the top of the receiver, and has {mall holes pierced in it for the cold water to drop through and fall in a fhower in the air-veflel I, in order to form a condenfation : the end of the injection-pipe is carried into the {team-pipe D, to admit a {mall quantity of water to run down the pipe D, and fupply the boiler: V is a receiver, communicating with the air- veflel I by a pipe; in the upper part of it is a cullender S, with {mall holes to difperfe the injeétion-water, which falls from the air-veflel I, equally through the receiver V: O is a valve to admit air, which comes through the cock P into the receiver; and H is an occafional cock, to let out the air and {team when the engine is firft fet to work: Q is a pipe from the receiver V, to the box which contains the valves B and N at the bottom of the forcing-pipe A, which conveys the water up to the refervoir: M is the fuction-pipe, to draw the water from the well up to the receiver: G is the fire- place belonging to the furnace, in which the boiler is fet, and beneath it is an afh-hole. It is needlefs to fay any thing of the fcaffold or the well, they being always made according to the fize of the machine, and in proportion to the place in which it is to be ereted. All the veilels and pipes of this engine are made of {trong copper. In order to fet this engine at work, the refervoir and pipe AA mutt be filled with water, which-will be retained in the clack B; then more water muft be poured into the funnel C, which is on the fteam-pipe D ; from thence it falls into the boiler E, and rifes to the level of the cock F, which muft be open ; but as foon as the water runs from it, the funnel-cock C, as well as the gauge-cock F, mutt be fhut, and the atr-gauge cock H muit be opened. The fire is then to be put into the furnace G, and as foon as the water is in ebuilition in the boiler it creates {team, which finds its way through the pipe D, and forces the air out of the veflel I into the lower receiver V ; the air is alfo forced out at the cock H, the fteam following it with great velocity. In a fecond or two the cock H mutt be fhut, and inftanta- neoufly the injeétion-cock L mutt be opened, which lets cold water run through the end of the pipe TT, into the fteam- pipe D, to replace that which has been evaporated out of the boiler E ; and it alfo ruthes out on all fides from the little holes which are in the fides of the pipe TT, into the air- veffel I, and falls on the cullender S : this cold water makes a fudden condenfation in the veflels I and V, and forms a vacuum, which caufes the atmofphere to prefs on the water in which the lower end of the pipe N is immerfed, and the water afcends the faid pipe with great rapidity, and pafles through the clack N, and through the pipe Q, into the re- ceiver V, till it rifes up to O, where is a floating-ball faf- tened to a handle or lever, which in rifing turns the key of the cock P, and opens it : there is a valve at that end of the cock which is withinfide of the receiver V, fo that as foon as the cock is opened, the valve O is forced up by the air, which rufhes through with great quicknefs and noife into the veflel I ; and when that veflel is full of air, the vacunm is deftroyed and no more noife is heard, which gives the notice to fhut immediately the injeftion-cock L: that being done, the fteam recovers its force, and makes its way through the fteam-pipe D, into the air-veflel I ; and as the fteam increafes, being much lighter than air, it keeps wpper- moft, and forces the air on the water which is in the re- ceiver V, which water is forced through the pipe Q, and lifting up the clack at B, goes up the pipe A, and empties itfelf into the refervoir at top. When all the water is ex- pelled out of the receiver V, the air follows, and afcends G with STEAM-ENGINE. with great velocity through the water which is in the pipe A : two or three feconds after the noife of this is heard, the in- jection-cock L mutt be opened to let in cold water, and caufe the fame effet as before. The noife of the air ruth- ing in and out of the receiver gives proper notice when the manager of this hand-engine is to open and fhut the injection- cock, which is the only thing required to work this machine, when once it has been put in a€tion, in the manner that has been defcribed above. This engine was not found to anfwer any better than Savery’s, becaufe the. air will not make that complete fe- paration between the fteam and the cold water which the inventor expected; and there is a great lofs of power to comprefs the air fufficiently to make it lift the column of water ; and in order to get rid of this air it muft be forced up the pipe, which takes as much power of {team as would be required to force up as much water as the air occupied the place of when in its condenfed {tate. Mr. Blakey’s intention in the injection of a {mall quantity of water into the boiler at every ftroke, was the fame as Mr. Payne’s red-hot boiler, of which we have before fpoken, but he was in practice obliged to employ a tteam-cock in the pipe D, otherwife the fteam which the boiler produces whilft the injeétion-cock is open would have been all condenfed and lott. Savery’s engine can be ufefully employed for lifting water 30 or 35 feet, which can be done principally by the {uction, and with a very flight preflure for the remainder ; but it is the moit advantageous way to raife no more than 24 feet, and perform the whole lift by the fuétion, and even to allow the water a fufficient defcent to empty the receiver by its own gravity, without forcing it in the leaft by the fteam. In this form of the engine, the fteam need have no greater elaftic force than the atmofpheric air, or juft as much as is fufficient to make it enter into the receiver, as the water runs out. The temperature of the {team, according to our table, will then be only a little above the boiling point, or above 215°, and confequently the lofs by the condenfa- tion is not fo ferious; and as the {team is not prefled upon the water, it is not brought into fuch clofe conta& with the cold water, as in the forcing engines. In this way, the injection mult be forced in by a {mall force-pump. Mr. Kier’s Engine on Savery’s Plan.—An engine upon this principle, with various judicious improvements, was erected fome years ago by Mr. Peter Kier, at his manu- fa€tory of coach axletrees, near Pancras, where, without any material repair, it has almoft conftantly been worked fince, to raife water and turn a water-wheel. The pro- prietor {tates it to anfwer his purpofe very well, becaufe it works without an attendant, and regulates its own motions ; and, as might naturally be expected, the wear and tear are alfo inconfiderable. Plate 1. Steam-Engine, fig. 4. reprefents this engine, taken in a feGtion through the centre. R reprefents an oval boiler, feven feet long, five feet wide, and five deep. Mr. Kier confiders it as being of dimenfions fuflicient to work a larger engine ; acircumftance which mutt, in a cer- tain degree, increafe the confumption of fuel. It feeds itfelf with water conveyed through an elevated pipe, at the end of which isa valve. This valve does not open until the fall of the water within the boiler has fuffered a float to fubfide, which by its a¢tual weight affifts to draw the valve open; but the float, by its tendency upwards, as the water in the boiler rifes, ferves effeCtually to clofe it. The water in the boiler, therefore, remains conftantly at or near the fame level. The fteam is conveyed by a pipe, TAV, to a box B, through which, by the opening and fhutting 7 of a valve, it can be conveyed to the working chamber E, The axis, C, ferves as a key to open and {hut the valve: N O is a ciftern of water, from which the engine draws its water through a vertical pipe, in which the valve Q is placed, to prevent the return of the water; G G is another ciftern, into which the water is delivered through the pipe F, which is provided with a valve H, opening out- wards; IM reprefents an overfhot water-wheel, 18 feet in diameter, moving on the axis K L, and communicating its motion to the lathes, and other machines ufed in the manu- factory. The water in both the cifterns becomes warmer than the hand, after working a fhort time; for which rea- fon, the injeétion-water is forced up by a {mall pump from a well, fupplied from the {mall ftream on which thefe works are eftablithed. A leaden pipe pafles from this forcing- pump to the upper or conical part of the chamber E, for the purpofe of injecting cold water at the proper time. Neither of thefe could be reprefented with conyenience in the prefent feétion. The manner in which the {team and co!d water are alter- nately admitted into the chamber E, remains to be explained. Upon the extremity, K, of the axis of the overfhot water-wheel there is fixed a folid wooden wheel, about four feet in diameter: it is alfo reprefented in fig. 5, as feen in the front ; a,b,c, dy are four cleats, all or any number of which may be fixed on the wheel at a time. Each cleat has its correfpondent block, e,f,g,4, on the oppofite furface of the wheel. The ufe of thefe is to work the engine. Suppofe the wheel IMK, with all the revolving apparatus, be turned round by hand, one of the cleats meets in its rotation with a lever, which opens the fleam-valve by a bar of communication reaching to the handle of the axis C, fig. 2. The fteam confequently pafles into the chamber E, and the fteam-valve fhuts again, as foon as the cleat has pafled. Speedily after this, the correfpondent block on the other fide of the wheel meets another lever, which is fimilarly attached to the handle of the forcing-pump, and, therefore, throws a jet of cold water into the chamber, and condenfes the fteam. The preflure of the atmofphere then forces the water from the ciftern N O, through the valve Q, towards the chamber E. When the engine has been long out of work, two or three ftrokes may be neceflary to raife the water to the top of the chamber E. As foon as this is the cafe, the re-entrance of the fteam fuffers the whole body of water, above the valve H, to flow out of the chamber E, by its gravity. The water which is raifed is fuffered to flow upon the overfhot water-wheel, IM, through a fluice ; and by that means keeps the work in motion, and replenifhes the lower ciftern. There is no refervoir for the inje€tion-water, but the requifite quantity is driven up at each ftroke. Hence we fee, that in effeét this engine is the fame as Sa- very’s original engine, except that it is not applied for the immediate purpofe of raifing water, but gives motion to other apparatus; and it does not force the water by the {team at all, The water merely falls out of the chamber, and confequently never requires {team much ftronger than the atmofphere. From the effeé of this engine, under cir- cumitances of fuch advantage, it may fairly be concluded, that the action of {team againft water in forcing can never be beneficial, except at places where fuel can be had ex- tremely cheap. It was found, at the firft erection of this engine, that the confumption of fteam, by conta with the water, was fo great, that it could not be worked with ad- vantage. » This defe&t was remedied in the prefent engine, as well as in another which was at Norwich, by fixing a {mall air-valve in the fteam-box, which is ftruck open by the machinery for an inftant, immediately before the ad- miflion STEAM-ENGINE. miffion of fteam. It may be prefumed, that, according to Mr. Blakey’s idea, the air occupied a {pace above the wa- ter, and prevented their coming together. Mr. Kier, how- ever, is difpofed to think that the effect does not take place in this manner, but by fome mixture and dilatation of the two fluids; becaufe he imagines the mifchief from the wet furface of the cylinder would remain the fame, when the water defcends. To get rid of this air, the fteam in the boiler muft be made fo much ftronger than the atmofphere, as to rufh into the receiver with fufficient force to drive out the air through the fame valve at which it entered, and which opens outwards for that purpofe; but will fhut, to prevent the air entering when the vacuum is made, except for an inftant before the fteam is admitted, when it is opened by the machinery. The motion of the overfhot water-wheel is regulated by an apparatus called a governor, invented by Mr. Watt, and which will be defcribed in our account of his engine, It is a perpendicular axis, which revolves by communication with the engine, and carries round two pen- dulous balls; which pendulums move on a joint, fixed to the vertical axis. When the rotation is very quick, the balls fly out, and are applied to draw down a lever, which is conne@ted with the fluice of the upper ciftern: the fluice, therefore, is made to fall or rife, according as the velocity of the engine is greater or lefs. By this difpofition, when the wheel moves very fpeedily from lightnefs of work, or any other caufe, the quantity of water thrown down from the upper ciftern is immediately diminifhed ; and, on the contrary, the quantity of water is rendered greater, when the flownefs of the movement fhews that more is wanted. The engine here defcribed has been at work many years, and from the fimplicity of its conitruétion has yet exhibited no proofs of wear. Mr. Kier thinks it a profitable engine to himfelf, and that it would be ferviceable for raifing water where coals are cheap. It confumes fix bufhels of good coals in twelve hours’ work, when in its beft ftate, or feven bufhels when at the wortt. Under thefe circumftances it gives ten ftrokes per minute, each throwing out feven cubic feet of water at an aperture of 20 feet above the water beneath. This quantity, namely, 70 cubic feet fer minute, will weigh 4375lbs. raifed 20 feet high, which being doubled, to reduce it to Defaguliers’ ftandard height of 10 feet, will amount to 875olbs. raifed 10 feet high; and this divided by 550, the number of pounds in a hogfhead, will give a quotient of 16 hogfheads raifed 10 feet, reprefenting the force of fo many men, according to the eftimate of that author, who reckons five men equivalent to one horfe. The refult is not quite half what is performed, with an equal quantity of coals, by the improved engines, with a pilton of fuch fize as to be equal to 20 or 25 Roster: Philof. Journ. vol. i. Several other engines have been ereéted upon this plan ; and where the water which is raifed is to be immediately boiled, they are very capital machines, becaufe all the lofs of heat is thrown into the water and warms it before enter- ing the boiler, fo as to economize the whole: for inftance, for the purpofe of raifing water into the boilers for a falt- work or for a brewery, they are very applicable. We have no accounts of the quantity of water which could be raifed by Savery’s original engine with a given quantity of fuel; but he tells us in the Miner’s Friend, that to lift a three-inch bore of water 60 feet high, would only require a fire-place for the furnace of 20 inches deep, and 14 or 15 wide; the expence of fuel for which, he fays, would be inconfiderable, when compared with the advan- tages to be derived from the ufe of the engine. It has been propofed to copftrué a fucceflion of engines upon Savery’s plan in a mine, to raife water by fudtion from one to another, and to have all of them worked by one common fteam-boiler. For this purpofe, the depth of the pit is divided into lifts of about 15 feet, and at each lift is a ciftern, to receive the water raifed by the different engines- Each engine confifts of a vertical f{u€tion-pipe, with the lower end immerfed in the water of the ciftern of the en- gine below it, and areceiver at the upper end, which com- municates with the fuétion-pipe through a valve, to prevent the defcent of the water from the receiver through the fuction-pipe. There is alfo a fmall {pout or pipe iauing: from the fide of each receiver into each ciftern, which is to receive the water after it is raifed into the receiver ; and the ends of thefe fpouts are covered with valves, to prevent the water running back into the receivers from the cifterns. All thefe receivers communicate with a common air-pipe, which leads up to the top clofe receiver, or air-veflel, fitu- ated at the top of the pit, which vellelis of at leaft double the capacity of all the receivers and the common pipe to- gether. Immediately above the air-veflel is the {team- receiver, of equal capacity, and communicating with the air-veflel by a pipe, which defcends through the top of the fame, and reaches nearly to the bottom of the air-veflel, fo that if there is any water in this veflel, the end of the com- municating pipe will be immerfed therein. Suppote the cilterns at the different ftages, and alfo the lower or air-vellel, nearly filled with water, and the air-pipe and the {mall receivers filled with air, the aétion of the ma- chine will be as follows: the tteam is admitted from the boiler into the upper receiver, and expels the air therefrom through a proper cock or valve: when thoroughly filled with heated fteam, the communication with the boiler is fhut, and an injeCtion of cold water thrown into the re- ceiver ; this condenfes the fteam, and formas a vacuum in the upper receiver: this being the cafe, the air contained in the air-pipe and receiver, by its elaftic preflure upon the furface of the water contained in the great air-veflel, caufes the water to mount through the pipe of communication into the upper or fteam-receiver. This caufes the air in the pipes and receivers to occupy a greater {pace than it did before, and being thus rarefied, it no longer balances the preflure of the atmofphere upon the furface of the water contained in each ciftern; it therefore forces the water up the refpective fu€tion-pipes into the {mall receivers, and will fill each of them one half with water, and then the air contained in the remaining half of each receiver, and in the great air-veflel above, comes to its equilibrium. The fleam is now admitted a fecond time into the fteam-receiver, and prefling upon the furface of the water therein, allows it to defcend by its gravity into the air-veflel beneath, from which it expels the air, and by the communication of the air-pipe it enters into the upper part of each of the {mall receivers down in the pit, and bearing upon the furface of the water in each, fuffers it to flow out by its own weight through the fpouts into their refpective cilterns. When they have thus difcharged the water which they had before drawn up, the fteam in the upper receiver is again con- denfed, and this rarefies the air in the air-veflel and feveral receivers, and draws up more water from each ciftern 5 and thus the aétion of the machine continues as long as the boiler affords fteam. In this plan, the water in the upper receiver is never changed ; but the fame water is conftantly fubjeéted to the aétion cf the fteam, and will thereby be- come heated fo as to avoid the lofs of {team by the con- denfation. But this at the fame time introduces another difficulty, which the inventor had not forefeen, viz. that the heat of the water will prevent a fufficient condenfation G2 of | \} | } | STEAM-ENGINE. of the fteam to obtain a vacuum: for inftance, it is not neceflary for an engine of this kind to have fteam in the boiler of much greater preffure than the atmofphere: fup- pofe it is equal to railing water two feet, by our fecond table this will be at a temperature of 215°. . Now, ac- cording to our firlt table, in order to obtain fuch a degree of rarefaGtion of preflure within the receiver as to lift a column of 30 feet of water, the temperature mutt be cooled down to 120°; therefore, at every ttroke of the engine a change of temperature mutt be made equal to 95°, viz. be- tween 120° and 215°. On this account, fuch an engine would require a great quantity of condenfing water, and it is pro- bable that it would be better to make the water, which the engine raifes, pafs through the receiver, on Savery’s plan, or at leaft fuch.a portion of it, as will keep the tem- perature of the water in the receiver fufficiently low to ob- tain the condenfation which we have above mentioned. In employing air in this manner to tran{mit the force of the fteam into other veflels, there is always the lofs from the elafticity or compreffibility of the air, which, in the cafe above flated, will be equal to one-half; becaufe, when a fufficient rarefaétion is made within the fteam-receiver to caufe the atmofphere to prefs upon it equal to 13lbs. upon the {quare inch, or to fuck up water 30 fect, the air con- tained in the air-veffel and pipes will expand itfelf fo as to balance one-half of that preffure ; and, therefore, the de- gree of rarefaétion within the {mall receivers will be only fufficient to raife the water 15 feet inftead of 30. On the other hand, when the {team is admitted into the receiver, it mutt be in fufficient quantity to reftore the air to its origi- nal denfity, before it will balance the preflure of the at- mofphere, and allow the water to flow out of the receivers into their cifterns. ‘ Fig. 5. reprefents a fimilar contrivance to the above, but it is for forcing. It was fuggefted by Mr. Kier, in 1783. A is a boiler, and B a fteam-veflel : this laft communicates with the veflels M, L, K, T, each of which, except the lower one, confifts of two veflels ; firft, an external ciltern, open at the top; and fecondly, an interior receiver, im- merfed in the water of the ciftern, and clofed on all fides, except where it communicates with B, by the branches of the receiver, the pipe F GH defcending from B, and where the pipes P, O, N, I, enter the upper part of each, and defcend withinfide nearly to the bottom, and alfo where there is a valve at the bottom opening upwards. If fteam be let pafs from A to B, the air will be driven from B through the pipes I’, and prefs upoa the furface of the water in the lower receiver T, and drive the fame up the pipes into the veffel or ciftern K, but not into the receiver K, becaufe the preflure of the air within that receiver keeps the valve in the bottom of the receiver fhut. The next ftep of the operation confifts in clofing the cock C, and opening D, out of which a portion of {team will be driven, by the re-action of the water forcing itfelf through the valve in the bottom of the receiver T, from its natural tendency to rife to the fame level as the furface of the water in the pit or well; and on the fame account the water will enter into the receiver, K, from the ciftern in which it is immerfed: the cock D is then to be clofed, and C opened ; in confequence of which, the contents of the receiver, T, will be forced up to the ciftern, K, by the fteam, as before, and the receiver, K, will difcharge its contents through the pipe, N, into the ciltern L. The fteam being again fhut off at C, and the cock D being opened, as before, the receivers, T; K, and L, will fill as before, by the water from the exterior ciftern enter- ing through the yalves in their bottoms, and a larger por- tion of {team williflue from D. A third repetition of the procefs will drive the contents of thefe three receivers a {tep higher; and a fourth repetition will caufe the con- tents of the upper receiver, M, to flow out at P; after which, every alternation of the work with the cocks C, D, will throw out the fame quantity from P. The veflel B muft neceflarily contain a quantity of air capable of occupying the whole interior {pace contained in the clofed receiver, with an allowance for the lofs of bulk in condenfation, under the preflure of a column of water equal to one of the lifts; and the quantity of {team to be difcharged at each ftroke, mult occupy a fpace equai to that of all the water moved at each ftroke; and mutt, in all cafes, be confiderably itronger than two atmofpheres, in proportion to the heights of the lifts. Other Propofals for the Improvement of Savery’s Engine.— In the Memoirs of the Philofophical Society of Laufanne, M. Francois has defcribed a fteam-engine on Savery’s plan, which he prepofes to be ufed for draining fens or marfhes, and has added machinery to open and fhut the cocks ; it has otherwife nothing remarkable. See Repertory of Arts, firit feries, vol. iv. In the American Philofophical TranfaGtions there is a defcription of a fteam-engine, on Savery’s principle, by Mr. Nancarrow, which is applied to raife water for turning a water-wheel. In this engine, the receiver, into which the {team is admitted, isa tall cylindrical pipe, with only a flight enlargement at the top to form the receiver; and the water is only raifed by the preffure of the atmofphere : and to pre- vent the water being changed and continuing cold, fo as to condenfe the fteam, it is not fuffered to run off immediately from the receiver, as in Mr. Kier’s engine, but nearly at the bottom of the tall cylindrical pipe it is joined to a box, as fhewn by the dotted lines in the figure of his engine, and from this box a fecond vertical pipe, or force-pipe, afcends to the refervoir which contains the water: the valve to pre- vent the return of the water is placed at the lower end of this fecond pipe. By this means, the portion of water which comes in con- tat with the fteam rifes and falls in the receiver, and alter- nately draws and forces other water through the box below, from the fuGtion-pipe, and into the force-pipe and refer- voir. But this water, when it becomes heated, aéts like a floating pifton on the furface of the cold water to prevent the contaét of the fteam. Mr. Nancarrow propofed to em- ploy a feparate condenfer and air-pump to produce the vacuum, inftead of making an injection into the receiver ; but this would be attended with no advantage ; and we have before itated the objections to the water growing heated any more than fuperficially. At the fame time we think that a very good and fimple engine might be made, if this form of the apparatus, in which the water fhall never be ehanged, was applied to forcing by the preflure of the fteam only, on the marquis of Worcetter’s plan, and not to attempt condenfation, which it is impoffible to effet perfeGiy, when the water has be- come very hot; but inftead thereof, when the fteam hasexerted its force, to opena cock, and let off the fteam into the open ar. Anengine of this kind, which only requires the addi- tional receiver, is defcribed in Leupold’s Theatrum Machi- narum Hydraulicarum, vol. ii. 1724. - The latt improvement which we have noticed in Savery’s engine, is by Mr. James Boaz, of Glafgow, who took out a patent in 1805, for feveral different forms of the engine. In all thefe the receiver is made cylindrical, and a pifton is applied to float uponthe furface of the water, upon Papin’s plan; and in the fame manner as Nancarrow’s anaes e . . . STEAM-ENGINE. he propofes to employ fuch an arrangement of the force- pipes, and of a fecond {mall receiver, that the water which comes in contaét with the fteam fhall not be changed, but fhall always remain the fame ; a method which precludes the ufe of the vacuum by condenfation. The {pecification of this patent is publifhed in the Repertory of Arts, vol. viii. Newceomen’s, or the Atmofpheric Steam-Engine.— This engine is named after its inventor, Mr. Thomas Newcomen, an ironmonger of Dartmouth, in Devonfhire. He appears to have been a perfon of ingenuity, and of fome reading, and was acquainted with the famous philofopher Dr. Hooke. Newcomeu was in the habit of vifiting the mines of tin and copper in Cornwall, where captain Savery was well known, from his attempts to introduce his engine for the draining of mines, which, at that period, were nearly all of them at a ftand, for want of fome more powerful and cheap machines than hand-pumps or horfe-machines. The captain was not fuccefsfulin his attempts, principally becanfe he employed the direét a€tion of the {team upon the water, which either confined him to the height of 25 feet, or compelled him to employ tteam of a great elaftic foree; in which cafe it became an indifpenfible condition, that the boiler and veflels fhould be very ftrong, as well as that a large quantity of fuel fhould be confumed, to produce fteam fufficiently denfe. It is probable that thefe inconveniencies may have early dire¢ted the thoughts of other ingenious men to the application of a pifton ; but the difficulties of the undertaking feem to have retarded this purfuit for a con- fiderable time. The firft fteam-engine with a pifton, made by Papin in 1707, which we have defcribed, was not at all calculated to remove the difficulties ; and it is to Newcomen, and his affociate Cawley, that we are indebted for the application of a pifton with machinery, by which the indire@ a@tion of fteam a little flronger than the atmofphere, or rather the di- ret aGtion of the atmofphere upon a pifton, is made to a& with fafety and effe& againft the molt fevere preflures. It appears that they had brought their atmofpheric engine, about the year 1713, to a degree of perfe€tion little inferior to thofe which are to be feen at prefent. - Principle of the Atmofpheric Engine.—To have an idea of its principles and mode of operation, fuppofe a very large fyringe or cylinder to be placed upright, and a pifton or plug inferted at the upper end, the ufual aperture being fup- pofed to be at the lower extremity. If this laft aperture is open, the pifton will defcend by its own weight, negleéting the effect of fri€tion at its circumference. But let it be imagined that the pifton is fupported by a counter-weight applied at the oppofite extremity, a lever, or by any other means: in this cafe the pilton will not defcend unlefs more weight is added to it. ; Rainy the various ways of applying fuch a weight, there is one which confifts in exhaufting the air from the internal part of the cylinder, beneath the pifton: and.if this is done, it is evident that the whole preflure of the atmofphere, amount- ing to about 143 pounds on every fquare inch, will be- come aétive upon the upper furface of the pifton. This method of gaining a great force was invented by the famous Otto Guericke : fee his Experimenta Magdeburgica, 1672. If the vacuum was to be produced by means of an air-pump on Guericke’s plan, it muft be allowed that the labour of effeGiing it would be at leaft equal to that of any work which could be performed by the fubfequent defcent of the pifton ; we muit therefore feek {ome other means of pro- ducing fuch a vacuum. We have feen that in Savery’s engine the operation of fteam is two-fold, namely, by the dire& preflure from its elafticity, and by the indireét confe- quence of its condenfation, which affords a vacuum. ‘This lait is the only principle employed in Newcomen’s engine. In order to produce the vacuum at pleafure in the interior capacity of the fyringe or cylinder, of which we have been {peaking, it becomes requifite that feveral apertures fhould be formed at the bottom of the cylinder ; one to communi- cate fteam’ from a boiler, and provided with a cock to cut off or open the communication at pleafure ; another to ad- mit at pleafure a jet of cold water, to condenfe the {team during the interval in which the communication from’ the boiler is cut off; a third, provided with a drain-pipe, called the eduGtion-pipe, to carry off the condenfed {team and injeGtion-water ; and laftly, a {mall lateral aperture, with a valve, to allow the efcape of the air, or permanently elattic fluid, which will not condenfe by the application of cold water, or run off through the eduétion-pipe: this laft is called the fnifting-clack. By thefe provifions the operation of the cylinder is made to take place in the following manner. The pifton-rod is attached by a chain to the end of a long lever, at the oppo- fite end of which are fufpended the rods of the pumps which are to draw the water ; and the weight of thefe rods exceeds the weight of the pifton fo much, as to draw the pifton up to the top of the cylinder. In this ftate, the fteam-cock is opened, and fteam iflues from the boiler ; but being lefs than half the weight of common air, it rifes to the top of the cylinder, and expels the air through the {nifting-valve and eduétion-pipe, of which the lower extremity is covered with a flap-valve, in a trough of water. When the noife of its efcape through thefe valves is heard, the tteam-cock is fhut, and the injeétion-pipe being opened, throws up a ftream of cold water in a jet within the cylinder, and {trikes againft the bottom of the pilton: the fteam becomes imme- diately condenfed, and the preffure of the atmofphere forces the pifton down into the vacuum. Upon its progrefs downwards, the injeétion-pipe is clofed ; and when it has arrived nearly at the bottom of the cylinder, the fteam-cock isagain opened. The elaftic fteam fills the {mall fpace be- tween the cylinder and the bottom, and its preflure on the under furface of the pifton affifts it to rife, and alfo aflifts the eduGion-water which remains in the bottom of the cylinder to pafs off through its pipe : the fteam alfo drives the air, or other elaftic fluid which will not condenfe, through the fnifting-valve. In this ftate, therefore, the fteam is fome- what {tronger than the atmofphere, and rather more than counterpoifes its ation on the upper furface of the pifton ; in confequence, the pifton itfelf rifes by the aétion of the counter-weight, or pump-rods, at the oppofite end of the lever, and regains its original pofition at the top of the cylinder. A fecond repetition of the procefs, namely, of fhutting off the fleam, and injeéting cold water, caufes the pifton again to defcend, and in this manner the alternations may be con- tinued without limit. It is to be underftood, that the opening and fhutting of the fteam and injeétion-cocks are performed by apparatus fixed to the working lever, in fuch a manner as to itrike the levers of thofe cocks at the precife inftant of time when their effe&ts are required to be produced. The attendant has no other office to perform than that of keeping up the fire. To apply this power to the purpofe of raifing water for drain- ing a mine, fuppofe a common fucking-pump placed in the pit to lift the water fifty yards high. If the pump is 7% inches bore, the column of water which mutft be raifed when the rod or bucket of the pump is drawn up, will weigh 3060 lbs. ; a chain being attached to the upper end of the rod of the pump, and fufpended from the extremity ie the ong STEAM-ENGINE. long lever ot working beam; and at the oppofite ex- tremity of the fame beam another chain mutt be attached, to fulpend the pifton of the fteam cylinder, which we have jut defcribed. To give this pifton a fufficient power of defcent to make it draw up the water in the pump at the oppofite end of the beam with celerity, the pifton muft be 22 inches in diameter ; the area or furface of the pifton will then be 380 fquare inches, 22 x 22 = 484 x -7854 = 380. In this cafe, if each {quare inch is prefled with a weight of eight pounds, it will balance the weight of the water in the pumps within 20 pounds; for 380 x 8 = 3040, inftead of 3060: but the preflure on each {quare inch will be confiderably more than eight pounds; for, provided the vacuum was per- fe& within the cylinder, the preflure of the atmofphere would be 142 pounds; but the condenfation of the fteam in the cylinder is fo far incomplete, that it leaves {team or vapour within the cylinder of fome denfity. If the tteam is cooled by the inje@ion down to 140°, it will be feen by our firft table, fourth column, that it will leave the cy- linder filled with a vapour of an elattic force equal to 2 lbs. 13 0Z. per {quare inch ; which force a¢ting beneath the pif- ton, will deduét from the preflure of the atmofphere, and re- duce the neat preffure on the pifton to 11 lbs. 13402. perfquare inch, as fhewn by the laft column. The excefs of preilure beyond what is neceflary to balance the weight of water is 3 lbs. per {quare inch, amounting, on the whole furface of the pifton, to (3 x 380 =) 1140 lbs. nearly, a weight which is allowed to overcome the counter-weight which is to draw the pifton up again, and the friction of the pifton and pump- buckets, and make the engine move with a fufficient velocity, which will be more or lefs according to the ftate of the en- gine. But taking this velocity at 16 ftrokes per minute of fix feet length each = 96 feet motion per minute, the pump of 73 inches diameter will raife 1g2 gallons per minute, or 182 hogfheads 13 gallons per hour. An engine of thefe di- menfions is but a {mall one, yet it ferves to fhew.the fupe- riority of Newcomen’s over Savery’s engine, in principle, Savery’s was an engine which really raifed water by the force of fteam; but Newcomen’s raifes water entirely by the preflure of the atmofphere, fteam being employed merely as the moit expeditious method of producing a void, inte which the atmofpherical preflure may impel the firft mover of his machine, The elatticity of the fteam’ is not the firft mover. In the example of the engine we have jutt given to drain the fame mine on Savery’s plan, he mutt have employed {team of a preflure cf 55 pounds fer inch, and of a temperature of 325 degrees, to raife a co- lumn of water to a height of 125 feet: the condenfation of this fteam would be fo great on coming in contaét with water of only so degrees, that he would have found it {carcely praéticable to have thrown up any confiderable quantity. We fee alfo the great fuperiority of this new machine. ‘There is no need of fteam of great and dangerous elafticity, as it operates by means of very moderate heats, and confe- quently with much {maller quantities of fuel; and there are no other bounds to the power of this machine, than the ftrength of the materials of which it is';compofed. How deep foever a mine may be, a cylinder may be employed of fuch dimenfions, that the preflure of the air on its pilton may exceed in any degree the weight of the column of water to be raifed ; and laitly, this form of the machine renders it ap- plicable to almoit every mechanical purpofe, becaufe a fkilful mechanic can readily find a method of converting the reci- procating motion of the working beam into a motion of any kind which may fuit his purpofe. Savery’s engine could not admit of fuch an immediate application, and was re. {tricted to raifing of water. Invention of Newcomen’s Engine.—Refpeting the inven- tion of this engine, it was lefs a matter of original difcovery, than of a combination of the inventions of others, viz. of Sa- very’s invention of the means of producing a vacuum by the condentation of fteam, with Otto Guericke’s exhaufted cylinder. Savery made claim to the invention, and in confequence of the claim he made to the mode of condenfation, as being a part of his patent, he was admitted by Newcomen and Cawley to an aflociation with them in the patent which was granted in 1705, but it does not appear that they made any perfe& engine until 1711. Defaguliers, in his account of the invention, makes no mention of captain Savery being affociated ; but fays « that Thomas Newcomen, ironmonger, and John Cawley, gla- zier, of Dartmouth, in the county of Southampton (Bap- tifts), made feveral experiments in private about the year 1710, and in the latter end of the year 1711 made propofals to drain the water of a colliery at Griff, in Warwickhhire, where the proprietors employed 500 horfes at an expence of goo/. a year; but their invention not meeting with the reception they expected, in March following, through the acquaintance of Mr. Potter of Bromfgrove, in Worcelter- fhire, they bargained to draw water for Mr. Back of Wol- verhampton ; where, after a great many laborious attempts, they did make the engine work: but not being either phi- lofophers to underftand the reafon, or mathematicians enough to calculate the powers and proportion of the parts, they very luckily, by accident, found what they fought for. « They were at a lofs about the pumps, but being fo near Birmingham, and haying the affiftance of fo many admirable and ingenious workmen, they foon came to the method of making the pump-valyes, clacks, and buckets, whereas they had but an imperfeé notion of them before. One thing is very remarkable ; as they at firlt were working, they were furprifed to fee the engine go feveral {trokes, and very quick together, when, after a fearch, they found a hole in the piflon, which let the cold water in to condenfe the fteam in the infide of the cylinder, whereas before they had always done it on the outfide, They ufed before to work with a buoy in the cylinder, inclofed in a pipe, which buoy rofe when the {team was {trong and opened the injection, and made a ftroke ; thereby they were capable of only giving fix, eight, or ten ftrokes in a minute, till a boy, Humphrey Potter, who attended the engine, added (what he called /coggan) a catch, that the beam always opened, and then it would go 15 or 16 itrokes a minute. But this being perplexed with catches and ftrings, Mr. Henry Beighton, in an engine he had built at Newcaltle-upon-Tyne, in 1718, took them all away, but the beam itfelf, and fupplied them in a much better manner.’’ Since that time no very material altera- tions have been made in this {pecies of engine, except the addition of the crank to make it turn mills. The French authors have claimed this engine alfo as the inyention of their countryman Papin, but without any rea- fon: Papin had gained a knowledge of the expanfive force of fteam in his digefter, and he invented the mode of work- ing the piftons and cylinders by a vacuum and the preffure of the atmofphere ; but he was not the firft inventor of either of thefe, Otto Guericke and the marquis of Worcefter having difcovered the fame things long before him ; and fur- ther, he had no pretenfions to claim Savery’s difcovery of the condenfation of fteam, upon which the engine of New- comen depends. Papin’s dir Cylinder Engine.—Papin’s invention of the cy- ; linders linders is by no means void of merit, we fhall therefore briefly defcribe it, and our readers will fee how far it could have aflited Newcomen, fuppofing him fully informed of it. The firit engine was for the purpofe of tranf{mitting the action of a water-wheel to a great diitance, by means of air in pipes. Papin propofed this principle enigmatically, as a new way of raifing water, to the Royal Society in 1685 ; and after many folutions had been given by the Englifh aca- demicians, he fhewed the real application and ufe of it, to raife water out of a mine by the power of a river at a con- fiderable diftance. For this purpofe, a water-wheel was to be placed in the river, to work the piitons of two large cylinders of pumps, from the lower ends of each of which {mall pipes were con- duéted down into the mine, to convey the air into {mall chefts or receivers, which were each furnifhed with a fuc- tion-pipe and a forcing-pipe, and valves to prevent the de- {cent of the water. By the motion of the piltons of the pumps, the air was to be alternately rarefied and comprefled in thefe chambers ; and thus he intended to draw water into the receptacles through the fution-pipes, and then force it up through the forcing-pipe ; but he forgot that, in this me- thod, the elafticity of the air he employed would wholly defeat his end; for when the pifton of the pump was de- preffed, it would not comprefs the quantity of air contained in a long pipe fufficiently to produce any fenfible condenfa- tion to pee or raife water out of the receiver; nor, on the other hand, could a fufficient rarefaétion of the air be pro- duced by the afcent of the pilton to obtain any efficient {uGion in the receivers. Papin afterwards made fome alterations to obviate the objections which were urged by Dr. Hooke and other Eng- lifh philofophers, and in 1688 he publifhed another machine in the A&a Ernditorum, which is more complete, and is a moft valuable invention for conveying the power of machines toa diftance. Within thefe few years it has been employed in this country, though fecretly, for a very important purpofe. In this method, the two pumps, which are worked by al- ternate cranks on the axle of the water-wheel, are provided with valves fimilar to thofe of an air-pump, and they draw air alternately from the conveyance-pipe which leads to the mine, fo as to make a vacuum in the pipe. At the mine are placed two cylinders, with piftons fitted into them; and a rope, which is faftened to each of the piltons, is wrapped feveral times round an axle or horizontal fhaft, which is ex- tended over both cylinders, and is put in motion by their piftons. Upon the middle of this axle is a large wheel, for the re- ception of a cord, which defcends into the mine, and has at each end a bucket; therefore, by turning the axle firft one way round, and then the other, the two buckets are alter- nately drawn up or lowered down in the mine, to draw either water or ore. The ropes from the pilton of the cylinders are wrapped round the axle in oppofite direétions ; and when one pifton is prefled down, it will draw the rope and turn the axle, which winding up, the other rope will draw up the pifton of the other cylinder. A fingle conveyance-pipe leads from both the air-pumps at the water-wheel ; but when the pipe arrives in the mine it divides into two branches, one for each cylinder ; and at the interfeétion of thefe branches a double- paflaged cock is placed, which will admit the air from either of the cylinders into the conveyance-pipe which leads to the air-pumps, or it will admit the atmofpheric air into the cylinders ; and thefe paflages are opened alternately by the cock, {fo that whilft the air from one cylinder is drawing off through the conveyance-pipe by the air-pumps, the atmo- fpheric air fhall have free entrance to the other cylinder. STEAM-ENGINE, The confequence will be, that by the continual fuétion of the air-pumps a vacuum will be found under one pifton, and the preflure of the atmofphere will act to prefs it down in its cylinder ; and by the rope which is attached to it and wound round the axle of the wheel, its defcent will caufe the axle and wheel to turn round and draw up the cord which paftes over the wheel at one fide, fo as to raife up one bucket in the mine and lower down the other; but during the defcent of this pifton, the other pifton is freely at liberty to be drawn up in its cylinder, becaufe the cock ad- mits the atmofpheric air into the fame. When the pifton under which the vacuum has been made is prefled down to the bottom of its cylinder, the other pitton will be drawn up to the top of its cylinder, by its rope winding upon the axle. In this {tate the cock is turned the other way, and will then draw off the air from the cylinder in which the pifton is at the top, and admit frefh air into the cylinder in which the pilton 1s at the bottom. This will caufe the axle and wheel to turn round in an oppofite direction to what it did before, and draw up the oppofite bucket from the mine. In this way a conftant reciprocation of the motion of the axle is kept up, and the power of the water-wheel is tranf- mitted fimply by the conveyance-pipe to any required dif- tance, where, by ufing a larger or {maller cylinder, it may be made to act with any required force. ‘The inventor pro- pofed this method to be ufed to convey the power of the water-wheels in the Seine to work pumps at Verfailles, inftead of the cumberfome machinery employed at Marly for con- veying the motion ; and it is rather furprifing that fo fimple and advantageous a method fhould have remained fo long ne- le&ted and unknown, that even now, when its effects are pub- licly exhibited, the means are not known. The only im- provement upon the method of Papin, which it is neceflary to put in practice, is to have a receiver or air-chamber near the cylinders, to be kept exhaufted by the pumps; and this being of fufficient capacity the air will rufh into it, and be taken away from beneath the pilton the inftant the cock is opened; whereas without it, it would be drawn off more flowly by the pumps. If the conveyance-pipe is made of large dimenfions, it will effet the tame end moft com- pletely. Defeription of the Atmofpheric Engine.—Our readers being now acquainted with the principle of Newcomen’s engine, we fhall proceed to defcribe it in the ftate to which it was brought by Mr. Beighton, and which for more than half a century was the ftandard engine for raifing water from mines. See the perfpective view in Plate II. fig. 1. which reprefents the engine complete, the front wall of the houfe being fup- pofed to be removed to fhew the interior. A, the fire-place under the boiler for raifing the fteam, and the afh-hole below it. B, the boiler, made of iron plates: it is filled with water about three feet above the bottom. C, the fteam-pipe, through which the fteam pafles from the boiler into the receiver. D, the receiver, a clofe iron veffel or box, in which is the regulator or fteam-cock, which opens and {huts the hole of communication with the cylinder at each {troke, E is the communication-pipe, between the receiver and the cylinder ; it rifes five or fix inches up in the infide of the cylinder above the bottom, to prevent the injected water from defcending into the receiver. F, the cylinder of caft-iron, about ten feet long, bored {mooth in the infide ; it has a broad flanch in the middle, on the outfide, by which it is f{upported when hung between the cylinder-beams, which extend asrofs the houte, and are let into the fide-walh G, the | STEAM-ENGINE. G, the pilton, made to fit the cylinder exa&tly, but with liberty to flide up and down; it has a flanch rifing four or five inches upon its upper furface, between which and the fide of the cylinder a quantity of junk or oakum is ftuffed, and kept down by weights, to prevent the entrance of air or water, and the efcape of fteam. H, the chain and pifton-fhank, by which it is connected to the working beam by an arc of a circle. II, the working beam or lever, working on its centre, in the manner of a» f{cale-beam; it is made of two or more large logs of timber, bent together at each end, and kept at the diftance of eight or nine inches from each other in the middle by the gudgeon or centre, as reprefented in the plate. The arch-heads I, I, at the ends of the beam, are for giving a perpendicular direétion to the chains of the pilton and pump-rods, which are fufpended at the oppofite ends. K, the pump-rod, which works in the great fucking- pump L, and draws the water from the bottom of the mine to the furface. M, aciftern, into which the water drawn out of the pit is conducted by a trough, fo as to keep it always full, and the fuperfluous water is carried off by another trough. N, the jack-head pump, which is a {maller fucking-pump, wrought by a {mall lever or working ‘beam, by means of a chain conneGted to the great beam or lever near the arch g, at the inner end; and the rod of the pump N is fufpended by a chain at the outer end. This pump commonly ftands near the corner of the front of the houfe, and raifes a column of water up to the ciltern O, into which it is con- duéted by a trough. O, the jack-head ciftern, for fupplying the injetion ; it is always kept full by the pump N, and is fixed fo high above the cylinder bottom, as to give the jet of injeCtion a {ufficient velocity into the cylinder when the cock is opened. This ciftern has a walte-pipe on the oppofite fide for conveying away the fuperfluous water. P P, the injection-pipe, of two or three inches diameter, which defcends from the ciftern, O, to the injection-cock r, after pafling which it turns up in a curve at the lower end, and enters the cylinder bottom. It has a thin plate of iron {crewed upon the end d, which 1s within the cylinder, with three or four ajutage holes in it, to caufe the jet of cold water from the jack-head ciftern to fly up in as many ftreams againft the under furface of the pifton, and condenfe the {team contained in the cylinder each itroke, when the in- jection-cock is open. e, avalve upon the upper end of the injeCtion-pipe, which is fhut, te prevent wafte of water by leakage when the engine ftands ftill; but before the engine is fet to work, this valve mutt be lifted up, and kept open by a {ftring. fs a {mall pipe, which branches off from the injeétion- pipe, and has a cock to fupply the pifton with a little water to keep it air-tight. Q, the working plug, fufpended by a chain to the {mall arch, g, of the working beam. It is ufually a heavy piece of timber, with a flit vertically down its middle, and holes bored horizontally through it to receive pins, for the pur- pofe of opening and fhutting the inje€tion and {team-cocks, as it afcends and defcends by the motion of the working beam. h, the handle of the fteam-cock or regulator. It is fixed to the regulator by a {pindle, which comes up through the top of the receiver. The regulator itfelf is a feCtorial plate of brafs, fhaped like a fan, which is moved horizontally by the handle 4, and opens or fhuts the communication at the lower end of the pipe E, within the receiver. It is repre- fented feparately in the plate by fig. 2. ii, the fpanner, whieh is a Jong rod or bar of iron, for communicating motion to the handle of the regulator, to which it is fixed by means of a flit in the latter, and fome pins put through to faften it. { & 1, the vibrating lever, called the tumbling-bob, or the Y, having the weight 4 at one end, and the two forked legs at the other end, like the letter x turned. It is fixed to an horizontal axis, moveable about its centre pins, or pivots, m, n, and is put in motion by means of the two thanks 9, p; fixed to the fame axis, which are alternately raifed and deprefled by means of two pins in the working plug, and the bob or weight at the top of the Y is thrown backwards and forwards; one pin on the outfide, deprefling the fhank 0, throws the loaded end, £, of the Y from the cylinder into the pofition reprefented in the plate, and caufes the leg, /, of the fork of the Y to ftrike againtt the end of the fpanner, which forcing back the handle of the regulator or fteam-cock opens the communication, and permits the fteam te fly into the cylinder. The pilton immediately rifes by the weight of the pump-rod, on the admiffion of the fteam: the motion of the working beam, II, alfo raifes the working plug ; and anether pin, which goes through the flit, raifes the fhank, », of the axis, which throws the end, 4, of the Y towards the cylinder, and the leg of the fork, ftriking the end of the {panner, forces it forwards, and fhuts the regu- lator or fteam-cock. qr isthe lever for opening and fhutting the injectior~ cock, called the F. It has a rack or toothed fe@or fixed upon its axis, which takes the teeth of a pinion, fixed on the top of the plug or key of the injeCtion-cock. When the working plug has afcended nearly to its greateft height, and fhut the regulator, as above defcribed, a pin catches the end, g, of the F, and raifes it up, which opens the injeétion-cock, and admits a jet of cold water to fly into the cylinder, and condenfing the tteam, makes a vacuum within. Then the preflure of the atmofphere, forcing down the pifton into the cylinder, caufes the plug-frame to de- {cend, and another pin fixed in it catches the end of the lever, g, in its defcent, and by prefling it down fhuts the injec- tion-cock ; at the fame time the regulator is opened to ad- mit fteam, and fo on alternately ; that when the regulator is fhut, the injeétion-cock fhall be open, and when the former is open, the latter fhall be fhut. R, the eduction-pipe, to convey away the water which is injected into the cylinder at each ftroke; its upper end is even with the cylinder bottom, and its lower end has a lid or cover, moveable on a hinge, which ferves as a valve to let out the inje@ed water, and fhuts clofe each ftroke of the engine, to prevent the water being forced up again when the vacuum is made. 5, the hot-well, which is a {mall ciftern made of planks, to receive all the waite water from the cylinder, and keep it in referve for feeding the boiler, to fupply the walte oc- cafioned by the continual evaporation of the fteam. T, the feeding-pipe, to fupply the boiler with water from the hot-well. It has a cock to let in a large or {mall quantity of water, as occafion requires, to make up for what is evaporated : it goes nearly down to the boiler bot. tom, fo that the lower end is always immerfed in water. U, two gauge-cocks, in the upper ends of two pipes which defcend into the boiler; one is deeper than the other : their ufe is to try when a proper quantity of water is in the boiler, for upon opening the cocks, if one gives {team and the other water, it is right, becaufe the intended level of the water in the boiler is between the ends of the two. If they both give water there is too much. W is the man-hole; it is a plate which is {crewed over a hole STEAM-ENGINE. i hole on the fide of the boiler, to allow a paflage into it for the convenience of cleaning or repairing. X, the fteam-clack or puppet-valve, which is a brafs valve, on the top of the pipe opening into the boiler, to let off the fteam when it is too itrong. It is loaded with lead at the rate of one pound to an inch fquare ; and when the fteam is nearly {trong enough to keep it open, it will do for the working of the engine. s, the {nifting-valve, by which, at every afcent of the pilton, the air 1s difcharged from the cylinder which was admitted with the injeGtion, and would otherwife obftru& the due operation of the engine. tt, the cylinder beams, which are ftrong girders going through the houfe, for fupporting or rather keeping down the cylinder. v, the cylinder cup of lead furrounding the top of the cylinder, to preveut the water upon the pilton from flafhing over when it rifes too high. w, the wailte-pipe, which conduéts the fuperfluous water from the top of the cylinder to the hot-well. xx, iron bars, called the catch-pins, fixed horizontally through each arch-head to ftrike the floor, and prevent the beam defcending too low, in cafe the chains at either end fhould break, or if the engine makes too long a ftroke. yj, two ftrong wooden fprings, to weaken the blow given by the catch-pins, when the {troke is too long. zx, two friGtion-wheels or feétors, on which the gud- geons, or centres of the great beam, are fupported ; they are the third or fourth part of a circle, and move a little each way as the beam vibrates. Their ufe is to diminifh the frition of the axis, which being neceflarily very large for fo heavy a lever, would otherwife be very great. Operation of the Atmofpheric Engine.—When this engine is to be fet to work, the boiler mutt be filled about two or three feet deep with water, and a large fire made under it ; and when the {team is heated to be of fufficient ftrength to exert a preflure of about one pound beneath each fquare inch of the fafety-valve, it will lift up the valve and efcape. The water in the boiler being fuppofed to be in a ftrong ftate of ebullition, and the tteam iffuing by the fafety-valve, we will confider the machine in a ftate of reft, having both the fteam-cock and injeétion-cock fhut. The refting pofition or attitude of the machine is fuch as appears in the draw- ing, the pump-rods, K, preponderating by their weight ; and the great pifton being drawn to the top of the cy- The man who attends the engine deprefles the handle 4, fo as to throw the tumbling-bob into the pofition of the figure; and the leg of the fork thrufting back the fpanner #i, opens the regulators or fteam-cock, when the fteam from the boiler immediately ruthes in, and flying all over the cy- linder, will mix with the air; much will be condenfed by the cold furface of the cylinder and pifton, and the water produced from it will trickle down the fides, and run off at the eduétion-pipe, R, as foon as any quantity is accu- mulated. This condenfation and wafte of fteam will con- tinue, till the whole cylinder and pilton are made as hot as boiling water. - When this happens, the {team will begin to open the {nifting-valve s, and iffue through the pipe ; at firlt flowly and very cloudy, being mixed with much air, the cloudy appearance of {team being always owing to its mixture with common air. The blaft at s will grow flronger by de- grees, and more tranfparent, having already carried off the greateit part of the common air which filled the cylinder. e fuppofed, at firft, that the water was boiling brifkly, Voy. XXXIV. fo that the {team was iffuing by the fafety-valve, which: is in the top of the boiler. The opening of the fteam-cock puts an end to this at once, becaufe the cold cylinder draws off the fteam from the boiler with aftonifhing rapidity, until it becomes heated fo as not to condenfe. When the manager of the engine perceives that not only the blaft at the fnifting-valve is {trong and fleady, but that the boiler is fully fupplied with fteam of a proper {trength, which appears by the renewal of the difcharge at the fafety-valve, the engine is ready for ftarting. He now lifts up the handle o or £, till the tumbling-bob, Y, falls over the at serials towards the cylinder, and its leg ftriking the crofs-pin of the {panner, 7, draws it forwards, and fhuts the fteam-regulator; at the fame inftant he lifts up the handle, g, of the F, which opens the injeétion-cock. The preflure of the column of water in the inje¢tion-pipe, P, immediately forces fome water through the {pout d, by the jets. The cold water coming in conta& with fome of the puré vapour, which now fills the cylinder, condenfes it, and thus makes a partial void, into which the more diftant {team immediately expands ; and by this very expanfion its capa~ city for heat is increafed ; or, in other words, as it grows cold, it abftraéts the heat more powerfully from the tteam fituated immediately beyond it. In this expanfion and refrigeration the fteam is itfelf partly condenfed or converted into water, and leaves a void, into which the circumjacent fteam immediately expands, and produces the fame effeG on the fteam beyond it : and thus it happens, that the abftraétion of a {mall quantity of heat from an inconfiderable mafs of fteam produces a condenfation throughout a cylinder which is very ex~ tenfive. ; What remains in the cylinder no longer balances the atmofpheric preflure on the furface of the water in the injection-ciftern, and, therefore, the water fpouts rapidly through the holes d, by the joint action of the column P, and the unbalanced preflure of the atmofphere ; at the fame time the {nifting-valve s, and the eduétion-valve R, are fhut by the external preflure of the atmofphere, and prevent the entrance of air or water into the cylinder. The ve- locity of the injetion-water mutt therefore rapidly increafe, and the jets dafh againft the bottom of the pifton, and be {cattered through the whole capacity of the cylinder. Ina very fhort {pace of time therefrom, the condenfation of the {team becomes univerfal, and the elafticity of what remains is very fall. The whole preffure of the atmofphere, therefore, being exerted on the upper furface of the pifton, while there is hardly any on its under fide, if the load on the outer end of the working-beam is inferior to this preflure, it mutt yield to it. The pifton G muft defcend, and the pump-pifton £ muft afcend, bringing along with it the water of the mine; but the motion does not begin at the inftant the injeGtion is made. The pifton was kept at top by the preponderancy of the outer end of the working beam and the load of water in the pumps, and it mult remain there, till the difference be- tween the elafticity of the fteam below it, and the preflure of the atmofphere, exceed this preponderancy. There mult, therefore, be a {mall {pace of time between the beginning of the condenfation and the beginning of the motion: this is very {mall, not exceeding the third or fourth part of 2 fecond ; but it may be very diltin@ly obferved by an atten- tive fpectator, who may perceive, that the in{tant the injec- tion-cock is opened, if the cylinder has the flighteft yielding in its fufpenfion, it will heave upwards a little by the pret- {ure of the air ou the bottom. Its own weight is not at a equa STEAM-ENGINE. equal to this preffure; and inftead of its being neceflary to fupport it by a ttrong floor, it mult be kept down by large beams, loaded at the end with heavy walls. This heaving of the cylinder fhews the inftantaneous commencement of the condenfation ; and it is not till after this has pafled, that the pifton is {een to {tart, and begins to defcend. The motion mutt continue till the great pifton reaches the bottom of the cylinder, becaufe it is not like the motion which would take place in a cylinder of air rarefied to the fame degree. In this latter cafe, the impelling force would be continually diminifhed, becaufe the capacity of the cylinder diminifhing by the defcent of the pifton, the air in it would continually become more denfe and elaftic, until the pitton would ftop at a certain height, where the elaiticity of the included air, together with the load at K, would balance the atmofpherical preffure on the pifton. But when the con- tents of the cylinder are pure vapour, and the continued {tream of injected cold water keeps down its temperature to the fame pitch as at the beginning, the elalticity of the remaining {team can never increafe by the defcent of the pifton, nor exceed what correfponds to the temperature, according to our table. The impelling or accelerating force, therefore, remains the fame; and the defcent of the pifton will be accelerated almoft uniformly, unlefs there is an increafe of refiltance, arifing from the nature of the work performed by the other end of the beam. And it may be frequently obferved in a good {team-engine, where every part is air-tight, that if the cylinder has been completely purged of common air before the fteam-cock is fhut, and if none has entered fince, the pifton will defcend to the very bottom of the cylinder. It fometimes happens, by the great pump drawing air, or fome part of the com- , raunication-chains giving way, that the pifton defcends with fuch violence as to beat out the bottom of the cylinder with the blow, and it is to prevent this accident that the catch-pins are applied at the end of the beam. When the manager fees the pifton as low as he thinks proper, he fhuts the injeétion-cock, by depreffing the lever q; and at the fame time he opens the regulator, by forcing down the handle 0, which overfets the tumbling-bob, and its leg catching the crofs-pin of the fpanner, i, opens the regulator. The fteam has been accumulating above the water in the boiler during the whole time of the pifton’s defcent. The moment, therefore, that the fteam-cock is opened, the fteam, having an elafticity of rather more than one pound per {quare inch greater than that of the air, rufhes into the cylinder, when it immediately blows open the fnifting- valves, and affifts the water which had come in by the former injeGtion, and what arofe from the condenfed fteam, to defcend by its own weight through the edu@ion-pipe S, and open the valve to run out into the hot-well R. This water is nearly boiling-hot, or at leaft its furface ; for while lying in the bottom of the cylinder, it will con- denfe fteam till it acquires this temperature, and therefore cannot run down till it will condenfe no more. There is a caufe of fome watte of {team at its firft admiffion, in order to heat the infide of the cylinder, and the inje@ted water, to the boiling temperature ; but the fpace being fmall, and the whole being already very warm, it is very foon done ; and when things are properly conitructed, little more is wanted than what will warm the cylinder ; for the eduCtion- pipe is made of large dimentfions, and receives fome of the in- jection-water even during the defcent of the pifton, and this portion will be removed out of the way of the fteam. The firlt effe€&t of the entering fteam is of great fervice ; it drives ott of the cylinder the vapour which it finds there. This is:feldom pure fteam, or watery vapour, becaufe all water contains a quantity of air in a ftate of chemical union ; but the union is only feeble, and a boiling heat is fufficient for difengaging the greateft part of it, by increafing its elafticity. It may alfo be difengaged by fimply removing the external preflure of the atmofphere. This is clearly feen when we expofe a glafs of water in an exhaufted re- ceiver. Therefore the {mall fpace below the pifton con- tains watery vapour, mixed with all the air which had been difengaged from the water in the boiler by ebullition, and all that was feparated from the injeétion-water by the dimi- nution of external preflure, in addition to any which may enter by leakage. Let us now confider the ftate of the pifton, when fetting out on its return ; as it is evident that it will ftart, or begin to rife by the counter-weight, the moment the fteam-cock is opened ; for at that inftant the excefsof atmofpherical pref- fure, by which it was kept down in oppofition to the pre- ponderancy of the outer end of the beam, is diminifhed. At the firft inftant of the return of the pump-rods, they draw up the pifton with great violence, all the weight of the water in the pumps aéting in addition to the counter-weight ; but the falling of the lower valves in the pumps, after an inch or two of motion, arrefts the further defcent of the water, and bears the weight of the column of water ; and after this the pifton will rife gradually by the a€tion of the counter-weight. The ation of the counter-weight is very different in the two motions of the engine; for while the engine is making a working ftroke, it is lifting not only the column of water in the pump, but the abfolute weight of the bucket-rods alfo ; and while the pump-rods are defcending, there is a diminution of the counter-weight, by the whole weight loft by the immerfion of the rod in water. The wooden rods which are generally ufed being foaked in water, and joined by iron ftraps, are heavier, and but a little heavier, than water, and they are generally about one-third of the bulk of the water in the pumps. @ By this counter-weight the pifton is drawn upwards; and it would even rife, although the !team which is admitted was not quite fo elaftic as common air. 5 Suppofe the mercury in the barometer to ftand at 30 inches, and that the preponderancy at the outer end of the beam was equal to th of the preflure of the air on the pilton, the pifton would not rife until the elafticity of the {team was equal to 30 —3, that is, to 262 inches nearly; but if the fteam was jult equal to this quantity, the pifton would rife as falt as the fteam of that denfity could be fupplied to the cylinder through the fteam-pipe; and on this fuppo- fition, the velocity of the afcent would depend on the velocity of that fupply. But this is not the cafe in praétice, becaule the fteam mutt be ftronger than the air, in order to blow out and difcharge the air; ‘it will therefore enter the cylin- der without any effort on the pifton to draw or fuck it in. At the fame time, the counter-weight muft not be fo great as to draw up the pifton with that force which will caufe a fuction within the cylinder greater than the tteam-pipe can fupply, or it would diminifh the preffure of the fteam within the cylinder lower than the atmofphere, and prevent it from fnifting or blowing out the air. In filling the cylinder with fteam, it will require a much more copious fupply of fteam than merely to fill up the fpace left by the afcent of the pifton; for as the defcent of the pilton was only in confequence of the vacuum occa- fioned by the interior of the cylinder being fufficiently cooled to condenfe the fteam, this cooled furface mutt be again prefented to the fteam during the rife of the Gb pifton, STEAM-ENGINE. pifton, and muft condenfe fteam a fecond time. The pilton cannot rife another inch, till that part of the cylinder which the pifton has already quitted has been warmed up to the boiling point, and much fteam mutt be expended in this warming ; for the inner furface of the cylinder mutt not only be raifed to the heat of boiling water while the pifton rifes, but mutt alfo be made perfectly dry ; and the film of water left on it by the afcending pifton muft be completely evaporated, otherwife it will continue to condenfe fteam. On this account, although the counter-weight is not ne- ceflary to fuck in the fteam, the moving force during the afcent of the pifton mutt be confidered as refulting chiefly, if not folely, aie the preponderating weight of the great pump-rods; and this force is expended partly in return- ing the fteam-pifton to the top of the cylinder, where it may be again prefled down by the air, and make another working itroke by raifing the pump-rods ; and partly in re- turning the pump-buckets into their places at the bottom of their refpective working barrels, in order that they may alfo make another working ftroke. This latter requires force independent of the friétion and ihertia of the moving parts ; for each bucket muft be pufhed down through the water in the barrel, which mutt lift up and rife through the valves in the bucket with a velocity proportioned to the velocity of the bucket, in the fame degree as the area of the pump- barrel is proportioned to the opening of the valves through which the water mutt pafs. — From this general confideration of the afcent of the pifton, we may fee that the motion differs greatly from the defcent ; it can hardly be fuppofed to accelerate, even if the fteam ’ was fupplied to the cylinder in ever fuch quantity ; for the . ve a refiftance to the defcent of the pump-bucket is the fame with the weight of the column of water, which would caufe water to flow through the valves of the buckets with the velocity with which it really rifes through them, and this re- fiftance muft therefore increafe as the {quare of that velocity increafes ; that is, as the {quare of the velocity with which the bucket defcends. Independent of the force of frition, and the weight of the valves, the velocity of defcent through the water mult foon become a maximum, and the motion will become uniform. Accordingly, any one who obferves with attention the working of a fteam-engine, will fee that the rife of the pifton and defcent of the pump-rods are extremely uniform, whereas the working ftroke is very fenfibly acce- lerated. Thefe two motions complete the period of the operation, and the whole may be repeated by fhutting the regulator, and opening the injeGtion-cock whenever the pifton has at- tained the proper height. For the firft two or three ftrokes, the opening and fhutting of the cocks are performed by the attendant ; but when he has thus afcertained that all parts are in order, he puts pins into the holes of the plug-frame, and the motion of the engine will then atuate its own ma- chinery, and perform its reciprocations with greater regu- larity than can be done by hand. Particulars of different Parts of the Atmofpheric Engine.— We fhall now pay fome attention to the conftruétion of the parts of this engine, and notice fome further particulars. The furnace or fire-place fhould not have the grate-bars fo clofe as to prevent the free admiffion of air, nor fo open as to let the coals fallthrough. About two inches are fufficient for the diftance betwixt the bars. The height from the bars to the bottom of the boiler in the centre fhould not be more than two feet, and the concavity or rife of the bottom in the centre about one foot. The fize of the furnace depends upon the fize of the boiler; but inevery cafe the afh-hole ought to be capacious, to admit the air. If the flame is conduéted in a fiue or chimney round the outfide of the boiler, or in a pipe round the infide of it, it ought to be gradually diminifhied from its entrance at the furnace to its egrefs at the chimney; and the fection of the chimney at that place fhould not exceed the fection of the flue or pipe, and fhould alfo be fomewhat lefs at the chimney-top. The boiler or veffel, in which the fteam is made by the force of fire, may be formed of iron plates, or copper, or of calt-iron, the bottom being of fuch materials as can with{tand the effects of the fire, and have fufficient ftrength to retain the elaflic force of the fteam. It may be confidered as con- fitting of two parts; an upper part, which is expofed to the fteam, and an under part, which is expofed to the fire. The form of the latter fhould be fuch as to receive the fuli force of the fire in the moft advantageous manner, fo that a certain quantity of fuel may have the greateft poffible effect in heating and evaporating the water ; which is belt done by making the fides cylindrical, and the bottom a little concave, and then condu@ting the flame by an iron flue or pipe round the infide of the boiler, beneath the furface of the water, be- fore it reaches the chimney. For by this means, after the fire in the furnace has heated the water by its effect on the bot- tom, the flame heats it again by the pipe being wholly in- cluded in the water, and having every part of its furface in contact with it ; which is preferable to carrying it in a flue or chimney round the outfide of the boiler, as a third or a half of the furface of the flame only can be in contact with the boiler, the other being fpent upon the brick-work. This cylindric lower part may be lefs in its diameter than the upper part, atid may contain from three to five feet per- pendicular height of water in it. The upper part of the boiler is beft made hemifpherical for refifting the elafticity of the fteam ; yet any other form may do, provided it be of fufficient {trength for the purpofe- The quick going of the engine depends much upon the capacioufnefs of the boiler-top; for if it be too {mall, it requires the fteam to be heated to a greater degree to increafe its elaftic force fufficiently to work the engine, and then the condenfation on entering the cylinder wil be greater. If the top is fo capacious as to contain eight or ten times the quantity of fteam ufed at each ftroke, it will require no more fire to preferve its elafticity than is fufficient to keep the water in a proper ftate of boiling; this, therefore, is a fufficient fize for the boiler-top. It is ufual to place a damper, or iron flider, in the chim- ney, or in the flue leading into the chimney ; and this has a chain or lever, by which the attendant can regulate the aper- ture of the chimney, and confequently the draught of the fire, fo as to keep the fteam to a great regularity : for it is evi- dent, that when the engine works flowly, it will require lefs fteam and fuel than when working rapidly ; and without the damper, the engine would be conftantly expofed to an ex- cefs or deficiency in the fupply of fteam. The boiler is, in fome engines, placed immediately beneath the cylinder, the fame as reprefented in Plate III.; and then the regulator is placed immediately within the boiler, and aéts again{t the under furface of its top, in the fame manner as in the firft engine of captain Savery, who invented the regulator. It was a fubfequent improvement of Newcomen’s en- gine to remove the boiler from immediately beneath the cylinder to a {mall fhed on the outfide of the engine-houfe ; by this means the height of the building is confiderably re- duced; and as the wall which fupports the beam-centre does not require to be carried to fo great aheight, it is more enabled to withftand the violent fhocks to which it is conftant- ly fubje&ted from the ie of the engine. Another a 2 1 STEAM. itill greater advantage is, that two boilers can be employed ; or when the original boiler requires to be repaired or re- newed, it can be replaced by erecting another at one fide, and carrying another {team-pipe to the fteam-box : in this way the working of the engine can be continued witheut any ttoppage ; a circumitance of the greateft importance where the water mutt be conftantly kept drained. In either cafe, whether the regulator is placed in the boiler itfelf, or in the fteam-box beneath the cylinder, it is contruGed in the manner reprefented tn Plate II. fig. 2. It is a flat plate of brafs, in fhape refembling a fan, the upper furface of which applies itfelf exaétly to the whole circum- ference of the orifice of the {team-pipe, and completely ex- cludes the fteam from the cylinder, being moveable round an upright axis Q, which is accurately fitted into a conical focket coming through the lid of the fteam-box. It can be turned afide by a lever, or handle, on the upper end of this axis, fo as to uncover or open the paflage. The pro- file fhews that, in the fection of this plate, there 1s a rotuberance in the middle. This refts on a flrong flat fare: fixed below it, acrofs the mouth of the fteam-pipe, which {pring prefles it ftrongly towards the fteam-pipe, caufing it to apply very clofe, and the protuberance flides along the fpring, while the regulator turns to the right or left. Both the handle of the regulator, and the end of the rod or {panner i, fig. 1, are pierced with feveral holes, and a pin is put:through them, which unites them by a joint. The motion of the handle of the regulator may be increafed or diminifhed, by choofing for the joint a hole near to the axis or remote from it, and the exact pofition at which the regulator is to ftop on both fides is determined by pins ftuck in a horizontal bar, on which the end of the handle refts. : The tumbling-bob of the Y has a long leather check- ftrap faftened to it by the middle, and the two ends of the ftrap are faltened to the beams above it in fuch a manner, that the lump may be alternately catched, and held up to the right and left of the perpendicular. By adjufting the length of the two parts of the ftrap, the Y may be ftopped in any defired pofition. The two legs of the fork {pread out from each other, and alfo from the line of the ftalk, thus x, and they are of fuch length as to reach the horizontal pin, which crofles the fork or itirrup of the fpanner below. Now, fuppofe the pin of the fpanner hanging perpendi- cularly beneath the axis, and the ftalk of the Y alfo held per- pendicular, carry it a little outward from the cylinder, and then let it go, it will fall farther out of its weight, without affeCting the flirrup of the fpanner, till the inner leg {trikes on the horizontal pin of the ftirrup, and then it pufhes the pin of the ftirrup and the fpanner towards the cylinder, and fhuts the regulator. It thus fets the regulator in motion with a {mart jerk, which is an effe€tual way of overcoming the cohefion and fri@ion of the regulator againft the mouth of the fteam-pipe. This puth is adjufted to the proper length by the check-{trap, which ftops the Y when it has gone far enough. If we now take hold of the ftalk of the Y, and move it up to the perpendicular, the width between its claws is {ch as to permit this motion, and fomething more, without affeGting the ftirrup. But when pufhed {till nearer to the cylinder, it tumbles fuddenly towards it by its own weight, and then the other leg of the fork ftrikes the pin of the ftirrup of the fpanner in the oppofite direc- tion, till the bob is checked by the ftrap. Thus, by the motion of the Y, the regulator is open and fhut fuddenly. This opening and fhutting of the fteam- paflage are executed in the precife moment that is proper, by placing the pins in the plug-beam, which a upon the ENGINE. handles o and pf, at a proper height. For this reafon, it is pierced through with a great number of holes, that the places of thefe pins may be varied at pleafure: this, and a proper curvature of the handles o and , make the adjutt- ment as nice as we pleafe. In the fame mauner the motions of the inje&tion-cock are alfo adjulted to aét at the precife moment that is proper for them. The different pins are fo placed in the plug-frame, that the {team-cock may be completely fhut before the injeétion- cockis opened. The inherent motion of the machine, or the momentum of its parts, will give a fmall addition to the afcent of the pilton, without expending fteam all the while, and by leaving the tteam rather lefs elaftic than before, the fubfequent defcent of the pifton is promoted. The inje&tion-cock is frequently provided with a tum- bling-bob, to make it open fuddenly. This is an arm ex- tending from the centre of the F, or lever g, upon which the toothed feétor is fixed, and having at its extremity a fuffi- cient weight to open the cock in an inftant. When this weight is lifted up to its utmoft, the cock is fhut, and in this pofition the weight is detained by a fmall latch, which is lifted up by a pinin the plug-frame, at the moment when the pifton arrives at the top of the cylinder, and thus re- leafing the weight, it falls all at once, and opens the cock in an inftant; but when the pifton defcends nearly to the bottom, another pin in the plug-frame takes the handle of the fector, and gradually clofing the cock, raifes the weight till the latch detains it, which happens when the pilton is quite at the bottom of its motion. Theinjection-cock ought to be opened fuddenly ; but there is much propriety in clofing it gradually: for after the firft dafh of the cold water againft the bottom of the pifton, the condenfation is nearly complete, and very little more water is neceflary, although a continual acceflion of fome is ab- folutely required for completing the condenfation as the capacity of the cylinder diminifhes, and the water which is already injected becomes warmed. It is the continuance of this {mall injeion which prevents the vapour in the cylinder becoming more denfe as the pifton defcends. The effe& of the mjeGtion in condenfing the {team in the cylinder depends upon the height of the refervoir and dia- meter of the ajutage: if the engine makes 2 fix-feet ftroke, then the jack-head ciftern fhould be at leat twelve feet per- pendicular above the top of the cylinder. The fize of the ajutage mult depend upon the capacity of the cylinder, as we fhall fhew by a table; but if the cylinder be very large, it is common to have three or four {mall holes rather than one large one, in order that the jet may be difperfed the more effectually through the whole capacity of the cylinder. The injeGtion-pipe, or pipe of conduét, fhould be fufficiently large to fupply the injection freely with water. The injection- ciftern is the common fource from which all the parts of the machine receive their re{peCtive fupplies of cold water. In the firlt place, the {mall branch f, which proceeds from the pipe P, immediately below the ciftern, and is conducted to the top of the cylinder, has a cock at the end, which mult be fo adjufted, that no more water will run from it than what will keep a con{tant fupply of a few inches of water above the piiton to keep it tight. Every time the pifton comes to the top of the cylinder it will bring the water along with it, and the furplus of its evaporation and leakage runs off by a wafte-pipe w. This water neceflarily becomes almoft boiling-hot, and it was thought proper to employ its overplus for fupplying the waite of the boiler. This was accordingly prattifed for fome time; but Mr. Beigh- ton improved this economical thought by fupplying the boiler from the eduction-pipe S, the water of which coming STEAM-ENGINE. coming from the cylinder, muit be full hotter than that above the pifton. This contrivance required attention to feveral circum- ftances, which will be eafily underftood by confidering the rfipective view. The eduction-pipe comes out of the peta: of the cylinder in an inclined direGtion, and defcends into the hot-well R, where it turns up, and is covered with a valve : in the perfpeétive view may be obferved an upright pipe T, which goes through the head of the boiler, and reaches to within a few inches of its bottom. This pipe is called the feeder, and rifes about three or four feet above the furface of the water in the boiler; it is open at both ends, and has a horizontal branch from its upper end, com- municating with the hot-well R. This communicating branch hasa cock, by which its paflage may be diminifhed at plea- fure. Now, fuppofing the fteam in the boiler to be very ftrong, it will caufe the boiling water to rife in the feeding- ipe T, and pafling along this branch, to rife alfo in the heel and run over. The height of the furface of water in the hot-well, above the furface of the water in the boiler, is fuch, that the {team is never ftrong enough to pro- duce this effe&; but, on the contrary, the water in the hot-well will run off by the branch, and go down into the boiler by the feeding-pipe, as faft as the opening of the cock will admit. Thefe things being underitood, let us fuppofe a quantity of injeGted water lying at the bottom of the cylinder, it will run into the eduétion-pipe S, and opening the valve in the bottom, will flow into the hot-well. By properly adjuiting the cock on the branch of T, the boiler may be fupplied with water as fait as the walte in fteam- engine requires. The {mall quantity that is neceflary to fupply the boiler might be immediately taken from the cold bled: without fenfibly diminifhing the produétion of {team ; for the quan- tity of heat neceflary for raifing the fenfible heat of cold water to that of the boiling temperature is {mall, when compared with the quantity of heat that muft be combined with it, in order to convert it into fteam. The heat ex- pended in boiling off a cubic foot of water, is as much as would bring fix cubic feet to a boiling heat from the temperature of 55°; and little difference can be obferved in the performance of fuch engines as are fed with hot water, and thofe which have their boilers fupplied from a brook. The hot water has, however, the advantage of being free from air; and when an engine muft derive all its fupplies from pit-water, the water from the eduction-pipe is far preferable to that from the top of the cylinder, becaufe it has been in a meafure boiled and dittilled. The interior furface of the cylinder requires to be bored with great exaétnefs; and it muft have a iufficient thicknefs of metal to refiit the preflure of the atmofphere, without bending or altering its figure. The pifton is made of calt- iron, as nearly as poffible to fit the infide of the cylinder, and has all round it, within two inches of the edge, a cir- cular ledge or rim proje&ting upwards from it, which is both to itrengthen the pifton, and alfo to leave a {pace round between it and the fide of the cylinder, to receive the packing or wadding which keeps the pifton tight. Mr. Smeaton, who made the belt engines on Newcomen’s plan, caufed the lower furface of the pifton to be always planked with elm or beech, about 2} inches thick, The planking confifted of two broad planks, croffing each other at right angles, and halved into each other at the interfe&ion, fo as to come to an equal thicknefs: the remaining parts or feétors between the arms of this crofs were filled up with pieces of the fame plank, well tongued and fitted together, and bolted faft to the caft-iron of the pifton with one or two iron rings, let in flat under the lower furface to make it ftrong: the whole was furrounded with an iron hoop, a quarter of an inch lefs than the internal diameter of the cylinder. In this cafe, the caft-iron pilton was made lefe than the wood which formed the bottom of the groove, to receive the wadding, whilft the edge of the caft-iron formed the upright fide thereof. The wooden bottom was {crewed to the iron with a double thicknefs of flannel and tar, to exclude the air between the iron and the wood. By this means the pifton was lefs liable to condué& heat ; and the wood, being placed with the grain radiating in all direGtions from the centre, was not liable to expand by the wet. The fhank of the pifton is made with two prongs, to unite it firmly to the pifton; and if the engine is large, it has four prengs, to balance it equally ; and the fhank muft alfo have two or four chains upon the arch-head. But the chains, when more than one is ufed, mult be united in pairs to the ends of a fhort horizontal link ; and from the middle of this the fhank muft be fufpended, by which means the {train will be equally divided between the two chains. When there are four chains, they muft be divided into two pairs, with horizontal links, as above; and the middle parts of thefe two links muft be united to the ends of a longer hori- zontal link, from the middle of which the fhank of the pif- ton is hung; and in this way all the four chains will bear equally. The upper ends of the chains are jointed to the ends of {trong iron bars, fupported on the ends of the arch-heads ; and at the other ends bolted to the top of the beam, by. which means they brace the arch-head. The original method of making the great working beam was to employ a large tree, and to place the gudgeon or ful- crum under the middle of it, with proper bands to faften it. The framed beam, reprefented in the view, was made by Mr. Smeaton: the two middle pieces are formed of whole balks, 12 inches fquare, put together with the gudgeon between them, which is five inches thick, and notched into the beams, to make it keep its place: the ends of the beams are then {prung together, and bolted faft. This being done, another pair of timbers is applied on the outfide of the two former, and others on the outfide of thefe, for the largeft engines, making ten balks in the whole. When all thefe are firmly united, feveral mortifes are cut through be- tween the joints, as fhewn by the fmall fquare marks in the figure ; and into thefe, hard oak wedges are driven, fo that they will be half in each beam, and prevent them from {lip- ping or fliding upon each other in the leaft; and, in this cafe, the beams aét as ties by the longitudinal {trength rather than their flexibility. The great beams which fuf- pend the cylinder, and extend acrofs the houfe, are com- pounded of feveral pieces, in the fame manner; and the cylinder has a projecting flanch from the middle of it, to bolt it down to the beams. The pump-rods or {pears, K, are made of wood, with iron {traps let in and bolted to them at each end, to join them together: they are made of fir, which is very good wood, as it will bear a great {train endways, if the iron ftraps are well fitted, and can be obtained in very long pieces. When a mine is of a confiderable depth, the pumps cannot be made to lift the whole at once; but the pit mult be divided into two, threes or four lifts, and as many different pumps employed ; each lifting the water into a ciltern, for the fupply of that which is above it. Fifty yards are as much as is proper for each lift, but in fome very deep mines they are obliged to make them more. It is very difficult, in thefe feo to make all the pipes fufficiently ttrong to bear the preflure of the water, particularly the fhock which takes 6 place ene STEAM-ENGINE. place when the whole column of water falls upon the valves in fhatting : the blow which they then make is like the ftroke of a forge-hammer, and foon beats every thing to pieces. The only effe€tual remedy is the addition of an air- veflel at the fide of the pump; but in general the miner makes a hole in the fuétion-pipe of the pump, juft below the clack, and fixes in a cock, with a {mall valve opening outwards: through this they admit a certain quantity of air every time the pump draws, and this air, mixing with the water in the barrel, condenfes, when the valves fhut fuddenly, and by its elatticity eafes the violence of the fhock. When the mine is pumped almoft dry, the engine will draw a little air at every ftroke, at the bottom of the pipes; and this an{wers the fame purpofe. See a defcrip- tion of a new pump for mining in our article Pump. Rules for determining the Proportions of Atmo/pheric Engines. —Mr. Newcomen brought forward his engine at a time when almoft all the valuable mines in England were coming to a f{tand for want of more powerful or cheaper machines than were then known; and in confequence, in a few years his invention was put in practice at almott all the mines then exifting; and new ones were opened in fitua- tions where it would have been impoffible to have done it before. The firft- perfe&t engine which they erected at Griff, in Warwickfhire, had only a 22-inch cylinder, and it was many years before any were made fo large as 36: thofe which we now call {mall engines, were fo much more powerful than any former means of draining water, that ‘they were amply fufficient, until the mines, by growing deeper, required more power. The moft obvious means of increafing the force was to change the cylinder for a larger one, andthis was moft frequently done one or more times ; and then, when the beam and other parts would bear no greater ftrain, anew and larger engine was erected. In this manner they proceeded for many years, until, by gradual in- creafe, the cylinders for common ufe had reached the enormous powers of 50, 60, and 72 inches diameter. When it became impracticable to extend them much larger, engineers began to confider the means of improving their performance without increafing their dimenfions : alfo, the confumption of fuel in thefe large engines was fo ferious an expence, as to balance the profits of many mines. At firft the fuel was not confidered as an objeét, ‘becaufe the fteam-engine, on the whole, was found fo much cheaper than any other means of draining water. The beft engineers were thofe who made engines which would fulfil the tafk afligned to them, and, in comparifon to their dimenfions and expence of ereétion, would draw the moft water, and be the moft certain inthe continuance of their operation. We have no accounts of the quantity of fuel confumed by any of thofe early engines, in proportion to the water which they raifed to any given height ; but the rules by which they apportioned their cylinders to the work to be performed have been preferved. Defaguliers tells us, that Mr. Newcomen’s way of finding the power of his engine, was to f{quare the diameter of the cylinder in inches, and cut off the laft figure, and then call it long hundred weights; and writing a cypher on the right hand, he called the number on that fide odd pounds: this he reckoned tolerably exact at a mean, or rather when the baro- meter was at 30 inches, and the air heavy. The effet of cutting off the laft figure from the fquare of the diameter, is to divide the number of fuperficial circular inches on the pifton’s furface into portions of to circular inches each ; and as the preffure on each of thefe portions is eftimated at a long hundred weight, or 120lbs., the preffure will be 120 = 10 = 12 lbs. ger circular inch, or 15.3 lbs. per {quare inch: this, however, mutt be confidered as the full preflure of the atmofphere, if the vacuum was perfeé&t. But to com- penfate for imperfeétion, Newcomen allowed between one- third and one-fourth part, and alfo for what is loft in the friction of the feveral parts, and for accidents. If, inftead of the long hundred of 120 lbs., Newcomen had taken the common hundred of 112 Ibs., he would have had 112 — 10 == 11.2 lbs. per circular inch, or 144 lbs. fer {quare inch, which is ftill nearer the medium preflure of the atmofphere. Defaguliers fays this rule ‘will agree pretty well with the work at Griff engine, there being lifted at every {troke be- tween two-thirds and three-fourths of the weight of the atmofpherical column preffing on the pilton; i. e. between 1o and 114 lbs. on each f{quare inch. To give the eftimation in round numbers, the diameter of the cylinder of Griff engine will be = 22 inches; this fquared is 484; cut off the lait figure, and we have 48 cwt. 40 lbs. for the preflure of the atmofphere. -The column of water in the pumps weighs about 274 cwt., to which adding the weight of 73 yards of iron rods, equal about gcwt., the weight lifted at the end of the beam would be 364 cwt., from which we mutt fub- tra&t about 4 cwt. for the pifton, and the other weight at that end of the beam, reducing the load to 324 cwt.; fo that the weight of the futolbiee being 48 cwt. 40 lbs. raifes a weight of 324 cwt. with a velocity of fix feet in two feconds, confidering only the defcending ftroke of the pitton. This requires an effective preflure on the pifton of nearly r1 lbs. ger {quare inch, including friGtion and counter- weight ; but to balance the weight of the water in the pump, demands a preflure of only 8lbs. per {quare inch of the pifton. In calculating the powers of the fteam-engine, it has been a common miltake with engineers to take into the account no other circumftances than the diameter of the cylinder, and the perpendicular height and diameter of the pumps; from which they calculate only what burthen is laid upon each fquare inch of the cylinder or piiton area, fuppofing the pifton to be at reft, but without paying any regard to the velocity of the engine’s motions under fuch burthen, or the number of ftrokes fer minute. Without taking thefe parti- culars into the account, it is impoflible to calculate the quantity of water raifed to a given beige tc is the only means of obtaining the exaét power or ating force of an engine: it would be like attempting to meafure the contents of a folid body by only two dimenfions. Steam-engines have at different times been calculated to carry a load varying from 5 lbs. to upwards of tolbs. to the {quare inch; but when working with the light preffure of 5 lbs. to the inch, they are expected to go with double the velocity ; that is, the pifton to move through double the fpace in the fame time that it would with a preffure of ro lbs. In this cafe the fame quantity of water would be raifed to a given height in the fame {pace of time: Inthe fteam-engine, as well as in other machines, there is a maximum, which cannot be ex- ceeded without applying fome new principle ; and though by bad workmanfhip af engine may fall fhort of what it fhould do, the beft workmanfhip can only produce a certain effec. In eftimating the power or effet of engines in this manner by the pounds ger inch ,in the area of the pifton, it muft be confidered as the clear product of the engine in the column of water it will raife, abftraf@ted of all deduc- tions for fri€tion, counter-weight, &c. For, by attending to the different lifts of pumps in the engine-fhaft of a coal or a copper mine, we find that we mult, befide the altitudes and the diameters, take into the account the fri€tion of the buckets, and of the water on the fides of the pumps; the opening STEAM-ENGINE. opening of {trong double-leathered valves, together with the than 115 Ibs. on the inch. Mr, Hornblower informs us itones and gravel that enter at the foot of the pump ; the inertia of the pump-rods, the chains, the maffive lever placed between the cylinder and the pumps, all to be overcome by the preffure on the pifton, in addition to the 7 or 8 lbs. per fquare inch. Thefe additions to the power required for the mere railing of the water are fo confiderable, as to be at *leaft equal to half what is required for the work performed : this will raife the real acting preflure of the atmofphere to rok or 12lbs. per {quare inch. When this is the cafe, the vapour which remains in the cylinder mutt be equal in pref- fure to 44 or 3 lbs. per {quare inch ; and this, by our firlt table of expantion, will indicate a temperature of from 155° to 142° of Fahrenheit. In general, the water in the hot-well indicates a lower tem- perature than this ; but although we have but little inform- ation concerning the ftate of the vacuumin the atmofpheric en- gines, when working in their ufual ftate, it muft be confi- derably more perfeét than has been fuggefted by the idea of a preilure of 8 lbs. per inch: for an engine carrying a load of 74 lbs. on the {quare inch of the pifton, together with the fri€tion and inertia, even in large engines, cannot be lefs Ss 3 3 = m4 3 Zz = 3B = oo ea Sei ap eee 5 we = ae 3 |-se Pome =] 28 = més = ms ar ® adios aes-| 8 |ee| ea.) & 0 stake eal ea el 1z2 |14.4 | 28.8 |146. | 462. 7-21 | 440. IX |12.13 | 24. | 123-5 |338. | 6.20 | 369.33 Y IO .| 10.02 | 20.04] 102. | 320. 5-5 | 304-48] = g | 812 | 16.2 | 82.7 | 259.8 | 4-7 | 247-7 | 3 Si} 7.26 | 14-5 | 73-9 |232-3.] 3-43 |. 221-15 3 8 | 6.41 | 12.8 | 65.3 |205.2 | 3.16 | 195.22] @ 92 | 6.01 | 12.2 | 61-2 | 192.3 | 3-2 | 182.13] S, 7e| 5.66 | 11.3 | 57-6 181.1 | 2-55 | 172.30] = 7, | 491 : ; : a 63 | 4-23 : Ay 6 3-61 = 55 | 3-13 e Say 2552 gs 45 4 This table is formed on the foundation of the ale-gallon, (containing 282 cubic inches,) which, when filled with pure running water, weighs 10 lbs. 3 oz, avoirdupois; anda fuper- ficial inch, on a vacuum, takes in about 14 lbs. 13 oz. of the atmofphere, when the mercury ftands at a medium in the barometer. But allowing for feveral fri€tions, and to give a confider- able velocity to the engine, experience has taught us to allow but little more than 8 Ibs. to an inch in the cylinder’s bafe, that it may make about 16 itrokes in a minute, at about fix feet each. An Example for the Ufe of this Table.—Suppofe it was re- quired to draw 150 hogfheads per hour, at go yards deep ; in the feventh column, I feek the neareft number, viz. 149 hog- q - that he tried the vacuum of feveral engines in the county of Cornwall; and in one, which was reckoned the leaft, the vacuum in the cylinder brought the barometer-gauge to 23, and fometimes 24 inches, inltead of 30 inches, at which it would have ftood if the vacuum was perteé&t. If we take the extreme of thefe obfervations, it will be 11.6 lbs. on each {quare inch, Mr. Henry Beighton feems to have beer the firft who re- duced the {team-engine to any degree of certainty in its Operations, and laid down the rules for calculating its powers. Beighton was a mathematician as well as an en- gineer, and conduéted the Ladies Diary from 1714 to 1744. For feveral years he lived at Griff, and had con{tant opportunities of trying experiments on engines. We have before noticed his invention of the working- gear, or mechanifm, by whichthe regulator and {team-cock are alternately opened and fhut. In 1717, Mr. Beighton publifhed the following table of the neceflary proportions of the cylinders of engines to the pumps, when drawing water at different depths, from 15 to 100 yards, in different quantities, from 48 to 480 hogfheads per hour. Cylinders. The Depth from which Water is to be drawn, Yards. 60| 70] 80|:g0 | 100 - | In. | In. | In. | In. | In, | In. | In.} In] In. | In. | In. 184/213] 24 263 284 30% 323 34x| 372| 40 17 |193|22 |245\264|28 | 293/312) 344/37 |392 I5g)18 |20 |22 [235 254/27 | 285 | 314] 33336 | 354) 40 14 |16%|18 |20 |214]23 |244)29 |28 |304133 135 | 364 134|154| 173|19 |208|212|23 [24 |264| 284/31 |322] 254 124/142) 165|184]19 |204|212/23: | 25 |27 |29 |304] 324 12 14. | 154/174|183 jigs} 21 |22 | 244/26 |28 | 294 313 11 |1g$]15 |162/18 |1g |20 21%] 234)25 |27 1284] 30% 103|13_ | 14 |153|163 |182| 19 |205/22 |24 | 253/27 | 284 10 |12 |313 |14 |152|164/18 |19 | 20 |22 |23 | 244) 265 Qa|ti | 12 |13 114 [154/16 117 | 19 |205]22 | 23 | 244 TO [11 /12 [13 14 |15 | 152) 17 |19 |20 |21 | 224 To [tr Jr |13 | 133/14 | 154) 163) 182) 192] 205 “ I fheads, and again‘t it, in the firft column, I find a pump of feven-inch bore ; then under go, the depth on the right hand in the fame line, I haye 27 inches, the diameter of the cylinder fit for that purpofe, and fo for any other. Henry Beighton. This eftimation of 8 lbs. preffure for each fquare inch continued for many years to be the rule with engincers who conitruéted their engines according to this proportion ; and if the engines were of a better or worfe conftruction, they would move with a greater or lefs velocity, becaufe all the excefs of preflure which could be obtained above the 8 lbs. was appropriated to overcome the fri€tion and vis inertia of the machine ; and alfo to raife the counter-weight : if, therefore, this additional quantity was greater or le({s, the engine would move guicker, and raife a greater quantity of water STEAM-ENGINE. water in the fame time. Mr. Beighton expected his engine to move 16 ftrokes per minute, of fix fect each, or 96 feet of motion per minute; but fucceeding engineers found them feldom to come up to this, and then began to diminifh the burthen to 7 lbs. per {quare inch, and even 6lbs., in order to obtain a greater velocity of motion. The celebrated engineer Mr. John Smeaton carried the engine of Newcomen to perhaps as great a degree of per- feCtion as its principle admitted. Having conftant occafion to employ large fteam-engines in the great works which he ex- ecuted, he turned his attention to confider the means of im- proving their effe@, and diminifhing the confumption of fuel. In calculating the proportions for an engine for the New River Company, in 1767, he confidered that the ttoppage of the water at every ftroke, as well as putting the lever- beam, pifton, heavy rods, and chains, from a ftate of -reft into motion, twice at every ftroke, was a great lofs of power ; he therefore determined to work the engine flower, and with larger pumps, and put upon the pifton all the load it would bear. To reduce the velocity of the column of water {till more, he would place the fulcrum of the beam out of the centre, and make the ftroke of the pifton nine feet, whilft the pump which lifted 36 feet fhould work with only a fix- feet {troke. This arrangement obliged him to employ a long natrow cylinder, of only 18 inches diameter, and from this he alfo expected to obtain other advantages ; viz. that every part of the fteam, being nearer the furface of the cylinder, would be more readily condenfed; and, in confequence, that alefs quantity of inje¢tion-water would ferve the cylin- der, which would itfelf be more heated. Under all thefe appearances of advantage, he ventured to burden the pifton with a preffure of 10.4 lbs. ger inch. Thus, area of pilton (18 inches diameter) 254 ; weight of the column of water 36 feet in the pumps, 18 inches diameter, 3960 lbs., of which take $ths for the difference of the length of ftroke, and it gives 2640 lbs. for the weight to be lifted by the pifton; and dividing 2640 by 254, the area of the pilton, gives 10.4 lbs. preflure fer inch. ‘ Having once feen a common engine ftruggle under this burthen, I thought myfelf (fays this in- genious engineer) quite fecure under thofe advantages ; but how great was my furprize and mortification, to find that, inftead of requiring lefs injeGtion-water than common, al- though the injetion-pump was calculated to afford as much injeGtion-water as ufual, in proportion to the area of the cylinder, with a fufficient overplus to anfwer all imaginable wants, it was unable to fupport the engine with injection ; and that two men were obliged to aflift to raife the inje@tion- water quicker by hand, to keep the engine in motion: at the fame time that the cylinder was fo cold, I could keep my hand upon any part of it, and bear it for a length of time in the hot-well. By good fortune, the engine per- formed the work it was appointed to do, as to the raifing of water ; but the coals by no means an{wered my calculation. The injection-pump being enlarged, the engine was in a ftate of doing bufinefs, and I tried many fmaller experi- ments, but without any good effeét, till I altered the ful- crum of the beam fo much, as reduced the load upon the pifton from rod lbs. to 84 lbs. per inch. Under this load, though it fhortened the ttroke at the pump-end, the engine went fo much quicker, as not only to raife more water, but confume lefs coals, took lefs injetion-water, the cylin- der become hot, and the injeétion-water came out at 180° of Fahrenheit ; and the engine inevery refpe& not only did its work better, but went more pleafantly. This at once con- vinced me that a confiderable degree of condenfation of the fteam took place in entering the cylinder, and that I had loft more this way by the coldnefs of the cylinder, than I had gained by the increafe of load. In fhort, this fingle alteration feemed to have unfettered the engine ; but in what degree this condenfation took place under different cireum- {tances of heat, and where to {trike the medium, fo as upon the whole to do beft, was ftill unknown tome. But refolving, if poflible, to make myfelf mafter of the fubje&, I imme- diately began to build a {mall fire-engine at home, that I could eafily convert into diflerent fhapes for experiments, and which engine was very near ready to fet to work in the winter of 1769.” With this experimental engine, which is reprefented in Plate U11. Steam-Engine, Mr. Smeaton made a multitude of experiments, which he noted down with great care in tables, and from their refults deduced rules for the proportions of the parts of his engines : he afterwards erected many engines of the largeft dimenfions, which fully verified his experiments : the firft of thefe was at Long Benton colliery, in 1774, which had a 52-inch cylinder, and afterwards a 72-inch, for the emprefs of Ruffia, at Cronftadt. Mr. Smeaton’s Experimental Engine.— Plate 111. contains an elevation of this engine, fhewing all its parts at one view ; and, after the minute defcription which we have given of Mr. Newcomen’s engine in Plate LI., it is not neceflary to enlarge on the particulars of the prefent. A, B, are the walls of the building ; C groundfills, extending from the wall B, to the wall of the boiler or furnace F ; D are {trong upright tim- bers, to {upport the crofs-beam d, on which the centre of the beam is fuftained ; P are the cylinder-beams, framed into the upright D, and the walls A, B ; and the cylinder G is hyng between them by thick crofs-planks g, g. M M the great beam, librating on its centre, and formed to arcs of circles at the ends, to which are fufpended the chains 4 for the pifton, and the chain of the main-pump {pear H. It has alfo attached to it the plug-frame Q, and at the other end an iron rod K, which works the injection or jack-head pump, I, by means of a counter lever aa, which brings the rod, 7, of the pump to a convenient place, near the main-pump OQ. The proper diftance for the motion of the beam is limited by two iron fidds or pins 4, 4, which reach out from each fide of the arch-heads, and {top on pieces of wood, fupported by the beams S, called the {pring-beams. Thefe beams alfo, which fupport the upper floor of the houfe, are let into the walls A, B, at the ends, and reft in the middle on the crofs-beam d, and are firmly bolted down, as fhewn in the drawing. . N is the injection-pipe, 13 the injeétion-cock, and X the pilton water-cock, branching off from the injetion-pipe N. L is the injection-ciltern, placed in the highelt part of the houfe ; £4 is the pipe from the injection-pump I, by which it is fupplied; and T is the walte-pipe, at which the excefs of water runs off. The pipe T leads down to the {mall ciftern Bs which will always be kept full, and the overflow will run down the watte-pipe /e, and efcape out of doors. f is the fire-door, and the afh-pit 1s beneath it: the fire circulates round the boiler, and then paties into the chim- ney g: x is a {mal! door at the bottom’ of the chimney, to clear the foot, and there is alfo a damper to regulate the draft: x is the boiler, and its figure below is fhewn by the dotted lines: v is a pipe rifing from it, which has the fafety-valve at the top of it, contained in a box or trough, which carries the {team through the wall at w: x is the fteam-gauge, a {mall bent glafs tube, which contains mercury, and fhews the prefiure of the fteam. The cylinder G, be- fides the bored part in which the pifton works, has a bot- tom W, {crewed on by a flanch at the lower part, and from this bottom part defcends the fteam-pipe S. The fhort pipe, 12, joins to the lower end of the injeCtion-pipe N N; and oppolite STEAM-ENGINE. oppofite to this isa fimilar fhort pipe, for the {nifting-valve. Alfo from the bottom of the cylinder there defcends the fink, or eduction-pipe m, which enters the hot-well R, and the end is covered with a valve. S is the wa{te-pipe, from which the excefs of hot water in the hot-well is carried off into the well E E. As the hot-well is placed fo low that the boiler cannot be fupplied from it, a {mall feed-pipe, p, proceeds from the lower part of the cylinder, and enters the boiler, having a cock, f, to regulate the quantity which fhall pals through, and a valve to prevent the water being drawn up from the boiler into the cylinder. In the top of the boiler is the regulator- plate, 7, to the under furface of which the regulator is fitted: the handle or lever of the regulator is alfo feen, and the f{panner or rod 5, by which it is alternately moved backwards or forwards by the arms 3 and 4 ofthe x. When its weight er bob, 3,.falls over on either fide of the perpendicu- lar, it is checked by the ftrap g: 1 and 2 are the arms or handles by which the x is moved when the pins in the plug- beam, Q, aé&t upon them, and 6 is a weight to balance the weight of the handles. 10, 11 is the F, or lever of the injeCtion-cock ; it is con- neéted with the handle of the cock, 13, by a fork, which can- not be feen; and the end, 11, is loaded witha fufficient weight to caufe its defcent, and open the cock, except when it is ele- vated, by prefling down the end 10; and when it is held up by the heok 12, the cock will then be fhut; but when the plug-frame rifes to its higheft, it draws the wire 14, and lifts the catch 12, fo as og fall the weight 11, and opens the cock in an inftant. The action of this engine is apparent after the explanation which we have given of the former engine, and it is only ne- ceflary to explain a {mall machine which is contained in the ciftern V, called the catara&t: it was very commonly ufed ' in the engines for the mines in Cornwall, to regulate the motion of the engine to any given number fer minute, fo that the defired quantity of water could be drawn, without walting fteam in drawing more. The catara& is nothing more than a {mall tumbling-bob, moving on a centre within the box V, in the fame manner as the x ; but inftead of the weight or bob at the top, it has a {mall box or cup, which is filled with water by a {mall ftream dropping continually from the {mall ciftern z, through acock. The ck on which the cup is fixed, has a fecond lever and counter-weight applied to it, which makes it always affume the vertical pofition, or nearly fo, except when the cup is full, and then it is of fufficient weight to make the cataraét- tumbler fall over, and in that pofition the cup inclines fo much, that it difcharges its contents, and the counter-weight caufes its immediate return. The cataraét, when it falls over, ftrikes a piece which is conneéted with a wire 15, and this by a lever, 16, and the fecond wire, 17, draws up the catch 12. When the engine works with the catara&t, the wire 14, before mentioned, is detached; and in this ftate we will fuppofe the regulator open, the injeCtion-cock fhut, and the pilton to have juft arrived at the top of the cylinder. A pin in the plug-beam, 2 feizes the handle 1, overthrows the tumbling-bob, 3, of the x towards the cylinder, and the prong, 3, of the fork of the x draws the rod 5, and fhuts the regulator. In this fituation the engine will re- main, until the ftream, which flows from the ciftern x, Vor. XXXIV. through the cock, fills the cup at the top of the catara@, and caufes it to fall over; it then ftrikes fuddenly on the piece of the wire 15, and by the lever 16, and wire rset raifes the hook-catch 12. ‘This lets fall the weight r1, and opens the injeCtion-cock, to throw a jet in the cy- linder, which condenfes the iteam therein, making the pifton to” defeend; and when it arrives at the bottom, the pin in the plug Q deprefles 10, which fhuts the injection, and then, by depreifing 2, overthrows the tumbling-bob, and opens the regulator. This admits fteam again into the cylinder, and the counter-weight makes the pifton re- turn. The cataract returned the inftant that its cup in- clined fo much as to throw out its water, and the cup then began to fill again; but it will not again a&, or difcharge the injeétion-cock, until it is quite filled ; and the injeCtion- cock will not open till this happens; fo that the engine waits at the top of the ftroke till the cataraét is ready : and this time of waiting can be regulated, by diminifh- ing or increafing the fleam which drops down the cock, fo as to draw up exaétly as much water as drains into the mine. In 1765, Mr. Smeaton made a portable fteam-engine for draining foundations, or other temporary works. It had a pulley or wheel, to receive the chain which communicated motion from the pifton to the pump-rod, inftead of a beam ; and the whole machine being fupported in one frame of wood, it had no conneétion with the building in which it was placed, or it could work all together in the open air. The frame was fhaped like the letter A, and the vertex fupported the pivots of the wheel, whilft the cylinder and pump were bolted down to the groundfills, on which the A was ereéted. The engine in its aétion was the fame as others; the boiler required no fetting in brick-work, but was in the fhape of a large tea-kettle, and the fire-place was in the centre of it, furrounded on all fides by the water. On one fide was an opening for the fire-door, and a large tube or pipe led through the water to a hollow {phere of caft-iron, in which the fire was made, upon a grate; and from the grate another large tube or afh-pit defcended perpendicularly through the bottom of the boiler, and was open below to fupply air to the fire; alfo oppofite the fire-door was a third large tube or chimney, leading from the {phere through the fide of the boiler, and it then turned up in the manner of the {pout of a tea-kettle, to carry off the fmoke into a tall chimney of brick or of iron-plate. From Mr. Smeaton’s manufcript papers (now in poffeffion of fir Jofeph Banks) we gain much pra@tical as well as phi- lofophical information on the atmofpheric engines; and as thefe engines are ftill ufed very extenfively at coal-mines, we think the publication of the particulars will be of fervice. Mr. Smeaton’s experiments with his experimental engine were very numerous, and fo diverfified, as to afford all the information which can be defired upon Newcomen’s engine. It would exceed our limits to tranfcribe many of thefe ex- periments ; but we think it will be ferviceable to give the table of proportions, which he fettled from the refults of all his experiments, and after which table, between the years 1774 and 1782, he ereéted no lefs than eight firft rate engines, with cylinders of five and fix feet diameters, and many others of {maller dimenfions. A full defcription, with drawings, of one of thefe engines, is given in the publication of Mr. Smeaton’s Reports, 3 vols. 4to. London, 1811. 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This is the effect of the engine exprefled im a convenient manner, to feparate it from all confiderations of the diameter or lift of the pumps, or of the number of ftrokes which the engine makes in a minute; being the multiple of all thefe, and is thus ob- tained. Multiply the fquare of the diameter of the cylinder in inches, by the preflure on each {quare inch of the pifton, not exprefled in pounds weight, but in the height of a column of water in feet; and this again is multiplied by the velocity of the motion of the pifton fer minute. For example, a 26-inch cylinder: fquare of diameter, (676) x 18 feet, the preflure per {quare inch in feet of wa- ter, = 12168 x 76.21 feet, the journey per minute, = 927323, the great product fer minute, as fer table. The table is calculated upon the fuppofition that the pref- fure upon each fquare inch of the pilton is 8 lbs. avoir- dupois, or 18 feet column of water. The laft column, or effec pe minute of one bufhel per hour, is a comparative view of the effe& of different-fized engines, thewing the advantages of large enpauee in refpect to {mall, in the quantity of work they will effec in propor- tion to the coals they confume. To find the number of bufhels of coals which any of the engines will confume per hour, calculate the internal furface of the cylinder in fquare inches, and add to it three times the fquare of the diameter, to allow for the pifton bottom, cylinder bottom, and the furface of the pipes which are within the cylinder. Next calculate the folid content of the cylinder in cubic inches, and find the proportion between the fuperficial and the folid meafure of the cylinder: ac- cording to the number of this proportion, find a number in the following table for a divifor. Preportion of the Surface of ey Effe& of theCylinder to) oie Buthel Differences. its Capacity per Hour. in fquare and cubic Inches, OW CI AMPWH Laftly, cut off three places of figures from the great product per minute, and dividing by the divifor, the quo- tient will be the effe&t of one buthel per minute. For example, a 72-inch cylinder: its circumference will be 226.3, which, multiplied by 135 inches, the length, gives 30550 fquare inches; and adding thereto 15552, which is three times the {quare of the diameter, we have 46102 fuperficial inches ; and the content of the cylinder is 549652 cubic inches, which is 11.9 times the number of the fuperficial inches, By feeking in the lait table for 11.9 or 12, we find the number 572 for the divifor of the STEAM-ENGINE. great produét, after cutting off its three laft figures, viz. 7558 + 572 = 13 bubhels per hour. By this way ot finding the proportion between the fur- face and the content of the cylinder, an allowance is made for the lofs of {team which takes place from condenfation, when it enters into the cylinder at every ftroke, after it has been cooled by the injection thrown into it. The quantity is very confiderable, and forms the greateft objection to this form of the fteam-engine. An attentive obfervation to the aétion of an engine will fhew that there is a wa{te, but not the quantity in which it takes place. The moment the regulator is opened, when the pifton is at the bottom of the f{troke, the fteam may be perceived to iflue from the fnifting-valve with a ftrong puff, becaufe the fteam is more elaftic than air by one or two pounds ger {quare inch ; but as the pilton rifes, this {team diminifhes, and foon ceafes, and no more {team will iflue during the whole rife of the ilton. To afcertain the quantity of this lofs by condenfation, it becomes firft neceflary to know to what degree water is ex- panded, when converted into fteam, at the preflure of the atmofphere ; and compare this with the degree of expanfion which it requires to convert the water, which the boiler confumes in a given time, into fuch a quantity of fteam as will fill the cylinder the requifite number of times in the fame period. Mr. Beighton made an experiment at Griff engine, in Warwickfhire, on the degree of rarefaGtion of water when converted into fteam, but without determining the tempera- ture. The preffure of the {team was juft one pound upon the fquare inch, as he determined by the {fteelyard of the fafety-valve ; and by our fecond table, we find this to de- note a temperature of about 216°. The cylinder of the engine contained 113 gallons of fteam at every ftroke, which, at 16 ftrokes fer minute, is equal to 1808 ale-gallons, or 1808 x 8 = 14464 pints of {team per minute. He found that the neceflary fupply of frefh water for the boiler, un- der thefe circum{tances, was about five pints fer minute, to keep the furface of the water at a conftant level ; there- fore, the relative bulks of the fteam of one pound ger inch preflure, and the water from which it was produced, were as 5 to 14464, or as 1to 2893nearly. By an unaccountable miitake, Defaguliers, who relates the above experiment, de- duces from the fame data, that the expanfion is 13388, a number which has been frequently quoted by other writers. Mr. Beighton’s experiment cannot be admitted as conclufive, becaufe the cylinder being cooled by the condenfing water at every ftroke, the {team would be condenfed, and lofe much of its bulk in entering into the cold cylinder. But without making any allowance for that lofs, Mr. Beigh- ton’s experiment makes a greater degree of expanfion than has been found by others; and we fhould not have men- tioned this experiment at all, had it not been fo frequently quoted after Defaguliers with his enormous error, even by Belidor, Prony, and other foreign writers. Mr. Smeaton made fome experiments by weighing a Florence flafk of four inches diameter, firlt when it was perfeGtly dry and empty, and afterwards when it was full of water ; then pouring out all the water, except a {mall quan- tity, he put the globe on the fire, and made it boil ftrongly, till the laft drop of water difappeared, and at that inftant he ftopped up the mouth to retain the fteam which was within it. The flafk being now weighed, gave the difference of weight between the flafk filled with water and with fteam of an elattic force equal to that of atmofpheric air ; and de- duting the weight of the empty flafk from each of thefe Lz experiments, STEAM-ENGINE. experiments, it gave the proportion of the bulk of the fteam to that of the water: this, by a mean of fix different ex- periments, he determined to be a3 7z-5- But fufpeGing that fome air was contained in the flafk along with the fteam, he inverted the mouth of it in water when it was filled with the hot fteam, and found it to draw up the water in the fame manner as defcribed by captain Savery ; but it was not quite filled with water, for a fmall bubble of air _remained in the flafk, and this he eftimated to be fuch a por- tion of the whole content, as induced him to reduce his eftimate of the expanfion from 2459 times to 1800 times ; and this number, the fame number that Mr. Watt had de- termined, he ufed in his calculations. His inveltigation of the quantity of {team deltroyed by a given furface of the cold cylinder was as follows. The cylinder of the experimental engine was 9.9 inches diameter and 50 inches long: making the requifite additions to its bottom and pilton, the internal furface was 2340 fquare inches, and the folid content was 3940 cubic inches. The quantity of water neceflary to fupply the boiler at each {troke was found to be 8.5 cubic inches: therefore, 3940 > 8.5 = 463 times, which the 8.5 cubic inches of water muft have expanded to fill the cylinder at each ftroke. But fuppofing the water to have expanded 1800 times, the 8.5 inches x 1800 = 15300 cubic inches of fteam produced, which is 3.88 times the quantity employed to fill the cylinder. The difference of thefe numbers, viz. 15300 — 3940 = 11360 inches of {team condenfed and loft. This, divided by the number of fuperficial inches on the furface of the cy- linder, gives 4.9 cubic inches condenfed by every {quare inch of furface. It will be readily feen, that the proportion between the quantity of {team which muft be produced, and the quan- tity which will be employed, will be lefs in large cylinders than in fmall ones ; hence the above is the extreme cafe ; and in a fimilar trial of a 52-inch cylinder, he found the watte to be only 2.7 cubic inches for each inch of furface. Hence we fee the reafon for Mr. Smeaton’s rule of making the proportion of the furface of the cylinder to its capacity the ground-work for the calculation of the quantity of coals. In common engines, which are loaded to feven or eight pounds upon the inch, and are of a middle fize, the quan- tity of {team which is condenfed in reltoring to the cy- linder the heat which it had loft, is equal to the full con- tents of the cylinder, befides what it really required to fill it ; fo that twice the contents of the cylinder are employed to make it raife a column of water equal to about feven or eight pounds for each fquare inch of the pifton ; or to take it more fimply, a cubic foot of fteam makes a fufficient vacuum to raife a cubic foot of water about eighteen feet high, befides overcoming the friction of the engine, and the refiftance of the water to motion. In all Mr. Smeaton’s experiments he obferved the quan- tity of water which was evaporated in proportion to the coals, and found by a mean of a great number of experi- ments, that a bufhel of coals-evaporated £2700 cubic inches of water, or 7.35 cubic feet; and eftimating the expanfion at 1800 times, the bufhel of coals will produce 13230 cubic feet of fteam, of little more in elafticity than the atmofphere, and about 214° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. The Work adually performed by Atmofpheric Engines in pro- portion to the Coals.—We {hall firit give the refults of the performance of fome old engines, according to Mr. Smea- ton’s account, before he began his improvements. ‘The en- gine at Long Benton colliery, which was confidered as one of the beft in the neighbourhood of Newcattle, was tried by Mr. Smeaton in 1772; it was of the following dimen- fions. Cylinder 52 inches diameter, {troke 7 feet. The pump was 12 inches diameter, and drew the water 61 fathome high; and alfo an injeétion-pump § inches diameter, and 5 feet 74 inches ftroke, which raifed water 58 feet. This engine confumed 8 bolls (of z cwt. 1 qr. 214 lbs. each) of coals, fuch as are generally ufed for engines, in two hours and two minutes, when working at the rate of from 74 to 8 ftrokes per minute, or 73 per minute at the medium. The computations from thefe data are firft to afcertain the real weight of water in the pumps: the main pump being 12 inches diameter, and the injection-pump 8, the propor- tion of the areas of the two will be as the fquares of their diameters, and their load in proportion to their height of column ; therefore, as 144: 64:: 58 feet high: 25.7 feet ; that 1s, the whole load of the injeétion-pump will be equal 25.7 feet of the main column of 12 inches diameter ; but this is, provided that the length of {troke was the fame in both. To reduce them to one, fay as a 7-feet ftroke, or 84 inches, : 67.5 in. :3 25.7 ft. : 20.7 feet of the column of the main pumps, fay 21 feet. : Hence, the whole load confifts of the main column of 12 inches diameter, and 61 fathoms or 366 feet, and the injection- pump equal to 21 feet thereof, 366 + 21 feet = 387 feet. To obtain what Mr. Smeaton calls the great produét, by which the powers of different engines can be compared, mul- tiply the {quare of the pump’s diameter 144 inches x 387 feet lift = 55728, which multiplied by a 7-feet ftroke = 390096, and again by 7.75 ftrokes per minute = 3023244, the whole product or effect of the engine, without regard to coals, or without any allowance for the weight of the pump- rods, and the counterpoife of the engine. . The quantity of coals was 2cwt. 1 qr. 214 Ibs. = 2732 Ibs. x 8 bolls = 2188 lbs. which divided by 88 lbs., the weight of a London bufhel, gives 24.86 bufhels confumed in the whole time of the experiment, viz. two hours and two minutes, or 122 minutes. af To find the coals for one hour’s work, fay as 122 minutes : 60 min. :: 24.86 bufhels : 12.22 bufhels per hour. Lattly, the whole produét 3023244, divided by 12.22, gives 247401 for the produé or effeét of one bufhel of coals fer hour. This engine was rebuilt according to Mr. Smeaton’s plan, with the fame cylinder of 52 inches and 7-feet ftroke, but the pumps were enlarged to 12.2 inches diameter, and lifted in two columns each 24 fathoms 4 feet high. The injection- pump was 7 inches diameter, 5 feet 6 inches {troke, and lifted 70 feet 7 inches high. In 1774 Mr. Smeaton tried the experiment, and found that when this new engine was working at the rate of twelve _ftrokes fer minute, 2 cwt. I qr. 16 lbs. of the common en- gine coals fupplied it 22 minutes. From this he made a fimilar computation to thofe for the former engine. Square of 12.2 inches the diameter of the main pumps 148.84; {quare of 7 inches the dfameter of injection-pump 49; its lift 7o% feet. Then fay as 148.84 249 :: 70%: 23.21 feet of the main column, if the lengths of the ftrokes were equal; but as they are not, fay as the long ftroke 84 in. : 66in. :: 23.21 ft. :. 18.2; therefore the load of the injeftion-pump is equal to the load of 18.2 feet of height of the main column. The total load then is equal to a barrel 12.2 inches dia- meter, twiee 24 fathoms 4 feet, or 296 feet + 18 feet, viz. 314 feet of lift. To obtain the great produ&, multiply the fquare of the pump’s diameter 148.84 by 314 feet; the height lifted = 5 45735-7655 STEAM-ENGINE. 46735.76, which multiplied by 7-feet ftroke = 327150.32; and again by 12 ftrokes per minute = 3925803.84, the whole produc or effe&t of the engine, without regard to coals, or without allowance for the weight of the pump-rod, nearly 3 tons, and the counter-weight of the engine. For the quantity of coals 2 cwt. 1 qr. 16lbs., or 268lbs., divide it by 88lbs., the weight of a London bufhel, and it makes 3.05 bufhels confumed in 22 minutes, the time of the experiment; therefore fay, as 22 min. : 60 min. :: 3.05 : 8.32 buthels ser hour. Laftly, the whole produ& 3925803.84, divided by 8.32, gives 471851 for the product, or effect of one buthel of coals per hour. Therefore the effe&t of this new engine, compared with the former engine, is as 471851 to 247401. To this computation, which is chiefly comparative be- tween the two engines, we may add the following, to fhew the preffure upon each fquare inch of the pifton. . The area of the 52-inch cylinder is 52 x 52 = 2704 x .7854 = 2123 {quare inches. The weight of the column of water in the pumps, 12.2 inches diameter, will be about 50.glbs. weight for each foot inheight. For 12.2 x 12.2 = 148.84 x .7854 = 116.8, the fquare inches in the area of the pump. Now, a cubic foot of water weighs 624 pounds nearly ; therefore divide 62.5lbs. by 144, the fyuare inches in a {quare foot, and it will give .434lbs., which is the weight of a column of water one inch bafe and one foot high. Multiply 116.8 x .434 = 50.7lbs., the weight of the column of water in the pumps a foot high ; and this multiplied by 314 feet, the whole lift equals 1591glbs., the total weight of water. Divide this number by 2123, the number of {quare inches in the furface of the pifton, and it will give 7.48lbs. for the preflure upon each fquare inch, or 73 very nearly. Another method of readily finding the preflure per {quare inch in the pifton is thus. As the fquare of the diameter of the cylinder (52 x 52 =) 2704 is to the fquare of the diameter of the pump (12.2 x 12.2 =) 148.84, fo is the height which the pump lifts, 314 feet, to 17.24, the height of a column of water, which, if it refted on the pifton, would balance the water in the pump. Then multiply 17.24 feet by .434lbs., the weight of an inch fquare of water one foot high, and the refult is 7.48lbs. for the preflure per {quare inch, the fame as before. Since Mr. Watt introduced his improved engines, it has been cuftomary to compare their effe&ts by the number of pounds of water which they can raife to one foot high by the confumption of a bufhel of coals, without regarding the time in which it is expended. ‘To reduce thefe two engines to that ftandard, we muft fay the firft engine confumed 24.86 bufhels in 122 minutes; therefore, as 24.86 buh. : 122 min. :: 1 bufh. : 49 min. ; that is, one bushel will laft 49 minutes. At every ftroke, the pump draws up acylinder of water, 12 inches diameter and 7 feet long, 387 feet high. This cylinder of water will weigh 343]lbs.; for 12 x 12 = 144 — .7854 = 113 inches, the area of the pump. This, multiplied by .434lbs., the weight of a column one inch fquare, and one foot high, will be 4glbs. ; and again, mul- tiplied by 7 feet for the length, will equal 343]bs. The quantity of coals confumed in the firit experiment was 24.86 bufhels: the experiment lafted 122 minutes, during which time thé engine, working at 73 ftrokes per minute, made 945 ftrokes; then fay, as 24.86 bufh. : 945 ftrokes :: 1 bufh. : 38; therefore the engine makes 38 ftrokes for every bufhel of coals which it confumes. At every ftroke the engine raifes 343lbs. of water 387 feet. Multiply 343 by 38, the number of ftrokes, and it gives 13034lbs., lifted 387 feet by each bufhel of coals. Lattly, 13034 x 387 = 5,044,15Slbs. of water raifed one foot high with a bufhel of coals. The new engine confumed 3.05 bufhels in 22 minutes, during which time it worked 12 ftrokes per minute ; it is therefore 264 ftrokes: then fay, as 3.05 buth. : 264 ftrokes :: 1 bufh. : 86.5, the number of {trokes which the engine will make for each bushel it confumes. At every ftroke the engine raifes a cylinder of water, 12.2 inches diameter, 7 fect long, and weighing 354.8lbs. 314 feet high. Multiply this 354.8lbs. by the 86.5 {trokes which the engine makes for each bufhel of coals, and we have 30690, the number of pounds of water lifted 314 feet by each buthel of coals. And laftly, 306golbs. x 314 feet = 9,636,66olbs. of water lifted one foot high with each bufhel of coals. Mr. Smeaton’s Diredions for making Engines. — Mr. Smeaton made his engines with a wooden bottom to the pifton, as we have before noticed. This was be- caufe wood communicates heat much lefs rapidly than metals. The pifton is kept much cooler than any other part to which the {team has dire&t accefs, not only from the water which is poured upon it to keep it tight, and prevent the leakage of air into the cylinder, but alfo becaufe it receives the firft and moit dire& aétion of the cold injetion- water: and as the {team in entering the cylinder through the fteam-pipe firft meets the cold furface of the pifton, it is thereby condenfed in a greater degree than by an equal portion of the internal furface of the cylinder. By covering the bottom of the pifton with wood, it will receive or condué lefs heat from the {team ; and for the fame reafon, the cold water, when it is thrown up againit the pifton, will be lefs heated by the contaé of it, the wood adting as a neutral body on the fluids, which alternately act againtt it. The injeCtion-cap, or jet, according to Mr. Smeaton, fhould be a fquare hole through a brafs plate, and rounded from the under fide, that it may throw upa fullbore. The middle of the jet fhould not be direéted to ftrike the centre of the pifton bottom, but it fhould rife perpendicularly, fo as to ltrike the pifton bottom at right angles. That part of the injection-pipe which is within the cylinder fhould be made of wood, or if of metal, wrapped round with tarred marline, or {mall rope, to feparate the metal of the pipe from the contaé of the iteam, or hot water, which not only faves the condenfation cf fome tteam, but by preventing the pipe becoming hot, that portion of inje€tion-water which is con- tained in the pipe is kept cool, and the {team which afterwards flows through the pipe will enter in its cooleft ftate. The inje¢tion-ciftern fhould be placed as high as the building will admit, fo as to give a {martnefs to the jet. A pipe fhould be applied beyond the fnifting-valve, with @ cock in it, which being partially clofed, the {nifting can be regulated, if it fhould be found too great, fo as to emit more fteam than is requifite. Mr. Smeaton alfo placed a {mall air-cock on the upper part of the eduétion-pipe, or fome other part having free communication with the cylinder, for the largeft engine. This was to be only of the fize of a {mall common beer-cock ; and when the {nift was properly regulated, this cock was to be opened as much as it could be, to allow the pifton to come fully down into the cylinder. We fuppofe this air-cock muft have been found pra¢tically beneficial, or fuch an experimental engineer as Mr. Smeaton would have difcontinued to recommend it : but we do not know on what principles the admiffion of air could be fer- viceable, unlefs it was to diminifh the de{cending power of the pifton when it arrived near the bottom of the cylinder, and thus diminifh that acceleration of the pifton, of which we STEAM-ENGINE. we have before fpoken in the defcription of the ation of the engine. Lattly, in adjufling the engine to its work, to determine the proper degree of counter-weight, it was to be put toge- ther, and the pumps filled with water, but the buckets without the leathers, and the pifton without any packing. In this ftate, a weight, equal to about 1b. per {quare inch, being laid upon the pifton, the engine was ballafted at either end of the beam, as it might require, until it was found in exact balance. Then, when the pifton was relieved from its weight, it. would have a counter-weight tending to draw it up with a force equal to 1b, per fquare inch. This was for engines of the largeft dimenfions ; but as the proportion of lofs by friétion of the pifton and buckets is greater in fmall cylinders and pumps, fmaller engines muft have 14lb., and the fmalleft engines 2lbs. per inch. When it is not convenient to fill the pumps with water up to the top, allowance mutt be made for the difference of the pump-rods not being immerfed. Mr. Smeaton expected his engines, which were calculated to be loaded with a neat burden of 8lbs. per {quare inch, would, with the counter-weight as above, make their re- turning ftroke rather quicker than the working ftroke, and this he preferred. The proper proportion of the counter-weight has been a matter of much mathematical inveiligation by writers on the engine, particularly M. Boflut; but it depends upon fo many contingent circumitances, that it would be impof- fible to apply any theorem to pra¢tice, even if the theory were eftablifhed ; and the adjuftment is eafily afcertained by experiment. The defign of the engineer in giving or allowing a pre- ponderancy to the outer end of the beam, is fimply that the buckets may defcend, and that the pifton may rife and allow the fteam to fill the cylinder, without any further combination of apparatus being employed for that purpofe. Now let us obferve its operation, and the manner of adjuft- ing its quantity in an engine’s firlt fetting to work. Sup- pofe the water already up to the top of the pump: the fteam being admitted into the cylinder till it has driven out the air, the operator fhuts the fteam-cock, without fupply- ing any injection; and the engine will make its firft ftroke, though very quietly, by the external condenfa- tion from the furface of the cylinder: he then allows {team again to enter the cylinder, and according to the pilton’s tendency to rife, he fuits his judgment to the degree of counter-weight neceflary : if it rifes too flow, he puts iron or other ballaft upon the pump-end of the beam; and if it rifes too quick, he places thefe weights on the pilton-end. We have then two important circumftances to attend to in this regulation. Firft, that the pump-bucket fhall defcend as quick as it can, but without fuch force as fhall occafioa a violent fhock to {top the motion at the end of the ftrokes ; and fecondly, that the pilton fhall not be drawn up fafter than the fteam-regulator (with the degree of opening that is given to it) can fupply fteam ; for that would impede the difcharging funétions of the engine, or getting rid of the air and condenfing water ; and unlefs thefe are performed punctually, the engine foon ceafes to work. Now neither the air nor the water can be difcharged inftantaneoufly from the cylinder, but require a certain time, in proportion to the quantity of each, and the degree of ftrength in the {team ; and therefore the pifton muft nct rife fo quick as to prevent the fteam a€ting on the air and condenfing wa- ter, which it will do if the engine has too great a counter-weight, and the fteam is low; for if the pifton afcends fafter than the boiler fupplies fteam, there can be no difcharge, and after a ftroke or two the engine will {top. But this is on the fuppotition that the engine is working with its full intended velocity, When an engine is eretted on amine or pit which is finking, the quantity of water to be lifted by the pump being f{mall, the engine mutt work flow, and the counter-weight muft be in proportion ; the beam will neverthelefs require an extra counterpoife at the pump-end, becaufe of the lightnefs of the pump-rods ; but as the mine or pit becomes of greater depth, and fuc- ceffive lengths of rods are applied Br the different lifts of pumps, the weight muit be diminifhed, and at length transferred to the pifton-end of the beam, in fuch quantity as to keep the engine under command ; for as the velocity of the returning ftroke depends upon the quantum of counter-weight, this muft be regulated according to the quantity of water which this engine has to draw, or rather to the number of ftrokes the engine is to make in a minute. As this velocity is to be increafed when the quantity of water increafes, a greater counter-weight muft be added; but it is not until the engine works at its intended load, that the counter-weight muft be brought to the degree we have mentioned. While an engine is working, as we have fuppofed, with a {mall portion of its full load, the injeétion muft be very {paringly applied, fo as to condenfe imperfe&ly within the cylinder, or the pilton will defcend with fuch velocity, and {trike upon the {pring-beams with fuch violence, as to beat every thing to pieces. When a mine is going down, and the engine-fhaft receives all the water from the different parts of the mine, the quick- nefs of the engine’s ftroke mutt depend upon the uniform influx of the water, and the engine muft be fo accurately regulated to this quantity of water, as to fup it up at every ftroke. Now if this fupping up is violent, the air will be drawn into the pumps at the conclufion of every ftroke, and caufe the engine to work irregularly ; and, on the other hand, if the itrokes of the engine are not quick enough, the water will gain on the miners and prevent their working. The velocity, as we have before ftated, muft be regulated by the quantity of injeQion which will determine the motion of the ftroke, and the counter-weight will regu- late the time of the returning ftroke: but a much better re- gulation of the velocity of the engine can be attained by the catara¢t, which we have before defcribed. Even when the engine comes to work with its full load and counter-weight, and when a proper injection is allowed to con- denfe fully, the engine-man can retard or accelerate the re- turning ftrokes of the engine, in fome degree, bythe regulation of the fire; for if the engine fhould return too quick, he lets down the damper in the flue of the chimney ; or if it is too flow, he raifes thedamper. By thefe means he can vary the action of the fteam, on the lower fide of the pitton, from one to two pounds on the inch, greater than the preflure of the at- mofphere, which in a fixty-inch cylinder will amount to 2800 pounds, and is a fufficient latitude to make the engine re- turn very quick or very flow, but does not alter the period of the working of the ftreke. Other Improvements on Newcomen’s Engine—Mr. Smea- ton’s improvements on the engine, as we have fhewn, con- filted only in proportioning its parts, but without altering any thing in its principle. “ In 1759, Mr. James Brindley, the engineer who defigned. and executed the duke of Bridgewater’s canal, obtained a patent for improvements in the ftru@ure of the fire-engine. ‘The boiler he propoféd to be made of wood and ftone, with a calt-iron ftove or fire-place withinfide of it, and fur- rounded STEAM-ENGINE. rounded on all fides, fo as to give its heat to the water. The chimney was an iron pipe or tube, alfo immerfed in the water of the boiler. ‘This plan he expected would fave a, confiderable portion of the fuel. The feeding-pipe for the boiler was to be made with a clack, to be opened and fhut by a float upon the furface of the water in the boiler, fo as to fupply it with water always to the fame level, without any care on the part of the engine-man. The great chains for the arches of the beam were to be of wood, and his pumps were alfo to be made of wooden ftaves hooped together. Thefe are all the improvements mentioned in the {pecification of his patent: but in the new edition of the Biographia Britannica, we are informed that, in 1756, Mr. Brindley undertook to ereét a fteam-engine near Newcattle- under-Lyne upon a new plan. The boiler of it was made with brick and ftone, inftead of iron plates, and the water was heated by internal iron flues of a peculiar conftruétion, by which contrivances the confumption of fuel neceflary for working a iteam-engine was reduced one-half. He intro- duced alfo into his engine wooden cylinders, made in the man- ner of coopers’ ware, initead of iron ones, the former being cheaper and more eafily managed in the fhafts ; and he like- wife fubftituted wood for iron in the chains which worked at the end of the beam. He had formed defigns of intro- ducing other improvements into the con{truGtion of this-ufe- ful engine, but was difcouraged by obitacles that were thrown in his way. The -moft important improvement in the atmofpheric en- gine was the application of it, by means of a crank and fly- wheel, to the purpofe of turning mills. This was not much of invention to any one who had confidered the aétion of a foot-lathe ; but it does not appear to have been put in prac- tice till a late period, or brought into any extenfive ufe till after Mr. Watt invented his engine. Mr. Jonathan Hulls had a patent in 1736, for working rowing-wheels at the fide or head of a boat by the force of Newcomen’s engine, and we believe he propofed to employ a crank, to produce the rotatory motion of his wheels. In 1759, Mr. Keane Fitzgerald propofed, in the Philofo- phical Tranfaétions, a centrivance to work the ventilator by the fire-engine, for the benefit of thofe who work in mines, where it is employed to draw cff the water. By this contrivance the lever of the fire-engine, which works up and down, and performs at a medium about twelve ftrokes in a minute, is made to turn a wheel conftantly one way, and the number of ftrokes is alfo increafed to fitty or fixty in a minute. The machine is defcribed by three figures annexed to the memoir, and is confidered as ingenious. It is ftated that it may eafily be made to turn a mill to grind corn, or a wheel to raife coals. It is related in the Encyclopedia Britannica, that Mr. Fitz- gerald took out a patent for communicating a rotative mo- tion from the fteam-engine, but we believe this is a miltake. In the Edinburgh Review it is ftated, that an atmofpheric engine was employed at Hartley colliery, in Northumber- land, as early as 1768, to draw coalsout ofa pit. It hada toothed fe&tor on the end of the working beam, working into a trundle, which, by means of two pinions with ratchet- wheels, produced a rotative motion in the fame direétion, by both the afcending and defcending ftroke of the arch; and by fhifting the ratchets, the motion could be reverfed at pleafure. This engine had no fly-wheel, and went fluggifhly and irregularly. Who the inventor was is not mentioned. A patent was taken out in 1769 by a gentleman of the name of Stewart, for an engine which produced a rotative mo- tion by a chain going round a pulley, and alfo round two bar- tels furnifhed with ratchet-wheels, with a weight fufpended 3 to the free end of the chain, which ferved to continue the mo. tion during the return of the engine. About the year 1778, Mr. Matthew Wathbrough, of Briftol, alfo obtained a pa- tent for communicating a rotative motion from the fteam- engine, by a method which was virtually the fame as that at Hartley ;- only he added a fly-wheel, which we believe was then, for the firft time, employed in the fteam-engine. Two or three of thefe engines were ereéted, one at his own works, for turning lathes, &c. and alfo one at Southamp- ton, at Mr. Taylor’s works, befides two or three for grind- ing corn; but, owing to the defe&tive mode of communi- cating the motion, they were fubje€ to fuch irregularities as rendered them of little ufe. The crank, which is now the univerfal method of com- municating the motion of the engine to machinery, was, we be- lieve, firit applied to an engine at Birmingham. This method of converting the reciprocating motion into a continuous rota- tory motion, was by employing the great beam to work acrank or train of wheelwork. Ass the real a€tion of the engine was confined to its working {troke, it was foon found advantageous to equalize, as nearly as could be, the power of the working and returning ftrokes. For this purpofe, the rod which ex- tended from the beam to the crank, and connected the en- gine and the mill together, and which is called the conneét- ing rod, was made equal in weight to half the power of the engine, being made of ca‘t-iron of large-dimenfions; and when the weight was not in the rod, it was placed on the beam at that end, Suppofe that by this means the engine is made to exert an equal force to turn round the crank in the afcent and de- {cent of the conneéting rod, {till it remains to find fome force which fhall continue the motion in the interval of its change from afcending to defcending, and wice ver/a. To accomplifh this, it is neceflary to conneét with the crank or wheel-work a very large and heavy fly, which fhall accumulate in itfelf the whole force of the engine during its time of action; and therefore continue the motion, and urge forward the working machinery, while the fteam-engine is going through its ina¢tive period of changing the ftroke. This will be the cafe, provided that the refiftance exerted by the machine during the whole period of the working and returning ftroke of the fteam-engine, together with the friGiion of both, does not exceed the whole preflure ex- erted by the fteam-engine during its periods of action upon the crank ; and provided the momentum of the fly, arifing from its weight and velocity, be fufficiently great ; fo that the refiftance of the work, during the changing of the ftroke of the fteam-engine, will not make any very fenfible diminution of the velocity of the fly. This is evidently poffible and eafy, for the fly may be made of any magnitude ; and being exa¢tly balanced round its axis, it will foon acquire any velocity confiftent with the motion of the iteam-engine. During the working ftroke of the engine, it is uniformly accelerated ; and by its acquired momentum, it produces the movement of the mill until the engine changes, and makes its returning ftroke ; but in doing this, its momentum is fhared with the inert matter of the fteam-engine, and con- fequently its velocity diminifhed, but not entirely taken away. The weight of the connecting rod, therefore, by prefling on the crank afrefh during the returning ttroke, in- .creafes the remaining velocity in the fly, by a quantity equal to the whole that it loft during the ina¢tivity of the engine. This muft be acknowledged to be a very important addition to the engine; and though fufficiently obvious, it is ingenious, and requires confiderable {kill and addrefs to make it effeCtive. Mr. John Steed, in 1781, had a patent for applying the crank to a fteam-engine ; and in the fame year, the abb¢é Arnal STEAM- Arnal Canon of Alais, in Languedoc, entertained a thought of the fame kind, and propofed it for working lighters in the inland navigations, a {cheme which 1s now fuccefs- fully praétifed in America, and in this country. His brother, a major of engineers in the Auftrian fervice, car- ried the propofal much farther, and applied it to manufac- tures ; andthe Aulic chamber of mines at Vienna patronized the project. (See Journal Encyclopédique, 1781.) But thefe fchemes are long potterior to Mr. Hull’s patent, or to Mr. Fitzgerald’s propofals, and are even later than the ere¢tion of feveral machines driven by fteam-engines by Meffrs. ‘Watt and Boulton. ENGINE. When the more improved engines of Mr. Watt came into ufe, many perfons tried to improve the atmofpheric engines by adopting fome of Mr. Watt’s ideas: one of thefe was to employ valves to rife and fall perpendicularly into a conical feat, for the alternate admiffion of {team and cold water into the cylinder, inftead of the fliding regulator and injeétion- cock. Mr. George Curr, who publifhed his Praétical Coal- Viewer, or Engine-Builder’s Companion, in 1796, at Shef- field, gives drawings of fuch an engine, and tables for the proportions of all the parts, from which, as they contain information not given before, we have extracted the following particulars. Mr. Curr’s Table of Proportions for the Parts of Atmofpheric Steam-Engines. Cylinders. Boileres pan SO a ea pena, ag Feerlong Oak fa a shane Caines arena ie aa Piftuny at 7 Ibe ; Diameter} Diameter Diameter Water-way of | Square | Bore of | Bore of “ne of Dinmaies Diameter of the Pach. Digmeten)| Nos of SE Sle CLE ste safest | era pea Square of the | Squareiatithe Shanks ot aa Pins for the Pifton. Feet Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches; | Inches Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches, Pounds. 25 I Sea 8 ji2¢byz | 2 32] 34 |22by 20]/19—15] 12 | 33 es 3436.12 ~ 30 I |] 103 | 3 9 -| Falls 4+ + |24—22|}21—16] 13 | 4 re 4945.02 35 DT. ee 10 |3s—1 I 5+ | 3% |26—23)/22—17| 12 | 44 I; 6734.80 40 1 | 14 3+ | 12 |33—1 It 6 | 4 |28—25)24—18] 2 4+ ua 8796.48 45 2} 1c j2zof3} 9 |3—13| GW 63 | 44 |30—27/26—1I9| 24 | 44 Tz et (DL 42.04) 50 2 | 12} |2—~3] 10 |33—1e| 13 3] 4b |32—29|/28—a21}] 22 | 5 2 13744.49 55 2 | 133 |2—33| 11 |3Z—I1$| 1+ 83 | 43 133—30}29—22| 23 + | 20f 13 }16630.84 60 2 | 144 j2—33 12 |44—14!] 18 | g | 5 |35—32/31—24] 3 6 2— 13 |19798.08 65 2 | 16 |2— 33) 123 |4+—14] 13 93 | 5% |36—33/32—25| 34 + | 2——12 |23228.20 us 2} 17 2-4] 13 |4¢—18] lE | tor] 5+ |38—35/33—26| 34 | 6% | 2—2 |26939.22 In all thefe engines, he fuppofes the length of the ftroke to be nine feet, and that they work $4 feet ftroke in common work. In 1793, Mr. Francis Thompfon hada patent for making the atmo{pheric engine work a double ftroke, for the con- venience of turning machinery by a crank ; this he effeéted by employing two cylinders, one inverted over the other, and the pifton of both conneéted by one rod, which pafled through the bottom, or rather the top of the inverted cy- linder, and was conneéted with the beam: by this means the cylinder aéted alternately to make an up or down ftroke. This never came into ufe, for the engine was as complicated as Mr. Watt’s, without any of his advantages. Mr. Watts Steam-Engine—The principle of this valuable invention will be beft explained by a itatement of the manner in which it originated, and the fteps by which it attained its prefent degree of perfeGtion. : Mr. James Watt was, in 1763, a maker of mathematical in- itruments at Glafgow, and being a man of a truly philofophi- eal mind, and well converfant with all branches of fcience, he was in habits of affociating with the moft celebrated fcientific men at that time in Scotland, particularly with Dr. Black, Dr. Roebuck, and Dr. Robifon, then a young philofopher. About this time he undertook to repair a working model of a fteam- engine belonging to the univerfity of Glafgow, and during this employment, obferved the great lofs of team from the con- denfation of the cold furface of the cylinder, which we have before explained in Mr. Smeaton’s inveitigations, though the latter were not made till after Mr. Watt’s. He obferved that a great quantity of heat is contained in a very minute quantity of water, inthe form of elaftic fteam ; for when a quantity of water is heated feveral degrees above the boiling point in a clofe digefter, if a hole be opened, the fleam rufhes out with great violence, and in three or four feconds, the heat of the remaining water is reduced to the boiling heat. If the {team be condenfed, the whole of it will afford only a few drops of water; yet this fmall quantity, in the ftate of fteam, carried off with it all the excefs of heat from the water of the digefter. Mr, Watt reafoned, that if fo great a quantity of heat is contained in a certain quantity of fteam, the economical ufe of the fteam was a matter of the firft im- portance in the improvement of the engine, more than the con- {truGtio® of the furnace, which had been the chief obje& of former efforts to improve the engine, the improvement of the application of the fteam having been much negleéted after it was firlt fettled by Beighton. The cylinder of the little model was heated when the fteam was in it, fo that it could not be touched by the hand; but before a vacuum could be made, it required to be cooled by the inje€tion, and was then to be heated again by the re- entrance of the fteam : this, he faw, could not happen, unlefs the heat was abftra&ted from the fteam, which muft occafion the condenfation and watte of a confiderable portion. His firft enquiry was, what portion of the fteam was thus watted ; but fo very few experiments had been made, even upon the mott effential part of the fubjeét, that the real bulk of water, when converted into fteam of a given heat, remained unknown, until he determined it by new experiments in the year 1764. The opinions which had been entertained con- cerning its bulk before that time were much beyond the truth, and could by no means be deduced from the very inaccurate experiments which were faid to have been made. Thus STEAM-ENGINE. Thus furnifhed with data, he was enabled to afcertain that the lofs of fteam, in alternately heating and cooling the cylin- der, was not lefs than three or four times as much as would fill the cylinder and work the engine. The boiling of water in an exhautted receiver at lowheats, which had been difcovered, we believe, by M. Coulomb, was about this time communicated to Mr. Watt ; but it was neither known what thefe heats were, nor what progreffion they obferved under various preflures, before he made his experiments on that fubjeét. Thefe ex- periments pointed out another defect of the common fteam- engine, viz. that the injection-water thrown into the cylin- der to condenfe the fteam becoming hot, and being in a veffel exhaufted of air, it produces a {team or vapour, which in part refifts the preflure of the atmofphere upon the pifton, and leffens the power of the engine: thie might be remedied by throwing in as much water as would cool the whole veffel below the point at which water boils in vacuo ; but then it would increafe the firft-mentioned inconvenience, which is the deftruGion of {team that unavoidably happens upon attempting to fill a cold cylinder with that fluid. Others, ‘who had conftruéted fteam-engines, found, that as they made their exhauftion more perfe&t by making the cylinder colder, they increafed the confumption of fteam in a greater proportion than they gained power. Though it appears they were ignorant of the caufe, they were fo fenfible of the effect, that they contented themfelves with caufing the engine to raife.a load equal to feven pounds upon the fquare inch of the area of the pifton; whereas the preflure of the at- mofphere would have raifed much more, if the cylinder had been perfeétly exhautted. Mr. Watt’s firft attempt at the improvement of the en- ine was by employing a wooden cylinder, which would tranfmit the heat more flowly: this had fome effeét, but did not anfwer in other refpe&ts, and he was obliged to abandon it, as well as Mr. Brindley, who had before tried the fame thing. He then cafed his metal cylinders in a wooden cafe with light wood-afhes: by this, and ufing no more inje€tion than was abfolutely neceffary for the con- denfation, he reduced the wafte almoft one-half. But by ufing fo fmall a quantity of cold water, the infide of the cylinder was hardly brought below the boiling temperature, and there confequently remained in it a fteam of very con- fiderable elafticity, which robbed the engine of a propor- tionable part of the atmofpherical preffure. It was not until the next year (1765) that Mr. Watt made his great invention of performing the condenfation in a feparate veffel from the cylinder. He conceived, that if a veflel, which he afterwards called the condenfer, was made to communicate with the cylinder by a pipe, and filled with fteam at the fame time, an injection being thrown into the latter veflel would condenfe the fteam therein, and caufe a vacuum. Under thefe circumftances, the elatticity of the fleam in the cylinder would caufe it to rufh into the veffel to reftore the equilibrium; but this fteam being condenfed immediately it entered the veffel by the continuance of the injection, the vacuum would ‘till re- main, and draw off the remaining iteam from the cylinder until none was left. Here then was the vacuum in the cylinder produced, without any neceffity for diminifhing the temperature below the boiling point. Having thus ob- tained the vacuum to caufe the defcent of the pifton, the fubfequent re-afcent could be obtained by cutting off the communication between the cylinder and the condenfer, and admitting into the former a frefh fupply of fteam from the boiler; but it was not neceflary to admit any frefh fteam from the boiler to the condenfer, as the vacuum produced therein {till continued, and it would be ready to receive Vor. XXXIV. and condenfe the fteam from the cylinder, as foon as the pifton arrived at the top of it, ready to make another {troke. The firft difficulty which oppofed itfelf to this beautiful chain of reafoning was, how to continue the action, and prevent the feparate condenfing veffel from filling with the injeGtion-water, and alfo how to get rid of the air. To fnift by blowing iteam into the veffel, in the manner of the former engine, would have caufed him as great a waite of fteam from condenfation, as he would fave by all his dif covery. He then thought of condenfing without injeétion, fimply by the application of cold water to the outfide of the condenfer, on Savery’s firft plan; and to get rid of the {mall quantity of water produced by the condenfation of the iteam, he intended to carry a pipe down from the condenfer to a depth of 34 feet, from the end of which the water would run off by its gravity. But the air which is carried over by the {team would alfo accumulate by de- grees, and could not be fo eafily evacuated; a fmall pump mutt then be applied to draw it off, and keep the condenfer empty. Mr. Watt at the fame time conceived, that it would be very advantageous to employ the preflure or expanfive force of the fteam to actuate the pifton in its defcent, inttead of the preffure of the atmofphere, as it would be more manageable than the other in its intenfity. Thus was the whole difcovery made in a day ; and it only re- mained to invent the details of the mechanifm to carry it into effe&t, and to ettablifh by experiment the requifite pro- portions of the parts. Mr. Watt’s firft experiment on thefe new ideas was to try the effect of the feparate condenfer ; but before he had made the apparatus for the experiment, he refolved to ex- tra the condenfed water from his condenfer by means of the fame pump which fhould draw off the air, as_ this method would be applicable in all fituations. The firft apparatus was a cylindrical veffel, fitted with a pifton, which could be drawn up in it to exhauft the air therefrom. This veffel was made to communicate, by means of a long pipe half an inch in diameter, with the cylinder of the engine, which was two inches in diameter, and ten inches long. The pipe had a ftop-cock, to cut off the com- munication at pleafiire ; and the cylindrical veffel, which was made of thin tin-plate, was immerfed in cold water. The pilton of the cylindrical veffel being prefled to the bottom to difplace the contained air, was then drawn up to leave a vacuous {pace, and the cylinder of the engine, having its pifton at the top, was filled with fteam. The cock in the communicating pipe being then opened, the pilton de- {cended with a velocity, which fhewed that the vacuum in the cylinder was almoit perfe&t ; and he found, that when he ufed water in the boiler purged of air by long boiling, nothing that was very fenfibly inferior to the preffure of the atmofphere on the pifton could hinder it from coming quite down to the bottom of the cylinder. This alone was gaining a great deal; for in moft engines, the remaining elatticity of the {team arifing from the heated injeGtion- water was not lefs than one eighth of the atmofpherical preflure, and therefore took away one-eighth of the power of the engine. Mr. Watt was fo much occupied in other bufinefs, that it took him much time to complete hig machine, and bring the whole to bear, fo that he did not apply for his firft patent until 1768, which bears date sth Jan. 1769, and is for his method of leffening the confumption of fteam and fuel in fire-engines. The f{pecification contains the follow- ing priuciples. K “ Firft, STEAM-ENGINE, « Firft. That the veffel in which the powers of fteam are to be employed to work the engine, which is called the cylinder in common fire-engines, and which I call the fteam- veflel, muft, during the whole time that the engine is at work, be kept as hot as the fteam that enters it; firft, by enclofing it in a cafe of wood, or any other material that tranfmits heat flowly; fecondly, by furrounding it with fteam, or other heated bodies; and thirdly, by fuffering neither water, nor any other fubttance colder than fteam, to enter or touch it during that time. « Secondly. Inengines that are to be worked wholly or partially by condenfation of fteam, the fteam is to be con- denfed in veflels diltin& from the tteam-veflels or cylinders, although occafionally communicating with them. Thefe veflels I call condenfers ; and while the engines are work- ing, thefe condenfers ought at leaft to be kept as cold as the air in the neighbourhood of the engines, by applica- tions of water, or other cold bodies. «¢ Thirdly. Whatever air, or other elaflic vapour, is not condenfed by the cold of the condenfer, and may im- pede the working of the engine, is to be drawn out of the tteam-veflels or condenfers by means of pumps, wrought by the engines themfelves, or otherwife. “Fourthly. I intend, in many cafes, to employ the expantive force of {team to prefs on the piftons, or whatever may be ufed inftead of them, in the fame manner as the preflure of the atmofphere is now employed in common fire-engines. In cafes where cold water cannot be had in plenty, the engines may be wrought by the force of feam only, by difcharging the fteam into the open air after it has done its office. N.B. This fhould not be underftood to extend to any engine where the water to be raifed enters the iteam-veflel itfelf, or any veflels having an open communication with it. ‘“« Fifthly. Where motions round an axis are required, I make the fteam-vedlels in form of hollow rings, or cir- cular channels, with proper inlets and outlets for the fteam, mounted on horizontal axles, like the wheels of water-mills. Within them are placed a number of valves, which fuffer bodies to go round the channels in one direétion only. In thefe fteam-veflels are placed weights, fo fitted to them as entirely to fill up a part or portion of their channels, yet rendered capable of moving freely in them by the means hereinafter mentioned or {pecified. When the fteam is ad- mitted into thefe engines, between the weights and the valves, it as equally on both, fo as to raife the weights to one fide of the wheel, and by the re-action on the valves, fucceffively to give a circular motion to the wheel; the valves opening in the dire€tion in which the weights are preffed, but not in the contrary one, as the fteam-vetlel which moves round it is fupplied with fteam from the boiler, and that which has performed its office may either be dif- charged by means of condenfers, or into the open air. « Sixthly. I intend, in fome cafes, to apply a degree of cold, not capable of reducing the tteam to water, but of contraGting it confiderably, fo that the engines fhall be worked by the alternate expanfion and contra¢tion of the fteam. “ Laftly. Inftead of ufing water to render the pilton or other parts of the engines air and fteam-tight, I employ oils, wax, refinous bodies, fat of animals, quickfilver, and other metals, in their fluid ftate.”’ Soon after his patent, Mr. Watt became aflociated with Dr. Roebuck, who eftablifhed the Carron iron-works. They propofed eftablifhing an extenfive manufactory for fuch engines under the patent ; and Mr. Watt began his firft real engine of 18 inches cylinder, at Kinneil, near Io Borrowltownefs. This was a fort of experimental engine, and was fucceflively altered and improved till it was brought to confiderable perfection. In the details of its conftru€tion, the greateft difficulty of all was in the packing of the pitton, fo as to be fteam-tight; becaufe Mr. Watt’s principle did not admit of water being kept upon the pilton to prevent the leakage, as in the old engines. THe found great difficulties in procuring a cylinder fufficiently accurate, until a new method was introduced at Burham foundery, by Mr. John Wilkinfon. In the old method of boring, the inftrument which performs the part of cutting the metal was guided in its progrefs only by the incorreét form given to the cylinder by the moulder ; and though it infured that every part of the cylinder fhould be circular, it gave no certainty that the cylinder would be ftraight. This was quite fufficient for the old engines, but Mr. Watt’s engines required greater precifion. Wilkinfon’s machine, which is defcribed in our article CyLinpeEr, infures all the accuracy the fubjeé is capable of ; and if the cylinder fhould be caft ever fo crooked, the machine will bore it ftraight and true. Dr. Roebuck becoming embarrafled, from the failure of his vaft undertaking in the Borrowftownefs coal and falt works, was unable to profecute the manufaétory of fteam- engines, and, in 1774, difpofed of his intereft in Mr. Watt’s patent to Mr. Matthew Boulton, whofe eftablith- ment at Soho, near Birmingham, was then the moi{t com- plete in England, and conduéted with the moft fpirit. A portion of the works was allotted to Mr. Watt, who ereéted a foundery, and the neceflary works to carry his invention into effect, on a grand feale. In confequence of the great lofs of time, and the enor- mous expence neceflary for bringing the engine to perfeétion, Mr. Watt was not able to produce any large engines, as {pecimens of his invention, until 1774; and found, from the difficulty of introducing them, that the term of his patent was likely to pafs away before he fhould be reim- burfed: he, therefore, applied to parliament for a pro- longation of his term, which was granted for 21 years, by an act pafled in 1775. With this encouragement, and with the advantage of Mr. Boulton’s affiftance in fyftematizing the manufacture of the parts, Mr. Watt foon produced many capital engines, which were erected in Staffordfhire, Shrop- fhire, and Warwickfhire, and a {mall one at Stratford near London. He found it was neceflary to admit a {mail jet of inje€tion into the condenfer, and to employ an air-pump of {ufficient dimenfions to extract both the condenfed fteam and injeCtion-water, as well as the air; for the condenfation, by the application of external cold, was not fufficiently rapid, and the engine was fo much improved as to afford amply for the power requifite to work the air-pump. The condenfing of the fteam, by injection into the edu€tion- pipe, was an idea as early as the other kinds of condenfers, and was tried in the very firft engine built at Kinneil ; but the other imperfeGiions of that machine, owing to its leaks and bad workmanfhip, made a bad vacuum ; and this being attributed to the air which came in with the injeCtion- water, Mr. Watt difufed the injetion into the condenfer, until the fize and expence of the tubulated condenfer for large engines, made him refolve to facrifice a part of the power of the en- gine to convenience, and te employ larger air-pumps. In an engine at Bedworth, three air-pumps were ufed, two below, which were fide by fide, and worked by chains from each fide of the beam, and a third above thefe two, and between them in the middle: this third one received the hot water lifted up by the other two ; and by leffening the furface ex- pofed to the preflure of the atmofphere, extracted the aes wit STEAM-ENGINE. with greater eafe. In 1778 he only employed two air- pumps for the largeit engines, one being double the area of the other, and in fucceeding engines ufed only one, as at prefent, which is the air-pump of Smeaton. A {ketch of one of thefe firft engines is given in Plate IV. Steam-Engine, fig. 4. The cylinder, and great beam, with its arch-heads and the pumps, ftood in the fame pofition as the former engines ; but the cylinder, A, was fmaller in pro- portion to the load than thofe before ufed, as it was ge- nerally loaded to 124 pounds on the fquare inch. The cylin- der was very accurately bored withinfide, to make it {traight and cylindrical, and externally it was furrounded by a fecond cylinder, or jacket B B, leaving a fmall fpace, G, all round between the bored or internal cylinder, and the outer jacket B. This fpace, G, communicated by a large pipe, F, with the boiler, and always remained full of fteam, fo as to keep the cylinder, A, at the fame heat with the fteam, and thereby prevent any condenfation within it, which would have been a much greater lofs than an equal condenfation from the ex- ternal furface of the jacket B. The jacket, B, was furnifhed with a lid, C, which had a hole in the centre for the pifton- rod, a, to pafs through. The rod was made truly cylin- drical, fo that the hole could be kept tteam-tight by a collar of oakum {crewed round it at E. The inner cylinder, A, had a clofe bottom, and the jacket, B, joined to the fame, the cy- jinder being fitted with the pifton H H, as ufual; but the top of the internal cylinder, A, did not reach quite up to the lid of the jacket B, or outer cylinder ; by which means the fteam had always free accefs to the top of the pifton, H, from the fpace, G, between the cylinders, and confequently from the boilers through F. At the bottom part of the inner cylinder there were two regulating valves, O and K, one of which, O, either admitted the {team to pafs from the interftice, G, be- tween the jacket and the cylinder, through a paflage, I, into the {pace of the interior cylinder below the pifton, or fhut out the fteam from that {pace at pleafure : the other valve, K, opened or fhut the end of the eduétion-pipe M, which con- duéted to the condenfer L. . The condenfer, L, was a clofe veffel, made of thin metal, and furnifhed with an air-pump N. ‘The air-pump had valves, anda bucket, 4, for exhautting the air, and drawing off the water which was produced by the condenfation of the iteam, along with the air which is extricated from the water in boiling, and rifes with the fteam. The air-pump was conftruéted nearly the fame as a common pump, except that it had a lid or cover on the top of the barrel, to keep the preffure of the atmofphere from bearing conitantly upon the bucket. The rod, d, of the bucket pafied through a ftuffing-box in the lid, and was fufpended by a chain from the great working beam of the engine. The condenfer L, together with the air-pump N, were placed in a large ciftern of cold water X, fituated generally under the floor of the engine-houfe, between the cylinder and the wall on which the beam refted, and fupplied conitantly with frefh cold water from a {mall pump worked by the engine, or the ciftern was placed outfide of the wall, between the wall and the pit of the pump. The aétion of this engine is as follows: fuppofe fteam frem the boiler to enter at F, and fill the fpace, G, between the jacket and the cylinder, and alfo the upper part of the cylinder above the pifton. The condenfer, L, is exhaufted of its air, by opening both valves, O and K, in the bottom of the ~ el and allowing the {team from the fpace, G, to blow ough it, and through the valves of the air-pump: both valves are then fhut, and the external cold condenfes it fo as to leave a vacuum in the condenfer, whilft the cylinder, A, is all the while full of iteam, from the fpace G, both above and be- low the pifton H: the fleam-valve, O, being fhut, cuts off all communication with the under fide of the pilton from the {team in G, or in the boiler, and at the fame time the exhauft- ing-valve, K, from the condenfer is opened, when the fteam rufhes from the fpace of the cylinder A, below the pifton, through the eduétion-pipe M, into the vacuum of the con- denfer, with great violence, till it comes in conta& with the cold fides of the condenfer L, which is made of thin metal, and irnmerfed in cold water. Under thefe circumttances the {team is immediately deprived of its heat, and reduced into water ; more {team immediately rufhes in from the cylinder, until it is exhaufted, and makes a vacuum beneath the pif ton H. The fteam which is above the pifton ceafing to be counteracted by the fteam which was below it, prefies be- tween the top of the pifton and the bottom of the lid, C, with its whole elaitic force, and caufes the pifton to defcend to the bottom of the cylinder, carrying along with it the beam, and raifing the pump-buckets at the other end. ‘The exhautting- valve, K, is then fhut, and the fteam-valve, O, opened, which, allowing the fteam to enter below the pifton, leaves it at liberty to rife; in which cafe, the fuperior weight of the pump-rods raifes the pifton to the top of the cylinder, ready to commence another ftroke. The advantages that arife from this conftru@tion are: ft. The cylinder, being furrounded with the fteam from the boiler, is always kept uniformly as hot as the fteam itfelf, and is, therefore, incapable of deftroying any part of the fteam which fhould fill it, as the common engines do. 2dly. The condenfer being kept always as cold as water can be procured, and colder than the point at which it boils in vacuo, the fteam is perfetly condenfed, and does not oppofe the defcent of the pifton; it is, therefore, forced down by the full power of the fteam from the boiler, which is fomewhat greater than that of the atmofphere. 3dly. The elafticity of the {team being employed to prefs down the pifton, initead of the preflure of the atmofphere, the air does not enter the cylinder, or cool its interior furface ; and the engine is not confined, as in the former engine, to work with its whole force, but it is only to adminifter {team of a proper elafticity, and we can vary the force of the engine very confiderably, without lofing any more fuel than that for which we obtain an effeé. When anengine of the old formisto he ereéted, the engineer muft make an accurate eftimate of the work to be performed, and muft proportion his éngine accordingly. He muft be careful that it be fully able to execute its tafk ; but its power muft not exceed its load in any extravagant degree. This would produce a motion which is too rapid, and which, being alternately in oppofite direétions, would occafion jolts, which no building or machinery could withftand. Many engines have been fhattered by the pump’s drawing air, or a pump-rod breaking; by which accidents, the fteam-pifton defcende with fuch force and rapidity, that every thing mutt give way. But in moft operations of mining, the tafk of the engine in- creafes, and it muft be fo conftruéted, at firft, as to be able to bear this addition. It is very difficult to manage a common engine when it is much fuperior to its tafk : the only mode is, as we have defcribed, by the fupply of a fcanty inje¢tion ; but the eafieft way is to work the engine almoft full loaded, and that only during a few hours each day, allowing the pit-water to accumulate during its repofe. This in- creafes the firft coft of the erection, and waftes fuel ; the mi- ners arealfo much incommoded with water during the inaction of the engine. Mr. Watt’s engine can, at all times, be exaétly fitted, during the working {troke, to the load of work that then happens to be on it: it is only neceflary to adminifter fteam of a proper elafticity. At the firlt ereCtion of the K 2 engine, STEAM-ENGINE. engine, it may be calculated equal to twice its tafk, fuppofing that the fteam admitted above the pilton is to be three or four pounds per fquare inch more elaftic than the atmofphere ; but when the engine is firft fet to work, it may be made to act with a {mall portion of its force, by ufing weaker fteam; for when once the ebullition in the boiler is fairly commenced, and the whole air is expelled from all parts of the apparatus, it is evident that, by damping the fire, fteam of half this ela{ticity may be continually fupplied, and the water will continue boiling, although its temperature does not exceed 185° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, This appears, by infpeéting our firlt table of vaporous elalticity. The method now propofed has one inconvenience ; for, while the fteam is weaker than the atmofphere, there is an external force tending to {queeze in the fides and bottom of the boiler, which could not be refitted in a large boiler, if the difference was confiderable, and common air would rufh in through every crevice of the joints of the engine. ‘The regulation of the velocity of the engine may be produced by diminifhine the paflage for the {team into and out of the cylinder; for this purpofe, the exhauftion-valve K, by which the fteam pafles away from the cylinder, may be fo conftru&t- ed, that its mechanifm will lift it more or lefs high from the conical feat in which it is lodged, and confequently the paflage can be enlarged or contraéted at pleafure, by the diftance to which the valve isdrawnup. The degree of opening given to the exhaultion-valve would determine the rate at which the {team would flow off from the lower part of the cylinder to the condenfer, and confequently the velocity of the defcent of the pilton; alfo the degree of opening of the other, or fteam-valve, O, would determine the rate of the afcent of the pilton, by regulating the rate at which the {team could pafs from the boiler into the lower part of the cylinder. But to fave the trouble of making the adjuitment for the degree of opening of the working valves, it is better to place a feparate valve in fome part of the fteam-pipe F, which brings the fteam from the boiler to the jacket of the cylinder ; then if this valve, which is called the throttle-valve, and is folely for the purpofe of regulation, be partially clofed, fo that it will not admit {team into the jacket as falt as the defcent of the pifton makes room for it in the cylinder, it is evident that the {team in the tep of the cylinder, and in the fpace of the jacket, mu{t expand itfelf to fill a greater {pace, and thereby become more rare than before, and prefs upon the pifton with lefs force. And this mode of regulation, by di- minifhing the quantity of the fupply of fteam, rather than di- minifhing its elafticity in the boiler, has this advantage, that a very confiderable increafe of the load of the engine cannot {top its motion, although it may retard it, becaufe the clofing of the throttle-valve only diminifhes the velocity of the motion, not the force which the engine is capable of exerting when movie under a ftill lefs velocity. Suppofe the load is fo increafed as to make the engine move very flowly, the fteam will flow through the valve into the jacket and top of the cylinder fafter than the defcent of the pilton will make room for it, and in confequence it will accumulate, until it has acquired the fame preffure as within the boiler, or a fufficient preflure to overcome the refiftance to the pifton, and make it defcend. The form of the engine reprefented in fg. 4. was that which Mr. Watt firft employed in his fingle engines for pumping ; and, in fome cafes, where atmofpheric engines were altered to this plan, the old cylinder, being inverted, ferved for the jacket, or external cylinder, the new cylinder being little more than half the area of the old one. He after- wards adopted another form for the arrangement of the parts, in which the {team for the fupply of the cylinder does not 7 pafs through the jacket, but enters from the fteam-pipe through a valve immediately into the top of the cylinder ; and though the jacket has a communication with the boiler, the fteam admitted within it is only for the purpofe of keeping up the heat, and preventing any condenfation of the fteam within the cylinder. In this way the jacket becomes lefs effential to the engine; and about the year 1778, Mellrs. Boulton and Watt began to make the jackets of wrought- iron plate, about 14 inch from the cylinder all round ; and, in fome cafes, they laid the jacket afide, but found this an ill-judged economy, and returned to it again, as they per- ceived that it made a difference in the fuel. This engine isreprefented in PlatelV. fig. 5. Thecylinder, A A, like the former, is clofed at top by the lid or cover C ; but this lid is {crewed to the top flanch of the cylinder itfelf, inftead of the top of the jacket, which may be omitted or not in this form, becaufe the current of fteam from the boiler, for the fupply of the cylinder, does not flow through it, as in the former engine. The fteam is brought from the boiler to the cylinder by the pipe F, which appears like a circle, being cut acrofs in the direétion of its length: fis the regulating or throttle-valve in that pipe, and d the communi- cating paflage into the top of the cylinder, immediately be- neath the valve, fo that through this the fleam has always entry into the top of the cylinder to prefs upon the pifton, in fuch quantity as the opening of the regulating-valve, f, will allow. W is the fteam-pipe, which defcends to the bottom of the cylinder, for the purpofe of eftablifhing a communication between the top and bottom of it, when the pifton is to afcend; and O is the fteam-valve, which opens or fhuts that communication at pleafure: F is the exhautting-valve, which being opened when the fteam- valve, O, is fhut, allows the iteam to pafs off to the con- denfer, which may be confidered as the fame which we have before defcribed. Suppofe the pitton at the top of its cylinder, and all the parts (except the edution-pipe M, and condenfer, which are vacuous) full of fteam; if the valve O be fhut, the ex- haufting-valve K, being opened, will permit the fteam con- tained in the lower part of the cylinder to pafs by its elaf~ ticity, and rufh into the vacuum of the eduétion-pipe and condenfer ; and being there condenfed, the reft will follow till noneremains : then the fteam, flowing through the throttle- valye, and paflage d, into the top of the cylinder, preffes down the pifton into the vacuous cylinder, until it arrives at the bottom ; the exhaufting-valve, K, is then fhut, and at the fame time the fteam-valve, O, is opened by the plug-frame : this fuffers the fteam from the boiler to rufh into and oc- cupy that {mall portion of the bottom of the cylinder be- neath the pifton, which being filled with fteam of an equal denfity to that above it, there will be an equal preflure on both fides of the pifton ; and the opening of the valve, O, having made a free communication between the. top and bottom of the cylinder, the pifton is at full liberty to rife by the action of its counter-weight, until it arrives at the top of the cylinder, and then the fteam-valve, O, is fhut, and the ex- hautting-valve, K, opened, to make another ftroke, as before. The fketch in fg. 2. was taken from an engine Meffrs. Boulton and Watt ere&ed at Hull, in 1779; and this, with fome flight variations in the manner of its aGtion, which we fhall afterwards defcribe, is the prefent ftandard engine for pumping water; the variation is, that the regulating-valve, F, is made to open and fhut at every ftroke, and for regu- lation, another valve is applied in the iteam-pipe juft before it arrives at F. In the two engines which we have defcribed, the pifton defcends in confequence of the preflure of the fteam being made ‘STEAM-ENGINE. made to ad upon it whilft there is a vacuum beneath ; and the afcent is made, when the pifton is placed in equilibrio, by an open communication being made between the upper and lower parts of the cylinder ; and this will always be an exact equilibrium, not imperfect, asin the old engine, where the varying preflure of the {team and of the atmofphere al- ways renders the circumftances in which the pifton rifes uncertain. It is evident that the afcent of the pifton may be as well performed in vacuo, provided the vacuum is made at the fame time both above and below the pifton. This form of the engine is reprefented in fig. 3, in which, as the fame letters of reference are ufed, it is needlefs to repeat the defcription of the cylinder and pifton. F is the valve which admits the fteam to the top of the cylinder, to prefs upon the pifton: this valve is fhut when the engine makes its return or up- ftroke. K is the exhaultion-valve, placed clofe beneath the fteam-valve F, inftead of being at the bottom of the pipe W, which defcends to the condenfer, and gives off a branch, I, to the bottom of the cylinder: by this pipe the {team is always drawn off from the bottom of the cylinder, to keep a conftant vacuum therein. Suppofe the exhautting-valve, K, open, the fteam in the top of the cylinder will alfo pafs off to the condenfer through the pipe W, and leave a vacuum in the whole cylinder : in this cafe the pifton rifes freely by the counter-weight to the top of the cylinder; and being arrived there, the exhautt- ing-valve, K, is fhut, and the fteam-valve, F, opened. ‘The fteam from the boiler entering into the top of the cylinder, and prefling between the lid and the top of the pifton, prefles down the latter to the bottom of the cylinder, where being arrived, the iteam-valve, F, is fhut, to prevent the far- ther admiffion of {team from the boiler ; and at the fame in- ftant, the exhaulting-valve, K, being opened, the fteam from the top of the cylinder pafles off to the condenfer, and this makes a vacuum above the pilton, the fame as was before made beneath it: in confequence, the pifton is left at full liberty to rife by the aGtion of the counter-weight, until it arrives at the top: the exhauiting-valve, K, is then fhut, and the fteam-valve, F, opened, to make a freth defcent. The advantage of this conftruGtion is, that the whole time of the afcent of the pilton is allowed for making the condenfation ; but this is found of little importance in practice, becaufe the vacuum takes place almoft inftantaneoufly, when the exhautt- ing-valve is opened, to allow the fteam to pafs off to the condenfer. Mr. Watt’s Expanfion-Engine.—This was a moft import- ant improvement, of which Mr. Watt had the firlt idea in 1769, but did not fully put it in practice until 1778. It confifts in fhutting off the farther entrance of {team from the boiler, when the pifton has been prefled down in the cylinder for a certain proportion of its total defcent, and then leaving the remainder of the defcent to be accomplifhed by the expanfive force of that fteam which is already intro- duced into the cylinder. This gives the means of regulating the acting force of the engine, becaufe the pins of the plu g- frame can be placed in fuch a manner, as that the iteam- valve fhall be fhut when the pifton has defcended one-half, one-third, one-fourth, or any other proportion; and fo far the cylinder will be occupied with {team of the fame elafticity as that in the boiler, which is ufually about the fame as the atmofphere. In order to prefs the pifton farther down, the fteam muft expand; and though its elafticity will diminifh, it will be enough to complete the firoke. It is plain that this can be done in any degree at pleafure, as the adjuftment of the pins in the plug-frame can be varied in an inftant ; and according as the engine requires more or lefs power, to allow the fteam to a& with its full force upon the pifton for a greater or lefs portion of its total defcent. If this method of working an engine had no other advantage than the regulation of the power, it would not effect the end better than the throttle-valve ; but by the expanfive principle a great faving of fteam is made. We have before obferved, in defcribing the aGion of New- comen’s engine, that the motion of the pifton is accele- rated in its defcent by the continued aétion of the pref- fure of the atmofphere whilft the load is conftant, or even greateft at the firft, corfidering the vis inertie. Mr. Watt’s engine is the fame, but in a lefs degree, when it has a throttle- valve, becaufe the fteam cannot then come to the piiton, ex- cept in a limited quantity ; but when the top of the cylin- der is open to the boiler, or the throttle-valve fully open, the effect is the fame as if the atmofpheric air had free en- trance into the top of the cylinder. Now by ftopping the further entrance of the fteam at a certain portion of the de- {cent, the pifton can be made to defcend with an uniform ve- locity, by the expenditure of only a portion of that quan- tity of fteam which would be required, if fteam of its full denfity was employed to prefs it down to the bottom with an accelerated velocity. But when the fteam is fhut off at a portion of the de- {cent, the preflure on the pilton is continually diminifhing as the fteam becomes more and more rare ; and, confequently, the accelerating force which works the engine diminifhes. The motion of the defcent, therefore, will no longer be uniformly accelerated ; it will approach much fafter to uni- formity ; or it may even be retarded ; becaufe, although the preflure on the pifton at the beginning of the ftroke may exceed the refiftance of the load, yet when the pifton is near the bottom, diminution of the preflure may occafion the refift- ance to exceed the preflure ; in this cafe the motion can only be continued by the momentum of the moving parts. What- ever may be the law by which the preflure on the pifton varies, it is poflible to contrive the conneéting machinery in fuch a way, that the chains or rods at the outer end of the beam fhall continually exert the fame preffure to lift the pump-rods, or that the machinery fhall vary its force accord- ing to any law which is found mott convenient. ‘This may be done on the fame principle that the watch-maker, by the form of the fufee, tranfmits an equal preffure to the wheel- work, from a very unequal a¢tion of the main-fpring. In like manner, by making the communication from the pifton- rod to the pump-rod_ by means of chains, which wind upon arch-heads, formed to portions of a proper fpiral inftead of a circle, the force of the pilton upon the beam and pump- rods can be regulated at pleafure, fo as to produce an uni- form effeé&. This was the fubje& of Mr. Watt’s patent, March 12, 1782, for certain improvements upon fteam-engines, and cer- tain new pieces of mechanifm to be added tothem. The {pe- cification of this patent, whichis lodged in the Rolls chapel, ftates the inyention to confift in fhutting off the fleam at a portion of the defcent, as we have defcribed, and applying and combining levers, or other contrivances, fo that the un- equal or decreafing a¢tion of the fteam upon the pifton fhall produce an uniform effect in raifing the water in the pump- barrels. The action of the expanfion of the fteam on the pifton is thus explained. Suppofe the whole defcent of the pifton de- cimally divided, viz. into ten parts, and each fubdivided, the varying preflure of the expanding {team on the furface of the pifton at each divifion will be according to the ee table, STEAM-ENGINE. plied to its fulleft extent, would, we think, be impracticable : we mean, when {team of great elattic preflure is employed, and when the ftoppage of the fupply is made to take place at a very {mall portion of the defcent. In this cafe, the ftrain upen the centres of the {nails or levers, fufficiently oblique to equalize the ation, would be beyond all bounds. Lord Stanhope has applied the principle of Mr. Watt’s levers, in the moft judicious manner, to the printing-prefs. (See Printine.) But in fo fmall a machine, worked only by the ftrength of one man, the {trong calt-iron frame of the prefs has been frequently broken. We fuppofe it is for fuch reafons, that Meflrs. Boul- ton and Watt have not, that we know of, applied thefe contrivances to any of their engines, but have contented themfelves with employing {team a little more than the pretlure of the atmo{phere, and {topping the fupply at one- fourth or one-third of the defcent, according to the cir- cumitances under which the engine works. In this cafe, the decreafing preflure in a large engine is not much greater than to counteraét the acceleration, and aided by the mo- mentum of the heavy working beam, pump-rods, and rifing column of water, produces nearly uniform motion. Mr, Hornblower, about 1781, had a patent for a method of applying the expanfive principle of Mr. Watt in two fuc- ceflive cylinders in fuch a manner, as to approach more nearly to an equality of force, by which {team of great preflure can be employed to act by its expanfion. This kind of engine, of which a defcription is to be found in Mr. Watt’s {pecifica- tion of 1782, has fince been brought to a great degree of perfection by Mr. Woolf, as we fhall notice. Defcription of Meffrs. Watt and Boulton’s complete Single Engine. — Plate U11. fig. 1. is taken from the engine at Chelfea water-works, for pumping water for the fupply of London: it was ereGted in 1804, and is eltimated at fifty horfes’? power. — We have hitherto confidered Mr. Watt’s engine as being fitted up with the great wooden beam, and arch-heads, chains, and pumps, the fame as the old engine. This was the form of the engine for fome years; but fince 1784, when Mr. Watt invented the parallel mo- tion for his double a@ting engine for turning mills, that ingenious contrivance has been applied to the pumping engines, inftead of the arch-head and chains, as being more correé in its action. Alfo, for about fifteen years patt, they have employed caft-iron working beams inftead of wood. ABC is the beam, which is made of caft-iron inftead of wood, and is compofed of two large plates, of the fhape reprefented in the figure, put together at twelve inches dif- tance from each other, leaving a {pace between them, the centre or axis B pafling through the middle of both plates. The axis lies on the floor D, which is fultained by the wall E, built beneath the centre. Q is the cylinder, contained within a fteam-jacket, compofed of fegments {crewed to- gether. F Fis the tteam-pipe coming from the boiler G. ab 1s the pifton-rod, conneéted with the end, C, of the beam by links C, 4; and whilft the upper ends of thefe links move in the are of acircle, with the end of the beam, the lower ends, 4, are made to accommodate themfelves to the vertical motion of the pilton-rod a, by means of the rods, c, ex- tending to the {maller links, ¢, which form a parallelogram. The motion of the parallelogram is governed by the bridle- rods, which move about a fixed centre m. The action of this contrivance is fully explained under the article Parallel Motion ; and it is enough for our prefent purpofe to un- derftand, that the lower ends, 4, of the links, 4, C, will afcendand defcend in a perpendicular right line. A fimilar motion, but of half the quantity, is given to the rod, R, which works the air-pump, N, of the engine at the lower end, and the middle part of the rod has the plug-beam, R, attached to it, which has pins, or chocks, ferewed on it to atuate the handles, x, y, and x, of the mechanifm for the valves, which mechanifm is very different from that employed in the old engines, and even from that of the firft engines of Mr. Watt. Bunt to deferibe all the varieties which have been adopted, would occupy a volume, and afford information of but little value. The pump-rod, f, is fufpended at the end, A, of the beam by another parallel motion, and the upper part, S, of the rod is made of caft-iron, and very maflive, to have a fufficient weight in itfelf to draw up the pifton, and make the re- turning ftroke. The real pump-rod, p, is jointed to the heavy counter-weight S, and is polifhed, like the pilton-rod a, that it may flide through a collar of leathers in the head of the pump Y, becaufe the pump is of that kind called lifting force-pumps; its bucket raifes the water in afcend- ing, but it forces it through the air-vetlel T, and pipe X, which leads to a referyoir two miles diftant, in Hyde Park, and elevated 150 feet above the level of the water in the well where the pump draws from, This well has a commu- nication with the river. The cylinder, Q, is kept down by the weight of a pier of mafonry, on which it is placed, and large iron bolts, 7, defcend from the lower flanch to the groundifills, upon which the mafonry is built. Teeedaae before the pier is the condenfing ciftern, M, which contains the air-pump N, the condenfer L, partly concealed, and hot-well g and is kept fupplied with cold water by the cold-water pump I, worked by the beam at the outer end, and the wafte runs off again into the well, fo as to keep the water in the ciltern always cold. The valves, which muft be opened and fhut to produce the action of the engine, are four in number; viz. the upper fteam-valve at F, the lower fteam-valve O, and the exhauftion-valve K, fig. 2, and a {mall valve 4 beneath the water in the ciftern M, to admit the injeGtion into the condenfer: but thefe parts are better explained in fg. 2, which is a fe&tion of the cylinder, air-pump, and condenfer on a double fcale. A, the feGtion of the cylinder, in which the pifton, X, moves; F, the fteam-pipe coming from the boiler; L, the condenfer ; N, the air or difcharging-pump ; m, a paflage or pipe from the pump L, to the condenfer N, in which paf- fage is an occafional communication by a hanging-valve at m, which fhuts towards the condenfer ; / is the injeétion-valve, to be lifted by the engine at every ttroke, for the purpofe of condenfing the fteam in the condenfer L; w is the {nifting or blowing-valve, placed outfide the condenfing ciftern (of which M M is a fection, on purpofe to fhew the contents) ; the {nifting-valve, q, communicates with the condenfer by a pipe pafling through the fide of the ciftern M, and is inferted at the fide of the condenfer; K is the exhauftion-valve, to be lifted by the engine, and open a communication between the cylinder A and the condenfer L ; O is the fteam-valve, to be lifted by the engine, and open a communication between the lower part of the cylinder, and upper part thereof, through the fteam-pipe r; and F is the upper fteam-valve of the {ame kind, opening a paflage from the boiler to the top of the cylinder; and thence by the pipe , and valves O, K, to all parts of the engine. We mutt now attend to the mechanifm by which the engine is made to feed itfelf, and perform its reciprecations. The valves are lifted by means of a lever applied to each, within the iron box in which it is contained, entering into an open- ing in the {tem of the valve ; and a fecond lever is fixed on the axis of the lever, on the outfide of the box, to be conne@ed with with the levers and handles «, y, x, which open and fhut the valves. There are three feparate axles, or {pindles, laced parallel and above one another, and each has a Randle or {panner x, y, z, by which it is moved, either by the hand, to ftart the engine, or by the chocks on the plug-beam R, when the engine is in aGtion. The two upper fpindles, x and y, have fhort levers proje&ting from them towards the eplintler 5 and from each of thefe levers a rod is fuf- pended, with a fufficient weight, 0, at the lower end to turn round the fpindle, each upon its axis, in that direCtion which will caufe the handles, x and y, to fly upwards. Alfo the lower f{pindle has a lever proje@ting from it, away from the cylinder, with a heavy weight, z, fixed at the end ; but this being applied, on the oppofite fide, to the weights of the two upper handles x, y, the weight, n, caufes the handle, z, to defcend. Both-the axles of the lower handles, y, 2, have {mall levers, or catches, 1 and 2, which aét in the hooks of a double latch, or detent, ¢v, which is moveable upon a centre-pin fituated between the two axles. The hooks of this detent are to detain the catches of the {pindles, and prevent the handles, y, z, from moving by the aétion of their refpetive weights, until the detent is moved on its centre, fo as to relieve the catches of the levers from its hooks ¢,v. But it is evident, from fg. A, that when only one catch, as 2, is hooked by the lower hook, v, of the detent, and confequently the weight of its {pindle is held up, if the other catch, 1, is moved by de- prefling its handle, y, fo as to raife its weight in the a& of entering the hook, #, of the detent, it will prefs the end, ¢, of the detent forwards upon its centre, and this at the fame time prefling back the hook, v, at the oppofite end of the detent, releafes the catch, 2, of the lower handle, x, ae os and the weight, 2, on that {pindle immediately alls. The fpindle of the upper handle, x, is devoted to opening and fhutting the upper fteam-valve F, having a lever which communicates by a rod, 2, with the lever, 3, of that valve ; fo that by preffing down the handle x, it will fhut the valve F. The weight 0, which is applied to the upper fpindle, tends to lift up the handle x, and open the valve F ; and when the upper handle, x, is deprefled, the valve will be fhut ; or when the handle is fuffered to fly up by the aétion of its weight, it will open the valve. The fecond fpindle, y, has a lever communicating with the lever of the exhaufting-valve K, by a rod 4. The weight 0, applied to this like the former, tends to lift up the handle y, and draw open the valve ; but when the handle, y, is deprefled, the valve is fhut, and in this pofition the catch, 1, is held down by the hook, ¢, of the detent before explained, and retains the valve fhut. Latftly, the lower {pindle, z, is for the lower fteam-valve O, _ which is opened by the rod 14, when the handle, z, is fuffered to fall down, and fhut when the fame is up, being held by the catch 2, and hook w. In all thefe the weight tends to open the valve; but when the valve is to be kept fhut, the detent holds the weight up. Now, by removing the detent, the weight falls and opens the valve in an inftant. The upper fpindle has no detent to detain it ; but what is equivalent is a rod, 5, jointed to that lever of the middle axis which has its weight and rod, o, fufpended from it. The upper end of the rod, 5, is made with a loop, or long flit, in which works a pin at the end of a lever, 6, projeét- ing from the upper axis towards the cylinder. The confe- quence of this is, that while the middle axis is detained by its catch, and detent #, to keep the exhaufting-valve, K, fhut ; the lever, 6, of the upper f{pindle will be borne up by its pin refting in the bottom of the loop of the rod, 5, VoL. XXXIV. STEAM-ENGINE. fo as to keep the weight from opening the upper iteam-valve F, as long as the exhaufling-valve is kept fhut ; but when the catch, 17, of the middle axis is difcharged, and its weight has opened the exhaufling-valve, the looped rod, 5s will no longer fupport the lever, 6, of the upper axis, but allows its weight to defcend and open the upper {team-valve : but at the fame time the upper fteam-valve, F, is not con- fined to be always open when the exhaufting-valve, K, is open; for the upper fleam-valve may be fhut by deprefling the upper handle x, without affecting the exhaufting-valve at all, becaufe the flit, or loop, in the top of the rod, 5, allows that motion. This property mutt be attended to, becaufe the ‘aétion of the engine, by expanfion, depends upon it. We have not before noticed the injeétion-valve, from which a long wire afcends, and is attached to a {trap, 9, which winds upon the middle axis ; therefore, when the middle handle, y, flies up by its weight, it winds the ftrap, and opens the injection.valve at the fame inftant that the ex- haufting-valve is opened. The injeGtion-valve, J, is placed to clofe the orifice at the end of a fhort curved pipe, which enters into the condenfer and turns up ; and the pipe has a cock in it, between the valve and the condenfer, to cut off the communication, or to re- gulate the fupply of injection when the valve is opened. This cock mutt be always fhut when the engine is not at work, to prevent the condenfer filling with water. Operation of the Engine.—We will now confider the ation of the engine. Suppofe the fire lighted beneath the boiler G; all the valves are kept fhut by prefling down the two upper handles x and y, and lifting up the lower one, their re{peétive catches detaining them in thofe pofitions, untw the fteam is fufficiently heated, and the engine is ready to work. Jn the quiefcent pofition of the engine, when it is at reft, the counter-weight always draws the pifton fully at the top of its cylinder, as in the figure; the air-pump bucket will alfo be at the top of its barrel. In order to prepare for fetting the engine to work, all the three valves muft be opened at once. This is done by relieving the fpindles from their feveral catches, when the weights immediately open the valves. ‘The fteam enters through the valve F, into the top of the cylinder, and by the pipe r, through the lower fteam-valve, O, into the bottom of the cylinder; alfo through the exhaufting- valve K, into the condenfer L, driving before it fome air, which pailes out at the fnifting-valve w. At firft, the coldnefs of the parts condenfes all the fteam which enters ; and it is not until all the iron, with which the fteam comes in contaét, is heated to the temperature of boiling water, that the fteam ceafes to flow from the boiler in a ftream, and be condenfed as it arrives at the cylinder and condenfer; but after thie, the fteam acquires the fame force in the cylinder and pipes that it has in the boiler: it then occupies every cavity and crevice of the engine, and in a little while difplaces all the air in the cylin- der, condenfer, and pipes, which paffes out, and is dif- charged at the {nifting-valve w. This valve is always co- vered with water in a {mall ciftern attached to the fide of the large one, to enfure its tightnefs. Through this valve the air is difcharged by the fteam, not at every ttroke, as in New- comen’sengine, but only at firlt fetting the engine to work, and this operation is called the blowing through. It is well known when the cylinder and other vetlels are properly heated, and the air difcharged, by a very {mart crackling noife at that valve, like a violent decrepitation of falt in the fire ; this noife being occafioned by the water in the {mall ciftern producing a fudden and rapid condenfation of the ifluing fteam when the air is all gone. - t STEAM-ENGINE. It being known by this fign that all parts of the engine are cleared of air, all the three valves are to be fhut, by prefling and holding down the two upper handles x,y, and lifting up the lower handle z, in which fituation its catch, 2, will retain it. This cuts off the farther fupply of fteam from the boiler, and alfo intercepts the paflage of the fteam from the cylinder to the condenfer ; and as the cold furface of the condenfer {till continues to condenfe a confiderable portion of iteam, there will foon be none left, and a vacuum will be formed in the condenfer, while the cylinder both above and below the pifton is full of fteam. The vacuum in the condenfer will foon become perfe& from the external cold alone, though more flowly than when an injection is made. In this ftate the engine is prepared for ftarting at a mo- ment’s notice, by the engine-man letting the two upper handles, x and y, rife up, by their ref{pe¢tive weights: this opens the upper fteam-valve, and the exhaufting and injeGtion- valves ; the former admits the {team into the top of the cy- linder, to prefs upon the pilton; while the latter allows the fteam, already in the lower part of the cylinder, to flow into the vacuous condenfer; and at the fame inftant that he opens the injeétion-cock, the valve is lifted at the fame time with the exhauflting-valve: this admits a jet of cold water into the condenfer, and condenfes the {team as faft as it arrives from the cylinder, fo that in an inftant all the fteam in the lower part of the cylinder will be drawn off and condenfed. The preflure of the fteam on the pitton being now unbalanced by any thing beneath the pifton, it defcends and draws up the pump-buckets, and columns of water in the pumps, with a velocity proportioned to the preflure of the fteam, and the diameter of the pifton, compared with the height of the column of water in the pumps, and the diameter of the bucket : ‘but the pilton having defcended about one-third of its ftroke, a chock of the plug-frame, R, meets the upper handle x, and preffing it down, fhuts off the {team from the boiler. That part of the handle on which the chock aéts be- comes perpendicular when the valve is fhut, the handle being bent for that purpofe ; and the chock can therefore defcend farther, and flide againft the perpendicular part of the handle, which is firaight, without producing any farther depreflion of the handle, at the fame time that it keeps it down to the fame point, fo as to hold the valve fhut. The pilton, therefore, con- tinues its defcent by the farther expanfion of the quantity of fteam at firft let into the cylinder ; but having arrived at the bottom of its ftroke, a chock on the oppofite fide of the plug- beam, R, feizes the middle handle, y, and preffes it down, which pufhes the rod, 4, until it fhuts the exhaufting-valve K, and alfo fhuts the injeGtion-valve by the ftrap and rod 9. When the catch, 1, of this handle, y, prefles on the upper hook, ¢, of the detent ¢v, it relieves the catch, 2, of the lower axle z, and then the weight, 7, caufes the handle, z, to fall, and pul- ling the rod 14, opens the lower fteam-valve O. Let us now confider the pofition of the engine; the middle handle, y, will be held down by its catch, 1, holding in the upper hook, ¢, of the detent, fo as to keep the exhaufting-valve, K, fhut; and the upper fteam-valve, F, is alfo kept fhut, by the fame means which kept it fhut during the latter two-thirds of the defcent of the pifton. Under thefe circumftances the pifton is at liberty to rife by the ation of the counter-weight S, becaufe the opening of the lower fteam. valve, O, has eftablifhed a free communi- cation between the top and bottom of the cylinder, and the {team in the top of the cylinder can flow through the pipe r, and enter the bottom of the cylinder, as fa{t as the pifton rifes, by the aGtion of the counter-weight. When the pifton has returned to within one-third of the top of the cylinder, the chock of the plug-trame quits the up- per handle x ; but this handle cannot yet be thrown up by its weight to open the upper valve, becaufe the rod, 5, from the lever of the middle axis bears up the fhort lever, 6, of the upper axis x; and thus the motion continues, till the pifton arrives very nearly at the top of the cylinder : a chock onthe plug-frame then feizes the lower handle z, and lifting it up, fhuts the lower {team-valve; and the catch, 2, of the lower axis pafling the lower hook, w, of the detent, moves it on its centre, fo as to releafe the catch, 1, of the middle axis from the upper hook, ¢, of the detent. This being the cafe, the weight of the middle axis caufes its handle, y, to fly up, and by the rod, 4, 1t opens the exhaufting-valve; and by drawing the {trap and rod, g, it opens the injetion-valve; at the fame time the upper axis, wv, lofing the fupport of the rod 5, which kept it up, its weight carries up the upper handle x, and by pulling the rod, 2, it opens the upper fteam-valve F. The {team from the boiler is now admitted to prefs upon the upper furface of the pifton, while the {team from the lower part of the cylinder beneath the pifton rufhes into the condenfer, where being met by the cold injeGtion, it is con- denfed, and makes a vacuum in the lower part of the cylin- der, which brings down the pifton to make another f{troke. At one-third of the defcent, the plug-frame, as before, preffes and holds down the upper handle x, to keep the upper {team-valve fhut; and when the pifton has arrived at the bottom, the plug-frame prefles down the middle handle y, to fhut the injeétion and the exhaufting-valves ; and in catching, this difcharges the lower axis, and the weight thereof opens the lower fteam-valve. The pifton then rifes by the counter-weight, and when at the top of its ftroke, the plug-frame lifts the lower handle z, and fhuts the lower {team-valve ; and in catching, difcharges the two other handles, which open the upper fteam-valve, the exhaufting-valve, and the injection-valve, and this produces the defcent of the pilton, as before. ~ If the air has been fully difcharged from all parts of the engine by blowing through, the aétion of the air- pump does not begin until the injeétion-water and the air, which are extricated from the water in the boiling, have accumulated in fome quantity in the condenfer ; then at every defcent of the bucket, d, of the air-pump, it dips into the — water contained in the bottom of the barrel N, and the water pafles through the valves in the bucket: thefe valves fhut when the bucket is drawn up, lifting all that water which is ~ above them up to the top of the barrel, and there it is forced out through the hanging-valve g, into the hot-wells. The drawing up of the bucket at the fame time makes a vacuum inthe pump-barrel beneath it ; and if this vacuum is more per- feé&t than that in the condenfer, whichit will be, if the condenfer contains either air or fteam, it will prefs by its elafticity upon the furface of the water in the lower part of the con- denfer, and force it through the hanging-valve at m, into the lower part of the barrel, N, of the air-pump; and when all the water is gone from the condenfer, the air or elaftic vapour which is in the condenfer will follow and enter into the pump, until the fpace of the barrel beneath the bucket is filled equally with the condenfer. pra This takes place while the pump-bucket is at the top or its barrel; and on the defcent of the bucket, the {pace be- neath it is diminifhed, until it comprefles this rarefied vapour fo much, that its elafticity will be fufficient to clofe the hang- ing-valve m, and to lift the valves in the bucket d, and pais through ther into the {pace of the barrel above the bucket : and when the bucket has defcended to the very loweft, the water contained in the bottom of the barrel, not being able to e{cape'through m, muit pafs up through the valves, and reft upon the bucket d. When the bucket afcends, it carries 1 before STEAM-ENGINE. before it this water and air, and as it rifes the {pace of the bar- rel above the bucket diminifhes, and the rare vapour or air in it condenfes by being crowded into lefs fpace, until at laft it becomes equally denfe with the atmofpheric air, and then the water following it, drives it through the valve, g, into the open air. The afcent of the bucket, d, left a vacuum beneath it, as before, and this drew a portion of the air or vapour from the condenfer into it, ready to be extra€ted by the next ftroke. As foon as the bucket begins to return, the dif- charge-valve, g, fhuts, and prevents the atmofpheric air from entering into the pump. By this we fee, that if the vapour in the condenfer is fo rare that the whole contents of the barrel of the pump will only make a few cubic inches, when reduced to become equal to the preflure of the atmofphere, this {mall quantity will be effectually evacuated through the difcharge-valve g, becaufe the water refting upon the bucket follows the air, and will chafe every particle of it from the top of the pump, and then follow itfelf. The air-pump of Mr. Watt’s engine requires to be of large dimentions, and the condenfer 1s generally of the fame fize, by which means the rarefaction of any elaftic vapour contained in the condenfer will be equal to half at every ftroke; that is, the air-pump will extract half the quan- tity of the elaftic vapour every time ; becaufe, fuppofing the vacuous {pace which the bucket of the pump leaves beneath it, when it is drawn up, to be equal to the capacity of the condenfer, then the vapour in the condenfer muft expand itfelr to fill a double fpace, by which one half of it will enter into the pump, and be drawn out by the fucceeding ftroke, while the other half will remain in the condenfer. The cylinder at Chelfea is four feet diameter, and eight feet ftroke, and the air-pump two feet diameter, and four feet ftroke: thus, their areas refpeétively are as one to four, and their capacities as one toeight. But it muft not be con- fidered that this large pump, full of air, is to be drawn out of the condenfer at every ftroke; for, as we have ftated be- fore, the vapour with which it is filled reduces itfelf to a {mall quantity before it comes to the denfity of atmofpheric air. At firft fight we fhould be led to conclude, that the pump affects the power of the engine, as a deduction, of as much power as the preflure of the air upon the furface of its bucket; but if we confider its conttruétion, having a valve at g to keep off the preflure of the atmofphere, it is certain its bucket can have little weight upon the engine, until the bucket is near the higheft limits of the ftroke; and taking the fum of the refiftance, from the commencement of the itroke to its termination, it will be found to be very little in comparifon with the power of the cylinder. An air-pump of one-eighth the capacity of the cylinder is fufficient to keep the condenfer empty when it is a fingle engine. If a {maller air-pump were employed, it mutt be in aétion to lift out the air and water, fora greater portion of its ftroke. In faét, whatever the fize of the air-pump may be, it will occafion little more refiftance to the engine than from the friétion of its bucket, except during the time that it has aGtually opened the valve, g, to difcharge the air or water which it contains: before that period, the refiltance is only that of compreffing the vapour, an operation which begins at nothing, but increafes by an afcending proportion reverfe to _that of the decreafe of the preflure of the tteam, when acting in the cylinder by expanfion, as we have before explained. In Mr. Watt’s early engines, the air-pump and condenfing ciltern were placed at the outer end of the beam; and there are fome reafons to prefer that mode of conftruétion, where the building will admit of it. In this cafe, the pump-bucket being drawn up by the defcent of the pifton, the engine re- quires a lefs counter-weight than in the form jult defcribed, in which the air-pump mult be wholly worked by the coun- ter-weight. Alfo, it is during the defcent of the pifton that the action of the air-pump is moft neceffary ; and it is poffible that an engine, having the pump worked by the outer end of the beam, may make a better vacuum than when it is worked by the inner end, becaufe there may be fome, though a very flight impulfe given to the remaining air of the laft ftroke, by the rufh of fteam into the condenfer at the inftant the fleam-pifton begins to defcend, and the air-pump to rife; for no fooner is the exhautting-valve opened, than the fteam rufhes towards the condenfer, and giving a momentary tendency to a plenum therein, may give a pufh to the air through the hanging-valve, between the pump and the condenfer ; and hence it is reafonable to con- clude, that more air will enter the pump by this means, than if it were left to its own expanfion. It is neceflary that the parts appropriated to the condenfa- tion of fteam fhould be kept as cold as poffible, and thofe intended for the operation, or paflage of the fteam, as hot as poflible; hence the air or difcharging pump and con- denfer are placed in the ciftern of cold water, which is kept conftantly full by the cold-water pump, and a little running away into the well, to carry off the excefs of heat ; and if the injeGtion-valve is placed low in this ciltern, it will take the water in the coldett ftate. The injeétion-valve and cock are feen in fig. 2. As the condenfing apparatus is immerfed in water, to be kept cold, fo the cylinder fhould, if poflible, be immerfed in {fteam, to be kept hot; for which purpofe, Mr. Watt from the firft ufed a cafing or jacket round the cylinder, and alfo at the top and bottom: this was attended with very bene- ficial effects, although it enlarged the fteam furface, and ex- pofed the external jacket to a more rapid condenfation than would have taken place from the furface of the cylinder it- felf. But to have the vacuum as perfeét as poffible, it is ne- ceflary that the cylinder be kept up to fuch a temperature, as to prevent the leaft condenfation of the fteam upon the internal furface, either above or below the pifton; becaufe, if the fides of the cylinder were to be wet, as in the com- mon atmofpherical engine, the vacuum would be vitiated, as there would be occafioned by this wetnefs a moiflure gra- dually forming to fteam, which the outfide cafing prevents, when filled with fteam from the boiler, and the heat which efcapes from the furface of the jacket does not injure the operation of the engine ; but if it were poflible to cover this outward cafe again with any fort of fubftance which would entirely prevent the tranfmiffion of heat from the cafing, it would fuperfede the ufe of the jacket altogether, and would apply with more advantage to the cylinder itfelf ; but we do not know of any fubftance which will not admit this tranf- miflion more or lefs. Some of Meflrs. Watt and Boulton’s beft engines we have feen furrounded by a cafe of polifhed copper, we believe outfide of the jacket. In {mall engines, it is common to place the cylinder within the boiler, and it muft then be kept fully as hot as the fteam which enters it ; but this is not practicable in a large engine, nor is it advifable in any cafe, becaufe the frequent repairs which the boiler requires muit derange all parts of the engine, When the jacket is ufed, a {mall copper pipe is conducted from the fteam-pipe to keep it full. As the jacket of a large cylinder muft be expofed to be heated or cooled lefs than the metal cylinder to which it is attached, the un- equal expanfion might break the joints; to avoid this, the jacket is made in two sea 3 put together in the middle ss 2 the STEAM-ENGINE. the length, without any other attachment than that of en- tering into each other for three or four inches, with a cup which is packed with hemp and tallow. The fteam-pipe has a fimilar joint at 4, fg-2, which unites it to the box of the exhautting-valve K, and will admit of drawing out a little. Defeription of other Parts of Mr. Watt's Engine.—In the drawing (fig. 1.) in our plate, the condenfer is reprefented at one fide of the air-pump, in which fituation it partly con- ceals the pump. In fg. 2. they are put into a different po- fition for explanation, the condenfer being reprefented be- neath the cylinder. The edution-pipe is carried fideways from the box in which the eduGtion-valve is fituated, fo that the condenfer can be placed in any fituation which is con- venient. 13, 13, are the catch-pins, which are firmly fixed to each end of the beam, and limit the motion of the engine by coming down to ftrixe upon the beams of the floor D, if the engine makes too long a ftroke ; and pieces of cork are laid on the floor to foften the blow with which it would otherwife ftrike. It once happened to this engine, that the valve of the pump-bucket breaking, the engine fuddenly loft its load, or refiftance, which occafioned the pifton to defcend, and {trike on the {pring-beams, or floor D, for two or three fucceffive ftrokes, with fuch violence as to break one of the beams; and at laft the pilton ftriking the bottom of the cylinder, the momentum of the beam forced down upon the rod fo violently, as to bend the great pifton-rod quite crooked. To prevent fimilar accidents, a {maller {tsam-pipe was added at the fide of the vertical fteam-pipe, communicating with the paflage into the bottom of the cy- linder: this pipe is kept clofed by a valve; but if the engine defcends fo low as to {trike on the {pring-beam D, the catch- pin, 13, of the beam {trikes a {mall lever 10, and by the communication wire, 11, opens the valve, and lets the {team into the lower part of the cylinder, beneath the pifton, and this deftroys the vacuum, fo as to prevent the farther defcent of the pilton. There is alfo a {mall fpring-catch or detent, which tends to {pring under the lever of the upper fteam-valve, and pre- vent it from defcending. This catch is held back by a fecond catch, which is relieved when the catch-pin ftrikes the lever 10, and then the firft-mentioned detent, by retain- ing the fteam-valve from being opened, prevents any danger of the engine making a repetition of the ftroke while it has no load. Boiler.—The boiler of the engine we have not mentioned before; it is fet in a furnace, fo as to receive the heat of the fire, and the flame paffes through a long flue, which goes twice round the bottom part of the boiler, to give as much as poffible of its heat to the water before it enters into the chimney. The fteam-pipe,-F, has a throttle-valve in it at 30, which regulates the fupply of {team to the cylinder, This valve is not a conical f{pindle-valve, the fame as the other valves of the engine, but is a circular plate of metal, made to fit the bore of the pipe, and is moveable upon an axis, which pafles diametrically acrofs the plate; and the end of the axis, where it comes to the outfide, has a lever fixed on it to communicate motion to the valve, which being turned edgeways in the pipe, prefents fcarcely any refiftance to the pallage of the fteam; but when turned flat acrofs the pipe, it ftops its bore; and although it is not fitted with any ex- traordinary care, it is fuflicient to regulate the fteam. This kind of throttle-valve is preferable, becaufe it can be moved by a very flight force. , Regulator. —T here is a contrivance to regulate the velocity of the engine, by a {mail pipe proceeding from the air- veflel of the pump ; it conveys water to the lower part of a {mall vertical cylinder, into which a pifton is fitted, and loaded with a heavy weight ; then if the engine works too falt, fo as to force more water into the air-veffel than the main pipes, X, will carry off, it muft make a greater preflure and condenfation of the air in the air-vellel, until the water is forced to run quicker through the main-pipe, and this preflure being alfo communicated by the {mall pipe to the regulating cylinder before-mentioned, caufes its pifton to lift the weight and rife up, and this motion is communicated by a wire to the throttle-valve, fo as to clofe it and diminifh the fupply of fteam; or, on the other hand, if the engine works too flow, the preffure in the air-veflel muft diminifh, and then the loaded pilton will fink and open the throttle. valve a fmall quantity, to admit more fteam. It fhould have been mentioned before, that the weight with which the pilton of this regulating cylinder is loaded, is fo contrived, that it will increafe in force as the pitton afcends, and diminifh as it defcends. There are many ways of doing this, but the one adopted, in this cafe, is to load the pifton with a very heavy calt-iron chain, fome of the links of which fall upon the ground as it defcends, and relieve the pifton from their weight ; but as it afcends, it lifts other links off the ground, and becomes more loaded, until it finds itfelf a place where the load will balance the preflure of the water in the air-veffei. It is evident that, by this contrivance, the motion of the engine will at all times be fo regulated, as to fupply juft the quantity of water defired; but this quantity can be made greater or lefs, by applying a greater or lefs weight to the pifton, fo that it will fink more or lefs into its cylinder, be- fore it will come to an equilibrium with the preflure in the air-vellel, and will thus open the throttle-valve more or lefs. But when the adjuftment is once made, it will keep the engine working with regularity at that velocity. In fome of the lateft engines erected by Mefirs. Watt and Boulton, they have, by an ingenious movement, made the motion of this regulating pilton communicate with a long {crew, attached to the plug-beam, which regulates the chock that fhuts the upper fteam-valve at any required por- tion of the defcent of the pifton. By this means, although the {crew is in conftant motion with the plug-beam, the {crew is turned fo as to regulate the chock on the plug, and meafure out the quantity of fteam which the engine fhall have introduced into the cylinder at each ftroke, to enable it to fulfil its tafk. It is in thefe properties of the engine, by which it regulates itfelf, and provides for all its wants, that the great beauties of the invention confift. M. Belidor, 80 years ago, {peaking of the old engine, fays: “ It muft be acknowledged, that this is the moft wonderful of all machines, and that nothing of the works of man approaches fo near to animal life. Heat is the principle of its move- ment: there is in its tubes a circulation, like that of the blood in the veins of animals ; having valves which open and. fhut in proper periods, it feeds itfelf, evacuates fuch por- tions of its food as are ufelefs, and draws from its own labours all which is neceflary to its own fubfiftence.” To purfue the idea, we may now fay of the more perfect ma- chine, that it has what approaches the appetite of animals, in taking that kind and quantity of food which its exi- gencies require, and in rejeéting that which is unneceflary. But we mutt explain thefe felf-regulators more fully. Apparatus conneded with the Boiler.—In order to know the exaét height of the water in the boiler, two gauge-cocks are employed, one of which reaches to within a little of the height or level at which the water fhould ftand, and another reaches a little below that level. If the water ftands at the defired STEAM-ENGINE. defired height, the firft-mentioned cock, being opened, will give out fteam ; and the other cock will emit water, in con- fequence of the preflure of the fuperincumbent fteam on the furface of the water. But if water thould iffue from both cocks, it will be too high in the boiler; and if fteam iffues from both, it will be too low. This is the fame con- trivance which was ufed in Newcomen’s engine; but Mr. Watt applied in his firft engines a {mall vertical glafs tube, which has a communication with the boiler by a copper pipe cemented to each end: one pipe, from the top of the glafs tube, enters the boiler above the intended level of the water; and the other pipe, from the bottom of the glafs tube, enters the boiler below the furface of the water. In this way, it is evident that the glafs tube will always be filled with water to the fame level as the water in the boiler, and.may be graduated with inches, to inform the engine- man when the boiler requires a fupply. Another contrivance is a pipe defcending beneath the furface of the water in the boiler, when at its intended level ; and in the upper end of the pipe at the top of the houfe a whiltle or mouth-piece is formed: then, if the water in the boiler finks too low, the fteam will iffue at the pipe, and, pafling through the whiftle, will make fuch a noife as to call the engine-man to his duty, even if he fhould have fallen afleep. This contrivance is rendered unneceflary by a fubfequent one, by which the boiler will always feed it- felf, exaGtly as faft as its evaporation of fteam requires. The boiler is kept conftantly fupplied with water, to repair the watte of evaporation, by means of a {mall pump 20, which draws hot water from the hot-well g, and raifes it to fuch a height, that the water will run through a pipe, fhewn by the dotted lines, into the ciftern 14, placed over the top of the boiler, at an elevation of fome feet. From this eiftern a tube, 18, defcends into the boiler, and terminates beneath the furface of the water therein, fo as to feed the boiler with water. But as it is neceflary that the water in the boiler fhould always be preferved at the fame level, this feed-pipe is clofed bya valve in the bottom of the ciltern 14, which prevents the water running down into the boiler, until the level of the water fubfides, and fhews that it re- quires replenifhing. A crowked arm, which is attached to the fide of the {mall ciftern 14, fupports the fhort lever 15, 16, which moves upon a centre-pin, The extremity, 16, of this lever fufpends, by means of the wire 16, a {tone or piece of metal, which hangs juit below the furface of the ater in the boiler. The wire paffes through a {mall Faffing-box in the top of the boiler, to prevent leakage. The other extremity, 15, of the lever is conneéted by a wire with a valve at the bottom of the ciftern 14, which covers the top of the pipe 18; and this end of the lever is loaded with a fufficient weight to balance the ftone in the boiler. Now itsis a maxim in hydrotlatics, that when a heavy body is fufpended in a fluid, it lofes as much of its weight as equals that of the quantity of fluid which it dif- places. When the water in the boiler, therefore, is di- minifhed, by the converfion of part of it into tteam, the upper furface of the ftone will be above the fluid, and its weight will confequently be increafed in proportion to the quantity of its mafs that is not immerfed. By this addition to its weight, the {tone will overcome the balance-weight on the end, 15, of the lever, caufing the extremity, 16, of the lever to defcend ; and in confequence, by elevating the op- pofite arm 15, will open the valve at the top of the pipe 18, and thus gradually introduce a quantity of water into the boiler equal to that which is carried off by evaporation. This procefs is continually going on, while the water is converting into fteam ; and it is evident that too much water can never be introduced, for as foon as the furface of the water coincides with the furface of the ftone, it recovers its former weight, and the valve at the bottom of the ciftern, 14, fhuts the top of the pipe 18, and prevents any more water entering the boiler, until the float or body,’ 21, des {cends by the diminution of the water therein. When the engine is {teadily at work, the ftone fubfides until it opens the valve to admit a regular ftream of water, which will juft equal the waite by evaporation ; and then the operation will go on regularly, without any aétion of the float, until fomething is altered. We have before ttated, that the iteam in the boiler is no ftronger than the atmofphere ; but there would {till be great danger of the boiler’s burfting, if the fteam fnould acci- dentally become too ftrong: the boiler is, therefore, fur- nifhed with a fafety-valve, which is fo loaded, that its weight, added to that of the atmofphere, may exceed the preflure of the interior fteam, when of a fufficient ftrength. As foon as the expanfive force fo far increafes as to become dangerous to the boiler, its preffure preponderates over the preflure of the atmofphere, and the fafety-valve is opened, when the iteam efcapes from the boiler, till its ftrength is fufficiently diminifhed ; and the fafety-valve fhuts again, by the predominance of its preflure over that of the interior fteam. By opening the fafety-valve, the engine may be {topped at pleafure: and to effe& this, a {mall reStangular lever, with equal arms, is fixed upon the fide of the valve, and conneéted with its top. To one of thefe arms a chain is attached, which is conduéted into the engine-houfe, and pafles over a pulley from a horizontal to a vertical dire&tion, fo that it hangs like a bell-pull. By pulling it, the valve is opened, and the machine is {topped. There is alfo another valve of fafety, for the reverfe of the object of the firft-mentioned f{afety-valve : it opens internally, and is balanced by a fmall lever, and a fufficient weight to keep it fhut, until the preffure of the {team within the boiler becomes much lefs than the external air, which then forces open the valve, and enters into the boiler, till the equi- librium is reftored. It is evident that this valve can never be neceffary fo long as the engine is at work ; but its ufe is to prevent the fides of the boiler being crufhed in by the weight of the air, when it has done work, and the fteam within it cools and condenfes. Self-adting Damper.—By another ingenious contrivance, the boiler is made to regulate the heat of its furnace, in proportion to the quantity of fteam which the cylinder draws off from it. For this purpofe, a damper or iron fliding-door is fitted into the flue, juft where it enters the chimney ; and a chain is conduéted from it, over pullies, to any convenient fituation, where the engine-man can pull it like a bell-pull, to draw up or lower down the damper, and by that means regulate hearer of air through the furnace, and the heat of the boiler. To make the damper felf-regulating, a large pipe of fix or eight inches bore is fixed vertically through the top of the boiler: it is open at top and bottom, but the lower end defcends nearly to the bottom of the boiler, fo as to be al- ways immerfed beneath the furface of the water. Now the {team preffing on the furface of the water in the boiler, and the atmofphere prefling on the furface of the water in the open pipe, it is evident that the relative levels of the water in both will be at ali times in exa& proportion to the relative elafticity of the air and the fteam: and if at any time the preffure of fteam diminifhes, by the heat of the furnece growing lefs, or by the engine drawing off more fteam, the furface of the water in the open pipe will fubfide ; and as there is a ftone-float in this pipe, balanced in the fame man- ner STEAM-ENGINE. ner as the feeding-float before deferibed, the defcent of the {tone is made’to operate upon the chain of the damper, and draw it up fo as to increafe the draught of the furnace, until, by the acceffion of heat, the fteam recovers the intended preflure, and reftores the damper to its place. On the other hand, when the preffure of the fteam is on the in- creafe, either from the engine being retarded or ftopped, or from the furnace burning too faft, the preflure of the tteam on the furface of the water in the boiler raifes the water in the open pipe; and the {tone-float, then rifing by its balance- weight, clofes the damper, and diminifhes the draught, till the {team fubfides to its defired force. By this means, the fteam is always preferved to the fame intenfity ; a circum- {tance very neceflary to the regularity of the motion of the engine. Steam-Gauge.—To afcertain the preflure of fteam with a greater degree of exactitude than by the load on the fur- face of the fafety-valve, which is liable to many uncertainties, Mr. Watt employs a fteam-gauge, confifting of an inverted fiphon, or bent tube, of glafs or iron; one leg of which is jointed to the fteam-pipe, and the other is open to the at- mofphere. A quantity of mercury being poured into the tube, it will occupy the bent part which joins the two legs ; and the furface of the mercury in one leg being ex- pofed to the preffure of the fteam, while the external air acts. upon the other, it is evident that the difference of level of the two furfaces will exprefs the preflure of the {team in the height of a column of mercury. When the tube is of glafs, this difference of level may be feen and meafured ona fcale ; but when an iron tube is ufed, a {mall light wooden rod is made to float on the furface of the mercury in the open leg, and point out the height ona fcale of inches, fixed above the tube. But in this cafe the divifions, which are numbered for inches, muft be only half inches ; becaufe, as the mercury defcends in one leg as much as it rifes in the other, the fcale reads double, to fhew the difference of level. Barometer-Gauge.—Mr. Watt has alfo adapted a gauge, called a barometer, to indicate the degree of vacuum in his engines, an addition which is of important confequence to the good performance of the engine, to the profit of the proprietors, and the credit of the engineer ; yet in many en- gines in London, we fee this important inftrument either out of repair, or wholly laid afide. The form of this barometer can be underftood without a figure; itis a tube of glafs 30 inches long, filled with mer- cury, and applied to a fcale of inches, the lower end being immerfed in a cup, in the fame manner as the common baro- meter, or weather-glafs; it is, in fa€t, the fame thing asa barometer in every refpe&t, except that the vacuum is not made in the top of the tube, in the Torricellian manner, but by the engine. For this purpofe, a {mall copper tube is conduéted from the condenfer, and cemented to the top of the glafs tube, by which means the furface of the mercury in the tube is relieved from the preflure of the atmofphere ; and the weight of the atmofphere, which prefles upon the furface of the mercury in the bafon, will caufe it to mount up in the tube to a greater or lefs height, according as the vacuum is more or lefs perfect, or as the atmofphere is more or lefs heavy ; which will be fhewn by a common barometer placed at the fide of the engine barometer. The pipe which leads from the condenfer to the top of the barometer tube muft be provided with a cock, which fhould be fhut when the engine 1s blowing through, to prevent the fteam entering the tube, and blowing the mercury out of it : but the bafon for the mercury mutt be made large enough to contain all the mercury, becaufe, when the engine is not at work, the air will leak in, and allow the mercury to de- fcend into the bafon. It has been propofed to make the barometer in the form of an inverted fiphon, juft the fame as the common fteam- gauge, one leg being made to communicate with the condenfer, and the other left open to the air. In this way, the rife of the mercury in one leg produces a corre- {ponding fall of the mercury in the other; but on this ac- count, if the feale is applied to one leg, the divifions muft be only half inches, that is, provided the two legs are of the fame bore ; but if they are of different bores, the feale mutt not be half, but of a proper proportion, to fhew always the difference between the level of the furface of the mercury in the two legs, Thefe tubes may be made of glafs ; but if the quickfilver is not very pure, the alloy with which the venders of this article adulterate it is by conitant aétion brought to the furface, and, together with the vapour, make the tube fo foul, that no precifion can be obtained. Iron is the beft material for both parts of the tube, which fhould be cor- rectly of one diameter, or elfe the refult will be erroneous, as we have before remarked ; for it is difficult to graduate a {cale by experiment in an iron tube, where the difference of level of the mercury in the legs cannot be feen. This tube mu(t communicate with the condenfer by a {mall copper pipe, and a ftop-cock be placed between the gauge and condenfer. The index in this in!trument is the fame as in the fteam-gauge, viz. a light deal rod, which is put into the fhorter tube; and quickfilver being poured into it within three inches of the end, the rod is put into the tube, and floats on the quick- filver, It is almoft needlefs to remark, that the graduation on this inftrument muit be inverted with regard to thole of a fingle tube. The barometer fhews the perfeétion of the vacuum, or the preflure of the atmofphere to enter into the condenfer, whilft the fteam-gauge fhews the preffure of the fteam to efcape into the air. By adding the height of thefe two co- lumns together, we have the preflure of the fteam upon the pifton, provided the throttle-valve is fully open, ‘fo that there is no ob{truGtion to the entrance of the fteam from the boiler into the cylinder. It would be interelting to have a fingle gauge made to exprefs this in one: nothing would be more eafy than to have a long glafs tube bent to an inverted fiphon, and one of the legs being conneéted with the fteam- pipe, and the other with the condenfer, the difference of level between the two furfaces would at all times exprefs the pref; fure on the pifton. Counter.—In many of Mr. Watt’s engines, a little appa- ratus is attached to the beam, to afcertain the number of {trokes the engine makes in any given time: this contrivance is called the counter, and 1s a train of wheel-work, working like clock-work, commonly attached to the beam in fuch a manner, that every itroke made by the engine moves one tooth, fo that the index tells how many ftrokes have been made fince lait ex- amined. This is fo fhut up in a box, that no perfon can gain accefs to it but the one entrulted with the key. When the box is attached to the beam, the inclination of the beam caufes the pendulum to vibrate every time the engine makes a {troke, and thus moves the counter round one tooth for every troke. In other cafes, the box containing the counter is fixed to the {fpring-beam floor, and at every ftroke the beam ftrikes a {mall detent, and moves the counter one tooth. It was by the account of this inftrnment that Mefirs. Boulton and Watt charged their portion of the favings for working their engines during the term of Mr. Watt’s patent. Conftrudtion of the Valves.—The team and eduétion« valves are of that kind called button or conical 7 valves, STEAM-ENGINE. valves. Mr. Watt, in his firft effays, employed cocks, and alfo fliding-valves, fuch as the regulator or fteam-valve of the old engine. But he found them always lofe their tight- nels, after a fhort time. This is not furprifing, when we confider that they are always perfectly dry, and almolt burning hot. He was therefore obliged to change them all for {pindle-valves, which being truly ground, and nicely fitted in their motions at firft, are not found to get out of order by any length of time. Other engineers now ufe them commonly in the old form of the fteam-engine, where, however, there is lefs neceflity for them. The manner of conftru€ting thefe valves is as follows. Fig. 3. reprefents a valve, with its feat and box ; fuppofe it one of the {team-valves ; the box is at the end of the pipe which introduces the {team, and 44 is the upper part of the pipe, which communicates with the lower part of the cylinder, or with the condenfer. Ateemay be obferved a part more faintly fhaded than the furrounding parts. This is the feat of the valve, and isa brafs or bell-metal ring, turned coni- cal on the outfide, fo as to fit exaétly into a conical part, bored out in caft iron, of the pipe 44. This ring or feat is fitted in by cement ; and the cone being of a long taper, the ring fticks firmly in it, efpecially after having been there for fome time, and united by ruft. The valve itfelf is a ftrong brafs plate, D, turned conical on the edge, fo as to fit the conical or inner edge of the feat. ‘Thefe two cones are very nicely groundinto each other with emery. This coni- cal joining is much more obtufe than the outer fide of the ring ¢; fo that although the joint is air-tight, the two pieces do not {tick clofely together. The valve has a fpindle or round tail, Dc, which is freely moveable up and down in the hole of a crofs-piece extended beneath the ring or feat ee; and on the upper fide of the valve is a ftrong piece of metal, D G, firmly jointed to it, one fide of which is formed into a toothed rack. A is the feétion of aniron axle, which turns in holes in the oppofite fides of the valve-box ; and one of thefe, where it paffes quite through the fide of the box, is nicely fitted by rinding, fo as to be air-tight ; and a ftuffing of hemp, well Baked in melted tallow and rofin, is made to furround the outfide of the hole, to prevent all ingrefs of air. The end of this axis projects a good way without the box, and carries a fparner or handle 3, which is connected by arod with a lever, moved by the plug-frame. To the axis, A, is fixed a ftrong piece of metal, or fector, the edge of which is formed into an arc ofa circle, having the axis, A, inits centre, and is cut into teeth, which work in the teeth of the rack DG, on the valve, and lift the fame when the feétor is moved. K K isa cover, which is fixed by fcrews to the top of tke box F, and may be taken off, in order to get at the valve when it needs repairs. From this defcription it is eafy to fee, that by turning the handle 3, which is on the axis A, the fe€tor muft lift up the valve by means of its toothed rack _ DG, till the upper end of the rack touches the top or cover K;; and turning the handle, 3, in the oppofite direétion, brings the valve down again to its feat. The force requifite to lift up a large valve from its feat is very great, the valve being kept down by a preflure of the fteam upon its upper furface while there is a vacuum beneath it. The valves of the Chelfea engine are nine inches diameter, and therefore contain (9g x 9 = 81 x -7854 =) 634 {quare inches, and each being prefled by at leaft 13 lbs., makes 826lbs. weight to keep the valve down; and this fhould, if poffible, be lifted in an inftant, to admit the {team to pafs off without delay. One method of balancing this weight is by means of a {mall pilton, applied beneath the valve. Thus, the lower part of the pipe or box in which the valve is contained, is bored out toa fhort cylinder, and a pilton is truly fitted therein, as fhewn beneath K, fig. 2: a cover or bottom is {crewed on to clofe the lower end of the fhort cylinder ; and there is a {mall copper pipe from the jacket, which admits {team into the {pace of the fhort cylin- der beneath its pifton, while there is a vacuum in the box in which the valve is contained, and which is open to the upper furface of the pifton. The axis of the valve being con- nected with the pifton, it is evident that the ation of the pilton to afcend will counteraét that of the valve to defcend ; and, therefore, by apportioning the area of the pifton to pat of the valve, it may be made to lift with the flighteft orce. Even without this contrivance, which is only applied be- neath the exhaufting-valve, as is feen in the fection, fig. 2, Mr. Watt invented a very fimple and effeétive method of railing up the valves by levers. The force which holds down the valve is quite momentary ; and the inftant the valve is detached from its feat the preflure is over, although it has not rifen more than a tenth of an inch; the force is, therefore, no impediment to the engine, but would be an inconvenient labour to the man who {tarts afid {tops it. By Mr. Watt’s contrivance, the lever is put in fuch a po- fition when it begins to raife the valve, that its mechanical energy is almoit infinitely great. Let fig. 3. reprefent the valve fhut, which is fuppofed to have been jut clofed by the chock on the plug-beam in its defcent coming in contaét with the handle x, and depreffing it, which is moveable with the axis X: on this fame axis is another arm, X 2, connected by a joint with the leading rod 2 3, which is conneéted alfo by a joint with the lever 3 A, fixed on the axis, A, of the feétor, contained within the valve- box, Therefore, when the chock of the plug-frame de- prefles the handle x, and turns the arm, X 2, round upon its centre, it pufhes up the lever, 3 A, by means of the con- ne¢ting rod, until the valve is clofed, as fhewn in fig. 3. At that time, the rod 2 3, and the arm, X 2, of the lever, are in one ftraight line, while the lever 3 A, (on the axis of the fector,) is at right angles to rod 2 3, which moves it ; confe- quently the rod is aéting with its greateft power to turn the axis A, upon which the fetor is tixed. In this fituation the valve is kept clofed by the catch or detent before explained, which holds down the handle x, until it is wanted to be opened ; the plug-frame then, by lifting the lower handle, re- lieves the catch, and the weight, o, applied to the axis turns it round into the pofition of the dotted lines, and the lever, X 2, draws the rod 2 3, and, by deprefling the lever 3 A, opens the valve. From this arrangement, the intelligent mechanic will per- ceive that, in this pofition, the force exerted by lever X 2 is extremely great to pu!l down the rod 2 3; and, at the fame time, another great advantage arifes from this difpofition of the levers, which is, that any preflure, however ftrong, ap- plied upon the valve to open it, would be ineffeétual, as that force would be exerted to turn the lever K 2 endways, in the dire€tion of the axis X, initead of turning it round, as fhewn by the figure, which reprefents the valve fhut, and re- tained in that pofition by the lever. Conftrucion of the Pifton.—In Mr. Watt’s firft attempt, the greatett dificulty which he encountered was to make the great pilton tight. The old and effeétual method, by water lying on it, was inadmiffible. He was therefore obliged to have his cylinders moft nicely bored, perfeétly cylindrical, and finely polifhed ; and he made numberlefs trials of differ- ent foft fubftances for packing his pifton, which fhould be tight without enormous friction, and long remain fo, in a fituation perfectly dry, and hot almoft to burning. After many trials, he fettled the form of the packing which is now univerfally employed, The pifton has a projecting rim at a STEAM-ENGINE. at bottom, which is fitted as accurately to the cylinder as it can be, to leave it at full liberty to rife and fall through the whole length. The part of the pifton immediately above this is about two inches lefs all round than the cylinder, to leave a circular groove or channel, into which the hemp, or foft rope whichis called gafket, is rammed, to form the packing ; then, to keep the packing in its place, a lid or cover is put over the top of the pilton, with a ring or projecting part, which enters into the circular groove for the packing, and prefling upon it, the plate is forced down by ferews. ‘The lower part of the groove round the pilton being made rounding, with a curve, this preflure on the packing forces it againtt the infide furface of the cylinder. The pifton muft be kept fupplied with melted greafe ; for which purpofe a funnel is fixed on the top of the cylinder, witha cock and pipe to let the greafe down. The {tuffing-box in the top of the cylin- der, round the pifton-rod, is packed with hemp in a fimilar manner, a collar, with a hole through it for the paflage of the rod, being {crewed down, to confine the packing 1n its lace. After all that has been done in this refpe&, it 1s probable that the greateft part of the waite of fteam which we itil perceive in engines, arifes from the unavoidable efcape by the fides of the pifton during its defcent. If the pitton is packed fo tight as totally to prevent the lofs, the friction is fo increafed as to fully outweigh the faving. But it is a fortunate circumftance, that the performance of Mr. Watt’s engine is not immediately deitroyed, nor, indeed, fenfibly di- minifhed, by a {mall want of tightnefs in the pifton. In the atmofpheric engine, if air enters in this way, it immediately puts at ftop to the work; but in the new engine, although even a confiderable quantity of fteam efcape patt the pi‘ton during its defcent, the rapidity of condenfation is fuch, that the diminution of preffure is not confiderable, and the walte of fteam is the greateft inconvenience. A great many {chemes have been fince tried to"make bet- ter methods of packing a pifton, but none of them have been brought into ufe, except the metallic expanding pifton, which was propofed by Mr. Cartwright, as we fhall notice in defcribing his engine. Something of the fame kind, but not for fteam-engines, is to be found in Leupold’s Theatrum Machinarum Hydraulicarum, 1724. The adual Performance of Mr. Watt’s Engine with refpe& to Coals.—At the firlt eftablifhment cf their engines, Meflrs. Boulton and Watt charged their profits in proportion to the faving of fuel which their engine made, when compared with a common engine burning the fame kind of coals. They had one-third of thefe favings paid them annually, or the payment was redeemed at ten years’ purchafe. It fhould be obferved, that Mr. Smeaton’s improvements were introduced about the fame time as Mr. Watt’s, and therefore the com- parifon was not with his engines, but with the former ones. Tt was Mr. Smeaton’s rule, judging from fome experiments made before him on fome of Mr. Watt’s early engines, to eftimate Mr. Watt’s engine at one-half the confumption of fuel as his own for the fame work, in large engines, or a ftill greater proportion in {mall engines, becaufe the waite of team is greater, and he reckoned his own at only one-half of the common engines, as he found them; therefore, Mr. Watt’s will be four times as great in effe&t as the common engines. As early as 1778, when Mr. Watt firft eftablifhed his engine, we find his propofals, deduced from experiment, were to raife 500,000 cubic feet of water one foot high with one cwt. of coals. He afterwards adopted the de- nomination of the number of pounds of water which could he lifted one foot high by a bufhel of coals as the feale for engines; if we reduce this to the latter term, it will be 244 millions. Thus, 500,000 cubic feet x 62.5 lbs. the weight of a cubic foot of water, = 31,250,000 lbs. of water raifed by 112lbs. of coals. Then fay, as 112 lbs. : 31,250,000 lbs. :: 88 lbs. the weight of a bufhel of coals, to 24,553,571, the number of pounds of water which will be lifted one foot high with one bufhel of coals. Mr. Watt was at that time in expectation of making a great improvement by adopting his expanfive method. Mr. Smeaton, who was defirous of promoting Mr. Watt’s difcovery, made an experiment in 1778, on an engine on the Birmingham canal, for returning into the refervoir the water let down by the paflage of boats through the locks, — The working cylinder was 20 inches, and the pump alfo 20 inches, lifting 27 feet, at the rate of 11 ftrokes per minute, of 5 feet g inches length each. It worked for an hour with 65 lbs. of Wednefbury coals. When reduced, this experiment gives about 19 millions lifted one foot by a bufhel of coals. Thus, the area of the pump is (20 x 20= 400 x .7854 =) 314 fquare inches, x -434 lbs. = 136.27 lbs. weight for every foot in height, x 27 feet = 367g lbs. the total weight of the column. The motion per minute is 634 feet (11 ftrokes of 5 ft. 9 in. each), or 3795 ft. per hour, x 3679 lbs. = 13,961,805 lbs. raifed 1 foot high per hour. The coals confumed in the hour was 65 lbs. ; therefore fay, as 65 lbs. : 13,961,805 lbs. :: 88 lbs. : 18,902,136|bs. raifed one foot high with each buthel of coals of 88lbs.; load on the pilton 27 ft. of water, or (27 = -434 ==) 11.7 lbs. per fquare inch. ; When the engines were made to work with the expanfion, they were enabled to raife as much as 30,000,000 lbs., but this is when the engines are of the beft conftru€tion, and working under every advantage of the parts being tight and in the beft order ; for thefe cireumftances, when negleCted, aa they ufually are by the engine-keepers, make a moft ma- terial difference in the refult. In the great fcale of practical operations this nicety of management cannot be expected ; and accordingly, from re- ports on the engines now working on the mines in Corn- wall, which, with the exception of a few of Woolf’s engines, are all on Mr. Watt’s principle, and moft of them con- ftru@ted by Meflrs. Boulton and Watt, taking the average of nine engines, bad, good, and indifferent together, they were found in Auguft, 1811, to raife only 13,500,000 lbs. one foot high for each bufhel of coals which they confumed. But when it was known by the engine-keepers that their engines were under examination, they took fo much pains to improve the effeéts, that by gradual increafe, the en- gines, in 1815, lifted 21,500,000lbs. taking the average of 33 engines. This information we obtain from the monthly reports of the engines which are working for draining the mines; thefe were begun in the year 1811, by the agree- ment of a number of refpeCtable proprietors of the valu- able tin and copper mines in Cornwall, who refolved to have afcertained the real work which their refpective fteam- engines were performing, as it was fufpeéted fome of them were not doing duty adequate to the confumption of fuel ; and for the greater certainty of attaining their object, it was agreed that a counter fhould be attached to each engine, and all the engines be put under the fuperintendance of fome refpectable and competent engineer, who fhould re- pert monthly the following particulars in columns: viz. the name of the mine; the fize of the working cylinder ; whether working fingle or double ; the load per fquare inch upon the piftons length of the {troke in the cylinder; the number of pump-lifts; the depth in fathoms of each lift ; diameter of pumps in inches ; time during which they worked ; confumption of coals in bufhels during that time; number of ftrokes during the time; length of {troke in the pump; load upon the whole area of the pifton in pounds; pounds lifted STEAM-ENGINE, lifted one foot high by a bubhel of coals; number of ftrokes per minute ; and laltly, a column for names of en- gineers and remarks. Mefirs. Thomas and John Lean were appointed to the neral {uperintendance, and fince that time they have pub- lihed monthly reports: from thefe we find the following are the three belt engines working in 1816. rift. Stray Park ; a 63-inch cylinder, 7 ft. gin. ftroke, fingle ating ; being one of the three engines on the vatt Delcoath mine. The preffure on each {quare inch of the pifton was glbs. Its performance in four different months was 31, oaks 28, and 284 million pounds of water lifted one foot by each buthel of coals. 2dly. Wheal Abraham mine; a fingle engine, 63-inch pa a working an 8 ft. 3 in. ftroke, under a preflure of 9.4 lbs. per {quare inch on the pifton. Its produce was 22, Sok: and 32 million pounds of water raifed a foot high with each buthel of coals. Another month, when the fame engine was working with 7.glbs. on each {quare inch of the pifton, its produce was 28,318,860 lbs. gdly. Oatfield new engine ; a 70-inch fingle cylinder, 8 ft. Gin. ftroke, 9.9 lbs. preflure. The effect in different months was 224, 264, 29, and 29 million pounds of water raifed one foot high by each bufhel of coals. The editor of the Philofophical Magazine has drawn out from thefe reports the average performance of all the en- gines, as we have mentioned, and the whole of them, for every month up to the end of 1815, will be found in the 46th and 47th vols. of that ufeful work ; as alfo reports upon Woolf’s engine, of which we fhall {peak in another place. The original reports of Meffrs. T. and J. Lean contain information highly interefting to the praCtical engineer. In calculating the dimenfions of an engine on Mr. Watt’s principle to perform any given tafk, the engineer has lefs ‘difficulty than in Newcomen’s engine, becaufe the preflure on the pifton can be fo much varied. It is advifable, in general, to take 10 lbs. preffure per {quare inch on the pifton for the load; and then, in working the engine, if it be- comes neceflary, it can be diminifhed to glbs. or even 7 Ibs. or increafed to 15 lbs. which is a great latitude for future contingencies. We have before given the great wafte of fteam by con- denfation, on entering into the cold cylinder of the atmo- {pheric engine, which is nearly as great as that which ulti- mately produces its action; it therefore takes double the fupply of fuel which is requifite, if the waite could be avoided. In the improved engine of Mr. Watt, about 14 of the quantity of the fteam which is neceflary to fill the cylinder muft be furnifhed at each ftroke; and it is probable that a confiderable portion of this wafte is from the leakage of the pifton, as well as from condenfation. Mr. Hornblower’s Double Cylinder Steam-Engine. — The intention of this improvement was to obtain a greater power by a complicated force of the fteam, than was fuppofed could be done by its aétion in the fimple way. Weare not to confider this engine as being on a different principle from Mr. Watt’s, but as applying his prin- ciples of condenfation and expanfion in a different manner from. what Mr. Watt does. Mr. Hornblower obtained a patent in 1781, for a machine or engine for raifing water by means of fire, and the {pecification of the patent was as follows : _ Firitt: I ufe two veffels, in which the fteam is to a@, and which in other engines are called cylinders. Secondly : Vou. XXXIV. I employ the fteam after it has ated in the firft veffel to operate a fecond time in the other, by permitting it to ex- pand itfelf, which I do by conneéting the veflels together, and forming proper channels and apertures, whereby the fteam fhall occafionally go in and out of the faid veffels. Thirdly : I condenfe the fteam, by caufing it to pafs in con- tact with metalline furfaces, while water is applied to the oppofite fide. Fourthly: To difcharge the engine of the water ufed to condenfe the fteam, I fufpend a column of water in a tube or veffel conftruéted for that purpofe, on the principles of the barometer, the upper end having open communicaticn with the {fteam-veffels, and the lower end being immerfed ina veflel of water. Fifthly: To difcharge the air which enters the {team-veffels with the condenfin water or otherwife, I introduce it into a feparate vellel whence it is protruded by the admiffion of fteam. Sixthly: That the condenfed vapour fhall not remain in the fteam- veffel in which the fteam is condenfed, I colleé& it into another veffel, which has open communication with the lteam-veilels, and the water in the mine, refervoir, or river. « Laftly, in cafes where the atmofphere is to be employed to a& on the pilton, I ufe a pilton fo conftruéted as to admit {team round its periphery, and in contaét with the fides of the fteam-veffel, thereby to prevent the external air from pafling in between the pilton and the fides of the fteam-veilel.”’ The following is a defcription of this engine by the in- ventor, as it was publifhed in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Let A and B (Plate V. fig. 1.) reprefent two cylinders, of which A is the largeft ; a pifton moves in each, having their rods, C and D, moving through collars at E and F. Thefe cylinders may be fupplied with {team from the boiler by means of the {quare pipe G, which has.a flanch to conneét it with the reft of the fteam-pipe. This {quare part is re- prefented as branching off to both cylinders; ¢ and d are two cocks, which have handles and tumblers as ufual, worked by the plug-beam W. On the fore-fide of the cylinders (that is the fide next the eye). is reprefented an- other communicating pipe, whofe feétion is alfo fquare, or reCtangular, having alfo two cocks a, 4. The pipe Y, im- mediately under the cock 4, eftablifhes a communication between the upper and lower parts of the {mall cylinder B, by opening the cock 4. There isa fimilar pipe on the other fide of the cylinder A, immediately under the cock d. When the cocks ¢ and a are open, and the cocks 4 and d are fhut, the {team from the boiler has free admiflion into the upper part of the {mall cylinder B, and the fteam from the lower part of B has free admiflion into the upper part of the great cylinder A; but the upper part of each cylinder has no communication with its lower part. From the bottom of the great cylinder proceeds the educ- tion-pipe K, having a valve at its opening into the cylinder; it then bends downward, and is connected with the conical condenfer L. The condenfer is fixed ona hollow. box M, on which ftand the pumps N and O, for extracting: the air and water, which la{t runs along the trough T, into a ciftern U, from which it is raifed by the pump V, for re- cruiting the boiler, being already nearly boiling hot. Im- mediately under the condenfer there is a {pigot-valve, at S, over which is a {mall jet-pipe, reaching to the bend of the eduction-pipe K. The whole of the condenfing apparatus is contained in a ciftern, R, of cold water ; a {mall pipe, P, comes from the fide of the condenfer, and terminates on the bottom of the trough T, aud is there covered, with a valve, Q, which is kept tight by the water that is always runaing over it. M Laltly, STEAM-ENGINE. Laitly, the pump-rods, X, caufe the outer end of the beam to preponderate, fo that the’quiefcent pofition of the beam is that reprefented in the figure, the piltons being at the top of the cylinders. Suppofe all the cocks open, and fteam coming in co- pioufly from the boiler, and no condenfation going on in L, the fteam muft drive out all the air, and at laft follow it through the valve Q. Now fhut the cocks 4 and d, and open the valve, S, of the condenfer ; the cendenfation will immediately commence, and draw off the fteam from the lower part of the great cylinder. There is now no preffure on the under fide of the pilton of the great cylinder A, and it immediately defcends. ‘The communication, Y, between the lower part of the {mall cylinder B, and the upper part of the great cylinder A, being open, the fteam will go from the lower part of B, into the fpace left by the defcent of the pifton of A. It muft, therefore, expand, and its elafti- city muft diminifh, and will no longer balance the preffure of the fteam coming from the boiler, and prefling above the pifton of B. - This pifton, therefore, if not withheld by the beam, would defcend till it came in equilibrio, from having fteam of equal denfity above and below it. But it cannot defcend fo fat ; for the cylinder A is larger than B, and the arch of the beam, at which the great pifton is fufpended, is no longer than the arm which fupports the pifton of B ; therefore, when the pifton of B has defcended as far as the beam will permit it, the fteam between the two piftons occupies a larger {pace than it did when both piftons were at the top of their cylinders, and its denfity diminifhes as its bulk in- creafes. ‘The fteam beneath the {mall pifton is, therefore, not a balance for the fteam on the upper fide of the fame, and the pifton B will a@ to deprefs the beam with all the difference of thefe preflures. The flighteft view of the fubje&t mult fhew the reader, that as the piftons defcend, the fteam that is between them will grow continually rarer and lefs elaftic, and that both piftons will draw the beam downwards. Suppofe now, that each one had reached the bottom of its cylinder, fhut the cock a, and the edution-vaive at the bottom of A, and open the cocks 4 and d, The communication being now eftablifhed between the upper and lower part of each cy- linder, their piftons will be preffed equally on the upper and lower furfaces; in this fituation nothing, therefore, hinders the counter-weight from raifing the piftons to the top. Suppofe them arrived at the top: the cylinder B is at this time filled with fteam of the ordinary denfity ; and the cylin- der A with an equal abfolute quantity of fteam, but expanded into a larger {pace. Shut the cocks 4 and d, and open the cock a, and the edu@ion-valve at the bottom of A ; the condenfation will again operate, and caufe the piftons to defcend; and thus the operation may be repeated as Jong as {team is fupplied; and once full of the cylinder B, of ordinary fteam, is expended during each working ftroke. The cocks of this engine are compofed of two flat circular plates, ground very true to each other, and one of them turns round on a pin through their centres : each is pierced with three feétorial apertures, exa€tly correfponding with each other, and occupying a little lefs than one-half of their furfaces. By turning the moveable plate fo that the aper- tures coincide, a large paflage is opened for the fteam ; and by turning it fo that the folid part of the one covers the aperture of the other, the cock isfhut. Such regulators are now very common in the caft-iron ftoves for warming rooms, Mr. Hornblower’s contrivance for making the collars for the pifton-rods air-tight, is thus; the collar is in fat two, placed at a {mall diftance from each other ; and a {mall pipe, branching off from the fteam-pipe, communicates with the {pace between the collars. This fteam being a little ftronger than the preflure of the atmofphere, effectually prevents the air from penetrating through the upper collar ; and though a little fteam fhould get through the lower collar into t cylinder A, it can do no harm. The manner of making this ftufling-box is as follows: on the top of the cylinder is a box to contain fomething foft, yet pretty clofe, to em- brace the pifton-rod in its motion up and down; and this is ufually a fort of plaited rope of white yarn, nicely laid in, and rammed down gently, occupying about a third of its depth; upon that is placed a fort of tripod, having a flat ring of brafs for its upper, and another for its lower part ; and thefe rings are in breadth equal to the fpace between the pifton-rod and the fide of the box. This compound ring being put on over the end of the pifton-rod, another quantity of this rope is to be put upon it, and gently rammed as be- fore ; then there is a hollow {pace left between thefe two pack- ings, and that {pace is to be fupplied with ttrong fteam from the boiler. Thus is the packing about the pilton-rod kept in {uch a ftate as to prevent the air from entering the cylinder ao at any time there may be a partial vacuum above the pifton. Mr. Hornblower’s defcription of this engine was follow- ed by a mathematical invettigation of the principles of its aétion, by the ingenious profeflor Robifon, which demon- itrates that it is the fame thing in effect as Mr. Watt’s ex- panfion-engine ; but though this is true, there is a confi- derable difference in the fteps by which the effe& is attained, which gives an important advantage when it is reduced to practice. We fhall give an inveitigation in a moré popular form, ufing only common arithmetic. Mr. Hornblower aflumed, that the power or preflure of fteam is inverfely as the {pace into which the fteam is expanded: this is the cafe with air, and for the prefent we will grant it to be fo with fteam, and reafon from the fame data as the ingenious in- ventor gives us, To explain clearly what paffesin the two cylinders, we mutt deviate from the precife form of the engine, and diveft ourfelves of one complication of ideas, by reducing both cy- linders to the fame ftroke ; therefore, fuppofe the engine to be made like fig. 2, which reprefents the two cylinders placed one upon the other, the lower one being double the capacity of the upper one, and both piltons being attached to the fame rod, which may be applied to the end of the beam, fo that the defcent of the piftons muft draw up the load at the oppofite end of the beam. Then, if we fuppofe the {mall pilton to be 10 inches in diameter, the great pifton muft be i4.14 inches; and to avoid all difficulties of the ratio of the expanfion, and the preflure of tteam, we will fuppofe the engine to be worked by the preflure of atmofpheric air inftead of fteam ; and for the convenience of round numbers in our calculation, we will confider the preflure at only 10 lbs. per circular inch on the furface of the pitton. ; The area of the fmall pifton will be 100 circular inches, and being aflumed to move without friGion, the preflure upon it will be 10 x 100 = rocolbs. The area of the great pifton is twice as much, or 200 circular inches, and the preflure 2000 lbs. Suppofe both piftons to be at the top of their refpeCtive cylinders; let the atmofpheric air be admitted to prefs freely upon the upper furface of the fmall pifton; and fup- as pofe STEAM-ENGINE. pofe the {pace between the two piftons filled with air of the fame denfity, while there is a perfeét vacuum made in the lower part of the great cylinder, beneath its pifton. Under thefe circumftances, the two piltons will begin to defcend with fomething lefs than 2000 Ibs. of load upon the outer end of the beam, becaufe there are 2000 lbs. of preffure on the great pifton by the air contained in the {pace between the two piltons, bearing on the 200 inches of furface with a weight of 10 lbs. fer inch ; and beneath this pifton there is nothing to counteract the preflure. At the fame time, the {mall pitton, having air of equal denfity above and below it, This force would balance a load of 2000 !bs.; but fuppofe we diminifh the load to 1900 Ibs., then the piftons will im- mediately begin to defcend; but they will foon ftop, be- caufe the air between the two piftons muft expand itfelf, to fill the increafing {pace occafioned by the equal defcent of both piftons"in the cylinders, one of which is twice the area of the other ; and as the air becomes rarer, its preflure on the great pifton mutt diminifh. Now as this fame diminu- tion occafions the {mall pifton to have a power of defcent, we will firft confider the piltons feparately, and then con- jointly, in their power of defcent, with which they draw is in equilibrio. Defcending Power of the Great Pifton. Lbs. 2000 At firft the power will be = In confequence of the preffure of 10 Ibs. per circular inch upon its upper fur- face, and no preffure beneath. At one-fourth of the defcent, the power will have diminifhed, by regular decrements, to Becaufe the air between the two piftons muft occupy three-fourths of the - fmall cylinder, and one-fourth of the great cylinder, which is a fpace equal to one and one-fourth of the ori- ginal fpace which it filled; there- fore the fpaces will be as five to four ; and if the denfity of air is as the inverfe proportion of the fpace which it occupies, the preffure on the great pifton muft be as four to five, or iths of 2000 = 1600. At one-half of the defcent, the power will have diminifhed to Becaufe at this pofition the air be- tween the piftons occupies one-half of the fmall cylinder and one-half of the great one, which is a fpace equal to one and one-half of the fpace it filled originally. The fpaces will there- fore be as fix to four, and the pref- fare on the great pifton as four to fix, or 2ds of 2000 = 13333, At three-fourths of the defcent, the power willbe only = - Becaufe the air muft now aceupy one- fourth of the fmall cylinder, and three-fourths of the large cylinder, which is a {pace equel to one and three-fourths of the original fpace. Thus the {paces will he as feven to four, and the preffure on the great pifton ths of 2000 = 11425, At the bottom of the cylinder, the power will be - Becaufe the air muft occupy the whole of the large cylinder, a {pace equal to twice the fmall cyliuder which it at firft filled. The preffure will therefore be 1 of 2000. Sum of the powers exerted PY 7076 _ the great pifton in its defcent 1600 13335 11424 down the beam. Defcending Power of the Small Pifton. At firft the power will be = Becaufe the pifton is in equilibrio, having 1000lbs. preffing upwards, and 1000 lbs. downwards. At one-fourth, the power will be Becaufe the equilibrium does not con- tinue, and at one-fourth of the defcent the preflure beneath the fmall pifton is reduced by the expanfion of the air be- tween the two piftons to four-fifths of 1000 = 800|bs., while the preflure above the pifton continues to be 1000. The power is, therefore, 1000 — 800 = 200. At one-half of the defcent, the power will have increafed to Becaufe the preffure beneath is dimi- nifhed by the increafed rarity of the air to 2ds of 1000 = 6662, while the downward preffure continues to be 1000. The power is therefore 1000 — 6662 = 3311. At three-fourths of the defcent, the power willbe — - t Becaufe the preffure beneath is reduced by the rarity of the air to 4ths of 1000 = 5713; therefore the power is 1000 — 5713 = 4281. At the bottom, the power will be Becaufe the air beneath the pifton is re- duced to one-half of its preffure, or 500, which deduéted from 1000, leaves 500. Combined Power of both Piftons. Lbs. Lbs. o || At firlt - 2000 200 | Atone-fourth - 1800 3333 | At one-half - 16662 | 4282 | Atthree-fourths - Mf 500 Atthe bottom . 1500 Sum of the powers of the ie 3 : pitton - 461 Sum of the com- 9548 bined powers M2 Now STEAM-ENGINE. Now let us confider how Mr. Watt’s principle of expan- fion would operate in the fame circumitances ; that is, in a cylinder of 14.14 inches diameter ; which is to be fupplied with air of 1olbs. per sine circular inch, until it has completed one-half of its defcent, and leaving the remainder of the defcent to be accomplifhed by the expanfion of the air already contained in the upper half of the cylinder. Lbs. At the beginning, the power of defcent will be 2000 At one-fourth, the power will {till be “ 2000 At one-half, the power will be F + 2000 At three-fourths of the defcent, the power will be 1 diminifhed to - Z S 3 t 13335 Becaufe the air muft occupy one-fourth of the length of thecylinder, in addition to that half of the cylinder which it occupied before the expanfion began ; therefore the {pace is one and a half times the former, or as three to two, and the preflure will be two-thirds of 2000. At the bottom the preflure willbe — - = 1900 Becaufe the air is expanded to occupy twice the {pace it filled before. 8333+ The fum total is very nearly the fame as the former, but both are greater than they fhould be, from the imperfect manner in which we have been obliged to make our calcu- lation, fo as to exprefs it in common arithmetic, without having recourfe to fluxions, which is the only method of treating quantities that are conttantly increafing or de- creafing by any given law. The fource of the inaccuracy is eafily explained: at firft we fet out with the preflure at 2000 Ibs. in Mr. Horn- blower’s engine, and did not take into the account that it de- creafes at all, until the pifton has defcended to one-fourth, but reafoned as though it diminithed all at once at that place ; whereas it began to diminifh from the very firft itarting. Here then we have taken afmall quantity too much, In the fame manner, our procefs takes no notice of the diminution which happens between one-fourth and one-half of the de- {cent, or between the other points at which we have chofen to examine its the refult is, as if the diminution took place fuddenly at each of thofe points. The remedy for this would have been to have taken the account at a greater num- ber of places, as it is by fluxions alone that we can take an infinite number, fo as to obtain a true refult. Now in the fecond calculation of Mr. Watt’s expanfion-engine, we have taken a {till lefs number of {teps for the confideration of the expanfion, becaufe, although there are four {teps in the procefs, two of them are before the expanfion begins. This is the reafon of the apparent difference ; for in reality there is none in the {um total of the varying powers exerted through the whole ftroke, as will appear to any perfon who willtake the trouble to read profeffor Robifon’s invettigation. But if we confider the difference of the manner in which the whole power is expended during the ftroke, we fhall fee great reafon to prefer Mr. Hornblower’s method, from the much greater uniformity of the aétion; it begins at 2000, and ends at 1500; whillft Mr. Watt’s begins at 2000, andends at 1000: hence the neceflity of thofe ingenious contrivances for equalizing the aétion in Mr. Watt’s patent of 1782. Mr. Hornblewer’s is not uniform, but approaches uniformity more nearly, fo that he could have carried the effect of the expanfive principle much farther, in employing itronger fteam, than we believe he ever propofed to do. We have been thus full upon this fubje&t, becaufe the gaining-more power by the expanfion of air or fteam ating in double cylinders, has been a favourite idea with many, and there are no lefs than five different patents for it, but feveral of thefe have been upon miftaken notions ; neither Mr. Watt’s nor Mr. Hornblower’s can have any advantage from fhutting off the air, or from a double cylinder, when air is ufed to prefs the pifton ; nor could they derive any ad- vantage from the expanfion of fteam in their engines, if the preflure of it was inverfely as the {pace it occupies. The advantage of the expanfive principle arifes wholly from a peculiar property of fteam, by which, when fuffered to expand itfelf to fill a greater {pace, it decreafes in pref- fure or elaftic force by a certain law, which is not fully laid down; that is, the relation between its expanfive force and the {pace which it occupies is not clearly decided : but Mr. Woolf has found that, by applying thefe properties in their fulleft extent to the double cylinder engine, he can make moft important improvements in the effe€ts which can be obtained from any given quantity of fuel. Steam is a fluid fo differ- ent from air, as to have no one property in common with it, except elatticity. This elafticity is wholly derived from the quantity of heat which it contains, and jits force in- creafes and diminifhes with the quantity of heat ; but by what law it increafes or diminifhes we are uncertain, becaufe we have no meafure of the a€tuai quantity of heat which is contained in fteam of any given elaftic force. All we know with certainty is what is {tated in our table of expanfion, viz. that water, being converted into fteam, and confined in a clofe veflel, when heated until the thermometer indicates _ a certain temperature, will have a certain preflure or elaftic force. But here we mutt obferve, that the thermometer in- dicates only the intenfity of the heat, without affording a di- rect meafure of its quantity. When fteam is fuffered to expand itfelf into any given {pace, the quantity of rarefied water which will be found to be contained in any given bulk of fteam, in its expanded ftate, muft be undoubt- edly proportioned to the quantity of water contained in the fame bulk of the tteam, before the expanfion took place, in the inverfe ratio of the fpace which it originally occupied, and that fpace which it fills when expanded ; but — we cannot fay that this is the cafe with heat; and it is the quantity of heat alone which determines the ‘elaftic force. We believe that in pra€tice Mr. Hornblower was not able to obtain any greater efle& from the application of the ex- panfive ation in two cylinders, than Mr. Watt did in one cylinder. In 1791-2, he erefted an engine in Corn- wall, at Tin-Croft mine, of which the large cylinder was 27 inches diameter, and worked with a ftroke of eight feet long, and the {mall cylinder 21 inches diameter, working with a fix-feet {troke. The only account we have been able to obtain of the performance of this engine, 1s from a pam- phlet publifhed by Thomas Wilfon, an agent of Mefirs. Boulton and Watt, profefledly with a view to prevent the introdu€tion of Mr. Hornblower’s engines into that coun- try, in which he makes it appear, that it raifed only — 14,222,120 lbs. of water one foot high with each buthel of coals. In Mr. Hornblower’s own account of his engine, in Gregory’s Mechanics, he informs us, that “ an engine was erected in the vicinity of Bath, fome years fince, on this principle, and under very difadvantageous circumftances. The engine had its cylinders 19 inches and 24 inches dia- meter, with lengths of ftroke in each fuitable to the oc- cafion: viz. 6 feet and 8 feet refpedtively. denfing apparatus was very bad, through a fear of in- fringement on Mr. Watt’s patent ; and the greateft at ° The con- STEAM-ENGINE. of vacuum which could be obtained, was no more than 27 inches of mercury. The engine worked four lifts of pumps to the depth of 576 feet, 4500 lbs. 14 {trokes in a minute, 6 feet each, with a cylinder 6 feet long, and 19 inches diameter, with a great deal of inertia and friction in the rods and buckets; fome of the latter of which were not more than 34 inches diameter : and this it did, under all thefe difadvantageous circumftances, with 7olbs. of coal (light coal) per hour.” To reduce this to the {tandard of one foot high, we muft put the load 450olbs. x 6-feet ftroke = 27,000 lbs. which the engine raifed one foot high at every ftroke ; 27,000 lbs. x 14 ltrokes per minute = 378,000lbs. raifed one foot high each minute; 378,000lbs. x 60 = 22,680,000lbs. raifed one foot high ger hour, or with 7olbs. of coals. As the coals are ftated to be light, we will take them at only 84 lbs. per bufhel, inftead of 88lbs., as Mr. Smeaton did, and fay as 7olbs. : 22,680,000lbs. :: 84lbs. : 27,216,000lbs. of water raifed one foot high with a bufhel of coals, which is a very good performance, but not greater than Mr. Watt’s. In this engine, Mr. Hornblower fays that two remarkable circumitances prefented themfelves to fhew the advantages of this application of the principle: the one was, that the man who attended the engine would fometimes detach the fmaller cylinder from the beam, and work only with the large one, and then the boiler would {carcely raife {team enough to keep the engine going; but no fooner was the {mall cylinder-rod attached to the beam, than the engine refumed its wonted aCtivity, and the fteam would blow up the fafety-valve. The next circumftance is, that when the detent, which kept the exhautting-valve fhut, happened to mifs its action, the pifton would be checked, as it were, not being per- mitted to rife through the whole of the returning {troke ; and it would, as by an inftruétive nature, come down again and again, until the detent performed its office, which is a practical argument for the power of the engine at the ter- mination of its ftroke. In 1792, Mr. Hornblower made application to parlia- ment for an extenfion of the term of his patent, but it was not granted: and he was profecuted by Meflrs. Boulton and Watt for infringement on their patent in ufing the condenfer and air-pump. We believe none of thefe en- gines have been ereéted fince the expiration of Mr. Watt’s patent in 1800, until Mr. Woolf took up the fubject of double-cylinder engines. Mr. Woolf’s Double-Cylinder Expanfion-Engine.—In 1804. Mr. Arthur Woolf had a patent for improvements in fteam- engines. ‘The {pecification of his invention itates, that he has afcertained by actual experiment, and reduced to prac- tice, the following particulars ref{pecting the expanfibility of fteam. That, in practice it is found that fteam, a&- ing with the expanfive force of four pounds preflure per {quare inch oe a fafety-valve expofed to the atmofphere, is capable of expanding itfelf to four times the volume it then occupies, and flill to be equal to the pretlure of the atmofphere: that, in like manner, team of the force of five pounds the fquare inch, can expand itfelf to five times its volume ; and that mafles or quantities of fteam of the like expanfive force of fix, feven, eight, nine, or ten pounds preflure per {quare inch, can expand to fix, feven, eight, nine, or ten times their volume, and ftill be refpec- tively equal to the atmofphere, or capable of producing a -fufficient ation againft the pilton of a fteam-engine, to caufe the fame to rife in the atmofpheric engine of New- comen with a counterpoife, or to be carried into the vacu- ous part of the cylinder of the improved engine, firft brought into effect by Mr. Watt: that this ratio is pro- greflive, and nearly, if not entirely, uniform ; fo that fteam prefling with the expanfive force of 20, 30, 40, or 50 pounds the {quare inch again{ft a common fafety-valve, will expand itfelf to 20, 30, 40, or 50 times its volume; and that, generally, as to all the intermediate or higher degrees of elaftic force, the number of times which fteam of any tem- perature and force can expand itfelf, is nearly the fame aa the number of pounds it is able to fuftain on a {quare inch expofed to the common atmofpheric counter-preflure ; pro- vided always, that the f{pace, place, or veflel, in which it is allowed to expand itfelf, be kept at the fame tempera- ture as that of the fteam, before it is allowed room to expand, Refpecting the different degrees of temperature required to bring fteam to, and maintain it at, different expanfive forces above the weight of the atmofphere, Mr. Woolf {tates that he has found by aCtual experiment, fetting out from the boiling point of water, or 212° of Fahrenheit, at which degree {team of water is only equal to the preflure of the atmofphere ; that, in order to give an increafed elattic force equal to five pounds on each fquare inch, the tem- perature mutt be raifed to about 2272°, when it will have ac- quired a power to expand itfelf to five times its volume, and {till be equal to the atmofphere, and capable of being applied ‘as fuch in the working of fteam-engines, according to his invention. Various other preflures, temperatures, and ex- panfive forces of {team, are fhewn in the following table. Woolf’s Table of the relative Preflures per {quare Inch: the Temperature and Expanfibility of Steam at Degrees of Heat above the boiling Point of Water, beginning with the Temperature of Steam of an elaftic Force equal to five Pounds per {quare Inch ; and extending to Steam able to fuftain forty Pounds on the fquare Inch. Pounds per Degrees fquare Inch. of Heat. 5 2277 | 5 6 2304 6 oe Steam of an elaftic 4 235% and, at thefe refpec- times its volume, and farce ap ea - an hed eb _ aod | tive degrees of pe continue equal in over the preflure o 15 pane @ temperature axl heat, fteam can : elafticity to the the atmofphere up- wr ! dccailivelatené aeoi | expand itfelf to 33 preflure of the at- on a fafety-valve 25 | q sea about 25 mo{phere. 3° 273 30 35 278 35 L 40 J L 282 J L 40 And STEAM-ENGINE. And fo in like manner, by {mall additions of temperature, an expanfive power may be given to {team to enable it to expand to 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, or more times its volume, without any limitation but what is impofed by the frangible nature of every material of which boilers and other parts of fteam-engines can be made. And prudence diétates, that the expanfive force fhould never be carried to the utmoft which the materials can bear, but rather be kept confiderably within that limit. Having thus explained the nature of his difcovery, Mr. Woolf proceeds to give a defcription of his improvements grounded thereon. If the engine is conftruéted originally with the intention of adopting thefe improvements, it ought to have two fleam- cylinders of different dimenfions, and proportioned to each other, according to the temperature, or the expanfive force determined to be communicated to the fteam made ufe of in working the engine ; for the f{maller tteam-veffel or cy- linder mutt be a guide for the larger. For example; if fteam of forty pounds the {quare inch is fixed on, then the {maller cylinder fhould be at leaft one-fortieth part the con- tents of the larger one. Each cylinder fhould be furnifhed with a pilton, and the {maller cylinder fhould have a com- munication, both at its top and bottom, (top and bottom being here employed merely as relative terms, for the cylin- ders may be worked in a horizontal, or any other required pofiticn, as well as vertical,) with the boiler which fup- plies the fteam; and the communications, by means of cocks or valves of any conftruction adapted to the ufe, are to be alternately opened and fhut during the working of the engine. The top of the {mall cylinder fhould have a com- munication with the bottom of the larger cylinder, and the bottom of the fmaller one with the top of the larger, with proper means to open and fhut thefe alternately by cocks, valyes, or any other well-known contrivance. And both the top and bottom of the larger cylinder fhould, while the engine is at work, communicate alternately with a condenfing veflel, into which a jet of water is admitted to haften the condenfation ; or the condenfing vellel may be cooled by any other means caleulated to produce that effect. Things being thus arranged, when the engine is fet to work, {team of a high temperature is admitted from the boiler to act by its elaftic force on one fide of the fmaller pifton, while the {team which had lat moved it has a communication with the larger fteam-veflel or cylinder, where it follows the larger pifton, now moving towards that end of its cylinder which is open to the condenfing veffel. Let both piltons end their ftroke at one time, and let us now fuppofe them both at the top of their refpective cylinders, ready to de- fcend; then the {team of forty pounds the fquare inch, en- tering above the fmaller pifton, will carry it downwards ; while the fteam below it, inftead of being allowed to efcape into the atmofphere, or applied to any other purpofe, will pafs into the larger cylinder above its pifton, which will make its downward {troke at the fame time that the pifton of the {maller cylinder is doing the fame thing ; and while this goes on, the fteam which laft filled the larger cylinder in the up- ward ftroke of the engine will be pafling into the condenfer, to be condenfed during the downward ftroke. When the piftons in the fmaller and larger cylinder have thus been made to defcend to the bottom of their refpeétive cylinders, then the fteam from the boiler is to be fhut off from the top, and admitted to the bottom of the {maller cylinder. The communication between the bottom of the {maller and the top of the larger cylinder is alfo to be cut off ; and the com- munication is to be opened between the top of the {maller and the bottom of the larger cylinder. The communication between the bottom of the larger cylinder and the condenfer is to be cut off, and the fteam which, in the downward ttroke of the engine, filled the upper part of the larger cylinder, fuffered to flow off to the condenfer. The engine will then make its upward ftroke from the preflure of the fteam in the top of the {mall cylinder, aéting beneath the pifton of the great cylinder, and fo on alternately, admitting the fteam to the different fides of the {maller pifton, while the fteam laft admitted into the fmaller cylinder pafles alternately to the different fides of the larger pilton in the larger cylinders ; the top and bottom of which are at the fame time made to communicate alternately with the condenfer. In an engine working in the manner juft defcribed, while the fteam is admitted on one fide of the pifton into the {maller cylinder, the fteam on the other fide has room made for its admiffion into the larger cylinder, on one fide of its pilton, by the condenfation taking place on the other fide of the large pifton which is open to the condenfer; and that watte of {team which takes place in engines worked only by the expanfive force of {team, from fteam paffing the pilton, is prevented ; for all {team that pafles the pilton in the {maller cylinder is received into the larger. In fuch an engine, where it may be more convenient for any particular purpofe, the arrangement may be altered, and the top of the {maller made to communicate with the top of the larger cylinder; in which cafe the only difference will be, that when the pifton in the fmaller cylinder defcends, that in the larger will afcend, and vice verfé ; which, on fome occafions, may be more convenient than to have the two piftons moving in the fame direétion. This engine is exa@tly the {ame in its a€tion as Mr. Horn- blower’s, which we have before defcribed. The novelty con- fifts in the application of Iteam of a high preflure thereto, and in proportioning the capacities of the two cylinders to the ex- panfibility of the tteam, according to his table. But Mr. W. goes on to ftate, that effectual means muft be ufed to keep up the requifite temperature in all parts of the apparatus into which the fteam 1s admitted, and in which it is not in- tended to be condenfed ; and here it may be proper to ftate, that inftead of the ufual means of accomplifhing this, by inclofing them in the boiler, or in a fteam-cafe communi- cating with the boiler, a feparate fire may with advantage be made under the fteam-cafe containing the cylinders, which in that event will become a fecond boiler, and mutt be furnifhed with a fafety-valve, to regulate the temperature. By means of the laft-mentioned arrangement, the fteam from the {maller cylinder or {team-meafurer may be admitted into the larger cylinder, when kept at a higher temperature than the {team in the {maller cylinder, by which its power to ex- pand itfelf may be increafed ; and, on the contrary, by keeping the larger cylinder at a lower temperature than the {maller, its expanfibility will be leflened, which, on particular occafions, and for particular purpofes, may be defirable. In every cafe, care muft be taken that the boiler, or cafe in which the cy- linder is inclofed, the ftteam-pipes, and generally all the parts expofed to the action of the expanfive force of the fteam, fhall have a ftrength proportioned to the high preflure to which they are to be expofed. It is not advifable that the proportion of the capacity of the {maller cylinder or tteam-meafurer, to the capacity of the larger or working cylinder, fhould in any cafe be {maller than the proportion of the expanfion of the fteam which is to be ufed in it, as we have ftated; yet in the making of it larger, confiderable latitude may be allowed ; for example, with fteam of forty pounds the {quare inch, a {mall cylinder or meafurer of one-twentieth, or even larger, initead ot one of fortieth the capacity of the larger or working eal ers et aes nnceeeineal STEAM-ENGINE. der, and fo with fkeam of any given ftrength. And in many cafes, it may be advifable that this fhould be the cafe, becaufe of the difficulty of preventing fome waite of fteam, or partial condenfation, which might leffen the rate of work- ing, if not allowed for in the fize of the {mall cylinder or fteam-meafurer. In all cafes when the engine is ready for working, what- ever may be the proportion that has been adopted, or in- tended to be worked with, it fhould have its power tried by altering the load on the valve that afcertains the force of the fteam, in order that the ftrength of fteam belt adapted for the engine may be afcertained, for it may turn out to be ad- vantageous, that the fteam fhould be employed in particular engines of an elaitic force, fomewhat over or under what was firlt intended. Mr. Woolf alfo ftates, that Mr. Watt’s engines may be improved by the application of his difcovery in making the boiler, and the fteam-cafe in which the working cylinder is in- clofed, much ftronger than ufual, and by altering the ftruc- ture and dimenfions of the valves for admitting fteam from the boiler into the cylinder in fuch a manner, that the fteam may be admitted very gradually by a progreflive enlarge- meut of the aperture, fo as at firft to wire-draw the fteam, and afterwards to admit it more freely. The reafon of this precaution is this, that {team of fuch elaftic force as Mr. Woolf propofes to employ, if admitted fuddenly into the cylinder, would ftrike the pifton with a force that would endanger the fafety and durability of the engine. The aperture allowed to the valve for admitting {team into the cylinder, or cylinders, fhould be regulated by the fol- lowing confideration. If the intention is, that the engine fhould work wholly, or almoft wholly, by condenfation, the fteam, in pafling into the cylinder, fhould be forced to wire- draw itfelf only fo much, that the pilton may perform the whole, or a great part of the ftroke, by the time that the intended quantity of fteam has been admitted into the cylinder. For example, when fteam of forty pounds on the {quare inch is ufed, fuch a quantity of it muft be allowed to enter as fhall be equal to one-fortieth of the capacity of the cylinder, and fo in proportion when fteam of any other force is employed ; and when the requifite quantity has been admitted, the {team is to be fhut off till the proper moment for admitting a frefh quantity. But if it is intended that advantage thall alfo be taken of the elaftic force of the fteam ating on one fide of the pilton, while condenfation goes on on the other fide, then the fteam muft be admitted more freely, but ftill with caution at firft, for the reafon already mentioned. This latter is the fame thing as Mr. Watt’s expanfion- engine ; but with the addition of gradually diminifhing the aperture of the fteam-valve as the pilton defcends, inftead of {topping it altogether at a certain portion of the defcent, by which means the ation of the engine is rendered more uniform. We think that, by regulating the defcent of the valve by an accurate movement, a very good effe& may be produced in this manner, without the complication of two cylinders or other parts; the only objection is, that if at any time the valve fhould be fully opened by accident, the preflure might fosiealy become fo great, from the ftrong fleam ating upon the full furface of the pifton, as to break the engine to pieces. In 1805, Mr. Woolf took out a fecond patent for further improvements, in which he propofes, as before, to apply fire to the cylinder itfelf, to heat the {team after it is thrown into the working cylinder ; and tltis was to be done by a fire being placed beneath the cafe containing the cylinder : the fpace between the cafe and the cylinder was to be filled with oil, wax, fufible metal, or mercury. He alfo pro~- pofes a method of preventing the paflage of any of the fteam from that fide of the pifton which is ated upon by the fteam, to the other fide, which is open to the con- denfer. In thofe fteam-engines which a& as double engines, he effeéts this by employing upon, or about the pifton, a column of mercury, or fluid metals, in an altitude equal to the preffure of the fteam. The efficacy of this arrange- ment will, he fays, appear obvious, from attending to what takes place in the working fuch a pifton. When the pifton is afcending, that is, when the fteam is ad- mitted below it, the {pace on its upper fide being open to the condenfer, the fteam, endeavouring to pafs up by the fide ef the pifton, is met, and effeétually prevented by the column of metal, equal or fuperior to it in pref- fure; and during the down {troke no fteam can poffibly pafs without firft forcing all the metal through. In working what is called a fingle engine, a lefs confider- able altitude of metal is required, becaufe the fteam always aéts on the upper fide of the pifton ; and in this cafe, oil or wax, or fat of animals, or fimilar fubftances in fufficient quan- tities, willanfwer the purpofe. But care mutt be taken, either in the double or fingle engine, when working with this pifton, that the outlet which conveys the fteam to the condenfer fhall be fo fituated, and of fuch a fize, that the fteam may pafs freely, without forcing before it, or carrying with it, any of the metal, or other fubftance employed, that may have pailed by the pifton: and at the fame time pro- viding another exit for the metal, or other fubftance col- leé&ted at the bottom of the cylinder to convey the fame into a refervoir kept at a proper heat, whence it is to be returned to the upper fide of the pifton by a {mall pump, worked by the engine, or by fome other contrivance. In order that the fluid metal ufed with the pifton may not be oxydated, fome oil or other fluid fubftance is always to be kept on its furface, to prevent its coming in contaé& with the fteam: and to prevent the neceflity of employing a large quantity of fluid metal, although the pifton muft be as thick as the depth of the column required, the diameter need be only a little lefs than the fteam-veflel, or working cylinder, excepting where the packing, or other fitting, is neceflary to be applied; fo gthat, in fa&, the column of fluid metal forms only a thin body round the pifton, We have feen an engine of an eight-horfe power ef this kind zt work, with a fluid metal on the piftons: it effec. tually prevented the leakage. But as it required to have the cylinders twice as long as ufual, in order to have fuf- ficient room for the long or thick piftons which it required, and as thefe piftons muft be of confiderable weight, the method is not at all applicable in pra&tice ; and, indeed, the increafe of the bulk of the moving parts is fuch as to coun- terbalance the advantage, which is confined to the faving of fteam by leakage: for the fri€tion muft be greater than in another engine, becaufe the pifton muft be packed as tight as ufual, to be able to fuftain a column of fluid metal, which muft be more than equal in preffure to that of the fteam; and when the {team prefles upon the pifton, the preflure “of the fluid metal to leak by the pifton muft be double that of the fteam: alfo, the friction of fo great a furface of fluid metal prefling againft the infide of the cylinder is very great. In 1810, Mr. Woolf had a third patent, the objet of which is to prevent the wafte of fteam, from leakage by the pilton. For this purpofe, he does not allow the fteam to come to the pifton at all, but caufes it to a& in a different veffel, and tranfmits the aétion thereof to the pifton by oil or fluid metal: thus, at the fide of the II cylinder, STEAM-ENGINE. cylinder, he places a feparate veffel, communicating with the lower part of the cylinder by a large pipe or paflage from the bottom of each; then fteam, being admitted into this veffel, will prefs upon the furface of the oil or fluid metal contained in it, and force the fame to pafs out of that veflel into the cylinder, where it will a& beneath the pifton to prefs the fame upwards; a vacuum being at the fame time made in the upper part of the cylinder, to give effec to the preffure. The /team is then made to prefs upon the upper furface of the pifton, which is always covered with a quantity of the fluid; and at the ‘fame time a vacuum is made in the feparate veflel, fo as to relieve the furface thereof from all preflure : in confequence, the pifton is made to defcend. It is evident that the pifton muft be packed fo tight as to fuffer none of the fluid to pafs by it; but this is eafy, in comparifon with the difficulty of making a pack- ing fufliciently tight to refift the paflage of fteam, parti- cularly when it is fo rare as the expanded {team which Mr. Woolf fometimes ufes in his engine. The feparate veflel of which we have {poken, is in fome cafes to be the jacket or {pace which furrounds the cylinder, which is then to be open at bottom. This contrivance is ingenious, but we think the neceffity of an additional cylinder is an objection which will prevent its adoption in large engines; and for {mall engines the ad- vantages are not fo great. Performance of Mr. Woolf’s Engines.—Since his firft_pa- tent, Mr. Woolf has erected feveral {mall engines, which performed well, and with an evident economy of fuel. But thefe engines being employed to turn mills, of which the operations do not afford fo exaét an eftimate of the power as the operation of pumping water, Mr. Woolf’s engines did not come to a direét and indifputable compari- fon with thofe on Mr. Watt?s principle, until 1815, when two large engines were fet to work in Cornwall, at Wheal Vor and Wheal Abraham mines, for pumping water; and thefe have fince been regularly reported in Mefirs. T. and J. Leans reports, of which we have before fpoken, and of which one of the objects was to afcertain the comparative merit of the double and fingle cylinder engines. The report for May, 1815, ftates the average perform- ance of thefe two engines at 49,980,882 lbs. lifted one foot high for each buthel of coals; and fince that time they have done more than 50,000,000 lbs. The engine at Wheal Vor has a great cylinder of 53 inches diameter, and 9-feet ftroke; and the {mall cylinder is about one-fifth of the contents of the great one. The engine works fix pumps, which, at every ftroke, raife a load of water of 37,982 lbs. weight 74 feet high, which is the length of the {troke in the pumps. This makes a pref- fure of 14.1 Ibs. per {quare inch on the furface of the great pifton, and it makes 7.6 ftrokes per minute. With refpe to its confumption of coals, it raifed, in March, 1816, 48,432,702 lbs. one foot high with each bufhel; April, 1816, 44,000,000 lbs. ; May, 1816, 49,500,000 lbs.; and in June, 1816, 43,000,000 lbs, From the fame reports we learn, that the engine at Wheal Abraham mine has a great cylinder of 45 inches diameter, working with a 7-feet ftroke, at the rate of 8.4 ftrokes per minute, under a load of 24,050 lbs., which it raifes 7 feet at each ftroke. Its performance during the above four months was 50,000,000 Ibs. ;_ 50,908,000 lbs. ; in May, 56,917,312 lbs., which, we believe, is the greatett performance ever made by a fleam-engine; and in June, 51,500,000 lbs. We have before given a fimilar account of Mr. Watt’s engines; but at the fame time we mult obferve, that the 9 variation in the performance of different fteam-engines, which are conftruéted upon the fame principle, and working under the fame advantages, is the fame as would be found in the produce of the labour of fo many different horfes, or other animals, when compared with their confumptiye food; for the effects of different fteam-engines will vary ae much from {mall differences in the proportions of their parts, as the ftrength of animals from the vigour of their conttitution: and, again, there will be as great differences in the performance of the fame engine, when in bad or good order, from all the parts being tight and well oiled, % ae to move with little friction, as there is in the labour of an animal, from his being in good or bad health, or exceffively fatigued; but, in all cafes, there will be a maximum which cannot be exceeded, and an average which we ought always expeét to attain. Plate V. fiz. 3. is a fketch to fhew the arrangement of the valves and cylinders of thefe two engines: A is the large cylinder, and B the little cylinder, each inclofed in its fteam- cafe. The fteam is admitted from the boiler into the fteam- cafe of the large cylinder A, by a communication at C ; and there is a communication between this fteam-cafe and that of the {mall cylinder ; fo that all the fteam for the fupply of the engine pafles through both of the {team-cafes, which therefore become part of the communication between the boiler and the little cylinder, into which the fteam is firft admitted. D furnifhes a communication for carrying back to the boiler any water which may be produced by conden- fation in the fteam-cafe, before the engine is heated to the proper temperature. E is the pipe from the fteam-cafe to fupply the engine; it has a regulating-valve. F is the valve-box of the {mall cylinder, the fpindle of the one valve working through that of the other; and the paffage for the {team from the cafe into the {mall cylinder is fituated between the two valves. G is the valve that opens the communication between the bottom of the fmall cylinder B, and the top of the large cylinder A, when the piftor thereof is to be prefled down. H is the valve that returns the fteam from above to below the large pifton, when the pifton is to afcend. And TI is the exhauftion-valve, to carry off the fteam to the condenfer. When the engine makes its down-ftroke, the upper valve at F is opened, and admits the {team from the cafe to prefs upon the {mall pilton, the valve G being opened at the fame time, which fuffers the fteam to pafs from the under fide of the {mall to the upper fide of the large pilton; and the valve I is opened to make a paflage from beneath the great pilton to the condenfer. ‘Thefe three upper valves, F, G, I, open at the fame inftant of time. When both piltons arrive at the bottom of their refpec- tive cylinders, thefe three valves are fhut all together, and the lower fteam-valve at F is opened, to return the fteam from above to below the {mall pitton; the valve H doing the fame to the large cylinder, and both piftons return in equilibrio by the counter-weight ; but the upper valve at F can be fhut off at any part of the ftroke, according to the load of the engine. Thofe who are converfant with {team-engines will perceive, from the paffing of the tteam, as above defcribed, from the upper to the lower fide of each of the piltons refpedtively, that the engines at Wheal Vor, and at Wheal Abraham, are at prefent working with a fingle ftroke. Were thefe engines working double, the fteam would, on the down-ftroke, be made to pafs, the fame as before defcribed, from the under fide of the fmall, to the upper fide of the large pifton, fteam .from, the boiler in the mean time coming in upon the fmall pifton, and the under fide of the large pilton being open to the condenfer ; STEAM-ENGINE. eondenfer; but on the up-ltroke, the action would be different from what we have defcribed, for the tteam would pafs from the top of the fmall cylinder to beneath the large pifton, while fteam would be admitted from the boiler under the {mall pifton, the top of the large cylinder being open to the condenfer. Mr. Woolf’s Boiler for raifing Steam of a high Preffure with Safety.—The boilers which Mr. Woolf employs in his en- gines are different from thofe of other engines which work with iteam of a low preflure, the water being contained in feveral cylindrical tubes of caft-iron, which are filled ‘ with water, and expofed to the flame nearly in an hori- zontal pofition. Mr. Woolf has a patent for this boiler, which the {peci- fication ftates to confift of two or more cylindrical veflels, properly. connected together, and fo difpofed, as to contti- tute a ftrong and fit receptacle for the water intended to be converted into {team of a temperature and under a preflure uncommonly high, and alfo to prefent an extenfive portion of convex furface to the current of flame and heated air from a fire ; likewife of other large cylindrical receptacles placed above the former cylinders, and properly conneéted with them, for the purpofe of containing fome water and the fteam. Thefe cylindrical veffels are fet in a furnace fo adapted to them, as to caufe the greater part of the furface of each of them, or as much of the furface as may be con- venient, to receive the dire&t action of the fire, or heated air or flame. Plate V. figs. 4 and 5, reprefents one of thefe boilers in its moft fimple form. It confifts of eight tubes, marked a, made of caft-iron, or any other fit metal, which are each conneéted with the larger cylinder A, placed above them, as is fhewn in the fide view, fig. 5, in which the fame letters refer to the fame parts as in fig. 4. In fig. 5. is alfo fhewn the manner in which the fire is made to aét. The fuel refts on the grate-bars at B, aud the flame and heated air, being reverberated from the part above the two firlt {maller cylinders, go under the third, over the fourth, under the fifth, over the fixth, under the feventh, and partly over and partly under the eighth {mall cylindric tube, all which tubes are full of water. The direGtion of the flame, until it reaches the laft-mentioned tube, is fhewn by the dotted curved lines and arrows. When it has reached that end of the furnace, it is carried by the flue, O, to the other fide of a wall, built beneath the main cylinder A, in the dire&tion of its length, and the flame then returns under the oppofite end of the feventh {maller cylinder over the fixth, under the fifth, over the fourth, under the third, over the fecond, and partly over and partly under the firft, when it pailes into the chimney. The wall before-mentioned, which divides the furnace longitudinally, anfwers the double pur- pofe of lengthening the courfe which the flame and heated air have to traverfe, giving off heat to the boiler in the paffage, and alfo of fecuring the flanges, or other joinings, employed to unite the {maller tubes to the main cylinder, from being injured by the fire. Theends of the {mall cylindric tubes reit on the brick-work which forms the fides of the furnace, and one end of each of them is furnifhed with a cover, fecured in its place by fcrews and a flanch, but which can be taken off at pleafure, to allow the tubes to be cleared, from time to’ time, from any incruftation or fedi- ment which may be depofited in them. ‘To any convenient part of the main cylinder, A, a tube is affixed, to convey the fteam to the fteam-engine. In working with fuch boilers, the water carried off by evapo- VoL. XXXIV. ration is replaced by water forced in by the ufual means of a high-preffure boiler, that is, a forcing-pump ; and the fteam generated is carried to the place intended by means of pipes connected with the upper part of the cylinder A. In the {pecification, means are pointed out for applying this plan to the boilers of fteam-engines already in ufe, by ranging a row of cylinders beneath the prefent boiler, and connecting them with each other, and with the boiler. DireGtions are alfo given for conftru@ting boilers com- pofed of cylinders difpofed vertically. In every cafe the tubes compofing the boiler fhould be fo combined and ar- ranged, and the furnace fo conftruéted, as to make the fire and flame act around and over the tubes, fo as to embrace the largeft poffible quantity of their furface. It mutt be obvious to any one, that the tubes may be made of any kind of metal; but caft-iron is the moft convenient. The fize of the tubes may be varied; but in every cafe, care fhould be taken not to make the diameter too great : for it mult be remembered, that the larger the diameter of any fingle tube is in fuch a boiler, the ftronger it mult be made in proportion, to enable it to bear the fame expanfive force of {team as the {maller cylinders. It 1s not eflential, however, to the invention, that the tubes fhould be of different fizes ; but the upper cylinders, efpecially the one which is called the fteam-cylinder, fhould be larger than the lower ones, it being the refervoir, as it were, into which the lower ones fend the iteam, to be thence conveyed away by the fteam- pipe. The following general diretions are given refpe¢t- ing the quantity of water to be kept im a boiler of this con- ftruétion; viz. it ought always to fill, not only the whole of the lower tubes, but alfo the great fteam-cylinder A, to about half its diameter, that is, as high as the fire is al- lowed to reach ; and in no cafe fhould it be allowed to get fo low, as not to keep the vertical necks, or branches, which join the {maller cylinders to the great cylinder, full of water, for the fire is only beneficially: employed when ap- plied, through the medium of the interpofed metal, to water, to convert it into fteam ; that is, the purpofe of the boiler would in fome meafure be defeated, if any of the parts of the tubes which are expofed to the dire& ation of the fire, fhould prefent a furface of fteam in their interior, in- {tead of water, to receive the tranf{mitted heat. This mutt, more or Jefs, be the cafe, whenever the lower tubes, and even a part of the upper, are not kept filled with the water. RefpeGting the furnace for this kind of boiler, it fhould always be fo built as to give a long and waving courfe to the flame and heated air, forcing them the more effectually to {trike againft the fides of the tubes which compofe the boiler, and fo to give out the greateft poflible portion of their heat before they reach the chimney. Unlefs this be attended to, there will be a much greater wafte of fuel than neceflary, and the heat communicated to the con- tents of the boiler will be lefs from a given quantity of fuel. When very high temperatures are not to be employed, the kind of boiler juft defcribed is found to anfwer very well ; but where the utmoft force of the fire is defirable for producing the moft elaftic fteam, the parts are combined in a manner fomewhat different, though the principle is the fame. In the Philofophical Magazine, vol. xvii. p. 40, are a defeription and drawing of a boiler of this kind, two of which were ereéted in 1803 at Meflrs. Meux’s brewery. In every cafe Mr. Woolf ufes two fafety-valves, at leatt, in his apparatus, to prevent accidents; a precaution which cannot be too ftrongly a as it may happen, in ut STEAM-ENGINE. but one is employed, that by fome accident it may get locked, and the engine and people about it be expofed to the danger of an explofion. In thofe engines of Mr. Woolf’s which we have feen, he employs boilers like the one defcribed, wz. with two {mall tubes beneath, which are full of water, and expofed to the immediate aétion of the flame, communicating by perpendi- cular necks or branches with the large «cylinder above, which has water in the lower part, and fleam in the upper. The only difference from what we have above defcribed is, that the lower and upper tubes are placed in the fame diretion, inftead of being at right angles to each other; and the flame proceeds in the direétion of their length, inftead of crofling them: the lower or water tubes are rather inclined upwards. The metal of thefe tubes is made very thick, with a view to ftrength and durability. The idea of making boilers for raifing ftrong fleam, by a number of fmall tubes, which can be made ftronger than one large veflel, is not original with Mr. Woolf; Mr. Blakey, of whom we have before {poken, having propofed it in a fmall tra&t which he publifhed in French, at the Hague, in 1776. But his tubes were to be placed over each other, in an inclined dire€tion ; and the water being admitted at the upper end, ran down within the heated in- clined tubes, and became converted into fteam. Woolf’s Regulating Steam-Valve—Befides the common fafety-valves, Mr. Woolf has alfo introduced a valve of a new conftruétion into the fteam-pipe itfelf, to regulate the quantity that fhall pafs from the boiler. In faét, it is a felf-aGting fteam-regulator, and extremely ingenious. A ig.6.) isa part of the great or fteam cylinder of one of Mr. Woolf?’s boilers; BB, the neck or outlet for the fteam, furmounted by a fteam-box C, which is joined to the neck BB, by the flanges a,a. The top or cover of the fleam- box C, marked with the letter D, is well fecured in its place, and has a hole through it for the rod of the valve to pafs; and the interior of the hole is formed to a box to hold a ftuffing, and make the rod work up and down fteam- tight ; the ituffing being kept in its place by means of a collar, ferewed down in the ufual way, as fhewn in the figure. By means of a pin 4, and the two vertical pieces ¢, ey the fliding-valve rod is made faft to m, which 1s a clofe cover to the hollow cylinder nz. The cover, m, fits {team-tight into the conical feat, at the upper end of a collar 00, which is made faft to the flange aa, and defcends into the neck of the boiler, forming a barrel, in which the cylinder fits clofe. The cylinder, 2, is open at bottom, having a free communication with the fteam in the boiler A ; and it has three vertical flits cut through the fides, one of which, S, is fhewn in the plate. The fum of the area of all thefe flits or openings is equal to the area of the opening of the feat or collar 00, in which the cylinder, 27, works. When the {team acquires a fufficient degree of elattic force to raife the valve. (that is, the cylinder 7x, with its cover m, and the rod R,) together with whatever weight the rod may be loaded, then the openings S, rifing above the fteam-tight collar or feat 00, allow the fteam to pafs into the fteam-box C, and to flow off to the engine through the pipe N. But the quantity of fteam that pafles is pro- portioned to the elattic force it has acquired, and the weight with which the valve is loaded; becaufe the rife of the openings, S, above the collar oo, will be in that pro- portion. . This valve may be loaded by applying weights in any of the ufual methods; but Mr. Woolf prefers the one fhewa 5 in the drawing, in which the upper part of the rod, R, is joined by means of a chain to a quadrant of a cirele QO, with an arm projeting from it, as reprefented in the plate, for the purpofe of carrying a pendulum weight Z, that ad- mits of being moved nearer to or farther from the centre of the quadrant, according as the preflure of the valve is wifhed to be increafed or diminifhed. : As the valve rifes, the weight moves upwards in the arc nn, giving a continually increafed refiltance to the farther rifing of the valve, proportioned to the horizontal diftance of the weight from the centre of Q, of which the weight attains a continual increafe by its rife in the arc, according to the horizontal diftances meafured on the line Q>p, pafling through the centre of the weight by per- pendiculars from the horizontal line. . Thus, if the weight Z prefles down the valve m, with a force equal to 20 lbs. on the {quare inch of the aperture in 90, in its prefent pofition, when it rifes to the pofition at i, it will prefs with a force equal to 30lbs.; and at p, with a force equal to 4o lbs. on the fquare inch; fo that the rod, Z, may be made to ferve at the fame time as an index to the perfon who attends the fire, nothing more being neceflary for this purpofe than to graduate the arc defcribed by the end of the rod QZ, by experimental trials. In the fide of the fleam-box C, there is an opening N, to allow the fteam to pafs from it by a pipe to the fteam- engine. i It is plain that the adjuftment of the pofitive preflure on this valve can be determined by fliding the weight, Z, of the pendulum to a greater or lefs diftance from the centre of motion. Again, to adjuft the rate of the increafing forces, fo as to correfpond with the increafing force of the fteam, the radius of the quadrant, Q, mult be apportioned to the diameter of the valve, and the opening of the flits S, fo that the afcent of the weight, Z, in its quadrant will be cor- re{pondent to the varying preflure. This adjuftment mutt be made as nearly as it can be done before the valve is fixed ; and to bring it afterwards to an exa&t regulation, the chain is attached to the rod, R, by a nut and {crew ; by means of which, any part of the are can be ufed that is found moft correfpondent with the varying preflure, becaufe the rate at which the refiltance of the lever increafes is more rapid when the pendulum is near to the perpendicular, than when it approaches the horizontal pofition. The fame effect may be produced, by making the flits in the fide of the cylinder narrower at the lower part of the cylinder, inftead of being parallel. Edelcrantz’s Safety-Vaive. —Vhe chevalier Edelcrantz contrived a fafety-valve, fome years ago, which has the fame properties as Mr. Woolf’s, and is worthy of notice, as being more fimple in its conftruétion. A {mall brafs cy- linder is fixed on the boiler, and fitted with a pifton, which moves with yery little friction, in order that it may defcend by its own weight, after it has been raifed up, without, however, permitting the fteam to pafs between it and the cylinder in any quantity. ‘he lower part of the cylinder communicates with the boiler, and the upper part is clofed by a {mall cover {crewed on to it, and perforated with a hole, through which the pifton-rod pafies eafily. ‘This cover ferves the double purpofe of guiding the rod, -and pre- venting the pifton from being blown out. The pifton-rod is furnifhed with a fhoulder, which ferves to fupport dif- ferent weights which are placed upon it, and they can be changed at pleafure. The fide of the cylinder is pierced with holes opening to the air: the holes are very {mall, and placed above each other at the diltance of about a line; but this STEAM-ENGINE. this diftance, as well as the number of them, is a matter of indifference. To give an idea of the effe&t of this fmall apparatus, let us fuppofe the pifton lowered, and loaded with any ‘weight, and that a fire is kindled under the boiler. When the vapour has acquired fufficient elafticity to raife the weights, the piiton will afcend; and having pafled the firft hole, fome vapour will efcape. If this aperture be of fufficient fize for the paflage of the quantity of vapour continually produced, the pilton will remain there ftationary, and in a {tate of ofcillation; if not, it will afcend above the fecond, third, &c. hole; and if the intenfity of the fire is fufficiently ftrong, above the laft, which muft be made larger, that, by giving the proper means of efcape to the vapour, all accidents may be pre- vented. It is here evident, that though the greater or lefs elevation of the pifton, as well as the number of the holes open, depend on the variations and different intenfities of the fire, thefe variations, however, have no influence on the interior heat, and the elafticity of the vapour contained in the digefter, fince their force is always proportioned to the weight with which the pilton is loaded, and which is con- ftant. This fafety-pifton feems likely to afford, for delicate experiments, greater exa¢tnefs than the ufual fafety-valves hitherto employed, with levers charged with weights: for in the whole courfe of the {pace which the cylindric pifton pafles over in afcending, the {tate of the elafticity of the vapour is the fame; whereas, when the conical valve in common ufe is once raifed up, nothing indicates whether or how much the prefent {tate of the vapour fur- pafles the firft effort it made to open the valve. Befides, the diameter of the pifton being once known, the force of the vapour requifite for each experiment can be eafily re- gulated and determined: if we fuppofe, for example, that the lower furface of the pilton is »,th of a {quare inch, each ounce of weight placed on the fhoulder of the pifton- rod will be equivalent to the preffure of a pound on each fquare inch of the furface, and fo on in proportion. As this preflure then remains conitant, the experiment will be more determinate, and confequently more comparative. The application of this pifton to the boiler of the fteam- engine needs no farther explanation, except that, in this cafe, the diameter of the pifton muft be confiderably in- creafed. It feems here to offer the fame advantage of greater uniformity in the force of the fteam, efpecially if the motion of the pifton be employed to regulate the fire of the furnace, and to prevent the ufelefs difperfion of the vapour, by preventing an excefs in the intenfity of the fire. The following apparatus may be ufed for this purpofe. Let the aperture of the flue for the current of air which Maintains the combuftion of the fuel be provided with a regilter, which, by rifing and falling, will open or fhut that paflage of air: if the motion of the fafety-pifton be combined by any means with the regifter, in fuch a manner that when the former afcends, the latter defcends, fo that when the pifton is at its greateft elevation, the regilter fhall be entirely fhut, it is evident that fince the heat produced depends on the accefs of the air, the elalticity of the vapour, being determined by the weight on the pifton, will not only remain within the bounds prefcribed for it, but will regu- late itfelf, by preventing any more air from entering the furnace than is neceffary to maintain its force. A figure, reprefenting this ufeful apparatus more minutely, may be found in the 17th volume of the Philofophical Magazine, . 162. F Before quitting the fubje& of double-cylinder engines, we fhall notice fome others befide thofe of Mr. Hornblower and Mr. Woolf. Meffrs. James and John Roberton had a patent for one in 1800. The profefled objeé& of the double cylinder was to fave that portion of {team, which in the belt conftru€ted fteam-engines efcapes patt the fides of the pifton in the time of working, and is loft without producing any me- chanical effeét whatever. Mr. Roberton’s intention was to prevent fo great a quantity of {team from efcaping, and in making the {team, which atually did efcape, at on another pifton, and add to the power of the engine. There are two fteam-cylinders, with a pifton fitted to each; the one cylinder of a fmaller, and the other of a larger fize. Thefe two cylinders act together in producing the effe@t, and are furnifhed with a condenfing veflel and air-pump, fimilar to other engines. The fame patent contains the defcription of the fmoke-burning furnace, which has been very ex- tenfively ufed. Mr. William Deverell obtained a patent in 1805, for im- provements in the fteam-engine. He propofes to have two working cylinders, placed near to one another, each having a pipe of communication, witha large veflel, in which the fteam, after pafling from the {mall cylinder, is fuffered to expand itfelf, before entering the large cylinder. The piftons in the two cylinders work alternately up and down by means of valves or cocks, opening and fhutting as in the com- mon engine. Suppofe the fmall pifton has juft made a ftroke, and a paflage is opened to the fteam-veflel at the end of the ftroke ; at firft beginning to work the engine, the veflel will be full of fteam of about 18lbs. preflure, admitted from the boiler, but afterwards will only be fupplied by the fteam thrown into it from the {mall cy- linder. The veflel fhould be about twenty times larger in capacity than the {malleft working cylinder ; and the larger it is, the more regular will be the preffure on the great pifton, which is worked by the fteam coming from the fteam- veflel. If the fteam in the boiler be of 54lbs. preffure per {quare inch, the ratio of the two working cylinders may be as 1 to 3, for then the fmaller one will fupply the larger with fteam of about 18lbs. preflure: the proportion, how- ever, may be varied, though thefe are thought beft by the patentee. The improvements here are reprefented to confitt in the fteam going from the {maller working cylinder to the fteam-veflel, and then from the fteam-veflel to the larger working cylinder, from which it is afterwards drawn off, and condenfed. By thefe means the engine will be very regular in its operations. Suppofe the fteam in the boiler is at 54lbs., the {maller cylinder will, at the end of the ftroke, be full of fteam of the fame or nearly the fame force ; and the fteam-veffel being full of the fteam delivered to it by the former itroke of the {mall cylinder, at about 18lbs. preffure, the communication is opened between this vetlel and the {maller cylinder, and the fteam in each of thefe will be brought to nearly 2olbs. preflure, which fteam will be ufed in the great cylinder at the next ftroke. But at the end of each ftroke of the piltons, before the opening is made be- tween the {maller cylinder and the {team-vetlel, the fteam in the {maller cylinder will be, as before ftated, at about 54lbs. ; in the fteam-veflel it will be at about 18lbs., and in the larger working cylinder at about 18lbs. alfo. Hence the medium preflure on the pilton of the {maller cylinder will be about 35lbs. on the inch, while the medium preflure of the fleam on the pifton of the great cylinder will be about rglbs. on the inch ; for it will be about zolbs. at the beginning, and about 18lbs. at the end of the ftroke. If the fteam-veffel be made larger, the difference at each end of the ftrake will Nz nat STEAM-ENGINE. not be fo great. If the fteam was let ont at 54lbs. from the {maller cylinder to the open air, there would be but 39|bs. upon each inch of the pifton, in confequence of the re-a¢tion of the atmof{phere, equivalent to about rslbs. per inch: thus, by letting the fteam pafs from the {maller cylinder to the fteam-veilel, inftead of letting it out to the open air, it lofes about 4lbs. on the inch of the fmall pilton, but it gains about 12lbs. on the inch of a pifton three times as large; and there being but half the fteam required in the common way to condenfe, there mutt of neceflity be a confiderable gain. If the friction and lofs of force be equal to glbs. on the inch on the pifton of the {maller cylinder, there will be but about 3olbs. on the inch neat power, when the larger one will work about 12lbs. on the inch. Here too, if the large cylinder, or pilton, or air-pump, or condenfer, fhould he out of order, the {mall pifton may ftill be worked, by difengaging the large pifton from the beam: on the other hand, if the {maller pilton be out of order, the large one may {till be worked, while the other is difengaged. The fteam-vellel is to be made of wood, that it may tran{mit the heat flowly, and the cylinders may be placed within it, if found convenient. We have examined two engines of Mr. Deverell’s which worked with great regularity, but the nature of the work they were performing did not admit of any accurate efti- mate of their power. The quantity of fuel they confumed was .but {mall. We are difpofed to think the addition of the fteam-veflel for the fteam to expand itfelf in, is advan- tageous in regulating the preflure, provided the heat is kept up; and for this purpofe, the fteam-veflel in one of the engines we {peak of was inclofed in the boiler, and we think would, in that cafe, receive a conftant addition of heat to the expanded {team within it, which we believe is effential to all thefe kinds of engines. See the fpecification at large in the Repertory of Arts, vol. viii. p. 81. Mefirs. Fox and Lean have alfo a patent, dated Dec. 10, 1802, for improvements on fteam-engines, the principal part of which is a double-cylinder engine, very much refembling thofe which we have defcribed. See the Repertory, vol. xxii. Pp- 200. Application of Reciprocating Engines to produce a rotative Motion for turning Machinery—We have hitherto confidered the fteam-engine as being confined to the operation of work- ing pumps for raifing water; except in the flight notice which we have taken of the application of the crank to the atmofpheric engine. This was a thing fo obvioufly in Imitation of the foot-lathe, as to be fcarcely contidered an invention; but the difficulty of applying it to ufe arofe from the want of regularity in the action of the old engine. An engine to work a crank, mutt at all times make exaétly the fame length of ftroke ; and to perform well, all thefe ftrokes muft be performed in an equal period of time. The old engines had very little exaétnefs in either of thefe particulars. From the nature of the detent which opened the injeGtion-cock, and the great friftion of turning it, the degree to which it was opened was not conftantly the fame in the fucceeding {trokes; and a very {mall difference of opening would materially influence the quantity of injeGtion, and confequently the vacuum and velocity with which the pifton would defcend. The boilers alfo of the old engines were always made too {mall, fo that the leaft alteration in the intenfity of the fire made the en- gine vary its {peed. At prefent, in the coal-countries the atmofpheric engines are made to work machinery by means of a crank, and per- form very well, but they are lightly loaded, and move very _ quickly. The fteam in the boiler is made much ftronger than formerly, to enable it to fill the cylinder with a fudden puff, and thus to difplace the air and water in an inftant, be- caufe the rapid motion of the pifton will not allow fufficient time for the difcharging to be performed with weak fteam, asisufual. All thefe circumftances reduce the performance of the engine with refpeét to coals, and the confumption is very great in comparifon with the work they perform. Such engines aét very well when the work or refittance is conttantly the fame throughout the day; but the engine cannot work regularly, except when the counter-weight of the conneéting rod is equal to half the defcending force of the pifton, fo as to make the ftroke upon the faa of equal force in afcending and defcending. In breweries, and thofe works which demand attention to varying refiftance, this cannot apply : for inftance, when the machinery for grinding is difengaged, or thrown off, if fomething does not operate to retard the effect of the counter-weight, the engine will in- creafe in its velocity beyond all bounds, fo as to work itfelf to pieces ; and as the only remedy is to check the quantity of {team at the returning ftroke, the difcharge of the air will be interrupted, and the engine mutt ftop. Mr. Watt’s fingle engine accommodates this circumftance, from the mode of difcharging being conftant, and not pofltble to be effected by the work applied to it, whether it be uniform or variable: hence, to leffen the momentum of the counter-weight, it is only to check the entrance of the iteam by any contrivance that will prevent the valve, which admits {team to enter above the pilton, from opening to its greateft limits. Mr. Watt, for fome years after the firlt introduétion of his engines, was fo fully occupied in fub{tituting them for the large atmofpheric engines at mines, where the expence of fuel was threatening to put a ftop to their proceedings, that he found no leifure for new {peculations ; and although the advantages of applying engines on his principle to a€tuate machinery had early occurred to him, he did not ferioufly fet about reducing his ideas to praétice until the year 1778 or 1779. In the firft model he then made, in order to equal- ize the power, he employed two cylinders, ating upon two cranks tixed upon the fame axis, at an angle of 120° from each other, and a weight was placed upon the circum- ference of the fly-wheel at an angle of 120° from each of the cranks; which weight was to be fo adjuited, as to turn the wheel when neither of the cranks could do fo, and confe- quently to render the power nearly equal. This model per- formed to fatisfaGtion ; but Mr. Watt having neglected to take out a patent immediately, the eflential part of the con- trivatice was communicated, as we are informed in the Edin= burgh Review, by a workman employed to make a model, to the perfons engaged about one of Mr. Wathbrough’s engines, of which we have before fpoken, and a patent was taken out for the application of the crank by the engineer there em- ployed. This did not deter Mr. Watt from proceeding ; and without attempting to difpute a patent which, fo long as it continued attached to the common atmofpheric engine, could not rival him, he fet about other modes of effeGting the fame thing, and took out a patent for feveral new methods of applying the vibrating or reciprocating motion of iteam- engines to produce a continued rotative motion round an axis, one of which was that beautiful contrivance of the re- volving motion of one wheel round the other, called the fun and planet wheels, from the refemblance to the motion of thofe luminaries. Mr. Watt’s patent is dated O&ober 1782, and entitled, a new method of applying the vibrating or reci- procating motion of fteam-engines to produce a continued rotative or circular motion. It contains fix different me- thods ; but the two which have been fince brought into ufe 7 are STEAM-ENGINE. are the crank, and fun and planet wheels. The crank is ap- plied in the beft manner to produce a regular motion, when a fingle aling engine is the moving power : this was to ap- ply an iron wheel on the end of the axis of the fly-wheel for a crank, and with a pin projecting from it, to which the con- necting rod is jointed : one half of the wheel is made folid, of ca{t-iron, in order to be heavy on that fide in which the pin is fixed, fo as to urge round the fly during the returning ftroke of the engine; the other half of the wheel is made light, that it may not oppofe this weight. Soon after this patent, Mr. Watt erected fome engines in London at the large breweries ; the firit was at Mr. Good- wyn’s, a fpirited encourager of improvements, and the next at Mr. Whitbread’s. A {ketch of the latter engine, which is ftill working, is given in our plate Porter-Brewery. In thefe engines he employed the fun and planet wheels, and ufed a maflive connecting rod, of fufficient weight to a€tuate the fly during the returning ftroke, for thefe engines had not the advantage of the double action. Double-aéiing Steam-Engines.—The advantage of a double- acting engine, which fhall urge the machinery equally in afcending and defcending, is obvious. The firft double- ating fteam-engine was propofed in 1779, by Dr. Falck, who publifhed an account and defcription of an improved iteam-engine, which will, he fays, with the fame quantity of fuel, and in an equal fpace of time, raife above double the quantity of water raifed by any lever-engine of the fame dimenfions ; but he does not appear to have proved the affertion, or conftruéted even a working model of his pro- pofed engine, which was on Newconien’s principle. . The chief improvement which he fuggefts is to ufe two cylinders, into which the fteam is alternately admitted by a common regulator, which always opens the communication of the fteam to one, whilft it fhuts up the opening of the other. The pifton-rods are kept (by means of a wheel fixed to an arbor) in a continual afcending and defcending motion, in the fame manner as the rods of the common air-pump, by which they move acommon axle ; to which is affixed another wheel, moving the pump-rods in the fame alternate direction as the pilton-rods, by which alternate motions of the two ‘piftons the pumps are kept in conftant ation. Since the improved engines of Mr. Watt have been introduced, this method of combining the alternate a€tion of two fingle en- gines has been applied to work machinery. We have feen both the atmofpheric engine and the fingle engine of Mr. Watt working in this manner, but his double engine is much preferable. Mr. Watt faw that this was neceflary, in order to perfeé& the application of his fteam-engine ; he therefore applied the power of the {team to prefs the pilton upwards in its cylinder as well as downwards, by forming the vacuum alternately above and below the pifton, and the counter-weight then becomes unneceflary. The only change in the machine befide the arrangement of the valves and their mechanifm, was in applying a double chain to the arch-head of the beam, in the fame way that the pumps of old extinguifhing engines were worked; or he employed a rack and feGor at the end of the beam. This he’called the double engine, as in fa&t it doubled the power exerted within the fame cylinder. He had long had in his mind the idea of this improvement, and had even pro- duced a drawing of it to the houfe of commons, in 1774, at the time he procured the a& to prolong his original patent for 25 years; but the firft he executed was, we be- lieve, at Soho, in the year 1781 or 1782, and the firft public exhibition of it at the Aibion mills a few years later. About the fame period, finding double chains, or racks and feétors, very inconvenient for communicating the motion of the beam, he invented and applied what has been called the parallel motion, one of the moft ingenious and moft per- fect contrivances in mechanics. To prevent irregularities in the {peed of the engine, arifing from variations in the quan- tum of power ufed at different intervals in the works to which it-was'applied, he made an application of the centri- fugal force of what is called the governor (before ufed in wind-mills), to regulate the admiflion of the fteam; by this means keeping the engine always at an uniform ve- locity, and Bernie the confumption of {team, in pro- portion to the power exerted. This gave the finifhing ftroke to the perfection of the motion of the machine, and rendered its regularity nearly correfpondent with that of the pendulum of a clock. Thefe inventions are detailed, among many other contrivances, relative both to fteam- engines and the application of their power, in two patents, dated 1782 and 1784. Some of thefe are highly ingenious ; a few may have been firft ideas, not reduced to pra¢tice, and others were no doubt inferted for the purpofe of guard- ing again{t evafion. Meffrs. Boulton and Watts Double--Ading Engine for turning Mills. —Plate V1. contains a general elevation of the whole engine, and Plate VII. fig. 1. is a feGtion of the cylinder, inclofed in its fteam-cafe or jacket, the outfide of which is coated with plafter, to keep in the heat: the internal ftructure will be defcribed hereafter: a is the pifton-rod, conneéted to the great working beam CBE, by a fyftem of levers b, c, d, m, called a parallel motion, the property of which is, that the rectilinear motion of the pifton-rod, a, is pre- ferved, though the end, C, of the beam defcribes an are of a circle when it rifes and falls upon its centre of motion, B. At the oppofite end, E, of the beam is jointed the connecting rod D, and at the lower end of this is Mr. Watt’s contrivance for communicating the force of the fteam-engine to any ma- chine of the rotatory kind. G reprefents the rim and arms of a very large and heavy catt-iron fly-wheel; on the ex- tremity of its axis is fixed the concentric toothed wheel H, called the fun-wheel. The conneéting rod, DI, is a ftrong and itiff iron rod, D, of fufficient weight to balance the pifton: to the lower end of it, a toothed wheel, I, is firmly fixed by three bolts, fo that it cannot turn round. This wheel is called the planet-wheel, becaufe it revolves round the fun-wheel ; it is of the fame fize and in the fame vertical plane with the wheel H, and an iron link or {trap (which cannot be feen here, becaufe it is on the other fide of the two wheels) conneéts the centres of the two wheels, fo that the one cannot quit the other. The engine being in the po- fition reprefented in the figure, to explain the a¢tion of this movement, fuppofe the fly, G, to be turned once round by any external force, in the direction from G towards K, it is plain, that fince the toothed wheels, being kept together by the link, cannot quit each other, the outer half of the fun- wheel (that is, the half fartheft from the cylinder) will work on the inner half of the planet-wheel I, fo that at the end of the revolution of the fly, the planet-wheel muit have ar- rived to the top of the fun-wheel H, becaufe the circum- ferences of the wheels are equal, and the outer end, E, of the beam mutt be raifed to its higheft pofition. The next revo- lution of the fly will bring the planet-wheel, and the beam conneéted with it, to their firft pofitions, and thus every two revolutions of the fly will make a complete period of the beam’s reciprocating movements. Now, inftead of fuppof- ing the fly to drive the beam, let the beam drive the fly, the motions mutt be precifely the fame, and each afcent or de- {cent of the pilton will produce one revolution of the 3 yor STEAM-ENGINE. For inftance, when the pifton-rod, a, is caufed to afcend by the preffure of the {team beneath its pifton, it raifes one end of the beam and deprefles the other ; and by the com- munication of the connecting rod D, caufes the planet-wheel I, to turn the wheel H, and the fly-wheel, round with a double velocity. As foon as the pifton-rod arrives at the énd of its ftroke, it receives a new impulfe, which brings it down again, and confequently raifes the conneéting rod D, and planet-wheel I, fo as to continue the motion of the wheel H, and fly-wheel G, always in the fame dire¢tion. The ufe of the fly-wheel is to acquire an impetus from the force communicated to it, at the time that the centre of the planet-wheel, I, is on the fame horizontal line with the centre of the fun-wheel H, at which time the conneGing rod exerts all the force of the engine upon the wheel H, to turn it round. This momentum is preferved by the rapid motion of the fly-wheel, which continues to turn all the reft of the machinery, when the planet-wheel, I, is at the top or bottom of its motion, for the centres of the two wheels being in a line with the conneéting rod, it has no tendency to turn them round: i To defcribe the manner in which the power of the fteam is given to the pifton-rod a, we mutt turn to the feGtion in Plate VII. fig. 1. where A is the jacket or fteam-cafe con- taining the cylinder, which is of cait-iron, and truly bored ; it is clofed at top by an iron lid /, {crewed on by fcrew- bolts, pafling through a projecting rim or flanch at the top, and a fimilar flanch is formed at the lower end of the cylin- der, to fatten on the bottom. In the centre of the top lid is a ftuffing-box, /, for holding a packing of hemp, through which the pifton-red, aa, pafles, perfe€tly air and fteam tight: 20 is the pifton, packed with hemp in a channel round its edge, fo that the packing lies between its circum- ference and the infide furface of the cylinder ; and while it can move up and down in the cylinder eafily, it will not allow any {team to pafs by it. The pilton is fitted to the rod, a, with a cone, and fatt keyed in: the cylinder has a flanch or projecting ring round it, a little below the top flanch, by which it is held into the jacket A, which is conftantly fup- plied with {team from the boiler of the engine, by a {mall pipe branching off from the fteam-pipe. ‘The {team-pipe cannot be feen in the elevation, except by the fmall dark circle near g; and in fig. 2. it is marked 21: it introduces the fteam from the boiler, at all times, through a throttle-valve, 25, into a box g, called the upper fteam-box. Tn the bottom of this box is the upper fteam-valve, which being opened by deprefling the end of the lever 7, admits the {team into the fhort’ paflage 14, which leads to the top of the cylinder. A branch, 12, defcends perpendicularly from the fteam-pipe, juft before it enters the upper fteam- box, and conveys iteam to the lower {fteam-box i; and in the bottom of this is a valve, which can be opened by lifting the end of a lever, 10, to admit the fteam into the paflage 15, which leads into the bottom of the cylinder. Thefe two valves govern the entrance of fteam into the cylinder; and they both open upwards. The valves for carrying off the fteam are fituated in two other boxes, 4 and 2, in which a vacuum is always main- tained by their open communication with the condenfer M, by the exhautting-pipe 13, which defcends from the upper box A, and where it alles by the lower box £, has a {mall branch leading into it. Thefe two exhaufting boxes are fituated immediately be- neath the paflages, 14 and 15, which lead to the top and bottom of the cylinder, and the exhaufting-valves are fitu- ated in the horizontal plate of the partition between the boxes and the paffages, in the fame manner as the fteam-valves are in the partitions between the fteam-boxes and the {ame paf- fages, as is clearly fhewn in fig. 3- On opening the upper exhaulting-valve, by deprefling the lever 8, the fteam from the top of the cylinder will be drawn off to the condenfer ; or by elevating the lever 9 (fig. 2.), the lower exhaufting- valve will be opened, and the iteam will pafs off from the lower part of the cylinder to the condenfer. The fteam and eduétion-valves, 7, 8, 9, 10, are opened and fhut by the levers called fpanners, whofe handles, 1 and 2, are alternately moved by the plugs fixed to the pifton-rod of the air-pump N. ‘This part of the machinery has been called the hand-gear, becaufe it is fo conftruéted that the fteam and edu¢tion-valves can be worked either by the hand or by the pifton of the air-pump. The valves are connected in pairs to levers upon the axle of the two handles 1 and 2, which are a€tuated by the pins fand 24, projecting from the rod, f, of the air-pump, and the arrangement is this; the lower fteam-valve 10, and the upper ahhh a 8, are connected by rods with levers upon the axle of the lower handle 2, and when that handle is deprefled it will open both thofe valves at once, to admit fteam below the pilton, and exhauft it from above, which will caufe the afcent of the pifton. A lever and rod 6, (fee the elevation) are applied to the axis of this handle, with a fufficient weight in the ciftern to caufe the handle to fall and open the valves fuddenly ; but when the valves are to be kept fhut, the handle, 2, is held up by a catch, and detent 3 4, the end, 4, having a hook to receive the catch, and detain the handle when lifted up, as in the figure. In the fame manner, the upper fteam-valve 7, and the lower exhaulting-valve g, are united by rods to levers fixed upon the axis of the upper handle 1; and when this handle is raifed, as in the figure, it opens both valves at once, fo as to admit the fteam above the pifton and exhauft it from beneath it, as is {hewn by the arrows in the fection, which will caufe the pifton to defcend. Like the former {pindle, a lever, 5, and rod are applied to it, with a weight which will lift up the handle, 1, and open the two valves; but when the handle is deprefled, fo as to fhut the valves, it is held down by the catch entering the hook, 3, of the detent 3 4. As this detent moves upon a centre-pin, it mult be obferved, that when one lever catches into the hook it pufhes back the detent, and this motion re- leafes the other catch from the hook at the oppofite end of the detent, fo that moving one handle to fhut one pair of valves releafes the catch, and the weights immediately open the oppofite pair of valves. The exhautting-pipe, 13, defcends to the condenfer M, which is a cylindrical veflel of caft-iron, immerfed in the cold water of the condenfing ciftern L; it communicates by the valve m, with the air-pump N, which has valves in its bucket opening upwards, and is covered by a lid, through which the rod pafles in a ftuffing-box ; alfo at the top of the pump is a fhort pipe of difcharge, opening jnto the hot-well 2, and this has a valve to prevent the return of the air and water into the pump. All thefe parts are exa@tly the fame as thofe of the fingle engine, before defcribed, except the inje€tion-cack 16, which is con{tantly running a {mall jet of cold water into the con- denfer, when the engine is at work, Therg is no neceflity for an injection-valve in the double engine, and the ufe of the cock is only to regulate the quantity, and to ftop it when the engine is not at work; it is moved by a handle 17, and there is a divided plate and index, to fhew the degree of opening. "The STEAM-ENGINE. ‘The cylinder 1s bolted down to two ftrong beams, which erofs over the top of the condenfing ciftern L, and thefe are united at the ends to two vertical polts S, which are framed into another piece fituated beneath the ciftern, and fupported upon a pier of brick-work R: by this means the whole weight of the water in the ciltern is applied to hold the cy- linder firmly down. K are beams which fupport the ftrain of the beam-centre, by bearing up the floor F, on which the centre bearing retts; and the narrow dark line up the middle of the frame K, is a large iron bolt, which ties the frame down to the long groundfills, on which the cillern refts, and with which the beam T, for the centre of the fly- wheel, is connected by oblique legs and tie-bolts: by this means the external walls, W, W, are relieved from any ma- terial {train occafioned by the working of the engine. XX is the ftaircafe to afcend to the beam-floor. The boiler is not reprefented, but may be confidered the fame as that of the fingle engine. Operation of the Double Engine.—Suppofing every thing in the pofition of the fection, the operation of the engine is as follows. When the water in the boiler is heated by the fire made under its bottom, the heat which enters into combination with the water caufes it to expand, and form fteam: in this ftate it rifes and fills the boiler, and thence pafling through the pipes 21, enters the upper fteam- box g; it alfo enters between the jacket, and warms the cylinder ; and by the defcending branch, 12, of the fteam- pipe, enters and fills the lower fteam-boxi. Before the en- . gine can be worked, the {team mutt be heated, until it is ex- panded fo much, that it will ruth forcibly out of the boiler when permitted. The perfon who attends the engine mult now open all _ the four valves at once, by elevating the handle 1, and de- prefling the handle 2 ; this admits the {team from the boiler to pafs through the boxes and the cylinder to the condenfer, when it rufhes through the pipe, 13, into the condenfer M, driving the air therein contained through the valve m, and the valves in the bucket of the air-pump, which it opens, and paffes into the ciltern x, through the difcharge-valve, where it is open to the atmofphere, the lid of that ciftern being only laid on, and not fitting tight. This operation (called blowing through) being continued for a few feconds, ex- pels all the air from the condenfer, and fills it with hot fteam. All the four valves are now clofed, by prefling down the upper handle 1, and lifting up the lower handle 2; and the injeCtion-cock 16, of which 17 is the handle, is opened: this allows a {mall ftream of cold water from the condenfing ciltern, L, to enter into the condenfer, and condenfes the fteam or cools it, when it in{tantly con- traéts into the fame fpace it originally occupied in the boiler, before it was heated. As the valve, m, clofes, to prevent the return of the atmofpheric air, a vacuum will be caufed in the condenfer, becaufe there will be nothing in it but that {mall quantity of water produced from the fteam, and the cold water injected into the con- denfer. The engine-man now opens the upper condenfing valve 8, and lower fteam-valve 10, by allowing the lower handle, 2, to falldown. ‘The communication to the condenfer being thus opened, the mixture of air and fteam in the upper part of the cylinder will expand itfelf into the condenfer through the paffage 14, and valve 8, by the exhauiting-pipe 13: as it occupies more {pace than it did before, it will be confider- ably rarefied, and prefs lightly upon the upper fide of the pilton. The fteam from the boiler entering through the open valve, 10, is all the while prefling with its full force againit the lower fide of the pifton, and will perhaps, now a rarefaction is made above it, overcome the refiftance of the work and friétion, and caufe the pifton to afcend, the air-pump rod and bucket moving with it. When the pin 24, upon this rod, reaches the handle 2, it raifes it up, and fhuts the lower fteam-valve 10, and the upper exhautting- valve 8; and by means of the catch prefling back the hook at the lower end of the detent 4, it relieves the catch of the upper handle from the hook, 3, of the detent; in confe- quence of which, the weight applied to the lever 5, throws up the handle 1, and opens the upper fteam-valve 7, and lower exhautting-valve 9, while the hook, 4, of the detent, receiving the catch of the lower handle 2, holds it up. This is the fituation reprefented in the feétion in fig. 1. The operation is now reverfed; the {team from the boiler going through the valve 7, and paffage 14, into the cy- linder above the pifton, as fhewn by the arrows, jg 1s and that {team which is beneath the pifton going through the paflage 15, and valve g, to the condenfer, where the fteam will be condenfed, and a vacuum will be formed beneath the pilton: the fteam now prefles it down, mov- ing the beam, and turning the fly-wheel and other ma- chmery which it has to drive. When the pifton is at the bottom, the pin, f, on the air-pump rod arrives at the handle 1, and prefles it down; this fhuts the upper fteam- valve 7, and lower exhaufting-valve 9; and when they are completely fhut, the catch of the upper handle, in entering the upper hook of the detent 3 4, difengages the lower hook thereof ; and the weight 6, which is applied to the lower handle 2, immediately throws open the lower fteam-valve 10, and the upper exhauiting-valve 8: the fteam entering at the lower paflage 15, the pifton will be driven up again. At each ftroke of the engine, when the pitton rifes, the valve in the bucket of the air-pump will fhut, and all the air and water contained above the bucket will be lifted through the valve, 2, into the ciftern or hot-well; at the fame time, a vacuum being made beneath the bucket, which is more perfeé& than that in the condenfer, the valve, m, will be opened by the water and air in the condenfer, which will enter the pump. On the defcent of the pifton, and air-pump bucket, the valve m, and the difcharging- valve, z, will be fhut, becaufe the preflure which opened them is removed ; and the water and air in the pump prefl- ing upon the valves in the bucket will open them, and pafs through the bucket as it defcends. At its return, it raifes and difcharges the water and air above it at the valve 7, as before. In this manner, when the engine has made two {ftrokes, all the air which was contained in the cylinder, and mixed with the fteam at the commencement of the operation, which was the only part from which it could not be ex- pelled by blowing through, will be pumped out. he opera- tion of the engine is now more perfect; the inftant the ex- hautting-valve is opened, fo as to eftablifh a communica- tion from the cylinder full of fteam to the condenfer, the elailicity of the {team caufes it to rufh through the valve, down the pipe 13, into the condenfer: when it arrives there, it meets the ftream of the injection-water, which condenfes it, the remaming {team in the cylinder fol- lowing it furprifingly quick; and in an inftant, an almoft perfect vacuum is formed in the cylinder, fo that the fteam aéts with its whole force upon the pifton to give it mo- tion, all refiftance upon the other fide being removed. The air-pump has now only to draw off from the con- denfer the water injeéted into it, the water produced by the condenfed fteam, and that {mall quantity of air or gas which goes from the boiler with the fteam, and will not be condenfed by the cold water. ‘Thefe are delivered by STEAM-ENGINE, by the air-pump into the hot-well, , from which the air ef{capes; and the water, which {till continues hot, runs off, when at a certain level, by a walte-pipe, which is not re- prefented. The water which is boiled off in fteam from the boiler, is renewed from the hot-well by means of a {mall pump, £, in the elevation, which draws the water from it by a pipe 0, conducted up the fide of the great frame K, which ftands at the end of the condenfing ciftern L, and fupports the bearing for the centre of the great beam. The water is conveyed from the pump by a pipe, to a ciftern placed at the top of a vertical pipe, which defcends into the boiler. The top of this pipe is clofed by a valve in the ciftern, which valve is raifed by means of a lever, and the other end has a wire hooked to it, going through a fmall {tuffing- box into the boiler, where a {tone is hung to it. This {tone is balanced by a weight fufpended at the other end of the lever, fo that when the {tone is covered with water, the weight keeps the valve fhut, and prevents any water get- ting down into the boiler; but as the water finks in the beter by the evaporation, the weight of the ftone overcomes the weight, and opens the valve: the water in the ciftern then runs down the pipe into the boiler, and raifes the water therein, and the balance-weight lifts up the ftone, fo as to clofe the valve. The condenfer being conftantly fupplied with hot fteam, which gives out its heat, it would at length render the water furrounding it in the ciftern fo hot, that it would condenfe no more. To prevent this, it is con{tantly fup- plied with cold water from a pump O, worked by a rod P, from the great beam. The water from the condenfing cif- tern runs off by a waite-pipe at the back of the ciftern, but not feen in the figures. The fafety-valve is contained in a fhort pipe fixed upon the boiler, with a lid and a ftuffing- box, through which a rod pafles to open the valve within, and difcharge the fteam when the engine is not to be worked any longer. When at work, the valve is prefled down by a lever and weight. If at any time, when the engine is not at work, the fteam fhould be heated, fo as to be in any danger of buriting the boiler, the valve will lift up the weight, and allow the fteam to efcape through the pipe which opens into the chimney. Other Particulars of the Double Engine. — Mr. Watt’s mode of regulating the engine is a moit beautiful contriy- ance, and fo perfeG, as to put the fteam-engine on an equality with a water-wheel, in the regularity of its motion, even when the refiftance is very variable. The throttle- valve, which regulates the fupply of fteam, is placed in the lteam-pipe at 25 (Plate VII. fig. 2.): it is a thin circular vane in the pipe, turning ona pivot acrofs its centre, which comes through the pipe, and has a {mall handle fixed on the end of it: by turning this handle, the fpindle and vane within the pipe are turned alfo. When the vane is fet, fo that its plane is perpendicular to the axis of the pipe, it nearly fills the circular paflage, and allows very little fteam, if any, to pafs by it; but when the vane is turned edgeways, it prefents a very {mall furface, and the iteam pafles by without obftruétion to the {team-boxes g and. By turning the handle of the throttle-valve, the engine-man can at any time regulate the {peed of the engine, the fri€tion of the axis being fufficient to retain it as it is placed. This method of regulation is fufficient for many engines ; but when the fteam-engine is employed to drive machinery, in which the refiitance is very variabie, and where a deter- minate velocity cannot properly be difpenfed with, Mr. Watt has applied the conical pendulum, which is reprefented in the elevation (Plate VI.) at 6s, for procuring uniform velocity. (See allo Recurator and Mirr-work) This regulator has two pendulums, confifting of heavy balls, 5, s, fufpended by iron rods, which move on a common joint, v, at the top of the vertical axis ¢., which is put in motion by anvendlefs rope, g, pafling round a pulley on the axis of the fly-wheel, and round another pulley upon a {mall hori- zontal axis, from which, by means of a pair of bevelled wheels, r, the motion is communicated to the vertical axis tx, which is caufed to revolve, and carry the pendulum with it. In this motion, their balls, 6 and s, defcribe a horizontal circle, and the velocity is fufficient to make the balls fly out by their centrifugal force, the arms of the pendulums moving upon their centres: in this motion, the upper ends of the arms w, w, draw down a collar, x, which flides on the {quare part of the axis, and operates on a lever x, and by another lever y, and rod z, communicates with the fteam or throttle-valve. The ation of this beautiful contrivance is this: as the velocity of the fly- wheel increafes and diminifhes with the quantity of fteam that is admitted into the cylinder, let us fuppofe that too much is admitted ; then the velocity of the fly-wheel is in- creafed, and the velocity of the vertical axis, ¢, will alfo increafe, and the balls 4, 5, will recede from the axis by the augmentation of their centrifugal force. By this recefs of the balls, the extremity, x, of the lever is deprefled, its other extremity rifes, and a€ting upon the lever y, caufes the vane of the throttle-valve to prefent more furface, to clofe the paflage a little, and diminifh the fupply of fteam- The impelling power of the engine being thus diminifhed, the velocity of the fly-wheel and the flying balls decreafes in proportion, and the balls refume their former pofition, and the engine works regularly. The advantage of the fun and planet wheels has been {tated to confitt in making the fly-wheel revolye with a double velocity to that which would be produced by a fim- ple crank, by which means a fly-wheel of {maller dimenfions becomes fufficient to regulate the motion of the engine. Of late years, this ingenious contrivance has been laid afide in favour of the fimple crank, becaufe it has been found that the cogs of the two wheels, when they become worn and loofe, aét with a difagreeable jerk at every change of the motion from the afcent to the defcent. As it is in many cafes an advantage to make the fly-wheel revolve with a double or triple velocity, a large cog-wheel is applied upon the axis of the crank, and this turns a pinion of only one- half or one-third of the fize, fixed upon the axis of the fly- wheel. Here the fame defect of the jerk, by the loofenefs of the cogs, will be experienced; but the wheels being larger than can be. ufed in the fun and planet wheels, a greater number of cogs are brought into action, and the wear upon each will be lefs: alfo, this form af the engine can be included in lefs room, becaufe the centre of the large fly-wheel may be brought beneath the middle of the beam. The power of the engine, when tranfmitted by the crank, is extremely variable throughout the different periods of the {troke: at firft beginning, the crank being in a line with the conneéting rod, the force of the pifton has no ation at all to turn the crank ; but as the crank begins to make a fenfible angle with the conne€ting rod, the force of the pifton be- gins to operate upon the crank to turn it round, and this with a force increafing with the angle at which the conne@- ing rod aéts upon the crank, until they are at right angles to each other ; and then the whole force of the pifton. ope- rates to drive round the crank. ‘To fhew the increments and decrements of this varying force, we have made out the following table from a projeGtion of an engine on a large {cale. A Table STEAM-ENGINE. A Table fhewing the force which the connecting rod of a fteam-engine has to turn round the crank at different parts of the motion. The parts of the engine are fuppofed to have the following proportions: length of the {troke, 1.; length of the beam, 2.; length of the crank, .5; length of the connecting rod, 3. Decimal! Por- tions of the Defcent of the Pifton, the whole Defcent being 1. Effetive Length of the Lever upon Decimal).Portion which the Con- Half aRevolution necting Rod a&s ee the whole Crank. ofthe Fly Wibesl being 1. Angle between the Conneéting Rod and Crank. fe) 46 -62 74 -830 892 “OF: -976 -986 I Te -986 -956 +92 88 824 -746 -66 oc The third column of this table alfo fhews the force which is communicated to the fly-wheel, expreffed in deci- mals, the force of the pifton being 1. The above table explains itfelf by the titles of its different columns, and it is only neceflary to remark, that the varia- tions of force are not to be confidered as an abfolute lofs of power, becaufe, when the crank has but flight power, on ar- riving towards the top or bottom of the Peake, the piiton defcends proportionably flow; and, in confequence, the iteam has more time to flow into the cylinder, and prefs upon the pifton with a greater power; therefore, what the pifton lofes in force upon the crank, it makes up in fome degree by an increafe of its force; and, from moving flower, it confumes lets fteam than when moving with its whole velo- city, and ating with full force upon the crank. Hence both the power and velocity of the pifton in the cylinder are to be confidered as varying continually ; and if the fly is fufficiently heavy, it will be found that the rotative motion is very nearly regular, while the afcent and defcent of the pilton are accelerated from nothing at the top of the cylin- der, to its greateft velocity at the middle, or near the middle, and from that point it is retarded till it comes to nothing at the bottom of the motion. The table fhews the exact in- crements and decrements. It has been confidered defirable to have fuch a motion, that the power and yelocity communicated to the fly-wheel hall be at all times equable and conftant, This was one of the firit attempts to produce a rotatory motion, as we haye men- tioned, by Mr. Fitzgerald, at Hartley colliery, in 1768: it has been repeatedly attempted fince that period. The moft practicable form in which it has been tried was by Mr. Mat- Vou. XXXIV, thew Murray, who, ina patent dated 1799, for the improve- ment of fteam-engines, defcribes a very ingenious movement for the purpofe. The defe& of all thefe contrivances for ob- taining equal power on the rotative axis is, that the pifton mutt aét upon it all at once with a fudden fhock, which in courfe of time deftroys the beft conftruéted mechanifm. In the Philofophical Journal is a defcription of a contri. vance by Mr. Samuel Clegg, for producing a rotative motion from a reciprocating one, which not only fimplifies the ma- chine very much, but exceeds the power of the commoncrank one-third, in confequence of its aétion being always perpendi- cular to the radius of the wheel, which is done by a vertical double rack and wheel. ‘The two vertical parts of this rack are joined by a femicircle at the top, and both parts are teethed on the infide, fo that the teeth of the vertical wheel are conftantly in conta& with fome of the teeth of the fork formed by the two vertical bars and the femicircle unit- ing the double racks. The wheel and rack are con- {tantly kept in gear by means of a {mall roller, a fliding-bar, and a plate, ferving, inftead of a groove, to keep the roller from deviation in this way. Although the change from the upward to the downward motion of the pifton-rod will be gradual, the change from the downward to the upward mo- tion muft be inftantaneous ; or at leaft the pifton-rod muft be brought to reft at once, from an uniform motion down- wards, and then receive in{tantaneoufly a finite velocity in the oppofite direGtion. A mode of giving a more uniform aétion to the crank, was attempted in an engine erected by Mr. Horn- blower about 1795, at the brewery of Meflrs. Meux and Co., where the alternate power of two fingle cylinders was applied by chains aéting upon circular arcs, at a con{tant diftance from the centre of the lever; while the end of the lever which was conneéted to the crank: by the conneéting rod continually varied in its a€tion, and confequently in its force on the crank, nearly in an equal proportion to the alteration of the leverage of the crank. (See the fketch of this contrivance at fig. 7. Plate V.) The two cylinders A, B, of this engine made an alternate aGtion on a band-wheel, D, by means of two chains. The lever which carried the conneé&- ing rod, F, was a wheel fixed on the fame fhaft with the band- wheel, and had a pin, E, near its periphery, to which the con- necting rod, F, was attached, This pin traverfed about 120° of the whole circle, and may be denominated the end of the lever, which, in its ation upward to e, and downward to f, ac~ ceded and receded to and from the centre of motion ; and had it traverfed through the remainder of the femicircle, it would then have preffed on the crank, G, proportionately to the fine of every angle it made in its revolution. But confidering the great preflure on this pin in the crank-wheel, it would have demanded a degree of ftrength in that part which would have been prepofterous, compared with the reft of the work. This engine has its merits and its defects ; it is {ubje& to much more friétion than a double-a¢ting cylinder, by having two cylinders and their appendages ; and unlefs the com- munication between the cylinders is clothed with the beft materials for that purpofe, a great lofs of heat muft enfue ; becaufe the furface expofed in two cylinders, compared with one double-aéting cylinder, is as 2’to 1, and the friction of the piftons will be nearly in the fame proportion, The air-pumps in this engine (for it had two, though only one condenfer) were worked by a {mall band-wheel, upon the fame axis as the great band-wheel D ; and from the oppofite fides of this, the rods, 14, were fufpended by chains. The air- pumps were open at top, and the preflure of the atmofphere always relted upon their piltons ; but as the two were aét. ing in oppofite direétions, they balanced each other as to 1@) power s STEAM-ENGINE. power: in this the inventor adopted the common double- barrelled air-pump of Haukfbee, inftead of the more per- fe& air-pump of Smeaton, which Mr. Watt employs. ‘This engine was confidered of 36 horfes’ power, and for many years performed all the work of the brewery. We have alfo feen fome fmaller engines built on the fame plan, one of them with atmofpheric cylinders. It may be confidered as an advantage in this engine, that it has a double air-pump, whereas the double cylinder has only a fingle air-pump, which draws out the air from the condenfer while the pifton is making its afcending ftroke ; but during the defcent of the pifton the air-pump is inaétive. We have feen many propofals for double-a&ting pumps. Mr. Murray, in 1801, had a patent for a new air-pump, (fee the {pecification in the Repertory of Arts, firft feries, vol. xvi.); but we have not had an opportunity of afcertaining the performance of an engine fo conftruéted ; and as the in- genious inventor does not now adopt it in the fteam-engines which he makes, we may prefume it is not of great importance. The proportion ufually given to the air-pump of a double engine is about two-thirds the diameter of the cylinder, and half the ftroke, or from one-fourth to one-fifth the capacity of the cylinder: the condentfer is of the fame fize. Whether it is owing to the circumftance of the fingle air-pump or not, we are unable to determine ; but it appears that double-aGting engines do not in general produce fo great an effet from the fuel they confume as fingle engines of the fame dimenfions. In Meffrs. Leans’ reports of the engines in Cornwall, which generally contain the accounts of 20 or 25 engines, there are feveral enormous double engines for pumping the mines, with cylinders of 66 and 65 inches, and four of 63 inches. The beft of thefe appear to be on Williams’ mine ; cylinder 65 inches diameter, and working with a {troke of 8 feet 9 inches, under a preflure of 16.6 lbs. per fquare inch: it works 10 pumps, which are a load of 70,411 lbs., at the rate of 64 ftrokes per minute, of 6 feet g inches each. Its performance with refpet to coals was, in June 1816, 30,074,507 lbs. lifted one foot high for each bufhel con- fumed. This is a very good performance; but all the other double engines are lefs, one of the 63-inch cylinders is 27 millions, the others 25, 22, 21, and even 17 millions. The advantages are all on the fide of the double engine ; the diminution of furface which is expofed to condenfation, the vis inertic of the parts in motion is much lefs, and the friGtion of the pifton is very much reduced, although the fri€tion of the joints for communicating the motion mutt be increafed, becaufe they muft be bound tight, fo as to have no fhake or loofenefs ; but this muft be inconfiderable. Before quitting the fubje&t of double engines, employed to give a rotative motion to machinery by a crank, we mult notice the remarkable difference, fhewn by Meflirs. Leans’ reports, between the performance of the {mall engines em- ployed in drawing the matter out of the mines, and thofe in pumping water. We fhould think the lofs of power from friétion in draw- ing up buckets by a rope, could not be greater than the friction of pump-buckets, and of the water moving in the Pipes ; therefore all the difference muft be attributed to the application to the rotative motion, and to the {mallnefs of the engines: thefe are ufually 14, 16, and 24 inches in diameter, but their performance, with refpect to coals, is only 3, 32, 4, and 5 millions, The beit engine they have draws only from gZ to 11 million pounds one foot high for each bufhel of coals, which is only one-third of the Produce of the beft large engines employed in pumping. One of Woolf’s double engines at Wheal Fortune mine, in May, 1816, drew only three million pounds one foot high II with each bufhel; but another at Wheal Vor mine drew fix millions. Eftimation of the Force of Steam-Engines in Horfes’ Power. —The method of exprefling the mechanical power of any machine by the weight of water or other matter which it will raife to a given height, in a certain period of time, or with a given quantity of fuel, is the mo{t unequivocal ex- preffion that can poffibly be obtained; but as fteam-engines are frequently fubftituted in the room of horfes, it has been cuftomary to calculate their mechanical energy in horfe-power, or to find the number of horfes which could perform the fame work. This, indeed, is a very vague ex- preffion of power, on account of the different degrees of {lrength which different horfes poflefs ; but itill, when we are told that a fteam-engine is equal to fixteen horfes, we have a more diftinét conception of its power, than when we are informed that it is capable of raifing a given number of pounds weight through a certain {pace in a certain time. Prior to Mr, Watt’s application of the fteam-engine to produce rotative motion, the great manufactories of the kingdom had their mill-work put in motion by the agency of water, of wind, or of horfes; and the latter had for many years been almoft exclufively employed in the breweries and diftilleries of the metropolis. It was, there- fore, natural for thofe who withed to fubftitute the power of fteam for that of horfes, to ftate the number of thofe animals, to which the new power, under given conditions, ought to be equivalent ; and it is probable that Meflrs. Watt and Boulton felt, that fuch a mode of comparifon would be more intelligible to common apprehenfions, than a more accurate and {cientific formula: it gave the power of an engine exprefled in numbers, of which the ordinary ftrength of ahorfe is the unit. This, no doubt, is not in itfelf very exat, the unit being large, and fubjeét to confiderable vari- ation. Relative to the purpofe for which it was ufed, it was, however, fufficiently corre&; and on this, as on many fimilar occafions, a more minute meafurement would have been lefs ufeful. But to give this unit all the accu- racy which can be defired, they have aflumed, from the re- fult of experiments made with the ftrong horfes employed by the brewers in London,.that the ftandard of a horfe’s power is a force able to raife 32,000 lbs. one foot high in a minute: and this, no doubt, was meant to include an allow- ance of power fufficiently ample to cover the ufual varia- tions of the ftrength of horfes, and of other circumitances that might affe&t the accuracy of the refult. In forming the eftimate juft mentioned, we think the power of a horfe is rated above the ordinary average, a circumftance which can- not be complained of by the public, as it tends to reprefent the advantage of the engines lefs than it will be found in real practice. Dr. Brewlter, in his edition of Fergufon, ftates that Meflrs. Watt and Boulton fuppofe a horfe capable of raifing 32,000 lbs. avoirdupois one a high in a minute; while Dr. Defaguliers makes it 27,500 lbs. and Mr. Smeaton only 22,916: if we divide, therefore, the number of pounds which any fteam-engine can raife one foot high in a minute by thefe three numbers, each quotient will reprefent the number of horfes to which the engine is equivalent, according to the eftimate of thefe different engineers. We will take, for example, an engine having a double-acting cylinder, on Mr. Watt’s plan, 24 inches diameter, and which makes 20 ftrokes per minute, each ftroke being five feet long, and the force of {team being equal to a preflure of ro lbs. per {quare inch. Required the number of horfe-power of fuch an engine. The {quare of the diameter of the cylinder being multi- plied by the decimal number .7854, will give the area ot the - pifton : STEAM-ENGINE. pilton: thus, 24 x 24 = 576 X »7854 = 452-4 {quare Inches, which are expofed to the preflure of the fteam. Now if we multiply this area by 10 lbs., the preflure upon every fquare inch, we fhall have 452.4 x 10 = 4524 lbs. the whole preffure upon the pilton, or the weight which the engine 1s capable of raifing with a certain velocity. Too find this velocity, we fay that the engine performs 20 double ftrokes, each of five feet long, in a minute; the pilton muit, therefore, move through 20 x 5 x 2 = 200 feet in the fame time; and, therefore, the power of the engine will be reprefented by 4524 lbs. avoirdupois, raifed through 200 feet in a minute, or by 9% hogfheads of water, ale meafure, raifed through the fame height in the fame time. Now this is equivalent to 4524 x 200 = 904,800 lbs. or 9% x 200 = 1848 hogfheads raifed through the height of one foot ina minute. This is reduced to the horfe-power of Mefirs. Boulton and Watt, by dividing by 32,000, their eftimate of the horfe-power: thus, 904800 + 32000 = 283 horfes. According to Smeaton, 904800 + 22916 = 39% horfes, According to Defaguliers, go4800 + 27500 = 33 horfes. In this calculation, it is fuppofed that the engine works enly eight hours a-day, fo that if it worked during the whole 24 hours, it would be equivalent to thrice the num- ber of horfes found by the preceding rule. Other Conflrudions of Mr. Watt's Double Engine.—A great mafs of matter mutt neceflarily be put in rapid motion at every ftroke of the reciprocating engine, and the motion mutt be ftopped and returned at the end of the ftroke. This is an evident difadvantage under which the double engine labours; for though all objeétion to the reciprocation, on account of the irregularity of motion, is done away by the application of a fly-wheel, the regularity thus at- tained is at the expence of the power, as we have fhewn in the praGtical refults of the large engines for pumping, and the engines for drawing from the mines. ‘The moit ob- vious improvement in this particular, is to lighten the mafs of the great working beam, or to difpenfe with it alto- gether. The enormous {train exerted on its arms requires a proportional itrength, and this requires a vaft mafs of matter, not lefs indeed (in an engine with a cylinder of 52 inches diameter) than three tons and a half, moving with the velo- city of three feet in a fecond, which muft be communicated in about half a fecond, fo that this mafs mu{t be brought into motion from a ftate of reft, and muft again be brought to reft, again into motion, ard again to reft, to complete the period of a ftroke. This confumes much power; and engineers have not been able to load an engine with more than ro or 11lbs. on the inch of the pilton, and pre- ferve a fufficient quantity of motion, fo as to make 12 or 15 feven-feet ftrokes in a minute. Many attempts have been made to leflen this mafs, by ufing a light framed wheel, or a light frame of carpentry, in place of a folid beam. An example of this is fhewn in the beam of New- comen’s engine (Plate II.), a method which was intro- duced by Mr. Smeaton; and another is fhewn in Mr. Horn- blower’s (Plate V. fig. 1.) ‘The form of this beam is fuch, that it would be ftronger than a folid beam containing a great many times the quantity of timber, as there is fearcely any part of it which is expofed to a tranfverfe ftrain, but every piece is either pufhed or. pulled in the direction of its length. The only evident improvement of which it ad- Mits, is to apply a ftrong tie-bolt along the whole length of the upper beam; becaufe when tie-beams of wood are nfed, it is very difficult to conne& the iron ftraps to the ends of them in fuch a manner, that they will not become loofe in time. This is an objeGtion to framed working beams, for although they are abundantly {trong at firlt, yet, after being fome time employed, the {traps and bolts with which the wooden parts are conneéted, cut their way into the wood, and the framings become loofe in the joints, and, without giving any warning, are liable to break to pieces in an inftant. A folid mafly fimple beam of fufficient ftrength bends, and fenfibly complains, (as the carpenters exprefs it,) before it breaks. In all great engines, there- fore, Mr. Watt at firft employed fuch folid beams as were found the moit durable, and leaft likely to break in a long courfe of work. They were fometimes {trengthened, in a very fimple and effective manner, by placing a king-poft perpendicular to the length of the beam, over its centre, and extending iron tie-bolts from the top of the king-poit to the two extre- mities of the beam, fo that the beam thus framed forms a triangle, of which the beam is the bafe, the king-poft the perpendicular, and the iron ties the fides, meeting the per- pendicular at the vertex of the triangle. This was an expedient generally reforted to, when the beam was found to yield from a long continuance of the aétion. There is, perhaps, no example, except the matt of a fhip, in which a piece of timber is expofed to fuch a fevere {train as the beam of an engine, becaufe it is neceflarily made as {mall as poflible ; and it is relieved from the ftrain 15 or 20 times every minute, fo that all the fibres are tried to the utmoft: we accordingly fee old beams, full of cracks lengthwife from the fibres, feparating laterally, and after this the beam lofes its ftrength. Of late years, wooden beams have been altogether difufed, and catt-iron beams fubftituted. We have already deferibed the mode of making the beam for the largeft engines, by two plates or flitches put together parallel, and leaving a {pace between them. For double engines, which are not of the very largeft dimenfions, it is ufual to have the beam calt in one piece, of a form beft adapted to give the greatett firength in the leaft weight. (See Plate 1X. Steam-Engine, Parallel Motions.) The extremities of the beam are turned ina lathe to form cylindrical pins, and upon thefe pins are fitted fockets or pieces, which have other pins proje@ting from them to form the joints of the parallel motion and conne@ting rod; fo that when the fockets are fixed on the ends of the beam, the pins will project from the beam in a direCtion perpendicular to its length, and parallel toitsaxisof motion. There aretwo pins thus projecting from each end of the beam, that is, one pinon each fide of the focket : the two links of the parallel motion are fitted to the two projeéting pins at one end, and the double joint of the conneéting rod is fitted on the two pins at the other end of the beam. The advantage of this con- ftruction is, that the joints at the ends of the beam become univerfal joints, having liberty of motion in all directions: thus, in the direétion in which the joints of the parallel motion and conneéting rod are required to bend for the mo- tion of the beam, as fhewn in the figure, the motion will be upon the projecting pins of the fockets; but if, from the axis of the beam not being rightly placed, or from any other caufe, a lateral flexure is required in the motion of the beam, the fockets of the joints will turn a little fideways upon the end of the beam, and allow the deviation, without any {train on the moving parts: were it not for this contrivance, the {malleft poffible deviation from the perpendicular direétion of the cylinder would caufe a great friction in the {tuffing- box and joints. In Mr. Murray’s beft engines, the crank- pin is alfo jointed to the conneéting rod. by a univerfal joint. See Plate VIII. fig. 4. Al the joints of the parallel motion, the connedting rod, O 2 and STEAM-ENGINE. und crank, in fhort, all the moving joints of a double engine, mutt be fitted with brafs fockets, which can be tightened round the pivots, fo as to prevent all fhake or loofenefs, which, in an engine that works both in afcend- ing and defcending, would be deftructive of its aétion. The two great links of the parallel motion are each compofed of a ftrap or loop of iron, bent fo as to make a double link, in the upper bend of which are two brafles for the pivots at the end of the beam, and at the lower end are two others, for the pivots which .proje& on each fide from a focket, which is fixed on the top of the pifton-rod. The bratles of the latter joint are held in by wedges, or crofs-keys, put through the two links at the lower end, fo that by driving the wedges farther, the brafles can be drawn tight at pleafure. The two infide brafles, that is, the lower brafs of the upper joint, and the upper brafs of the lower joint, are kept extended to their proper diftance by a piece of wood, or a light frame of iron, fitted in between them. But we have not yet fatisfa¢torily explained the ation of the parallel motion. It is plain that the pifton-rod mutt afcend and defcend in a perpendicular right line, and alfo that the end of the beam mutt afcend and defcend in the arc of acircle. When the beam rifes into the pofition of Plate VI. from a horizontal one, it gives the pifton-rod a tendency to move from its perpendicular towards the centre of the beam, which muft move towards it, was not the link, 4, attached to the beam and pifton-rod by flexible joints ; and while the lower end of the link, 4, rifes, the end of the bar or lever m, dotted, which is moveable on a fixed centre m, alfo rifes at the fame time, and the angle between m and ¢ increafes, and likewife the angle between 4 and c in- creafes flowly ; fo that the vertex of the angle between & and ¢ would move towards B, if the bar, m, was not con- fined to move round the fixed point or centre m, while the other end rifes along with the rod c. While m, therefore, rifes upon its centre, the adjoining bar, d, moves round the joint at its upper end, and draws ¢c, and the lower end of 4, from the centre of the beam, the angle between d and c increafes, and the joint between d and c recedes from the centre of the beam ; and as it cannot approach nearer to the joint between 4 and c, becaufe of the rod c, it keeps a, and the bottom of 4, in a perpendicular pofition ; fo that what- ever tendency the joint between 4 and ¢c has to approach towards the centre of the beam by the increafe of the angle between 4 and c, is corrected by an equal tendency of the lever, m, to draw the angle between d and c in a contrary direGtion ; but as the beam, B, falls into a horizontal pofi- tion, all thefe motions are reverfed. In adjuiting the parallel motion for work, when the pifton-rod, a, is found to rub moit upon the fide of the collar of the {tuffing-box neareft to m, the fixed centre point, m, mutt be fhifted a little in the contrary direétion, viz. to remove it nearer to the centre of the beam, and in an oppofite dire¢tion if it is found to rub on the other fide. That the nature of this parallel joint may be better underftood, it is proper to obferve, that all the bars which have been mentioned are made double, which cannot be fhewn in the figure, and that the two levers, m, m, are placed at a fufficient diftance afunder to allow the links 4, and the rods c, to defcend between them. Of late years, the framing for the fupport of the engine has been ally made of caft-iron. A very good form is to make the ciftern, L, of caft-iron, all in one folid piece, and to fix the cylinder A upon it with four feet : a fingle column is then erected upon the end of the ciftern L, to fupport the centre of the beam: the fly-wheel 1s fupported by {mall caft-iron ftandards rifing from the ground; and the centre of the lever m, of the parallel motion, is fupported by a fmalt bracket or {tandard erected from the flanch of the cylin- der. By this arrangement, all the parts of the engine are fo united, that they cannot deviate in the leaft from their pofition, unlefs the parts are a€tually broken. An engine on this plan is fully defcribed in the Britifh Encyclopedia, vol. vi. The engine reprefented in Plate VIII. fic. 4. is perhaps the mott complete of all. It is of the form in which Meflrs. Murray and Wood conftruét their engines, when they are not of a very large power. Steam-Engines without Beams.—Thefe have been made in a variety of forms. he fimplett of all is to conne& the pifton- rod at once with the connecting rod, and to place the crank over the centreof the cylinder : the pifton-rod mutt be guided by a parallel motion, or by fliders. The objection to this is, that the fly-wheel becomes elevated to too great a height for the communication of its motion, except in very par- ticular circumitances, without fhortening the connecting rod, which occafions the irregularity of the ation of the crank to be greater than that of our table, in which the length of the conneéting rod is fuppofed to be fix times that of the crank, or three times the ftroke of the engine, as a ‘fhorter cannot be made to work well. There is alfo a difficulty in balancing the weight of the pifton- rod, conneéting rod, and pas and in giving motion to the air-pump. The balance-weight is ufually placed on the rim of the fly-wheel; and the air-pump is either worked by a fecond {maller crank upon the axis of the fly-wheel, or by a fhort beam. Engines of this kind are frequently placed with the cylinder horizontally, and for fmall engines this anfwers very well; but in large ones, the weight of the pifton acting always at one fide wears the cylinder irregularly. Mr. Murray included this plan in his patent of 1799, which we have before mentioned, for producing the rotatory motion without a crank; and he propofed to place rollers in the pifton to bear it up. Steam-engines with horizontal cylinders are ufed with the greateft advantage in fteam-boats, as they can be made to lie low beneath the deck of the boat. Mr. Symington, we believe, firit introduced this plan. We have feen feveral engines working without a beam, in which the crank was placed immediately over the cy~ linder, and with the axis of the crank little more than its length above the top of the cylinder. For this purpofe, the pifton-rod is prolonged upwards to a length of three or four times the ftroke of the engine, and the top is guided in a groove, or by a fri€tion-wheel ; near the upper end of it is jointed the connecting rod, which defcends down to the crank-pin, fituated behind the rod, and as clofe above the cylinder as it can turn round clear of its top. By this means, the afcent and. defcent of the pifton-rod pro- duce the rotation of the crank, the lateral deviation of the crank from the perpendicular being allowed for in the angle which the conneéting rod makes with the prolonged pilton-rod. In this way the crank mutt be placed behind the pifton- rod, or out of the line of it; but it is not then thought to work fo well. . To remedy this the crank is made double, and the pro- longed pifton-rod has an opening in it for the crank-pin to pafs through, and a conneéting rod is placed on each fide of the pifton-rod, fo that it is worked between the two. It is evident that the opening through the pifton-rod muft be a groove, equal in length to the ftroke of the crank, fo that the whole of the motion of the crank-pin, from one fide to the other, can be admitted in the opening, without influencing STEAM-ENGINE. influencing the pifton-rod, except in its perpendicular afcent and detcent. ‘ The groove muft be made wide, fo that the pin cannot touch the fides of it. The pinis alwaysretained in the middle of the groove by the conneéting rods, of which there is one on each fide, extending from the crank-pin to the top of the rod, which is prolonged in the line of the pifton-rod, and is part of the frame forming the opening through which the crank-pin pailes. It is evident, that in this way the opening cannot be a ftraight line, but mutt be formed to a portion of acircle, of which the centre is the joint that unites the enaieting rods with the rod which prolongs the pifton-rod, and in a line with it. Another plan for applying the connecting rod immediately to the pifton-rod, without the intervention of a working beam, is to have the axis of the crank placed immediately beneath the cylinder bottom, and a crank formed on it at each fide: a crofs-bar is placed upon the top of the pifton- rod, long enough to reach over beyond the flanches of the cylinder; and from each end of it a connecting rod is fufpended, the lower ends of which rods are jointed to the two cranks before-mentioned. This arrangement is, perhaps, the beit of its kind, becaufe the conneéting rods are of a confiderable length, without taking up any room. Mr. Maudiflay, of London, had a patent in 1807 for an engine of this kind, of which he has conftruéted a great number. Plate VIII. fig. 3. is a fketch of one of thefe. The {pecification ftates the invention to confilt in reducing the number of the parts of the common fteam-engine, and fo arranging and conneéting them, as to render it more compaé and portable, every part being fixed to, and fup- ported by, a ftrong frame of cait-iron, perfetly detached from the building ia which it ftands: it is not, there- fore, liable to be put out of order by the finking of the foundations. A is the cylinder, placed upon a frame of cait-iron plates B, B, which, at the fame time that it ele- vates the cylinder to a fufficient height, forms the fupport for the axis of the fly-wheel D D. This axis has two cranks formed in it. E is one of the connecting rods, which, as before-mentioned, extends from thofe cranks up to the®ends of the crofs-bar, which is fixed at the top of the pifton-rod, and which is guided in its afcent and defcent by friétion- wheels R, fitted upon it, and running in grooves N, N, formed in iron frames, which are placed in a perpendicular fituation above the cylinder, and fupported by a light iron framing O. Beneath the great frame, B, are placed two circular cilterns F, G, communicating by a pipe, which are for the condenfing water: one has the cold-water pump in it, and the other contains the air-pump and condenfer. Thefe two pumps are worked alternately from the oppofite ends of a fhort beam, HI, ( fg.5-) placed beneath the cylinder, and put in motion y afmall crank, or excentric circle, whichis formed on the axis of the cranks, in the middle between the two cranks, and a¢ts in a groove or opening made in a projecting arm, K, of the beam, a {mall parallel motion being applied tothat end of the beam which works the air-pump. Inftead of valves for fupplying fteam to the cylinder, a fingle cock, with four paflages in it at L, performs the office of all the four valves : the lever of the cock is worked by a rod of communication from a handle, which is moved up and down every ftroke by the rod of the air-pump. __ The condenfer is a hollow cylinder, and the air-pump is placed within it, fo that there is no neceflity for a pipe of communication from the air-pump to the condenfer: a {mall ciltern, r, is fixed over the pump, to form the hot-well, and the difcharge-valves of the pump are made in its lid or cover, and therefore in the bottom of the ciitern. A very ingenious method of converting the reciprocating motion of the pifton-rod at once to a rotatory motion is reprefented in Plate UX. fig. 5. Parallel Motions. A. toothed wheel, C, of a diameter equal to half che ftroke of the engine, is made to roll round within a ring or fixed wheel A, having interior cogs, and being of a diameter equal to the whole ftroke, or twice as great as the internal rolling- wheel C, which is carried round ina circular orbit, fo as to work in the cogs of the ring, by having the crank-pin, R, for its centre of motion. By this means, every half turn of the crank will produce half a revolution of the centre of the fmall wheel in its orbit; and as it is all the time engaged by the cogs of the ring, it makes, during this motion, a whole revolution upon its own centre. ‘The confequence of this is, that a point taken in the circumference of the {mall wheel, will travel up and down, acrofs the centre of the interior ring, in every revolution of the fmall wheel in its orbit ; that is, it will defcribe a right line, which is a diameter of the ring. A pin, F, being placed in a proper point of the circumference of the {mall wheel, and the top of the pilton-rod being attached to it as it afcends and defcends, will produce a rotation of the crank, upon the axis of which the fly-wheel is fixed. This parallel motion is deferibed in the article Parallel Morton. It has been employed by Mr. Murray in many of his engines: the objetion to it is, that the cogs in time grow loofe, and it then makes a very noify and untfteady motion. Bell-Crank Engine.—This is a very compact form of the fteam-engine, which Meflrs. Boulton and Watt began to make foon after the expiration of their patent. The cylinder is fupported by brackets from the caft-iron condenfing ciltern, and is placed over one end of it. The beam is formed like a bell-crank, that is, a right-angled triangle, the centre of motion being at the right angle, and the axis of it is fupported by bearings {crewed to the ciftern at the lower fide: and at the end oppofite to that upon which the cylinder is placed, the horizontal arm of the triangle forms the working arm of the beam, to the extremity of which the power of the cylinder is applied. At the upper end of the perpendicular arm the end of the connecting rod is jointed, and extends to the crank, which is fupported in bearings {crewed to the ciltern at the fame end at which the cylinder is placed, the centre of motion being at the fame level with the top of the ciltern; and beneath the cylinder, the hypothenufe of the triangle of the beam forms a brace to {trengthen it. ‘Two of thefe beams are ufed, and are applied on oppolite fides of the ciftern, upon the fame axis of motion, and are united together by crofs rods, fo that they move together in the fame manner as if they were one. ‘There are, therefore, two connecting rods and two cranks; but they are formed upon one com- mon axis of motion, which is prolonged, to carry the fly- wheel. To conneét the pilton-rod with the ends of the arms of the beam, or what we have called the bafe of the right-angled triangle, a rod is fixed upon the top of the pitton-rod, acrofs the fame, at right angles ; andto the two ends of this two rods are linked, which defcend to the beam, and are jointed to it at the ends. By this means, the afcent and defcent of the pifton-rod produce a cor- refponding motion of the beam upon its centre of motion, and the upper end of the perpendicular arm moves back- wards and forwards, and by means of the connecting rods turns the cranks. The perpendicular arms of the beam are fhorter than the arms to which the cylinder-rods are at- tached, fo that the motion of the connedting rods, and the {weep STEAM-ENGINE. {weep of the cranks, are lefs than in an engine where the arms of the beam are equal. The rods which defcend from the bar which is fixed acro{s the top of the pifton-rod to the ends of the beams, are of fuch lengths, that the obliquity which is occafioned by the circular motion of the ends of the beams is f{mall, and the engine does not require any parallel motion to keep the pilton-rod perpendicular. The fame of the air-pump, which is placed in the middle of the ciftern, and is worked by two rods jointed to the horizontal arms of the beams, at half the diftance from the centre of motion at which the cylinder-rods are applied. In thefe engines, valves are not ufed for admitting and taking away the {team from the cylinder; but to perform this office, a flider, invented by Mr. Murdoch, and repre- fented in Plate VII. fig. 9, is ufed: the motion 1s com- municated to the flider by an excentric wheel or rim, fixed on the fly-wheel. The bell-crank engine is very compact, and is well adapted for temporary ufe, as it ftands wholly upon the ciftern, and requires no fixing. We have feen it ufed in a fteam-boat. Different Methods of admitting Steam alternately into the Top and Bottom of the Cylinder.—The arrangement of the four valves invented by Mr. Watt has been defcribed. This is now almoft univerfally laid afide, in favour of more fimple contrivances, though we think there is not any method fo complete in its ation, or fo durable. For large engines, four feparate fpindle-valves are {till ufed; but the method of lifting them is changed, the {pindle of one valve being formed like a tube, for the fpindle of the other to pafs through. This plan is defcribed in the f{pecification of Mr. Murray’s patent of 1801, the fame which was for the) improved air-pump. The arrangement of the pipes and paflages is the fame, and the valves are fituated in the fame places; but the boxes which contain them, in{tead of being fquare, are cylindrical, and the {pindles of the valves are placed con- centric with the axis of the cylindrical box. The {pindles of the two fteam-valves are perforated through the centre, in the manner of tubes, and rife through a ftuffing-box in the top of the box, and levers are there applied to lift them, inftead of the lever or feétor within the box, as defcribed in the firft engine. Through the tubular axis of the upper valves a {mall rod is conduted, which forms the fpindles of the lower valves; and this junétion is made tight by a ftuffing-box formed at the top of the tubes. The operation of the valves is in every refpeét the fame as the former; the only difference is in the mode of commu- nicating motion to them from the outfide, and at the top of the {fteam-box, both pair of valves being moved by rods through an opening in the lid of the box. See Plate VII. Jigs. 4and 5. This method is neat in its appearance, and an{wers equally well with the other when properly made, but it is not eafy to make it like the other; for if the lid of the fteam-box, when fattened on, deviates in the fmalleft degree from the central pofition of the valve-{pindle which pafles through its ftuffing- box, both the valves will be prevented from applying them- felves exactly to their feat. It is neceflary for the two valve-feats, and the ttuffing-box through the lid, to be made precifely on a common centre, line, or axis ; and for this pur- pofe, the upper part of the cylindrical box which contains the valves is bored out correctly withinfide, and the conical fockets in which the bell-metal feats for the valves are to be placed, are bored at the fame time ; then the lid of the box which has the ftuffing-box in it, being turned in the lathe, with a {mall proje€tion beneath its flanch to drop into the top of the cylindrical box, it will be certain to apply itfelf exactly in the centre of the box, and alfo perpendicular, when it is ferewed fa{t down in its place, becaufe the under furface of the lid, and the upper furface of the fteam-box, have been accurately formed each of them concentric with, and per- pendicular to, the axis of the valves; but it is neceflary to ufe great caution in applying packing between thefe two furfaces, becaufe it will yield unequally, if the ferews at one fide are ferewed down more forcibly than thofe on the other fide, and thus put the ftuffing-box out of the perpendicular. To prevent this, Mr. Murray makes the lid of the box with- out any flanch, but it is exatly fitted into a {mall recefs or rebate, formed for it all round at the top of the {team-box, by enlarging the diameter thereof a {mall quantity, as fhewn in Jig. 15. ‘There is no packing applied to the joint, and it is then certain chat the lid of the box will come to its true place. To prevent leakage, an iron ring is applied all round with a packing beneath it to cover the joint ; and this packing and ring being {crewed down by four fcrews makes it tight, and at the fame time keeps the lid faft; but by re- leafing the ring, the lid can be lifted out, and the valves with it, to repair them. Mr. Murray’s patent was fet afide by a writ of fcire facias, at the inftance of Meflrs. Boulton and Watt, who had previoufly practifed fome things contained in the patent ; but we believe Mr. Murray was the firft who made valves in the manner reprefented in the figure. In {mall engines, the machinery now employed for opening and fhutting thefe four valves is different from Mr. Watt’s original engine, and much more fimple. The motion is given by a rotative motion from the main axis of the fly- wheel: a wheel is fixed on the axis of the fly-wheel, and communicates motion by other wheel-work to a horizontal axis f( Plate VII. figs. 4.and 5.),upon which are two excentric wheels, which open and fhut the valves alternately. Each of the boxes may be confidered as being divided into three com- partments by the two valves, and the {team is always admitted into the top of the upper box, where the upper {team-valve is fituated ; its ufe is to admit fteam which comes from the boiler through the fteam-pipe into the middle compartment of the box, which is the paifage, 14, communicating with the top of the cylinder. In this compartment is the upper condenfing valve 4, which is moved by a rod pafling through the rod or {pindle of the upper fteam-valve g: the valve 4 is for opening a paflage from the top of the cylinder to the condenfer, through the exhaufting-pipe 13. In the fame manner, the upper valve, 7, of the lower box is called the lower fteam- valve, and is for the purpofe of admitting the fteam which defcends through the pipe, 12, into the bottom of the cylin- der, below the pifton. The valve & is for conneéting the bottom of the cylinder with the condenfer, and is therefore called the lower condenfing valve. The two rods, L, M, conneé the four valves together in pairs; thus, the rod L has an arm projecting from it at each end, one at its top, faftened to the ftem of the upper condenfing valve, and the lower fteam-valve is conneéted with it at its bottom; it will confequently, when it is lifted up by the excentric wheel, which is contained within an opening in the rod, open thofe two valves, and, by caufing a vacuum above the pilton, and a preflure of fteam beneath it, will force it upwards to the top of the cylinder. The rod M is conneéted with the upper fleam-valve at the top, and with the lower condenfing valve at the bottom. When it is lifted up by the excentric wheel, which works in an opening in the rod, it admits fteam above the pifton, and caufes a vacuum below, in which fituation the pifton will de- feend. One of the rods which conne¢t the valves mutt be al- lowed to defcend by its weight an inftant before the ea ch ifted, re . STEAM-ENGINE. lifted, otherwife the fteam will have a free paflage from the boiler tothe condenfer, a fault which iscalled blowing through, but is an operation practifed every time at fetting the engine to work, after having been fome time at reft, for the purpofe of expelling the air from the condenfer. To blow through with this engine, all the four valves muft be opened at once, which is done by lifting up the two rods, L, M, both together. Fig. 16. reprefents an ingenious form in which Mr. Mur- ray makes the excentric movements for working the valves, fo that they fhall move all at once, and not have the liberty of returning until the proper time. The excentric triangle, A B, has its fides formed by arcs of circles: the axis of motion is made to coincide exactly with one of the angles, A, and the arc, B, is de- {cribed from that centre. The excentric triangle is included within a parallel groove, CD, in an iron frame, in which it exaétly fits, as in the figure. In this pofition, it is evident that the frame is immoveable ; it cannot afcend, becaufe the circular part, B, bears againtt the lower fide, D, of the groove ; nor can it defcend, becaufe the angle, A, bears againtt the middle of the upper fide C ; at the fame time, the excentric triangle can move round a certain part of a revolution before the rod will be moved at all, and then it will rife all at once; fo that the middle of the lower fide of the groove, D, will bear againit the angle or centre of motion, A, and the upper fide, C, will be borne by the arc, B, of the excentric triangle. Four-paffaged Cock.—Of late years, inftead of the four valves invented by Mr. Watt, cocks and flides have been much ufed for alternately admitting the tteam into the cy- linder above and below the pifton: they have the advantages of fimplicity and cheapnefs, as one cock or flider is made to an{wer the purpofe of the four valves. What is called the four-paflaged cock is the moft readily applied to practice. This is reprefented in Plate VII. fy. 6. which is the cylinder of an engine made by Mr. John Dick- fon, who erected a great number exaétly the fame: the cy- linder and its pifton, with the lid and ftuffing-box for the rod, are evident from infpe€@tion. The cylinder has a flanch or _ projecting ring round it, a little below the middle, by which it is held in a jacket or cafe of caft-iron ccc, which is conftantly fupplied with tteam from the boiler by the pipee: Ff is a pipe, caft at the fame time with the cylinder, leading from the top of it, and by a crooked paflage to the cock E: gg is another fimilar paflage from the bottom of the cylinder to the cock, and entering it diametrically oppofite to the other pailage : 4is an opening, bringing fteam from the jacket ccc, by means of a fhort pipe, not feen ir the figure, being be- hind the cylinder, but caft at the fame time with it, and joining at bottom to the flanch, by which it is held in the jacket. The bore of this fhort pipe is, however, continued through the flanch, and opens into the jacket ; and when bs {crewed together, the {team has free accefs from the boiler through the jacket into the fhort pipe, and from thence into the paflage 4, which advances horizontally forwards, as reprefented by the dark circle 4, fig. 6, and turns into the cock ; the fhort pipe has a thin circular vane . init, turning upon a pivot to form the throttle-valve, as we have before defcribed. When the fteam is not made to pafs through the jacket, the circular paflage, 4, may be confidered as the continuation of the fteam-pipe coming immediately from the boiler ; and then the throttle-valve is placed in fome part of the fame pipe: pp is the pipe conveying the fteam away from the linder to the condenfer, which is of the ordinary contftruc- tion. K is a handle fixed upon a {pindle, on which is a rack, turning a cog-wheel upon the end of the cock E; this rack is partly feen in the drawing, but the pinion is concealed. . There are two pins fixed upon the rod of the air-pump, which take the handle K, as they move up and down, and thus turn the cock a portion of a turn each time: there is alfo a lever fixed on the {pindle of the handle K, the ends of which flop againit the ends of a crooked iteel-fpring ferewed to the iron frame fupporting the bear- ings for the {fpindle of the rack ; fo that the motion allowed thereby to the handle, K, and the rack, will turn the cock one-fourth of a whole turn, but no more. N is a cock com- municating (when open) from the jacket ccc to the pipe pp, and thereby to the condenfer, for the purpofe of blowing through at firft ftarting the engine. Now, fuppofe the {team flowing through the fteam-pipe, e, from the boiler, it enters between the jacket, ccc, and the cylinder, pafles through the fhort pipe and throttle-valve into the opening 4, thence through the crooked paflage in the cock E, to the pipe ff; leading to the top of the cylinder, thus caufing the pifton to defcend. The fteam in the lower part of the cylinder efcapes, by the pipe ¢, through the other paflage of the cock E, and by the pipe pf, into the condenfer. When the pifton arrives at the bottom of the cylinder, the pin on the air- pump rodcarries down the handle, K, which, with its rack a&t- ing in the pinion on the end of the cock E, turns it into the pofition feen at fg. 7. The operation is now reverfed, the fteam enters from the jacket at 4, through the cock E, and by the pipe g, into the bottom of the cylinder, forcing the pifton to the top ; at the fame time the {team contained above the pifton efcapes through the opening ff, and the cock E, by the pipe pf, into the condenfer. When the pin on the air-pump rod reaches the handle, K, in its afcent, it returns the cock to the pofition at /ig. 6, when the operation is re- peated. . Nothing can be more fimple, or appear more perfedt, than this contrivance, which was originally ufed by Papin in his air-cylinders ; and Leupold, in his 'Theatrum Machinarum Hydraulicarum, vol. ii. has fhewn the manner of its appli- cation to a high-preflure fteam-engine. In praétice it has feveral objeGtions. The pipe leading from the top and bottom of the cylinder to the cock is fo much added to the volume of the cylinder, and the quantity of fteam which they contain muft be wafted every ftroke without any advantage; but in the four valves, there is no farther lofs than of the fmall quantity of {team which is con- tained in the paflages 14 and 15, Plate VII. fig. 1. which are purpofely made as narrow as they can be to admit the {team freely. Secondly : The paflages cannot conveniently be made large enough to admit a full fupply of fteam, though it fhould be underftood, that, in the other dire€tion, they are three or four times as wide as they appear in the fection, . 6. In thefe engines the fteam is always wire-drawn in paff- ing through the paflages; hence the fteam in the boiler mult be made ftronger than it is intended to be ufed in the cy- linder, to which, however, there is no obje¢tion, as it gives it fomething of the expanfive aétion. Thirdly : Thefe cocks do not wear equally, becaufe there is much lefs furface expofed to fri€tion in the part where the paflages are ; and as the furface which is interpofed between the paflages is fo {mall, they leak immoderately from one paflage to the other, unlefs the fitting of the cock is perfeét. or thefe reafons, the four-paflaged cocks have been confined to {mall engines, and principally thofe which work with high-preflure {team, be- caufe that will pafs through very {mall openings. Mr. Bramah has made feveral {team-engines, in which he employed a four-paflaged cock on a conftruction fomewhat different from the above. ‘The fteam from the boiler is made to enter into a hollow at the large end of the co cy) STEAM-ENGINE. of the cock, and to pafs away to the condenfer by a naflage at the {mall end of the cone ofthe cock, which, by this means, is always prefled into its feat .by the force of the {team ating upon a furface equal to the {mall end of the cock, from which the preffure is relieved. This keeps the cock always tight ; and to prevent the moveable part from being fixed fa{t by the preflure, the cone is made much more obtufe than ufual. The paflages for the fteam between the cock, and the top and bottom of the cylinder, are nearly the fame as in fig. 6. Mr. Bramah had a patent for this in 1802; and another improvement was, that he made the cock to turn continually the fame way round one-fourth at a time; by which means the fame effeéts are produced as by turning it backwards and forwards, but the wear is rendered more equable. Mr. Maudflay has adopted in his engines a four-paflaged cock, in which the fleam is made to prefs the cone into its feat. Sliding-Valves by Mr. Murray. — With a view of re- medying the inconveniencies of the four-paflaged cock, the fame effet has been attained by a plate fliding upon a flat furface, in which the paflages are formed. A cylinder, with a flider upon this conftruGion, is reprefented in Plate VII. fig. 8. It is ufed by Mr. Murray in {mall fteam-engines, and found to an{wer the purpofe extremely well, from the fimplicity of its conftru€tion, and its dura- bility, but, above all, from not being fubject to wear or get out of order. A A reprefent the cylinder, inclofed in a calt-iron jacket, and furrounded with fteam: it is fur- nifhed with a pifton-lid, and ftuffing-box, for the rod to pafs through in the ufual manner; a is the paflage for the fteam to enter the top of the cylinder; and 4, the paflage into the bottom, to admit fteam below the pifton. The fleam is conveyed from the boiler by the pipe B, pafles through the throttle-valve c, and into the fteam-box dd, from which it is diftributed to the cylinder by its different paflages, as required. This fteam-box is {crewed by a flanch againtt the flat furface of a pipe D, extending from the top of the cylinder to the bottom, and attached by dove-tailed joints to the two necks, a, 6, of the cylinder. In the flat furface of the pipe D, there are three openings, m,n,o: the upper one, m, communicates with the top of the cylinder, through the paflage a; the middle opening, 2, communicates with the condenfer by pafling out fideways to the eduétion-pipe, as at the dark circle at p; and the lower opening, 0, com- municates with the bottom of the cylinder by the paflage J: v is the flider, made in the form of a box or cover, and ground round its edges, fo as to fit exaétly flat againit the furface of the fteam-pipe D, in which the three openings are made, and which is ground alfo. This flide is moved up and down by the {mall feétor s, ating in the teeth of a rack, fixed to the back of the flide. ‘The fpindle of the fector pafles through a ftuffing-box in the fide of the fteam- box, and 1s moved on the outfide by an excentric wheel on the axis of the fly-wheel. The motion of the flider r, up and down, either conneéts the openings of the two paflages mand n, or the two openings 2 and o. In the drawing, it is reprefented as connecting the upper paflage m with n, which leads to the condenfer, at the fame time leaving the opening o uncovered, to receive the iteam from the fteam- box; confequently the fteam enters below the pitton, through the neck 4, caufing it to rife, and efcapes from the top of the cylinder through the neck @; and by the connetion of the opening m with x, it pafles out at p into the condenfer; Now if the flide is moved down, by turning the fe&tor s, fo that the lower paflage o is con- neGted with n; which leads to the condenfer, the top opening m will be open to the fteam-box, and the fteam will enter at the top of the cylinder, and caufe the pifton to defcend, while the {team in the bottom of the cylinder will rufh through the opening 4, and by the conne@tion of the paflage o with x, it will pafs into the condenfer. In this manner, by alternately moving the flide up and down, this aétion is repeated, and the engine kept going. In the figure of Mr. Maurray’s {mall engine ( Plate VIII. Jig. 4.) the excentric circle B is plainly feen upon the axis of the fly-wheel; it operates exaétly the fame gs a fhort crank, and has an iron frame or collar embracing it. By this a motion backwards and forwards 1s communicated by the rod B.S to an axis, upon which are levers, giving motion to the lever of the fe€tor, which moves the fliding-valve. The whole of the engine is upon an excellent conftruétion: the air-pump is worked by the rod R, at the outer end of the beam. In 1799, Mr. William Murdoch of Redruth, in Corn- wall, obtained a patent for feveral improvements in fteam- engines, amongft which is a fimple conftruétion of the {team-valve, or contrivance by which the fteam is diftri- buted to the cylinder, or withdrawn from it at the proper period. This contrivance is a fliding-valve, which performs all the offices of the four valves which we have defcribed for the double engine. Mr. Murdoch’s patent has been adopted by Meffrs. Watt and Boulton in moft of their {mall en- gines, for many years paft; and they have lately, with fome alterations, introduced it into large engines. In Plate V1. fig. 9, A A is the fteam-cylinder of the engine ; B, the pifton, and C, the pifton-rod; D is the upper open- ing or {leam-way into the cylinder; F is the fteam-cafe: in this is applied the fliding-tube, which performs the office of all the four fteam-valves in the manner following. GG isa femicylindrical fteam-pipe, (but which may be cylindric, triangular, or of any convenient form,) communicating with the fteam-cylinder both at its upper and lower open- ings, and firmly fixed or conneéted to the tteam-cafe, or with the cylinder itfelf, where no fteam-cafe is ufed. This tube has an opening, H, on its fide, with a regulat- ing valve for the admiffion of {team from the boiler ; and an- other opening, I, at bottom, which leads to the condenfer. At the top it is covered with a plate T, having a hole and ftuffing-box to admit the fliding-rod K, which is jointed to, or connected with, an inner moveable pipe or tube L M, open at both ends. To one fide of the fliding-tube are affixed the folid plates or valves L, M, intended to flide upon the plates at D and E, and occafionally to cover and uncover the upper and lower openings D and E of the cylinder. Oppofite to thefe plates the remaining circumference of the tube, LM, is furnifhed with projeGtions or flanches of brafs, or other metal, with an interttice between them, to receive a pack- ing of hemp, or other proper fub{tance, which wiil per- mit the tube, LM, to move up and down, fteam-tight, in the fixed tube GG. ‘There are openings provided in the fteam-pipe G G, which are fhut with plugs or plates, {crewed or otherwife fixed to it, which may be removed to repair the packing. When the fliding-tube, LM, is in the pofition fhewn in the figure, the fteam enters through the tteam-pipe H, and filling the inter{tices between the tteam-tube GG, and the fliding-tube LM, paffes into the cylinder at the upper opennmg D. As the lower opening, E, is open to the con- denfer, a vacuum will be formed withinfide the fliding-tube L, and alfo below the pilton, through the paflage E, which is uncovered by the rife of the fliding-rod. In confequence, the pifton defcends; and when it has got near the 7 3 °. 1d STEAM-ENGINE. of the cylinder, a bracket, attached to the top of the pifton-rod C, ftrikes a projeétion upon the fliding-rod K, and caufes the tube, L M, to defcend a fmall quantity in the fteam-pipe G. The fliding parts, L,M, by this motion, flide palt the openings D and E of the cylinder, fo as to be beneath them; and the fteam, which is above the pitton, iffues at the upper opening, and pafles down the infide of the tube L M, into the condenfer. At the fame time, the fteam continuing to pafs from the boiler through the pipe H, and the interitice between the fteam-pipe and the flidins-pipe, enters the cylinder by the lower opening E, and forces up the piiton and pifton-rod, with its bracket, which, near the end of the afcending ftroke, encounters another projection of the fliding-rod K, and raifes the tube, LM, into its former pofition of the figure. The operations are then repeated. This is the plan ufed in Meflrs. Watt and Boulton’s bell-crank engine, and it 1s very good, becaufe no iteam is lott, as in all other conftructions, where only one cock or flider is ufed. If the fliding-plates, where they apply together, are made of fteel, and hardened, they then wear extremely well. In fome of Mefirs. Watt and Boulton’s lateit engines, they have ufed fimilar fliders for large engines; but, in this cafe, they make the two fliders feparate, being moved only by a _rod of communication: becaufe, if they were applied to a ftrong moving pipe, there would not be fo great a certainty of their complete action, as the leaft deviation of the two fliders at the top and bottom of the cylinder would caufe a great leakage. There ere many other methods of diftributing the fteam alternately to the top and bottom of the cylinder; but as we have defcribed thofe which are brought to fuch a degree of perfection as to be commonly uted, it is unne- ceflary to purfue the fubjeét any farther. Regulation of the Velocity of an Engine.—This is a matter of confiderable impertance. The moft common method, as we have noticed, is by the governor or revolving pendulum ; but there are others which, in particular circumftances, are very applicable. One is to have a {mall pump worked by the engine, and raifing up water into a ciftern, from which it runs out again in a conftant ftream. By this means, the water will accumulate and rife in the ciftern, if the engine works rapidly, fo as to pump more water into the ciftern than will flow out of it in the fame time ; and, on the other hand, the furface of the water will fink in the ciftern, if the engine works flowly ; and a float being placed in the ciftern, and conneéted with a wire to the throttle-valve, will Fegulate the motion of the engine. See ReGuLATOR. In 1805, Mr. Job Rider obtained a patent for improve- ments in the fteam-engine. Thefe improvements confift, firft, in lining the fteam-cylinder with a foft metal, of a fuf- ficient thicknefs to admit of finifhing the infide of the cy- linder of fuch metal, by drawing, boring, or otherwife ; fecondly, in applying a hollow pifton-rod, anfwering the purpofe of an edution-pipe ; thirdly, in the order of open- ing and fhutting the valves; and fourthly, in regulating the {peed of the engine by a pendulum. The nature of this latter contrivance is very ingenious, and may perhaps be un- derftood from the following defcription. Upon an horizontal arbor, which we will denominate the main arbor, are placed three wheels, a drum or barrel, and a pinion: one of thefe wheels, that is to fay, the main wheel, is fitted by means of a focket upon the main arbor, fo as to turn round upon that arbor, and has teeth both upon the exterior and in- terior periphery of its rim. Within the circle of the interior cogs of this wheel a pinion is fixed to the arbor, its diameter being one-third of the interior diameter of the main wheel ; eL. XXXIV. and this pinion has teeth furrounding its convex furface. The moveable barrel turns freely upon the main arbor; its dia- meter is rather lefs than the exterior diameter of the main wheel, and it carries a cord, with a weight hanging at its end, acting like a clock-weight. Befides this, the ends of the barrel are pierced with two orifices, each at about half the exterior radius of the main wheel from the arbor; thefe holes ferving as bufhes or pivot-holes, wherein an arbor turns, carrying a wheel, of which the diameter and number of teeth are equal to thofe of the pinion; the latter wheel may be called the barrel-pinion ; its teeth work in the teeth of the pinion, and alfo in the interior teeth of the main wheel. By thefe means, the barrel may be turned round upon the main arbor, while the arbor itfelf is turned by the pinion, which is aéted upon by the barrel-pinion, at the fame time that this pinion ats upon the interior teeth of the main wheel. The external teeth of the main wheel turn the pinion of a fcapement-wheel and pallets, nearly fimilar to thofe in Graham’s dead-beat. Near one end of the main arbor there is a ratchet-wheel, and wheel and click; and near the other end a wheel, which is aéted upon by an end- lefs {crew upon a horizontal fhaft, worked by the general operation of the fteam-engine. This arrangement ferves to regulate the rate of the engine’s motion ; for the turning of the worm-wheel, by the general motion of the engine, caufes the weight to be raifed which hangs to the cord that winds upon the barrel; and this weight is connected to one end of a lever, the other end of which is attached to the {team-valve in {uch a manner, that the degree of opening of that valve depends upon the alti- tude to which the weight is raifed. The aperture of this valve is formed like an inverted cone; and while this valve fhuts and opens twice at every ftroke, the lever does not prevent fuch opening and fhutting, but merely limits the extent of the opening by the {pringing up of a rod con- neéted with it. By this contrivance it happens, that when the weight is higheft, the valve is leaft opened; and when the weight is loweft, the valve is moft opened. Hence it is evident, that fhould the engine wind up the weight, by turning the worm falter than the pendulum permits it to defcend by the turning of the barrel, the aperture of the valve will be contraéted; and vice vera. Tuite power is loft by thefe means, and the {peed of the engine can be ace curately regulated by properly adjufting the length of the pendulum, and the numbers of teeth in the wheels and pinions. As to the ratchet-wheel and click, their fole ufe is to prevent the weight from drawing the line off the barrel, when the worm-wheel is thrown out of gear. We have not had an opportunity of feeing one of thefe machines at work, but think it would operate very well. Mr. Cartwright’s Engine —In giving the hiftory of Mr. Watt’s inventions, we mentioned that the condenfation by external cold was one of his firft ideas, and given up, be- caufe he found it better to employ injection. We have alfo defcribed his fingle engine, in which the pifton rifes in vacuo. In 1797, Mr. Cartwright took: out a patent for improvements in the conitruétion of fteam-engines, in which the condenfation is performed by the application of cold to the external furface of the veffel containing the fteam. The manner Mr. Cartwright effects this is by admitting the fteam between two metal cylinders, lying one within the other, and having cold water flowing through the inner one, and furrounding the outer one. By thefe means, 2 very thin body of {team is expofed to the greateft poffible furface of cold metal. By means of a valye in the pilton, there is a conftant communication at all times between the condenfer and the cylinder, oo above or below the pif- tons STEAM-ENGINE. ton; fo that whether it afcends or defeends, the condenfa- tion is always taking place, in the fame manner as Mr. Watt’s engines, where the pifton rifes in vacuo. But what was probably efteemed one of the mott important circum- {tances attending the mode of condenfation, was the oppor- tunity it affords of fubftituting ardent {pirit, either wholly or in part, in the place of water, for working the engine. For as the fluid, with which it is worked, is made to cir- culate through the engine without mixture or diminution, the ufing alcohol, after the firft fupply, would be attended with no very great expence; on the contrary, the advan- tage was expected to be great, even equal to the favin of half the fuel. If, indeed, the engine could be applied, as Mr. Cartwright occalionally purpofed, both as a me- chanical power and as a ftill at the fame time, the whole fuel would be faved. Mr. Cartwright has been very attentive in fimplifying all the other parts of the engine, his engine having only two valves, and thofe are as nearly felf-a€ting as may be: in confequence, the engine is rendered applicable to purpofes requiring only a {mall power, and for which any other en- gine would be too complicated and expenfive. See a figure of Mr. Cartwright’s engine, Plate V. fig. 8, where a is the cylinder, which is fupplied with fleam from the boiler through the pipe 2; c is the pifton in the a@ of going up; d is the edution-pipe that conduéts the fteam into the con- denfer w, which confilts of two cylinders, one within the other, leaving a {mall {pace between them, into which the fteam is admitted; while the inner cylinder is filled with cold water, and alfo the external cylinder furrounded by the fame; fo that, by this means, a very large furface of fteam is expofed to the cold of the water, though no water is fuffered to come in a€tual conta& with it. To the bottom of the pifton ¢ is attached a rod, with another pifton e, working in the barrel d, which is in reality the air-pump of the engine, and has a pipe, f, to the con- denfer, When the pifton ¢ arrives at the bottom of the cylinder, a valve, r, which is in the pifton is opened, by its tail prefling againit the bottom of the cylinder, which opens the communication from above the pifton to the condenfer, while the {pring 4, fixed to the rod of the piflon, prefles down the tail, and fhuts the fteam-valve ¢, which admits the fteam from the boiler. The fteam therefore within the cylinder, both above and below the pifton, being condenfed, runs through the lower pipe, f, to the air-pump, and the piiton, being relieved from all preffure, is drawn up in the cylinder by the fly-wheel. The pifton e of the air-pump arriving at the top of the barrel, in which it works at the fame time with the working pifton c, draws the air from the condenfer, and on its return at the next {troke, prefles upon the con- denfed water, fhuts the valve f, and forces the water up the Pipe g, into the box 4: the air which is difengaged from the water rifes to the top of the box, and by its elalticity forces the water through the pipe 7, which carries it back again to the boiler. When the air accumulates in the box to fuch a degree as to deprefs the water, the ball-cock falls with it, and opens a valve in the top of the box, which fuffers fome of the air to efcape. When the pilton arrives at the top of the cylinder, it preffes up the fteam-valve #, which admits the fteam again from the boiler, to force it down as before ; and the valve, r, in the pilton fhuts by prefling up beneath the top of the cy- linder. The preflure of the tteam is now above the pifton, and a vacuum beneath; the pifton therefore defcends, and when at the bottom, fhuts the fteam-valve ¢, and opens the valve, r, in the pifton, When all the fteam in the upper part of the cylinder is 2 condenfed, the motion of the fly attached to the machine brings the pilton up again, its valves now remaining fhut by their weight. and m are two cranks, upon whofe axes are two equal cog-wheels working in each other, for the purpole of con- verting the perpendicular motion of the pilton-rod into a rotatory motion for working the machinery attached to it. As it is evident, from its conftruétion, that the whole of the {team is brought back again into the boiler, it affords the means of employing ardent {pirit inftead of water, and thus faving a great deal of fuel. Cartwright’s Metallic Piflon.—The moft valuable part of this engine is in the con{truétion of the pilton, which Mr. C. made wholly of metal, fo as by means of fprings to fit the cylinder very exadtly. This not only faves the expence and trouble of pack- ing, which mutt be frequently renewed in all other en. gines, but alfo a great deal of fteam, on account of the more accurate fitting of the pifton. This pifton is made in the following manner: Two metal rings are ground, by means well known to good mechanics, into the cylinder, fo as to fit it as perfectly as art and induftry can make them; that is fo well, that no fteam can pafs between them and the cylinder: their upper and under fides are alfo ground per- fectly flat, and applied one upon the other, Though not abfolutely neceflary, for greater fecurity two other rings are fitted to the infide of thefe. On the upper rings is placed a plate of metal, alfo ground perfe&tly flat, and of {uch a diameter as almolt to fit the cylinder. A fimilar flat plate is placed below the under ring; and the two plates, with the rings between, are attached firmly to each other by means of the pifton-rod that pafles through them, and they thus form a fhell; in which the other rings are contained. It is plain then, fuppofing neither the outfide rings nor the cylinder are able to wear one another, that fuch a pifton would remain fteam-tight ; but as conftant fri€tion muft in- evitably tend to enlarge the cylinder, and diminifh the diame- ter of the rings, the pifton, after fome time, would ceafe ta fit, if a contrivance had not been made to remedy the evil. The rings are each of them cut into three pieces, and in cut- ting them, fuch a portion of the metal is taken away as to leave room to introduce, between two of the pieces, a {pring in form of the letter V, the open end of which is placed outwards, almoft clofe to the circumference; by which means the two pieces againft which the two fides of the {pring a& are preffed, in the direétion of the circumference, againit the ends of the third piece; fo that the three pieces are thus kept fo uniformly in conta& with the cylinder, that the longer the machine is worked the better the rings muft fit. To prevent iteam pafling through the cuts in the rings, the folid parts of the upper rings are made to fall upon the divifions and {prings of the under enes, fo as to form a break joint. : The ftuffing-box round the pifton-rod was propofed to be done in the fame manner. The metallic pilton has been found advantageous, and Mr. Woolf ufes it in his engines, which is the greateft trial of a pilton, becaufe of the rarity of the fteam. Plate VII. Jigs. 10 and 11, reprefent a piiton of a four-horfe engine, which was made by Mefirs. Lloyd and Oftel. A is the pilton-rod, and BCC the folid metal of the pifton, firmly fit- ted and keyed to it: the loweredge, C, of the plate, B, is made very nearly to fit to the cylinder; but for the a¢tual fitting, dependence is placed on the four rings, D, fitted one upon another, and each divided into four fegments, as fhewn by fig. 10. The interior furface of thefe rings is made rather conical, and a fecond fet of {maller rings, E, is accurately fitted STEAM-ENGINE. fitted withinfide of them. Thefe rings are divided, like the former, each into four feyments, and the ‘prings are applied behind them, as fhewn in fg. 10, in a better manner than the origival, which were like the letter V. E E is the cover-plate, which 1s {crewed 01 over all the fegments, to confine them: it prefles down the interior rings into the exterior, and the contaét between them being by a conical furface, the efle& is to fpread the outer rings a {mall quantity, and enlarge them till they exatly fill the cylinder. The dark mark be- neath the lowermolt interior ring E, is a piece of felt or palteboard, which fuftains the rings, and prevents them from defcending, except when the {crews are tightened, or the rings would expand with too much force into the cy- linder. Woolf's improved Piflon.—The common method of packing the pifton of a fleam-engine with hemp, will be fo well under- ftood after what we have faid, that a particular defcription of it in this place is not neceflary ; fuffice it to fay, that the hollow part round the pifton is filled with rounds of hemp, loofely twifted into a foft rope, which is prefled into a ty compact form by a ring, and worked down by ws diftributed round the ring, which work into the body ‘of the pifton; by this means the packing is made to fill the diameter of the cylinder pretty clo!ely, and to prevent, while the packing remains found, any fteam from paffing between the pifton and the cylinder. I: the ufual method, whenever the pifton, by continued working, becomes too eafy, and fo occafions a walte of fteam, it is neceflary to take off the - top of the cylinder, even when frefh hemp or packing is not wanted, merely to get at the fcrews, which ferve to force the upper ring nearer to the bottom of the pilton, by which means the packing is forced outwards againit the fide of the linder. ver hie being heavy laborious work, it is generally deferred, by the man that attends the engine, as long as the engine can poflibly be made to work without taking this trouble ; and in confequence of this negle@, a great and unneceflary waite of fteam is occafioned, and a walte of fuel in pro- rtion. Mr. Woolf’s improvement on the pifton is fuch as to enable the engine-man to tighten the pifton, without the neceflity of taking off the cover of the cylinder, except when new packing becomes neceflary. He accomplifhes this by either of the two following methods. He faftens on the head of each of the fcrews a {mall cog-wheel, ¢, ¢, c, ¢, (Plate VI. figs. 12 and 13.) which wheels are all conneéted with each other by means of a central wheel dd, which works loofe upon a8 pifton-rod in fuch a manner, that if any one of the {mall wheels and its {crew be turned, it turns the central wheel, and the latter turns all the other three wheels and f{crews, That one which is to be firft turned is furnifhed with a projeGting fquare head f, which rifes up into a recefs in the cover of the cylinder. This recefs is furmounted by a cap or bonnet, which ae eafily taken off, and as eafily put again in its place, there is little difficulty in {crewing down the packing at any time, by applying a key to the {quare head of this {crew. The parts are fo clearly expreffed in the plates, that no farther defcription is neceflary to make any perfon comprehend it. Mr. rod aaitiaved another method for fmall piftons, which is fimilar in principle, but a little different in conftruc- tion, Inftead of having feveral fcrews, all worked down by one motion, there is in this but one ferew, and that one is cut upon the pifton-rod itfelf; on this is placed a wheel of a convenient diameter, the centre of which is furnifhed with a female-ferew, This wheel is turned round, i. ¢, ferewed down by means of a pinion, which is furnifhed with a fquare projeCting head, rifing into a recels of the kind already de- feribed. The upper ring of the pifton is prevented from turning with the wheel by means of two fteady pins. High-Preffure Steam-Engine.—The operation of the high- preflure fteam-engine is effected folely by the expanfive force of fleam, which is not condenfed in the manner of the at- mofpheric or Watt’s engine. The {team being raifed in the boiler, and heated far beyond the boiling point, is made to acquire a great expanfive force, and exert an immenfe pref- {ure to efcape from any veflel in which it is confined, even as great as four or five times the preflure of the atmofphere. This tteam being allowed to enter into one end of a cylin- der, while the other end of the fame communicates with the open air, it will exert a force upon the pifton of the cylin- der, and move it from one end to the other. This is the principle of the high-preflure engine, which has been much introduced of late, on account of fome advantages which it poflefles in particular fituations over other engines: firft, from the fimplicity of its con{tru€tion and ctkaglaete ; fecondly, the {mall {pace which it occupies; thirdly, its requiring no con- denfing water, which in fome fituations is very difficult to procure, and in one inftance is altogether impracticable, viz. for drawing of carriages, for which purpofe this engine has been fuccefsfully ufed. To fet againit thefe advantages, the high-preflure engines are extremely liable to blow up, if not attended very carefully, for they are frequently worked with a preflure of from fixty to eighty pounds on the fquare inch. Thefe engines require a greater quantity of coals, in proportion to the force exerted, than the engines of Mr. Watt, and confequently are not worked with advantage in a fituati n where coals are dear. The firft application of high-preflure fteam to an engine, is what we find defcribed in 1724, by Leupold, in his Thea- trum Machinarum Hydraulicarum, vol. ii. p. 93. He af- cribes the invention to Papin, on account of his having given him the idea of applying the expanfive force of fteam for the purpofe of raifing water, and alfo becaufe he took the conftruétion of the four-paflaged cock, to communicate alter- nately with two cylinders, from Papin’s air-machine, which has been defcribed in the former part of this article. The engine defcribed by Leupold confitts of two fingle cylinders, placed at fome diftance from each other, with a pifton fitted to each, and applied to two feparate beams, which at the oppofite ends work two forcing-pumps. Between the two cylinders is the four-paffaged cock, the fame as defcribed in Plate VII. Steam-Engine, fig. 6, for admitting the fteam from the boiler alternately into the bottom of each cylinder, or allowing it to efcape from the cylinders into the air. The boiler is fituated beneath the two cylinders, and communi- cates with the cock by a fhort upright pipe. The aétion of this engine is very fimple: the fteam being raifed very ftrong in the boiler, is allowed to enter through the cock into the bottom of one of the cylinders, at the fame time that the air or fteam efcapes from the bottom of the other, through the other paflage of the cock into the open air. In this way, the preffure of the fteam caufes the afcent of the firft-men- tioned pifton, and the other defcends by its counter-weight. By turning the cock round one-fourth, the operation is re- verfed, fo that the {team enters the bottom of the fecond cylinder, and the fteam which was contained in the firft efcapes through the paflage of the cock into the air, The next propofal for a high-preflure engine is Mr. Watt’s patent of 1769. See the fourth particular of his fpecification, which we have given, but we do not know that he ever pra¢tifed it, finding his own invention fo much fuperior. he high-preffure engines at prefent in ufe were intro- duced by Mr. Trevethick, in conjunétion with Mr, Vivian, who abtained a patent for the fame in 1802: this was prin- P2 cipally STEAM-ENGINE. eipally for their application of the engine to the purpofe of driving of carriages upon rail-roads. This engine containing no material parts which are not ufed in other engines, and before defcribed, it may be ex- plained without a drawing. ‘The boiler confifts of a large cylinder of caft iron, made very flrong, and placed with its axis horizontally upon fhort feet or pillars of caft iron: the boiler has a flanchat one of its ends, to {crew on the end or cover, which has the requifite openings for the fire-door, the man-hole, the exit for the fmoke, and the gauge-cocks. The fire is contained within the boiler, in a cylindrical tube of wrought iron, which is furrounded with water on all fides, in the fame manner as the fire in Mr. Smeaton’s portable en- gines, of which we have given the defcription ; but there is alittle difference in the application: one end of this tube is flanched to the end or cover of the boiler, and is divided into two parts, by having the fire-grate extended acrofs it : the fire-door clofes the opening in the upper half, which is the fire-place, the lower half forming the afh-pit: the tube ex- tends nearly to the end of the boiler, where it is reduced in fize, then doubles, and returns back in a dire@tion parallel to the firft tube or fire-place to form the flue or chimney, till it arrives at the end or cover of the boiler, through which it pafles at the fide of the fire-door, and a flue is then con- duGed from it into the chimney, to carry off the {moke. At the part where the flue enters the chimney is a {mall door, to remove any foot that may have accumulated. On the top of the boiler is a fafety-valve, kept down bya lever and weight, to allow the fteam to efcape in cafe it becomes fo {trong as to endanger the burtting of the boiler. The fteam- cylinder ftands in a perpendicular direction, and is inclofed within the boiler, except a few inches of its upper end, at which the four-paflaged cock is fituated, and the flanch which {crews on the lid, with the ftuffing box for the pifton-rod to pafsthrough, The boiler has a projecting neck, into which the cylinder is received, and it is faftened in its place by a flanch round the upper eud of the neck ef the boiler, which is united by {crews to a flanch projecting from the cylinder at about one-third from its top flanch. The upper end of the pifton-rod is faftened to the middle of a erofs-bar, which is placed in a dire¢tion at right angles to the length of the boiler, and guided in its afcending and de- {cending vertical motion, by fliding upon two perpendicular iron rods, fixed to the boiler, parallel to each other, being conne€ted together at top, and firmly fupported there by two diagonal ftays, extending from the other end of the boiler, and fecured to the flanch, which ferews on the end of the boiler. At the ends of the crofs-bar of the pifton-rod the two conneéting rods are jointed, and the lower ends of them are conneéted with two cranks, fixed upon an axis, ex- tending acrofs beneath the boiler, and under the centre of the cylinder; the axis is {upported in bearings made in the legs which fupport the boiler, and the fly-wheel is fixed in it. One of the cranks is formed by a pin whichis fixed into the arm of the fly-wheel, at the fame radius as the oppofite crank. The fly-wheel is fituated clofe to the fide of the boiler, and the pin for the other crank is fixed into the arm ef a large cog-wheel, fixed on the axis of the fly-wheel, at the oppofite fide of the boiler. This cog-wheel com- municates the power of the engine to other cog-wheels. As the prfton is alternately forced up and down by the pref- fure of the fteam, it carries the crofs-bar with it, and b the conneting rod turns the two cranks, together with the fly-wheel and cog-wheel. Tt now remains to fhew the means by which the fteam is brought to a& alternately on different fides of the pifton. On one fide of the cylinder, juft above the flanch which fixes it into the boiler, and beneath the top Fe) flanch, which faftens down its lid, is a protuberance of eaft iron, te contain the four paflages and the cock, fimilar to that fhewn in figs. 6and 7. One paflage rifes directly from the boiler, and brings {team to the cock at one fide, to be diftributed either to the top or bottom of the cyhnder, ac- cording to the pofition in which the cock ftands. A fecond paflage rifes from the upper fide of the cock, and procecds to the top of the cylinder, for admitting fleam above the piltons The third paflage from the under fide of the cock conne&ts with the bottom of the cylinder by a pipe caft clofe to the fide thereof, and defcending to the bottom. The fourth paflage from the cock is on the oppofite fide to where the fteam enters trom the boiler, and this paflage is open to the walte-pipe, which carries the {team into the external air, and allows it to efcape after it has pafled through the engine. Now fuppofe the paflage leading to the top of the cylinder, and that one which brings fteam, are from the boiler to be conneéted with the cock, and the paflage from the bottom of the cylinder to be conneéted with the wafte-pipe, the {team will enter above the pilton, and force it down, at the fame time that the fteam in the bottom of the cylinder will efcape by the conne¢tion of the walte-pipe with the open air. When the pifton arrives at the bottom of the ftroke, the _ cock is turned one quarter round, by means of arod jointed to the crofs-bar of the pilton-rod, and defcending perpendi- cularly, being guided at bottom by pafling through a piece of iron {crewed to the flanch of the cylinder ; this rod has two pins projecting from it, which move the handle of the cock up and down alternately ; by this the cock 1s turned on the completion of the defcending ftroke, fo that the paflage to the bottom of the cylinder is conneéted with the boiler, and that from the top with the open air: the fteam in confe- quesce enters below the piiton, and forces it up, pafling out from the upper part of the cylinder into the open air at the fame time. In this manner the motion of the engine is kept up by the pins alternately turning the cock, firft at the top of the ftroke, and then at the bottom. The boileris fupplied with water, as faft as it evaporates, by means of a {mall force-pump worked by the engine ; but as it would be a great lofs of heat to inject cold water at once into the boiler, it is firft rendered nearly or quite boiling by avery fimple contrivance. ‘The watte-pipe, which conveys the fteam away from the cylinder after having performed its office, is inclofed within an external pipe or jacket, leaving a fpace of about an inch all round; through this fpace the cold water is forced to enter at one end by the {mall force- pump, and the boiler is fupplied with water by a branch from its other extremity. By thus carrying the water fome diftance in conta& with the hot watte-pipe, through which the {team pafles, it is heated, and a confiderable quantity of heat is faved, which would otherwife be loft. The velecity of the engine is regulated, or its motion can be entirely ftopt, if required, by a cock fituated in the firft paflage from the boiler to the four-paffaged cock, fo as to regulate the paflage between the boiler and the cock. The handle of this cock may be conneéted with a governor, fimilar to thofe ufed in other engines. ‘The con{truétion of the four paflages and cock is exattly fimilar to what is reprefented in fg. 6. Plate VII., except that it is placed near the top of the cy- linder, becaufe all the lower part of the cylinder is con- tained in the boiler, and alfo that the axis of the cock is di- rected to the centre of the cylider. High-preflure engines have been fometimes made with beams and parallel levers ; but more frequently the cylinders have been placed hori- zontally, and the pifton-rod jointed at once to the connect- ing rod. Several very terrible accidents have occurred from the burfting © STEAM-ENGINE. burfting of high-preffure boilers, either from their being made too weak to relift the force they are intended to bear, or from fome mifmanagement, as loading the fafety-valve too much. Some years ago, an engine that was employed to drain water from the tide-mills, while building between Woolwich and Greenwich, was blown up by overloading the fafety-valve, when feveral people were killed. Many provifions have been made to guard againit thefe accidents by Mr. Trevethick, who firit brought the high-preflure en- ginesinto ufe: at firft he propofed inclofing the fafety-valve in fuch a manner, that no one could get accefs to it to increafe the load beyond what was intended to be employed. Se- condly, he drilled a hole in the boiler, which he plugged up with lead, at fuch a height from the bottom, that the boiler could never boil dry without expofing the lead to be melted, and confequently making an opening for the fteam to efcape.. This contrivance is calculated to prevent the boiler being burft by fuddenly forcing water into it, when it has been allowed by carelefsnefs to boil dry, and become red- hot. A metal plug fhould always be rivetted into fuch a boiler. The plug fhould be made of fuch a compofition of the fufible metal, that it will melt whenever the contents of the boiler attain that degree ef heat which produces {team of a dangerous elatticity. Another precaution which fhould always be taken, is to have two {afety-valves fixed in different parts of the boiler; fo that if by any accident one of them becomes fixed fa{t in its feat by rutt or other means, the other will be in a ftate to a&, thereby diminifhing the chance of an accident to half; and the larger thele fafety-valves are made, the more certainly they will operate. The mercurial fteam-gauge ufed in molt engines is a long curved tube, or inverted fiphon, in which the mercury rifes. by the force of the fteam, and indicates the preflure. If this kind of fleam-gauge is applied to the high-preflure engine, it requires a very long tube, which is an additional fecurity againit the burlting of the boiler, becaufe the mercury will be blown out of the tube, and permit the fteam to efcape when the preflure is too reat. Before the boiler of a high-preflure engine is fet to work, it fhould be proved effe@iually, firlt by drilling {mall holes through it at different places, to a@ually meafure the thick- nefs ofthe metal, and afcertain that itisequal throughout ; and then it fhould be proved by injecting water into it, until the preflure lifts the fafety-valve, when loaded confiderably more than it is intended to be when the engine is fet to work ; but this proof fhould not be too fevere, becaufe the metal may be weakened, although it is not burtt, by the proof; and, in confequence, may afterwards burft with a much lefs preflure of fleam. At the fame time, the engineer who undertakes to make thefe engines, fhould fully inform himfelf of the real ftrength of metal boilers of determinate thicknefles, which could be eafily done, without danger, by injecting water into the boilers until they actually burft. We do not know if fuch experiments have ever been made ; and in thofe boilers which have been burft by the explofion of {team, the preflure at the moment of the accident has not been known. _ We have an account of a trial of a {mall high-preflure en- gine made in 1804, in Wales, to afcertain its powers to raife water: the cylinder was 8 inches in diameter, and 44 feet ftroke; it worked a pump 184 inches in diameter, and 4% feet ftroke, which raifed water 28 feet high It worked at the rate of 18 ftrokes per minute, and confumed about 80 lbs. of coals per hour: this, when reduced, is about 174 million pounds raifed one foot high for each bufhel. Thus, the weight of the column is 3266 lbs. for the area of the pump (18.5 x 18.5 = 342.25 x -7854 =) 268.8 fquare inches x .434]bs. = 1162 ]bs. the weight for every foot of the column x 28 feet = 3266.5 lbs. the total weight of the column, The motion of the pilton per minute is (4% x 18 =) 81 feet, or 4860 feet per hour x 3266.5 lbs. = 15,875,160lbs. raifed one foot high per hour. The coals confumed in the hour is 8olbs. ; therefore fay, as 80 lbs. : 15,875,160 lbs. :: 88 Ibs. : 17,462,676 lbs., the number of pounds raifed one foot high for each bufhel of coals. The area of the pilton is (8 x 8 = 64 x .7854 =) 504 {quare inches, and the load 3266.5 + 504 = 65 Ibs. preflure per {quare inch on the furface of the pitlon, Manufadure of Steam-Engines. —The great demand for thefe machines, which has taken place fince their value has been fo fully underftood, has occafioned them to be manus fac&ured in the large way by feveral engineers, who adopt the fame fyftem as is purfued in making of watches and clocks, viz. that of having workmen inftruéted in making the feparate parts, and employing machines and tools for every operation which admits of fuch aid. The firft of ‘thefe manufactories is that of Meffrs. Watt and Boulton, at Soho, near Birmingham, fons of the inventor and his aflo- ciate, who eltablifhed the manufa¢tory about 1775; and until the expiration of Mr. Watt’s patent in 1800, it was the only place where his engines were made. It has con tinued ever fince to furnifh the greateft proportion of engines, as well for this country as abroad. ‘There are now other manufaéturers who approach the original in the beauty and perfection of the workmanthip. Since the expiration of the patent, there has been a total change in the manner of conftruéting and putting together every part of the engine, and many advantageous improve-= ments haye been made, as far as re{peéts the durability and accurate performance of the machine; though nothing, ex~ cept the fecond cylinder of Hornblower and Woolf, has been added to Mr. Watt’s engine fince he firft brought it to a {tandard, by which its powers are at all increafed, with refpeét to the confumption of fuel, but rather the contrary. At the firit eftablifhment of thefe manufaétories, on the ex- piration of Mr. Watt’s patent, many ingenious mechanics attempted to improve the {tru€ture of the machine, and the records of the patent office contain more upon this fubjets than any other. All kinds of parallel motions have beem tried; cylinders have been inverted, placed horizontally, made of long and fhort proportions; large air-pumps have beem ufed ; and for the minor parts, fuch as valves, and the ma~ chinery for actuating them, fcarcely two following engines were made alike for many years, until by, the refult of a vatt deal of invention and experience, thofe methods which we have defcribed became fettled into eltablifhed forms; but none of them are fuperior to the original of Mr. Watt’s. Refpeéting parallel motions, and the proportions of the parts, no methods have been found fo good as the original engine; and we accordingly find, that all the molt eftablifhed and ex- perienced manufaéturers make engines which are not altered In any great feature from Mr. Watt’s original engine, with a beam and parallel motion acting on a fimple crank; and they give them all the advantages which can be derived from fuperior workmanfhip, and improved methods of putting the parts together, which experience has pointed out. Mefirs. Fenton, Murray, and Wood, of Leeds, Yorkfhire, are the manufa¢turers of the moft eftablifhed reputation after Meflrs. Watt and Boulton, The engines they fend out cannot be excelled in beauty and perfeétion of workman- fhip, and they perform as well as any others. Their fac- tory at Leeds is very extenfive, and provided with every convenience for making all the parts of the engine in the beit manner, and with the leaft labour, They pate those eam- STEAM-ENGINE. fteam-enginesin the works, one for boring cylinders, and turn- ing large lathes; a fecond for turning {mall lathes, grinding, drilling the centres of wheels, tapping fcrews, &c., and for blowing the furnaces of the foundery; anda third engine for working a great forge hammer, by which the heavy wrought iron work is forged. The boring machines for cylinders, of which they have three in number, are very capital, as by an ingenious movement, invented by Mr. Murray, for draw- ing the borer through the cylinder, it is made to advance regularly from one end to the other, without any interrup- tion. Thefe machines are worked bya feparate fteam-engine, which is never ftopped during the operation of boring a cylinder through, as it is found to make a fenfible mark or ring if the motion is {topped. The beft means are alfo taken to prevent the cylinder from changing its figure by its weight, or by the preflure of the parts which hold it in its pofition. ‘The whole of the factory is lighted by gas lights in winter time. The boilers are manufaétured by the aid of feveral machines to cut out the plate, pierce the holes, and bend the joints. Before any of the {maller engines are fent away, alt the parts are put together tn a building on purpofe, where there are boilers fixed and they are aCtually tried, to infure that every part is perfe@t : they are then taken to pieces, with marks and direétions for putting them toge- ther, and packed up for carriage, which is very eafy, as there is a canal at the gates, which has communication by water to-every part of England. Fer fuch engines as are too large to be put to work at the faCtory, workmen are fent out with them, to affift and dire& in fetting them to work. In London, Mr. Maudflay has made many very excellent fteam-engines upon the plan reprefented in our fketch; but his beft engine, which is in the faw-mill at Woolwich, is with a beam upon Mr. Watt’s plan. He has lately made a large engine for a fteam-boat invented by Mr. Brunel, which has two cylinders a€ting alternately upon different cranks, formed upon the fame axis at right angles to each other, fo that the motion is continued without a fly-wheel ; one boiler is placed between the two cylinders, and one air- pump and condenfer exhaufts them both. By this means a powerful engine is contained in a {mall {pace, and is not heavy to load the boat. Some engineers of Manchefter make very good fteam- engines, chiefly for the great cotton-mills. At moft of the iron furnaces in the country, fteam-engines are now made, and fome of them produce very capital engines, as at But- terly in Derbyfhire, Low Moor in Yorkfhire, and others. ‘Their workfhops are in general managed by engineers who have been educated at Soho, or at Leeds. Mr. Woolf's engines are made in London by Mr. Edwards, and by him- felf in Cornwall. Rotative Steam-Engine. — The reciprocating motien of a fteam-engine has always been confidered as a great defeat ; for though all irregularity of motion can be obviated by conneéting it with a fly-wheel, yet a great mafs of matter muft always be kept ina conftant fucceflion of changes from re{t to motion; and the irregularities which this would pro- duce, can only be governed by putting a great mafs of matter in the fly-wheel, and caufing it to move with a rapid motion, fo that its momentum or vis inertix fhall be vattly greater than that of all the reciprocating parts together, With a view of obviating this objection, and of obtaining the action of fteam by more fimple machinery than a cylinder and pilton, many attempts have been made to produce a circular motion at once by the fteam, It has been made to blow on the vanes of a wheel of various forms, But the rarity of {team is fuch, that even if none is condenfed by the cold of the vanes, the impulfe is exceedingly fecble, and the expence of fteam, fo as to produce any ferviceable impulfe, is enormous. Mr. Watt, among his firft {peculations on fteam-engines, made fome attempts of this kind; but he has not given fuch a defcription of the valves for this purpofe, as to enable an engineer to con{truét one of them. From any guefs that we can form, we think the machine very imperfe&t. One of Mr. Watt’s firlt trials was uncom- monly ingenious ; it confifted of a drum, turning air-tight within another, with cavities fo difpofed, that there was a conftant and great preflure urging it in one direétion. But no packing of the common kind could preferve it air-tight with fufficient freedom of motion. He fucceeded by immerfing ‘it in mercury, or in an amalgam which re- mained fluid in the heat of boiling water; but the continual aGtion of the heat and fteam, together with the friftion, foon oxydated the fluid, and rendered it ufelefs. He then tried Parent’s or Dr. Barker’s mill, inclofing the arms in a metal drum, which was immerfed im cold water. The fteam rufhed rapidly along the pipe which was the axis, and it was hoped that a great re-a€tion would have been exerted at the ends of the arms; but it was almoit nothing. The reafon feems to be, that the greateft part of the fteam was con- denfed in the cold arms. It was then tried in a drum kept boiling hot ; but the impulfe was very fmall, in comparifon with the expence of fteam: this muft be the cafe. Mr. Watt has defcribed in his fpecification of 1782, lodged at the patent office, fome more perfe& contrivances for producing a circular motion by the immediate aGtion of the fteam. One of thefe produces alternate motion upon a centre, and is analogous to the double engine ; another pro- duces a continued motion. See his firft {pecification of 1769. We do not find that Mr. Watt has ever ereGed a con- tinuous circular engine : he has doubtlefs found all his at- tempts inferior to the reciprocating engine with a fly. A very crude fcheme of this kind may be feen in the Tranf- actions of the Royal Society of Dublin, 1787. Mr. Cartwright, in apatent of 1797, propofes fomeimprove- ment of Mr. Watt's rotative engine, but it was never brought into ufe. Mr. Jonathan Hornblower had a patent in 1798 for arotative engine, which is the moft ingenious of all the fpe- culations on this fubje€&t, but too complicated to be carried into execution; and in 1805 he had another patent, for a machine which is quite different from the former, and is in= genious, but ftill lefs likely than the firft to anfwer the in- tended purpofe. Mr. Samuel Clegg has made a rotative engine, the pifton of which makes a complete revolution ina Siaiaek at a dif. tance from the centre of motion. We have feen this engine at work, which aéted in a very regular manner, but we think the friGion muft be greater than that of a common engine, although it gets rid of the reciprocation. Mr. Clegg had a patent in 1809 for his invention. Mr. Turner has lately obtained a patent for a rotatory {team-engine, the principle of whichisthefameas Mr. Cleggs, but each of them has its peculiar advantages in the manner of fitting up, and in the arrangements of its parts. Mr. Tur- ner’s is packed in all the moving parts with metallic pack- ings inftead of hemp, and we have been informed that his engines operate very well, and without any fly-wheel. Mr. Clegg’s engine only requires a {mall fly at one part of its movement, We think, that if ever rotative engines are brought to perfection, it will be by fomething of the nat of thefe two engines, which are the moft pragticable, and pro- mife greater probability of fuccefs than any before invented, For the application to fteam-boats, and ta the purpofe of drawing carriages, or locomotive engines, as they are now called, rotative engines would be fo advantageous, that they wows STEAM-ENGINE. would be very ufeful, even though they fhould confume rather more fuel than reciprocating engines of the fame power, provided they were certain in their action. Cement for making Joints in Steam-Engines. — In joining the flanches of iron cylinders, and other parts of hydraulic and fteam~engines, a {trong and durable cement is required. The following are receipts for cements proper for fuch purpofes. Mix boiled linfeed oil, litharge, red and white lead, together toa proper confiltence: this cement is to be applied on each fide of a piece of flannel, previoufly fhaped to fit the joint, and then interpofed between the flanches, before they are brought home to their place by the {crews or other faftenings employed,which will make aclofeand durable joint. The quan- tities of the ingredients may be varied without inconvenience, only taking care not to make the mafs too thin with the oil. It is difficult, in fome cafes, to make a good fitting of large ieces of iron work at once, and this renders it neceflary ‘ometimes to join and feparate the pieces repeatedly, before a proper adjuitment is obtained. When this is expected, the white lead ought to predominate in the mixture, as it dries much flower than the red. A workman knowing this fact, can exercife his own difcretion in regulating the quantities ; but it is fafelt to have too much rather than too little white lead, as the durability of the cement is no way injured thereby, only a longer time is required for it to dry and harden. When the fitting will not admit of fo thick a fub- {tance as flagnel being interpofed, linen may be {ubftituted, or even paper or thin palteboard, the only reafon for em- _ ploying any thing of the kind being the convenience of handling. This cement anfwers well alfo for joiniag broken ftones, however large. Cilterns built of {quare ftones put to- gether with this cement, will never leak or want any repairs: in this cafe the ftones need not be entirely bedded in it, for an inch or even lefs of the edges that are to lie next the water need only be fo treated, and the reft of the joints may be filled with good lime. Another cement, which is preferable to the former for withitanding the action of fteam, is compounded as follows : Take two ounces of fal ammoniac, one ounce of flour of fulphur, and 16 ounces of catt-iron filings or borings: mix all well together by rubbing them in a mortar, and keep the powder dry. When the cement is wanted for ufe, take one part of the above powder, and zo parts of clean iron borings, or filings, and blend them intimately by grinding them in a mortar: wet the compound with water, and when brought to aconyenient confiltence, apply it to the joints with a wooden or blunt iron fpatula.— By confidering the affinities of thefe ingredients, thofe who are at all acquainted with che- miftry, will be at no lofs to comprehend, that a degree of action and re-aétion takes place among the ingredients, and between them and the iron furfaces, which at laft caufes the whole to unite as one mafs: in fact, after a time, the mixture and the furfaces of the flanches become a fpecies of pyrites, holding a very large portion of iron, all the parts of which cohere {trongly together. Another cement of the fame kind is made by mixing together two parts of flour of fulphur, and one part of {al ammoniac, and making them into a {tiff with a little water. When the cement is wanted for ufe, diffolve a portion of the above pafte in urine, or in water rendered flightly acidulous; and to this folution add a quan- tity of turnings or borings fifted, to get rid of the grofler particles. This mixture, {pread upon or between the flanches of iron pipes, or put into the interftices of other parts of iron work, will in a little time become as hard as ftone. Mr. Murray’s Rule for the Weight of Fly-Wheels to Steam- Engines.—Mr. Buchanan, in his valuable treatife on pro- a vellels, printed at Glafgow in 1816, gives the fol- lowing rule, as the refult of Mr, Murtay’s long experience in building engines. Rule.—Multiply the number of horfe-power of the en- gine by 2000, and divide it by the {quare of the intended velocity of the circumference of the fly-wheel in feet per fecond, the quotient will be the weight of the fly-wheel in hundred weights. Lxample.—To find the weight of a fly-wheel proper for an engine of 20 horfes’ power, fuppofing the fly-wheel to be 18 feet in diameter, and to make 22 revolutions per fecond : wheel 18 feet diameter = 56 feet circumference x 22 revo- lutions per minute = 1232 feet motion per minute + 60 = 204 feet motion per fecond for the motion of the circum ference of the fly-wheel. Then 204 feet per minute fquared = 4204, and 20 horfes’ power x 2000 = 4ocoo + 4204 = 9o.4 cwt, of the wheel required. Smoke-Burning Furnaces for Steam-Engines.—The great quantity of {moke which is thrown out by the furnaces of Smeagmes becomes a great annoyance in a town fuch as Manchefter or Birmingham, where there are many engines together. To avoid this, as well as from an idea of obtaining a greater effet from the combuttion of the fmoke, many in- ventors have been induced to contrive furnaces which fhall not produce any {moke. The black {moke which is ufually dif charged at the top of the chimney,is, in fact, fo much good fuel, which only wanteda fufficient heat, and the contaé& of freth airy to inflame it under the boiler. It is a fat well-known, that the flame which is often feen iffuing from the top of the chimnies of founderies, furnaces, &c. has no exiftence except at the top of the chimney ; for while it is afcending the flue, it is only denfe, black {moke, confifting of the azote of the atmo- fpheric air which has pafled through the fire, of hydrogen gas, coal-tar, and carbonaceous matter ; and this {moke is of fuch a high temperature, that it only requires oxygen to make it inflame inftantaneoufly : this it obtains from the atmofpheric air, into which it defcends on ifluing from the top of the chimney, and then prefents fuch appearances, as would make a hafty obferver adopt the opinion that the flame had afcended, in the ftate of flame, from the fuel in the fur- nace, through the whole height of the flue, up to the top of the chimney ; but this is by no means the cafe, and a confideration of this fimple fat will convince any perfon, that it is not an incenfiderable proportion of the fuel that is thus wafted. Noris this the only lofs fuftained ; a quantity of heat is required, not merely to render fuch a portion of the fuel volatile, but to give it a temperature fufficient to produce the fpontaneous inflammation at the top of the chimney, of which we have taken notice. This mutt be furnifhed at the expence of an extra and unneceflary quan- tity of fuel. The firlt of the fmoke-burning furnaces was Mr. Watt’s patent of 1785. His method confifts in caufing the {moke, or flame, of the frefh fuel, while pafling from the fire to the flue or chimney, to pafs, together with a current of frefh air, through or among fuel which has already ceafed to fmoke, or which is converted into coke, charcoal, or cinders, and which is intenfely hot ; by which means the {moke, and grofler parts of the flame, by coming in clofe contact with the intenfely hot fuel, and by being mixed with the current, of frefh or unburnt air, will be confumed or converted into heat, or into pure flame, free from fmoke. This invention is put in practice, firft, by ftopping up every avenue or paf- fage to the chimney or flues, except fuch as are left in the interftices of that part of the fuel which is ignited ; fecondly, by placing the frefh fuel above, or nearer to the external air, than that which is burning, and already converted into coke or charcoal ; thirdly, by conftruting the fire-place in fuch manner, STEAM-ENGINE. manner, that the frefh atmofpheric air which animates the fire, and the fmoke or flame which rifes from the frefh fuel at the firft application of the heat, mult pafs downwards, or laterally, fo as to pafs through the whole mafs of burn- ing fuel, and iffue from the interttices of the burning fuel at the moft remote part, or internal end of the fire-place, to efcape into the flues or chimney. In fome cafes, after the flame has palt through the burning fuel, it is made to pafs up a very hot funnel, flue, or oven, before it comes to the bottom of the boiler, by which means the f{moke is {till more effectually confumed. This invention of Mr. Watt’s has been very extenfively practifed ; but another plan, by Mr. Roberton of Glafgow, has fince been found preferable: it is nearly on the fame principle as Mr. Watt’s. The opening through which the fuel is introduced into the furnace is fhaped like a hopper, and is made of -ca(t-iron, built into the brick-work of the furnace. From the mouth, or entrance of the hopper, it inclines downward to the place where the fire reits on the bottom grate. The coals in the mouth-piece, or hopper, anfwer the pur- pofe of a fire-door ; and the principal point to be attended to in the management of this furnage is, that the hopper fhall be kept full of coal, either wholly or in part with {mall coal, to prevent as much as poflible the air entering by that paflage. The coals which are in the lowett end of the hopper are brought to a ftate of ignition by the heat of the fire upon the bars, before they are forced upon the bars to be burned. Beneath the lower part of the hopper the furnace is pro- vided with front bars, which ferve to admit air among the fuel which lies upon the grate, and offer a ready mode of forcing the ignited fuel, which has juft iflued from the lower part of the hopper, back upon the fire-grate, where it is completely confumed, and by thus forcing it back, a {pace is made, into which frefh fuel falls from the lower part of the hopper ; but all the fmoke which rifes from this frefh fuel muft pafs through the burning fuel, which lies upon the farther part of the grate, and is thus confumed. By this arrangement, the fuel is brought into a {tate of ignition before it reaches the farther fide of the bottom grate, where it is {lopped by a rifing breaft of brick-work ; therefore, . any {moke which is liberated from the raw coals in the mouth-piece, muit pafs over thefe burning coals before it ean reach the flue of the chimney; but this, though it would caufe a large quantity of the {moke to be burnt, would not completely prevent the efcape and afcent of Smoke up the chimney; for it is not fufficient that the fmoke fhould be expofed to a heat fuflicient to ignite it before it efcapes; as, unlefs a quantity of frefh air, able to furnifh a f{ufficiency of oxygen for the combuttion of the Smoke, can be brought at the fame time in conta& with it, it wili ftill efcape in an undecompofed ftate. The principal merit of Mr. Roberton’s invention confifts in a judicious admiffion of frefh air, in fuch a manner that it can reach the {moke without previoufly pafling through the fire, and parting with its oxygen in its paflage, and that it fhall be in fuch quantity, as merely to caufe the imoke to burn, and not to cool the bottom of the boiler. Beneath the upper fide of the mouth-piece, or hopper, which inclofes the frefh fuel, and at the diftance of about three-fourths of an inch from it, (this fpace being a little more or lefs, ac- cording to the fize of the furnace,) 1s placed a calt-iron plate, which is above the hopper containing the fuel; and an the {pace bétween it and the top of the hopper is an open rpace for the admiffion of a thin ftream of air, which, sufhing down through the opening, comes firft in contact with that part of the fire which is giving out the greatelt part of the fmoke; wiz. the fuel that has been latt intro- duced from the lower end of the hopper upon the grate- bars, mixes with the {moke before it pafles over the burning fuel upon the interior part of the grate-bars, where it is in ina high ftate of combuftion: this enables the {moke to inflame completely. The quantity of air thus admitted to pafs over the upper furface of the fuel newly introduced, is a matter of importance to the complete aétion of the con- trivance. The opening for air is regulated by a very fimple contrivance. The plate which forms the upper fide of the opening for the paflage of the air, refts at each end ona ftud, or pin, projecting from the cheeks of the mouth-piece, or it is furnifhed at each end with a pivot, which works in the cheeks. ‘Thefe pins, or pivots, being placed about half-way between the outfide and infide of the mouth-piece, or hopper, by elevating or deprefling the outer edge of the plate, the opening for the admiffion of air between the lower end of the hopper and the lower edge of this plate can be diminifhed or enlarged. When that degree of opening which produces the beit effeéts is obtained, which is eafily known by experiment, the plate is kept in its place by means of a piece of iron introduced above it, and anfwerin the purpofe of a wedge. Thefe furnaces have been sdopted by many manufacturers at Leeds, Manchelfter, and in London, where many works have been indiéted as a nuifance for not having adopted the improvement ; the magiltrates arguing, that though the welfare of the place required that fuch inconyeniencies fhould be fubmitted to while no pof- fible remedy for them was known, the health and comfort of the inhabitants equally demand, now that evil can be done away, that {moking furnaces fhould not be permitted in the place. On this account, Mr. Roberton’s furnaces have been very much adopted; but we have feldom feen them in fuch order as to make any diminution in the {moke, which they will do completely, if the regulation of the quantity of air ie properly made. A recent invention by Mr. John Cutler in 1815, is found to burn the {moke moft perfe&tly in common fire-grates, fuch as are ufed for warming apartments ; and we have feer an experiment of this plan upon a {mall’engine boiler, which feemed to promife great fuccefs in applying it on a larger {cale; but fuch trials haye not yet been made, nor the belt form of the apparatus fettled. Mr, Cutler’s invention confifts in applying beneath the place in which the fire is to burn, a chamber or maga- zine, which is made as clofe as can be on all fides, ex- cept the top, and is of fufficient capacity to contain within it a magazine of fuel, fufficient to fupply the cembuttion for a whole day, or other required {pace of time. The fire is made upon the top of the mafs of fuel which is contained in the magazine, and there are no grate- bars upon which the fire is to lay; but inftead, the bars are placed at the fide, in a floping direGion, fo as to inclofe the fire in a grating, which will admit fufficient air fideways to fupply the combuttion. The bottom of the magazine is made moveable up and down in the chamber; and by means of a rack and pinion, a ferew, or fome other mecha- nical power, the whole weight of coals contained in the chamber can be raifed up, and a portion will rife up inte ‘the grated part, where air is fupplied to it, fo that it can burn; tor the principle of this invention is to make the magazine-chamber beneath fo clofe as to exclude the air from it, fo that the fire cannot burn the fuel contained in it, and to provide that part of the fire-place which is imme- diately above the top of the chamber with a plentiful fupply of air to burn the fuel, By means of the machinery, any quantity STEAM-ENGINE. uantity of fuel can be raifed up out of the magazine- chamber to fupply the deficiency occafioned by the com- buttion. The manner in which it burns the fmoke, is by obliging it to pafs through the burning fuel which lies upon the top of the mafs of coal contained in the magazine, becaufe this burning fuel communicates fufficient heat down. wards to make the fmoke rife from the fuel, and this {moke mutt pafs through the fire above it; but before the fuel comes to be atvally burned, the fmoke is fo far ex- traGted, that the coal is in the ftate of coke. The machinery by which the bottom plate of the maga- ziue and the fuel contained in it is raifed up, is fimply an axle, with chains winding upon it; at leaft that is the con- trivance which Mr. Cutler ufed in the fmall {toves for warming apartments ; but what method will be found bett on a large {cale, for its application to fteam-engines, remains yet to be determined. We fhall give a more minute deferip- tion of this valuable invention under the article Srove. The Application of the Steam-Engine to propel Boats or Ships. —This 1s one of the moft valuable applications of the power of fteam, next to that of draining mines ; and though propofed at a very early period, has been but lately brought into ufe. ‘ Captain Savery, in 1702, mentions the application of his engine to a fhip, but gives no account of the manner of carrying it into execution ; probably he only intended it for pumping out leakage-water. Mr. Focathan Hull’s patent of 1736, for carrying veflels or fhips into or out of any harbour, port, or river, againtt wind or tide, orin acalm, is the firft idea of applying the fteam-engine to the purpofe of propelling veflels. The en- gine of Newcomen was made to actuate a wheel placed in a frame projeéting from the head of the boat, and the oars or paddles of the wheel were to itrike in the water, and advance the boat or veflel containing the engine, which would draw after it the fhip or veflel that was to be rowed into or out of the harbour. We have no account of any attual trials made by Mr. Hull; but befides his patent, we have a {mall pamphlet, printed in 1737, with an engraving. The account which Mr. Buchanan gives of the intro- duétion of fteam-boats in his treatife on propelling veffels, is, that Mr. Miller of Dalfwinfon, who made many models and experiments with a view to the improvement of naval architeGture, appears to have made the firlt attempt at working a veflel with fteam. The veflel was double, with the paddle-wheels in the middle: the experiment, however, did not fucceed to his fatisfaGtion. About the year 1795, lord Stanhope conftruGed a veffel, which was tried in Greenland dock: the paddles were made in the imitation of the feet of a duck, and were placed under the ‘quarters of the vetlel, but the mechanifm did not anfwer his lordfhip’s expectation. In the year 1801, Mr. Symington tried a veflel pro- pelled by fteam on the Forth and Clyde Iniand Navigation, but it was laid afide, on account of the injury which it threatened to the banks of the canal, by the furge of water which it made. It does not appear that he tried this veffel on any river. - Mr. Symington’s fteam-boat is flightly defcribed in the Journals of the Royal Inititution for 1803, from which it ap- pears, that the method employed by him for making the con- neétion between the pifton and the water or rowing wheel, was by placing the cylinder nearly in a horizontal pofition. This is attended with feveral advantages: the neceflity for a beam is avoided, which has ever been a troublefome and + expenfive part of the common engme. ‘The pifton is fup- Vor. XXXIV. ported in its pofition by frition-wheels, and communicates, by means of a rod, with a crank conne&ed with a wheel, which gives a motion to the rowing-wheel fomewhat flower than its own; the water-wheel ferving at the fame time as an addition to the fly. The ‘team-engine differs but little in its action from that improved by Mr. Watt; there is, however, an apparatus for opening and fhutting the cock at pleafure, in order to reverfe the motion of the wheels, and put the boat back whenever it may be neceflary. The water-wheel is fituated near the {tern, and in the middle of the breadth of the boat, fo that it becomes neceflary to have two rudders, conneéted together by rods, which are moved by a winch near the head of the boat: by this means the perfon who attends the engine is able to fteer alfo. Another part of Mr. Symington’s invention confifted in the application of ftampers at the head of the boat, for the purpofe of breaking the ice on canals: thefe were to be raifed in fucceffion by means of levers, the ends of which were depretfled by the pins of wheels, turned by an axis com- municating with the water-wheel, Mr. Symington ftated, ina calculation he made, that a boat doing the work of twelve horfes, could be built for eight or nine hundred pounds ; and he had afcertained by experiment, that it would travel at the rate of two miles anda half fer hour. This is a very flow motion, compared with the prefent {team-boats, as we fhall fee. In 1807, Mr. Fulton of New York introduced fteam- boats into America, which were the firft that fucceeded in a large way, fo as to become profitable: they had before this been ufed in America, and were began there by Mr. Symington. In 1812, a large boat was fet to work on the Clyde, in Scotland; and fince that time, great numbers have been made both in Scotland and in different parts of England. There are feveral different methods of applying the force of machinery to row boats. the molt obvious is by means of oars, fimilar to thofe with which a boatman rows 3 but this a¢tion is very difficult to imitate by machinery, and has never been brought into praétice. Several in- genious fchemes may be found in the Machines Approvées par l’ Academie. The next is by means of paddle-wheels, which are fimilar to an underfhot water-wheel; and when turned rapidly round by the engine, the floats dip into the wa- ter, and row the boat along. This plan was firft put in practice by the ingenious captain Savery, in 1702; but to be turned by men working at a capitan initead of a fteam-engine, is now adopted in all the real working fteam-boats which have been made. Two wheels are ufually placed at the fides of the boat, at about one-third of the length from the head. Attempts have been made to place one wheel in the middle of the boat, but they have not fucceeded fo well as the others, Another method is by forcing a ftream of water out at the {tern of a boat by a large pump, which at the fame time draws the water in at the head of the boat. This was fuggelted by Dr. Franklin, after M, Bernoulli, and was very effectually tried by the late Mr. James Linaker, matter millwright of the dock-yard at Portfmouth, but found in- ferior to the paddle-wheels. It has been alfo propofed to force out air under the {tern of the veflel by a pump, but we do not think it likely to fucceed. A fifth method is by a ferew applied at the flern of the veflel, and turned round by the engine. Laftly, varions forms of oars have been applied at the ftern of the veffel to move from fide to fide, and impel the veflel on the fame principle, as what feamen call fkulling a boat, by an oar at the ftern. Q As STEAM-ENGINE. As none of thefe {chemes, except the paddle-wheels at the outfides of the boat, have been brought to any practical utility, we fhall not enter into any further particulars, but defcribe one of the belt of thefe veffels, fuch as is em~ ployed on the Clyde at Glafgow, where fteam-boats have been brought to the greatelt perfection. All thefe veffels are upon one general plan, viz. that of having paddle-wheels, fimilar to underfhot water-mill wheels, on each fide of the boat, which are put in motion by the fteam-engine. In fome of thefe wheels the paddles are placed parallel to the axis of the wheel, in others they are placed obliquely, and in others again they are curved; and it is not yet afcertained which is the belt form ; for although fome boats are found to move with a much greater velocity than others, it is difficult, where fo many caufes are combined in the operation, to afcertain which one fingly produces the advantageous effeét. Experiments are yet wanting to afcertain the beit number for the paddles on the wheel, and with what velocity they fhould move. It would doubtlefs be of advantage to have the means of chang- ing the velecity of the paddle-wheels, according to the cir- cumitances of the current of the water in which the boat moves ; becaufe when the boat is moving with the current, the paddle itrikes againit the water in a contrary dire€tion to its motion, and therefore has the greateft force to urge the boat forwards, at the fame time that the boat is moving in the direction of the current, and therefore moves more eafily. On the other hand, {uppofe the boat moving againit the current, the paddles muft row the water in the direétion of the current, fo that fuppofing they move only with the fame velocity, they muft have much lefs force to advance the boat, at the fame time that the boat, having to oppofe the current, requires a greater force to propel it. One of the fteam- boats on the Clyde has eight paddles to each wheel, but it is probable feven would be more effeCtive ; becanfe it 1s evi- dent, that if too many paddles are ufed, the water will he fo much broken, that it cannot afford that refiftance to the motion of the paddle which alone caufes the boat to advance. For an extreme cafe, fuppofe fo great a number of paddles that they would nearly touch, the wheel would then re- femble a folid cylinder, and have no effe& to propel the veffel. The velocity with which the paddle itrikes the water mutt be confiderable, to obtain a great refiftance from the water ; but the ftroke muft not be too frequently repeated, or the water which the paddle removes will not have time to return to its level before the fucceeding paddle makes its ftroke. The fteam-engine is placed near the middle of the veffel, and the fmoke 1s carried up in a large plate iron tube, which ferves the purpofe of a matt, to hoift a fail when the wind favours. -The greateft number of boats at prefent in ufe are fitted up for paflage-boats, as that is the moft pro- fitable employment: they have two cabins, one before the engine, which is fmaller, and confidered inferior, while the fecond, or large cabin, abaft the engine, is more elegantly fitted up. Plate VIII. Steam-Engine, fig. 1. is an elevation of the whole veflel, as fhe appears in the water, and fig. 2. a plan with the deck removed, to fhew the arrangement of the apartments, and to explain the fteam-engine and ma- chinery by which the veflel 1s propelled. That part of the boat which is beneath water, is built like an ordinary boat, which draws but little water, and fhe is fo formed at the ftern-parts as to caufe her to fteer readily. The head muft be built more bold or rounding for thofe boats which are intended for the fea, than thofe for rivers, which are generally made very fharp at the head, fo as to di- vide and move more freely through the water. The rudder and tiller are conftru€&ted the fame as other boats. The width of the veflel above water is confiderably increafed, by 4 the addition of galleries or gangways, X, X, which are fixed projecting from her fides and gunwale: they are compofed of a thin planking, and are fupported by knees and ftanchions, fo as to form a gangway to walk round, and at the fame time a defence to the paddle-wheels B, B, which are placed clofe to the fidés of the veflel in the width of the gangways. Thele wheels are put in motion by the tteam-engine, and by their action again{t the water propel the boat forward. The paddle-wheels are con{lruéted nearly in the fame manner as underfhot water-wheels, except that the floats or paddles are placed inclined to the axis, inftead of being perpendicular to the plane of the rim of the wheel. The upper parts of the wheels are inclofed in femi-circular cafes of thin boarding Y (is. 1.), to prevent the a¢tion of the wind upon their oats, which, without this precaution, would materially im- pede their motion, becaufe the floats at the upper part of the wheels move in a contrary direGtion to thofe at the lower part, where they dip into the water. The fteam-engine which gives motion to the wheels, is fituated in the middle of the boat; but it muft be placed low, and, if poffible, beneath the water-line, fo as to a@ in part as ballaft to the boat, which will otherwife require a greater quantity of ballaft than ufual to counteraét the weight of the engine. It is a great advantage to thefe boats to be light, and draw little water ; thefe eugines mutt therefore be made as light and compa& as is poffible, that none of the parts fhall break. The principal parts which require ftrength fhould be made of good wrought iron, in preference to caft iron, which is ufed for other engines ; for in- itance, the beam and conneéting rods, and alfo the cranks and fhaft for the fly-wheel, as well as thofe for the paddle- wheels. The wheels themfelves are made of thick iron plate or wood; the boiler A (fg. 2.), in which the fteam is produced, is made of ftrong wrought-iron plates, and as large as the {pace which can be allowed for it will admit, that it may produce a regular fupply of {team to the engine: it is placed fometimes acrofs the veflel, and fometimes in the direétion of its length, as fhewn in the figure ; and the fire-place is an iron tube contained withinfide : /is the fire-door: the {moke, after paffing through two or three turns of the tube in the boiler, pafles off throughthe chimney C, whichis an irontube, erected perpendicularly in the centre of the veflel, to a confiderable height, as fhewn in the elevation, and is ftayed, in the fame manner as a matt, by two ropes, or fometimes by iron chains from its top, going fore and aft, with a purchafe to each to draw them always tight. There is a fafety-valve at d, by which the fteam efcapes into the chimney when it is pro- duced in too great a quantity, and becomes too ftrong, or when the engine is not in motion; eis the tteam-pipe, which conveys the fteam from the boiler to the tteam-box f, which contains the four valves for diftributing the fteam into the cylinder G, alternately above and below the pilton, fo as to give motion to the engine. Thefe valves are made to work on the plan of Mr. Murray’s patent, with the {pindle of one through the other. The top of the pifton-rod is jointed to the middle of a crofs-rod, from the ends of which the two iron rods defcend, one on each fide of the cylinder, and are jointed to the beam, G P, which is made double, or compofed of two levers, joined together in the manner of a frame, fo that the caft-iron condenfing ciltern of the engine is contained between the two, as they work up and down: the beam- centre, or axis of motion, is fupported by two bearings {crewed up to the bottom of this ciftern, fo that the beams lie clofe to each fide of the ciftern: the cylinder is fcrewed down upon one end of the condenfing ciltern, and the bear- ings for the axis of the crank, R, are fupported on the other end. The beams, GP, are united together at the ex- tremity moft remote from the cylinder by a crofs rod, tn the STEAM-ENGINE. the middle of which the connecting rod is jointed, which rifes upwards to the crank R, on the fhaft or axis of the fly-wheel M: this crank-axis is fupported in bearings clofe on each fide of the crank, which are framed to the condenf- ing ciftern, and alfo two others at the extremities of the axis, which are placed on the gunwale of the boat, fo that the fhaft extends completely acrofs the vetlel, pafling through the boiler A, in a tube which extends acrofs it, as fhewn by dotted lines at a2. On each end of the crank-fhaft two cog-wheels are fixed, engaging in the teeth of two other wheels, O, O, fixed upon the fhafts of the paddle-wheels B,B. Thefe laft-mentioned fhafts are each {upported in two bearings, one on the outfide beam of the gangways or platforms, and the other on the gunwale of the vetlel: the cog-wheels, O, O, are fixed on the extreme ends of the fhafts within the veffel, and they are one-third or one-fourth larger than the wheels on the axis of the crank, fo that the paddles do not turn fo faft as the fly-wheel of the engine. It is needlefs to enter into a defcription of the aétion of the tteam-engine: the conf{truétion of the valves is the fame as defcribed in a former part of this article (Plate VII. fig: 5.) and the engine a@ts the fame as Mr. Watt’s double- acting engines; but it is neceflarily modified, to {uit its par- ticular fituation, which occafions fome defects. The cy- linder mutt be made very fhort, to come into the height of the boat ; and the conne¢ting rod is fo fhort, that the obli- quity of its action on the crank is very great. The air- pump, H, is worked by a crofs-rod, which moves up and down with the beams, being connected to them by per- pendicular rods. ‘The requifite movement is communicated to the valves of the engine by the rod if, one end of which has a circular hoop, that embraces an excentric wheel 4, fixed on the axis of the fly-wheel; fo that in turning round, it pufhes the rod ip backwards and forwards, in the manner of a crank, and thereby alternately opens and fhuts the valves at the proper inftant to produce the mo- tion. There is a throttle-valve placed in the fteam-pipe at e, for regulating the velocity, or ftopping the engine, when required. The arrangement of the apartments in a fteam-veflel may be varied according to the purpofe for which fhe is to be employed. In the drawing, we have given the arrangement which appears beft adapted for the convenience of paf- fengers, in a veflel for quick travelling. (See the plan, Jig. 2.) The after or grand cabin, marked 1 in the figure, is generally fitted up and furnifhed in an elegant ityle, for the ufe of the beft company, who alfo occupy the deck and gangways abaft the chimney. The entry to the grand cabin is at the ftern of the veffel. The grand cabin 1s generally fituated in the after-part, on account of there being the moft room in that part, the engine being always placed confiderably nearer the head of the veflel than the ftern: 3 is a {mall room for the ufe of the paflengers, and has a door coming out on the gangways. The entry to the engine-houfe is by fteps from the gangway on the oppofite fide ; and the fame eutry ferves for a {mall room 4, in which the iteward keeps his ftores. The coals for working the engine are ftowed beneath the floors of the cabins, and the engine-man draws them out with a long hook as he wants them. The forward-cabin, 5, is for paflengers who pay lefs than the others: it has a large counter or cheft in the middle, which will contain all the luggage, and ferves alfo as a table for thofe who fit round it. Thefe paflengers have the ufe of the deck forwards of the chimney ; but the “gangways at that part are almoft entirely occupied by a water-cafk on each fide, the cable, fpare fails, or whatever the veffel may require. The rigging of the boat is evident from fig. 1: fhe carries two large lugger-fails, one fore and the other aft ; but as thefe are only intended to be ufed in fine weather, with a fair and light wind, the malts and cordage may be as light as is convenient. A pair of haliards fhould be provided to the chimney, to hoift occafionally a large light lugger-fail ; and if the chimney is not fufficiently ftrong, a pair of extra ftays may be fet up to ftrengthen it. The chimney is generally made to lower down, for the convenience ob palling bridges, when the veffel navigates a river. The paddle-wheels of one of the boats on the Clyde, which, Mr. Buchanan fays, is confidered as a ftandard, are 8 feet 10 inches diameter, and 4 feet wide, and are calculated, when the engine makes 45 ftrokes per minute, to move at the circumference, or {trike the water at the rate of 13 miles ger hour. She is about 80 tons burden, and is 69 feet from {tem to ttern, and 15 feet 2 inches wide in the beam. ‘The engine is of 14 horfes’ power, and fhe goes at an average fix miles per hour in {till water : therefore, if there is a current, fhe will go as much fafter or flower than fix miles per hour as the velocity of the current. The motion of the paddles is rather more than twice that of the boat. Steam-boats have been built with much more powerful engines, even 20, 25, and 30-horfe power; but the increafe of the velocity has not been in proportion to the increafe of the power of the fteam-engines. This will not be fur- prifing, when it is confidered that the refiftance to which a boat is fubje¢t, increafes not in an arithmetical proportion, (as I, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c.) but in proportion to the fquares of velocity (as 1. 2. 4. 8. 16. 32.) In other words, to make the fame veffel move with ten times a given velocity, it requires one hundred times the power; and it is farther to be confidered, that one or more powerful engines above mentioned are heavier, and require a greater floating body to fupport them, which of courfe increafes the refiftance. On railways, an increafe of velocity requires only an arith- metical increafe of power ; and to draw a carriage on a rail- way with ten times a given velocity, would require only ten times the given power. Steam-boats require a greater power of {tverage than any other veflel of their fize, as thofe hitherto con{ftru&ed are lefs eafily turned than veflels impelled by fails only. The tendency of the wheels a&ting fo near the centre line of the veilel, is to propel her ftraight forward ; whereas in turning a failing veflel to the wind, the fails aid her in coming about ; and even common oars act fo far out from the fide of the veffel, that they have much more power to bring her round than the wheels of a {team-boat can poflibly have. A mott important point is to have a good fteam-engine. All the engines hitherto ufed in Scotland have been made on Mr. Watt’s principle; but thofe in America have been high-preflure engines, which being more fimple, and lefs expenfive, fome have been conitruéted in England. But one of them having exploded in an American boat, the proprietors of fome of the Englifh boats have changed their engines for others on Mr. Watt’s principle, to avoid fimilar accidents. We think it quite unjuitifiable in any engineer to advife the conftruétion of iteam-boats with high-preflure engines, at leaft for paflage-boats, in which fo many perfons are always aflembled together, and fo near to the engine, that they would be all deltroyed in the event of the boiler burfting. Thofe engines which work with a bell-crank, or a double beam, below the cylinder, and on each fide the ciftern, inftead of a beam working above, are found to ftrain the veflels: thofe having the beam above, work much more Q2 fteadily. fteadily. The engines that Meflrs. Boulton and Watt have hitherto conitruéted have had beams: other engines have had cylinders horizontally. Mr. Brunel’s engine, of which we have before fpoken, has two cylinders aéting al- ternately, fo as to require no fly-wheel ; but many engines, on the common conftruétion, have been made without fly- wheels, by having the paddle-wheels fufficiently heavy to anfwer the purpofe. With regard to fuel, it is obvioufly much more difficult to have every thing kept in proper order in a boat, where the engines are much confined, and the cylinder is made to work with very fhort itrokes, by which the ation on the crank is fo oblique, and changes its dire&tion fo frequently, that the greater part of the power is loft. The quantity of fuel conttantly ufed in fteam-boats has been much greater than the ufual allowance for Meflrs. Boulton, Watt, and Co.’s fteam-engines. For one of 14-horfe power, they allow. 1 cwt. 1 qr. 20 lbs. per hour of good Newcattle coal ; but Glafgow coal is much weaker. One of the boats, with an engine of 33-horfe power, requires 3 tons 12 cwt. from Glafgow to Greenock (fully 29 miles), and back to Glaf- gow. One of 15-horfe power, and another of 8-horfe power, take each the fame quantity, viz. from Glafgow to Greenock (26 miles), and back to Glafgow, 1 ton 1 cwt. For farther particulars on fteam-boats, fee Roberton’s Effay on Propelling Veffels, 8vo. 1816. The Application of Sieam-Engines to driving of Carriages.— Thefe are now called locomotive engines, and we may date their introdution with the patent of Meflirs. Trevethick and Vivian in 1802, for the high-preflure engines, which were exprefsly intended for working carriages. It would have been very difficult to have fucceeded with any other kind of engine, as the weight of the water neceflary to effect condenfation muft be fo great. _Mr. Trevethick made a locomotive engine in South Wales in 1804, which was tried upon the rail-roads at Merthyr Tidvil. The engine was the fame as that of which we have given an account of its work in {peaking of the high-preflure engines, having an eight- inch cylinder, anda four-feet fix-inch ftroke. It drew after it, upon the rail-road, as many carriages as carried ten tons of bar-iron, for a diftance of nine miles ; and it performed all that diftance without any farther fupply of water than that contained in the boiler at fetting out, travelling at the rate of five miles fer hour. Since that period they have been tried in many places upon rail-roads, but we do not think they had been really put in practice, fo as to work conttantly, until 1811, when Mr. Blinkinfop, proprietor of the Middleton coal-works, which fupply the town of Leeds, adopted them for conveying the coals on his rail-road. ; Mr. Trevethick’s firft engines confifted of a high-preflure engine, with a boiler of caft-iron, of a cylindrical form, fix feet long, and four feet three inches diameter, the fire-place being withinfide. The cylindrical boiler was mounted horizontally upon four wheels, and the cylinder of the engine was placed vertically in the end of the boiler, having two connedting rods defcending from the crofs-bar of its pifton-rod to two cranks, upon an axis extending beneath the boiler and cylinder, and communicating its motion, by means of wheel-work, tothetwo fore-wheels, upon which the engine runs; and by this means the alternate afcending and defeending motions of the pifton- rods aét to turn round the crank and wheels, and draw the carriage forwards: in this way no fly-wheel was neceflary, becaufe the momentum of the carriage to advance itfelf for- wards on the road, continued the motion of the wheels and cranks fufficiently to make the cranks pafs the lines of the centre. Where thefe engines were tried, it was found diff STEAM-ENGINE. cult to make the wheels take fufficient hold upon the rail- way to draw any confiderable load after it, unlefs the weight of the engine and work refting upon the wheels was made very confiderable, and then the common iron-rails of the railway were fometimes broken by the pafling of the engine. Mr. Blinkinfop, when he adopted the locomotive engine, took up the common rails on one fide of the whole length of the road, and replaced them with rails which had large and coarfe cogs projecting from the outfide. Thefe cogs are caft at the fame time with the rails, and are hollow beneath, to be as light as is confittent with ftrength and durability. The pitch of the cogs, or dittance from centre to centre, is fix inches, fo that each rail, of three feet in length, has only fix cogs. A wheel, which is fixed on an axis at one fide of the carriage, works in the teeth of the rails; and as it is turned by wheelwork from the axis of the cranks, the whole machine is caufed to advance along the railway. When we faw Mr. Blinkinfop’s firft trial, he employed a {mall condenfing engine, but finding the water to grow fo hot that he gained but little by the condenfation, he applied a high- preflure engine with a wrought-iron boiler, and two cy- linders in it a€ting upon feparate cranks, fo as to produce a conftant a€tion to advance the carriage without the neceflity of ufing a fly-wheel. A fimilar machine has been tried at Newcaftle, but they have attempted to employ the wheels alone, without cogs upon the rails. To relieve the weight upon the rails, and obtain greater re-aétion to advance the carriage, they applied fix wheels for the carriage to run upon; and to make the bearing equal upon all fix, the two middle wheels were applied to the pifton of a {mail cylinder beneath the carriage, into which {team was admitted, and by its preflure bore up a portion of the weight of the engine; and ac- commodated itfelf to any inequalities of the railway. ~ At prefent, locomotive engines have been confined to moving upon iron-railways: to make fteam-engines draw car- riages upon public roads, is a refinement not yet attained. In drawing up this article, wé have derived confiderable aflittance from books, as our numerous references will teltify ; at the fame time we cannot refer to any one work in the Englifh language for a more detailed account of the fteam- engine than we have here given. Many detached memoirs on particular points of the principle or conftruGtion of the {team-engine, may be found difperfed through the forty-fix . volumes of the Philofophical Magazine, and the Philofophi- cal Journal. The firft and fecond volumes of the quarto feries of the latter work contain a fketch of the hiftory of the invention, but no particulars which are not given more at large in this article. j The Repertory of Arts, Manufactures, and Agriculture, confitting of fixteen volumes of the firft feries, and twenty- eight volumes, now publifhed, of the fecond feries, contains the fpecifications of a great number of patents for inven- tions relating to the improvement of fleam-engines, of which we have noticed nearly all in this article, which ap- peared to potlefs merit, or to have been fuccefsfully put in practice. The article Steam-Engine in the third edition of the En- cyclopedia, which was written by Dr. Robifon, is the beit and moft philofophical view of the fubjeét, but he has not entered at all into details: and as this was compofed twenty years ago, the improvements made fince that period, in the conftruction of the machine, have made a total change. The fulleft account of the improved fteam-engine is by the” celebrated French engineer, M. Prony, who devotes the fecond volume of his «* Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique,” 1796, 9 expre(sly mm = they had made. STE exprefsly to that fubje@t. He defcribes four or five engines, with a great number of large plates, containing every detail of their con{truCtion. The work is little more than a defcrip- tion of the plates. Thefe engines are not the beft fpecimens of Mr. Watt’s invention; they were all con‘truéted in France by M. Perrier of Paris, who, in 1780, erected a large engine at Chaillot, to pump up the water of the Seine for the fupply of the town, and another of fmaller dimentfions on the oppo- fite fide of the river at Gros Caillou. Thefe engines are ttill at work, and the writer of this article vifited them in 1814; they are upon the plan of Mr. Watt’s firft engines, though, for want of attention to fome minute particulars, they do not produce any great effects. M. Perrier had vifited England to obtain the requifite inftru@tions for making thefe engines. The double-a&ting engine of Mr. Watt was carried into France by M. Betancourt, whofe experiments on the expanfive force of {team are referred to in this article. This gentleman came to London in 1788, with a view of col- leling models of improved hydraulic machines for the court of Spain, and was admitted to examine the fteam-engines made by Meffrs. Boulton and Watt at the Albion Mills for grinding corn, which were the firit large double-a¢ting en- i M. Betancourt has, in effect, made a ind of fecondary claim to the invention of the double engine ; for he informs us, that he faw in part the exterior conftruGtion and operation of thofe machines, but the interior mechanifm was fo concealed from him, as well as from others who had had the fame curiofity before him, that he could only guefs at the nature of the conitru@tion. He obferved, that the chains which are ufually applied to the extremities of the beam were fupprefled, and that, inftead of thefe, they had applied the parallel motion ; that the different parts of the machine were fo mafked by the diftribution of the building, which ifolated even the exterior parts into different apart- ments, as to prevent him from comprehending their corre- fpondence; but, from the refult of all his obfervations, he concluded the machine was of double effect. On returning to Paris, M. Betancourt made a model of a double cylinder, on a fcale of an inch to the foot; and, as he did not know the arrangement of Meflrs. Boulton and Watt’s valves, he invented thofe parts himfelf ;) and M. Perrier, from this model, con{truéted a large machine in 1790, at the ifle of Cygnes, in Paris, for grinding corn. By examin- ing the conftruétion of this engine, which is fully defcribed by M. Prony, it will appear that M. Betancourt made good ufe of his obfervations, for we find the engine to be the fame as Mr. Watt’s in every particular, except in the arrangement of the valves, which part is very defeétive, as both the {team-pipe and exhaufting-pipe mutt be filled with fteam, and emptied at each itroke, in addition to the content of the cylinder, without producing any effe& to work the engine. A dif- ferent conttruGtion hy M. Betancourt, with two cocks, is alfo defcribed, but it has the fame defeét, of which M. Prony was fenfible; and in a fecond machine which he defcribes, points out the remedy, by varying the arrangement of the valves, fo as to bring them very nearly the fame as Mr. Watt’s, though externally of different appearance. None of thefe engines have fteam-jackets for the cylinders, nor is the expanfion principle mentioned by M. Prony. The beautiful contrivance of the regulation by the flying-balls is not de- feribed, but all the engines are regulated by a water-ciftern and pump, which we have here defcribed. See alfo Re- GULATOR. It is to be regretted, that none of our experienced engineers have undertaken to write a work on {team-engines, as there is not any fubje& in mechanics fo interefting and ufeful. 5 eB Almoft every introduétion to philofophy contains a de« {cription of the atmofpheric fteam-engine, and mott of the modern ones a fhort account of Mr. Watt’s improvements ; but thefe are in general very flight and defeétive ; the bett is in Brewfter’s edition of Fergufon’s Lectures, which gives a {ketch of Mr. Watt’s double engine, with the parallel levers and rotatory motion; and we believe it was the firft de- {cription publifhed of that valuable invention, though it had been in general ule for twenty-five years before. ‘The en- gine is clearly defcribed in the Britifh Encyclopedia, 8vo. STEAM-Boiler, in Agriculture, the name of a fimple con- venient contrivance for preparing different forts of cattle- food by means of iteam, in a {mall way. A perfectly convenient and practical contrivance of this nature for farms, where the extent of this fort of food is not required upon a large fcale, has been defcribed in the firft volume of Communications to the Board of Agricul- ture: the part in which it is fet is of {tone or brick, built in a cubical form, about three feet every way; it has the door of a furnace, and an afh-pit ; and a fhallow iron kettle, about twenty inches in diameter, and feven or eight inches in depth, is placed over the furnace. There is a flat fmooth {tone covering the whole top part of the building, in the middle of which a round hole is cut out, to admit the iron kettle being fitted clofely into it. A cafk, the bottom of which is perforated with a. number of auger-holes, is placed over the {team-kettle, which is about half filled with water. The cafk is then filled with potatoes, and is clofely luted or clayed all round the bottom, to prevent the {team efcaping between it and the ftone: the cover is put on alfo very clofely, and there is a fhort thick plug put flightly in a hole init, to giveair; or this hole may be covered with a piece of lead, fitted clofely upon it, and moveable on a leather hinge, that it may of itfelf give way, to prevent the cafk being endangered by the iteam. The flue or vent may be built to the wall of any houfe, or any other convenient place. When the potatoes are fteamed or boiled fufficiently, which may be known by taking off the cover, they are either taken out with a fhovel, or elfe the cafk is turned over, and emptied into a barrow or tub, and again filled, if neceflary. By having it fufpended in the middle, on two pins in a frame, it might be made to readily turn upfide down, and empty the potatoes or other roots with great con- venience. Though this is one of the molt fimple conitruc- tions of a fteam-boiler, it may be fully fufficient to explain the nature of it. But they may be made of various other conftru¢tions, according to the extent required, and one fteam-kettle may be made to boil feveral caflks at the fame time ; or initead of cafks, there may be fixed boilers with fliding bottoms, for emptying the potatoes into little wag- gons, or barrows, wheeled in under. The potatoes might alfo be taken out of a fixed boiler by means of an iron bafket, made to fit the infide of the boiler; which bafket might be eafily taken out with a lever, a {mall crow, or fome other fimilar contrivance, And another excellent contrivance of this fort has been made ufe of by Mr. Stares, which is defcribed in the An- nals of Agriculture. But the moft complete apparatus for this purpofe, where the bufinefs is conducted ina very ex- tenfive manner, 1s that which has been fitted up and de- {cribed. by Mr. Curwen in the fourth volume of Com- munications to the Board of Agriculture, and which de- {cription will be given and further noticed upon, in {peaking of the ufe of {teaming of cattle-food. It has been fuggefted, that if {team-boilers be fixed up in a contiguous manner to the kitchens or fculleries of farm-houfes, they may be occa- fionally converted to the ufe of the families; as this method is 5 TE is preterable to the practice of boiling in water for moft culinary purpofes. See Sreamine of Cattle-Food. Some other very fimple and cheap inventions of this kind have alfo been made and had recourfe to’ in different parts of the country, as will be feen under the head juft alluded to. STEAMING of Cattle-Food, the operation or procefs of preparing different forts of roots or plants, by means of iteam, for the feeding of cattle. It is a praétice that may be highly advantageous in fuch fituations and dif- tri€ts as thofe where both fuel and labour are cheap ; but in others it can perhaps feldom be had recourfe to with profit. It has been long known that many forts of roots, and particularly the potatoe, become much more valuable by undergoing this fort of preparation. And it is equally well known, that when thus prepared they have been em- ployed alone as a fubftitute for hay, and with cut chaff both for hay and corn, in the feeding of horfes, as well as other animals. It has, indeed, been obferved, that to a farmer who keeps many horfes or cattle, or even {wine or poultry, the practice of boiling their food in fteam is fo great a faving and an advantage, that it deferves the mott particu- lar attention. It has, however, till lately, been confined to fuch narrow bounds, that it is known but to very few. And though potatoes have often been given raw to both horfes and cattle, they are found to be infinitely preferable when boiled in fteam, as they are rendered thereby much drier, and more nutritive, and better than when even boiled in water: this has been long fince fhewn by the experiments of Mr. Wakefield of Liverpool, who, in order to afcer- tain it, fed fome of his horfes on fteamed, and fome on raw potatoes, and foon found the horfes onthe fteamed potatoes had greatly the advantage in every refpect. Thofe on the {teamed potatoes looked perfectly {mooth and fleek, while the others were quite rough. Mr. Ecclefton, near Ormfkirk, in Lancafhire, alfo found them ufeful inttead of corn for thefe animals; and the extenfive and accurate trials of J. C. Curwen, efq. have placed the utility and advantage of them in this way beyond all difpute. His ftatements have been in fome meafure given in {peaking of potatoes. See PoTATOE. It is well known that this, as well as many other forts of food, may likewife be rendered a great deal more ufeful and beneficial for feeding and fattening neat cattle and fheep by undergoing the preparation by fteam. And probably for fome other animals. Mr. Curwen has found, that in their preparation in this way, the wafte of the potatoe is about ~,th part; and that {traw, when given along with them, aniwers equally well as hay, as the horfes keep their condition, and do their work equally well. , The plan of his wafhing and fleaming-houfe, or appara- tus for this purpofe, is curious and interefting. It has, in the ground-plan, a well, and a conduit which takes the water from the potatoe wafhing-machine. The potatoe- wafher has a frame, over which a crane moves in a circular manner, which takes the machine out of the tub when the potatoes are wafhed, and which empties them into a back, which is raifed from the floor the height of one of the fteaming-tubs, or will meet another crane, which will place them on the lead-pots, where they are fteamed. The boiler has a {team-pipe, which conneéts with the lead-pots near the place’ where the tubs ftand upon whilft fteaming. There are cocks which let off the condenfed water ; anda conduit which takes it away. The lead-pots ftand upon a framing or platform, which fhould be ten inches above the floor, There are {tone troughs, too, in which the potatoes STE are bruifed for ufe before giving them to the animals. In the wafhing-machine, the handle goes twice about for the wafher’s once. And the crane and jack which wind up the wather is difengaged from the axle by a jointed notch be- tween the two head-ftocks. The water-back is fupplied by a {pout from a pump, in order to fill the boiler; alfo, a fhorter {pout is applied to fill the tub which the wafhing- machine runs in. And it is remarked that a plug is in the bottom of the tub, to let off the dirty water. The boiler confilts of two iron pans, ferewed together by two flanges ; and each pan will hold 40 gallons. The lead-pipe, which leads from the boiler, and conveys the {team to the lead-pots, is one inch and a quarter in diameter. It is noticed that the lead-pots are 12 inches in diameter, and 9 feet in depth. There is a brafs cock, which {tops the fteam when the tubs are taken off; alfo two other cocks are applied ; One to open from the water-back, in order to fill the boiler ; and the other to know when the boiler is fufficiently filled with water, There is likewife a fteam-valve fixed upon the top of the boiler, of about 4lbs. to a fquare inch. The tubs are 2 feet high, and zo inches wide at the top, and 17 inches at the bottom, and: will hold about 11 ftone of potatoes. It is alfo remarked, that the boiler will fleam the four tubs in from 15 to 20 minutes. One or two tubs may be {teamed at a time, by plugging up the fteam-holes in the leaden pots. The tubs are fet upon the lead-pots with flannel between, nailed upon the tub-bottom; and each tub-bottom is perforated, to let the iteam afcend among the potatoes ;. and the lids of the tubs are held down by iron ball clevers, four to each tub. When the potatoes are fteamed, the other crane removes the potatoes to the itone trough to be made ufe of ; and alfo places and replaces the tubs. It is obferved, too, that the wafher fhould be about two-thirds filled, and that it will mott completely do the potatoes in two minutes. When taken outof the box, itis neceflary to either pump or throw a pail of water over them, and to let it drain through them. . The fize of the wafher muft be according to the work required to be done. : » Another method has, however, been fuggeited by Mr. Pierrepont of preparing this root, and which he confiders as fuperior in refpe€t to, or fo far as the goodnefs of the food for the ufe of cattle is concerned, as may be feen under the article Porator. This is by means of baking or roafting them in ovens proper for the purpofe. The ovens may be conftruéted in different ways; but that which is here defcribed is three feet fix inches by two feet fix inches in width, and one foot nine inches in height. | It has a caft-iron plate for the bottom, and is provided with flues. The oven, when complete, will contain fix digetters. It may be noticed, that in {peaking of the procefs of baking the potatoes in thefe ovens, it is obferved in the fourth volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, that three bufhels of potatoes were weighed feparately, each bufhel weighing 60 pounds before they were put into fix di- gefters. The potatoes from the two firft digefters, taken out of the oven when baked, and weighed together, were 55 pounds ; and thofe from the fecond two were 54 pounds ; and thofe from the third two, 54 pounds likewife. That the carpenter meafured the wood with which they were baked, and he tells the writer that a well-{lacked cord of good fuel-wood will bake go fets, or go times 6 digetters, each containing half a bufhel of potatoes, at the rate of wood it took to bake the above fix, which was the fecond fet baked that day. And he adds, that a calt-iron plate five feet long by two feet ten inches, inftead of three feet ten. inches STE inches by two feet ten inches, which will hold eight diget- ters, and by adding a {mall fire thus, Six inches. on each fide the great fire-place, will, in his opinion, accele- rate the baking from 15 to 20 minutes in every fet, as well as fave fome fuel. Alfo, ina fubfequent communication, it is {tated that the cord, or, as it is often called, the ftack of wood, mentioned in the experiment, is 24 feet long, 3 feet wide, (that is, the wood is firft cut into three-feet lengths,) ‘and 1 foot to inches high; and is fold for 12s. on the {pot in his neighbourhood. Each of the 6 digefters holds 6-gallons wine meafure, but in potatoe meafure each will only hold half a bufhel; fo that 1 fack, or 3 bufhels, are baked at a time with one part out of go of the above cord, or ftack of wood. He has never had occafion for more than fix bakings in a day ; which 6 bakings, that is, 6 facks, or 18 bufhels, at 60 lbs. the bufhel, were done within tavelve hours, the wood being in a dry ftate. He believes that eight digefters, with the heat properly {pread, would be done in fomewhat lefs time, allowing for that of filling and emptying the two additional ones; and this fhould be fuffi- ciently fatisfa€tory for any perfon wifhing to ufe the method on a larger {cheme. Reprefentations of thefe different apparatufes for fteaming Six inches. Seven inches long, and fix high. of cattle-food may be feen in the fecond volume of the *¢ General Di€tionary of Agriculture and Hufbandry.”’ There are fome other more fimple and cheap contrivances in ufe in different diftriéts for {teaming of cattle-food, fuch as a hogfhead cut in halves, the bottom raddled, and mortared half way into a {mall copper, and coarfely covered with a wooden lid. By this contrivance potatoes are fo quickly fteamed in Suflex, it is faid, that fix tubs are done in the courfe of the day, which is nearly double the number that could be boiled in the water. It is fuggefted, however, that there fhould be an eafier way of clearing the copper from dirt, which will, in fpite of wafhing, gradually colle& at the bottom of it, without having the neceffity of breaking the mortared joint which conneéts it and the half-hogfhead. Other modes of a fimilar nature, equally fimple and conve- nient, exift in many other places, which are found to an{wer perfeétly well, where only {mail quantities of this fort of food are wanted to be prepared at a time. The fteaming of cattle-food is a practice which is yet pro- bably but in its infancy, confequently every difcovery of a ready and cheap method of effeGting the bufinefs is particu- larly deferving of the farmer’s attention, as well as the afcertaining of the improvements which different forts there- by undergo, for the purpofe of being applied in the different procefles of feeding and fattening various kinds of animals of the farm fort. Sreaminc-Houfe, a place properly fitted up for the purpofe of preparing roots by {team for the ufe of cattle. See the preceding article. STEATITE, in Mineralogy, a mineral particularly dif- tinguifhed for its unétuous feel, refembling that of foap. That variety which is found in Cornwall differs from com- mon fteatite by the abfence of alumine in its compofition, and is commonly called foap-ftone. See Soap-Stone. Steatite is of various fhades of white, grey, yellow, and red. It occurs maffive, and forming incruttations; it is fometimes cryftallized ; but mineralogifts are not agreed re- fpe&ting the cryftals ; fome confidering them as true crytftals, others as falfe ones, formed in the cavities made by pre- _ primitive mountains. STE exilting cryitals. The fix-fided prifm, the rhomb, and fix- fided pyramid, are confidered by Mr. Jamefonas falfe cry {tals the prifm originating from rock-cryftal ; the rhomb from brown {par ; and the fix-fided pyramid from calcareous fpar. Steatite is foft, yielding tothe nail, but does not adhere to the tongue; the fracture is {plintery: it is more or lefs tranflucent Gn the edges, and bears a great refemblance to ferpentine ; but is much fofter than that rock, to which, however, it is nearly allied, being commonly found tra- verfing it in veins. Steatite alfo occurs in metalliferous veins, with the ores of copper, lead, zinc, filver, and tin, mingled with afbeftus, mica, and quartz. ‘This mineral fometimes forms beds in It is infufible by the blowpipe, but changes its colour, and becomes black. According to Kla- proth, the fteatite of Bareuth contains Silex - - - 49-50 Magnefia - - 39- Iron - 5 5 2.50 Water - - 5.50 According to Vauquelin, the fteatite of Monte Ramuzo contains Silex - : = < Magnefia - - Bae Alumine = e 2: fron - + 2 1 Manganefe - . 1.50 Chrome - - Ze with a trace of lime and muriatic acid. Steatite has been employed in various countries to anfwer the purpofes of foap and fuller’s-earth. The white variety is much valued in the manufacture of porcelain. The inhabitants of New Caledonia are faid to eat confi- derable quantities of fteatite. Humboldt ftates alfo, that the Otomacks, a favage race on the banks of the Oronoco, live for nearly three months in the year principally on fteatite, which they firft bake flightly, and then foften with water. Mr. Goldberry fays, that the negroes on the banks of the Senegal mix their rice with white fteatite, and eat it without inconvenience. Very recently, confiderable alarm was ex- cited in the county of Cornwall, on the difcovery that it had been the praétice of a fraudulent miller in that county to mix a confiderable quantity of ground fteatite with his flour. Steatite hardens in the fire, and has been fuccefsfully em- ployed in imitating engraved gems, by Mr. Vilcot, an artift in the vicinity of Liege. The fubje&s to be reprefented are engraved on it with great eafe; it is then expofed toa ftrong heat. It is afterwards polifhed, and may be coloured by metallic folutions. A variety of fteatite found at Ara- gon, in Spain, is ufed by artifts under the name of Spanifh chalk: when gently burned, it is fometimes ufed as the bafis of rouge. Steatite occurs in Cornwall, in Anglefea, at Portfoy, Tcolm-kill, and various parts of Scotland; and in Norway, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, &c.; and, we believe, in all diftri&ts where ferpentine abounds. Some mineralogifts fup- pofe that {teatite is formed from the decompofition of felfpar and mica ; others, that it is nothing more than decompofed. ferpentine. See SERPENTINE. STEATOCELE, from o4:we, fat, and xndn, a tumour, a {welling of the {crotum, containing fat. STEATOMA, a wen, or encyfted tumour, compofed ofa fubltance like fuet. STECKBORN, in Geography. See STEKBOREN. STECKEM, a townof Flanders; 5 miles S. of Hulft. STECKEN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau, 4 miles W. of Polna. STECKENITZ, S TE STECKENITZ, a river which rifes in the territory of Lubeck, and runs into the Elbe at Lauenburg. STECZICA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Sandomirz, on the Wieprez, near its union with the Vittula ; 20 miles W. of Radom. STEE, a provincial term applied to a ladder. STEEBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Carniola; 11 miles E.S.E. of Cirknitz. STEEGE, a fea-port town of Denmark, on the W. coatt of the ifland of Moen ; formerly a place of great ftrength, with a caftle, which. has been fince deftroyed; 38 miles S.S.W..of Copenhagen. N. lat. 55° 3'. E. long. 15° 20!. STEEL, in the 4rts, a molt valuable metal, confitting of iron combined with carbon. It is chiefly ufed for edge- tools, and other cutting inftruments, and from its fine polifh is ufed in ornaments of various kinds. In chemiftry it is called a carburet of iron. Its hardnefs is greater than that of iron; and its moft valuable property is, that it can be made harder than any other metal, by fuddenly cooling it when heated to rednefs : alfo, if it is heated to a lower temperature than rednefs, and fuddenly cooled, it becomes the mott elaftic of all the metals. It is of a darker colour when polifhed, and retains its polifh much longer, not being fo liable to oxydate. The {pecific gravity of -fteel is greater than that of iron: thus, the fpec. grav. of ca{t-iron is .72070; malleable iron, -77880; fteel in its foft ttate, .78404; hardened fteel, .78180. Steel is manufa¢tured by two procefles, one in which the fteel is made from pig-iren at once in the finery: this is praCtifed in Germany, and is called natural iteel. Cemented fteel is formed by ftratifying bars of iron with powdered charcoal in a clofe veffel, and by keeping the mafs at a brifl red heat for a longer or fhorter time, depending upon the fize of the bars. This procefs is called converfion. ‘The teft of the converfion being complete is its bliftered appearance, from which it has been called 4/ifered fteel. As the fteel in this change does not undergo fulion, all the imperfections in the mechanical texture of the iron will ftill be found to exift in the fteel. A drawing of the furnace employed for this procefs is given in Plate VII. .Jron Manufadture ; for the references to which, as well as the mill for tilting fteel, fee TILTING of Steel. It is from bliftered fteel that all the different kinds of fteel are manufactured. Thefe are prin- cipally of two varieties, viz. ca/t-/leel and /hear-fleel. Catt-fteel is bliltered fteel fuled and ca{t into ingots, which are afterwards drawn into.rods by the hammer, or by rolling. By this change the fteel becomes much harder, and of courfe entirely free from thofe feams and other de- fe&ts which exift in the bliftered fteel: this is what renders caft-fteel fo much better for polifhed goods: for when bliitered iteel is attempted to be polifhed, the furface is feen to abound with numerous f{pots, arifing frem mechanical defe&ts in the bars previous to converfion. “ Caft-fteel works much harder under the hammer, and will not bear much more than a red heat, without breaking in pieces under it. This, however, is more efpecially confined to that commonly made; fince calt-fteel may be made which will bear a white and even a welding heat; but it requires a much greater heat for its fufion, and would in confe- quence be fold at a higher price. The refufe of bliftered or common fteel is generally melted into calt-fteel; but this is not of the beft quality. The bett caft-tteel is made by melting the bars of bliltered fteel, which, for this purpofe, are a little more converted than for ordinary purpofes, in order to give the fteel a little more carbon than if it were ufed in the ftate of bliftered fleel. The bars are broken into fmall pieces, for the purpofe of flowing the greateft quantity in the crucible. STE The furnace employed for melting of fteel is the beft con- {truted air-furnace, and is fimilar in form to thofe ufed by brafs and iron-founders in the {mall way, where the crucible is employed. That part of the furnace containing the crucible and the fuel is of a prifmatic form, about twelve inches {quare, and two feet in length from the grate to the top where the cover is placed. About three inches below the cover is a horizontal opening, called the throat of the furnace, which leads direftly into the chimney. This opening is about three inches by fix, and muft never be lefs than the open part of the grate. In fome manufac- tories, ten or twelve of thefe furnaces are at work at one time. The mouths of the furnaces are level with the floor of the room. where the cafting is performed. ‘Thefe are arranged along the two oppolite walls, each containing a ftack of high chimnies. The afh-pits of thefe furnaces terminate in a cellar below, which is well fupplied with air. The crucibles in which the fteel is melted are made on the {pot. The material is Stourbridge clay, to which a little coke-duft is added. They are formed in a mould of caft- iron, of the form of the outfide of the crucible. The pro- per quantity of tempered clay is firl put into this mould, and then a wooden plug is driven in to form the infide of the crucible. They are then gradually dried, and flightly baked, at a much lefs heat than is given to the foftett pottery. The crucible is generally removed from the baking fire to the furnace, which would be liable to crack if put into the fire cold. The crucible is placed upon a ftand about four inches high, which is alfo placed upon the middle of the grate. The bafe of this ftand is lefs in dia- meter than the upper part, in order to intercept the air the leaft poffible. Each crucible is alfo provided with a flat cover, made very true on the under fide, fo as to fit. It is a little larger than the top of the crucible, in order to be eafily removed with tongs. The cover is generally made of-fire-clay a little more fufible than that of the crucibles. This admits of as much vitrification between the cover and the crucible, before the melting of the tteel, as ferves to keep out the air, which, at this high temperature, would injure the quality of the fteel, by firft deftroying its carbon, and then oxydating the iron. In order, however, to guard more completely again{t this evil, fome make ufe of what is termed a flux. This confifts of any eafily vitrifying fubftance, fuch as bottle-glafs, in very {mall quantity. The fubftance now employed is the blaft-furnace cinder. The fuel ufed for melting fteel is the coke of pit-coal, very highly baked in kilns ufed for the purpofe. The fracture of thefe cokes is white and brilliant. They are fo hard as to be fonorous; and their fpecific gravity is much greater than ordinary cokes, This coke, being broken into pieces about the fize of an egg, is made to furround the crucible. clofely on all fides, and a few inches above the fame. The heat required to melt fteel is fo in- tenfe, that if the fuel were'not firm and denfe, the fire would not laft till the fufion took place.. This would require a fupply of cold fuel, which would not only en- danger the crucible, but occafion great delay.. When the {teel is thoroughly fufed, the crucible is withdrawn with a pair of long tongs, opening with two concave jaws to fit the cylindrical form of the crucible, The tongs are not re- moved till the metal is poured. Immediately on bringing it out of the fire, previous to which the cover is removed, fome feoria, or refufe arifing from the flux, is firft removed. This expofes the {teel to the a€tion of the oxygen of the’ atmofphere. Particles of the metal are now feen to dart out of the crucible in bright corruféations, and thefe con- tinue all the time the metal is pouring into the mould, caufing a grand and interefting appearance. The mould is of oa STE of caft iron, giving an o€tagonal fhape to the ingot. Thefe moulds are of various forms. Thofe ufed for fteel- plate are in the form of parallelograms: and thofe for making large faws are {maller at each end, in order to roll out into a plate nearly of the form of the faw. The fteel known by the name of fhear-fteel, has been fo called from its, application to the cutting part of fheep or wool fhears. It was formerly manufactured at Newcattle- upon-Tyne, and has been called Newcaltle iteel. From being fubjeGted to a fimilar procefs to the natural fteel made in Germany, it has alfo been termed German fteel. We have before obferved, that the bar-iron of which fteel is made, contains many defeéts in its mechanical texture. In this ftate, it is faid by the workmen to be loofe, and is more or lefs fo, as depending upon the management of the bar-iron maker. The manufaéture of fhear-iteel confiits in removing thefe defeéts, and at the fame time giving it what is called increafed fibre by the operation of hammering. The tirft preparation is to lay a number of bars of blittered fteel together, and bind them with iron rings at one end, fo that the bars which are put in the fire may not be difplaced. A portion of thefe united bars is now to be heated toa full welding heat, keeping the furface well defended by throwing powdered fand upon it from time to time. This fufes with the oxyd of iron, forming a liquid coating, which defends the furface from the ation of the air. If this pre- caution is not obferved, the fteel, when heated to the degree of welding, would become what is termed durnt, and its _ malleability be impaired. In the welding ftate it is placed under a forge-hammer, working by water or a tteam-engine; when the bars become firmly united, and all the loofe parts previoufly exifting in the malleable iron are at the fame time made found. When alittle more than half the length of the bars is treated in this way, the iron rings are removed, and the other end heated and hammered in a fimilar way. The welded mafs is now drawn down into fmall bars about an inch and a quarter broad, and three-eighths or half an inch in thicknefs. In this ftate it is fold to the confumer, who afterwards has it reduced to different fized rods by the tilt-hammer. The fteel is rendered fo compat in texture by the welding and hammering, as to become fufceptible of a much better polifh than bliftered fteel is capable of ; at the {ame time that its tenacity and malleability are much improved. The former improvement highly fits it for table- knives: the latter makes it valuable for fprings of various kinds, particularly thofe of gun-locks. The procefs by which this fteel is formed has another advantage befides rendering it found and more malleable. It is found fofter and more kind than the bli'tered fteel from which it is formed, and is much more uniform in its quality. This may be explained by the fa&, that a quan- tity of the carbon of the bliftered {teel is diffipated in the form of carbonic acid during the welding and hammering, by which a fteel is obtained, having a lefs than ordinary proportion of carbon, and is in confequence lefs hable to break in bending, and at the fame time fofter and more flexible. Indeed, if the procefs of welding and hammering were repeated feveral times, the {teel would lofe the whole of its carbon, and become pure iron. Bliftered fteel fhould not be ufed but for the com- moneft purpofes, where great tenacity of polifh is not an obje&. For all nice purpofes, where great tenacity and foundnefs are neceflary, fhear-{teel fhould be employed ; and where a fine polifh or great hardnefs is wanted, catt-fteel is indifpenfable. See Inon and CutTienry. Street, Annealing, or Nealing of, is for the foftening it, in order to make it work eafier ; which is ufually done Vox. XXXIV. STE by giving it a blood-red heat in the fire, and then taking it out, and letting it cool of itfelf. Some have pretended to fecrets in annealing, by which they could bring down iron or fteel to the temper of lead: this was to be done by often heating the metal in melted lead, and Jetting it cool again out of the lead. But this method has no other effeét than what is obtained from the former, when the cooling is very gradual. Steel may indeed be made a little fofter than in the com- mon way, by covering it with coarfe powder of cow-horn, or hoofs: thus inclofing it in a loam, heating the whole in a wood-fire till it be red-hot, and then leaving the fire to go out of itfelf, and the fteel to cool, which it will do flowly from being inclofed. See Tempertne, and Street, Supra. For the expanfion of fteel by heat, fee PyromeTER. Sreet-Glafes, a name given by fome authors to the metal- line {pheres ufed in optics. Thefe, according to Cardan, are made of three parts of brafs, one part of tin, and one of filver, with an eighteenth part of antimony ; but mott either totally leave out the filver, or add only a twenty-fourth part, to fave the expence. ‘There are many other methods, direGted by feveral authors, but moft ufe arfenic and tartar, mixed with the metals. Thefe are afterwards to be polifhed with emery, rotten-{tone, putty, and the like. STEEL-Ore, is ufed to fignify a particular kind of lead-ore. STEEL-Powder. See PowpEr. ; STEEL, Salt of. See Sarr of Steel. Srret-Waters. See Mineral WATERS. Street, Dama/fcus. See Damascus. Steer, Engraving on, See ENGRAVING. Sree, Faggot of. See Faccor. STEEL, in Medicine. See CHALYBEAT, and Iron, in Medicine. Stert-Wine. See WINE. Street Point, in Geography, a cape on the E. coaft of La- brador. N. lat. 58° 4o!.. W. long. 62°. STEELE, Sir Ricwarp, in Biography, a political and mif- cellaneous writer of confiderable note, was born at Dublin, either in 1671 or 1676. His father, who was of Englifh extraction, had been for fome time private fecretary to the firft duke of Ormond, through whofe influence the fon was fent, at an early age, to England, and placed at the Charter- Houfe for education. In 1691 he was entered of Merton college, Oxford. Of his academical life little or nothing is known, except that he compofed a comedy during his refi- dence, which, by the advice of a fellow-collegian, he fup- preffed. He left the univerfity without a degree, and feeling a {trong inclination for the army, he entered himfelf as a pri- vate in the horfe-guards, but his friends foon after procured for him an enfign’s commiflion. Feeling that he might not be able effectually to refift the temptations incident to his age and fituation, he drew up a little treatife for his own admonition, and which is well known even now, entitled “ The Chriftian Hero :’’ this was printed in the year 1701, at which time the author was fecretary to lord Cutts, and had, by his means, obtained a company in a regiment of fu- fileers. The ferioufnefs of the work expofed him to fome ridicule among his companions, and the more fo, as it failed in producing the correfponding good effeét in regulating his own morals; he therefore, ‘*to enliven his charaéter,”’ as he fays of himfelf, brought out a comedy, entitled the “ Fu- neral, or Grief a-la-mode.”? This piece proved fuccefsful : it had the merit of uniting entertainment with the more di- re& purpofe of moral improvement, than was ufual among dramatifts at that time. Either on this or on other accounts he attraéted the notice of king William, whe meant to have R beftowed STEELE. beftowed upon him fome mark of the royal favour, but he did not live to effe& his intention. He obtained the very humble office of gazette-writer under queen Anne; but he now purfued his career as a writer, and in 1704 brought out his comedy of “ The Tender Hufband,’? which was acted with great fuccefs. This was followed by “ The Lying Lover,’’ which was not well received. In 1709, Steele began a feries of periodical papers, which, more than any of his other exertions, has contributed to elta- blifh his fame. The « Tatler,”? with which it began, was formed upon a plan which included the political information of a common newf{paper. Its main obje& was, however, to improve the morals and manners, by holding up to ridicule fafhionable follies and vices of every kind, and inculcating juft and liberal fentiments on common topics, with a general regard to the proper decorum of focial life. The author was fully qualified for this tafk by a knowledge of the world, acquired in free converfe with it, by natural humour and vivacity, and by a generous and benevolent way of thinking. He had likewife the felicity of being able to engage coadjutors of confiderable talents, among whom were Addifon and Swift. The Tatler was extenfively circulated, and as, in its politics, it fided with the minifter, Steele ob- tained the reward of a place among the commiffioners of the ftamp-duties, which he retained after the difmiffion of the minifters who had granted it. In 1711 this paper was fuc- céeded by the more celebrated “* Spetator,”’ in which the plan was matured, the politics of the day were rejected, and the affittance of Addifon and other eminent writers was more conftant, though Steele continued his own mott aétive fervices. This work was brought to a clofe, and the ** Guardian”? commenced in 1713, and was terminated in the fame year. He afterwards engaged in other periodical works, but being fubfervient to mere political purpofes, they have all been long fince forgotten., On taking a decided political chara@ter again{ft the go- vernment, he refigned his poft in the once and like- wife his penfion, which he had hitherto received, as having belonged to the houfehold of the late prince, George of Den- mark. He was now returned member of parliament for the borough of Stockbridge. He had not taken his feat long before he was expelled as the author of certain publications to which his name was prefixed, and which the houfe, in its great wifdom, voted to be feditious and fcandalous libels. The mott noted of thefe, entitled ** The Crifis,?? was not written by Steele, but bya friend and political coadjutor. The charge exhibited on this occafion, that the libels, as they were called, contained many expreffions highly reflecting upon her majelty, &c. malicioufly infinuating that the Pro- teftant {ucceffion in the houfe of Hanover is in danger under her majefty’s adminiftration. Steele met with very able as well as zealous defenders in Addifon, the Walpoles, lords Finch, Lumley, and Hinchinbroke ; but the party in power was determined on the facrifice, and the charge againit him was affirmed by a majority of nearly two to one. After his expulfion he engaged in fome literary undertakings; but on the acceflion of George I. he was taken into favour, and was prefented with a {mall appointment under go- vernment, Having procured a licence to be chief manager of the royal company of comedians, he had intereft enough to get this licence exchanged for a patent for life as governor of that company. In the firft parliament. of the new reign he re-entered the houfe as member for Boroughbridge, in York- fhire ; and in April 1715, he received the honour of knight- hood, on prefenting an addrefs : and about the fame time, the more fub{tantial reward of soo/. was given him by fir Robert Walpole, for {pecial fervice. Thus encouraged, hfs fertile pen produced a yariety of political traéts in favour of that caufe which feemed at all times to be near his heart, as well in its deprefled as in its triumphant ftate. Having been appointed, in 1717, one of the commiflioners for en- quiring into the eftates forfeited by the late rebellion in Scotland, he went to that country, and was treated in it with great refpeét, notwithitanding the unwelcomenefs of the errand on which he was fent. It was on this occafion that he conceived the projeét of forming an union between the Scotch and Englifh churches, and had feveral confer- ences with the Prefbyterian minilters refpecting the rettora- tion of epifcopacy ; but his zeal, it is faid, was not directed by judgment. He obtained, and with much juftice, the charaéter of a projeétor, which was both the effeét and caufe of that perpetual embarraflment under which he laboured, and which was principally owing to a radical want of economy, and a ftrange inclination to expences. He was twice married, and with each wife he had a good fortune ; yet he feems to have been always neceflitous. In 1718 he had a project for conveying fifh to market alive, for which he obtained a patent, which, inftead of mending his circumttances, only involved him {till deeper in difficul- ties. His biographers obferve, that “ it were to be wifhed that his diftreffes had occafioned no other facrifices than that of money ; but there is reafon to fuppofe that they fometimes interfered with the dictates of confcience.’’ Whitton fays, that once having met with Steele after a vote in parliament contrary to his former declarations, with which he flightly upbraided him, the knight replied, «« Mr. Whitton, you can walk on foot, but I cannot.” Steele’s fpirit was not, however, formed for implicit fubmiffion, and. for his oppofition to the peerage-bill in 1719, he was deprived of his theatrical patent. He appealed to the public, and was reftored in the following year. He pleaded the caufe of the nation by a pamphlet againft the South-fea fcheme. In 1722 he brought forward his comedy of ‘ The Confcious Lovers,’ which was received with great applaufe. He dedicated it to the king, and was remunerated with 5oo/.; but his embarraffments prefled upon him ; and in addition to his other misfortunes, he engaged in an untuccefsful law-fuit. Broken in fortune and conititution, he retired to an elftate in Wales, where he died in 1729. He appears to have been much beloved for the benevo- lence and warmth of his heart: in under{tanding, he has been charaéterized as a man of parts rather than of genius: his pro- duétions are lively, but they difplay neither great force nor accuracy. His ftyle and his train of thinking are equally lax and incorreét. He was a lover of virtue, and frequently painted it in pleafing and attraétive colours. Hisreputation as a writer feems to have been muclvindebted to the partner- fhips which he formed ; and his name is fcarcely entitled to a place among thofe which throw peculiar luitre upon the period of Englifh literature. Biog. Brit. Sir Richard Steele, without much tafte or fcience in the art, was a mufical critic and projector. His eloge on Ni- colini, in the Tatler, No. 115, would have done his tafte and judgment honour, if he had not afterwards treated operas in general, when they clafhed with his intereft in the play- houfe, with the utmoit contempt. He joined with Clayton, Haym, and Dieupart, in a concert at York-buildings, againit the opera; and afterwards employed Hughes to alter Dry- den’s Ode on St. Cecilia’s Day for mufic, to fet which he employed Clayton! but the plan failed. And he had the room in York-buildings afterwards fitted up at a confider- able expence, and a roftra erected for himfelf to read lec- tures in, on the drama and ere fubje&ts. We have heard, \- or STE wr read fomewhere (we hope not in Joe Miller), that when the room was finifhed, he defired the carpenter to mount the roftra aud {peak a few words, loud, that he might judge what effe& the voice would have at different diltances ; but the carpenter pleading his inability to fay any thing worth fir Richard’s hearing, excufed himfelf as long as poffible ; yet fir Richard perfitting in his wifh only to hear a few words uttered with a loud voice upon any fubjec& that came up- permolt, the carpenter at length, addrefling himfelf to fir Richard from the roltra, cries out, with confiderable energy, neat elocution, and a loud voice,—* Sir Richard! you have done me the honour to employ me as your carpenter feveral years, without ever afking for your bill; now if you will but have the goodnefs to difcharge the debt, I fhould be much obliged to your honour.”’—* Enough, enough,” cries fir Richard, ‘ the found is not very agreeable ; but I believe it will do.”’ Sir Richard Steele was certainly a man of wit and hu- mour, and in fome of his ferious writings there were good intentions; but he feems to have been (fays Dr. Burney) an unprincipled politician, an occafional Chriftian, and a pre- tending, felf-interefted and ignorant mufical critic. STEELER, in Ship-Building, a name given to the fore- moft or aftermoit plank, ina ftrake which drops fhort of the ftem and ftern-poit, and of which the end or butt neareft the rabbet is wrought very narrow, and well forward or aft. Its ufe is to take out the {nying-edge occafioned by a full bow, or fudden circular buttock. STEELING, in Cutlery, the laying on a piece of fteel upon a larger mafs of iron, to make that part which is to receive the edge harder than the reft. The body of an axe may very well be of iron, as it never comes into ufe to cut with, and perhaps is {tronger, and lefs liable to break, than if of fteel ; but it muft have a quantity of fteel at that part where the edge is to be made. STEELYARD, or Srityarp, in Mechanics, a kind of balance, called alfo fatera Romana, or the Roman balance ; by means of which the gravities of different bodies are found by the ufe of one fingle weight. SreeLyArD, Conflrudion of the. It confifts of an iron beam AB (Plate XXXVIII. Mechanics, fig. 6.) in which a point is affumed at pleafure, as C, and, on this, a perpendicular raifed, CD. On the fhorter arm, AC, is hung a {cale or bafon to receive the bodies weighed: the weight Lis fhifted this and that way on the beam, till it be a counterbalance to one, two, three, four, &c. pounds placed in the feale ; and the points are noted in which I weighs as one, two, three, four, &c. pounds. From this con{truétion of the fteel- yard, the manner of ufing it is apparent. But the inftru- ment, being very liable to deceit, is therefore not to be countenanced in commerce. STEELYARD, Spring, is a kind of portable balance, ferving to weigh any matter, from about one to forty pounds. It is compofed of a brafs tube, into which goes a rod, and about that is wound a {pring of tempered iteel in a {piral form. On this rod are the divifions of pounds and parts of pounds, which are made by fucceffively hanging on to an hook fattened to the other end, one, two, three, four, &c. pounds. Now the {pring being faftened by a {crew to the bottom of the rod ; the greater weight is hung on the hook, the more will the {pring be contraéted, and, confequently, a greater part of the rod will come out of the tube ; the proportions of which greater weights are indicated by the figures ap- pearing again{t the extremity of the tube. STEELYARD, Company of the. See STILLYARD. ; Sreetyarp, Chinefe. The people of China carry this co r al X Tr K ftatera about them to weigh their gems, and other things of value. The beam, or yard, isa {mall rod of wood or ivory, about a foot in length ; upon this are three rules of meature, made of a fine filver-{tudded work ; they all begit from the end of the beam, whence the firft is extended eight inches, the fecond fix and a half, the third eight and a half. The firft is the European meafure, the other two feem to be China meafure. At the other end of the yard hangs a round {cale, and at three feveral diftances from this end are faltened fo many flender ftrings, as different points of fufpenfion. The firft diftance makes eight-fifths of an inch, the fecond is double to the firft, and the third four inches and four-fifths. When they weigh any thing, they hold up the yard by fome of thefe ftrings, and hang a fealed weight, of about one ounce and one-fourth troy weight, upon the refpe&tive divifions of the rule, as the thing requires. Grew’s Mufeum, p. 369. STEELYARD-Swing. In the Philofophical Tranfaétions (No. 462, fect. 5.) we have an account of the fteelyard- {wing, propofed as a mechanical method for affifting children labouring under deformities, owing to the contra¢tion of the mufcles on one fide of the body. The crooked perfon is fufpended with cords under his arm, and thefe are placed at equal diftances from the centre of the beam. It is fup- pofed that the gravity of the body will affe@ the contraéted fide, fo as to put the mufcles upon the ftretch ; and hence by degrees the defeét may be remedied. STEEN, Jan, in Biography, one of the brighteft orna- ments of the Flemifh {chool of painting, was born at Ley- den in 1636. His father was a brewer in that city, who perceiving an inclination in his fon for painting, placed him as a pupil with N. Knuffer, an hiltorical painter at Utrecht. That he might not be entirely dependent upon his talents as an artift, his father eftablifhed him in a brewhoufe at Delft ; but this kindnefs, which might have fecured him comfort, only afforded him the means of fenfual indulgence, to which he was prone, and which, ina fhort time, led to the ruin of the concern ; and his father finding him irreclaimably bent on diffipation, at length abandoned him. He after- wards became a keeper of a tavern; but this was a more ruinous occupation than the former, and foon brought on the calamities his condu@t merited ; as he was faid te be a more a¢tive confumer of his own ftores than any of his cultomers. Amidit the interruptions of indulgence and of bufinefs, he continued conftantly to praétife the art he had acquired ; prefenting generally the fcenes and fubje¢ts in which he paffed his time and were molt congenial to him. The fef- tivity, frolic, and fun of low life in the alehoufe or other places of public refort, he treated with the cleareft expreffion and chara¢ter ; and executed them with a pure tone of co- lour, and a freedom of touch peculiarly his own. Some- times, however, he foared fomewhat higher, and entering the domettic circles of his friends, perpetuated with the greatelt felicity the diverfities of charaéter and amufements which prefented themfelves to his obfervant and intuitive eye. In no man’s piéturesis anobferver more amufed with variety than in Jan Steen’s ; or more entertained by wit and humour, unlefs it be in thofe of our own Hogarth. His drawing and compolition are in general very good, and his colour ad- mirable, particularly in parts ; but oftentimes his manage- ment of chiaro-fcuro is deficient, and his pi€tures want air. While he lived, his works were not in much eftimation ; per- haps his vulgar and diforderly habits prevented them from being known: but.fince his death, and particularly fince fir Jofhua Reynolds evinced an eftimation of them, they have rifen in value, and are now fold, when of fine quality, at very R 2 great STE great prices, and fought with avidity. He died in 1689, at the age of fifty-three. STEEN, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the province of Aggerhuus; 15 miles N. of Chriftiania. STEENBERGEN, a town of Brabant, formerly a place of confequence, on the fea-fide, with a convenient har- bour, but now, in confequence of the recefs of the fea, a league from it ; and by this circumftance, as well as the ca- lamities of war, reduced fo as to have fcarcely the appear- ance of atown; 25 miles N. of Antwerp. N. lat. 51° 37’. E. long. 4° 11/.—Alfo, a mountain of Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope. STEENHOUSE, a town of Scotland, in the ifland of Pomona; 7 miles W. of Kirkwall. STEENKEER, a town of Norway, in the province of Drontheim ; 36 miles N.E. of Drontheim. STEENKIRK, or SreenkeraQue, a village of France, in the department of Jemappe, fituated on the river Son- neque, where a bloody battle was fought by the allies com- manded by William III. king of England, with the French under the duke of Luxemburg, July the 24th, 1692, in which the latter were victorious ; 13 miles N. of Mons. STEENKIRK, Stevenfkirk, or Steemkerk, a town of Flan- ders; 8 miles W. of Dixmunde. STEEN-PLAAT, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of Gilolo. N. lat. 1° 20!. E. long. 127° 21! STEENWORDE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the North, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- trict of Hazebrouch; 4 miles E. of Caflel. The town con- tains 3474, and the canton 23,650 inhabitants, on a terri- tory of 130 kiliometres, in g communes. STEENWYCK, Henry, in Biography, was born at Steenwyck in 1550. He was a fcholar of John de Vries, a painter of per{peétive and architeGtural [cenes. Steen- wyck furpafled his mafter in the fame fubje&s, viz. interiors of churches and Gothic buildings, which he painted with great neatnefs and clearnefs. His colouring is rich and brilliant, but he injured his effe€ts by painting the lights too much in lines, unblended and too fharp, which deftroys the appearance of folidity. He died in 1603, and left a fon, Henry Steenwyck, born in 1589 at Antwerp, who excelled him in the fame line and manner. He ufually painted on a larger fcale than his father. WVandyck, with whom he lived in intimacy, recommended him to Charles I., who invited him to England, where he refided feveral years, and died in London. The pictures of both thefe painters were embel- lithed with figures by friendly artifts, as old Franck, Teniers, Breughel, Van Thulden, &c. SrEENwyck, in Geography, a town of Holland, in the department of Overiflel, fituated on the river Aa, in the country of Zallant, and on the confines of Friefland. It shas three churches; 55 miles S.W. of Emden. N. lat. 52° 48’. E. long. 6°. STEEP, in Agriculture, any kind of liquid or other pre- paration that is ufed for tteeping any forts of grain or feeds in, which are defigned to be fown for raifing crops, in order to prevent difeafe taking place in them. That which is moft highly elteemed by the farmer in common, is a very ftrong folution of common falt in water, fuch as will keep up a heavy egg upon its furface. Strong ftale chamber-ley, in which common falt has been diflolved, is alfo much ufed by fome farmers in different fituations. And there are other forts of preparations which have been long tried with this view both for feed-grain and {mall feeds, not without fome effect in. preventing the danger from difeafe, as well as from the attacks,and ravages of different forts of infe@s in the STE infant {tate of vegetation and growth in the different kinds of plants as crops. Several different forts of preparations, contrived exprefsly for the purpofe of being applied in this way. are given under our articles Pickte, STEEPinG of Seed-Grain and Seeds, and Turnip-Fly. Srrep, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes employed to fignify the prepared maw-fkin, bag, or ftomach of a calf which is killed when fuckling. Thofe in which the calf is perfe@tly healthy when killed, has been wholly fupported with the milk of the cow, and in which there is found a white curdly matter to be prefent, are the belt for the pur- pofe, when well prepared by proper falting and fteeping in pickle. See Dairyine and Renner. Streep [fland, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Mergui Archipelago, N. lat. 10° 43/. Sreep Rocks, a ledge of perpendicular fhelly rocks, form. ing, with fome interruptions, the W. bank of Hudfon’s river, for 12 or 13 miles from the Tappan fea, to within 11 miles of the city of New York. Some of thele rocks are from 150 to 200 feet high, Streep Point, a cape on the S. coat of the ifland of Java. S. lat. 7° 32!.. E. long. 107° 3/. STEEPHOLM, a {mall Wand in the Briftol Channel, about midway between the coatts of England and Wales. Nu lat. 51° 19'. ~W. long. 3° 7!. STEEPING of Seed-Grain and Seeds, in Agriculture, the practice of preparing wheat, barley, and other forts of feeds, before putting them into the ground, by means of fteeps, in order to prevent difeafe. Its obferved by Mr. A. Young, who has made a great number of interelting ex- periments in this way, that the modes of tleeping, brining, and liming feed-wheat, are innumerable, and all equally in- tended again{t the {mut. From his experiments it feemed that {teeping from twelve to twenty-four hours ina ley of wood-afhes, in lime-water, and in a folution of arfenic, gave clean crops from extremely fmutty feed, but that a fhort time in thefe mixtures had a much lefs effeét. In the northern diftri¢ts, the practice of fteeping is almoft in general ufe with fteeps of the chamber-ley and falt kinds with hme, and the following are the practices in two of the principal grain diltri@s in the fouthern parts of the king- dom. It is ttated in the Agricultural Survey of Norfolk, that Mr. Robinfon, of Watton, for many years has had no other fmut on his farm, than what has been caufed by accidentally fowing a headland, or finifhing a corner of a field with dry feed; but if ‘teeped, the prevention is in- fallible. His method is, to {teep it in a brine made with common falt, of ftrength to bear an egg, for twelve hours, and then to dry with lime. Mr. Dover, of Hockham, had great plenty of pheafants, but loft them all by ufing arfenic in {teeping his wheat-feed. Mr. Salter, of Winborough, however, drefles with falt and lime without tteeping, and never has the {mut : it is only to be concluded, that he has always fown clean feed. And Mr. M. Hill flakes the lime with falt, diffolved in a fmall quantity of water; dips the wheat in a fkep in plain water only; lays it on the floor, and incorporates it with falt and lime, and then dries it with lime. Mr. Overman ftirs his feed well in pump-water, then lays it ina heap to drain, and adds half a pound of falt to every buthel, {tirs it well together, and dries with lime ; this he finds fufficient againft the {mut. Whence the writer concludes that his feed is always free from that diftemper, or afluredly he would find the procefs to fail, for he does not leave it any time limed. The falt is diflolved in a very {mall quantity of water; with this falt and water the lime is flaked, and with this fa- line STE line preparation in its hotteft {tate the wheat becomes can- died, having previoufly been moiftened for the purpofe with pure water. Alfo in Hertfordfhire, Mr. Byde brines his wheat ; he {wims it, but takes it out directly and limes it. And about Beachwood they make a brine with falt, which will {wim a new-laid egg. They leave the feed from two to four hours long in this brine, and ftir and fkim it ; they lime it over night, and then fow it next morning, but if it be kept a week it will receive no injury; they are however not free from fmut, and have occafionally much over the whole country, even from Watford. A fteeping of one hour is truited to at King’s Waldon. If chamber-ley be added or thrown on the feed after brining, it kills the wheat. Mr. Leach has bought {mutty wheat to fow for curiofity, and even the worlt which he could find; he fteeped it fix hours in a yery ftrong brine, made to fwim a large egg; he dried it with hot lime and fowed it dire&ly, and had no fmut. He has tried this feveral times, always with fuccefs. He fteeps clean wheat but three hours. But Mr. Sedgwick fteeps his feed in brine above fix hours, then dries it with lime and fows it direétly, and he never. has any {mut ; he omitted it three or four years, and fuffered feverely by fuch omiflion. In the Appendix to the Inquiry concerning the Nature and Caufes of the Blight, &c. fome ufeful pratical obfervations have been inferted from Mr. Blackie, the bailiff of the earl of Chefterfield, on the farm at Bradby-Hall, in Derbyshire. It is there {tated that it has been found by experience, and is pretty generally known, that fmutty feed-grain of the wheat kind will produce fmutty crops; but it is believed, that it is not generally underitood, that the moft {mutty feed, by being properly cleaned, will produce clean crops: fuch, however, is the faét, it is faid; and it has been found that the pureft feed will, by being expofed to, or inoculated, as it is called, with the difeafed, produce fmutty wheat- crops. It is for the naturalift, it is fuppofed, to affign a caufe why the difeafe fhould be infeGtious; but it is fufficient for the practical farmer to know that the fa@ is indifputably eftablithed, and that it is in every one’s power to fatisfy him- felf on the point. It is noticed farther, that many farmers hawe felt them- felves difappointed in not having their wheat-crops clear of fmut, after having been at the trouble and expence of changing the feed, and even wafhing and {teeping or brin- ing that feed, not being ‘aware of the infectious nature of the difeafe againft which they were guarding ; and that the very means they were taking to clean the feed, were alfo per- haps the means of inoculating, impregnating, or infecting it with the {mutty matter. For after the operation of fteep- ing or pickling is performed, the’ feed is generally fpread out on the barn-floor to drain, and probably on the very fame floor where {mutty wheat had previoufly been threfhed out ; or perhaps the feed is put up into facks in which had been fmutty wheat but a fhort time before. The inocula- tion or infe&tion is then, it is faid, complete; the feed is fown; the produce will inevitably and invariably prove -{mutted ; and the farmer naturally feels himfelf difappointed, after all his attention, trouble, and expenditure. It would alfo, it is faid, be prudent in every farmer to fee to the wafhing and fteeping or pickling the feed himfelf, for if he truit that operation to fervants, he will generally find himfelf difappointed. It has been known that fome farmers fow the fame wheat for a fucceffion of years, and with very little preparation or cleaning of the feed, yet have no {mut in their crops; and fo they may with fafety continue to do, fo long as they keep clear of the infeGtion, by not borrowing or lending facks, cand 5 STE by change of barn, of implements, or of other things em- ployed about it. It is fuggetted, that the infection is alfo fometimes probably carried from the barn-door, when the dung is taken green to the fields, without beg properly turned and fermented. It is likely too, it is faid, that there are various other ways by which the infeétion is com- municated, but which the careful farmer will guard againit, when he becomes more fenfible of the contagious nature of the difeafe. In the refult of two experimental trials, which were made in the years 1807 and 1808, on the fame farm, under the patronage and in{peGtion of the noble owner, there is much certainty and fatisfaétion afforded on this important and interetting fubjec. In the firft trial, it is faid that in the autumn of the pre- ceding year, his lordfhip bought a peck of very {mutty dif- eafed wheat from a neighbouring farmer, who had that year great lofs in his crop from{mut. A piece of land was then fet apart for the trial ; one half of the wheat was fown in the ftate in which it was bought, and the refult proved, it is faid, as might be expected, two-thirds of the produce being {mut. The other half peck was wafhed as clean as poffible, chang- ing the water three times, and then put into a brine or tteep {trong enough to carry a new-laid egg, in which it remained two hours, being ftirred up twice in the courfe of that time; when taken out it was dufted over with quick-lime, and fown on the other half piece of land: the refult, it is faid, proved entirely fatisfactory, as it produced a full crop of fine wheat, without a fingle ear of {mut. In the fecond trial, in the preceding autumn alfo, his lordfhip, by way of change in the feed-grain, had the whole of his feed-wheat from Dunttable: it was fine, it is faid, and perfectly free from {mut. Six ears of the {mutty kind were faved from the crop of the preceding year’s trial ; they were put into a {mall bag, and rubbed therein; the {mutty grain was then carefully fhook out of the bag, fo that there only remained the black duft: a quart of Dun- {table wheat was then taken, and although perfeétly clean at the time, was wafhed in three waters, and then put into the {mutty bag for the purpofe of inoculation, or being im- pregnated with the infection; it was fhook in the bag, in which it remained two days, and was afterwards fown. The refult is ttated to have been highly fatisfaétory in proving the effe&t of inoculation, as a very great proportion of the produce was entirely {mut ; while out of twenty acres fown with the fame feed-grain not inoculated or infected by the fmutty matter, not one {mutty ear was found, although care- fully examined exprefsly for that purpofe. Thefe trials are faid to be known, and to have been feen by many farmers and other perfons in the neighbourhood. And that the inoculated wheat, on being cut and carefully threfhed out, was kept for the purpofe of being fhewn to any perfon who might think it worth while to examine it. It is further noticed, that fince the advance in the price of falt, the expence of good brine for iteeping or pickling feed-wheat has become a confideration to farmers, and that in confequence, various fubf{titutes have been adopted, fre- quently not efficacious. It is thought too, that it would be very advifable, in ad- dition to all other precautions, that the feed fhould be well washed, and all the refufe {cummed off from the furface of the liquid made ufe of for that purpofe. The above obfervations and refults are ftrongly enforced, and fhewn to be corre& by the following ftatement. Inthe autumn of 1805, after having finifhed the wheat-feeding on the above farm, a neighbouring farmer was adviled to fend for the fteep or pickle which was left. He has specie muc STE much in former years from the fmut, and previous to his _ fending for the pickle, had that year fown half of his wheat- feed brined or fteeped in his u/ual way; the remainder of the feed was well wafhed, was iteeped or pickled, and proper precautions taken in the manner direéted above; the refult was quite fatisfactory, as the crop from the firft fown feed proved full of fmut; whereas there was not one {mutty ear to be found among that of the latter fown feed. On the nature and caufes of the difeafe there are fo many notions and opinions, that, it is faid, one farmer fits down contented with his crop of difeafed wheat, under the idea that it has been caufed by fomething pernicious in the at- mofphere ; another thinks that it is owing to the nature of the foil, which he concludes to have always grown {mutty wheat ; and a third, who is better informed on the matter, conceives that it proceeds from the feed, which, though brought from a diftant diftri€t for the fake of change, and appearing to be pure feed, yet was the means of affording the {mut, contends that it is of no ufe to change the feed, as he is {till liable to get {mutty wheat : various other caufes of the difeafe are alfo maintained by others, which need not be here noticed. It is confequently concluded, that it has furprifed the writer much, that fenfible praétical farmers and agricul- turalifts fhould {till remain fo greatly prejudiced, even again{t their own interefts, as not to endeavour to eradicate or. re- move this pernicious difeafe, when it is certainly within their power fo todo. The means by which it is thought poffible to accomplifh fo defirable an objet, are, it is faid, firff to imprefs on the minds of all fuch perfons, that the difeafe originates with the feed ; /econdly, that it is in a high degree infectious ; and, thirdly, that the fame preventive and cure are to be effeéted by proper care and attention to the efta- blithed praétices of well wafhing, and brining, fteeping, or pickling the feed. In fhort, there has been fuch a variety of contradictory opinions and conclufions entertained in relation to the ufe and efficacy or advantage of fteeping and preparing feed- grain, that nothing could hitherto fcarcely be attempted or eltablifhed upon any thing like a fatisfaétory or {cientific bafis; but the refult of the whole of what has been {tated from the above experiments and trials would feem to dire& and lead to greater corre€tnefs and certainty in the principles and praétices which are to be purfued, as it fhews, that the difeafe to be guarded againft by them is of a very infeCtious kind, even when in the {malleft and moft minute portions of the feed-grain, and probably that the infection lies in the black powdery matter which adheres to the grain; confe- quently that every fort of wafhing, {teeping, and perhaps rubbing, may be of fome benefit, but efpecially the two firit, when performed with fufficient care, attention, and caution in every way, and for a proper length of time. When, in fpite of all fuch care and precaution, fome ears of a crop may become difeafed, it muft be the confequence of fome minute particles of this black powdery material ftill adhering, in defiance of every effort for their removal, to the feed-grain. The accidental occurrence of the difeafe in fuch cafes, may, however, as has been feen, fometimes originate from incaution and the imperfeét execution of the means which are made ufe of for the purpofe, in the barns or other fimi- lar places, as well as from flight portions of the powdery fubltance being: incautioufly carried or conveyed into the fields in a variety of different ways, as by the facks with the grain, the hoppers, the feed-lips, and numerous other modes. In regard to the ufe of fleeping feeds of the turnip and STE other {mall field kinds, it has been noticed by a late writer on agricultural chemiltry, that there are different prepara- tions and menttrua of the chemical kind which render the procefs of {prouting or germination much more rapid than ufual, when the feeds have been fteeped in them. As in thefe cafes the feed-leaves are quickly protruded and pro- duced, and more fpeedily perform their funétions, it was propofed as a fubjeét of experiment to examine whether fuch menftrua and preparations might not be ufeful in raif- ing the turnip in a more {peedy manner to that ftate in which it would be fecure againft the attacks of infeéts, efpecially the fly, which is fo deftru€tive to it; the refult, however, it is faid, proved that the praétice was inadmiflible ; as feeds fo treated, though they germinated much quicker, did not pro- duce healthy plants, and often died foon after fprouting. In the month of September 1807, radifh-feeds were {teeped for twelve hours in a folution of chlorine, and fimi- lar feeds in very diluted nitric acid, in very diluted fulphuric acid, in weak folution of oxyfulphate of iron, and fome in common water. The feeds fteeped in folutions of chlo- rine and oxyfulphate of iron, threw out the germ in two days ; thofe in nitric acid in three days, in fulphuric acid in five days, and thofe in common water in feven days. But, it is faid, in the cafes of premature germination, though the plume was very vigorous for a fhort time, yet it became at the end of a fortnight weak and fickly ; and at that period lefs vigorous in its growth than the fprouts which had been naturally developed, fo that there can be f{carcely, it is thought, any ufeful application of thefe experimental trials. Too rapid growth and premature decay feem invariably, it is f{uppofed, conneéted in organized ftruétures; and that it is only by following the flow operations of natural caufes, that we are capable of making improvements. See TuRNIP- Fly. a aa a if the refult of thefe trials fhould be confirmed by farther ones, and more full and complete experience, al- though fteeping feeds of thefe kinds in thefe forts of pre- parations may not be capable of being ufefully had recourfe to in the above intention, it may often be beneficial for pro- moting the healthy fprouting and early growth of thefe and many other forts of fmall feeds in very dry times and hot parching feafons, as well as, in common water, for clearing them of various forts of extraneous matters and light imperfeét feeds. Many of the preceding obfervations may be applied with advantage by the gardener, in iteeping peas and beans, &c. as well as the nuts, kernels, and items of many different forts of plants and fruits. STEEPLE, an appendage generally raifed on the weftern end of a church te hold the bells. Steeples are denominated from their form, either /pires, or towers. The firft are fuch as afcend continually, dimi- nifhing either conically or pyramidically. The latter are mere parallelepipeds, and are covered at top, platform like. In each kind, there is ufually a fort of windows, or aper- tures, to let out the found; and fo contrived, at the fame time, as to drive it down. Mafius, in his treatife of bells, treats likewife of fteeples. The mott remarkable in the world is that at Pifa, which leans all to one fide, and appears every moment ready to fall ; yet isin no danger. This odd difpofition, he obferves, is not owing to a fhock of an earthquake, as is generally imagined ; but was contrived fo at firft by the archite& ; as is evident from the ceilings, windows, doors, &c. which are all in the level. STEER, Hog-feer. See Hoc and Ox. - bd STEERAGE, in a Ship, that part of the fhip ra where STE where the tiller traverfes between decks. In merchant-fhips, it is the {pace between the companion-ladder and captain’s cabin, In large thips of war, it is ufed as a hall, through which it is neceflary to pafs to or from the great cabin. In merchant-fhips, it is generally the habitation of the in- ferior officers and fhip’s crew. SreeraGe, in Sea Language, is alfo ufed to exprefs the effort of the helm: and hence Steerage-way is that degree of progreffive motion commu- nicated to a dhip, by which fhe becomes fufceptible of the effe@t.of the helm to govern her courfe. STEERING, in Navigation, the art of directing a fhip’s way from one place to another, by means of the helm and rudder, or of applying the efforts of the helin to regulate her courfe when fhe advances. He is held the beft fteerfman, who ufes the lea{t motion in putting the helm over to and again, and who keeps the fhip beft from making yaws; that is, from running in and out. For this purpofe the helm{man fhould diligently watch the movements of the head by the land, clouds, moon, or flars; becaufe, although the courfe is in general regulated by compais, yet the vibrations of the needle are not fo quickly perceived, as the fallies of the fhip’s head to the right or left, which, if not immediately reftrained, will ac- quire additional velocity in every inftant of their motion, and demand a more powerful impulfe of the helm to reduce them ; the application of which will operate to turn her head as far on the contrary fide of her courfe. The phrafes ufed in fteering a fhip, vary according to the relation of the wind to her courfe. Thus, if the wind is fair or large, the phrafes ufed by the pilot or officer who fuperintends the fteerage, are port, flarboard, and fleady ; which fee refpectively. The firft is intended to direét the fhip’s courfe farther to the right; the fecond is to guide her farther to the left ; and the laft is defigned to keep her exaétly in the line on which fhe advances, according to her preferibed courfe. The excels of the firft and fecond move- ment is called hard-a-port, and hard-a-flarboard ; the former of which gives the greatelt poffible inclination to the right, and the latter an equal tendency to the left. If, on the contrary, the wind is foul or /cant, the phrafes are luff, thus, and no nearer; the firtt of which is the order to keep her clofe to the wind; the fecond, to retain her in her prefent fituation ; and the third, to keep her fails full. See Furt-and-by. See alfo Conn. In a fhip of war, the exercife of {teering a fhip is ufually divided amongft a number of the moft expert failors, who attend the helm in their turns; and are accordingly called timoneers, from the French term timonier, which fignifies helmfman. he iteerage is conftantly fupervifed: by the quarter- matters, who alfo attend the helm by rotation. In merchant- fhips, every feaman takes his turn in this fervice, being di- re€ted therein by the mate of the watch, or fome other officer. Falconer. - For the theory and effe&t of fteering, fee Saminc, ' Course, &c. Sreerinc-Wheel, in Ship-Building, the wheel on the quar- ter-deck, to which the tiller-rope is conneéted by a fufficient umber of turns round its barrel, by turning of which the elm is moved from one fide to the other with the greateit exaCinefs. : STEERISH, in Rural Economy, a term applied to Young growing oxen, in contradiftinétion to oxey. STEEVENS, Georce, in Biography, the moft fuccefs- ful of all the editors and commentators of Shakfpeare, STE born at Poplar in the year 1735 or 1736, was the fon of an Eatt India captain, afterwards a direétor of the company. The fubjeét of this article received the elements of his edu- cation at Kingfton-upon-Thames, and he had Gibbon, the celebrated hiltorian, for his fchool-fellow. From hence he went to Eton, and in a few years was admitted a fellow commoner of King’s college Cambridge, and having ac- quired a large portion of claffical literature, with a general taite for learned purfuits, he devoted his time and fortune to the itudy and colleétion of books. On the firft eftablifhment of the Effex militia he accepted a commiflion, but he {pent the concluding years of his life in almoft total feclufion from the world, feldom mingling with fociety, but was found either in the fhops of book- fellers, in the Shakfpeare gallery, or in the morning con- verfations of fir Jofeph Banks. Although not an original writer, he deferves a place among the chief literary charaéters of the age, confidering the works which he illuftrated, and the learning, fagacity, tafte, and general knowledge which he conftantly exhibited in his writings. With a great verfatility of talents, he was eminent both by his pen and pencil; but his chief excellence lay in his critical knowledge of an author’s text ; and the beft {pecimen which he gave of his great talents is his edition of the works of Shak{peare, in which he is faid by com- petent judges to have left all competitors far behind him. He had ftudied the age of Shak{peare, and employed a very large portion of his life in becoming acquainted with the writings, manners, and laws of that period, as well as the provincial peculiarities, whether of language or cuftoms, which prevailed in different parts of the kingdom, but more particularly in thofe in which Shak{peare paffed the early years of his life. He was continually increafing this ftore of knowledge by the acquifition of the obfolete publications of a former age, to obtain which he fpared no expence. His critical fagacity and obfervation were conftantly em- ployed in calling forth the hidden meanings of the dramatic bard. In preparing his laft edition for the prefs, he gave a very fingular example of diligence and perfeverance. To this work he exclufively devoted a period of full eighteen months, during which he left his houfe at Hampitead every morning at one o’clock, and coming to London, without any regard to the weather, or the feafon of the year, he found a proof-fheet of Shak{peare ready for his perufal and correction. Thus, while the printers flept he was awake, by which means he completed in about the time already men- tioned his fplendid edition of the works of Shakfpeare, in 15 vols. oétavo. Mr. Steevens died in the year 1800, at the age of about 65 years. He bequeathed his valuable copy of Shak{peare, illuftrated with 1500 priuts, to lord Spencer; his Hogarth, which was perfeét, with the exception of two prints, he be- queathed to Mr. Windham; and his correéted copy of Shak- {peare, with 200 guineas, he lefe to Mr. Read, at whofe chambers he always corrected the proofs of his work in the filence of night. Mr. Steevens was a man of great wit, and indulged his propentity freely, not only in converfation, but in various other modes in which he threw ridicule upon fome of his antiquarian friends, whom he was fond of leading into errors. ‘¢ His fatire was fevere and not without malignity, and his charaéter feems to have been far from amiable, though he is faid to have been bountiful, on many occafions, to perfons in diftrefs,’? He was indefatigable in every thing which he undertook, but fubjeét to caprice in his habits and attachments. STEEVING, or Srivine, in Sea Language, denotes the STE the elevation of a fhip’s cathead or bow[prit above the ftem, or the angle which either makes with the horizon. Sreevine, in Merchant Ships, is uled for the flowing of cotton or wool, by means of {crews, to force it clofe to- ether. STEFANO, called // Fiorentino, in Biography, 1s the only one of Giotto’s fcholars who aimed at fomething be- yond the mere imitation of his mafter, whom, according to Vafari, he furpafled. He was born at Florence in 1301, and was the grandfon of Giotto, by a daughter called Ca- terina. He was the firft who attempted forefhortening ; and if he failed of complete fuccefs, he certainly corrected perfpective, and gave more varied turns, more character, and greater vivacity to heads. His moft accredited works in the church of Afa Celi at Rome, Sta. Spirito at Flo- rence, and elfewhere, are no more. No authentic work of his remains, unlefs we except a Madonna in the Campo Santo at Pifa, undoubtedly in a greater ftyle than the works of his mafter, but retouched. He died in 1350, aged 49. Fufeli. SverANo, Tomaso, according to Baldinucci, was the fon and difciple of the foregoing artift, and born at Florence in 1324. He acquired the name of I] Giottino, from the great refemblance of his works to thole of Giotto. A Pieta, which ftill remains of him at S. Remigio at Florence, and fome frefcoes at Affifi, bear indifputable marks of that ftyle. He died at Florence, at the age of 32. STEFFANI, Acostino, a difciple of the elder Ber- nabei, was born in 1655. Though Walther and moft of the Germans, who with to rank him among their country- men, fay that Leipfig was the place of his birth; yet Handel and the Italians make him a native of Catftello Franco, in the Venetian ftate. He was a chorifter at St. Mark’s during his youth, where his voice was fo much ad- mired by a German nobleman, that, obtaining his difmiffion, he took him to Munich in Bavaria, and had him educated, not only in mufic under the celebrated Ercole Bernabei, but in literature and theology fufficient for prieft’s orders; in confequence of which, after ordination, he was diftinguifhed by the title of abate, or abbot, which he retained till late in life, when he was eleéted bifhop of Spiga. In 1674, at the age of 19, he publifhed his “ Pfalms,”? in eight parts. He likewife publifhed «* Sonate 4 4 Stro- menti ;’? but his chamber duets are the moft celebrated of his works, and, indeed, of that fpecies of writing. In his little tract, “* Della certezza Dei principij della Mutfica,”’ he has treated the fubje@ of mufical imitation and expreffion, according to P. Martini, like a philofopher, and agreeable to mathematical principles. This work, written in Latin, which we have never feen, was held in fuch high eftimation in Germany, that it was tranflated into the language of that country, and reprinted eight feveral times. Walther and Marpurg have given the following lift of Italian mufical dramas or operas, which the admirable Steffani fet for the court of Hanover, where he refided many years as maeftro di capella: « Aleffandro,’? * Orlando,” « Enrico,” Al- cide,’”? “ Alcibiade,’? ** Atalanta,’? and “Il Trionfo del Fato ;’? which were afterwards tranflated into German, and performed to his mufic, between the years 1695 and 1699, at Hamburgh. About the year 1724 he quitted the court of Hanover, when he is faid to have refigned his office as maeftro di capella in favour of Handel. He was elected honorary prefident of the Academy of Ancient Mufic in London. In 1729 he went into Italy, to fee his native country and relations, but returned the next year to Ha- nover. However, foon after, having fome bufinefs to tranfact at Franckfort, he was there feized with an indif- STE pofition, of which in a few days he died, at near fourfcore. There are perhaps no compofitions more corre&, or fugues in which the fubjeéts are more pleafing, or anfwers and imi- tations more artful, than are to be found in the duets of Steffani, which, in a colleétion made for queen Caroline, and now in the pofleffion of his majefty, amount to near one hundred. The greateft fingers of Italy during the laft age ufed to exercife themfelves in thefe duets, as folfeggi. Mrs. Arne, the widow of Dr. Arne, and {cholar of Gemi- niani, who fung in feveral of Handel’s latter operas, has frequently aflured us, that fhe had often heard Senefino, the Strada, and other eminent opera fingers, fing them during their morning itudies. They were then in the beft melody of the times; but, at prefent, there are very few paflages which opera fingers would be likely to meet with in their parts of the operas of the prefent day. STEFFT, in Geography, a town of Sa? in the principality of Anfpach; 3 miles S.S.W. of Mayn- bernheim. STEG, in Rural Economy, a provincial term fometimes applied to a gander. Stegs which are of fome age are al- ways better than fuch as are too young, in the management of geefe and their young flocks. STEGANTA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. R. Brown, from szyavos, clofely covered, is a genus of terns, feparated by that learned botanift from Blechnum and Peeris, in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. vy. 1. 152. Its charaéter 1s made to confift in the linear aflemblages of capfules, Sori, covering the frond, or the contracted fruétifying portions of it, en- tirely, the involucrum being marginal, opening at the inner edge, and uninterrupted. The habit of the genus, of which eight New Holland fpecies are defined in the work above cited, is faid to be hke Blechnum, while the charaGer is not always diftinguifhable from that of Péeris. It is hinted that Blechnum boreale, ¥\. Brit. 1135, and Pteris crifpa, ibid. 1137, may perhaps belong to Steganta. A genuine example of this genus is, however, Onoclea nuda, Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 2. 96. t. 246. Blechnum procerum, ibid. t. 247, Stegania procera, Br. v. 8, feems, by the figure, to be a real Blechnum, the infertion of the involucrum being not ftri@ly marginal, fcarcely more fo indeed than in B. Joreale, of whofe genus we cannot entertain a doubt. In this ftate of things we hefitate to admit Stegania, lett all its f{pecies, if examined at a proper period of growth, fhould prove to have an involucrum not originating from the margin, how- ever near that part it may be inferted. STEGANOGRAPHY, Ssryasoyengie, formed of s:- yavor, fecret, aud yex¢w, J write, the art of fecret writing, or of writing in cyphers; known only to the perfons corre- f{ponding. See Crpuer and DrciPHERING. STEGEBORG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland; 8 miles N. of Calmar. STEGEN, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Dron- theim ; 100 miles N. of Drontheim.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Holftein; 15 miles S.E. of Braemited.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the North fea, near the coaft of Lapland. N. lat. 67° 20!—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen; 24 miles S. of Brandenburg. STEGNOSIS, 2reyveo1s, an obf{truétion of any natural difcharge, efpecially that by the pores. STEGNOTICS, Sreyvotxe, formed from seyw, conflipo, TI clofe, in Medicine, remedies proper to clofe and {top the orifices of the veflels, or emunétories, when relaxed, ftretched, lacerated, &c. Such are pomegranate leaves, red rofes, plantain leaves, tormentil roots, &c. Stegnotics are proper in the hemor- hoids, and other fluxes of blood. STEGOSIA, STE STEGOSIA, in Botany, fo called by Loureiro, Fi. Cochinch. 51, from seyos, a roof, is a genus of grailes efta- blifhed by that author, which proves not diftinét from Rorrportia. (See that article.) The original {pecimen of Loureiro’s only {pecies, fent by him to fir Jofeph Banks, was found by Mr. Brown to be R. ewaltata, Linn. Suppl. 114. It is ufed in Cochinchina for thatch: STEIN, in STEEN, in Commerce. See Stone. Srery, in Geography, atown and fortrefs of Baden, on the eait fide of the Rhine; 4 miles N. of Worms.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Baden; 9 miles E. of Carlfruhe.— Alfo, a town of the duchy of Carinthia, with a citadel, on the Drave; 2 miles S. of Clagenfurt.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the lordfhip of Schonburg; 7 miles S.E. of Zwickau. Stern, or Kamnetz, a town of the duchy of Carniola, on the Feiftriz ; 10 miles N. of Laybach. N. lat. 46° 22!. E. long. 32° 20’. Srein am Rein, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Zurich, fituated on the north fide of the Rhine, at the weft extremity of the lake Zell, with a bridge over the river. This town was furrounded with walls, in the year 966, by Burcard, the fecond duke of Swabia, who endowed it with feveral privileges; and in the year 1005, the convent, founded by his confort at Hohentweil, was removed to Stein, and continued in this place, under the government of an abbot, till the time of the reformation. In 1267, the town devolved to the barons of Hohenklingen; and in 1443, both the feat of that name, which is {till ftanding above the town, and the town itfelf, was fold to the Klin- genberg family; and in 1457, the burghers redeemed themfelves, and foon after entered into an alliance with Zurich and Schafthaufen. In 1484, referving their liberties and privileges, they put themfelves under the proteGtion of Zurich, as they continue to this day. At the period of the reformation, Stein, in conjun&ion with mott of its con- ventualifts, embracing Proteftantifm, the convent was fe- queftrated; and in 1524, Zurich appointed a bailiff to fuperintend and colleét its revenues. The high and low jurifdiction is lodged in the town, the magiftracy of which is compofed of burghermafters, and a council, who are all natives, and of its own nomination; excepting the judge and his weibel or ferjeant, who are appointed by the city of Zurich, though even thefe muft be burghers of Stein. The fore-mentioned feat of Hohenklingen is converted into a watch-tower, and the caftellan refides in it. On the other fide of the Rhine, in a place called “ Burg,” oppofite to the town, is a church, feated on an eminence, and belonging to Stein. Some are of opinion that this is the {cite of the eaftle of a Celtic town, called « Gaunodurum,’’ which is fuppofed to have extended to the village of Efchenz; 10 miles E. of Schaffhaufen. N. lat. 47°39'. E.long. 8° 50’. Srery, a town of Germany, in the margraviate of An- f{pach, on the Rednitz; 22 miles E.N.E. of Anfpach. Stem. See Srarn. STEINA, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bam- berg; 6 miles W. of Burg Eberach. STEINACH, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 11 miles W. of Rottenmann.—Alfo, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the lake of Conftance, 2 miles W. of Rofchach. —Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 2 miles N,N.E. of Burg Eberach. ° Sremacn, or Stadt Steinach, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 30 miles N.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. Bor rr’. E. long. r1r° 377. STEINACH, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 5 miles N. of Munnerftatt. Sretnacu, Unter, a town of Germany, in the princi- pality of Culmbach; 5 miles E, of Bayreuth. Vor. XXXIV. STE STEINACH, a river of Wurtemberg, which rifes S. of Neiffen, and runs into the Neckar, near Nurtingen.—Alfo, a river which runs into the Maine, 1 mile S. of Zeulen, in the bifhopric of Bamberg. Sremacu, Markt, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Schweinfurt. STEINAKIRCHEN, a town of Autftria, on the Little Erlaph; 10 miles S. of Ips, STEINAM Ancer, or Szombath Hely, a town of Hungary, built on the ruins of an ancient Roman town, called « Sabaria ;”” 48 miles S. of Vienna. N. lat. 47° 301. E. long. 16° 58'. STEINAU, a town of Silefia, and capital of a circle, in the principality of Wohlau, on a {mall river near the weft fide of the Oder; containing two churches, and fome manu- faGtures of cloth. It has had the misfortune of being facked and burned in feveral fucceflive wars; 80 miles W.N.W. of Wohlau. N. lat. 51° 22!. E. long. 16° 25'. STEINAU, or Stzynawa, a town of Silefia, in the prin- cipality of Oppeln; 22 miles S.S.W. of Oppeln. N. lat. 50° 18!. E. long. 27° 18. STEINAU, a town of Germany, in the county of Hanau Munzenburg; 16 miles S.W. of Fulda.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Bremen; 24 miles N.E. of Carlfburg.—Alfo, a riyer of Silefia, which runs into the Neyfle, oppofite to Lowin. STEINBACH, a town of Germany, in the lordfhip of Schwarzenberg ; 3 miles E. of Schainfeld.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county of Henneberg; 5 miles E. of Smalkalden.—Alfo, a town of Auftria; 6 miles S. of Steyr. —Avifo, a town of Germany, in the principality of Naflau Dillenburg; 6 miles N.N.W. of Dillenburg.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Baden; 5 miles W.S.W. of Gerfpach. Srempacu, Langen, a town of the duchy of Baden ; 3 miles N.W. of Baden. STEINBECK, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 24 miles S. of Brandenburg. STEINBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 3 miles N. of Cronach.—Alfo, a town of Wett- phalia, in the county of Lippe; 10 miles E.N.E. of Lem- gow.—Alfo, a mountain of Weftphalia, in the principality of Calenberg, near Minden.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg; 14 miles S.S.E. of Freyberg.— Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county of Henneberg ; 3 miles E. of Romhild. - STEINBERGEN. See Sreensercen. STEINBIZA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Hilde- gard, and fome other writers, to that fmall {pecies of co- bitis, called by others cobitis aculeata, and teniacornuta. It is the cobitis with a forked {pine under each eye, defcribed by Artedi. STEINEA, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, be- longing to the canton of Zurich, in the Thurgau; 4 miles N.E. of St. Gal. STEINFURT, or Burg Steinfurt, a town of Ger- many, and capital of a county, to which it gives name, on the Aa; 17 miles N.W. of Munfter. N. lat. 52° 157. E. long. 7° 15!. STEINFURT, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 3 miles W.S.W. of Hasfurt.—Alfo, a county and principality of Germany, furrounded by the bifhopric of Munfter, about 25 miles in length, and from five to eight in breadth ; raifed to be a principality of the empire in the year 1495. Part of the territories belonged to the bifhop of Muntter, and part to the count of Bentheim. To a Roman month it contributed 7 florins 32 kruetzers, and it was taxed to the imperial chamber 40 rixdollars 42 kruetzers. STEINFURT, or sia a town of Germany, im tae § TE the bifhopric of Muntter; 11 miles S. of Muntter. 51° 48'. E. long. 8° 32!. STEINHARD, a town of Germany, in the principality of Anfpach; 5 miles S.S.E. of Waflertrudingen. STEINHAUS, atown of the duchy of Stiria; 4 miles N.E. of Muertzenfchberg. STEINHAUSEN, a town of Switzerland, in the can- ton of Zug, at the north end of the lake of Zug; 2 miles N.W. of Zug. STEINHEID, a town of Germany, in the principality of Coburg ; 9 miles N.N.E. of Coburg. STEINHEIM, or Ober Steinheim, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, on the Main; 2 miles S. of Hanau. STEINHEIM, a town of Wettphalia, in the bifhopric of Paderborn; 14 miles N.N.E. of Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 45'. E. long. 9° 5’. STEINHEIM am Muhr, a town of Wurtemberg ; 10 miles N. of Stuttgart. STEINHOF, a town of the Helvetian republic, in the eanton of Berne; 16 miles N. of Berne. STEINHUDE, a town of Germany, in the county of Schauenburg, on the fouth fide of the Steiuhuder Meer ; 13 miles N.W. of Hanover. STEINHUDER Mexrr, a lake of Germany, in the county of Schauenburg, fix miles long and two broad; 12 miles N.W. of Hanover. STEINHUN, Srone-nen, in Ornithology, a name given by the Germans to a bird of the lagopus kind, more com- monly known by the name of otoma, and in fome places by that of colmeftre. It feems not to differ from the lagopus in any thing but colour, and that bird being known to change its colour in the fummer months, it is probably no other {pecies. STEINHURST, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Holitein, with a caltle; 25 miles E.N.E. of Hamburg. STEINING, a term ufed for the lining of {tone or bricks to a well, fhaft, or tunnel pit. STEINISNAK, in Geography, a town of Croatia; 10 miles E.S.E. of Carlftad. STEINKIRCHEN, a town of the duchy of Bremen; ro miles S.E. of Stade. STEINORT, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 52 miles S.E. of Konig {berg. STEINPLEISZ, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Zwickau. STEINSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Neuftadt ; 3 miles S. of Weyda. STEINSTADT, a town of the duchy of Baden. In O@ober, 1796, the French were defeated here by the Auttrians; 16 miles S. of Friburg. STEISBEL, a mountain of Hungary; 4 miles N. of Kemnitz. STEITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of Anhalt Zerbft ; 6 miles S. of Zerbft. STEKAN, in Commerce, a liquid meafure in Holland. Rhine and Mofel wine, and alfo {pirits diftilled from corn, are fold by the aam, which contains 4 ankers, 8 itekans, 21 viertels, 64 ftoops, 128 mingels, 256 pints, or ‘1024 mufies; and which holds 8966 Dutch, 7705 French, or 9351 Englih cubic inches, or about 403 Englifh wine gal- lons, Linfeed and rape-feed oil is fold in aams of 7% fte- kans, or 120 mingels, weighing about 286 lbs. avoirdupois. Train-oil is fold in quarteels of 18 or 21 ftekans; alfo in vats of 12 ftekans, or 192 mingels. ‘The mingel of 2 pints, or 8 mufies of rain-water, weighs about z lbs. 44 0z., Am- fterdam weight :.19 mingels = 6 Englifh wine-gallons, and 27 mingele = 7 Englith beer-gallons. A vat of oil of Io N. lat. = STE olives contains 717 mingels, and weighs 1730 lbs. avoir- dupois: 19.82 ftekans of Amfterdam = 100 Englih gale lons, and each ftekan = 1165 cubic inches. STEKBOREN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the Thurgau, on the fouth fide of the lake of Zell; 7 miles W. of Conftance. STEKEN. See Srrecxen. STEKENITZ. See Sreckenirz. STELA, in Ancient Geography, the name of a town in the ifland of Crete, near Parefus. Steph. Byz. STELE, rx», in Antiquity, a kind of punifhment, being a pillar whereon a criminal was expofed, and on which was engraven an account of his crime. The perfons thus expofed to the laughter and reproaches of the people, were called feta. Potter, Archzol. Grec. lib. i. cap. 25. tom. i. p. 130. STELECHEIA, a word ufed by fome authors to ex- refs the vena porte. STELECHITES, in the Materia Medica, a name given by Diofcorides, and fome other of the Greek writers, to a peculiarly fine kind of ftorax. It was the fame with the calamite, only that this name was given to the larger, and the name calamite to the {maller or flenderer pieces. Pliny, Strabo, and many others, join in telling us, that the wood of the ftorax-tree, on account of its foftnefs and {weet tafte, was the moft fubjeét to be eaten by worms of that of any tree in the world. . When the worms attacked the body of the tree, the duft they made by their erofion formed a hillock or heap round the tree, or atits foot, and the extravafated balfam running amongft this duft, made a mafs that was called the cymatius florax at that time, and was the fame with the common ftorax now in ufe. Srevecuites S#bit Facie, in Natural Hifory, a very un- couth name given by Aldrovandus, and fome others, to the entrochi. He gave them this name from the refemblance of fome of the longeft pieces to fragments of the trunks of trees, the arms parting out from the fides of thefe main branches, the rudiments of which are very frequent in many of the entrochi,. pafling for the remains of boughs, and the hollow in the middle, for the cavity where the pith of the tree was. The addition of /fibit facie was only from the obferving that the top and bottom were radiated, or ftriated, from the central hole to the circumference, in the manner of antimony. ‘Thefe are truly no vegetable remains, but parts of the arms of that ftrange fith called flella arborefcens. See Srar-Fifh. ; STELENCHIS, a ftrigil, or an inftrument ufed in the baths to rub off the {weat from the fkin. STELENDENA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, in Syria, near the deferts of Palmyra. Pliny. STELHOVEN, in Geography, a town of Holland; 3 miles S.W. of Gertrudenburg. STELIS, in Botany, seas:, an ancient Greek name for a fort of Miffeltoe, parafitical, like this genus, upon trees. —Swartz in Schrad. Journ. v. 2. 239. t. 2. f. 3. Ejufd. Neues Journ. v.1. 97. A&. Holm. 1800. 248. Ind. Occ. 1549. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 138. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 210. (Humboldtia; Prodr. Fl. Peruy. et Chil.) —Clafs and order, Gynandria Monandria. Wat. Ord. Orchidee. Gen. Ch. reformed. Ca/. Perianth of three equal, ovate, keeled, fomewhat concave leaves, cohering at the bafe. Cor. Petals two, diftin&, much fmaller than the calyx, obtufe, concave, vaulted over the column. Neétary a lip without any {pur, of the fize, and nearly the fhape, of the petals; fomewhat emarginate, inflexed at the edge. Stam. Anther a vertical moveable deciduous lid, of two cells; mailes of pollen globular, at length waxy, folitary. Pi/, Germen inferiors STELIS. inferior, ovate; {tyle very fhort, dilated, hollowed, with three teeth, at the fummit; ftigma in front, near the an- ther, convex. eric. Capfule oval, with three angles and three furrows, one cell and three valves; the uppermott furrow keeled. Eff. Ch. Calyx-leaves cohering at the bafe. Petals concave, vaulted, obtufe. Lip the fize and thape of the petals, without a fpur. Anther a vertical moveable lid. Mafles of pollen two. SeGtion 1. Inflorefcence terminal. 1. S. ophiogloffoides. Adder’s-tongue Stelis. Swartz Ind. Occ. 1551. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Epidendrum ophio- gloffoides; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1353. Jacq. Amer. 225. t. 133. f. 2; excluding Plumier’s fynonym. E. trigoniflorum ; Swartz Prodr. 125.)—Stem with a folitary, oblong-lanceo- late leaf, about the length of the fpike. Clofed flowers three-fided.—This grows on the items and branches of trees, in the mountainous woods of Jamaica, and other iflands of the Weft Indies, flowering in July and Auguft. The pe- rennial root confilts of numerous long, fimple, zigzag, whitith fibres. Stems feveral, two or three inches high, fimple, clothed with comprefled, oblique, tubular, mem- branous fheaths, and bearing at the top one coriaceous, ribbed, bluntifh, nearly elliptical af, two or three inches long, on a fhort twilted footfalk. Spike generally folitary, axillary, ftalked, erect, flender, fimple, rather taller than the leaf, bearing numerous, alternate, {mall, ovate, acute braGeas. Flowers very minute, nearly or quite feffile, flat at the bafe; when clofed perfely triangular. Calyx pale green. Petals light red. ak dark purple. dnther purple. 2. §. micrantha. Small-flowered Stelis. Swartz Ind. Oce. 1553. Willd. n.2. Ait.n.2. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 2. 31. t. 75. (Epidendrum micranthum ; Swartz Prodr. 125.)— Stem with a folitary, lanceolate leaf, fhorter than the {pike. Clofed flowers fix-fided.—Found on trees, and at the fides ef rocks, on the lofty mountains of Jamaica. Swartz. The marquis of Blandford received it from thence in 1805, and it flowered in his lordfhip’s ftove in November 1806. This has the habit of the preceding, but is rather larger, with a longer, though narrower, /eaf. The flowers are numerous, reverfed in their pofition, but we know not whether this chara&ter be proper to the whole genus. When clofed, they form a roundifh fix-fided figure. Calyx green. Petals and lip, as well as the column and anther, of a dark brownifh-purple. 3. S. acutiflora. Sharp-flowered Stelis. Willd. n. 3.— Stem very fhort, with one lanceolate, abrupt leaf, fhorter than the {pike ; tapering and fheathed at the bafe.””—Native of Peru, on the trunks of trees. Defcribed by Willdenow, from a dried {pecimen, ‘gathered by Ruiz and Pavon, as are all the following, except our tenth fpecies. 4. S. lanceolata. Lanceolate Stelis. Willd. n. 4.— « Stem elongated, with one oblong-lanceolate, abrupt leaf, equal to the fpike. Braéteas membranous, the length of the flowers.”’—From Peru. 5- S. polyflachya, Many-fpiked Stelis. Willd. n. 5.— « Stem elongated, with one lanceolate-elliptical, abrupt leaf. Spikes two or three together, longer than the leaf.’ —From the fame country. 6. S. oblonga. Long-leaved Stelis. Willd. n. 6.—* Stem elongated, with one lanceolate-elliptical, pointed leaf, longer than the twin fpikes.’’—Native alfo of Peru. 7. S. cnn Purple-leaved Stelis. Willd. n. 7.— Stem elongated, with one elliptical, flightly pointed leaf ; coloured underneath. Spikes two, longer than the leaf.’ —Native of Peru. The back of the /eaf is purple. 8. S. revoluta. Revolute Stelis.—Willd. n. 8.—“ Stem elongated, with one ovato-lanceolate, coriaceous leaf, {earcely longer than the fpike.’’—Native of Peru. 9. S. cordata, Fleart-fhaped Stelis. Willd. n. 9.—* Sten elongated, with one ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, pointed, coriaceous leaf. Flowers aggregate, in the bofom of the leaf.””—This, like the fix preceding fpecies, grows parafiti- cally on trees in Peru. They conftitute the genus Hum- boldtia of the learned authors of the Flora Peruviana, notice of which has, as yet, appeared in their Prodromus only. Settion 2. Inflorefcence radical. Leaf from a bulbous baf. 10. S. racemofa. Yellow Racemofe Stelis.—Leaf lanceo- late, emarginate, on a fhort ftalk. Clutter radical, nearly feffile, deflexed.—Found by Dr. F. Buchanan, on trees in Upper Nepaul. The root is thread-fhaped, creeping, fix- ing itfelf at intervals by means of tufts of numerous fibres, from whofe crown proceeds a green ovate du/p, an inch long, bearing an erect /eaf, meafuring, with its fhort fa/é, four or five inches. Cluffers folitary from the bafes of fome of the bulbs, each four inches long, pendulous, on a fhort ftalk, enveloped in membranous fheaths. Flowers about ten, rather diftant, reverfed, each on a very fhort partial {talk, accompanied by a lanceolate membranous bra&ea, equal to the germen, or longer. Calyx-/eaves yellowifh- green, about half an inch long, equal, lanceolate, ere& ; one of them gibbous at the bafe. Petals very fhort, obtufe, of the fame hue. Jp fhort, ovate, thick, entire, revolute. 11. S.hirta. Hairy-flowered Stelis.—Leaf . . . Spike radical, cylindrical, on a long ftalk, drooping. Calyx hairy. —Gathered by Dr. Buchanan, on mofly rocks in’ Upper Nepaul, flowering in January. The inhabitants call it Suni- piang, whence Dr. Buchanan named all the fpecies of this fec- tion Sunipia, as compofing a new genus. The difference of their habit from the original S¢elides counterances this mea- fure, but we are not diftin&ly enough acquainted with the precife ftructure of their flowers, to deduce a charaéter from thence. The {pecies before us has a creeping roof, with crowded ovate bu/bs. Of its eaves nothing is known. The ower flalks are folitary, from the bafe of each bulb, ere&, a fpan high, with a few f{cattered fheaths ; and each bears a denfe drooping Spike, nearly its own length, of very nume- rous, whitifh, highly fragrant, crowded flowers, of the fize and fhape of the laft, but remarkable for their calya being all over finely hairy on both fides. 12. S. odoratiffima. Capitate Fragrant Stelis.—Leaves elliptical, obtufe, feffile. Flowers capitate.—Native of mofly rocks, in Upper Nepaul. Buchanan. The root creeps, bearing diftant oblong 4u/bs, on each of which ftands a flefhy /eaf, near two inches in length, and fomewhat emar- ginate. Flower-flalks ereét, from the bafe of each bulb, and as tall as the leaf, each bearing a round drooping head of feveral white highly fragrant flowers, the points of the calyx yellow. 13. 5. biflora. Two-flowered Stelis.—Leaves ovate, ob- tufe, on long footitalks. Bulbs nearly globofe. Stalks about two-flowered.—On the mofly rocks of Upper Ne- paul. Buchanan. "he branching creeping roots bear f{cat- tered globular 4u/és, not an inch in diameter. The foot/alk of each /eaf is an inch and a half long, ere&t. Leaf two inches, or more. Flower-/lalks a little remote from each bulb, hardly fo long as the leaf, bearing ufually two yel- lowifh fowers, larger than any of the foregoing ; their par- tial ftalks an inch long, gradually {welling upwards. Petals pointed, much fmaller than the ovate calyx-leaves. Lip ovate, revolute, entire, ftalked, as long as the calyx. We find among Dr. Buchanan’s drawings and deferip- tions feveral more {pecies, referred to his genus Sunipia, whofe habit agrees exa¢tly with our four laft defcribed. The parts of the flower however appear more unequal, or irre- gular, than properly belongs to Sve/is, as is fomewhat the cafe with our diflora, We leave them therefore, having no $2 fpecimens, STE {pecimens, to the future illuftration, as we hope, of their ingenious and accurate difcoverer. STELITA, 2 rsailas, in Antiquity. See STELE. STELLA, Jacques, in Biography, an eminent French painter, was born at Lyons in 1596. He was the fon of an artift of that name, originally of Flanders, but who had fettled at Lyons on his return from Italy. His father taught him the rudiments of defign, but he was deprived of his in- ftructor when only nine years old. He had however already imbibed fufficient tafte to proceed by himfelf, without the help of another matter. In his twentieth year he travelled to Italy, intending to proceed to Rome to finifh his ftudies 5 but was {tayed in his progrefs at Florence, by Cofmo de Medici, to affift in the decorations preparing for the mar- riage of his fon Ferdinand. The grand duke retained him in his fervice, and gave him a penfion, with apartments ; and he remained there feven years. At the end of that time he continued his intended journey, and at Rome he ttudied with unremitted attention the works of Raphael, in com- pany with Nicolo Pouffin, with whom he lived in intimacy and friendfhip. He had received repeated invitations from the court of Spain, and fet out from Italy with an intention of going there, but was again interrupted in his journeyings by the folicitations of cardinal Richelieu, who recommended him to Louis XTV., and procured him a penfion of a thoufand livres, together with the employment of {tate painter, and an apartment in the Louvre; and, befide all thefe advan- tages, the order of St. Michael was conferred upon him, as a particular mark of the king’s favour. Stella had confiderable genius, but wanted a pure tafte: his knowledge of Raphael and the Italian fchools had not given that blefled odour to his works. His invention was ready, and his execution agreeable; the attitudes of his figures, however, exhibit the ftudy and the lamp ; and nature is lefs frequently the guide of their expreflions than art. His colouring is completely artificial; and yet with thefe defe&s, there is an agreeable air in their effet ; the parts are well balanced, and life and aétivity reign in them. He was moft fuccefsful in his {maller produ€tions. He died at Paris in 1647, aged 51. SreLLA, FRAnNcis, was the younger brother of Jacques, and born in 1601. Though he lived very much with his brother, he never arrived at much eminence. There are many of his pictures in the churches in Paris, Stetia, Gioserrr Marra, an Italian eccletiaftic, au- thor of a tra& entitled “* Breve Initruttione Alli Giovani, per imparare con ogni facilita I1 Canto Fermo:?’ or fhort rules for young ftudents to learn with the utmolt facility canto fermo, divided into two parts. In Roma, 1665, 4to. This is an elaborate treatife on the fubjeé&t, probably in- tended for the inftruétion of young perfons intended for holy orders in the Romifh church. The notes are taught by the Guidonian hand. The clefs and hexachords are explained in a clear manner, and the fervice of the whole year is given in Gregorian notes, on four lines only. STELLA, the name of a bandage in Surgery, refembling a ftar, by the numerous croflings which it makes, It is em- ployed after arteriotomy in the temple. Stetta. See Psrupa-Stel/a, STELLA Crinita, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by Linkius to a genus of ftar-fifh, the characters of which are thefe: that they have more than five rays, and from thefe have feveral other lateral procefles, which are covered with a fine down or hair. StreLia Lapis, in the Materia Medica, the name of a ftone which has been very differently interpreted by different writers. Some have fuppofed it the afteria of Pliny, and I STE fome the common coralloide aftroites ; but Mefue explains it to be the lapis lazuli. SteLLa Marina, in Natural Hiflory. See Svar-Fifh. Stevyra Arborefcens. See Basxer-Fifh, and Srar-Fifh. STELLA Occidens, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers to exprefs fal ammoniac. STELLA Scolopendroides, a name given by Linkius to a kind of ftar-fifh wit an undivided body, and five rays, re- {embling the bodies of the feolopendre, as thofe of the more ufual kind, called {tella lumbricalis, do the bodies of common earth-worms. SrevLa Vermiformis, aname giyen by Linkius, and other authors, to a common kind of ftar-fifh, which has five rays parting from the body, each fomewhat refembling the body of a large worm. Srevta, in Geography, a river of Friuli, which runs into the gulf of Venice, 4 miles S.S.E. of Prifenis.—Alfo, a {mall ifland of Italy, in the lake of Garda; 14 miles N.W. of Verona.—Alfo, a mountain of Naples, in Principato Citra, on the coaft, near Cape Licofa.—Alfo, a town of Italy ; 12 miles N. of FriuliimAlfo, a mountain of the Grifons; 15 miles S.W. of Tufis. SreLtya, La, a town of Naples, in.Principato Citra ; 27 miles S.W. of Cangiano. STELLAR. See InTER-Stellar. STELLARIA, in Botany, an elegant and expreflive name, evidently derived from the ftar-like form of the flowers.—Linn. Gen. 226. Schreb. 304. Willd. Sp. Pi. v. 2. 710. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm, Fi. Brit. 472. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 302. Ait. Hort. Kew. yv. 3. 96. Purfh v. 1. 281. Juff. gor. Lamarck Did. v..7. 414. Illuftr. t. 378. Gertn. t. 130. . (Alfine; Tournef. t. 126.)—Clafs and order, Decandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Caryophyllei, Linn. Caryophyllea, Jul. Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, permanent, of five, oblong, pointed, fpreading leaves. Cor. Petals five, eloyen, flat, oblong, fhrivelling. Stam. Filaments ten, thread- fhaped, fhorter than the corolla, the alternate ones {til} fhorter; anthers roundifh. Pi. Germen {fuperior, roundifh; ftyles three, capillary, {preading; {tigmas ob- tufe. Peric. Capfule ovate, covered, of one cell with fix valves. Seeds numerous, roundifh, comprefled. Obf. S. radians has each petal deeply cloven into five fegments. “ Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves, fpreading. Petals five, deeply cloven. Capfule fuperior, of one cell, with fix teeth at the orifice. Seeds numerous. 1. S. nemorum. Wood Stitchwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 603. Engl. Bot. t. 92. Fl. Dan. t. 271.—Lower leaves heart- fhaped, on footitalks; upper ones ovate, feffile. Panicle dichotomous.—Native of moift woods and the borders of clear, fhaded {prings in the north of England, and other parts of Europe, flowering in May and June. Root peren- nial, creeping. Stems feeble, three feet high, branched, hollow, round, leafy, a little hairy all over. Leaves op- pofite, pale green, tender, rather fucculent, flightly hairy. Panicle terminal, leafy, divaricated, downy, compofed of numerous, erect, {now-white, ftar-like flowers. : 2. S. media. Common Chickweed. Sm, Fl. Brit. 473. Engl. Bot. t. 537. (Alfine media; Linn. Sp. Pl. 389. Curt. Lond. fafc.1. t. 20. Fl. Dan. t. 438, and t. 525.) —Leaves ovate. Stems procumbent, with a hairy alter- nate ridge on one fide. Stamens five to ten.—A common weed in every foil and fituation, flowering from the begin- ning of {pring to the end of autumn. Root annual, fibrous, extremely tenacious. Stems proftrate, branched, brittle, leafy, round, jointed, marked on one fide frem joint to joint, in an alternate manner, with a hairy line, by which decifive Colle&. v. 3. 21. Ic. Rar. v. STELLARIA. decifive mark, under all its numerous varieties, it may be known at once from every plant of its natural order, except S. cerafloides ; but particularly from Ceraflium aquaticum. Leaves oppotite, ovate, entire, {mooth, on fringed ftalks. Flowers white, inconfpicuous, on folitary, axillary, or ter- minal italks, which are hairy on one fide. “ Tt is a good vegetable boiled like Spinach. Small birds eat the whole herb, as do young poultry.” 3. S. dichotoma. Forked Stitchwort. Linn, Sp. Pl. 603. Sm. Pl. Ic. t. 14.— Leaves ovate, feffile. Stem forked. Flowers folitary. Stalks when bearing fruit re- flexed.—Native of Siberia, whence it was fent by Gmelin to Linneus. It flowers in July. Root annual. Stem round, downy, much branched, and fpreading on all fides, re- markably forked, leafy, many-flowered. Leaves two at each divifion of the ttem, oppofite, acute, feffile, downy. Flowers folitary, on round, downy {talks, which are upright at firlt, but bent back, as if broken, when the fruit is ripened. 4. S. radians. Radiated Stitchwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 603. Willd. n. 3. (Alfine faxatilis, angufto et oblongo falicis folio, flore albo, tenuiflime laciniato; Amm. Ruth. 64. .t. 10.)—Leaves lanceolate, with {mall ferratures. Petals deeply five-cleft.—Native of Siberia, in f{wampy ground. Root flender, yellowifh, jointed. Stems at the radical joints, about a {pan high, flender, upright. Leaves oppolite, pale green, hairy, veined, like thofe of a willow. Flowers terminal, folitary, white, on flender ftalks, with much-divided or jagged petals, in which refpeét it differs from all the other {pecies. 5. S. dulbofa. Bulbous Stitchwort. Willd. n. 4. Jacq. 3. t. 468.—Leaves ovate- lanceolate, veinlefs beneath. Stem flightly branched. Stalk fingle-flowered. Root creeping, bulbiferous.—Native of the mountains in Carinthia, in moift, fhady places. Root ereeping, furnifhed with numerous, fibrous bulbs, Stems flender, upright, wavy, occafionally branched. Leaves oppolite, very pale beneath. J /owers terminal, folitary, on very long italks, fnow-white, two anthers decking each petal as it were with two pink or crimfon dots. 6. S. holoflea. Greater Stitchwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 603. Engl. Bot. t. 511. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 30.—Leaves lanceolate, ferrulated. Petals two-lobed. — Common in groves and about hedges, where its white, ftarry bloffoms render it confpicuous in the {fpring. Root perennial, creep- ing. Stems very flender and decumbent at the bafe, then upright, fquare, jointed, rough at the angles immediately under the joints, leafy, brittle. Leaves feflile, rough at the margin, like the leaves of moft grafles, deeply carinated, {mooth, fomewhat glaucous. Flowers extremely elegant, perfectly white, on Aone ere&t, fcabrous ftalks, forming a forked, leafy panicle. «« This herb has fo much of a grafly appearance, that old botanifts have named it the white-flowering grafs,”’ 7. S.graminea. Leffler Stitchwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 604. Engl. Bot. t. 803.—Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire. Pa- nicle terminal, {preading. Calyx three-nerved, about equal to the petals—Common among furze-bufhes, heath, and low broom, on a gravelly or fandy foil, principally obferv- able in the early fummer months. Root perennial, creeping. Stem and flower-flalks perfe&tly {mooth. Leaves entire, fearcely ever rough at the margin. F/owers in a divaricated panicle, extremely elegant, white, befpangling furze-buthes and other fhrubs, which fo conceal the herbage as to make the flowers feem fufpended in the air. The calyx-/eaves are remarkabie for having three, acute, green ribs. The whole habit of this greatly refembles that of the laft fpecies, but its fize is {maller, and the colour a grafs-green, not glaucous. 8. S. glauca. Glaucous Marth Stitchwort. Sm. Fi. Brit. 475. Engl. Bot. t. 825. (S. paluftris; Willd. n. 7.) —Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire, glaucous. Flower-{talks erect. Calyx three-nerved, fhorter than the petals,— Found occafionally in a moift, gravelly foil, on meadows or in ditches, in many parts of Great Britain, flowering from June to Auguit. Very nearly allied to the preceding {pecies in habit, but perfeétly diftin&. «Its glaucous colour, perfect {moothnefs of the edges of the eaves as well as of the flem, and larger flowers, the petals being twice as long as the calyx ; to which may be added that the flower-{talks are more univerfally lateral and folitary, much lefs colle&ted into a panicle, and the three nerves of the calyx lefs fharply prominent ; all thefe circumftances help to diftinguifh it from the former. In colour, fize, and general habit, it rather approaches the §. Aoloflea, but that is beautifully diftinguifhed by the total want of nerves in its calyx, and the rough edges of its leaves and ftem.”’ 9. S. uliginofa. Bog Stitchwort. Sm. Fl. Brit. 476. Engl. Bot. t. 1074. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 28. (S. Alfine; Willd. n. 9.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, entire, with a callous tip. Flowers irregularly panicled, lateral. Petals fhorter than the calyx.—Frequent in rivulets, and clear brooks or ditches by road-fides, flowering plentifully in June. Root annual, fibrous, fmall. Stems numerous, feeble, branched, fquare, fmooth, leafy. Leaves much veined, pale, glaucous, a little undulated at the margin, with a callous tip. F/owers very {mall, yellowifh, on axillary and terminal /fa/és, generally three in number, two of which are three-cleft and three-flowered, the remaining one fingle- flowered, all furnifhed with membranous, lanceolate draGeas- This fpecies, like S. cerafloides, is remarkable for varying in the number of its ftyles, from three to five. 10. S. feapigera. Many-italked Stitchwort. Willd. n. 17. Engl. Bot. t. 1269.—Stem fhorter than the flower- ftalks. Leaves linear-lanceolate, rough-edged. Calyx three- nerved, the length of the petals.—Native of Scotland, where it was difcovered by Mr. G. Don in 1794. Root pe- rennial, Stems very fhort, (Willderow incorreétly. fays, none,) tufted, thickly clothed with numerous, oppofite, acute /eaves, {mooth except at the edges, turning red in decay, each having a fingle rib, very thick at the bafe, ta- pering and vanifhing towards the point. #/owers terminal, white, on long, moitly fimple /la/ks. 11. S. ceraffoides. Alpine Stitchwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 604. Engl. Bot. t. 911. Fl. Dan. t.92. Sm. Pl. Ic. t. 15.—Leaves elliptic-oblong, bluntifh. Stems generally two-flowered, marked with a hairy longitudinal line. Ca- lyx-leaves with a fingle nerve, downy.—Native of the high- lands of Scotland and of the Lapland Alps. It flowers in June. Root perennial, creeping. Stems diffufe, branched at the bafe, leafy upwards, roundifh, marked with a flender, longitudinal, hairy line, as. in Common Chickweed, S$. media. Leaves oppotite, fomewhat fpatulate, entire, {mooth, often leaning to one fide. //owers ere&t, white, rather large, on fialks which grow about two together, at the extremity of the ftem, downy in every part. S*y/es four or five. 12. S.craffifolia. 'Thick-leaved Stitchwort. Willd. n. 8. Ebrh. Beitr, y. 3. 60. Timm. Prodr. 83. Hoftm. Germ, 153.—Leaves oblong-lanceolate, thickifh, glaucous. Stalks one-flowered, folitary, axillary. Petals larger than the calyx. Stem ereét.—Native of Germany, in moift meadows. Root annual. Stems upright, branched in a dichotomous manner, Leaves {effile, entire, {mooth. Flowers terminal, on ftalks, which are upright at firft, but reflexed when in fruit. 13. S. undulata. Wavy Stitchwort. Willd. a. to. Thunb. Fl. Japon. 185.—Leaves oblong, undulated. Stem angular. Leaves axillary —Common by way-fides in Japan, flowering in April. Stem decumbent, herbaceous, knabbed, tender. Branches erect, flightly branched, feeble, bopatlt three STE three or four inches long. Leaves oppofite, feffile. Flowers axillary and terminal, two or three together, on capillary, longifh ftalks. 14. S. multicaulis. Smooth Alpine Stitchwort. Willd. n. 12. (S. ceraftoides; Jacq. Colleét. v. 1. 254. t. 19.) —Leaves lanceolate, f{mooth. Branches upright, quite fimple. Flower-{talks moftly folitary, terminal. Petals larger than the calyx.—Native of the Carinthian mountains. Root pe- rennial, thread-fhaped, creeping. Stems or branches quite fim- ple, erect, numerous, {pringing fromtheroot. Leaves fmooth. Flowers on terminal, folitary ftalks, two or three together. 15. S. Aumifufa. Procumbent Stitchwort. Willd. n. 13. « Swartz in Stockh. Tranf. 1789, 111. t. 4. f. 1.” Fl Dan. t. 978.—Leaves ovate, moftly on one fide, feffile. Stems procumbent, fquare. Flower-{talks folitary, abbre- viated.—Native of Sweden and Norway. Root annual, {mall, creeping. Stems flender, a little waved. Leaves oppofite, feffile, pointed. Flowers terminal, white and rather fhowy, on flender /lalks. 16. S. biflora. Two-flowered Stitchwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 604. Willd. n. 14.“ Swartz in Stockh. Tranf. 1788, 36. t. 1. f. 1.?? (Sagina ramis ere¢tis bifloris; Fl. Lapp. ed. Sm. 156.)—Leaves awl-fhaped. Branches di- vided. Petals emarginate. Calyx ftriated.—Native of the Lapland alps, and of North America. The habit of this - fpecies greatly refembles that either of a Sagina or Arenaria. Stem {carcely three inches long, thread-fhaped, almoft naked. Leaves radical, tufted. Flower-flalks two together, at the divifions of the ftem, each bearing a delicate, white, very {mall flower, with flightly emarginate petals: The figure in Fl. Dan. t. 12. appears to be incorreétly quoted by authors for the prefent {pecies. 17- S. groenlandica. Greenland Stitchwort. Willd. n.15- Retz. Prodr. Fl. Scand. 107.—Stems decumbent, generally two-flowered. Leaves linear, flightly fringed at the bafe. Petals emarginate. Fruit globofe.—Native of Greenland. This delicate little herb is fcarcely more than an inch in height, with very flender flems. Leaves a little flefhy, and fringed at the margin with long hairs. Flowers white, large in proportion to the plant, with fcarcely emar- ginate petals. 18. S. Arenaria. Sandwort Stitchwort.- Linn. Sp. Pl. 604. Willd. n. 16,—Leaves fpatulate. Stem ereét, bifid. Branches alternate. Petals emarginate.—Native of Spain. Root annual, fibrous. Stem ereét, round, a fpan high, downy and rather glutinous, with {preading hairs. Branches alternate, nearly as long as the ftem. Leaves feffile, {mooth above, hairy at the margin, and beneath. /owers white, large, one at the divifion of the branches, the reft alternately from their axils. 19. S. pubera. Woolly Stitchwort. Michaux Boreal- Amer. v. 1. 273. Purfh v. 1. 317.—Leaves feffile, ovate, fringed. Flower-{talks ere&t. Petals longer than the ca- lyx.—Native of fhady woods on a rich foil from Pennfyl- vania to Carolina, flowering in May. All that we know of this {pecies is from the above quoted authors, the former of whom obferves that the whole herb is remarkable for being clothed with a downy woollinefs. ‘Che flowers are large and white. Calyx-leaves oval. STecvARIA is alfo a name ufed by fome authors for the carduus ftellatus, or ttar-thiftle. See CENTAUREA. STELLARIS Lapis, a name given by many authors to the various {pecies of aftroites, or {tar-ftone. See Srar- Stone. STELLATA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the department of the Lower Po; 12 miles N.W. of Ferrara. STELLATE Ptants, fuch as have their leaves grow- ing on the ftalks, at certain diftances, in the form of a far STE with rays; or fuch flowers as are flar-like, or full of eyes refembling ftars. Mr. Ray makes the ftellate plants, fo called from the dif. pofition of their leaves, the tenth genus of Englifh plants ; of which kind are crofs-wort, mollugo, wild madder, afpe- rula or woodruff, gallium, or ladies bed-flraw, aparine or cleavers, and rubia tinétorum or dyers’ madder. STELLENBOSCH, in Geography, a {mall town of Southern Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope. It con- fifts of three long ftraight itreets, running parallel to each other, and feveral erate {treets intercepting thefe at right angles. The houfes are all fpacious, and fubftantially built, though only thatched with itraw. Each ftreet re- fembles an avenue, fince, on both fides before the houfes, are large fhady oaks, which are almoft as old as the place itfelf, which was built at the beginning of the former cen- tury, though it was wholly burnt down in 1710. In De- cember, 1803, a fimilar accident happened, when the num- ber of houfes left ftanding was about 80. The church was built in 1722, and though not equal in fize to the churches of Roodezant and Paarl, it is no way inferior to them in point of architecture. ‘The number of inhabitants at Stel- lenbofch, including flaves and Hottentots, is eftimated at 1000, Every perfon in this town carries on, with his trade, fome portion of agriculture and horticulture ; and as there are none who can be called a€tually poor, who labour for hire, they are obliged to have flaves, who do not pay the expence of keeping them. Strangers, who in their long voyages make any ftay at the Cape, never fail to vifit Stellenbofch; and people of property at the Cape Town alfo, in the fine feafon of the year, often make parties of pleafure to this fertile fpot. Hence houfes are fitted up here for the accommodation and entertainment of ftrangers. STELLENBOSCH. See DRAKENSTEIN. STELLENBOSCH, Drofdy of, one of the divifions of the Stellenbofch diftri@, is a very handfome village, confilting of about feventy habitations, to moft of which are attached offices, out-houfes, and gardens, fo that it occupies a very confiderable fpace of ground. It is laid out into feveral {treets or open fpaces, planted with oaks, which have here attained a greater growth than in any other part of the colony. This village, which is the refidence of the landroft, is delightfully fituated at the feet of lofty mountains, on the banks of the Eerfte, or Firft river, at the diflance of twenty-fix miles from Cape Town. In it is a {mall neat church, to which is annexed a parfonage-houfe, with a good garden, and very extenfive vineyard. The clergyman has a falary from government of 120/. a-year, with this houfe, garden, and vineyard, free of all rent and taxes, in lieu of other emoluments received by the clergy of Cape Town. A popular clergyman is loaden with prefents from day to day. Game of all kinds, fat lambs, fruit, wine, and other good things, are pouring in upon him occafionally. His outgoings are chiefly confined to the expence of cloath- ing his family, and a little tea and fugar. The Jandroft has a talary and emoluments that feldom fall fhort of 1500/. a-year; an excellent houfe, in a pleafant fituation ; and an extenfive garden, orchard, and vineyard. The grounds in or near the village are moftly fuch as they call eigendoms, or freeholds, though they are held by a {mall recognizance to government ; but they are totally different from loan-farms, which are the ufual kind of tenure in the colony. There are eight other {mall divifions, befides this drofdy, which furround it, and lie between it and Falfe bay. They confift chiefly of freehold eftates, and produce wine, brandy, fruit, frefh butter, poultry, and a variety of articles for the Cape market, and for the fupply of fhips whilft they continue STE continue in Simon’s-bay. They yield alfo a {mall quantity -ofcorn. Barrow’s Africa, vol. il. STELLERA, in Botany, named by Gmelin in com- memoration of George William Steller, an ardent and in- telligent botanift, adjun& of the Academy of Sciences at Peterfburgh, who, by command of the emprefs of Ruffia, undertook to explore the northern parts of her dominions, and who, having difcovered many new plants in Kamt- {chatka, which are defcribed in the Ameenitates Academicz, died prematurely at Tjumen, in Siberia, A.D. 1746.— Ameen. Acad. vy. 1. 400. Linn. Gen. 193. Schreb. 261. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.429. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.2. 413. Jufl.77. Lamarck DiG. v. 7. 422. Illuttr, t. 293. Gaertn. t. 39.—Clafs and order, O@andria Mono- ja. Nat. Ord. Veprecule, Linn. Thymeleae, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, funnel- fhaped, permanent. ‘Tube thread-fhaped, long. Limb cloven into four or five, ovate fegments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments eight, fometimes ten, very fhort ; anthers oblong, alternately in the middle of the tube, and within the throat. Pift. Germen fuperior, nearly ovate ; {tyle very fhort, per- manent ; itigma capitate. Peric. none. Seed. Nut foli- tary, fhining, beaked. Obf. S. Paferina has eight ttamens, S. Chamaja/me ten. Linnzus and other authors inaccurately define the calyx as a corolla. Eff. Ch. Calyx moftly four-cleft. Corolla none. Sta- mens very fhort. Nut folitary, beaked. 1. S. Paferina. Flax-leaved Stellera. Linn. Sp. PI. » 512. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 1. t. 68.—Leaves linear. Flowers axillary, feffile, with a four-cleft calyx.—Native of dry, funny fields, in Germany, Switzerland, France, and Italy, flowering in July and Auguft. In general appearance, this herb refembles Thefium alpinum. It is acrid, bitter, and purgative. Roof annual, f{pindle-fhaped, nearly fimple, yellow on the outfide, white within. Stem upright, about fix inches in height, much branched from the very bottom. Leaves alternate, feffile, acute, entire, {mooth, fpreading, reflexed, fhaped like a fparrow’s tongue, whence Linnzus adopted its old generic name as a {pecific one. The ftem and branches are terminated by long, loofe, interrupted, leafy /pikes. Flowers feffile, three, four, or five together, at the axils of the leaves, imbedded in wool at the bafe, greenifh, with yellow tips. 2. S. Chamajafme. Siberian Stellera. Linn. Sp. Pl. 513- Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 27. (Chamajafme radice Man- dragore; Amman. Ruth. 16. t. 2.)—Leaves lanceolate. Flowers terminal, cluftered, naked, with a five-cleft calyx. —WNative of Siberia, on the banks of rivers; flowering in June. Root externally brown, internally white, having a f{weetifh tafte, and in its mode of growth greatly refemblin the Mandrake root, divided generally into two parts, oak furnifhed with numerous radicles. Stems numerous, flender, weak, reddifh below, pale green at the fummit. Leaves alternate, fhort, acute at each end, nerved. Flowers white and le, five-cleft. 1 STELLIO, in Zoology, the name by which authors call the {wift or {potted lizard. The fpots which diltinguifh this kind are not, however, ftellated, as might be fuppofed from the name, but round: fome {mall, and {cattered irre- ly all over the body ; and others larger, and difpofed in thirteen zones or femicircles. The {pots are much more diftin and clear on the back than on the belly. It is common in Syria, and fome other places. See Err and Lizarp. The ftellio, named by the Greeks cocordilos, is the moft common fpecies of lizard in all the iflands of the Archi- pelago, in Crete, in the Morea, on the eaft coaft of Na- tolia, in Egypt, and in Syria, Olivier defcribes it as hay- STE ing the body mixed with green, yellowifh, and brown; the head and the back covered with f{cales, fimple or tubercled, and pointed. The fcales of the feet are more turned up, and more pointed, than thofe of the back, The tail is verticil- lated, and covered with prickly fcales. This lizard acquires ten or twelve inches in length. It lives on infeéts, and does no mifchief. “It feeks the fun in fummer : in winter it keeps in holes, and there pafles that feafon in a kind of torpor. Sreviio Adufla, an affected term ufed by fome chemical writers for cinnabar. STELLIONATE, Srextionatus, in the Civil Law, a kind of crime committed by a fraudulent bargain, where one of the parties fells a thing for what it is not. Cujas fays, the word comes from /lellio, a very fubtle kind of lizard. We find mention of it in the Code, leg. ix. tit. 34. As, if I fell an eftate for my own, which belongs to another; or convey a thing as free and clear, which is al- ready engaged to another ; or put off copper for gold, &c. The Romans frequently ufed /lellionatus to exprefs all kinds of crimes that had no proper names. STELLITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome writers on foffils to a kind of white {tone found on mount Libanus, and in fome other parts of Syria, contain- ing the lineaments of the ftar-fifh complete. The fame {tones frequently contain the lineaments of other fifh. STELLOW, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Holitein; 9 miles N.N.E. of Elmefhorn. STELOCHITES, a name given to ofteocolla. STEM, in Botany, that part of a plant arifing out of the root, and which futtains the leaves, flowers, and fruits. In trees, the {tem is called the ¢runé, or flock; in Latin caudex, and truncus. . In herbs, it is ordinarily called the /a/é ; by the Latins caulis; and feapus, when ttraight like a column. When flender, and creeping on the ground, as that of nummulary, fome authors call it viticulus. In the feveral kinds of corn, and plants of that kind, it is more properly called culmus. The {tem of the plant, according to Dr. Grew, is no more than the cutis, or fkin, which at firft covers the two lobes, and the plume of the feed, and which is farther di- lated as the plant grows. The ftems of fhrubs and trees are, for the moft part, a great deal larger, and more woody, firm, and folid, than thofe of plants of many other kinds. See STALK. They are the {tems of foreft and fome other forts of trees, which principally form and conftitute, as well as afford, the timber which is employed for different rural ufes; and which may be made to ferve different purpofes and inten- tions, by the different modes of training and managing them. See Timber. In gardening, the ftems of fruit-trees and fruit-fhrubs are trained and managed in a great many different ways and manners, fo as to fuit different ufes and intentions in this fort of culture and practice. They have alfo lately, for ferving particular purpofes and defigns, been found capable of being fo trained, where the trees are to be planted on the contrary fides of the walls to thofe on which they are to run and be wrought, as to be introduced through holes, made in a flanting upward direétion from near the bottom parts of them, to the fizes of about fix inches in diameter, and the fame number of inches in height from the furface of the borders, with great fuccefs and benefit. See STANDARD- Trees and WaAuLL-Trees. The ftems of many low plants and trees are likewife fometimes trained with different kinds of ornamental heads, and other parts, for a great variety of different ufes and purpofes, in pleafure-ground planting. See FORMING © STE The term ftem is alfo occafionally, in fome diftrics, made ufe of to fignify the handle of any fort of tool of the fork kind. Srem of a Ship, is a circular piece of timber, into which her two fides are united at the fore-énd; the lower end of it is fearfed to the keel, and the bowfprit refts upon its upper end. The {tem is formed of one or two pieces, according to the fize of the veflel; and as it terminates the fhip forward, the ends of the wales and planks of the fides and bottom are let into a groove or channel, in the middle of its furface, from the top to the bottom; which operation is ufually called rabbetting. The outfide of the ftem is ufually marked with a fcale, or divifion of feet, according to its perpendicular height from the keel; the intention of which is to afcertain the draught of water at the fore-part, when the fhip is in pre- paration for a fea-voyage, &c. The {tem, at its lower end, is of equal breadth and thick- nefs with the keel, but it grows proportionably broader and thicker towards its upper extremity. Falconer. See SHIP-BUILDING. Srem, Fale, that fixed before the right one. When a fhip’s ftem is too flat, fo that fhe cannot keep a wind well, they put a fa//e {tem above, which makes her rid more way, and bear a better fail. _STEMMATA, in the AHifory of Infeés, are three {mooth hemifpheric dots, placed generally on the top of the head, as in moft of the hymenoptera, and other clafles. The name was firft introduced by Linnzus. See Enromo.ocy. STEMODIA, in Botany, derived from crnuwv, a amen, and dsc, double; each of the filaments bearing two anthers. —Linn. Gen. 320. Schreb. 420. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 344. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 52. Juff. Gen. 118. Jacq. Amer. 181. Lamarck Did. v. 7. 423. Illuftr. t. 534. Geertn. t. 52. (Stemodiacra; Browne Jam. 261.) —Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Scrophularie, Jull. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, five- cleft, ere€t, equal, permanent. Cor. of one petal, irre- gular. Tube the length of the calyx. Limb two-lipped, almoft upright: upper lip ovate, undivided ; lower cloven into three, rounded, equal fegments. Stam. Filaments four, nearly equal, as long as the tube, all cloven; anthers eight, one placed on each divifion of the filaments. P7/. Germen {uperior, rather obtufe ; ftyle fimple, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma fomewhat blunt. Peric. Capfule oblong, ovate, of two cells and two valves of a contrary partition. Seeds numerous, globofe. Receptaele nearly cylindrical. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla two-lipped. Fila- ments cloven, each furnifhed with two anthers. Capfules two-celled. 1. S. maritima. Sea Stemodia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 881. Swartz Obf. 242. (Scordium maritimum fruticofum procumbens; Sloane Hilt. Jam. v. 1. t. 110. f. 2.) — Leaves oppofite, half clafping the ftem. Flowers feflile, folitary.—Native of the fouthern parts of Jamaica, on the fea-fhore. Root probably biennial, long, round, fibrous. Stem from one to three feet high, hairy, ereét, or occa- fionally fcandent, much branched. Leaves {mall, feffile, ovate-lanceolate, obtufe, ferrated, thickifh, hairy, with {maller ones atthe axils of the larger. Flowers few, axil- lary, among the terminal leaves, {mall, white or blue. The whole herb has a pleafant aromatic {mell, with a bitterifh tafte. 2. S. durantifolia. Marfh Stemodia. Willd. n. 2. Swartz Obf. 240. (Capraria durantifolia; Linn. Sp. Pl. 876. Veronica caule hexangulari, foliis fatureie ternis, ferratis ; Sloane Hift. Jam. v, 1. t. 124. f. 2.) — Leaves STE three in a whorl, combined. Flowers two or three to- gether, nearly feffile.—Native of Jamaica, in marfhes on the fhore, in clay. Stem herbaceous, a foot high, ereét, branched, leafy, angular at the bafe, roundifh upwards, hairy, clammy. Leaves feflile, toothed or rather fiared, {preading, nerved, downy. Flowers on fuch fhort ftalks as to be all but feffile, fmall, of a blue colour. 3. S. wifcofa. Vilcid Stemodia. Mart. Mill. Di&. n. 3. Roxb. Coromandel. v. 2. 33. t. 163.—Leaves op- polite, clafping the ftem. Flowers on ttalks, folitary.— Native of Coromandel, in rice-fields after the crop has been cut. The Telingas call it Boda-/arum.—Stem herba- ceous, two feet high, generally inclining to one fide, branched from the bafe, {quare, hairy. Leaves linear, fer- rated, clammy like the whole herb. #/owers axillary, fmall, violet-coloured. The plant has a pleafant aromatic {mell. 4. S. ruderalis. Golden Stemodia. Willd. n. 3. Retz. Obf. fafe. 5. 25. Wahl. Symb. p. 2. 69. Gaertn. t. 52. —Leaves oblong, on ftalks. Flowers axillary, oppofite. —Native of watte places in the Eaft Indies, where it was firft gathered by Koenig.—Svem herbaceous, a fpan high, eredt, flightly angular, downy, branched below in a fimple, {preading manner. eaves oppofite, ferrated, entire at the bafe, on long, flender ftalks. Flowers axillary, golden- coloured. 5- S. camphorata. Green-flowered Stemodia. Willd. n. 4. Wahl. Symb. p. 2. 69. — Leaves ovate, ftalked. Flowers in clufters.—Native of Ceylon. Stem herbaceous, a foot high, ere€t, fimple, downy, roundifh below, angular at the upper part. Leaves oppofite, deeply and unequally ferrated, flender at the bafe, fcarcely hairy on the upper fide. Flowers yellowifh-green, in terminal, ere& clutters, a fpan long. Vahl mentions a variety of S. camphorata, with narrower leaves, which, he fays, may probably be Dodartia orientalis. 6. S. aquatica. Water Stemodia. Willd. n. 5.—Leaves three together ; thofe immerfed doubly pinnate, capillary ; thofe above water undivided, lanceolate, feflile. Spikes axillary. A native aquatic of the Eaft Indies, found near Tranquebar.— Stem from fix inches to two feet in height. Lower leaves doubly pinnate ; upper three-nerved, {mooth, deeply ferrated from the middle to the tip. /owers alter- nate, feflile, in terminal fpikes. 7. S. parviflora. Small-flowered Stemodia. Ait. n. 1. (‘¢ Erinus verticillatus; Mill. Di. ed. 8.””?)—Stem pro- cumbent, much branched, downy. Leaves three together, on ftalks, ovate, crenate.—Native of South America, flower- ing in July and Auguft. Firft cultivated by Mr. Philip Miller in 1759. . We know nothing further of this {pecies than what ts here extraéted from the Hortus Kewenjis. STEMONA, was fo denominated by Loureiro, from clxuw, a flamen, becaufe of the remarkable form and con- nection of thofe organs in its flower; which latter circum- ftance led him to refer the genus to the clafs Mfonadelphia. His genus, however, proves by the defcription, and indeed by the fynonym of Rumphius, to be no other than our’s . and Mr. Dryander’s Roxpureuta ; fee that article. We had not made this difcovery when the faid article was writ- ten. What would thofe who {tickle for the mere right of priority of names, in fpite of authority, fenfe, utility, or tafte, do in this cafe? Stemona is by far the oldeft name, liable to little or no exception, and given by an able and learned botanift. Yet furely every one would retain Rox- burghia, for the fake of its author’s authority. We cannot but contend for the occafional exercife of {ome dilcretionary power, when obvioufly for the good of fcience ; however averfe we may always be to alterations of eltablifhed and received names, though perhaps for the better. STE MPHYLA, _ ! STE STEMPHYLA, a word ufed by the ancients to ex- prefs the hufks of grapes, or the remains of the preffings of wine. The fame word is alfo ufed by fome to ex- prefs the remaining ma{s of the olives, after the oil is refled out. STEMPHYLITES, a name given by the ancients to a fort of wine preffed hard from the hufks. STEMPLES, in Mining, crofs bars of wood in the fhafts, which are funk to mines. In many places, the way is to fink a perpendicular hole, or fhaft, the fides of which they ftrengthen from top to bottom with wood-work, to prevent the earth from falling in: the tranfverfe pieces of wood, ufed for this purpofe, they call ftemples, and by means of thefe the miners in fome places defcend, without ufing any rope, catching hold of thefe with their hands and feet. STEMSON, in Ship-Building, a piece of compafs tim- ber, wrought on the aftfide of the apron, the lower end of which fcarfs into the keelfon. Its upper end is con- _ tinued high enough to tenon into the under fide of the middle or upper deck hook: its ufe is to fuccour the fcarfs of the apron, as that does thofe of the ftem. STENANTHERA, in Botany, from s«vo:, narrow, or contraéed, and xv%nex, an anther.—Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. I. 538:—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Epacridee, Brown. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, permanent, double ; the inner of five broad, ovate, equal, convolute leaves ; outer of numerous ovate, concave, imbricated, bluntifh, pointlefs fcales, not fo long as the former. Cor. of one petal, tubular, deciduous; tube twice the length of the calyx, fwelling, fmooth, and naked within; limb in five fhort, fpreading, lanceolate, bluntifh fegments, bearded underneath at the extremity, as well as half way along the dif from the bafe. Neéary a cup-fhaped undivided gland furrounding the bafe of the germen. Stam. Filaments five, inferted into the tube, and enclofed within Jit, thick and flefhy, broader than the anthers, which are linear, in the mouth of the tube. Pif. Germen fuperior, roundifh, of five cells; ftyle capillary, the length of the tube; ftigma fimple, obtufe. ic. Drupa nearly dry, globofe. Seed. Nut of three or more cells, with a thick, not very hard, fhell, not burfting, with a pendulous kernel in each cell. Eff. Ch. Outer calyx of many imbricated leaves. Co- rolla tubular ; its tube {welling, twice as long as the calyx, naked within; limb much fhorter, {preading, bearded half way. Filaments included in the tube, flefhy, broader than their anthers. Drupa almoft dry, of from three to five cells. 1. S. bi hes Pine-leaved Stenanthera. Br. n. r.— Native of the neighbourhood of Port Jackfon, New South ales, from whence we have a f{pecimen gathered by Dr. White, but this fhrub has not yet found its way into the gardens of England. It is the only known {pecies of its —— The flem is woody, ere&, {preading, branched, carred ; the younger branches hairy, clothed with innume- rable, crowded, awl-fhaped, pungent, revolute, roughifh, feffile Zaves, about an inch long. Flowers axillary, ere&t, feffile, about the bafe of each branch, very beautiful, with a rich fearlet tube an inch long, and a yellowifh-green limb, making a fingular, but moft agreeable, contrait. the fize of a {mall pea, invefted with the brown calyx. _ STENAY, in Geography, atown of France, in the de- partment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Montmedy ; 21 miles N.N.W. of Verdun. The place contains 3599, and the cantor 11,434 inhabitants, _~ VoL. XXXIV. ? SITE on a territory of 170 kiliometres, in 18 communes. N. lat. 49° 30'.. E. long. 5° 16’. STENBOCK, Maenus, in Biography, a diftinguifhed Swedifh general, fon of Guftavus Otto Stenbock, a gene- ral under Charles X. and XI., was born at Stockholm in 1664. He was educated at Upfal, and in 1683 he fet out on his travels, and having entered into the Dutch army, he ferved feveral campaigns with the allied forces in the Netherlands, and on the Rhine, under the princes of Wal- dec and Baden. He diftinguifhed himfelf fo much by his bravery and good conduét, that he was, in 1697, appointed to be colonel of a German regiment, then in the garrifon at Wifmar, where he employed his leifure time in com- pofing a work on the art of war, entitled “ The Swedith Military School,’? which, however, he did not find leifure or inclination to publifh. He accompanied Charles XII, in almott all his expeditions, and contributed by his fkill and exertions to the victory obtained at Narva. In the Polifh campaign, till 1706, he fometimes accompanied the king and the main army, and fometimes was entrufted with the command of detached bodies employed chiefly in levy- ing contributions; a fervice for which he was exceedingly well qualified : he was alfo employed in comune bridges over fuch rivers as the Swedifh army had to pafs, on its in- curfions into Poland, and on its return from that country. In the year 1706 he attended the king to Saxony, where he was appointed governor of Scania. When he arrived there, he found every thing in the utmoft confufion; the moft fhameful abufes had been committed ; and in order to put an end to them, and deter others from fimilar pra¢tices, he put the laws into moft fevere execution; but a war breaking out put a ftop to his plans of reform. When in- telligence of the Swedes being defeated at Pultava reached Frederic IV. of Denmark, he made preparations for the invafion of Scania. Stenbock was appointed to oppofe him; he put himfelf at the head of 8000 old troops and 12,000 new levies, and went in purfuit of the Danes, who were committing incredible ravages in the country. There wag no time to clothe the newly raifed troops in military array; of whom the greater part was drefled in frocks, and had piftols tied to their girdles with cords. They at- tacked the enemy ; and what was wanting in order and difcipline, was amply compenfated in zeal; and thefe raw troops completely defeated the regular army of the king of Denmark. The Danes quitted Sweden with great precipitation, having firft killed their horfes, and deftroyed by fire their baggage and magazines. They left behind them about 4000 wounded foldiers, of whom the greater part died, as well by the infeGtion from the dead horfes, as by the want of food, of which they had been deprived by their own countrymen. After Scania had been freed from the ravages of the enemy, Stenbock’s firft care was to f{trengthen the fortifications of Chriftianftad, being a place of great importance, for the defence of that part of Sweden. The aétivity which he difplayed on this occafion, induced Charles, the year follow- ing, to entruft him with the direCtion of another enterprize, to the fuccefsful and fpeedy execution of which great im- portance was attached. This was to repair, as fpeedily as poffible, with feveral regiments to join the troops in that province and to proceed afterwards, under the command of Staniflaus, to meet his Sweedifh majefty, on his propofed return from Turkey. In this meafure he was thwarted by the fenate, and he experienced many difficulties which he did not anticipate; of thefe, one was the want of money. He, however, went to Stockholm, and exerted himfelf fo fuccefsfully, that he colle&ted, in the courfe of a month, 'p more STE more than 300,000 rix-dollars, and. fitted out fome veflels for his intended expedition. In the courfe of his voyage he fell in with the Danifh fleet, by which he was attacked, and more than thirty of the Swedifh fhips were loft. In confequence of this unfortunate event, Stenbock drew up a paper in vindication of his own condu&. After this he took Roftock ; and having received a confiderable reinforce- ment of troops, gained a memorable victory, in 1712, over the Danifh and Saxon forces: he then proceeded to the army in Holftein, and having burnt Altona, was, in the month of May, 1713, hemmed in at Tonningen, by the combined Danifh, Saxon, and Ruffian army, in fuch a manner, that he was obliged to fign a capitulation, Being now a prifoner, he was conveyed by order of his Danifh majefty to Copenhagen, and fo clofely confined, that he was feparated from all his attendants, except two domettics, who obtained leave to wait upon him, and was in other refpects fubjet to great reftraint and feverity. At length, exhaufted by mifery, chagrin, and difeafe, he drew up, in the beginning of the year 1716, an account of his fuffer- ings, to ferve, to ufe his own words, as a confolation to his diftrefled relatives, and, at the fame time, to preferve his name and reputation to polterity. This work was printed in 1773, in Lonbom’s “ Anecdotes of celebrated and diftinguifhed Swedes.”? He died in 1717, and was in- terred, with military honours, in the garrifon church of Copenhagen. After the conclufion of peace, his body was conveyed to Sweden, and depofited in the cathedral of Upfal. Stenbock was a man of talents, and always held in high eftimation by Charles XII. In his political fenti- ments he adopted the fy{ftem of his father-in-law, the cele- brated Oxenftierna. He fpoke his fentiments with free- dom, and gave fuch advice as he thought moft conducive to the good of his country. In fpeaking of the Polifh war, in one of his letters, dated June 20th, 1702, he fays, “ according to every appearance, unlefs Providence inter- fere in a very remarkable way, war will be declared againft the republic. How we fhall get out of it God only knows. For my part, I would run’no rifk, but in a war really undertaken on juft principles.” depofition of Auguftus, for whom he had a fincere efteem. He incurred confiderable blame for the feverity which he exercifed at Altona, and the minifters and generals of Po- land and Denmark wrote to him complaining of his cruelty on that occafion ; but Stenbock, who confidered this mea- fure, however harfh, as a juft retaliation for the condu& of the Saxons and Danes at Stade, which they had bom- barded and burnt to afhes, replied, ‘ that he proceeded to fuch an extremity, in order to teach the enemies of his fovereign, in future, not to wage war hike barbarians, and to caufe the law of nations to be refpeGted.”? Gen. Biog. STENBRUGGE, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the province of Aggerhuus; 8 miles N. of Tonfberg. — STENBY, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland; 11 miles E. of Nordkioping. STENCH. See Srinx. STENCILLING. See Paver-Hangings. STENCKBACH, in Geography, a river of Saxony, which rifes 4 miles S. of Landfberg, and runs into the Fuhme, 2 miles N. of Zorbig. STENDAL, a town of Weltphalia, and late capital of the Old Mark, containing four churches, with confider- able manufa&tures, introduced by the French refugees ; 18 miles W.N.W. of Brandenburg. N. lat. 52° 36!. E. long. 12°. STENDALICHEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark ; 10 miles N.E. of New Angermunde, He had no fhare in the: STE STENDORP, a town of the duchy of Holftein; 6 miles E.N.E, of Eutyn. STENE, a town of Norway, in the province of Dron- theim; 48 miles E. of Drontheim. STENFORT, a town of Hinder Pomerania; 8 miles S. of New Stettin. STENHEL, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 32 miles N.W. of Lulea. : STENO, Nicuovas, in Biography, a diftinguifhed phy- fician, and fubfequently bifhop of Titiopolis, and vicar- apoltolic of the northern countries, was born at Copen- hagen in 1638. His father was a Lutheran, and gold{mith to Chriftian IV., king of Denmark. Having had the ad- vantage of ftudying medicine and anatomy under the cele- brated Bartholin, whofe friendfhip he obtained by his in- genuity and induftry, he was well prepared to profit by his travels through various parts of Holland, Germany, France, and Italy, in vifiting the beft fchools, of which he patled feveral years. He was at Amiterdam in 1660, and refided during the three fucceeding years at Leyden, where he purfued his ftudies with the utmoft diligence. He arrived at Paris in 1664, and at the end of two years more went to Vienna, traverfed part of Hungary, and entered Italy by the Tyrol. He vifited the principal cities of this fine country, and pafled fome time efpecially at Rome and Flo- rence, in the latter of which cities his reputation reached the court of Ferdinand II., grand duke of Tufcany, who appointed him his phyfician about the year 1667, with a liberal falary. He was afterwards honoured with the efteem and confidence of Cofmo III., who feleéted him as pre- ceptor to his fon. His attachment to the Proteftant reli- gion had been fhaken by the eloquence of Boffuet while he was at Paris, and in 1669 be abjured that faith, and adopted the Roman Catholic perfuafion. Frederick III., king of Denmark, invited him, near the clofe of his reign, to return to Copenhagen; but he refufed the invitation, becaufe he could not obtain permiffion to exercife the reli- gion which he had adopted; but Chriftian V. repeating the invitation without any fuch reftraint, about the year 1672, Steno returned to his native city, and was appointed profeflor of anatomy. He found his change of fentiments and circumftances, however, produétive of lefs agreeable refults than he had anticipated, and he again quitted Den- mark, and refumed the education of the young prince of the houfe of Cofmo, at Florence. Some time after his re+ turn, he entertained a wifh to enter the ecclefiaftical ftate, and he embraced that profeffion in 1677. He was fpeedily nominated, by pope Innocent XI., to the bifhopric in Ifauria, which we have already mentioned ; and was after- wards appointed vicar-apoftolical to all the ftates of the north, in which capacity he became « zealous preacher in Hanover, Muntter, Hamburgh, and various parts of Ger- many, and died in the courfe of his miffionary labours, at Schwerin, in the duchy of Mecklenburgh, in 1686, in the 49th year of his age. The works of Steno which are extant, relate princi- pally to medical fubje&ts. He was a zealous cultivator of anatomy, and the author of fome difcoveries relative to the minute circulation of the eye, the nofe, and organs of voice, and to the lymphatic veflels; as the papers which he communicated to the Academy of Copenhagen, and his other works, will teftify. The titles of the latter are, «« Ob- fervationes de Oris, Oculorum, et Narium Vafis,’”? 1662: this was enlarged and reprinted in 1664, with the new title «“ De Mufeulis et Glandulis Obfervationum Specimen.’? «¢ Elementorum Myologie Specimen, feu Mufculi De- {criptio Geometrica,’? 1667. ‘ De folido intra folidum naturaliter ~ftalk of the germen. STE waturaliter contento Differtationis Prodromus,’’ 1669. &* Differtatio de Cerebri Anatome,”’ 1671; which had been publifhed in French at Paris in 1669. ‘ Epiftole dux Adverfariz,’’ 1680. In this year he again publifhed his firft work, with fome alterations, under a new title, ** Ob- fervationes Anatomice, quibus varia Oris, Oculorum, et Narium Vafa defcribuntur, novique Salive, Lachrymarum, et Muci fontes deteguntur, &c.’? Steno was the uncle of Winflow, who fubfequently carried anatomical fcience to the highelt pitch. See Eloy Dia. Hitt. de la Méd. + Sreno’s Dud, a name given, from its difcoverer, to the fuperior falival du&. Several anatomifts, particularly Heifter and Palfyn, have difputed whether Steno’s dué is pervious in recent fubjects, as well as in the fkeleton. Dr. Kulm affirms, he has de- monitrated it to feveral to be pervious in deer, bears, wild goats, hares, calves, and in the human fubjects, and men- tions the manner of tracing it. See Med. Eff. Edinb. Abridg. vol. ii. p. 421. STENOCARPUS, in Botany, from stvo;, narrow, and xapros, fruit. — Brown Tr. of Linn. Soc. v.10. 201. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 390.—Clafs and order, Tetran- dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Proteacee, Jul. Brown. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals four, diftin&, linear, equal, all turned to one fide ; their fummits ovate, concave, bearing the ftamens. Neétary a gland, half embracing the Stam. Filaments four, very fhort, inferted into the hollow tip of each petal ; anthers roundifh, funk in the fame cavity. Pi. Germen fuperior, ftalked, oval; ftyle terminal, cylindrical, deciduous ; {tigma ob- lique, dilated, orbicular, peltate, flattifh. Peric. Follicle linear, ftalked, coriaceous, recurved. Seeds nv-erous, im- bricated, winged at the bafe. Eff. Ch. Petals four, oblique. Stamens funk in the eavities of the limb. A lateral gland at the bafe of the ftalk of the germen. Style deciduous. Stigma oblique, orbicular, flattifh. Follicle linear, coriaceous. Seeds nu- merous, winged at the bafe. 1. S. Forfleri. Oval-leaved Stenocarpus. Br. Tr. of Linn. Soc. n, 1. (Embothrium umbellatum ; Linn. Suppl. 128. Lamarck Did. v. 2. 355. Illultr. n. 1285. t. 55. f. 1, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 538. EE. umbelliferum ; Fortt. Gen. t.8. f. a—f.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtufe, with- out prominent ribs.—Gathered by Forfter in New Cale- donia. The fem is fhrubby, with alternate, round, {mooth, leafy, dotted branches. Leaves alternate, on fhort thick ftalks, coriaceous, {mooth, entire, an inch or inch and half long; tapering at the bafe; obfcurely triple-ribbed in a dry ftate. Flowers about half an inch long, red, about fix or feven together, in axillary, ftalked, fmooth umbels, fubtended by three or four fmali, membranous, ovate brac- teas. Follicle near two inches long, like a {mall legume, with hollows for the feeds. 2. S. falignus. . Willow-leaved Stenocarpus. Br. ibid. mn. 2. Prodr. n. 1. —‘ Leaves elongated, lanceolate ; three-ribbed at the bafe.””—Found by Mr. Brown, on the eaftern coalt of New Holland; on the rocky banks of rivers near Port Jackfon. The flowers are of a yellowith- white, Umibels ttalked. Whole /rub very fmooth. STENOCHILUS, from ¢s0:, /lender, and x:sAosy a lip, which a! udes to the unufual narrownefs of the under lip of the corolla, compared with the upper. — Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 517.—Clafs and order, Didynamia An- SpPernia. Nat. Ord. Perfonata, Linn, Myoporina, rown. Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla rin- gent ; its upper lip ereét, four-cleft half way down; lower STE undivided, narrow, deflexed. Stamens prominent. Stigma obtufe, undivided. Drupa of four cells. Seeds folitary. A genus of New Holland thrubs, either nearly {mooth, or clothed with very fine greyifh down. Leaves alternate, without veins; moitly undivided. Fvower-/lalks folitary, fingle-flowered, without braéteas. Flowers either purple or yellowith. Nut of the drupa often with only two cells, the others proving abortive. ‘© Bontia, though very nearly related to Stenochilus, differs in having the upper lip of its corolla emarginate, the lower three-cleft ; a two-lobed fligma; and the nut of two divided cells, each with four feeds, according to the younger Gert- ner, inhis v. 3. 168. t. 212.” 1. S. glaber. Smooth Stenochilus. Br. n. 1.—* Leaves lanceolate or elliptical, undivided, {mooth, fcarcely longer than the flower; fometimes toothed at the extremity. Young branches downy. Stem diffufe.’? — Gathered by Mr. Brown, on the fouth coaft of New Holland. This gentleman mentions another {pecies, nearly akin to the pre- fent, except being hoary with down, which was gathered on the weftern coaft of New Holland; but he leaves the defcription of it to his friend Lefchenault. 2. S. Jongifolius. Long-leaved Stenochilus. Br. n. 2.— *¢ Leaves linear, fomewhat lanceolate, elongated, undivided; hooked at the point; fmooth when full-grown. Youn branches downy. Stem ere&t.””,—Found alfo on the fout coat of New Holland, by Mr. Brown, The flowers were paft, but the habit, as well as fruit, anfwered to the pre- ceding. The /eaves are from three to five inches long. STENOGRAPHY, Suort-nanp, from stvd- and yex?u. Paffing over the Egyptian mode of writing by hieroglyphics, we may obferve, that “ The Hiftory of Hebrew Abbreviations, as a Key to underitand the Rab- binical Authors,” by the learned Buxtorf, appears to have unfolded one of the earlieft notions mankind had of a mee thod of fhort-writing. Some of thofe abbreviations are merely the incipient letters of feveral words joined together as one, and marked at the top with points; others are the final or terminational letters of words; and others, again, are contraéted words, wherein two or three letters are made to denote an entire word. The Jews, we are told, were particularly partial to thefe methods of abbreviation; to which they added a few arbitrary characters, to exprefs certain proper names, fuch as God, Jehovah, and the like awful and facred terms. By degrees the Greeks acquired this mode of writing, and it was very fuccefsfully pra&ifed among them. Indeed, the Greek abbreviations and conneétions have very much the charaéter of genuine ftenography. It was at Nicolai that this method of writing was firft in- troduced to the Greeks by Xenophon himfelf, who wrate by certain arbitrary notes, in the nature of characters. This opinion is confirmed by Laertius, who particularly no- tices two diftin& methods of ftenographic writing: namely, one by fimple contraétions; and the other by arbitrary marks or fymbols. The Romans praétifed this art at a very early period. Some writers have even afcribed to the poet Ennius the merit of having firlt invented a method of writing, by which the notarii were enabled to follow the moft rapid of their orators, This, however, is extremely hypothetical, It is added, that Ennius’s method was much improved upon by Tyro, Cicero’s freed-man; and {till more by the learned Seneca, Ennius, it appears, began at firft to write with one thoufand one hundred marks of his own contrivance, to which he might add, as circumftances and neceflity de- ag manded, STENOGRAPHY. manded. In what the fubfequent improvements confifted we have no account 3 probably only in the invention of new fymbols or charaéters, and not in any attempt to write in a fhort manner, by the combination of new and more fimple letters. . ; : It is evident the Romans held this art in great eftima- tion; for Suetonius, fpeaking of Caligula, exprefles his furprife, that an emperor, who, notwithftanding his nu- merous vices, was not deficient in capacity and parts, fhould remain ignorant of the art of {tenographic writing. * Titus Vefpafian, however, in almolt every refpeét a very different character from Caligula, is mentioned as being remarkably attached to fhort-hand, and himfelf practifed it with great facility, and often made it not only his bufinefs but his amufement. He feemed to have great pleafure in calling his amanuenfes together, and witnefling which of them wrote the fatteft. He not only amufed himfelf with fteno- graphy, but with imitating the hand-writing of others ; and, by conitant practice, acquired fuch a command of hand, and fuch a facility in imitation, that he was wont humoroufly to obferve concerning himfelf, that he fhould have made an excellent mimic or counterfeit. Various were the fchemes, as at prefent, which were for- merly ufed to write after public {peakers; but they were probably all of them exceedingly arbitrary, and, for the mott part, unintelligible to any but thofe who praétifed them; and, on that account, were foon forgotten and de- {troyed. The art was confequently much neglected, as is evident from two books of fhort-hand, mentioned by Tri- themius. ‘The firft was a Short-Hand Diétionary, which he bought of an abbot, a doGtor of law, for a few pence, to the great fatisfaction of the community to which he be- longed, who had defired the fhort-hand marks to be erafed, for the fake of the parchment on which they were written. The other was a fhort-hand copy of the Book of Pfalms, which he met with in another monaftery, where the monks had inferibed upon it, by way of title, « A Pfalter in the Armenian Language.” put " Several copies, however, of a Dictionary and Pfalter, in Roman fhort-hand, are mentioned as extant in different libraries ; but they are in general the fame method, as may be conjectured from thofe who mention them, and alfo from the appearance of an old fhort-hand Pfalter 1n the library of St. Germains, at Paris, carefully preferved as a fteno- graphical curiofity. The late Mr. Byrom had a few pages of this tranfcribed for his infpeGtion and ufe. Plutarch, in his Life of Cato, informs us, that the cele- brated fpeech of that patriot, relating to the Catilinian confpiracy, was taken and preferved in fhort-hand ; and there are numerous epigrams of Aufonius, Martial, and Manilius, defcriptive and commendatory of this art. But we mult pafs over all other ancient allufions and conjeCtures, obferving, that, probably, the oldett method of fhort- writing at prefent extant or known isa Latin MS., entitled «: Ars Scribendi CharaGteris,”? or ‘‘ The Art of writing in Charaters.”?>. The author of this is not known, but it was printed about the year 1412. t We may jut, however, remark on this head, that the ancient Irifh alphabets, called Bobeloth, a {pecimen of which may be feen in Ledwich’s Antiquities, and alfo in Dr. Fry’s Pantographia, have much the appearance of fome of our modern fhort-hands. Two of their alphabets were called Irifh ogums: Celtic words implying letters written in cypher, and, indire@tly, an occult {cience. They were firft fenographic, then {teganographic, then magical, and, laftly, alphabetic. The Japanefe alphabets (for they have three, two of which are in general ufe among the natives, the other only at court, and among the great) appear to have a fteno- graphical character; moft of them combining two, and others three, letters. The two alphabets attributed to king Solomon, but upon what authority is not ftated, by Thefeus Ambrofius, in hi ‘© Appendice des différentes Lettres et des différentes Langues,” and cited by Druet, p. 132, have much the fame caft in their formation; but the one, of which a beautifully engraved fpecimen may be feen in the Encyc. Franc. pl. xxv., partakes mott of the nature of fhort-hand of any other yet mentioned. ‘The Japanefe has, in fae, but 328 founds, which are all monofyllables, applicable to 80,000 charaéters, of which the whole language is com- pofed. Lambinet, in his ** Refearches upon Printing,” obferves, that modern ftenography, which, like the telegraph, dates in France from the foundation of the republic, has neither the inconvenience, nor the obfcurity, nor the danger of the ancient. The old charaéters varied under the hand of the copiers, and the fenfe changed according to the genius of the interpreters; fo that their contraétions are become fo many enigmas, becaufe we can refer to no other copies to afcertain the true reading, and becaufe the authors are no longer in exiftence. « But,’? continues this writer, ¢ by the prefent fyftem of ftenography, the writers follow the words of the public orators, take down their {peeches, the motions, the debates of the tribune, or the leGtures of the profeflors of the Lyceum, and produce a literal tranflation at laft, in the ufual charaéters and in print.”? It is to be feared that this defcription of Galic ftenography is a little too highly coloured ; no fyftem of French writing, that has hitherto come under our notice, having any fuch perfect fa- cility of copying as is here ftated: but, certainly, our neighbours acrofs the Channel can both {peak and write with wonderful rapidity. The attempt of the late learned and ingenious bifhop Wilkins to form a real charaéter and philofophical language fhould not be overlooked. This partakes, perhaps, more than all others, of fhort-hand, properly fo called; but was not intended fo much for expedition and brevity in writing, as for an univerfal communication or correfpondence of ideas. Of its fitnefs for fuch a purpofe, it is not the object of this article to difcufs. We know a gentleman at this time, of great opulence and well-known charaCer in the metropolis, who is of opinion, that he can exprefs all ideas common to mankind in general by only three letters, which may be known all over the civilized world; and we be- lieve it is his intention to make an experiment of the prac- ticability of his {cheme. ‘The art of fhort-hand was firft attempted in this country by Dr. Timothy Bright, who publifhed his ** Characterie’? in the year 1588. The ‘* Writing School-Mafter” of Mr. Peter Bale, appeared two years after Dr. Bright’s work. Bale’s book is divided into three parts, tne firft of which is entitled ‘* Brachygraphy,”’ and contains rules to write as faft as a man can {peak with propriety and diftin@tion. In 1618 appeared Willis’s ** Stenography, or Short-Hand Writing by fpelling Charaéteries.” ‘This method confifts of ten alphabets, denominated words of fort; feven of which are compofed of the initial letters of words ; the reft principally by the omiffion of unneceflary letters, and by fymbolical figures. ’ Henry Dix’s « Brachygraphy’? was an attempt to im- prove upon Willis’s ; but all improvements of the art, till the invention of Byrom, were little better than the original :— arbitrary and mytterious. ‘ t Wael It is not requifite to detail the hiftory of this art more minutely ; nor to mention the numerous fyftems or me- thods, all pretending to perfection, though each profefling to excel its predeceffors. We will, therefore, proceed to lay before the reader fuch a fyftem of itenography, which, if generally known and practifed, would infallibly fuperfede the neceflity of any other ; and yet, it mult be confeffed, that the art of fhort-hand is far from having attained that perfection of which it may be capable. The next fy{tem, as to beauty and praétical utility, to the one about to be here developed, is doubtlefs that of Dr. Ma- yor’s invention, who, however, candidly admits that, in the conftruétion of his own work, he has proceeded upon Mr. Byrom’s “ general principles,” which, he owns, ‘ muft for ever form the bafis of every future rational fyftem.”’ Mr. Byrom’s method of fhort-hand, as improved by Mr. Molineux, being now generally efteemed the beft and moft ractical fyitem extant, we fhall give a brief yet comprehen- five analyfis of the whole, premifing, that the rules which the inventor had prefcribed to himfelf, in the execution of his plan, were, ift. That all the fimple founds of the language fhould be denoted by the fhorteft and fimpleft marks in nature. 2dly. That thofe marks which were the fhorte(t, and moft eafily formed, fhould be affigned to the letters which are of moft frequent occurrence. _ 3dly. That thofe letters which are moft frequently com- bined in a fhould be denoted by fuch marks as are moit eafily joined by the pen. 4thly. That all the marks of which any word may be compotfed, fhould generally be written without taking off the pen; and that the writing fhould not rife above or fink below the parallel lines, between which it fhould be uni- formly comprifed. . sthly, and laftly, That all the rules of abbreviation fhould be founded upon the properties of the language, and ex- prefled by the charaCters of the fhort-hand alphabet only, without the introduétion of any arbitrary marks, either for _ abbreviation or any other purpofe. To unite fo many different perfections in one {cheme, and to make a regular and fcientific fy{tem of the whole, was an undertaking of no common labour and difficulty. Mr. Byrom, the inventor, was well qualified for fuch an arduous undertaking, by a very extenfive knowledge of the nature of language in general, and a thorough acquaintance with the properties and peculiarities of his own in particular ; and it was by an indefatigable perfeverance in making, through the courfe of many years, continual trials, alterations, and amendments, that he at laft fucceeded, to the fatisfa€tion of himfelf and a few learned and judicious friends, to whom he firft communicated the particulars of his invention. To re- move any doubt which the public might entertain of its merit, thefe gentlemen, his fcholars, drew up and figned a recom- mendatory defcription of his method of fhort-hand, which teltimonial was prefixed, by way of preface, to the original publication. _ Mr. Byrom’s method of fhort-hand is there ftated to be _. the art of expreffing all the words and phrafes of the Englith age by a character whichis perfeCtly regular and beau- and at the fame time the fhorteft poflible. Perfect beauty and regularity indeed, fo far from being inconfiftent ‘with the greateft poffible brevity, are in fat the only means attaining it ; and by a ftri&t adherence to thefe principles, r. Byrom has completely fucceeded in the invention and efiablifhment of his fyftem. In fine, his method of fhort- hand writing is no fanciful theory ; but, on the contrary, is founded upon rational and philofophical principles; it pro- , <¢ j | STENOGRAPHY. pofes nothing impracticable ; it is not a mere jumble of awkward marks thrown together without order, and confe- quently unintelligible to the writer himfelf after the lapfe of a few months or years. For beauty, legibility, and the greateft poflible uniformity in the writing, it ftands unrivalled. It was a principal ob- ject with the inventor to expunge every thing arbitrary, both from the fhort-hand charaéters and the rules of abbrevi- ations and in this truly effential point he has fucceeded fo happily, that his fy{tem feems to claim pre-eminence over every other. It may be ufeful to refer fuch of our readers as may wifh to attain a complete knowledge of Mr. Byrom’s fyitem, to «* An Introduction to Byrom’s Uniyerfal Englifh Short- Hand,” by Mr. Molineux, of Macclesfield, explaining the theory of the art in a very clear and perfpicuous manner ; and to a fupplementary work, entitled «‘ The Short-Hand Inftruétor, or Stenographical Copy-Book,” which exhibits the pradice, adorned with its peculiar charaéteriftics of eafe and beauty. Thefe two elegant little works form together a complete fyftem of ftenography, and have the merit of familiarizing Mr. Byrom’s excellent method for the general ufe of {chools, and for the particular guidance of thofe who, without the afliftance of a living inftruGtor, may be defirous of a literary attainment, which is at once ufeful and orna- mental. The letter C, having always the found either of & or s, is here reprefented by thofe letters refpectively ; s and x, and alfo f and v, having a near affinity to each other in found, are denoted by one and the fame mark. The fhort-hand alphabet confilts of the following confonants ; wiz. b, d, f, or v, (the latter being eafily diftinguifhed, when neceflary, by a thicker itroke,) g,h,7, 4, 1, m,n, p, q 1,5, or x, (dif- tinguifhing the latter, when neceflary, by a thicker ftroke, ) t, W, x,y, ch, fb, and th. The vowels, viz. a, ¢,i or y, 05 and uw, though often omitted in fhort-hand, are eafily repre- fented by a dot or dots in five different pofitions, either pre- ceding or following a fingle confonant, or when any of them are to be inferted between two confonants. When a dot ftands alone, the vowel which is meant to be reprefented by it is eafily afcertained, by obferving what part of the fpace it occupies between the fhort-hand parallels ; thus, a is meant if it be found at the top, wz, if it be at the bottom, #, in the middle, &c. , ft. When any confonant ftands by itfelf, it exprefles fome common word or particle, as denoted in the third column of the engraved table or alphabet. 2dly. When a fingle confonant mark is prefixed, or placed clofe before any other charatters, it denotes fome common prepofition, or leading part of a word. Thefe prepo- fitions are refpeétively given in the fourth column of the alphabet. gdly. When aconfonant mark is fubjoined, or placed clofe at the end of other marks, it fignifies an appropriate termi- nation or ending. Thefe terminations are given in the fifth or laft column of the fhort-hand alphabet. From the eafy and regular affignment of a threefold power or fignification to each confonant, a threefold advantage naturally follows. Firft, by allotting to each mark, ftanding by itfelf, a word or particle of which it is the firft or fome conftituent part, we obtain a number of common words, fome or other of them perpetually oecliinin gs exprefled by a fingle charaéter, which otherwife would ftand for nothing. Secondly: The prepofitional part of a word being de- fignated by its leading confonants, placed near, but not joined to the following part of it, fecures alike the soa an STENOGRAPHY. and brevity of the charafters, which in many cafes could not otherwife be maintained. Thirdly, A fimilar advantage is gained by reprefenting the terminational part of a word by an appropriate confo- nant fubjoined, but not conneéted with the end of the other charaéters, when, by the mutual help of each other, they defcribe long and complex words in a neat and concife man- ner, and are eafily diftinguifhed from all others. Two marks, it will be feen, are allotted to the confonant B, and they are each ufed, when ftanding alone, to denote two different words, the firlt de, and the fecond but. The rincipal reafon, however, for afligning two marks to the Lie confonant, is to fecure a more eafy combination of the marks in writing, the firft being ufed, for inttance, before a defcending character, as of or dt, and the latter before one which afcends, as br or b/. The firft character is generally written upwards, but the fecond is always made downwards. Ufed as a prepofition, the firft denotes de; and the fecond, ufed as a termination, reprefents -ab/e or -ible. One of the moft common terminations in our language is denoted by the letter D, which the learner will obferve ttands for the word and when written feparately, for de as a pre- pofition, and for ed as a termination. This letter is never written upwards, and the fame rule will invariably apply to all thofe charaters, whether curved or ftraight, that are ftri@tly perpendicular; the oblique letters may be written either upwards or downwards. Neither prepofitions nor terminations are invariably de- tached from the roots of their refpective words. It is diffi- cult to lay down any precife rule for this ; certainly in cafes wherein the prepofition or termination can conveniently be joined, it would be a needlefs wafte of time to lift the pen. Much, however, depends upon the degree of force or im- portance which the termination may pollefs in the correct pronunciation of the word, in writing the phrafes, a learned man, he is learned in the law, &c.3; it is not chatte to fay alearn’d man, learn’d in the law. On this account it will admit of a queftion, whether it would not be more corre&t to detach the termination ed in fhort-hand, notwith{tanding it will fo very conveniently join in this word. And here let the learner obferve, once for all, that he fhould acquire fuch a method of writing fhort-hand as will create the leaft poffible ambiguity, or difficulty in reading it: and this can only be done by adhering as much as poffible to the rules of a correét orthography and pronunciation. The letters F and V are always written downwards. In cafes where difpatch is not required, the letter v may be denoted by writing the charaGter a little thicker. And this diftinétion is not only convenient, but perfeétly rational : there is a kind of affinity betwixt the found of the letter v, and the thicknefs of the line by which it is exprefled : the letter fhas, to ufe fuch aterm, a ¢hinner found, and may fitly be denoted by a thinner character ; the found of fand wv, however, is fo nearly the fame, that the fame fhaped character is very properly ufed for both letters, Thefe re- marks will ns to the letters sand 5 in which isthe fame fimilarity of found, fhaded by the fame refpective frength in the pronunciation. This charaéter, as a word, ftands for of: prefixed to other characters, it reprefents the prepofition for; and, as a termination, -ify. The letter G is reprefented on the Short-band plate by a eharacter which is to denote both the hard and the foft found of that letter. In the latter capacity, it is eccafionally ufed inftead of 7, Standing by itfelf, it de- wotes; when written at the top of the line, the word ” again, and at the bottom, againf?. It has no prepofitional or terminational charaéter. H is denoted by two charaéters ; but the firft only is to be confidered as the proper reprefentative of that letter, It is written downwards from the twirl. The other cha- racter might very well have been difpenfed with; but being retained in the alphabet, may {till be ufed fingly to denote the word sad; and notwithflanding the ewirt is at the bottom, it is better to write it downwards. The firtt chara&ter ftands for the word have. When it is requifite to write the words hat, hit, hot, hut, or any others beginning with 4, and ending with ¢, with one or more vowels in the middle, the vowels may be indi- cated by placing the vowel in its appropriate pofition with reference to the line, but out of its lual order in other refpects, viz. immediately before the confonant, and not lengthening the laft letter, or ¢, below the line. By writing the letter r, in the words hither and hitherto, only half its ufual fize, the ¢ in the former part of the word denotes th. The letter J having been accidentally omitted in the plate, it is fupplied here by the following chara¢ters % 2, ftanding, when written feparately, for the words judge, and juff; but the firlt only is the proper mark for the letter, the other charaéter ftanding in a fimilar fituation to the laft character for 4; being in a manner unneceflary : when ufed, however, it muft be written down- wards. There are fome inftances in which the letter g may be uted for. The next letter, AK, is a very important one; for it ree prefents the c hard, and of courfe is the mitial letter of all thofe words beginning with that letter, and in all other places where it is required: it is alfo the firft letter in words beginning with & The foft found of the letter ¢ is exprefled by the letter s; and fometimes the & and g are ufed promifcuoufly for each other, whenever greater faci- lity, convenience, and beauty of joining, may by {uch means be obtained. This charaéter being, moreover, an hori- zontal one, may be placed at the top, middle, or bottom of the fhort-hand {pace or line. When written at the top of the {pace, it ftands for can; and at the bottom, for could or could?. As a prepofition, it reprefents, at the top, middle, or bottom, com-, con-, and contra-: in the middle of the {pace, it denotes the terminations -ical or -iele. Cm and cn occurring very frequently at the beginning of words, the correfponding characters may be fhortened, by cutting off the horizontal part of the letter & or ¢, and commencing the next letter, m or m, immediately after the formation of the twirl. This will, however, apply only to the commencement of words. L is reprefented by three charaGters, of which it may be obferved generally, that in all of them the twirl is formed to the right hand. When written fingly, the firft charaGter denotes the word all, the fecond always, and the third altogether. M, and indeed the horizontal charafters generally, are of frequent and important ufe in fhort-hand. This letter, when written at the top of the fpace, reprefents the word am, and at the bottom, among, or amongft, Asa prepofition, at top it is magni-, in the middle mis-, and at the bottom omni-. Ufed as a termination, it is men?; and it is cuf- tomary, in this cafe, to write it at the top of the line. N, the letter m reverfed, is alfo of frequent ufe. As a diftin&® word, it ftands for an at the top, in in the middle, and under at the bottom, Prepofitionally, it is ante- or anti-, inter= or in-; and at the bottom, uader- or ga-, As a termination, it ftands for -en# at the top, and =nefs at the bottom; but when ufed in the latter cafe, it is cuf- tomary * is, as before obferved, the c foft. - STENOGRAPHY. tomary to add a fhort s, or horizontal ftraight line, ‘to it. Both this and the letter m, when ufed as a prepofition or termination, fhould be made fomewhat lefs than the ufual alphabetical fize. The fame obfervation will apply to the letters 4, d, r, ¢, w, &c. P is the fame letter in a perpendicular pofition, and is, in fa&t, the d reverfed. As a word, it ftands for upon; andasa prepolition, for per-, pre-, or pro-. It may alfo cccafionally be ufed for pe-. Q is the é reverfed. words, it is frequently ufed inftead of that letter. fingly, it is the word queflion. R is the oblique charatter ufed for f, with its inclination to the right, and may be written either upwards or down- wards, according to the nature of the marks which may happen to precede or follow. When not joined to other charaCters, it is always fuppofed to be written downwards ; and in that cafe the vowels are, of courfe, reckoned from the top downwards. As a word, it ftands for or; as a pre- pofition, for re-; and as a termination, for -ary and -ing; the lural of which may be denoted by a {mall s added to it. Tt is feldom neceffary to ufe the detached prepofition re- in fhort-hand, except when the confonant which follows that prepofition does not admit of being conveniently joined to the letter r. S, or Z, expreffed by a {traight horizontal line, the x being made a little thicker if neceflary, is a letter of infinite fervice in our language, and in fhort-hand particularly. It At the top, when ufed independently, it ftands for as, in the middle for is, and at the bottom for us. By the fame rule of pofition, it ftands for the prepofitions /atis-, circum-, fuper-, and fub-. And, again, as a termination, according to the order of the vowels, for -ation, -aGion ; -etion, -eflion; -ition, -iGion ; -otion, odfion; -ution, -uGion, &c. &c.: indeed, for the common termina- tions -tion, -/ion ; but whenever this termination is preceded by a fingle confonant only, the word mutt be written at length ; as motion (mofn), nation (nafn). When placed clofe after any of the pronouns, it no longer reprefents -ation, or any other termination of that kind; but ftands for ~elf and -/elves, or -/oever ; the firft in the e’s, and the laft in the o’s place. T is a perpendicular line or ftroke. Asa word, it ftands for the; as a prepofition, for fran/-; and as a termination, for -ity. It fhould uniformly be written downwards. When two #s form a word, or part of a word, a little break muft be made, to fignify that fuch is the cafe. This may be done without lifting the pen; but only very flightly moving it on the paper to the right, before the lait letter is commenced. This letter, in fhort-hand, is often ufed to denote ¢/, which is done by making the adjoining confonant, either preceding or following the ¢, only half its ufual fize: thr, nth, &c. are very conveniently fo fignified. In all other cafes, a letter of half the fize denotes that the adjoining cha- ra&ter is to be refolved into two letters or parts ; as, when in the words ¢error, prayer, &c. the firft letter is made {mall, and the other, the r, is its ufual length: this, however, fhould be reforted to as feldom as poflible. V is the oblique letter f, made a little thicker when needful. W has two charatters, of which the firft is the proper one for the letter, as in the cafe of 7 and 4. This chara&ter flands for will, the other for would and qwould/i, and is written downwards: asa prepolition, it is with-, and as a termination, -ward and -wards. With refpeét to the ufe of the letter ¢, : 3 In the middle, and at the end of Ufed in unifon with w, fee the obfervations on 4 refpeéting that point. X has alfo two charaéters, but the firft only is ufed as the letter, The one ftands for except, and the other for exer- cifee Asa prepofition, it is ex- and extra-. The letters ks and gs will aften exprefs the found of this letter. Y is ufed only at the beginning of words, and for the word yet. At the end and in the middle of words, the vowel ¢ is always ufed. Z is the fame as s, made thicker, when needful. Ch are denoted by a charaéter refembling the fhort- hand g reverfed, and ftands for the word which. When founded hard, like £, as in words from the Greek, it is not ufed, but this latter letter ufed inftead of it. Sh have two characters, but the firft is the only proper reprefentative of thefe combined letters. This charaéter ftands for the word /hall, and the other for /hould and /houldf. Asa termination, it is ufed for -/bip. Th, a very frequent combination of confonants, are denoted by two characters, either of which may be confidered as the legitimate reprefentative of thefe united letters; but Mr. Molineux prefers the latter, which is ufed for the word that 5 the firft in the formation of words only. £% cetera. "This common abbreviation is denoted by a ¢y and a {mall s or c foft, drawn from the e’s place. Thus have we gone through the alphabet, as exhibited on the plate; and the reader, by comparing the one with the other, may readily acquire a pretty competent knowledge of the leading principles of this fy{tem of fhort- hand writing. So far appears to be every thing that is ab- folutely neceflary to lay down by way of initruction to learners wifhing only to acquire fo much knowledge of ftenography as will enable them to ufe it for the convenience of epiftolary correfpondence, for the purpofes of literature and ftudy, in the writing of common-places, making ex- tracts, private memoranda, &c. But as there is a higher and more defirable obje& to be attained by the practice of this art, viz. that of taking down the {peeches of public orators, trials, &c. it is eflential, to effect this objeét, that a {till more concife method of writing fhould be acquired; and this may be accomplifhed by attention to the fimple rules given in the following fhort extracts, abridged from Mr. Molineux’s excellent treatife. Of Abbreviations —An alphabet, formed upon the moft juft and natural plan, by which, with the help of a few general rules, all the words of the language to which it is adapted, may be eafily, neatly, and {peedily written, will not alone be fufficient to fatisty the expeétations of an in- quifitive reader ; who mutt be fenfible, that however com- plete the alphabet may be, yet many compendious applica- tions of it may be obtained by an enquiry into the nature of our language, and the abbreviations of which it admits. He will not be fatisfied with being only taught how to ex- prefs all the letters of a word by the fhorteft and eafieft {trokes, but will alfo require further initruétion how to de- {cribe intelligibly words and fentences, by as few of thofe ftrokes as poffible. To inveftigate from a few things given, many which are omitted, will be found no unpleafant exer- cife of the learner’s fagacity ; and if the few be properly given, the fenfe of the paflage, and a due attention to the idiom of our language, will render the difcovery of the omiffions more certain, and alfo lefs difficult, than the un- experienced would be apt to imagine. Without fome rules of abbreviation, one end of fhort-hand, that of following a f{peaker, would f{carcely be attainable. It may be proper, however, to advife the learner not to embarra{fs himfelf with fhort-hand abbreviations, till, by a competent STENOGRAPHY. competent praétice of writing according to the rules already laid down, he is become fo well acquainted with the charac- ters, as to be able to write and read them with nearly as much eafe as common long-hand. He will then meet with little more difficulty in reading words contra¢ted, than he formerly did in thofe written more at length, provided that the rules of abbreviation be duly attended to. A fummary of the principal rules and moft praétical methods of abbre- viation is here given, and it is left to the fill and difcretion of the writer, by-obferving their nature, and proceeding upon the fame principles, to make fuch farther advances and improvements as his occafions may require. A brief Summary of the principal Rules of Abbreviation. Rule 1.—To join the auxiliary verbs, the particle not, and the pronouns together; as can be, have been, mufl be, cannot be, he muft be, ought not to be, &c. Rule 2.—To join the marks in an unufual manner, in order to fhew that each particular mark denotes a word, and not a fingle letter; as in the, it is, as it is, fince it is, it was, it was not to be, &c. Rule 3.—Derivative fubftantives may be very conveniently reprefented, by placing a point at the end of the words from which they are derived. Derivative adjectives and adverbs may be reprefented alfo by points, diftinguifhable by their fituation, both from the fub{tantive and the vowel points ; which may be done by placing them in a line, which, if pro- duced, would pafs through the fubftantive point, and would alfo be perpendicular to the lait confonant mark ; one placed defore the fub{tantive point, fignifying the adjective, one after it, the adverb; as, forgetful, forgetfulne/s, forgetfully reafon- able, reafonablene/s, reafonably ; fufficient, fufficiency, fufficiently. No great accuracy is neceflary with refpe& to the adjec- tive and adverb points, provided they be placed fo as to be elearly diftinguifhed from the vowel and fubftantive points. Rule 4.—Such words as, either by their particular relation to the fubjeét, or frequent occurrence, are eafily difcoverable, however concifely written, may be denoted by the firft letter, if they begin with a confonant, if not, by the firft vowel and confonant, with the adjeCtive, fubftantive, or adverb point annexed ; as, ‘life and immortality are brought to light by the go/pel ;” ‘¢ the re/urrection of the dead, and a future ftate of rewards and puni/bmenis, are plainly and pofitively taught in the go/pel.”’ ‘The adjectives which ufually accom- pany fuch fub{tantives may alfo be denoted by theirfirft con- fonant, joined to the fubltantive ; as, “* with humble fubmiffion to your lordfhip.’? Mott writers of fhort-hand accuftom themfelves to mark fuch words as moft frequently occur in their own particular profeflions, by the initial letters only, with the fubftantive, adjeCtive, or adverb points, which, through cuftom, eafily fucgeft thofe words to them at firft fight. But it muft not be underftood, that thofe marks imply thofe words exclu- fively, and no other. They may ftand for any other be- ginning with the fame letters, which the fenfe of the paflages neceflarily requires. Rule 5.—A. dot placed at the point of concurrence of two confonant marks, denotes two fubftantives, of which thofe marks are the firft confonants ; and alfo that the latter is governed of, or conneéted to, the former by fome prepo- fition, which is omitted; as, ‘‘ the Jove of money is the root of all evil;”? ‘*feek ye firft the kingdom of God, and his righte- oufnefs, &c.;’? ‘the effeéts of gravity are vifible in every part of that fyftem to which we belong, but the cau/é of gra- vity {till remains undifcovered.” And if an adje&tive precedes either of the fubftantives, they may all three be reprefented by their firft confonants joined together, with the dot always placed at the end of the firtt fubftantive ; as, ‘the great goodne/s of God is mani- felt in all his dealings with his creatures ;” «his majelty the hing of Great Britain.” Rule 6.—The fubltantive point, placed before a fingle confonant mark, denotes that the fub{tantive is to be re- peated, with fome intervening prepofition; as, ¢ day after day ;’’ ° from time to time.” Rule 7.—The fubitantive, adje&tive, or adverb point, placed before two or more confonant marks joined together, denotes two or more fubttantives, adjeétives, or adverbs, of which thofe marks are the firft confonants, and alfo that they are connected by a conjun€tion ; as, the * precepts both of natural and revealed religion forbid us to do our neigh- bours any injury ;”” “ what doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but to live foberly, righteoufly, and godly in this pre- fent world.” Rule 8.—Many long words, efpecially thofe in which the marks for the confonants will not join neatly, may be de- noted by their firft fyllable, with as many points annexed as there are fyllables wanting ; as, multitude, corre/pondence. And when great difpatch is required, the points may be omitted, efpecially if the words do not begin with prepofi- tions; as, fignification, difficulty, negligence. Rule 9.—Words beginning with prepofitions may be de- noted by their refpeétive prepofitions, together with the next confonant and vowel, and fometimes with the next con- fonant only, adding, when neceflary, the fubftantive, adjec- tive, or adverb point ; as, deliberate, tranfmutation, recom- mendation, confanguinity, &c. The participles may be abbreviated after the fame man- ner, by adding, inftead of the points, the terminations -ing or -ed to the latter confonant mark ; as, confidering, confidered. Words beginning with double or treble prepofitions, may be written after the fame manner, joining the prepofitions together ; as, reprefentation, mifreprefentation, incomprehenfi- bility. If two confonants begin the next fyllable, the writ- ing of them*both will help to difcover the remainder of the word ; as, mifunderftanding, tranfubftantiation. Rule 10.—Words ending in any of the terminations which in the alphabet are denoted by confonant marks, may be ex- prefled by their firft confonant and vowel, together with the proper mark for its termination; as, arbitrary, opportunity, curiofity, lawfulnefs. Rule 11.—Such words as are eafily difcoverable by the particular prepofitions which they require, may be denoted by their firit confonant only ; as, ‘“ this delongs to me 3”? ‘he made forme good ob/ervations upon it;”? “ we mutt guard again{t fuch paflions as we are mott /iable to.”? As few Englifh words end with the fyllable -to, the pre- pofition #o may be joined to the preceding word, which is fignified by its firft confonant only; as, this delongs to mey liable to, fatisfa&ory to. Other prepofitions which are denoted in the alphabet by a fingle confonant, may, in like manner, be joined to the pre» ceding word; as, ‘¢ he made fome good ob/ervations upon it.” Rule 12.—Prepofitions generally require after them either a noun or pronoun. The pronouns being few in number, and ufed as fubftitutes for nouns, mutt occur very frequently, and by that means foon become familiar to the learner ; pro- nouns, therefore, may be joined to the prepofitions, without danger of creating any difficulty to the reader; as, te me, to my, to yot. Rule 13.—The preceding word, the prepofition, and pro= noun, may be joined all together; as, belongs to me, extends to us, agreed with me, depend upon me, obfervations upon this. The words fome, any, none, which, each, both, “ a 4 ) STE lowed by a prepofition and pronoun, may be denoted by their firlt confonants, and may be joined to the prepofition and pronoun ; as, fome of them, any of us. Rule 14.—The adverbs preceding the verbs, and the fub- ftantives following the pronominal adjectives, may be joined to the verbs and adjectives refpectively, denoting both the adverbs and fubftantives by their firlt confonants, or at moft by their firft confonants and vowels ; as, you may /afely de- d upon my word.”’ We te Mang common phrafes, formed by a fubftan- tive preceded by the prepofitions with, without, in, &c-, and followed by #0, of, &c., may be very conveniently abbrevi- ated; as, with regard, refpe@, or reference to, in order to, in confequence, comparifon, or confideration of. Rule 16.—Common adverbial phrafes are, in like manner, often denoted.by their initial confonants joined together ; as, at the fame time, at prefent, in this manner, in like manner, in a great meafure, in the fame manner, in the mean time, in general, tn particular. And when the proportion of equality is exprefled, with fome one word intervening, they may be all joined together ; as, /o much as, as well as, as foon as. Rule 17.—The contractions which may be made, when it is or it was, are followed by an adjeétive, and fo or that, are very numerous; as, if is impoffible to, it was unneceffary to, it #s contrary to, it is according to. STENOMARGA, in Natural Hiflory, a name ufed by fome authors for a light marly earth, more ufually called agaricus mineralis, and lac lune by the later writers, and terra, or creta Seleneufiaca, by Diofcorides and Galen. STENOSA, in Geography, an ifland in the Grecian Ar- chipelago, about ro miles in circumference, inhabited only by a few goats and their keepers. N. lat. 37°5/. E. long. 26° ecl, ay ENSKAR, two or three fmall iflands on the W. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 12'. E. long. 21° 30'. STENSSITZA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Sandomirz ; 20 miles E. of Radom. STENTATO, an Italian mufical term, given by Brof- fard, which no longer occurs in mufical works at prefent. It feems to have been fuperfeded by Sforzando. STENTEROPHONIC Tusz, a {peaking trumpet, fo called from Stentor, the vociferous Stentor, celebrated by Homer (Iliad, lib. v.) as the moft illuftrious throat-per- former, or herald of antiquity : «* Stentor the ftrong, endued with brazen lungs, Whofe throat furpafs’d the noife of fifty tongues.” Pope obferves on this paflage, that ‘ there was a neceflity for cryers whofe voices were ftronger than ordinary, in thofe ancient times, before the ufe of trumpets was known in their armies. And that they were in efteem afterwards, may be feen from Herodotus, where he takes notice that Darius had in his train an Egyptian, whofe voice was louder and ftronger than that of any other man of his age.’ The fpeaking-trumpet, under the title of the Stentero- a tube, was long afcribed in England to fir Samuel oreland; but Kircher has formally laid claim to it in his “ Mufurgia ;”” however, the Stenterophonic horn or tube of Alexander the Great claims primogeniture, as well as fu- _ magnitude ; for it is faid that he could give orders to is army at the diftance of 100 ttadia, which is above twelve ae miles. See Trumpet. TENWICK, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the rovince of Drontheim; 24 miles S.W. of Drontheim. ‘ ENYCLARUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of La- — Vor. XXXIV. STE conia, upon the river Pamyfus, N. of the gulf of Meffina; where Crefphonte, one of the chiefs of the Heraclidas eftablifhed his refidence, and which he made his capital, fo that it was called a royal city, or Bwxc1Asioy.—Alfo, a plain of Meffenia, W. of the river of Paufanias, known on account of a battle very difaitrous to the Lacedemonians, in the year 684 B.C. Paufanias places this plain on the road from Me- galopolis of Arcadia to Ithome. STENZYLE, in Geograpiy, a town of Poland, in Vol- hynia; 15 miles N.E. of Luckow. STEP. See Pace, Srair, &c. Step, in Ship-Building. Steps for matts, into which their heels are fixed, are large pieces of timber. ‘Whe main and fore-ftep are fixed acrofs the keelfon, and that for the mizen-maft upon the lower-deck beams. The holes or mor- tifes into which the heel of the matt fteps, fhould have fuf- ficient wood on each fide, to accord in ftrength with the tenon left at the heel of the mait, and the whole cut rather lefs than the tenon, as an allowance for fhrinking. The ftep for the capftan is a folid lump of oak, let down between the beams, in which the {pindle at the heel of the capftan tra- verfes in aniron cup. Steps for the fhip’s fide are pieces of oak quartering, with mouldings, nailed on the fides at the gangway, about nine inches afunder from the wales upwards, for the convenience of getting up the fides. Step, or Tongue, in Rope-Making, for the tar-kettle, is made of three-inch oak-plank, five feet long and thirteen inches broad, which tapers to nine inches at the bottom, and is put into the kettle through a mortife in the bridge. Within four inches of the lower end of the ftep is a round hole five inches diameter, for the yarn to pafs through. The ftep is fufpended and regulated by a tackle. Step and Leap, in the Manege, one of the feven airs or artificial motions of a horfe, confifting, ag it were, of three airs: viz. the pace or ftep, which is terra-a-terra; the rifing before, which is a curvet ; and the whole.finifhed with a fault or leap, which is a capriole. This manege is infinitely lefs painful to a horfe than the capriole ; for when you drefs a horfe to the capriole, he will of himfelf take to this air for his eafe and relief ; and in time thofe horfes which have been dreft to the caprioles, will execute only balotades and croupades, unlefs particular care is taken to make them yerk out. It is this, likewife, which, next to running a brifk courfe, enlivens and animates a horfe moft: to reduce a horfe to the juftnefs of this air, you muft begin by emboldening and making him lofe all fear of correction, teaching him to keep his head fteady, and in a proper place, lightening his fore~ parts by putting him to make pefades, and teaching him to know the aid of the fwitch, the fame as in the leflon of the capriole, and by giving him a firm and good appui, and full in the hand; though it is certain that the ftep contri- butes to give him this appui, inafmuch as that it puts him in the hand ; befides, that it gives him ftrength and agility to leap, juft as we ourfelyes leap with a quicker {prin while running, than if we were to ftand quite ftill and leap ; therefore, molt old horfes generally fall into this air. When your horfe is fufficiently knowing in thefe feveral particulars, teach him to rife, and hold him in the air; then let him make three or four pefades, and afterwards let him walk four or five fteps flow and equal. If he forces the hand, or retains himfelf too much, he fhould be made ta trot thefe four or five fteps rather than walk: after this, make him rife again, and continue this leflon for fome days. When he is fo far advanced as to comprehend and under- ftand this fufficiently, begin by putting him to make a U pefade ; ST E pefade ; demand then a leap, and finifh by letting him make two pefades together. There are two things to be obferved, which are very effential in this leffon: one, that when he is to make the leap, he fhould not rife fo high éefore as when he makes pefades only, fo that he may yerk out with greater eafe and liberty ; the other caution is always to make your laft pe- fade longer and higher than the other, in order to prevent your horfe from making any irregular motions, by fhuffing about his legs, if he fhould be angry and impatient, as well as to keep him in a more exa&t obedience, and to make him light in the hand, if he is naturally heavy and leaded in his fore-parts, or apt to lean too much upon the hand. Again, reduce the third or fourth pefade into a leap, as you did the firft, then make two pefades following ; and after this, let him walk quietly four or five fteps, that he may make again the fame number of pefades, and in the fame order. In proportion as the horfe begins to under-~ ftand, and is able to execute thefe leffons, you fhould aug- ment likewife the leaps one by one, without hurrying or changing their order, making always between two leaps a fingle pefade, but lower than thofe in the firft leffon, and one two more again after the laft leap, and fufficiently igh. ae degrees the horfe will grow active and light in his hinder parts: you muft raife him then higher before, and fupport him longer in the air, in order to make him form the leaps perfe€t, by means of prudent and judicious rules, often praétifed and repeated. If ahorfe forces the hand, or prefles forward more than you would have him, either from heavinefs of make, or from having too much fire in his temper ; in this cafe, you fhould oblige him to make the pefades in the fame place, without ftirring from it; and inftead of letting him advance four or five fteps, you fhould make him go backward as many. This correGion will cure him of the habit of prefling for- ward, and forcing the hand. Upon this occafion, likewife, you fhould ufe a hand-{pur to prick his croupe, inftead of a {witch. To make this air ju{t and perfe, it is neceflary that the ation of the leap be finifhed as in the caprioles, except that it ought to be more extended; and that the pefade, which is made between the two leaps, fhould be changed into a time of a quick and fhort gallop; that is, the two hinder feet ought to follow together in a quick time, and brifkly ; the fore-feet, as in curvets in the mezair; but in this the horfe fhould advance more, not be fo much together, nor rife. fo. high. The perfetion of this time of the gallop depends upon the jultnefs of the horfeman’s motions. They ought to be infinitely more exaét in this leffon than in the caprioles, or any other airs which are performed ftraight forward. In reality, if the horfeman is too flow, and does. not.catch the exa& time which parts the two leaps, the leap. which follows will be without any {pring or vigour, becaufe the animal fo reftrained and held back can never extend himfelf, or put, forth all his {trength. If he does not fupport and raife his fhoulders fufficiently high, the croupe will then be lower than it ought to be, and this difproportion will force the horfe to tofs up his nofe, or make fome other bad mo- tion with his head, as he is coming to the ground in his leap ; or elfe it will happen from this, that the fucceeding time. will be. fo precipitate, that the next leap will be falfe and imperfe@, as the horfe will not be fufficiently united, but will be too heavy, and lean upon the hand. If he is not together, the leaps will be. too much extended, and confe- quently weak and loofe; becaufe the horfe will not be able S TE tqueeeg his ftrength, in order to make it equal to the firft. Learn then, in a few words, what fhould be the horfe- man’s feat, and what ations he fhould ufe in this leffon, He fhould never force, alter, or lofe the true appui, either in raifing, fupporting, holding in, or driving forward his horfe. His hand fhould be not only firm and fteady, but it is indifpenfably neceffary that his feat be exa@ly ftraight and jult ; for fince the arm is an appendix of the bedy, it is cer- tain that the motions of the horfe fhake or diforder the body of the rider: the bridle-hand muft inevitably be fhook, and confequently the true appui deftroyed. In this attitude then approach the calves of your legs, fupport and hold your horfe up with your hand; and when the fore-part is at its due height, aid with the {witch upon the croupe, If your horfe rifes before, keep your body ftraight and firm; if he lifts or toffes up his croupe, or yerks out, fling your fhoulders back, without turning your head to one fide or the other, continuing the aétion of the hand that holds the {witch. Remember that all the motions of your body be fo neat and fine, as to be imperceptible: as to what action is the moft graceful for the fwitch-hand, that over the fhoulder is thought the beit; but then this fhoulder muft not be more back than the other ; and care muft be taken that the motion be quick and neat, and that the horfe do not fee it fo plainly as to be alarmed at it. It is faid, that when the horfe makes his leaps too long and extended, you fhould then aid with the hand-fpur, and for this reafon, becaufe the hand-fpur will make the horfe raife his croupe without advancing, as the effe&t of the {witch will be to raife the croupe, and drive the horfe for- ward at the fame time; it fhould, therefore, be ufed to fuch horfes as retain themfelves. Remember that you fhould never be extreme with vour horfe, and work him beyond his ftrength and ability : indeed one fhould never afk of a horfe above half of what he can do; for if you work him till he grows languid and tired, and his ftrength and wind fail him, you will be compelled to give your aids rough and openly ; and when that happens, neither the rider nor the horfe can appear with brilliancy and grace. Berenger’s Horfemanfhip, vol. ii. ch. 21. STEPAN, in Geography, a town of Poland, in Vol- hynia; 15 miles N.E. of Luckow. STEPENITZ, a river of Mecklenburg, which joins the Trave, at its entrance into the Baltic.—Alfo, a river of Saxony, which runs into the Elbe, near Wittenberg.— Alfo, a town of Hinder Pomerania; 6 miles N.W. of Golnow. STEPHANE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Paphlagonia, upon the coat of the Euxine fea, witha port, where veffels were fecure, between Cimolis and Po- tani, according to Arrian. STEPHANHOUSKO, in Geography, a town of Bo- hemia, in the circle of Chrudim; 16 miles N.N.E. of Chrudim. STEPHANIA, in ‘Botany, fo named by Loureiro, from seavn, any thing encircling the fummit of fomething elfe 3 whence comes s:?uvo:, a crown; and hence the above ap- pellation alludes to the anther, “¢ which furrounds the head of the filament, like a crown of gold.”?—Loureir. Cochinch, 608. —Clafs and order, Dioecta Monandria. Nat. Ord.. Sarmentacee, Linn. Afparagi, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of fix rather acute, {preading leaves; the three alternate. ones. {maller. bp I etale STE Petals three, fmall, obtufe. Stam. Filament one, as long as the calyx, thick and abrupt at the fummit; anther cir- cular, crowning the filament. Female, on a feparate plant. . Ca/. as in the male. Cor. none. Pif. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle none ; ftigma ereét, elongated. Peric. Berry minute, ovate. Seed {oli- tary. Ea, Ch. Male, Calyx of fix leaves. Petals three, much fmaller than the calyx. Anther annular. Female, Calyx of fix leaves. Petals none. Stigma fimple. Berry fuperior, with one feed. 1. S. rotunda. Round-rooted Stephania.—Leaves pel- tate, roundifh. Umbels compound.—Native of the woods of Cochinchina. Stem fhrubby, twining, fcarcely branched, very long, round, f{mooth, without thorns. Leaves alter- nate, ftalked, peltate, roundifh, obfcurely triangular, acute, wavy; fmooth. Flowers in lateral compound umbels. Petals of the male bloffoms, which Loureiro terms a three- leaved neGary, yellow. The root is a large, roundifh, ru- gofe, brown knob, rifing above the ground, of a very bitter flavour, and agreeing with the Ari/lolochia rotunda in fhape as well as qualities. It fends down into the earth a very long; central, perpendicular, thread-fhaped radicle. 2. S. longa. Long-rooted Stephania.—Leaves peltate, oblong. Heads of flowers lateral, feffile—Found about the reed fences of Cochinchina. Stem fhrubby, twining, flender, branched, unarmed. eaves of an oblong trian- gular figure, entire, {mooth. //owers whitifh, in minute, feffile, lateral heads. Root very long, thread-fhaped, creep- ing, with few and diftant radicles. } SrePHANIA is alfo the name of a genus in Willdenow, Sp. Pl. v. 2. 239, dedicated by that author to the honour of profeflor F. Stephan, of Mofcow; but this cannot fet afide the long-publifhed Stephania of Loureiro, if the latter fhould prove, as appears by the above defcription, a good genus. There feems indeed more doubt ref{pecting Willde- now’s Svephania, which is thus defined.—Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Capparides, Jufl. Eff. Ch. Calyx bell-fhaped, two-lobed. Petals four. Two lowermoft ftamens longeft. Germen ftalked. Style none. Stigma capitate. Capfule? 1. S. cleomoides. Willd. n. 1. (Capparis paradoxa; Jacq. Hort. Schoenb. v. 1. 58. t. 111.)—Native of the Caraccas, from whence it was brought to Vienna by Dr. Sofeph Merter, to whom we are obliged for a native fpeci- men. The /fem is fhrubby, ere€t, with round leafy branches, clothed when young with rufty down. Leaves alternate, deflexed, lanceolate, pointed, entire, flightly wavy, from four to fix inches long, with one rib and many tranfverfe veins, marked with fcattered glandular dots, each of which, in an early ftate, is furnifhed, on both fides of the leaf, with a ttarry tuft of deciduous hairs. Foot/falks half as long as the leaves, or more, ftraight, clothed with rufty down. Stipulas none. Cluflers terminal, folitary, fimple, flightly leafy ; their partial {talks clothed, like the calyx, with orange or tawny itarry down. Petals yellow, acute, downy, a little longer than the calyx. Svamens, and ftalk of the germen, four times as long. The genus of Capparis is fo ill defined, that we know not how far this plant accords or not with fome of the fpecies, nor whether they require feparation from the reft. If this fhould be the cafe, a new name mutt be fought for. STEPHANITA, =:O2:1u, in Antiquity, an epithet given to games and exercifes, where the prize was only a garland. STEPHANIUM, in Botany, Schreb. Gen. 124, a STE name given by this author to Aublet’s Partcourra. (See that ee The genus itfelf is, however, abolifhed, Dr. Swartz having reduced it to P/ychotria, Fl. Ind. Occ. v. I. 433, in which he is followed by Willdenow, Sp. Pl. v. 1. 971. Thefe authors call Aublet’s plant P/ychotria Palicurea. It is a native of Guiana and the Weft Indies. Stephanium would be teo near Stephania, if the genus of Schreber and Aublet were a good one. STEPHANKOWICE, in Geography, a town of Po- land, in the palatinate of Belz; 34 miles N. of Belz. STEPHANOPHORUS, s:9avogoeor, in Antiquity, the chief prieft of Pallas, who prefided over the reft. It was ufual for every god to have a chief prieft; that of Pallas was the Stephanophorus, juft mentioned ; and that of Her. cules was called Dadouchus. STEPHANOPHORUS, i. ¢€. Crown-Bearer, in Mythology, one of the priefts in the feftival of Ceres, called The/mo- phoria; which fee. Priefts of the fame denomination, called alfo F/amines, from a kind of bonnet and fire-coloured veil with which they covered their heads, officiated at the facrifices appointed by Numa, and offered in the temple confecrated to Romulus. STEPHANOWZE, or Srevnanestu, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia, at the confluence of the Pruth and the Bafzeu; 40 miles N. of Jaffy. N. lat. 47° 53!. E. long. 24° 30). ; STEPHANSBERG, a town of Germany, in the prin- cipality of Anfpach; 4 miles N. of Maynbernheim. STEPHANSDORF, a town of Silefia, in the prine cipality of Neifle ; 4 miles N.W. of Neiffe. STEPHANTE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, on the coaft of the Black fea; 18 miles N. of Sinob. STEPHANUS, Byzantius, in Biography, a grammarian who flourifhed, as it is conjetured, about the clofe of the fifth century, was profeffor in the imperial college of Con- ftantinople, and compofed a di¢tionary containing nouns- adjective derived from the names of places ; and defignating the inhabitants of thofe places. Of this work there exifts only an abridgment, made by Hermolaus, and dedicated to the emperor Juftinian. This work is known by the title Meg xonewy, de Urbibus; but that of the original was Edvxe : hence it has been inferred, that the author’s intention was to write a geographical work. Much of the value of the original is unquettionably loft in the abridgment; yet learned men have derived confiderable light from it ; and it has been an object of critical illuftration to Cafaubon, Sca- liger, and Salmafius. It was printed in Greek at Venice, in 1302, under the fuperintendance of Aldus Manutius. An edition of it, with a Latin verfion, was publifhed at Amfterdam, in 1678, by Pineda, a Portuguefe Jew; and ten years after this, an edition was printed at Leyden, with a tranflation by Abraham Berkelius, who added a very copious commentary. This edition was rot completed when the learned editor died, and it was finifhed by James Gronovius. A fragment of the original, relative to Do- dona, is extant; and an edition of it was given by Gro- novius. STEPHEN TI., Pope, fucceeded Lucius about the year 254. His pontificate was rendered memorable by his difpute with Cyprian, bifhop of Carthage, conceruing the baptifm of heretics. Stephen had already difplayed a degree of temerity, by pronouncing the reftoration of Bafilides and Martialis, two Spanifh bifhops, who had been depofed by the other prelates of that country, and who went to Rome to appeal to the pope. Cyprian, in ‘this difcuffion, maintained that baptifm by heretics could not be valid; Uz an Tl STEPHEN. an opinion which was confirmed by a council of feventy-one bifhops, held at Carthage. Their determination was fent to the pope, who not only rejected their decrees, but enjoined them, under the penalty of excommunication, to renounce their decrees; and he concluded with fome fevere re- fletions againft Cyprian, The latter in{tantly fummoned another and {till more numerous council, which unani- moufly confirmed the determination of the former af- fembly. The pope, in his turn, proceeded to anathema- tize all the bifhops who had affifted at the council, and all who adopted the fame opinion, which comprifed the pre- lates of Africa, Egypt, and Lefler Afia. Stephen’s au- thority was not much regarded, and his death, in 257, put an end to the difpute. The church of Rome, which has pronounced in favour of his opinion, enrolled him in the lift of its faints, as it has done his antagonitt. STEPHEN II., pope, a prefbyter, was chofen in 752 to fucceed Zachary, but who died within a few days of his election, and before he could be confecrated. He is omitted by all the ancient authors in the papal catalogue, but by later writers he has been admitted, upon the principle that eleétion alone confers the papal authority, and that he is therefore to be regarded as a real pope. He was fuc- ceeded by STEPHEN III., who was eleGted in the fame year. He was a native of Rome, the fon of a perfon named Conttan- tine, and had acquired the dignity of deacon of the Roman church, when he was chofen to fill the pontifical chair. At this time Aftolphus, king of Lombardy, who had made himfelf mafter of all the exarchate of Ravenna, threatened Rome, requiring its fubmiffion, and the payment of a tribute. The pope attempted to divert him from his de- figns, but without effe& ; the haughty monarch invefted the city, nor could he be deterred from his purpofe by the foli- citation and threats of the emperor Conitantine. The pon- tiff applied now for the aid of Pepin, king of France, who received him into his court with every mark of refpec. Here he was taken ill, but having recovered, he folemnly anointed Pepin, with his queen and two fons, in the church of St. Denis. The king then marched with an army into Italy, taking the pope with him, and befieged Aftolphus in Pavia, who was obliged to fubmit to the terms of reftoring to the church all the territories which he had feized from it, and alfo of relinquifhing the exarchate of Ravenna. No fooner, however, had Pepin repaffed the mountains, than A ftolphus refumed his arms, and marched to Rome, to which he laid fiege. Stephen had again recourfe to his protector, imploring him, in the moft urgent and pathetic manner, to come tothe relief of the holy fee in its imminent danger. He alfo employed fome artifice for rendering effeétual his entreaties, which was to write a letter to Pepin in the name of St. Peter, calling upon him in his own perfon, and that of the Blefféd Virgin, to haften and refcue his favourite people. Pepin did not wait for the fecond invitation, but immediately on hearing of the danger of the pontiff, marched without delay, and laid fiege to Pavia. Aftolphus was now obliged to raife the fiege of Rome, and enter into a treaty, by which he confirmed the former terms, with fome farther facrifices. Pepin then caufed an inftrument to be drawn up, figned by himfelf and his fons, by which he ceded for ever to the holy fee all the places thus yielded up by the Lombard king, including the exarchate, which he had taken from the emperor of Conftantinople. He afterwards caufed the in- ftrument of donation, with the keys of all the cities, to be laid on the tomb of St. Peter in Rome. Stephen had thus the honour of being the founder, or firft pofleffor, of the temporal grandeur of the pontificate. He died in April 7575 after having fat in the papal chair fomewhat more than five years. Seven letters, and acolleétion of canonical conftitutions, are extant under the name of this pope. Srepuen IV. (III.), born in Sicily, came to Rome in the pontificate of Gregory III., and was in great efteem with feveral fucceeding popes. He was titular prieft of St. Cecilia at the time of the death of Paul I., in the year 767. On that event, Toto, duke of Nepi, coming to Rome with an armed band of friends and vaflals, caufed his own brother, Conftantine, then a layman, to be proclaimed pope; and taking him to the Lateran palace, obliged the bifhop of Palzx{trina to ordain him, and afterwards to confe- crate him bifhop. This ufurpation produced great difcon- tent at Rome, and various parties were formed, who ele&ted two popes, of whom one was inftantly thrown into prifon, and the other as quickly depofed ; after which there was a regular eleCtion, and the unanimous choice fell upon Ste- phen, who was confecrated in Augutt 768. The firft a&t of the new pope was to fend a letter to king Pepin, and his fons Charles and Carloman, requefting their protection, and alfo defiring that fome learned bifhops might be fent from their dominions, to affift at a council which he propofed to aflemble at Rome, for the purpofe of reftoring the ecclefiaftical difcipline, which had gone to decay during the ufurpation. Pepin was dead before the arrival of Sergius ; neverthelefs, he was received with great refpe&t by Charles and Carloman, who complied with the re- quett of fending bifhopsto the council. This was aflembled in the Lateran; and Conftantine, who had ufurped the popedom, and who had been deprived of his eyes, was brought before it, and condemned to confinement for life in a monaftery ; and all thofe who had received the eucharift at his hands, among whom was Stephen himfelf, were obliged to perform penance. ‘The pope was now in peaceable pof- feflion of his fee, but fome differences arofe between him and Defiderius, king of the Lombards, who had not delivered up all the places to which the church was entitled by the treaty of Pavia, and had nominated a fucceflor to the vacant archbifhopric of Ravenna. Defiderius, having a party in Rome, marched towards that city at the head of a body of troops, and he obliged the pope to difmifs his minifters Chrif- topher and Sergius, whom he treated with great cruelty, under the pretence that they were the partifans of Carloman. He alfo urged Stephen to enter into an alliance with the Lombards, till a folemn embafly from Charles and Carlo- man, offering to maintain him in the poffeffion of all that their father had beftowed on the holy fee, relieved him from his difficulties. A marriage being afterwards propofed be- tween the daughter of Defiderius, and Charles, the pope oppofed it, in a letter which he wrote to the two French princes, filled with declamation, not only again{t the Lom- bards, but againit the female fex. The match was, how- ever, determined upon; and Bertrade, the mother of the princes, vifiting Rome, was received by the pope with great honour, and was probably inftrumental in procuring the de- livery, by Defiderius, of fome places which he had {till withheld from the Roman fee. Stephen died in the beginning of 772, after having governed the church nearly three years andahalf. Three of his letters are extant. SrepHen V. (IV.), pope, fucceeded Leo III. in 816. . He was of an illuftrious Roman family, and had been made deacon by Leo, who, as well as the clergy in general, en- tertained a high opinion of his learning and virtue. Imme- diately after the confecration, he obliged all the Roman people to take an oath of allegiance to the emperor Lewis, 10 fon STEPHEN. fon of Charlemagne, and he fent legates into France, to pro- pofe an interview with that fovereign. Rheims was the place fixed upon for that purpofe, and Stephen repaired thither, accompanied by Bernard, king of Italy. The em- ror went to meet him upon his approach, and honoured im by proteftations and other tokens of profound reverence. Stephen repaid his attentions, by folemnly crowning him and his queen with rich crowns, which he had brought from Italy. After pafling two months in France, he returned to Rome, where he died about feven months after his election. Srepuen VI. (V.), pope, whofe original name was Bafil, was of a noble Roman family, a prefbyter of the church of Rome, and highly venerated by all ranks, as well for the purity of his morals as the fanétity of his life. He fuc- ceeded to the popedom in May, 885, upon the death of Adrian III., and was forcibly carried for in{tallation to the Lateran, which ceremony was followed the next day by his confecration. His election gave great offence to the em- peror Charles the Grofs, who immediately fent a delegate to depofe the pope, as having been appointed without his con- fent, or even knowledge: he was, however, pacified by a folemn embafly bringing the decree of election, figned by thirty bifhops, and all the leading laymen; and Stephen was confirmed in his feat. The eaftern emperor, Bafil the Ma- cedonian, having formerly written a letter to the pope’s pre- deceffor Adrian, feverely refleGting upon him and the former pope, Marinus, for refufing to communicate with the pa- triarch of Conttantinople, Photius; Stephen now wrote a reply to the letter, defending the condué of his predecef- fors, and ftrongly exprefling his own difapprobation of Photius. This patriarch being afterwards depofed by the emperor Leo the Philofopher, who placed his own brother Stephen in the fee, the pope was applied to by the eaftern bifhops and clergy, requetting that he would grant a dif- penfation for the new patriarch, who had been ordained deacon by Photius, and would forgive thofe who had com- municated with Photius. The pope exprefled much fatif- fa&tion in the expulfion of Photius, but refufed the difpen- fation till he could be more fully informed of the cafe, for which purpofe he defired that bifhops might be fent to him from both parties. On the death of Charles the Grofs without male heirs, in 888, there was a competition for the fucceffion to the crown of Italy, between Berenger, duke of Friuli, and Wido, duke of Spoleto: the pope and the Romans declared for the latter, who was eventually crowned emperor by Stephen at Rome, in 891. This pope died in the fame year, after a pontificate of fomewhat more than fix years. SrepHen VII. (VI.), pope, a native of Rome, placed on the pontifical throne on the expulfion of Boniface, in 896, difgraced himfelf by the treatment which he beftowed on the dead body of pope Formofus, who had preceded Boniface. Having affembled a council for the purpofe, he caufed it to be difinterred, and placed in its epifcopal robes in the papal chair. It was then afked, «« Why didit thou dare alep the univerfal fee of Rome??? No defence being up, Formofus was pronounced guilty of the charge of intruding by unlawful means into the apottolical fee; the body was ftripped of the pontifical ornaments, three of its fingers were cut off, and it was thrown into the Tiber. At the fame time the council declared, that Formofus having been incapable of conferring orders, all perfons who had re- ceived them at his hands muft be re-ordained. Stephen re- verfed the decree of Adrian III., which determined, that on a vacancy, the pope eleé&t fhould be confecrated without waiting for the prefence of the imperial envoys. He en- joyed his dignity only a very fhort time, for in 897 he was dethroned, hurried into a dungeon, and there {trangled, Two letters to the archbifhop of Narbonne are attributed to him, but probably without fufficient authority. Srepuen VIII. (VII.), pope, was alfo a native of Rome, and eleéted fucceflor to Leo VI. in the year 929 5 he held the pontificate rather more than two years, and then died, without having done any thing which has been deemed worthy of record, SrerHEN IX. (VIII.), pope, ele&ted in 939, at the vacancy made by the death of Leo VII., is faid to have been a German, and to have owed his eletion to the in- fluence of the emperor Otho the Great. It is related of this pontiff, that he fent the pallium to Hugh, archbifhop of Rheims, fon of count Herbert, who had been expelled from his fee, and reftored and confecrated by a council of bifhops, although at that time he was only eighteen years of age ; that he warmly efpoufed the caufe of ews d’Ou- tremer againft his rebellious fubje¢ts, fending a bifhop into France, with letters addrefled to the nobles of that country and Burgundy, in which he exhorted them to fubmit to their lawful fovereign, and then threatened them with excommu- nication in cafe of difobedience. He alfo attempted to me- diate between Hugh, king of Italy, and Alberic; and for that purpofe fent for Odo, abbot of Cluny, to Rome; but both the abbot and he died very foon after, in the year 942. He held the fee of Rome three years and four months. SrerpHEen X. (1X.), pope, whofe former name was Frederic, was brother to the duke of Lorraine. In the time of Leo IX. being archdeacon of the church of Liege, he was one of the delegates fent by that pontiff to the em- peror Conflantine X[., in order to negociate a union between the churches of Rome and Conttantinople. On his return he was created chancellor of the Roman church, and was made abbot of the monaftery at Monte Caflino. By pope Vitor IT. he was raifed to the dignity of cardinal, whom he fucceeded in the popedom. ‘The ele¢tion occurring on the feftival of St. Stephen, he aflumed the name of that faint. He immediately undertook the reform of the clergy, and held councils, in which feveral canons were made againit marriage, and the concubinage of priefts. He effeGted the fubmiffion of the church of Milan to that of Rome, after it had for fome years withdrawn itfelf from that jurifdiGtion ; and he fent an embafly into the Eaft, for the obje&t of uniting the two churches. His brother Godfrey, who had married Beatrix, widow of Boniface, duke of Tufcany, projeéting to be chofen emperor, the pope was very defirous to bring the defign to effect, and for that purpofe he fent a perfon to fecure all the treafure in the monattery of Monte Caffino, which however he reftored in cenfequence of the tears and intreaties of the monks. His reign was fhort: he took a journey into France, in order to confer with Godfrey, in which city he died, in the year 1058, having fat in the pontifical chair only a few months. Two letters of this pope are preferved, one to the archbifhop of Rheims, the other to the bifhop of Marfi. Srepuen, king of England, the fon of Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, fourth daughter of William the Con- queror, was born about 1104. He and his younger brother Henry were invited over to England by the late king Henry I., and were loaded with riches, honours, and high preferments. Henry entered into the ecclefiattical profef- fion, and was created abbot of Glaftonbury, and bifhop of Winchefter, But Stephen received higher marks of favour, and more fubttantial eftablifhments. He caufed him to be married to Matilda, the daughter and heirefs of Euftace, count of Bologna, gave him the earldom of Mor- taigne STEPHEN. taigne in Normandy, and the forfeited eftates of Robert Mallet and others in England. Stephen, by his marriage, acquired a new connection with the royal family of England, as his wife’s mother was fifter to David, king of Scotland, and alfo to Matilda, the firft wife of Henry, and mother of the emprefs. Stephen, in return, profefled the moft grate- ful attachment to his uncle; and difplayed a marked eagernefs in taking the oath for fecuring the fucceflion of the emprefs Matilda, daughter of Henry I., and lawful heir to the crown. Inthe mean time, however, he continued to cul- tivate, by every art of popularity, the friendfhip of the Englifh nation ; and the difplay of fome virtues which he feemed to pofiefs, favoured the fuccefs of his intentions. By his bravery, activity, and addrefs, he acquired the efteem of the barons. By his generofity, and by his affable and amiable manner, not at all ufual in that age among men of his high quality, he obtained the affections of the Lon- doners, and he now entertained the moft fanguine hopes, that by accumulating riches and power, and by acquiring popu- larity, he might in time make his way to the throne. As foon as Henry was dead, in 1135, he haftened from France to England, and was received in London with the loudeft acclamations. But in order to obtain a formal co- ronation, it was neceflary for him to gain the concurrence of the clergy ; and for this purpofe, his brother, the bifhop of Winchelter, was of material fervice. Roger, bifhop of Salifbury, chief jufticiary and regent of the kingdom, was readily brought over to his party; but the archbifhop of Canterbury refifted, till Hugh Bigod, fteward of the houfehold, made oath that the late king, upon his death- bed, had declared an intention of difinheriting his daughter Matilda, and leaving the crown to Stephen, although feve- ral of the nobility had been witnefles to a dire&tly contrary declaration. Such was the remiflnefs of the age, or the lax ideas of hereditary fucceflion, that Stephen was folemnly crowned, and allowed to enter upon the exercife of the regal funétions, though very few of the barons attended at his coronation. He made many conceflions, promifed to abolifh certain exa€tions and arbitrary meafures of the reigns fince the Conqueft, and engaged to reftore the populat laws of Edward the Confeffor. The firft oppofer of his government was David, king of Scotland, who, either to fupport the caufe of his niece the emprefs, or to take advantage of the difcontents incident to an ufurpation, entered the north of England with an army, and took pofleffion of Carlifle and Newcaltle. Stephen negociated with him, and made large ceffions as the priceof peace. Robert, earl of Gloucefter, natural fon of Henry II., who was in Normandy when Stephen feized the crown, fearing left he fhould be deprived of his Englith eftates, came over, and took an oath of fealty to the ufurper, but under the condition that he fhould be obliged to keep it no longer than all the engagements made to himfelf fhould be complied with. Mott of the other nobles, in fubmitting, ftipulated for the right of for- tifying their caitles, which at length filled England with ftrong holds for rapine and every kind of diforder. The fuccefs of Stephen was, at firft, equally flattering in Normandy. He was invited over to aflume the fovereignty of that duchy, and in 1137 he accepted the invitation, and formed an alliance with the king of France. The king of Scotland made a fecond incurfion into England, on the pretext of occupying Northumberland, upon which pro- vince his fon Henry had a claim; and his demands being re- jefted, he cruelly laid the country watte with fire and fword. Stephen marched to oppofe him, but was recalled by dif- turbances in the fouth. The northern barons, provoked at the fuccefs of the Scottifh arms, raifed an army, with which they encountered David at Northallerton, and gave him an entire defeat in the battle of the Standard. Stephen, in the mean time, had involved himfelf in a dangerous conteft with the ecclefialtical power. The bifhop of Salifbury, his two nephews, the bifhops of Lincoln and Ely, and his natural fon, the chancellor of England, had ereéted ftrong caftles, which they held in defiance of the regal authority. Ste- phen having called, in 1139, a council of the nobility at Oxford, feized the bifhops of Salifbury and Lincoln, and the chancellor, and in a fhort time made himfelf matter of the other caftles. Thefe violent proceedings caufed the aflembling of a fynod at Weftminfter, by the bifhop of Winchetter, Stephen’s brother, and legate of the holy fee, who felt more for the privileges of his order than the ties of blood. The fynod fent a fummons to Stephen, who dele- gated a nobleman to appear for him, and an open breach was prevented only by the firmnefs of fome barons, who regarded the conduct of the bifhops as feditious and unbe= coming their charaéter. Difcontents were, however, aggra- vated, and Matilda, landing in England with the earl of Gloucefter, was received into Arundel caftle by Adelais, the queen-dowager. Stephen inftantly marched thither, and invefted the place, but Matilda efcaped to Gloucefter, where fhe remained under the prote¢tion of the earl. A number of barons declared for her caufe ; and in the fol- lowing year, 1140, the flames of civil war {pread through- out the kingdom ; and from the cruelty, bloodfhed, devatta- tion, and famine which every where prevailed, this year proved one of the moft calamitous in the Englifh annals. Stephen performed his part with vigour and courage, but being taken prifoner in a battle which was fought under the walls of Lincoln in 1141, his party was broken, and Ma- tilda generally acknowledged as queen. Before, however, fhe was well feated on her throne, her haughty and impolitic conduét excited an infurreétion againft her government. The legate, bifhop of Winchetfter, joined the party of his brother Stephen, who was always popular with the Lon- doners. Matilda was invefted in Winchetter caftle, whence, with the utmoft difficulty, fhe made her efcape ; but her protector and friend, the earl of Gloucefter, was taken prifoner in the flight. Stephen was exchanged for the earl, and the civil wars renewed. The events of the following years were difaftrous to the country, which was plunged into a ftate of continued wretchednefs. The emprefs, after various changes of fortune, retired to Normandy, and Stephen was left at variance with the barons of his own party, whom he had obliged to deliver up their caftles, and withthe papal court, which, offended by his fpirited affer- tion of the rights of the crown, laid all his party under an interdict. The young prince Henry, fon of Matilda and the count of Anjou, now advanced to majority, and difplayed thofe qualities which afterwards rendered his reign in England fo glorious. By various fortunate circumftances, he became a powerful fovereign on the continent, and in 1153 he refolved upon an attempt to enforce his claims upon the Englifh crown. He landed in England with a fmall army, which was foon augmented by the barons in his intereft, and the competitors met at Wallingford. A decifive a€tion was every day expeéted, for nearly a week, when the principal nobles, defirous of putting an end to the miferies of a civil war, propofed an accommodation, and a treaty was fet on foot, the difficulties of which were much alleviated by the death of Euftace, Stephen’s eldeft fon. It was at length agreed that Stephen fhould poflefs the crown during his life, that juttice fhould be adminiftered in his name, even in the provinces which had fubmitted to Henry, and that this lat- ter STE ter prince fhould, on the demife of Stephen, fucceed to the kingdom, and William, Stephen’s fon, to Boulogne, and his patrimonial eftate. After all the barons had fworn to the obfervance of this treaty, and done homage to Henry, as to the heir of the crown, that prince evacuated the king- dom ; and the death of Stephen, which happened in the next year, after a fhort illnefs, prevented all thofe quarrels and jealoufies which were likely to have enfued in fo delicate a fituation. « “«« England,” fays Mr. Hume, “ fuffered great miferies during the reign of this prince : but his perfonal character, allowing for the temerity and injuttice of his ufurpation, ap- pears not liable to any great exception; and he feems to have been well qualified, had he fucceeded by a jult title, to have promoted the happinefs and profperity of his {ubjects. He was poffeffed of induftry, aétivity, and courage, to a great degree: though not endowed with a found judgment, he was not deficient in abilities ; he had the talent of gaining men’s affections ; and notwithftanding his precarious fitua- tion, he never indulged himfelf in the exercife of any cruelty and revenge. His advancement to the throne procured him neither tranquillity nor happinefs; and though the fituation of England prevented the neighbouring {tates from taking any durable advantage of her confufion, her inteltine diforders were to the laft degree ruinous and deftructive. The court of Rome was alfo permitted, during thofe civil wars, to make farther advances in her ufurpations ; and ap- peals to the pope, which had always been ftri@tly prohibited ’ by the Englith laws, became now common in every eccle- fiaftical controverfy.”” Hume. Henry. Srepuen I., king of Hungary, called Saint Stephen, fucceeded to the throne in 997, on the death of his father Geyfa. He was then very young, but had been declared king by the States in the preceding year, which title he is faid to have been the firft who bore in Hungary. He is celebrated for his piety, which he difplayed by his great zeal in the converfion of his heathen fubje@ts. The nobles, adhering itrongly to their ancient religion, raifed a rebellion again{t him, headed by the duke of Cupa : their leader was flain, and themfelves completely routed. The body of Cupa was divided into four parts, and expofed in four of the principal cities of Hungary. After this great victory, he eftablifhed ten bifhoprics, richly endowed, and built many churches ; and was fo devout, as to ereét a church at Con- ftantinople, another at Rome, and a monaitery at Jerufa- lem. In the year 1002, Giula, prince of Tranfylvania, Stephen’s uncle, making an irruption into the adjacent pro- vinces, Stephen marched againft him, and in a few months made himfelf mafter of Tranfylvania, which he annexed to the crown. He afterwards repelled an invafion of the Bul- garians, purfued them to their own country, and obtaining a fignal vi€tory, returned Jaden with booty. Befides the glory derived from his fuccefs in war, he had that of being the legiflator of his country. He publifhed a code com- prifed in fifty-five chapters, which, though marked with the barbarifm and ignorance of the times, was very long popu- - lar among the Hungarians. Towards the end of his reign, it was his intention to refign his crown to his fon, in or- der that he might pafs the remainder of his days in a reli- ious retreat, but the premature death of the prince difcon- certed this defign. He died at Buda in 1034, and was ca- nonized by the church of Rome. His memory is held in profound reverence by the Hungarians, who have preferved the crown fent to him by the pope as the palladium of their kingdom. Srepuen, Joun, in the Latin tongue Stephanius, a learned Dane, was born at Copenhagen in 1599. He S TE ftudied at the {chool of Herlufsholm, and after having twice travelled into foreign countries, was made profeflor of eloquence at Soroe, in 1630. In 1639 he became profeffor of hiltory in the fame feminary, and was afterwards ap- pointed to be hiftoriographer by Chriltian IV. He died in £850: Amang his works are enumerated the following : « Breves Emendationes et Note in Saxonem Grammaticum,’? 1627. “ Florilegium Sententiarum ex Saxone,’? 1627. «“ De regno Danie et Norvegiz, Infulis adjacentibus Tractatus vari,” 1629. * Suenonis Aggonis Filii Opuf- cula, | Notis illuftrata, accedunt Leges Caftrenfes Canuti magni, et incerti Auctoris Genealogia Regum Danizx,’’ 1642. *€ Hittorie Danice Libri duo, qui compleétuntur res memoratu dignas, in Dania geftas, Regnante Chrif- tiano III., ab Anno 1550, ad Annum 1559.” STEPHENS, in Geography, ariver of Vermont, which runs into the Conneéticut, SrePHENS, Cape, a point of the American continent, op- pofite to Stuart’s ifland, fituated in N. lat. 63° 33', and E. long. 197° 41/. StrpHeNs’s Paffage, a {trait between Admiralty Ifland, and the continent of America; the fouth entrance is between Point Hugh and Point Windham, from whence it extends about 70 miles north, a little inclining to the welt. N. lat. 57° 29’. E. long. 226° 35!, STEPHENS’s J/land, anifland in the North Pacific ocean, about 24 miles in circumference, fituated to the north of Pitt’s Archipelago. N. lat. 54° 11’. E. long. 229° 3o!. SrepHens’s [fland, a {mall ifland in the N.W. part of Cook’s Straits, in New Zealand. N. lat. 40° 36. W. long. 185° 6'. STEPHENS’s [/lands, two {mall iflands in the Eaftern In- dian fea, difcovered by captain Carteret in 1767. They had a green pleafant appearance, and were well covered with trees; but whether they were inhabited he did not know. They run about N.W. by W., and S.E. by E.; one is about three miles long, and the other about fix. The paf- fage between them appeared to be about two miles broad. S. lat. 0° 22!. E. long. 138° 39’, Hawkefworth’s Voyages, vol. ii. p, 387. STEPHENS, Point, a low rocky point on the coaft of New Holland, New South Wales, on the N. fide of which is an inlet, called «« Port Stephens,”’ fheltered from all winds, lying in S. lat. 32° go’. W. long. 207° 51’. At the en- trance are three {mall iflands, two of which are high; and on the main, near the fhore, are fome high round hills, which at a diftance appear like iflands. StrepHens’s Medicine for the Stone. Mrs. Stephens having fold medicines for the {tone in the bladder, or kidnies, Dr. Hartley publifhed feveral cafes of their fuccefs; and fo much was faid of them, that the parliament appointed truftees to examine into the truth of what was alleged in their favours. The report of thefe truftees being favourable, fhe had soco/. fterling ordered her, in 1739, for publifhing the receipt. Her medicines are a powder, a decoétion, and pills. The powder is fix parts of fine powder of hen-egg fhells, calcined till they become of a greyifh-white colour, and of an acrid falt tafte, then left two months in an open veflel, till what is fufficiently calcined falls into a fine powder, to be fepa- rated from the groffer parts by pafling it through a hair. fieve. To this egg-fhell lime add one-fixth part of the powder of fnails, with their fhells burnt in a crucible, till they have done {moking, A drachm of this powder is to be taken thrice a day, in a large tea-cupful of white wine, cider, or {mall punch, and half a pint of the deco@tion is to be drank after each dofe. If the patient feels pain, it ‘ is —————— CSO STE is to be made milder by opiates ; if he is coftive, gentle laxatives are to be taken, and purging is to be reftrained : if the powder is too ftrong in the above proportion of fix parts of the powder of egg-fhells to one of {nail-powder, it is to be weakened by increafing the proportion of the {nail-powder. To make the decotion, fhe prepared balls compofed of four ounces and a half of the beft Alicant foap, a large fpoonful of the powder of {wine’s-crefles, burnt to black- nefs, and as much honey as was neceflary. She boiled one of thefe balls fliced with cut green chamomile, or chamomile- flowers, {weet fennel, parfley, and burdock-leaves, of each One ounce, in two quarts of water, half an hour, then {trained it off, and fweetened it with honey. When thefe herbs are not to be had green, fhe takes the fame quantity of their roots, cut and fliced. Thofe whofe ftomachs cannot bear this decoétion, may take one-fixth part of the ball formed into pills, with every dofe of the powder. The pills are made by taking equal quantities, by mea- fure, of {nails calcined as before, of wild carrot-feeds, bur- dock-feeds, afhen-keys, hips and haws, all burnt to black- nefs, and reduced to a fine powder: with a large {poonful of this powder, four ounces of foap, and as much honey as is neceflary, bring them to the confiftence of pills, of which fixty are to be formed out of every ounce of the compo- fition. In fits of the gravel, five of thefe pills are taken every hour awake, till the complaints are removed. During the ufe of thefe medicines, the patient ought to abftain from falt meats, red wines, and milk, drink few liquors, and ufe little exercife. Dr. Hartley, leaving out the fuperfluous part of Mrs. Stephens’s prefcription, reduces her receipt to a more fimple form; for an account of which, fee Lrruontrip- TICs. Dr. Hales, after feveral trials on the different ingredients, found that the diffolving power of them lay in the lime, which Dr. Rutty confirmed; and Dr. Jurin having taken foap-lees, the ingredients of which are pot-afhes and lime, beginning with a few drops, and increafing the quantity till he took an ounce, or an ounce and a half every day, ina proper vehicle, was cured of bloody urine, pain, &c. and pafled feveral {mall ftones ; after which he had no uneafinefs. Med. Eff. Edinb. vol. vi. p. 157. 489. For other forms of adminiftering foap and lime, and re- marks on Mrs, Stephens’s medicine, fee LirHonTRIPTICs. See alfo Limr- Water. STEPHENTOWN, in Geography, a townfhip of Ame- rica, in the ftate of New York, fituated in the fouth-eaft corner of Renffelaer county; 24 miles S.E. from Troy ; bounded N. by Berlin, E. by the ttate of Maflachufetts, S. by Canaan in the county of Columbia, and W. by Naf- fau. This townfhip is hilly, and has a diverfity of foil. Its hills in fome parts rife to mountains. The central part, between the ridges of the mountains, principally on the eaft and weft, is occupied by an extenfive valley, in which rifes a fine branch of Lebanon creek, or by hills of a moderate height, and is arable and productive. In the weft part, called the Green woods, there are extenfive forefts of pine, and the foil is of little value. The vale of Stephentown opens northward from that of New Lebanon, in Canaan, and is a very pleafant tract of light fchiftic gravel. This townfhip affords limeftone, and excellent flate for the roofing of houfes. The whole population, in 1810, confilled of 2567 perfons, with 257 feral eleGors. STEPNAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government of Upha; 24 miles W. of Troitzk. STEPNEY, Georce, in Biography, an Englifh poet, STE and political negociator, was defcended from the Stepneys of Prendefgraft, in the county of Pembroke, and was born at Weltminiter in 1663. He received the early part of his education at Weftminiter {chool, whence he was removed, in 1682, to Trinity college, Cambridge. He made him- felf known as an academic poet by a Latin ode on the mar- riage of the princefs Anne to George, prince of Denmark, printed with the other Cambridge verfes on that occafion. Thefe were followed by a fhort copy of Englifh verfes on the acceffion of James II. The friendfhip which he had contraéted at fchool with Charles Montague, afterwards earl of Halifax, engaged him with the Whig party after the revolution, and brought him into public employments, in which he chiefly fpent his life. He was fent envoy to the eletor of Brandenburg, in 1692; to the imperial court, in 1693 ; to the elector of Saxony, in 1694; to the king of Poland, in 1699; again to the emperor, in 1701; and to the States-general, in 1706. As a reward for his fervices, he was made one of the commiffioners of trade in 1697. He died at Chelfea in 1707, and his remains were honour- ably interred in Welftminfter-Abbey, where a monument was ereCted to his memory. The poems of this author were compofed at an early age. We publifhed fome political tracts, three of which are printed in lord Somers’s Col- leGtion. Srepney, or Stebunhethe, in Geography, a large and po- pulous parifh in the hundred of Offuliton, and county of Middlefex, England, may be regarded as a fuburb of Lon- don, as it is connected with the eaftern fide of that metro- polis. This parifh now comprifes the hamlets of Mile- End, Ratcliffe, and Poplar and Blackwall; the whole of which contained in 1811, 6146 houfes and 35,399 in- habitants. The origin of the name of Stepney is very doubtful, but is fuppofed to have been derived from the Saxon dceb-hycthe, a timber-wharf ; or from Stiben, a corruption of Stephen. It is bounded by the parifhes of Bromley, Stratford- Bow, Hackney, Bethnal-Green, Spitalfields, St. George in the Eatt, and Shadwell; all of which, about a century fince, were parts of the parifh of Stepney. In the year 1794 it contained, as Mr. Lyfons remarks, “ about 1530 acres of land, (exclufive of the {cite of buildings,) of which about 80 were then arable, about 50 occupied by market gardeners, and the remainder meadow, pafture, and marfhy land.’ But fince that year, the increafe of buildings has produced a confiderable diminution in the ground appropriated to agricultural and horticultural purpofes. In 1299, Edward J. held a parliament here, in the houfe of Henry Walleis, lord mayor of London, and gave his confirmation to the great charter. The manor of this place was formerly poffefled by the bifhops of London; and Roger Niger is thought to have died at the manorial re- fidence in 1241. It pafled, however, from that fee to king Edward VI. by gift from the ill-fated Ridley ; and after having been granted to lord Wentworth, defcended through him to Thomas, earl of Cleveland; by whofe influence with the king it was endowed with a court of record, a weekly market at Ratcliffe-Crofs, and an annual fair on Michaelmas day. Stepney manor is now vefted in the family of Cole- brook. Exclufive of this the principal manor, the Domef- day Survey ftates that the parifh of Stepney contained feyeral {maller ones: all thefe were held, with the exception of two, of the bifhop of London, and were entitled Stepney- Hufkarls, Pomfret, Lord Wake’s, Helles, Poplar, Cobham, Mile-End, Ewell, and Rumbalds. In 1567, a water-courfe, which had formerly belonged to the convent of Friars- Minors, was granted to William, marquis of eae wi STE with liberty to condué its ftreams to his manfion-houfe in London. Almoft oppofite the prefent reétory-houfe, Henry, firft marquis of Worcetter, poflefled a large manfion in 1663, of which the gateway only remains. It afterwards devolved to the family of Mead; and in this dwelling Dr. Richard Mead was born, and firft commenced the practice of his profeffion. The church, dedicated to St. Dunftan and All- Saints, is large, and confifts of a chancel, nave, and two aifles, feparated by columns and pointed arches. At the weft end is a fquare tower. Tombs of feveral illu{trious charaéters are to be found in this place, efpecially thofe of fir Henry Colet, lord mayor in 1486 and 1495, the father of Dr. John Colet, who founded St. Paul’s fchool; fir John Berry, a diftinguifhed officer in the reign of Charles II., by whom he was knighted ; Jane Nevill, lady Dethick ; and fir Thomas Spert, comptroller of the navy to Henry VIII., and founder of the Trinity-houfe. The font ftands on a circular pillar, furrounded by four others of a {maller fize. On the fouth fide of the church are fculptures of the cruci- fixion, and ofa figure in the pofture of adoration before the Virgin and the infant Saviour. The wall of a porch to- wards the north-eaft contains a ftone, on which fome verfes, dated 1663, flate to have been brought from Carthage. The church-yard contains, with many other celebrated names, thofe of Dr. Richard Mead, and his father. A fhort diftance to the weft of this edifice is an ancient wooden manfion, built, it is fuppofed, in 1524, by fir Henry Colet, and leafed to Thomas, earl of Lite. It is now confi- derably altered, divided into feveral {mall tenements, and its name changed from the Great Place to Spring Garden coffee-houfe. Another of thefe reli&ts of antiquity ftands on Mile-Ead Green, and is now let in feparate apartments. This latter, with fome other contiguous habitations, are held under Clare-hall, Cambridge. The brick wall, which inclofed the {cite of the ancient re€tory, {till remains. John Colet, before mentioned, who was vicar of Stepney, lived at the north end of White-Horfe-{treet, Ratcliffe. Some time after his refignation, it was received by Dr. Pace, who died here in 1532, and was buried in Stepney church. This parith likewife contains feveral diffenting and Metho- dift meeting-houfes: thefe are Sion-chapel, a chapel be- longing to the fociety of Friends in Brook ftreet, Ratcliffe, one of Mr. Whitfield’s at Mile-End, that formerly oc- eupied by Mr. Brewer, and fome others of recent ere¢tion. Poplar hamlet, including Blackwall, is on the fouth-eait fide of Stepney, and is about feven miles in circumference. The reverfion of this manor was granted by William of Wykeham, bifhop of Winchefter, to the abbey of St. Mary de Graces, near the Tower of London. At the dif- folution of religious houfes, it remained for fome time vetted in the crown, and afterwards was given to Charles I., when prince of Wales; and, fince that period, has been poffefled by different perfons. The manor-houfe was formerly oc- cupied by the family of Dethick. The chapel is a brick building, with a wooden turret at the weft end; com menced in 1650, and finifhed in 1654, bya fubfcription, to which the Eatt India company mott liberally contributed ; and by them, in 1776, it was nearly erate The right of prefentation, after feveral difputes, remains vefted in them, on the condition of their keeping it in future repair. Its interior is divided into a nave, chancel, and two aifles: the windows contain efcutcheons of fome of the contri- butors, among which are thofe of Dethick. Within it are monuments tu the memory of Robert Ainfworth, the lexi- cographer; and the Shakfpearean commentator, George Steevens, to whom one is erected after a defign by Flax- Vor. XXXIV. STE man. Attached to this building are feveral alms-houfes, for the fupport of decayed officers belonging to the Eaft India company ; and in various parts of the hamlet are other in- ftitutions of a like nature. In 1769, an ancient town-hall belonging to Poplar was taken down, and the prefent built in the following year. Sir Richard Steele made his refidence here for fome time, and, in a vain purfuit after alchemical treafures, confider- ably decreafed his fortune. Adjoining to Poplar is Stepney Marth, a tra& of land lying between the former place and Blackwall. It appears, from an inquifition in the time of Edward II., that a confiderable portion of land had been recovered from the river by a former lord of the manor, and had been by him granted to his vaffals and re- tainers. This marsh is peculiarly celebrated for the richnefs of its pafture, and once contained an ancient building, called the chapel of St. Mary. The hamlet of Ratcliffe lies in the weftern divifion of the parifh. It is about two miles and a half in circumference ; and in 1794 contained nearly 1150 houfes, of which 456, with 36 warehoules, in the month of July in the fame year, were deftroyed by an alarming conflagration, The charity- f{chool of Ratcliffe was inftituted in 1710, and the {chool- houfe in White-Horfe-ftreet built by fub{cription in 1719, to which great additional benefa¢tions have fince been made. There are fituated in this hamlet the church, the Friends’ meeting, the mercers’ alms-houfes, a cemetery belonging to the Proteftant diffenters, with dwellings for feven poor per- fons, and a {chool inftituted by them in 1783, and the {chool- houfe builtin 1785. The fire already mentioned left in ruins fome buildings belonging to a dock, feveral manufaétories, and a free-{chool, founded by Nicholas Gibfon, fheriff of London. Mile-End, Old town, occupies the greater part of the northern divifion of the parifh ; its extent is about five miles, and in 1794 it contained about 1300 houfes. In the time of Henry VI. the mutinous people of Effex, under the di- rection of Jack Cade, encamped at Mile-End, In this hamlet is Brewer’s meeting-houfe, (now Ford’s,) and a Methodift chapel. On the north fide of the road are two Judaic cemeteries, entitled « The houfe of the living,’’ where the dead are interred in rows, divided into certain {paces ; and no grave is ever opened a fecond time, There is alfo an hofpital built in 1793, and an adjoining alms-houfe near the fame {pot. Several other charitable ere&tions, belonging to public bodies, are alfo fituated on this road, viz. the Trinity alms-houfes, founded by that corporation in 1695; Ban- croft’s hofpital, founded in 1727; the fkinners? alms-houfes, built in 1698; the vintners’; and three others, for the benefit of the whole parifh colle@tively.. A lazar-houfe ex- ifted here in the 16th century. Lands in the manors of Stepney, Poplar, and Bromley, defcend by the cuitom of gavel-kind. Lyfons’ Environs of London, vol. ili. gto. 1794. STEPPE, a name given in Ruffia to its plains and flate, which are very extenfive, and interfperfed among its moun- tainous traéts. Some of the chief of thefe are the following ; viz. the fteppe of Petfhora, bounded on the north by the Frozen ocean and the White fea, to the weft by the Dwina, to the eaft by the Petfhora, and to the fouth by the Floetz mountains, which extend from the Uralian chain weftward acrofs the government of Vologda. It therefore properly lies between and on both fides of thefe rivers, The ground is for the moft part fandy, very marfhy, thick ftrewn with forefts, and almoft entirely uninhabited ; the diftri&s about Archangel, Mefen, &c. excepted. The trees, in the Xx fouthern STE fouthern part, confift chiefly of the pinus fylvettris, firs, and birch ; and on the elevation beautiful larches. On this level are feveral lakes and rivers. The fteppe of the Dnieper comprehends a large plain, which lies in the government of Ekaterinoflaf, between the Dnieper and the Bogue; the Crimean fteppe on the left fide of the Dnieper, and the whole {pace which extends over the Donetz, as far as the Don, and the fea of Azof, and the Euxine. This extenfive plain, comprehending the greateft part of the governments of Ekaterinoflaf, Taurida, and a part of Voronetch, Korkhof, and Kief, is in general of a very dry and fandy quality, and contains many falt-lakes and falt-plots, but is little inhabited. The fteppe of the Don and Volga comprifes the whole [pace between the Don, the Volga, and the Kuban, and is a large, very arid fteppe, altogether deftitute of wood and water ; it has few inhabitants, and contains feveral falt-lakes and falt-plots. It fpreads through the greater part of the government of Caucafus, and into thofe of Ekaterinoflaf and Saratof, where, in its fandy and calcareous floetz moun- tains, it contains coals, fulphur-pyrites, and warm baths. Within the confines of this fteppe lies what is called the Kuman fteppe, comprehending the whole {pace from this fteppe to the {pot where the Kuma flows out of the moun- tains, and reaches fouthward to the banks of the Terek and the Cafpian fea, northward to the other fide of the Sarpa, and eaftward as far as the Volga. In this fteppe lie the falt-lakes of Altrakhan, fome bitter lakes, warm fprings, &c. This fteppe, it is faid, has all the appearance of a dried-up fea: it isa fandy, part clayey and falt plain, with- out trees. Many circumttances render it probable that it might really have been fea-bottom, as the flat fhores of the Cafpian and Azof feas, and the fhallownefs of their coatts, the low fituation of the fteppe, the faline lakes, and the fea-fhells, &c. The fteppe of the Volga and Ural is extenfive, and com- prehends, between the rivers Volga and Ural, that whole flat country which formerly bore the name of the Kalmyk tteppe, and between the Ural and the Yemba, a part of the Kirghiftzi fteppe lying within the Ruffian borders. The above-mentioned iteppe is called the Kalmyk {teppe, be- caufe it was left in poffeffion of a horde of that nation, by whom it was inhabited till the time of their flight in 1771. It confifts of a far-ttretching ridge of fand-mountains, called Narym, and is faid to be between 50 and 150 verfts in breadth, extending from the Ural mountains, through the middle of the fteppe, quite to the Cafpian fea. The foil confifts of fand, marle, and clay, often mixed with fea-fhells, which indicate this to have been, hke the Kuman fteppe already mentioned, the bottom of the fea. But to return to the fteppe of the Volga and Ural. This to the fouth makes the margin of the Cafpian fea, and to the north it fkirts the floetz mountains that run out from the Ural chain. This plain, for the mot part fandy, is very deficient in frefh water and wood; but is fo much the richer in rock-falt, and falt-lakes that are very productive. It contains many diftri@s well adapted to the purpofes of agriculture and the breeding of cattle ; but is very poorly inhabited. One part of it lies in the Caucafian, and the other in the Ufimfkian government. The fteppe of the Irtyfh denotes that large plain which extends between the Tobol and the Irtyfh, and between the latter and the Alay and Oby, as far as the influx of the Irtyfh into the Oby, including an enormous territory. It abounds with lakes of feveral kinds of falts, among numerous forefts of pines, firs, and birch, and is in moft places well {uited to pafturage and agriculture ; but, in proportion to 9 STE its extent, very thinly peopled. Between the Irtyfh and the Oby, this plain inclofes all that fine well-watered level called the Barabinian tteppe, on which are feen many con- fiderable lakes; extending in length from north to fouth above 600 ver{ts, and in breadth 400 from welt to ealt. Its plain has generally a good black foil, enlivened on its furface by many pleafant foretts of birch: hence it has been concluded, that the Baraba muft have been one general bed of waters, and far more morafly and abounding with lakes than it is at prefent. Another part of the large plain con- ftituting the fteppe of the Irtyfh, between, the Ifchim and the Irtyfh, is called the If{chim fteppe, and is found to abound in bitter lakes, but in other refpeéts refembling the Barabinian ‘fteppe, in both which many ancient tombs oc- cur. The greateft part of the whole fteppe of the Irtyth lies inthe government of Tobolfk, but the other part in that of Kolhyvan. The fteppe of the Oby and Yenifley includes the whole of that large traét beyond the Tfhulim, (which falls into the Oby,) between the Oby and the Yenifley, and extends to the fhores of the Frozen ocean. The belt forefts are found towards the fouth; on the northernmoft margin of the Frozen ocean the wood is low and {tunted. ‘Lhe whole of this fteppe lies in the government of Tobolfk. The fteppe of the Yeniffey and Lena is a large tract of defert, bounded by the Yenifley, the Tungufka, and the Lena; reaching northward, hke the former, to the Froden ocean, and refembling it in nature and quality. One part lies in the government of Tobolfk, and the reft in that of Irkutfk. The fteppe of the Lena and Indighirka is a vaft extended plain along the fhores of the Frozen ocean, between the Lena and the Kovyma, to the two fides of the Indighirka, and is wholly in the government of Irkutfk. Tooke’s Ruff. Emp. vol, i. STERA, in Anatomy, a word ufed by fome of the bar- barous writers to exprefs the uterus. It feems to have been only a corruption of the word Ayflera. STERANG, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the province of Aggerhuus; 16 miles N.N.W. of Chriftiania. STERBECKIA, in Botany, named in honour of Francis van Sterbeeck, author of Theatrum Fungorum, and Citricul- tura, a Flemifh botanilt, who refided at Antwerp about the clofe of the 17th century.—Schreb. 360. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1177. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. (Singana; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.574. Juff. 257. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 460.)— Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Gut- tifere, Jull. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of three or five, roundifh, concave, acute leaves. Cor. Petals three or five, roundifh, notched, unguiculate, longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous, capillary, inferted into the receptacle; anthers roundifh. Pi/. Germen {fuperior, ovate ; ityle long, incurved at the tip; ftigma capitate, concave. Peric. Legume cylindrical, long, corticofe, flefhy, one-celled, not burfting. Seeds numerous, large, angulated, incumbent on each other, imbedded in the pulp.’ Eff. Ch. Calyx of three or five leaves. Petals three or five. Legume corticofe, not burlting. Seeds numerous, imbricated, imbedded in pulp. 1. S. /ateriflora. Willd. n. 1. (Singana guianenfis 5 Aubl. Guian. t. 230.)—Native of woods in Guiana, where it flowers, and bears fruit in September.—This /brub is remarkable for throwing out numerous, knotted, creeping roots or fcyons, which run in a f{cattered manner over other trees, and are much branched. Leaves nearly oppofite, {talked, ovate, acute, fmooth, entire. F/owers corymbofe, {cattered, STE feattered, axillary, white, on fhort ftalks. Legume afh- coloured. STERCORARIANS, or Srercoranist®, formed from flercus, dung, a name which thofe of the Roman church anciently gave to fuch as held that the hoft was liable to igeftion, and all its confequences, like other food. STERCORARIUS Piscis, the dung-f/h, in Ichthyology, the name of an Eaft Indian fith; fo called from its fre- quenting neceflary-houfes which are over the water, and other places where the like naftinefs is to be found. It is, for this reafon, fuppofed unwholefome by fome, but is really a very well-talted fifh, and eaten by mott people where it is to be had. It is a broad and thin fifh, of about fix or feven inches long, and nearly as much in breadth. Its back is variegated with fpots of deep brown ; its belly is blueifh. STERCORARY, in Agriculture, a place properly fe- cured from the weather for containing dung. In colleéting manures from time to time, as they come to hand, farmers generally keep them together in what they call dung-hills, where they remain expofed to the heat of the fun, the wafhing of rain, and the drying winds ; by which means a great deal of their virtue is diffipated and loft. ‘The making of fter- coraries has, therefore, been advifed, which may be done by digging a {quare or oblong pit, of the fize fuited to the quantity of the compoft wanted, or proportioned to the extent_of the ground intended to be manured; the fide next the field or place where taken away being made floping, fo as to receive a cart to load or unload eafily. The bottom fhould be well paved, and both the fides lined with pure clay, (unlefs it be made in a bed of clay or chalk,) that it may be capable of retaining water like a cif- tern ; as it is of great importance for the dung to have a proper degree of moifture. And where channels or gutters can be direéted to the pit, from the {tables and other offices about the houfe, they will be of great fervice. Some think that they fhould be covered, fo as at leaft to hinder rains from falling upon them: but if care be taken to make the pit in a place where no running water or fprings can come to it, and if the farmer covers the dung, as it is colleéted, with a coat of mould, to prevent the fun’s exhaling, or the rains wafhing away its richnefs, the quantity of water which falls in rain may not be more than requifite to moiften the mixture, and bring on that putrid fermentation which is neceflary for the due incorporating and perfecting of the compoft. It will, however, be right to have a fhed to put over it occafionally, in cafe the feafon fhould prove ex- tremely wet. It has been obferved by Columella, that the Romans covered their ftercoraries with hurdles; but he does not fpeak of covering them with mould, in the manner mentioned above. See Comrost, FarM-Yard, and Manvre. STERCULIA, in Botany, fo called from flercus, dung, becaufe of the fetid odour of the flowers of one or two of the fpecies.—Linn. Gen. 504. Schreb. 324. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.872. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. _¥. §- 338. Cavan. Diff. 284. Jufl. 278. Lamarck Di&. v. 7. 428. Illultr. t. 736. (Ivira; Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 694. Culhamia; Forfk. Aigypt. Arab. 96.)—Clafs and order, Monocecia Monadelphia, Linn. Ait. Dodecandria Monogynia, Schreb. Willd. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn. Malvacee, Suti. Sterculiacee, Ventenat. Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, of one large, coloured, rather coriaceous leaf, deciduous ; fomewhat turbinate at the bafe; its limb in five deep, pointed fegments. Cor. none. Organs of impregnation elevated on a cylindrical curved column, various in length, but always much fhorter STE than the calyx. Stam. Filaments fcarcely any ; anthers from ten to fifteen, cluftered, inferted into the notched margin of the top of the column, roundifh, of two diftin& lobes. Pi/ff. Germen feffile above the anthers, roundith, of five lobes; ftyle vertical, deflexed, cylindrical, not half the length of the column; ftigma obtufe, notched. Peric. Follicles five, {preading, ovate, oblong, large, coriaceous, or woody, buriting along the upper fide. Seeds {everal, oval, attached to each margin of the follicle. Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Germen and anthers elevated on a column. with many feeds. Obf. Many of the flowers, on the fame or a different plant, have no piftil. In thofe with a piftil, the anthers are fometimes, but not always, imperfe&. Several of the fol- licles in each flower, as well as many feeds in each follicle, are liable to prove abortive, at leaft in gardens. The margin of the column is fcarcely difcernible in fome fpecies, nor is it, in any, confpicuous enough to be taken for the filament of the ftamens. We would therefore rather concur with Schreber and Willdenow in the claffification of this genus. The flyle is fometimes divided down to the bafe into five parts. 1. S. Janceolata. Lanceolate Chinefe Sterculia. Cavan. Diff. n. 416. t. 142. f.1. Willd. n.1. Lamarck n. 2.— ‘* Leaves lanceolate. Follicles oblong.””—Native of China. A very uncertain fpecies, adopted by Cavanilles from a Chi- nefe drawing, in which the /eaves were reprefented about one inch and a half long, and half an inch broad; the follicles about the fame length, narrow, crimfon, with three or four black feeds ineach. If fuch be the natural fize of the parts, the plant is different from any other known Sterculia. A fimilar reprefentation, however, of various dimenfions, 13 common on Chinefe papers, and we fufpec it may, in every inftance, be meant for a f{pecies hereafter defcribed by the name of nobilis. 2. S. Balanghas. Balangas Sterculia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1430. Willd. n. 2? (S. foliis ovalibus integerrimis alter- nis petiolatis, floribus paniculatis; Linn. Zeyl. 166. Cy- donia arbor, Balanghas dita; Burm. Zeyl. 84. Nux juglans zeylanica minor bifida, flore puniceo; ibid. 170. Nawaghas; Herm. Zeyl. 23. Telabo; Syen in Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 1. go, note ?)—Leaves exatly elliptical, with a {mall point ; very flightly downy beneath. Panicles much fhorter than the leaves. Calyx hairy on both fides; denfely fringed at the margin.—Native of Ceylon. The Jflem is arboreous, with round, {mooth, pale branches, leafy at the end. Leaves alternate, ftalked, five or fix inches long, and two and a half or three broad, very exaétly oval, rather coriaceous, entire, as in the whole genus, tipped with a {mall bluntifh point, fearcely half an inch in length ; fur- nifhed with one longitudinal, and many tranfverfe, ribs, all pale and {mooth, conneéted by innumerable minute reticu- lations; their upper furface bright green, fhining, and {mooth ; under very little paler, foftifh to the touch, from {carcely difcernible ftarry down. Foot/talks {mooth, an inch or more in length, with a fort of joint at the fummit. Panicles axillary, about the ends of the branches, many- flowered, twice as long as the footftalks; their branches alternate, thread-fhaped, green, hairy. Flowers folitary at the end of each partial ftalk, fmall, faid to be very fetid. Bafe of the calyx cup-fhaped, {mooth within; feg- ments of its limb converging, and conneéted by their points, hairy on both fides, and particularly hifpid at the edges, refembling, in the dried {pecimen, purple velvet or pluth, A fpecimen of this, communicated by Thunberg to Lin- neus, and marked Sterculia Balanghas, {eems to be aD ee the Corolla none. Follicles five, STERCULIA. the real plant defcribed with ‘ oval leaves”? in the Flora Zeylanica, from Hermann’s herbarium. But in writing the Species Plantarum, Linneus ufes the term “ ovate,” from a view probably of the figures, which he confidered as belong- ing to this {pecies, not having then a fpecimen before him. What thofe figures reprefent, we ‘hall endeavour to afcer- tain hereafter. We have been the more precife in de- {cribing what we take for the genuine Balanghas, becaufe no recent author feems acquainted with this plant ; though its name, in every body’s mouth, is mifapplied to feveral very di{tinét from it and from each other. 3. S. rubiginofa. Rufty Sterculia. Venten. Malmaif. fub fol. gt. Lamarck n. 4. (S. Balanghas; Willd. n. 2? Cavan. Diff. n. 415. t. 144, bad. Cavalam; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 1. 89. t. 49. Nux malabarica fulcata mucila- ginofa fabacea; Pluk. Almag. 266.)—Leaves elliptic- oblong, taper-pointed, pliant; downy and rufty beneath. Panicles much longer than the leaves. Calyx hairy on both fides, fringed at the margin.—Native of Malabar, Chittagong, Java, and perhaps of Africa, near Sierra Leone. A tall tree, with copious {preading branches. Rheede. The young branches, clothed with rufty down, are leafy and copioufly flowery at their extremities. eaves from three to fix inches long, (on downy rufty fa/és about an inch in length, ) pliant, not rigid or coriaceous ; rounded at the bafe, though gradnally contraéted towards that part; dilated upwards to the breadth of one and a half or two inches; then taper- ing into a point; entire, though fomewhat wavy, at the margin; furnifhed with one longitudinal rib and many tran{- verfe ones, connected by reticulations ; the upper fide green, fhining, nearly or quite fmooth; under paler, opaque, {oft with rufty ftarry down, which is very copious on the ribs and veins. Panicles numerous, axillary, nearly twice as long as the leaves, alternately and repeatedly branched, {preading, with flender, downy rufty ftalks, and fcattered, lanceolate, downy, deciduous braéeas. ‘Tube of the calyx Short, fhallow, nearly hemifpherical, very hairy externally, roughifh within ; limb thrice as long, convergiug as in the lait, moit hairy at the edges, well compared by Rheede to zed velvet, which holds good even of the dried flowers, though the colour is browner, or more faded, than in our S. Balanghas. Follicles relembling thofe of a Peony, two inches and a half long, coriaceous, pointed; finely downy and rulty at the outfide ; {mooth, reddifh, and wrinkled, internally. Such is the plant fent by Dr. Buchanan from Chittagong, exaétly agreeing with Commerfon’s Java fpe- cimen, in fruit, and not lefs accurately with the plant of Rheede; whofe figure, we muft obferve, is copied, or rather perverted, by Cavanilles. What was raifed from Sierra Leone feeds, in lady Amelia Hume’s ftove, appears by the /eaves to be our rubiginofa, though their pubefcence is lefs copious and lefs rufty than in dried fpecimens. Their texture 1s pliant, not coriaceous. This may however be a diftin& fpecies. The /eeds of the prefent, as well as the foregoing, are much eaten, like our chefnuts, in India. They feem, by Plukenet’s fynonym, to be the real Malabar Nut ; a name which, by fome accident, has been vulgarly applied to Jufficia Adhatoda. Perhaps a fimilarity between the leaves of the two plants, raifed from feed, may have Jed gardeners into this error. - S. urceolata. Pitcher-flowered Sterculia, or Wild Chocolate. (Clompanus minor; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 169. t. 107.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute, pliant ; pale and finely downy beneath. Panicles clofe, hardly longer than the footftalks. Calyx pitcher-fhaped, hairy all over.— Sent, in 1797, by Mr. Chriftopher Smith, from the ifland of Honimoa, near Amboyna, where it is called Wild aX Chocolate ; but whether from the refemblance of its feeds to thofe of real chocolate in fhape, or from their being roatted and ufed as fuch, we know not. We conceive Rumphius’s fynonym, hitherto mifapplied to the Balanghas, muft belong to this fpecies. Our fpecimens are diltin- guilhed by the longer proportion of their foot/falks, which fometimes meafure more than two inches. The aves, though fhaped like the lalt, are pale at the back, heing very minutely downy with whitifh, not rufty, ftarry hairs. The flowers are much fewer in each panicle, and more crowded, the hairs of the fla/ks, calyx, and efpecially the margin of the latter, being hoary or white, not red or rutty. Braéieas ovato-lanceolate, with long points. Tube of the calya: pitcher-fhaped, contracted at the mouth, and nearly as long as the limb. We have feen no fruit. Rumphius defcribes his plant with whitifh flowers, whofe {cent is oppreflive, but not lalting ; the fruit of a fine crimfon, 4. S. nobilis. Great Chinefe Sterculia. (S. Balanghas ; Ait. p. 1. S. monofperma; Venten. Malmaif. t. gr. Lamarck n. 3. Southwellia nobilis; Salif. Parad. t. 69, excluding all the fynonyms, except Ventenat.)—Leaves elliptical, obtufe, with a {mall point, coriaceous, very ° fmooth and fhining on both fides. Panicles fpreading, longer than the leaves. Calyx fomewhat hairy.—Suppofed to be a native of China, from whence it was imported in 1787, by lady Amelia Hume, and flowered in her ftove.for the firft time in England, in the {pring of 1789. By her ladyfhip’s liberality it was quickly difperfed amone the collections of this country, and found its way into France, being eafily raifed from feeds, which are ripened in the itove or confervatory. The fem is arboreous, of quick growth, round, with many {mooth branches. Leaves from four or five inches to a foot, or more, in length, three or four inches in breadth, when full grown very fmooth, and copioufly reticulated, of a rigid or coriaceous texture. Footflalks fmooth, ftout, above an inch long. Panicles drooping, very large, and copious, repeatedly {ubdivided ; their ftalks pale, flender, downy and rather vifcid, very tender. Flowers drooping, of the fame pale buff hue as their ftalks. Tube of the ca/yx bell-thaped, nearly {mooth; its limb downy, and fparingly hairy, with converging combined points. Anthers yellow. Germen red. Follicles two inches long, crimfon within. Seeds blneifh-black, three or four in each follicle, it having been merely from partial abortion that Ventenat’s plant bore folitary feed. This fruit is fome- times feen deliseated on Chinefe papers, along with others in common ufe. Nothing can afford a more ttriking ap- pearance than this tree in a hot-houfe, whether in April, when covered with flowers, or in the latter part of fummer, when laden with its large black feeds, {tanding on the edges of the red and brown feed-veflels. It is cultivated in the botanic garden at Calcutta, by the name of S. Balanghas. 5. S. longifolia. Long-leaved Sterculia. Venten. Mal- maif. {ub fol. gr. Lamarck n. 13. — ‘ Leaves ovate- oblong, fmooth, fegments of the calyx ereé, internally hairy.”’—Native of Java. La Haye. The branches are faid to be fmooth. Leaves refembling S. rubigino/a in fhape, but perfe€tly fmooth on both fides, pliant, pointed, fix or eight inches long, at leait two broad, with whitifh ribs. Footflalks flender, {mooth, an inch long. Flowers {mall, in a {preading terminal panicle, whofe branches are {mooth and very flender. Calyx bell-fhaped, flightly pubefcent ; its {egments downy and whitifh on the inner fide. Such is Poiret’s defcription, in Lamarck, from a dried fpecimen. 6. S. grandiflora. Large-flowered Sterculia. Venten. Malmaif. {ub tol. gr. Lamarck n. 14.—** Leaves ovate, pointed, {mooth. Segments of the calyx {preading. se umn STERCULIA. lumn very fhort. Styles five, reflexed.””—Native of the Mauritius. Commerfon. Branches round, dark brown, fmooth and polifhed, leafy at the fummit. Leaves fix or eight inches, or more, in length, four at lea{t in breadth, coriaceous, with a long point, {mooth and fhining, ttrongly veined. Foot/lalks thick, two inches log. Panicle large and f{preadiny, fomewhat cymofe, with thick, comprefled, very {mooth branches. Caly:: large, with five, widely f{preading, {mooth, lanceolate, coloured fegments. Germen nearly feflile, f{urmounted with five reflexed /yles or fligmas, which caufea doubt concerning the genus of this {pecies. Poiret. 7. S. acuminata. Pointed Sterculia, or Cola Tree. Palif. de Beauvois, Fl. d’Oware et de Benin, qo. t. 24.” Lamarck no 15. (Cola; Bauh. Pin. 507. Bauh. Hitt. v. 1. 210.) — Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed, coriaceous, {mooth on both fides. Panicles lateral, forked, hardly longer than the footitalks. Segments of the calyx ovate, fpreading. Column very fhort. Native of the coalt of Africa, from whence we have a {pecimen in flower, gathered by Dr. Afzelius. The branches of this tree are round and {mooth, leafy at the ends. Leaves imperfely oppofite, three or four inches long, one and a half or two inches broad, ftrongly veined, firm; rufty, though quite {mooth, beneath Footfalks an inch or inch and half long, fmooth. Panicles lateral, below the leaves, folitary, forked, denfe, of about ten or twelve large flowers, their ttalks, as weil as the outfide of the ca/yx, rough with denfe ttarry hairs, or rather a fort of deciduous mealinefs. Calyx {pread- ing, an inch broad, in five, fometimes fix, broad, ovate, obtufe fegments; fmooth and coloured within. Co/umn f{earcely any. Germen rough, five-lobed. Stigmas five, re- flexed. We do not find the calyx has more than five divi- fions ; Poiret defcribes fix. The follicles are faid to be five, with folitary reddifh feeds. The five /ligmas, or /lyles, agree with the lait. Probably this character, and the nearly feflile germen, to fay nothing of the fpreading calyx, may indicate a generic difference. The /eeds of this fpecies, known by the name of Co/a, have long been celebrated by voyagers, as poflefling a high degree of value among the natives of the Guinea coaft, who are reported to take a portion of one of them to enhance the flavour of any thing they may fubfequently eat or drink. Dr. Afzelius found thefe feeds in high eftimation at Sierra Leone, and was not a little pleafed to procure {pecimens of the plant, though he had no idea of its genus. If we miltake not, he brought it alive to this country, but it has not lately been heard of. 8. S. nitida. Shining Sterculia. WVenten. Malmaif. fub fol. 91. Lamarck n. 17. —“ Leaves lanceolate-oblong, pointed. Segments of the calyx fpreading. Column {earcely any.’?—Native of Africa; cultivated in the ifland of Mauritius. Ventenat fufpeéted the flowers to be die- cious. This may poffibly not be diltinét from the lait fpecies, but we have not fufficient information to form an opinion on the fubjeét. 9: S. crinita. Wairy-fruited Sterculia. Cavan. Diff. Mm. 413. t. 142. Willd. n. 3. Lamarck nv. 5. Ait. n. 2. (S. Ivira; Swartz Ind. Occ. 1160. Ivira pruriens ; Aubl. Guian. 695. t. 279.)—Leaves ovate, acute, entire. Panicles as long as the leaves. Segments of the calyx lan- _ ceolate, pointed, fpreading. Follicles hairy at the bafe ; briftly within. - Native of the woods of Guiana, flowering in O&ober and bearing fruit in May. dudlet. One of the largeft trees of that country, its ¢runk being fifty or fixty feet high, and four or five in diameter. The bark is red- dith, thick. Wood white, not compaé&. Leaves from fix to twelve inches long, firm, flalked; green and {mooth above ; opaque, fomewhat glaucous and roughifh at the back. Panicles about the ends of the branches repeatedly compound, downy, f{preading. Calyx yellow and downy on the outfide, red and fmooth within. Column nearly as long as the calyx. Anthers ten. Follicles three, four, or five, large, almolt woody, clothed at the bafe with a tuft of long reddifh hairs; their cavities filled with fine, rigid, pungent, red briftles, enveloping the black feeds, and cauf- ing au intolerable itching, when incautioufly handled. to. S. frondofa. Wavy-leaved Sterculia. Richard Ad. Soc. Hilt. Nat. Parif. v. x. 111. Lamarck n. 6. — «© Leaves crowded, oblong-obovate, very blunt, fomewhat wavy, f{mooth and fhinng. Panicles axillary, on long italks.”"—Native of Cayenne. Richard. We fufpe& this plant may have been confounded with the lalt, even by Dr. Swartz. A f{pecimen gathered -by M. De Ponthieu, in the Weit Indies, and given us by fir J. Banks, having very large and wavy eaves, anfwers fo far to Richard's defcription. Some of its aves feem moreover to be flightly three-lobed; and as Dr. Swartz cites De Ponthieu, it fhould feem that corre{ponding fpecimens to our’s have been his only authority. Thus Willdenow has been led to alter the {pecific character of S. crinita for the worfe, 11. S. cordifolia. Heart-leaved Sterculia. Cavan. Diff. Nn. 414. t. 143. f. 2. Willd. n. 4. Lamarck n. 7.— “« Leaves roundish heart-fhaped, ob{curely three-lobed, five- ribbed, fmooth. Follicles downy at the outfide, briftly within.””—Brought from Senegal by Adanfon, and pre- ferved in Juffieu’s herbarium. The above charaters fuffi- ciently mark this {pecies. Its /eaves are two or three inches long, and almoit equally broad. Footftalks not an Inch in length. Flowers not obferved. : 12. S. heterophylla. Various-leaved Sterculia. _“ Palif. de Beauvois, FI. d’Oware et de Benin, t. 40.”? Lamarck n. 16.—‘* Leaves undivided or three-lobed, irregularly toothed, on long ftalks. Panicles terminal.””—Native of the inland parts of the kingdom of Oware, Africa. A taller tree than S. acuminata, with large, broad, handfome leaves, either entire, finuated, or ftrongly toothed. Calyse five-cleft. Column fcarcely any. Poiret. 13. S. macrophylla. Large-leaved Sterculia. Venten, Malmaif. fub fol. gr. Lamarck n. 10.— Leaves roundifh- heart-fhaped, fomewhat wavy, rather coriaceous ; downy beneath. Follicles very {mooth within, with two feeds.?? —Native of Java. La Haye. The leaves are about eight inches broad, rounded, or flightly, oval ; heart-fhaped at the bafe; thick and rather -coriaceous ; {mooth and dark- green above; downy, and reddifh or whitifh beneath, with {trong branching lateral ribs; their margin entire, flightly wavy. Footftalks ttriated. Panicles terminal, mo- derately branching. Follicles ttrong, reddifh, wrinkled, obtufe. Flowers not obferved. Poiret. 14. S. colorata. Coral-flowered Sterculia. Roxb. Co- romand. v. 1. 26. t. 25. Willd. n. 5. Lamarck n. 12.— Leaves palmate, five-lobed, pointed ; fomewhat downy be- neath. Calyx downy, club-fhaped, with fhallow upright lobes. Follicles ittalked, membranous, oblong, reticulated, expanded, {mooth.—Native of mountains in the Eaft In- dies, cafting its leaves during the cold feafon, and flower. ing in April, foon after which frefh leaves appear. The Gentoo, or Telinga, name is Karaka. This isa very large tree, with {mooth greyith branches, leafy at the end. Leaves on long {talks, more or lefs deeply five-lobed, heart-fhaped at the bafe, five-ribbed, minutely reticulated; {mooth above 5 very finely downy, efpecially at the bafes of the ribs, be- neath. Panicles appearing before the leaves, about the ends of the branches, from four to fix inches long, com- pound, STE pound, denfe, their ftalks, as well as the calyx, thickly clothed with ftarry pubefcence, of a bright orange-fcarlet. Calyx half an inch long, tubular, ereét, gradually tapering down into the ftalk. Co/umn longer than the calyx, flender. Anthers crowded and confluent. Germen five-lobed, with five fhort recurved fligmas, rather like feparate flyles. Follicles five, pendulous, converging, each on a partial ftalk near an inch in length, their form lanceolate-oblong, obtufe, nearly flat, three inches in length and almoft one in breadth, their texture membranous, with one rib and many reticulated veins, their furface {mooth, fhining, pale purple externally, yellow within. Seeds two, oval, finooth, yellow, the fize of a large pea, attached one to each margin of the follicle an inch above the bafe. 15. S. urens. Stinging Sterculia. Roxb. Coromand. ve I. 25. t. 24. Willd. n. 6. Lamarck ne 11. Ait. n. 3. — Leaves five-lobed, pointed, very downy; deeply heart-fhaped at the bafe. Calyx bell-fhaped. Column conical. Follicles feffile, coriaceous, rough with pungent briltles.—Native of mountainous parts of the coaft of Co- romandel, flowering during the cold feafon, and putting forth leaves, as the fruit advances, in the beginning of the hot weather. This is a very large ¢ree, whofe foft {pongy wood {carcely ferves but to make Hindoo guitars. The dranches are leafy at the ends. Leaves meafuring from nine to twelve inches each way, much lefs deeply lobed than the laft, on long ftalks. Panicles repeatedly compound, fhorter than the leaves, with a linear brown braG@ea under each fubdivifion. Such bradeas however are not, as Willdenow f{uppofes, peculiar to this {pecies, though they are ufually fo deciduous, in many inftances, as to efcape notice. The flowers are {mall, greenifh-yellow. Column fhort and thick. Anthers ten, fupported by a more dilated membrane than in many others of the genus. Svy/e fimple, fhort and thick, with a five-lobed figma. Follicles five, greenifh-brown, an inch and a half long, oval, coriaceous, concave, clothed with copious ftinging briftles, fo as not to be touched with impunity. Seeds four or five, oval, the fize of a pea, roafted and eaten by the Hindoos. 16. S. villofa. Villous Sterculia. Roxb. MSS.—Leaves five-lobed, pointed, toothed, very downy, feven-ribbed ; heart-fhaped at the bafe. Calyx deeply five-cleft, {pread- ing. Column cylindrical. Follicles coriaceous, rough with ftarry hairs. — Native of the coalt of Coromandel. Our {pecimen was given by Dr. Roxburgh to lord vifcount Valentia, with the above name. The /eaves are the fize of the lait, but with coarfely toothed lobes; the under fide hoary, foft and downy. Flowers much larger than thofe of S. urens, with a longer and more flender co/umn, as well as flyle; the latter, like the germen, very hairy. Calyx widely {preading, downy, with deep ovate fegments. Fo/- licles covered with rigid {tarry pubefcence, but no ftinging hairs. 17- S. platanifolia. Plane-leaved Sterculia. Linn. Suppl. 423. Willd. n. 7. Lamarck n.g. Ait. n. 4. Cavan. Diff. n. 417. t. 145. Wahl Symb. v. 1. 80. (Sterculia; Jacq. fil. in A&. Nov. Helvet. v. 1. go. t. 3,4. S. to- mentofa; Thunb. Ic. Pl. Jap. dec. 4. ‘+. Firmiana; Marfil. in A&. Acad. Patav. v. 1. 106. t. 1, 2.?? Cul- hamia; Forfk. i gypt-Arab. 96. Hibifcus fimplex ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 977.)—Leaves palmate, {mooth, five-lobed ; heart-fhaped at the bafe. Segments of the calyx linear, very deep. Follicles ftalked, membranous, ovate, reticu- lated, concave, roughifh. — Native of China and Japan, from whence it has been difperfec over many parts of the Eaft Indies, and introduced into the gardens of Europe. At Padua it ripens feeds in the open air.. In England STE it isa hardy greenhoufe plant, flowering in July. The éree in its native foil is faid to attain a valt fize. The Laves are broader than long, meafuring from ten to eighteen inches acrofs, on long fmooth {talks ; with acute entire lobes, and” rounded finufes; {mooth above; rather paler, and fome- times {paringly downy, beneath; their ribs and veins ftrong, with axillary, tubular, hairy pores. Panicles terminal, a foot long, much branched, fpreading, downy. Calyw pale yellow, hairy externally ; its fegments reflexed and twifted, above half aninch long. Co/umn {mooth, flender, a quarter of an inch in length. Germen pyramidal, hairy, as well as the fimple cylindrical ftyle. Follicles moit like thofe of S. colorata, n. 14, but green, much broader, and more con- cave. Seeds two or three, globofe. Jacquin fays the fiowers are fragrant, moft of them perfect, a few males only being inter{perfed. 18. S. fetida. Fetid Sterculia, Linn, Sp. Pl. 1431. Willd. n. 8. Lamarck n. 8. Ait. n. 5. Cavan. Dif. n. 412. t. 141. Sonnerat Ind. Occ. v. 2. 234. t. 132. (Clompanus major; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 168. t. 107.) "—Leaves digitate. Segments of the calyx oblong, very deep, hairy. Follicles woody.—Native of the Eaft Indies. Sonnerat fays it is planted before houfes, on the coatt of Malabar, for the fake of its thick fhade. ‘The roafted feeds tafte like chefnuts, and are eaten by the Indians, The tree is ftraight and tall. Leaflets from feven to nine, lanceolate, a finger’s length, entire, {mooth, on a long common footftalk. Cluflers terminal, compound, drooping, with {mooth italks. #/owers {melling like human excre- ment, larger than the laft, widely expanded; mott hairy, and of a brownifh-red, on the upper fide; brighter red underneath. Co/ymn cylidrical, near half an inch long, much dilated, or cup-fhaped, at the top, where the anthers are inferted. Germen roundifh, five-lobed, very hairy, as well as the fimple fy. follicles oval, obtufe, woody, nearly as big as the filt. Seeds numerous along each margin. Karil, Rheede Malab. v. 4. t. 36, cited by Linnzus, feems rather of the order of Vitices. A fuperficial confideration of this very curious and re- markable genus might lead us to think nothing more eafy than to divide it into feveral; but however ttrikingly dif- ferent certain parts of the fruétification may be in fome {pecies, fuch differences do not fupport each other. Thus, the follicles of §. colorata and platanifolia are {o unlike all the reft, and agree together fo remarkably in their partial ftalks, and membranous veiny texture, that they at once indicate a diftiné&t genus. But when we confider their ca- lyces and flyles, all particular relationfhip feems diflolved ; for they accord better, in thofe parts, with many other Sterculie than with each other. Whether the fimple or mani- fold /y/es, when properly underftood, may lead to generic diitinGtions, we have not, as yet, materials to decide. The length of the column, very different in different fpecies, does not appear of any generic importance. The fiipulas of this genus have hardly been noticed, be- ing very fugacious, but we believe they are always origi- nally prefent, in pairs, at the bafe of the foot/falks, and ufually of a lanceolate or awl-fhaped figure. The draéeas, frequent under the branches of the panicles, are larger, but nearly as quickly deciduous as the /fipulas, at leaft in moft of the f{pecies. STERCULIUS, in Mythology, one of the firnames given to Saturn, becaufe he was the firft that laid dung upon lands to make them fertile. STERCUTTUS, the god of ordure. : STERE, in Commerce, the unit for folid meafures in the new French fyflem. See Measure and STANDARD. STEREO- STE STEREOBATA, or Srereonares, formed from ¢eeco- Carns, folid prop, in the Ancient Architedure, the bafis, or foundation, whereon a column, wall, or other piece of build- ing is raifed. his anfwers pretty well to the continued focle or bafe- ment of the moderns. See Socir. Some confound it with the ancient /y/obata, or pedeftal, (which fee) ; but, in effect, the ftereobata is that to the ftylobata, which the ftylobata 1s to the {pire or bafe of the column. “STEREOCAULON, in Botany, from ¢s;:0;, hard and Solid, and xavro<, a flem, a name fingularly applicable to this nus of the Lichen tribe, invented by Schreber in his Gen. Pl. 768.—Achar. Meth. 314. Lichenogr. 113. t. 12. f.3, 4. Syn. 284.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Alge. Nat. Ord. Lichenes. Eff. Ch. Tubercles turbinate, coloured, convex, bor- ay terminating the branches of the folid cartilaginous nd. As it ftands at prefent, in the newly-publithed Synopfis of Acharius, where nine {pecies are enumerated, this has every character of a natural genus. Its firm, branching frond, attached by a flender but very tenacious root, is formed to occupy the interitices of crumbling granite, and efpecially the cells of volcanic fcorie. Hence it is the firit of its tribe that clothes the flowly decaying lava of Vefuvius and other burning mountains. Of the nine fpecies of Stereocaulon above-mentioned, we . feel lefs confident. The original one may ferve to exem- lify the genus. S. pafchale. Crifp Stereocaulon. Ach. Syn. n.2. Meth. n. 2. (Lichen pafchalis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1621. Fl. Dan. t.15t. Engl. Bot. t. 282. Coralloides crifpum et botry- forme alpinum; Dill. Mufe. 114. t. 17. f 33. C. paf- chale ; Hoffm, Pl. Lich. v. 1. 23. t. 5. f. 1.)—Frond glau- cous-grey, branched, granulated, minutely fibrous, with fhort, crowded, much-divided fegments. Tubercles {cat- tered, cluftered, fomewhat pointed, dark brown.—Native of the higheft mountains of Europe, in a micaceous foil. The /lems form denfe, very firm and tenacious tufts, from one to three inches high, and are round, white internally, quite folid. Their branches, much fubdivided, are encrulted with grey, warty, leafy fegments, and tipped with numerous little ook tubercles, f{ometimes compound, or lobed. Such is our only certain Britifh fpecies. What occurs on the lava of Vefuvius, and which we did not, in gathering it, difcover to be at all different, is called by PeHtben S. vefu- vianum, and made a variety by Acharius of his own S. bo- tryofum, 0.3, a Swifs {pecies, unknown to us, whofe cha- raéters indeed do not found very diitin&. STEREOGRAPHIC Projedion of the Sphere, is that in which the eye is fuppofed to be placed in the furface of the fphere. For the fundamental principles and chief proper- ties of this kind of projeGtion, fee Prosecrion, Stereo- sraphic. he method and practice of this proje¢tion in all the ‘principal cafes, viz. on the planes of the meridian, equinoc- tial, and horizon, are as follow. SrerEoGRAPHIC Projedtion on the Plane of the Meridian. Let ZONE (Plate XIV. Geometry, fig. 10.) be the meridian, Z and N the poles, as alfo the zenith and nadir ; EQ the equinoétial and horizon; ZN the equinoétial co- lure, and prime vertical circle: Z 15 N, Z 30 N, Z 45 N, &c. are hour-circles, or meridians, and alfo azimuths, be- caufe the pole is in the zenith. To defcribe thefe circles, find the points 15, 30, 45, 60, &c. in the equinoétial, by fetting the half-tangent of their diftance trom p ; and then STE their centres are found by fetting their co-fecants both ways, from their points of interfe€tion with the equator: 3, %, and V3, VS, are the northern and fouthern tropics, which are deferibed by fetting the half-tangent of 23° 30! from 9p each way ; then the tangent of its complement, viz. 66° 30!, each way from thence on the colure produced, gives their centres. By this method all parallels of declination may be drawn. Or you might have fet the co-fecant of the parallel from the centre of the primitive, which would alfo have found the fame point for the centre of the parallel, whofe radius is equal to the tangent of its diftance from its pole. The parallels in this projeétion are alfo almicantars, or parallels of altitude; @, VS, is the ecliptic, which muft be divided from the divifion on the feale of half-tangents ; but denominated according to the figns in the zodiac, reckoning go° to each fign. STEREOGRAPHIC Projedlion on the Plane of the Equinodial. Let SC (fg. 11.) be the meridian, and folftitial colure ; EN the equinoétial colure, and hour-circle of 6; P the north pole; @ 95, the northern tropic; E @ N the north- ern half of the ecliptic (whofe centre is found by fetting off the fecant of 23° 30! from 95) ; and its pole is at a, the in- terfetion of the polar circle and meridian, being the place through which all circles of longitude muft pafs; and E ZN the horizon of London, which is defcribed thus: fet the half-tangent of the co-latitude from P to Z; then the tangent of the fame, fet from P to O, or its fecant from Z to O, gives its centre ; and its pole will be at 4, 38° 30! (in the half-tangents) diftant from P, where / is at the zenith. To draw any other circles in this projeGtion. 1. For cir- cles of longitude, which muft all pafs through a, and the feveral degrees of the ecliptic ; fet the tangent of 66° 30', from a downwards, on the meridian produced ; which will find a point, through which a perpendicular, drawn to the meridian, fhall contain in it the centres of all the circles of longitude, whofe diltances fet off to the radius P x, fhall be the tangents of the degrees of their diflances from the me- nidian SPC (which is that belonging to 180°.) 2. All parallels of declination are drawn off by fetting the half- tangents of their diftances from P. 3. All azimuths, or vertical circles, muit pafs through 4 at the zenith: fince, therefore, the zenith is 38° 30! diltant from P, fet the co- fecant of that (or the fecant of 51° 30!) from 4 on the me- ridian extended below, and that will find the point «x, the centre of the azimuth of eaft and weft; viz. EAN; andthe centres of all the reft are in a line that is perpendicular to the meridian, and drawn through x. 4. Circles of altitude, or almicantars, are lefler circles, whofe poles are not in the plane of the projeGtion: thus the circle Oe is a parallel of alti- tude 50° above the horizon. 5. All hour-circles are ftraight lines from the centre to the limb. STEREOGRAPHIC Projection on the Plane of the Horiton. Firft draw a circle reprefenting the horizon, and quarter it with two diameters; then will 2 be the zenith of the place ; 12212 the meridian; 6 z 6 the prime vertical, or azimuth of eaft and weft ( fig. 12.) Make =P = half-tangent of 38° 30! (or tangent of 19° 15!) ; and P fhall be the pole of the world. Make x AS = half-tangent of 51° 30! (or tangent of 25° 45!) ; and Ale — fecant —Y of 38° 30!; then fhall o be the zo — tangent centre of the equinoétial 6 /E 6. In this projeétion almicantars are all parallel to the pri- mitive circle ; and azimuths are all right lines paffing through z, the centre of the primitve, to the equal divifions in the limb. Parallels of declination are all lefler circles, and Se e STE lel to the equinodtial, and their interfections with the meri- dian are found, by fetting the half-tangent of their diltance from the zenth, fouthward or northward, or both ways from z. Their centres are found by bifeéting the diftance between thofe two points ; for the middle will be the centre of the pa- rallel. Thus, x & = half-tangent of 28° oo! = diltance of the tropic of ¢5 from the zenith ; and z VS = half-tangent of 75° = diftance of the tropic of vf from the zenith; And the interfe€tion again with the north of the meri- dian, is at eee ot for WS i to the northward, or > 152° 30! &B > upward from z. For the hour-circles, make zc = tangent of 51° 30!, or Pc = fecant of 51° 30': draw Ge T perpendicular to the produced meridian ; then, if from c, with the radius zc, you fet off the tangents of 15°, 30°, 45°, &c. both ways, you will have the centres of the feveral hour-circles, 7 and 5, 8 and 4 &e. Note, in all ftereographic projeétions, all diameters are meafured on the fcale of half-tangents ; and this is the ground of all dialling, or the true projection of the hour-circles of the {phere on any given plane. See Perspecrivs, Pro- JECTION, and SpHERICcs. STEREOGRAPHY, is that branch of folid geometry which demonftrates the properties, and fhews the conttruc- tion, of all folids which are regularly defined. It explains the methods for conftru€ting the furfaces in planes, fo as to form the entire body, or to cover the fur- face of a given folid; or, when a folid is bounded by plane furfaces, the inclination of the planes is determined by the rules of ftereography. The feétions of folids are alfo a branch of ftereography; but this we fhall refer to the article SreEREOTOMY, with which it is more intimately con- nected. Mr. Hamilton has denominated the principles of per- {pe€tive by the name of ftereography; but in this fenfe the term is too limited, as perfpective is only a branch of the doétrine of folids, and extends only to the feétions of pyramids and cones, and the reprefentations of folids. See PERSPECTIVE. The eleventh and twelfth books of Euclid, which treat of the properties of folids, may be looked upon as the ele- ments of this branch of geometry; and to them we fhall refer our readers for the firft elements to be acquired. It is fomewhat fingular, that though the firtt principles of folids have long beea demonttrated, no praétical applica- tion to mechanical conftruétions has been made of them. The knowledge of folids is of the greateft importance in the conitructive parts of architeCture, as in mafonry, brick- laying, carpentry, &c. To be proficient in the art of con{tru€tion, this branch of geometry is indifpenfable, and contains the very eflence and foundation of the whole in abftra&. Definitions. ‘S A folid is that which has length, breadth, and thick- nels. 2. The exterior furface of a folid is called its fuperficies. 3. A ftraight line is perpendicular or at right angles to a plane, when it makes right angles with every ftraight line meeting it in that plane. 4- A plane is perpendicular to a plane, when the ftraight lines drawn in one of the planes, perpendicularly to the com- mon fection of the two planes, are perpendicular to the other plane. “ to the fouthward, or downward from z. STE 5. The inclination of a ftraight line to a plane is the acute angle contained by that ftraight line, and another drawn from the point in which the firft line meets the plane, to the point in which a perpendicular to the plane drawn from any point of the firlt line above the plane meets the fame plane. 6. The inclination of a plane to a plane is the acute angle contained by two ftraight lines, drawn from any the fame point of their common feétion at right angles to it, one upon one plane, and the other upon the other plane. 7. Two planes are faid to have the like inclination to one another, which two other planes have, when the faid angles of inclination are equal to one another. 8. Parallel planes are fuch as do not meet one another, though produced. g. A folid angle is that which is made by the meeting of more than two ane angles, which are not in the fame plane, in one point. 1o. Similar folid figures are fuch as have all their folid angles equal each to each, and which are contained by the fame number of fimilar planes. 11. A prifm is a folid of which the ends are fimilar and equal plane figures, and the fides parallelograms. 12. When the ends of the prifm are perpendicular to the fides, it is called a right prifm ; but if otherwile, it is termed oblique. 13. When the fides and ends of the prifm are equak {quares, it is called a cube. 14. When the ends are parallelograms, the prifm is called a parallelepiped ; and when the planes of the parallelepiped are at right angles to each other, then the prifm is called a rectangular prifm. 15. When the ends of the prifm are circles, it is called a cylinder; but if the ends are ellipfes, and alike fituated, the prifm 1s then called a cylindroid. 16. The ftraight line extended between the centres of the two bafes is called the axis. 17. A folid having any plane figure for its bafe, and its fides plane triangles terminating in the fame point, is called a pyramid. 18. A folid having a circle for its bafe, and terminating in a point, fuch that a {traight line extended from any part of the circumference of the bafe to the terminating point may be in the furface of the folid, is called a cone; and the furface which lies between the circumference of the bafe and the terminating point is called the conic furface. If the plane of a circle be fuppofed perpendicular to a given plane, with its circumference or edge upon that plane; and if there be a [traight line ftanding on any other point perpendicular to the faid plane; and if another {traight line be made to move parallel to the plane on which the circle ftands, fo as always to touch the circumference and the flraight line, beginning at any given point, and pro- ceeding entirely round until it arrives at the fame point ; then the folid bounded by the circle, and the furface pafled over by the ftraight line contained between the circum- ference of the circle and the ftraight line, is called a conoid ; and the furface generated by the flraight line is called a conoidal furface. A {phere is a folid formed by the revolution of a femi- circle upon its diameter. The centre of a {phere is the fame with that of the femi- circle, The diameter of a {phere is any ftraight line which paffes through the centre, and is terminated both ways by the fuperficies of the {phere. : A cube is a folid figure contained by fix equal {quares. A tetrae gE Ee STEREOGRAPHY. A tetrahedron is a folid figure contained by four equal and equilateral triangles. An otohedron is a folid contained by eight equal and equilateral triangles. A dodecahedron is a folid contained by twelve equal pentagons, which are equilsteral and equiangular. An icofahedron is a folid contained by twenty equal and equilateral triangles. The folids defined in the laft five definitions are called the five regular folids. Properties of Planes and Solids demonftrated in the eleventh Book of Euclid’s Elements, ufeful in Stercography. PROPOSITIONS. I. One part of a ftraight line cannot be in a plane, and another part above it. II. Two ftraight lines which cut one another are in one plane, and three ftraight lines which meet one another are in one plane. III. If two planes cut one another, their common fe€tion is a ftraight line. IV. Jf a ftraight line ftand at right angles to each of two ftraight lines in the point of their interfection, it fhall = be at right angles to the plane which pafles through them. V. If three ftraight lines meet all in one point, and a ftraight line ftands at right angles to each of them in that point, thefe three firft ftraight lines are in one and the fame ne. VI. If two ftraight lines be at right angles to the fame plane, they fhall be parallel to one another. VII. If two ftraight lines be parallel, the ftraight line drawn from any point in one to any point in the other is in the fame plane with the parallels. _ VIII. If two ftraight lines be parallel, and one of them at right angles to a plane, the other fhall alfo be at right angles to the fame plane. X. Two ftraight lines which are each of them parallel to the fame ftraight line, and not in the fame plane with it, are parallel to one another. X. If two ftraight lines meeting one another be parallel to two other that meet one another, and are not in the fame plane with the firft two, the firft two and the other two fhall contain equal angles. ; XI. Problem.—To draw a ftraight line perpendicular to a plane from a given point in {pace above the plane. Draw any ftraight line in the plane and from the given point above the plane; draw a fecond ftraight line at right angles to the firft ftraight line; from the point where the perpendicular meets the firft ftraight line draw a third ttraight line in the plane, at right angles to the faid firft ftraight line; and, laftly, from the given point in fpace draw a fourth ftraight line at right angles to the third ftraight line; and the fourth ftraight line, thus drawn, is perpendicular to the plane. XII. Problem.—To ere& a ftraight line at right angles _ to a given plane from a given point in the plane. From any given point above the plane draw a ftraight line perpendicular to the plane, and through the given point in the plane draw a ftraight line parallel to the other ftraight line 5 eu the fecond line, thus drawn, is the perpendicular uired. XIII. From the fame point in a given plane there can- not be two ftraight lines at right angles to the plane, upon the fame fide of it; and there can be but one perpendicular to a plane from a point above the plane. VoL, XXXIV. XIV. Planes to which the fame ftraight line is perpendi- cular are parallel to one another. XV. If two ftraight lines meeting one another be parallel to two ftraight lines which meet one another, but are not in the fame plane with the firlt two; the plane which paffes through thefe is parallel to the plane which pafles through the others. XVI. If two parallel planes be cut by another plane, their common feétions with it are parallels. XVII. If two ftraight lines be cut by parallel planes, they fhall be cut in the fame ratio. XVIII. If a ftraight line be at right angles to a plane, every plane which pafles through it fhall be at right angles to that plane. XIX. If two planes cutting one another be each of them perpendicular to a third plane, their common fe¢tion fhall be perpendicular to the fame plane. XX. Ifa folid angle be contained by three plane angles, any two of them are greater than the third. XXI. Every folid angle is contained by plane angles, which together are lefs than four right angles. XXII. If every two of three plane angles be greater than the third, and if the ftraight lines which contain them be all equal, a triangle may be made of the ftraight lines that join the extremities of thofe equal ftraight lines. Properties of Solids arifing from the De nitions. In a prifm, all parallel feGtions which cut the fides are fimilar and equal figures; or, all parallel fections which would cut the plane of the bafe, if produced, are fimilar and equal figures. In a pyramid, all the parallel fe€tions which are not pa- rallel to the plane of the bafe are unequal fimilar figures. The properties of a cone are numerous and interefting. If the cone is cut parallel to the plane of the bafe, the fec- tion is a circle; if it be cut in any direction through the apex, the feGtion is a plane right-lined triangle; if the cone be cut by a plane inclined to the plane of the bafe at any given angle, the feétion is an ellipfe; if the cone be cut by a plane parallel to any ftraight line within the folid pafling through the apex, the feGtion is denominated an hyper- bola; if a cone be cut by a plane parallel to another plane which touches the curved furface, the fef&tion formed by this pofition of the cutting plane is called a parabola. For the purpofes of ftereography, we fhall fuppofe the cone a right cone, and confequently the abfcifla of the curves or feétions will bifeét all the double ordinates at right angles. If any femi-conic fe€tion be fuppofed to revolve upon its ab{ciffa, fo as to perform an entire revolution, the furface generated by the curve line is called a conoid, and the abfcifia the axis. If the femi-conic fe&tion be a femi-ellipfe, the folid gene. rated is called an ellipfoid. If the generating figure be a femi-parabola, the folid is called a paraboloid. If the generating figure be a femi-hyperbola, the folid is called an hyperboloid. All folids whatever, generated by revolving plane figures upon an axis, are called folids of revolution. All parallel fe&tions of conoids are fimilar figures. General Principles of flereographic Conflruions. Definition. —Solid angles which confift of three plane angles are called trihedrals. In the conftru@tion of trihedrals, befides the three plane angles which form the boundaries of the folid, are the three Y inclinations. STEREOGRAPHY, inclinations. Thefe inclinations are, by way of diftin&tion, called the angles, and the three boundaries are called the fides, and the fides and angles are indifferently called parts, any three of which, excepting the three angles, may be found by the following conftructions. We fhall firit fhew the conftruétion of right-angled trihedrals, not only as being the molt ufeful, but as being neceflary to the con- ttruction of oblique trihedrals. Prosiem I. In a right-angled trihedral are given the two fides con- taining the right angle, to find the acute angles, and the fide or hypothenufe which fubtends the right angle. Make the angle EBH ( Plate I. Stereography, Sigs 1+) equal to one of the given fides, and the angle E BF equal to the other; draw EH perpendicular to EB, and EL perpendicular to BF, cutting BF at F: from B, with the radius BH, defcribe an are, cutting EI at I, and join BI; then BI is the hypothenufe: from E, with the radius EF, defcribe an arc, cutting EB in G, and join GH: then EGH is the angle contained by the hypothe- nufe and the fide EBF, or the angle oppofite the fide E BH; ormake FI equal to GH, and join BI. In the fame manner the angle oppofite the fide EBF may be found. The reafon will appear thus: raife the plane of the tri- angle BEF upon BE, fo as to be perpendicular to the plane BEH; raife the triangle EG H upon EH, until EG fall upon EF; then the plane EGH will become perpendicular to BF: revolve the plane BIF upon BF, and FI will defcribe a circle, whofe plane is alfo perpendi- cular to BF, from the point F; therefore, the plane of the circle and the plane EGH will be both in the fame plane: therefore, fince the point F coincides with G, the itraight line F I may be made to coincide with GH: let this coincidence take place; and becaufe FI is equal to GH, and the point G falls upon F, the point I will fall upon H; therefore, the ftraight line BI will fall upon BH; and the angle F BI, joining FB and BH, is the hypothenufe. Again, it is evident from the planes thus raifed, that the angle E GH, contained by the planes F BE and FBI, and perpendicular to F B, their common interfection, is the meafure of the angle contained by the planes F BE and F BI. Pros. II. Given one of the fides containing the right angle and the angle oppofite, to find the remaining fide which contains the right angle. Let the given fide be H BE (fg. 2.): in BE take any point F, and make EF H equal to the angle required ; draw H E perpendicular to EB; from E, with the radius EF, defcribe an are FG; draw B Ga tangent at G, and E BG 1s the fide required.. The demonitration is evident from the lait. Pros. III. Given one of the fides containing the right angle and the inclination or angle adjacent, to find the remaining fide which contains the right angle. Make ABD (fg. 2.) equal to the given fide: in AB take any point E; draw EG perpendicular to BD, cut- ting it in G, and EH perpendicular to AB; make EF equal to EG, and EF H equal to the given angle; draw BHC, and ABC will be the meafure of the plane angle oppolite. \ The following propofitions fhew the conftruétion of all the cafes of trihedrals or {pherical triangles, which are all reprefented by right-lined triangles. In each of the cafes it will be found, that two of the fides of the {pheric triangle are reprefented by the tangents of the arcs drawn from the fame angle; and the angle included by thefe tangents is the meafure of the {pheric angle. The reprefentation of the third fide is a line joining the extremities of the tangents : the other two angles are meafured by this propofition. If each of the three plane angles be denominated a fide, and each of the three inclinations an angle, the geometrical con- ftruGiion will be the fame as that of a f{pheric triangle, and the manner of exprefling the data of the one is the fame as exprefling that of the other. ‘I'he fides are always meafured by the three plane angles of the folid angle. Pros. IV. Given two fides and the contained angle, to find the other parts. Make the angle ABC (fg. 3.) equal to the contained angle: draw B D perpendicular to A B, and BE to BC; make B D and B E equal to each other, the angle BD A equal to one of the containing fides, and BEC equal to the other. Upon C as a centre, with the diftance CE, des {cribe an are F ; and upon A asa centre, with the diitance AD, deferibe another arc, cutting the former at F. Join F A and FC, then the angle A FC will be the meafure of the third fide. Now if the triangle ABD be turned round the line AB, the triangle CBE round CB, and the triangle ACF round AC, until the points D, E, F, coincide, each of the two planes, ABD and CBE, will be per- pendicular to the plane ABC; therefore, there wil! be given two of the fides of a folid angle, one perpendicular to the other, to find the inclination of the vertical plane with that of the hypothenufal. Proceed, therefore, as in the laft problem, and find the angle GH K, which will be the inclination of the two planes CBE and CAF. In the fame manner may the inclination of the planes ABD and A CF be found. Note. The triangle A BC reprefents the fpheric tri- angle, of which A B and BC are the tangents of two arcs; and the angle A BC is the f{pheric angle contained by the arcs, of which A B and BC are tangents. Pros. V. The three fides of a fpheric triangle being given, to find the angles. Make the three angles, ABC, CBE, and EBF, (fig. 4. N° 1 and 2.) equal to the three fides of the {pheric triangle, that is, to contain the fame number of degrees, On B as a centre, with any radius A B, defcribe an arc AF; draw AC and FE tangents at A and F; join CE; draw the ftraight line GH equal to CE. On the centre G, with the tangent A C, defcribe an arc at I ; and on the centre H, withthe tangent F E, defcribe another arc, cut- ting the former at I. Join GI and HI; draw IK and IL perpendicular to 1G and ] H, making them equal to ABor BF; join KG and LH. Now if the triangles GIK and HIL be raifed on the lines GI and HI, until the points K and L coincide; then each of the triangles GIK and HIL will be perpendicular to the triangle GIH. Proceed, therefore, as in the firft prapofition, to find the angles, which in the reprefentation of the {pheric triangle [ G H are reprefented by G and H, Scholium.—Since each of the extreme angles may be made the middle angle in N° 1, the triangle GHI, N° 2, may STEREOGRAPHY. be laid down in three different figures, each of which will have three different angles included by each two tangents. Thefe three angles, made in each feparate triangle, are the meafures of the three {pheric triangles: but this mode re- quires more lines than that defcribed in the above pro- pofition. There is another method of finding the angles of a {pheric triangle, when the three fides are given, pointed out by bifhop Horfley, at page 215 of his Elementary Treatifes. The fubftance of it is as follows: Draw a right angle; make one of the legs equal to the difference of the cofines of the fides containing the required angle, the hypothenufe equal to the chord of the third fide. Upon the remaining perpendicular fide, as a bafe, conftruét a triangle, whole two other fides are equal to the fines of the fides containing the required angle; then the angle contained by the fines will be the meafure of the fpheric angle. This may be very eafily accomplifhed by means of a fcale of fines and chords from Gunter’s {cale. Pros. VI. Two angles and a fide oppofite to one of them being given, to find the other two fides and the remaining angle. Make the angle ABC (fg. 5.) equal to the fpheric angle next to the given fide; draw B D and BE perpendi- cular to BA and BC; make B D of any length, and BE equal to it; and make the angle B D A equal to the mea- fure of the given fide. Draw AF perpendicular to BC, cutting it in e, make the angle F A G equal to the com- lement of the other given angle. On the centre F, with the diltance F G, defcribe an arc GHI; draw CHE a tangent to the arc at H, the fame as in the fecond propofi- tion. Join AC, and the angle C E B will be the meafure of the included fide. On the centre C, with the diftance CE, defcribe an arc at K; and on the centre A, with the diftance AD, defcribe another arc, cutting the former at K. Join AK and KC; then will AKC be the meafure of the third fide of the {pheric triangle. Pros. VII. Given two angles, and the contained fide, to find the other three parts. Make A BC (fig. 3.) one of the given angles. Draw BE perpendicular to BC. Make BEC aia to the number of degrees contained in the given fide. In BC take any point G. Draw GI perpendicular to C E, cutting it at I, and G K perpendicular on the other fide of it. Make GH equal to GI, and the angle G H K equal to the other given angle. Draw CKA (as in Prop. III.), then ABC isa plane triangle reprefenting the fpheric one. Now, becaufe A B C is the angle included by the tangents, draw BD perpendicular to B A, and equal to BE, and join D A; then BD A is the meafure of the fide, of which AB is the tangent. On the centre A, with the diftance AD, defcribe an are at F ; and on the centre C, with the diftance C E, defcribe another arc, cutting the former at F. Join F A and FC; then AFC is the meafure of the third fide. . Pros. VIII. "Two fides, and an angle oppofite to one of them, being given, to find the three remaining parts. Draw AC (fig. 6.), reprefenting the fide adjoining the given angle, and A B perpendicular to it. Make the angle ABC equal to the given fide. In AC take any point E. Draw ED perpendicular to BC, cutting it in D, and EG perpendicular te AC. Make EF equal te ED; and the angle E FG equal to the given angle. Draw the line CGH. OnA as a centre, with the tangent of the other given fide, defcribe an are KH; which, if it cut the {traight line C H in two points, H and K, join A K and AH. Draw AI perpendicular to A H, and equal to A B. Join IH. Onthe centre H, with the diftance H I, defcribe an arc at M: and onthe centre C, with the diftance C B, defcribe another arc, cutting the former at M. Join HM, KM, CM; then the angle C A K, or C AH, is the mea- fure of the {pheric angle included by the tangents. The meafure of the angle A HC, or A KC, reprefenting the {pheric angle oppolite the given fide, fhewn by the tangent AC, is found by Prop. I. The angle CMH, or CM K, is the meafure of the remaining fide, viz. that oppolite the angle included by the tangents. N.B. This cafe is not always ambiguous ; for if AH be equal or greater than AC, the are K H will only cut HC in one point; and, therefore, there can only be one triangle: or, if the angle AHC be a right angle, AH will only touch HC: in this cafe alfo there is only one triangle. Pros. IX. The three angles of a {pheric triangle being given, to find the three fides. Take the fupplements of each of the angles, and defcribe a triangle by Prop. V., whofe fides are equal to thefe fup- plements ; then the meafure of the angles of this triangle will be the fupplements of the fides of the triangle fought. This is demonttrated by writers on {pheric trigonometry, Though the writer of this article has not given formal. demonttrations of the preceding propofitions relating to the geometrical conftruétion of {pherical triangles, as it would have {welled the article too far, he hopes that enough has been faid to enable any one, who has a clear couceptionm of the parts of a {pheric triangle, to defcribe the reprefenta~ tion of it, and to find the meafure of its parts in the molt eafy manner, without having recourfe to the projeGtion of the {fphere, which frequently runs into conic fe€tions, and, from their difficulty of defeription, renders the projection very inaccurate. ‘The reprefentation of the {pheric triangle belonging to the preceding propofitions, is nothing elfe thar a plane triangle, which is a tangent to the {phere at one of the {pheric angles, and whofe fides are bounded by the inter- fections of the planes of the three great circles of the fides of the {pheric triangle; confequently two of the fides of the reprefentative triangle are always two tangents from the fame fpheric angle. ‘The included angle by thefe tangents in the reprefentative triangle is the meafure of the fpheric angle contained by the fides which the tangents reprefent. And the third fide in the reprefentative triangle is a line joining the extremities of the tangents, as has been already mentioned. In another point of view, the whole may be conceived to be a pyramid, whofe fides are planes from the centre of the {phere, pafling through the three arcs of the fpheric triangle ; and the bafe a triangle, a tangent of the {phere at one of the angles, which meets the fides. The vertical angles of the fides of this pyramid are the meafures of the fides of the fpheric triangle: the angles of the pyramid are the meafures of the {pheric angles: and the bafe of the pyramid is the reprefentative triangle. Confe- quently one of the angles of the pyramid is always perpen- dicular to the bafe. The angle intercepted by the two planes upon the bafe is equal to the inclination of the planes. The triangle belonging to the preceding propofitions ie fuch, that when all the parts are completed, the fides may be Y2z turned STEREOGRAPHY. turned up upon the bafe, which is the reprefentative tri- angle, until the edges of all the triangles forming the fides are united in one common vertex. A pyramid will then be formed, equal, fimilar, and fimilarly fituated to that above. The Rev. George Walker, in his ingenious doétrine of the {phere, Prop. I. p. 258, fhews, that ‘if there be a {pheric triangle, and a plane quadrilateral figure be formed, two of whole fides are the fecants, the other two the tangents of two of the fides of the f{pheric triangle, and the angle com- prehended by the fecants be meafured by the fpheric bafe, the angle comprehended by the tangents fhall be the meafure of the f{pheric angle oppofite the bafe; the dia- gonals of the quadrilateral fhall interfe& each other at right angles; the fegments of the diagonal joining the angle of the fecants, and the angle of the tangents, fhall be the fecant and tangent of the fpheric perpendicular, drawn from the vertical angle to the bafe; the angle which this diagonal makes with the fecants, fhall be meafured by the fpheric fegments of the bafe ; and the angles which this diagonal makes with the tangents, fall be the meafures ae the {pheric angles which the perpendicular makes with the fides.”” This theorem is very analogous to Prob. V.; but the properties fhewn by it do not apply to the conftruction from any given data, nor can all the parts be found from any one datum: they may be very well applied when two fides and the contained angle are given, or when the three fides are given, by varying the triangle, as has been here fhewn, in order to find the other two angles; but this is both troublefome and inelegant. From what has been faid, it will be eafy to conftruét any folid fimilar to any other folid given, whofe fides are planes, by conftrudting each folid angle, that is, by dividing it into as many folid angles, each confifting of three plane angles, wanting two, as the number of plane angles bounding the whole folid angle; then completing the figure of any fide, of which a plane angle of the defcribed folid angle is one fimilar to the fide of the folid given. From the feveral angles of this figure conftru& other folid angles in the fame manner, Pros. X. In a folid, fuch that all feGtions parallel to the bafe are fimilar and regular polygons, there are given the bafe of the folid, a vertical feCtion perpendicular to the bafe through its centre, and to the fides of the polygon, to find the angular or common fe@tion at the meeting of every two equal and fimilar prifmatic parts. From the centre of the bafe draw a line at right angles to the fides of a polygon; apply the bafe of the perpendi- cular feGion to this ftraight line, which now call the bafe of the perpendicular feGion. Draw a line from one of the next angles to the centre of the bafe: call this the diagonal line. Take any number of points in the bafe of the per- pendicular fection, and draw lines parallel to that fide of the polygon to which it is perpendicular, till they cut the diagonal line. From thefe interfections draw perpen- diculars to the diagonal line. Draw perpendiculars alfo to the bafe of the perpendicular fe¢tion, tillthey cut the curve of this fection. From all the interfe€tions of the diagonal apply all the perpendiculars of the fection: through the points now found draw a curve, and it will be the fection of the diagonal plane required. This will be evident, if the perpendicular and diagonal feétions are raifed perpen- dicular to the plane of their bafes. Example.—Plate V1 fig. 2. N° 1, is the hexagonal bafe of a folid, whofe perpendicular feGtion is ABC. Draw the diagonal DC. in BC take any number of points, e, 2 through which draw the lines ¢f parallel to BD, cutting the diagonal line in the points f. From the points ¢ draw the lines ¢ g perpendicular to BC, cutting the curve AB in the points g; and from the points f draw the lines f/ perpendicular to DC. Make all the lines £4 equal to the lines eg; and through points D, 4, 4, **1, draw a curve, and C 1) I will be the diagonal feétion required. This procefs may eafily be reverfed, by having the angular feétion given. In the fame manner are the fections of figs. 2 and 3, N° x, to be found, which, from what has been faid, are plain to infpection. In order to give a clearer idea of thefe folids, their eleva- tions are fhewn at N° 1. Pros. XI. To find the covering of a cylinder, fuch as may be gene- rated by a rectangle. Make a reétangle, one ef whofe dimenfions is the length of the axis, and the other the circumference of the bafe of the cylinder. Example.—A BCD (fig. 4. No.1.) is the elevation of a cylinder, G, (No. 2.) the bafe. The fide DE, of the retangle CD EF, is made equal to the circumference of G, and the breadth C D is the height of the cylinder. If CD EF be wrapt round the cylinder A BC D, the edge E F will coincide with C D, D E with the bafe A-D, and C F with the bafe BC: this is fo evident that it wants no demonttration. Pros. XII. To find the covering of a cylindric ungula, having the bafe of the cylinder; and the axis-fection perpendicular to the inclined fe€tion of the ungula. Let A ccccecB (fg. 5.) be half the circumference of the bafe. Divide it into the equal parts Ac, cc,cc,cc, &c.;5 and let DEFG be the axis-feGtion, whofe bafe DG is placed parallel to A B, the edge D Ein a {traight line with the extremity A, and GF in a ftraight line with the ex- tremity B. Draw the lines ¢ / parallel to D E, cutting the inclined line E F in the points 4. Produce DGto L. On GL make the diftances G n, nu, nn, &c. anda L, equal to Be, cc, cc, &c. Draw the lines n& parallel to DE, as alfo LI; and the lines4&, as alfo EI, perpendicular to it. Through all the points £to I draw a curve, and GFIL will be half the covering: for imagine the pat DE FG to reprefent the ungula, and the covering F G LI wrapt round FG DE; then, becaufe that all the diftances Gn, nn, nn, &c. are equal to Be, cc, cc, &c. the points » will fall upon thofe of c, which are reprefented by o in the ele- vation; and becaufe that all the figures oh &n are pa- rellelograms, all the lines 2 & will be equal to the lines oh, and the lines 2 & will fall upon thofe reprefented by 04, and the points é will fall upon thofe of 4, and the part FG LI will cover half the ungula reprefented by F G D E. Pros. XIII. To find the covering of the curved fuperficies of a cone, {uch as may be generated by the revolution of a right-angled triancle about one of its perpendicular legs. P With a radius equal to the flant fide of the cone deferibe an arc. Make the length of this are equal to the circum- ference of the bafe. Draw two right lines from the centre to each extremity of the arc, then the feétor comprehended by the two radii and the arc will be the curved fuperficies required. Example.—Let A (fig. 6.) be the bafe of the cone; B D £ the STEREOGRAPHY. the elevation, which alfo reprefents a fection of the cone through the axis. On D, as acentre, with the flant fide DC, deferibe an arc CE. Make thearc C E equal in length to the circum- ference of A. Join D E and DC, and the fecétor EDC is the covering required. For CE being equal to the circumference of the bafe, when D E C is bent round the cone D BC, the ftraight line ED will meet CD, and all the points on the are C E will coincide in the fame plane with the bafe BC, fince the fu- rficies of the cone may be conceived to be divided into an indefinite number of ifofceles triangles, whofe vertex is the int D, and whofe bafes are in the bafe of the cone. The ec&tor D EC may be conceived to be divided into as many ifofceles triangles, which, when bent round, will refpeétively coincide with thofe of the cone. Pros. XIV. To cover a conical ungula, the cone from which it is a part being fuch as may be generated by the refolution of a right-angled triangle about one of its perpendicular legs, a feGtion through the axis at right angles to the plane of the inclined fection of the cone being given. Let ABCD ( fg.7.) be the fection given. Produce AD and BC to meet it in E. Bifeé& the vertical angle AEB by EI, cutting AB at K. On the centre I, with a radius AK or KB, defcribe a circle FMGN. Draw the dia- meter F G parallel to A B. Divide the femi-circumference FM G into any numberof equal parts, F 0, 00, 00, &c. Draw the lines of parallel to EJ, cutting AB in the points p; the lines Ep, cutting DC in the points g; and the lines Dr, r, qr, &c. parallel to AB, cutting BE in the points r. Mi all the diftances Bé, ¢#, tt, tt, &c. on the are BH, equal to Fo, 00,00, &c. Draw EB, Es, Et, Et, &c. On the centre E, with the radii Er, defcribe arcs, cutting the lines E# inthe pointss. Draw the curve line Csss, &c. and BC LH will be the covering required: for the feftor E BH will be the covering of the whole cone; Béttt, &c. will coincide with the bafe ; the lines E ¢ will coincide with the lines Eg, and all the lines vs will fall upon rg. Pros. XV. To cover a folid generated by the revolution of a femi- polygon, the feétion through the axis being given. ’ Produce any fide A B ( fig. 8.) to mect the axis produced inC. OnC as acentre, with the radii C A and CB, de- feribe arcs A FE and BD. Draw the radius EDC, and AEDB will cover a part of the fru(tum of a cone, repre- fented by A BG F, as is evident from what has been faid. Pros. XVI. In a folid, whofe parallel fe€tions to the bafe are all fimi- lar figures, and whofe bafe is a regular polygon, there are given the bafe and the perpendicular {eétion to find the co- vering of one of the curved fides. _ Let ABCDE (Pilate III. figs. 1, 2, and 3.) be the bafe, _ FGH the perpendicular fe&tion, G F its bafe, drawn from _ the centre F, perpendicular to the fide AE. Divide the ~ curve GH into any number of equal parts Gi, ii, ti, ti, * &c. Draw the lines i/ parallel to A E, cutting F G in the points 4, and F E in the points /. Produce FG to P, making GP equal to the arc GH, and divide G P into the fame number of parts in the points m, as GH is divided into the points i. Draw the lines nmn at right angles to G P, and the lines /n parallel to it; or make the lines mn equal to £/, and through the points » draw a curve; "~ then A P E will be the covering of one of the curved fuper- ficies required. If GHF be a quadrant, each edge of the covering will be the fame as a part of that of a cylindric ungula of the fame diameter, cut at the fame inclination as the angle FEG. : From what has been faid it will be eafy to conceive that any of thefe coverings mutt fit the furface they are made for. If the fection GH F be raifed upon the bafe GF until it becomes perpendicular to the plane ABCD E, and the covering A P E bent round ; the points m will coincide with thofe of i, and the lines mn will fall upon the lines £/. There is another geometrical method of finding the fuper- ficies of a folid in plano, much more convenient in pra¢tice. The data for this method are the length of the curve of the perpendicular fection ; the figure of the perpendicular fec- tion; one of the terms or fides of the bafe of the folid. This rule is as follows: on the given term or fide defcribe a figure fimilar to the perpendicular fection of the folid, the term or fide being the bafe of the fimilar fection. Produce the vertical edge of the fimilar feétion indefinitely from the bafe. Upon this indefinite line fet the length of the curve of the perpendicular fe¢tion. Divide this line and the curve of the fimilar fection both into the fame number of equal parts. Through all thefe points draw lines parallel to the fide or term of the bafe of the polygon, thofe of the fimilar fe&tion to cut the perpendicular fide. Take all the refpedtive lengths of the lines, beginning with thofe next the bafe firft of the fimilar fection, and fet them on the refpeétive paral- lels in the fame order from the bafe on each fide of the line, cutting the parallels. A curve being traced through the points on both fides, will, with the bafe, be the boundaries required, This is exemplified in figs. 4 and 5. A BC is the fimi- lar fetion to the perpendicular one; A B reprefenting its bafe, BC its perpendicular, B D the length of the curve of the perpendicular rib, A E the fide of the bafe of the folid. The manner of defcribing thefe coverings is plain to infpec- tion. A BC ( fg. 4.) is fora curve of contrary flexure; A BC ( fig. 5.) is to anfwer a quadrant. It may be remarked, that by whatever mode the curve of the perpendicular fe¢tion is defcribed, the fame mode may be applied to defcribe the fimilar one A B C: if the outer edge of the perpendicular rib be a curve of contrary flexure, as in Jig. 6, defcribed from the fummits of equilateral triangles, the fimilar rib A BC ( fig. 4.) may be defcribed in the fame manner. To find the height B C, find a fourth proportional to the bafe, the perpendicular height of the perpendicular rib, and the fide of the bafe of the folid: that is, fuppofe FGH ( fg. 7.) to be the perpendicular rib, G H its bafe, GF its height. Make AB to BC, (fz.4.) as HG to GF; thatis,s HG: GF:: AB: BC. To demonitrate the truth of the above method, it is only neceflary to thew, that if the lines ip (fig. 1.) are drawn pa- rallel to G F, intercepted by the line H F, all the lines £/, as they recede from G E, are proportional to the lines #f, as they recede from GF. Draw H K ( fg. 7.) perpendicular and equal to HG. Join KG. Make HI equal to A B ( fg. 4.), that is, equal to half the breadth of a fide of the bafe of the folid, and join IG. Draw Lv, Mw, Nx, Oy, Pz, from the pointe L, M,N, O, P, in the curve F H, parallel to G H, cutting GF in the points v, w, x,y,z; and LA,MB,NC,OD, PE, parallel to H K, cutting 1G in the points V, W, X, Y,Z; GK in the points A, B,C,D,E; and GH in Q, R, 8, T, U. Then, becaufe of the parallelograms GvLQ, GwMR, GaNS, GyOT, and reat ~~? STE GQ,GR,GS, GT, GU, are refpectively equal to v L, wM,xN,yO,2zP; and becaufe of the fimilar triangles KHG, EUG, DTG, CSG, BRG, and AQG, and becaufe H K is equalto HG; UE, TD, SC, RB, and QA, are refpectively equal to UG, TG, SG, RG, and OG; therefore UE, TD, SC, RB, and QA, are re- {pectively equal to z P, yO, «N, wM, and vL. Now HI, UZ, TY, SX, RW, and QV, are to one another as HK, UE, TD, SC, RB, and QA; therefore H I, UZ, TY, SX, RW, and QV, are as Pz, Oy, Nx, Mw, and Lv; but AB, cd, ef, gh, ik, 1m, ( fig. 4-) are to one another as Pz, Oy, Nx, Mw, Lv; therefore H1, UZ, TY, SX, RW, QV, (fg. 7-) are alfo as AB, cd, ef, gh, ik, Im, ( fig. 4.); but HI is equal to AB, (fig. 4.) 5 therefore AB, cd, ef, gh, ik, 1m, are equalto HI, UZ, TY, SK, RW, QV. From what has been faid, the geometrician will foon per- ceive that the coverings ADE ( figs. 5 and 6.) are what is called the figure of the fines. Lxample—Let ABC (fig. 8. N° 1, and fg. 9. N° 2.) be the generating plane, AC its axis, BC its bafe, BED half the bafe of the folid, Bf ff... D the curve line of the feGtion ; take the equidiftances Bf, ff; ffs &c. and on the centre of the bafe C, defcribe arcs cutting C B, the bafe of the fe€tion, in the points g ; draw the lines g 4 perpendicular to BC, cutting the curve in the pointss. Make IK, (N° 2. fig. 9.) equal to Bf, ff, &c. and let the points /, in I K, be thofe which correfpond to f, &c. (fig. ge N° 1.) Draw perpendiculars /m to I K, equal in length to gh, N°1, and the curve Kmm....I, being drawn, will give the fuperficies of the prifmatic part. STEREOMETRY, Erepeomerpsx, formed of aepeocy folid, and pereov, mea/ure, that part of geometry which teaches how to meafure folid bodies, i. ¢. to find the folidity or folid content of bodies; as globes, cylinders, cubes, veflels, fhips, &c. The methods hereof fee under the refpeGtive bodies; as GLose, SpHERE, CyLinpER, &c:. See alfo GauGING. STEREOTOMY, formed from ¢spcoc, and ton, fection, is the {cience and art of cutting folids under certain f{peci- tied conditions. Stereotomy may be regarded as a branch of ftereo- graphy, which is the fcience of folids in general. Mr. Hamilton has entitled his complete body of perfpedtive, Stereography, which perhaps would have been more pro- perly entitled Stereotomy, as the perfpeCive reprefenta- tion of every obje& in nature is the feGtion of a pyramid or cone of rays. But as it has not been the object of the writers on perfpe€tive to fhew the rules for finding the feétions of folids in general, under certain {pecified con- ditions of the cutting plane, ner of finding any other fec- tions befides thofe of cones and pyramids, it is the exprefs intention of this article to explain the general principles of the {cience for any given law, by which the furface of the folid may be conttituted of ftraight lines, or that the fur- face may agree with the common fe@tion of two planes dif- pofed in given pofitions. And as nothing of the kind has yet appeared, perhaps this attempt may be the more ac- ceptable, particularly as in its principles the whole art of dialling is included, and the mechanical arts of mafonry and carpentry. The art of ftone-cutting, the {quaring and cutting of timbers, and the formation of hand-rails, depend entirely upon the fe¢tions of {olids. Plate I. Fig. 1. Given the feat, A B, of the interfe€tion in {pace of two planes, having a given inclination, and the interfeétion, Pros. I. STE AC, of one of them in a given plane, Y; alfo the in- clination of the common interfection of the two planes to the plane Y; to find the interfection of the other plane with the plane Y. Make B A D equal to the inclination of the interfeétion of the two planes: from any point D, draw DE perper- dicular to AD, cutting AB at E: make E B equal to ED: draw EC perpendicular to A B: make the angle CBF equal to the inclination of the planes, of which the feat of their interfeCtion is AB: let BF mect EC in F; and join AF; then will AF be the interfeétion required, Or thus: Through any point E, in A B, draw C E per- pendicular to A B: make E A D equal to the inclination of the interfeGion: draw ED perpendicular to A D: make E B equal to ED: join BC: make the angle CBF equal to the inclination of the planes, which have A B for the feat of their interfeG@tion: let B F meet CE in F’; and join AF; then will A F be the interfeétion required. Demonftration. — Imagine the triangle ADE to be turned upon AE, until it becomes perpendicular to the plane Y: let the plane Z be turned upon CE, until EB fall upon ED: that EB will fall upon E D is evident, fince E B, in revolving upon EC, will always be in a plane pafling through E perpendicular to CE; and ED is alfo ina plane paffing through E perpendicular to CE: and fince E B is equal to ED, EB mutt fall upon ED, and the point B upon D; and the plane A E D will be perpen- dicular to the two planes CE A and CEB; therefore AD will be perpendicular to the plane C EB; whence it is manifeft, that C B F is ina plane perpendicular to the common interfeGtion, and is the meafure of the inclination of the planes. Pros, If. Given IN, the interfeGtion of a plane, W, with an- other plane, X, and their inclination, the feat, A B, in the plane, X, of a line in {pace infifting at A, and the in~ clination of the line to the plane X; to find the feétion of the line in the plane W. Through aay point B, in A B, draw BS perpendicular to IN, cutting IN at E: make the angle BE F equal to the inclination of the plane: draw BG perpendicular to BS: make BG the tangent of inclination to the radius AB: draw GF parallel to BS: through A, draw any two lines AJ and AK, cutting IN at J and K: make ES equal to EF: through S, draw V L parallel to IN: produce BS to P: make SP equal to FG: draw PV parallel to A K, and PL parallel to AJ; and join KV and J L, cutting each other at a; and a is the fection of the line in the piane W, as required. For imagine the triangles B EC and C G F in the fame plane to be turned upon BE, fo that their plane may be perpendicular to the plane X ; then BG will be perpendi- cular to the plane X, and the point G will fall in the line in {pace : imagine alfo the plane W to be revolved upon IN, until ES fall upon EF, as is evident for the fame reafons as given in the firft problem, and the point S will fall upon F ; then the line V L will become parallel to the plane. In revolving the plane W upon IN, imagine the plane Y to revolve upon V L at the fame time, fo that the plane Y may always continue parallel to the plane X, then V P will continue parallel to A K, and L P parallel to AJ; then, asin perfpeétive, X is the original plane, W the plane of the pi€ture, Y the vanifhing plane, G or P the place of the eye coinciding therewith, I N the inter- fecting line, V L the vanifhing line, J, K, the interfeGting 8 points, Fig. 2. STEREQTOMY. points, V L the vanifhing point, and the original line would then be a vilual ray ; therefore, by the theory of perfpective, a is the reprefentation of the point A. Pros. IIT. The fame things being given, and the conftruétive lines remaining as in the preceding problem, as alfo the point a, the feétion of the line in {pace ; to find the feat of the line in the plane W, and its inclination to the faid plane. Draw GQ (fig. 3.) perpendicular to E F, meeting E F in Q: in EP, make ET equal to EQ, and join Ta: draw T R perpendicular to aT: make T R equal to QG, and join Ra; then will Ta be the feat of the line in the plane W, and Ta R its inclination to the faid plane. Demonflration—For when E'S is made to coincide with EF, as in the laft problem, the plane FCG will be per- endicular to the plane of the fection W ; but the line FC being now in the plane W, and OG being perpen- dicular to FC, QG will alfo be perpendicular to the plane W: but the point G, that is R, is a point in the line whofe feat is A B, and the point a is another point in the line whofe feat is A B; therefore, R and a are two points in the line whofe feat is AB: then join aR, which will be the part of the line in fpace on the other fide of the plane W, and aT its feat. Scholium.—This amounts to the fame thing as the feat and diftance of the eye being given with refpect to the ori- ginal plane, and the pofition of a point in the faid plane; to determine the feat and inclination of the vifual ray. Pros. IV. Two ftraight lines, A Band CD, (fg: 4.) tending to an inacceffible point, being given, through a given point E to draw a third ftraight line, to tend to the fame inacceflible point. From any point A, in AB, drawa ftraight line, A E, from A to the given point E, cutting CD in C; and through any other convenient point B, draw BF parallel to AE, cutting CD in D: find DF, a fourth propor- tional to AC, CE, BD, and join EF ; then will the lines AB, CD, and EF, tend to the fame point of concourfe. Scholium.—It fometimes happens, that a number of lines radiate from the fame point, and that from a given point it is required to radiate other {traight lines, fo as to meet the radiations given in a given ftraight line: fome or many of thefe radiations, according to their number, will be inacceffible ; and though they may be all found by this problem, yet if the feveral operations are combined in one, much trouble will be faved. Thus, let the radiations (fg. 5.) be AB, AC, AD, AE, AF, tending to the ftraight line BC; and let a be a given point, from which it is required to radiate other ftraight lines to meet or tend to the fame points in BC, with thofe drawn from A. Join Aa, cutting BC in G; and through any convenient point C, in BC, draw Ff parallel to Aa: make C P equal to GA, and CQ in BC, produced to o, equal to Ga: join PQ. Now let AD, _ AE, meet CF in D and E: draw Dm, En, Fo, parallel to PQ, cutting Bo at m, n, 0: make Cd equal to Cm, Ce equal to Cn, Cf equal to Co: draw da, ea, fa, which are the lines required. This might alfo be neatly effected by the proportional compafs; but the centrolinead, invented by the author of this article (Mr. P. Nicholfon), is much referable. It is defcribed under the article SceNoGRAPHY, ut has of late been much improved, and made to fet at the firlt time. Example 1.—Given the meridian AB (fg. 6.) in the plane of the horizon X, the latitude of the place, the inter. fe&tion, IN, of the plane W, with the horizontal plane X, and the inclination of the plane W, to that of the hori- zon X; to conftruct a dial in the plane W. In AB, take any point, A, for the foot of the ftyle ; then A B will be the feat of the ftyle, or of the line tend- ing to the pole of the world: the latitude of the place is its inclination. Find a the reprefentation of A, that is, the fection of the ftyle of the dial in the plane W, by the fecond problem: produce AB to meet IN in D: draw Da in the dial-plane W ; then, by the third problem, find aT, the feat of the ftyle in the plane W, and the angle of cleva- tion T'aR: and by the firlt problem, find the interfections, Ua, Ya, Za, &c. of planes pafling through the ftyle, mak- ing angles refpectively of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, &c. with the vertical plane paffing through the meridian A B; that is, with the plane whofe interfeétion is T a: the inacceffible lines are alfo found by the laft problem; and the dial is conftru@ted as required. aT is the feat of the {tyle, whofe interfection is Ta; Ta R its inclination; aD is the 12 o’clock line; and Ua, Ya, Za, &c. are the hour-lines. Another method of finding the fub-ityle is thus ; produce G Q to meet PE in H: join HA, which produce to N: draw Na the fubityler line. Thus, upon one common prineiple, the feétions of lines, planes, and folids may be found, The feétions of folids are found by means of the feétions of planes: the con- ftruGtion of a dial is only finding the fe€tions of planes, whofe pofitions are given. This method is, perhaps, of all others the eafieft to confider and to con{tru&. Example 2.—Given the bafey ANQR, (fg. 8.) of a pyramid, in the plane X, and the whole feat, A B, of one of its angular lines, the interfeétion, I N, of the cutting plane W, and the inclination of the planes W and X; to find the fe€tion of the pyramid. Find the vanifhing line, VL, of the plane X, and the vanifhing points, V and L, of the lines AR, NQ, AN, RQ: produce AR to K, NQ to M, AN to J, and R OtoL, to meet the interfeéting line IN: join K V and MV, allo JL and LL; then angr will be the fection of the pyramid infifting upon ANQR. Example 3.—TYo find the feétion of a prifm (fg. 7-), the fame things as before being given. Find the vamifhing points, V and L, of the lines AJ and A K, and the re- prefentations, K V and J L, as before: draw Lr parallel to JL, and Mz parallel to KV, and guar will be the fec- tion of the prifm required. Plate U1. fig. 3. To find the feétion of a cuneoid or cono-cuneus, the fame things as before being given, the bafe of the folid being abcdef gh. Let Ga be the fection of the plane, pafling through the apex, and the centre of the bafe in the original plane, cut- ting the bafe of the folid in a and e: divide each half on each fide of the diameter, ae, into any number of equal parts, as four: through the points of divifions draw lines parallel to ae, which produce to meet the interfecting line ; and let ae meet it in G: then having drawn another feries of lines at right angles, alfo to meet the interfeétion, find the vanifhing points, V and L, of each of thefe feries of lines : join GV: from the interfeéting points of the lines carallat to aG, draw lines parallel to GV: alfo from the interfecting points of the other feries of lines, draw lines to the vanifhing point L; then the figure abc def gh, formed by the interfeétions of thefe lines, will be the feétion of the cuneoid, : Fig. 2. thews the method of finding the fection of a cy- linder upon the fame general principle, only with this dif ference, STEREOTOMY. ference, that having found the vanifhing points V and L, and the lines GV and HL; one fet of lines is drawn from the interfeCting points parallel to GV, and the other fet is drawn parallel to HL; and by this means the figure abcdef gh isthe feétion of an oblique cylinder, whofe feat isi B. Fig. 1. fhews the fe€tion of a cone upon the fame general principle, differing from fg. 2. in this refpedt, that, in- {tead of the lines being drawn from the interfeCting points parallel to GV and HL, they are drawn from the faid points to V and L as vanifhing points, and by this means form the fection abcde fg h of the cone. In the fame manner may be found the fection of a cone, when the cutting plane is parallel to one of its fides, that is, to a plane touching one of its fides, and thus giving the pa- rabola for its fection ; and when the cutting plane is parallel to any plane within the cone pafling through its apex, and forming the feétion into an hyperbola. Figs. 4, 5,6, 7, are other methods, not differing in prin- ciple, but in the manner of laying them down, which is very convenient in the practice of ftereotomy. IN is the interfeGting line, I P the bafe of a plane per- pendicular to the interfeGticn IN, and PIE the inclin- ation of the cutting plane: the point E is found as in the former cafes: draw I x perpendicular to I E, In fig. 4, i B is the feat of the axis of a cone, whofe feétion is thus found: for the fake of fimplicity, divide the bafe, or its half, into equal parts, and draw one feries of lines per- pendicular to IN, to meet IN, and another through the fame points perpendicular to I P, to meet I P: from thefe points, draw lines to D, to meet I E ; and from thefe points in LE, draw lines parallel to iz: make In equal to IN, np equal NP, xg equal NQ: draw 7 E, pE, gE: fet the fame diftances on the other fide of 2 on Lz produced from thofe points: draw lines again to E, and the figure abcdefgh inthe plane Z will be the feétion of the cone. In the fame manner, the fe€tion of a cylinder may be found by drawing lines parallel to the middle line G, inftead of being drawn to the point D. The truth of this method may be conceived by raifing the plane Y upon I P, fo as to be perpendicular to the plane X ; then turning the plane Z at a right angle with the plane Y, fo that Iz will fall upon IN, the point D will be the apex of the cone; then, if a fet of planes be fuppofed to pafs through the apex pa- rallel to the interfeCting line, and another fet of planes to pafs through the apex parallel to I P, and both fets through the fame points (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h) of the original figure ; it will be evident that thefe planes will cut the feCtional plane by their interfeétions with each other in the points, a, b,c, d, &y Jo 2s A. ie 5- 1s an example of this method in a right cone, in which only one half of the fection is fhewn. Fig. 6. is an example in a cylinder, which only differs from the cone in the planes being parallel. Having found the middle line GD, and x E, as in the defcription of fig. 43 from the points of fection in I P, draw a line parallel to G D, to cut I E: from the points of fection in I E, draw lines parallel to In, cutting x E: fromthe points p, p, p, &c. of fe&tion in x E, and upon the lines parallel to Iz, make p 4, pm, equal to pb or pm: make pc, p/, each equal to pc or pl: make pd, pk, each equal to pd or pk: make pe, pi, each equal to pe or pi: make pf, ph, each equal to pf or ph; then the points a and g, the extremities of the diameter, are the fections of the extremities of the plane pafling through ag, and confequently abcdefghijkim is the fection of the whole figure. Fig. 7. fhews the fe&tion by the fame method, when the cylinder is a right cylinder. Pros. V. Given the plane X, the feats A, B,C, (fig. 8.) in the plane X, of three points on the furface of another plane Y¥ in f{pace, and the heights of the points in the plane Y, above the given plane X ; to find the interleétion of the plane Y with the plane X. Draw the three parallel lines A D, BF, C E, through the points A, B,C: make A D equal to the height of the point whofe feat is A; B F equal to the height of the point whofe feat is B; and C E equal to the height of the point whofe feat is C: join A C, and produce it to H: join D E, and produce D E to H: draw B G parallel to A H, and F G parallel to D H, and join GH; then will G H be the interfeGtion of the plane Y upon the plane X. Demonftration. —Suppofe A D perpendicuiar to A H, and confequently B F perpendicular to BG; _ then let the plane AD H be raifed upon A H, until it becomes per- pendicular to the plane X; and at the fame time let the plane B F G be raifed upon B G, until it becomes alfo per- pendicular to the plane X; then, becaufe the triangle BF G is fimilar to the triangle A D H, and fince both the planes AD H and BF G are perpendicular to the plane X, and their interfeGtions A H and BG, with the plane X, are parallel, F G will be parallel to D H; and becaufe AD and C E are perpendicular to A H, A D and C E will be both perperdicular to the plane X, and for the fame reafon BF is perpendicular to the plane X : therefore the points A, B, C, in the plane X, are the feats of the three points D, F, E, raifed to the plane Y; and becaufe FG and DH are parallel, all the points in FG and D H are in the plane Y; therefore the points G and H, which are common to the plane X, and to the lines DH and FG, are alfo in the plane Y ; and becaufe the points G and H are common to both the planes X and Y, therefore the ftraight line GH is common to the planes X and Y; whence the ftraight line G H is the interfeétion of the planes X and Y. c Prog. VI. Given the feats A, B, C, (fig-9.) of three points on the curved furface of the fegment of a right cylinder in the plane of the bafe X, and the heights of the points; to find the feGtion of the cylinder. Find the interfe€tion G H, asin the fifth problem; let AC be the bafe of the plane of the fegment, which is perpen- dicular to the plane X&: draw ATI and CK parallel to GH; and draw C L perpendieular to ATI, cutting AI in L: make LI equal to the keight upon the point A, and CK equal to the height upon the point C; and join IK. In the bafe ABC take any intermediate points a, b, c, d,e; and draw the lines af, bg, ch, di, e 2, meet- ing IK at f, g, 4,2, 4: through the points fyg, h, i, & draw fa, gb, hc, id, ke, perpendicular tol K: make I A, fa gb, bc, id, ke, refpeétively equal to L.A, fa, gb, he, id, ke: join A K, and draw the curve AadcdeK, and AabcdeK A will be the fetion of the cylinder, as ree quired. Demonfiration. — Imagining a feries of planes to pafs through the points A, a, b, c, d,e, C, parallel to GH, and perpendicular to the plane X of the bale; alfo a plane to pafs through LC perpendicular to the faid plane X 5 then all thele planes will be parallel to the axis of the cy- linder, and the plane ftanding upon LC will be perpen- dicular to the planes pafling through the points A, a, b, cy d, e, C, as well as to the interfeion GH. Suppofe, pee ore, STE fore, LC and I K to meet each other in P, P will be in the ftraight line GH; and if the triangle L PI be raifed upon LP, until its plane becomes perpendicular to the plane of the bafe, and fuppofing the fectional plane, Y, to be turned round I K, until its plane becomes perpendicular to the plane of the triangle I PL, and upon the fame fide of the triangle I P L as the bafe LA BC; then, if the plane ATK be produced, it will meet the plane of the bafe in GH,;; for the plane L PI will then be perpendicular to the two planes L A BC and LA K, and will therefore be per- pendicular to their common interfeGtion GH. Therefore, AIKB is the fection of a fegment of the cylinder, as cut by a plane pafling through three given points in the furface, as was to ewn. STEREOTYPE Printinc. This art having of late years come very much into ufe, we fhall give a fhort fketch of its Aifory, pragice, and advantages. The method of printing linen and paper-hangings has been known in the Eaft from time immemorial. Printing on wooden blocks, which is the mode now ufed by paper- itainers, has been praétifed fifteen or fixteen hundred years in China. According to this plan, when an author means to print his work, he has it fairly tranfcribed upon a thin and femi-tranfparent paper. Each leaf is then reverfed upon a {mooth bleck of hard wood, upon which the engraver cuts the charaéters in relief. There mutt, therefore, be a feparate block for every page. About the clofe of the 14th cen- tury, the Italians, Germans, Flemings, and Dutch, began about the fame time to engrave on wood and copper, but the previous advances had been gradual. The infcriptions in relief, upon monuments and altars, in the cloifters, and over church, porches, ferved as models for block-printing. The letters upon painted windows refemble thofe in the books of images. The invention of cards was probably an intermediate ftep ; and it has been inferred, as well from edié&s civil and ecclefiaftical, as from the figures on the cards, that thefe were firft brought into ufe about the year 1376, to amufe, it is faid, Charles V. of France. By the fhape ef the crowns, and the fceptres with the fleur-de-lis, it has been thought they were invented by the French ; but the names of the fuits rather imply, that they are of Spanifh or Italian origin. At firft cards were painted, but about the year 1400, they were printed from wooden blocks. To this we may diretly trace the art of printing. The books of images, which form the next ftep, were printed on wooden blocks: one fide of the leaf only is im- preffed, and the correfponding text is placed below, or on the fide, or proceeding from the mouth of the figure. Of thefe {carce books, Lambinet gives the following enumera- tion: 1. “ Figure typice veteris atque antitypice Novi Teftamenti,”? which in Germany is called the Bible of the poor, becaufe it was originally intended as an abridgment of the fcriptures, for thofe who could not purchafe, or who had not leifure to read the whole. There is a copy of this work in the Bodleian library, and another at Chrift’s col- lege, Cambridge. 2. Hiftoria S. Joannis Evangeliftz, ejufque vifiones evangelifte, ejufque vifiones apocalyp- tice.” 3. “ Hiftoria feu Providentia Virginis Mariz, &c.’” “ Ars moriendi.”? 5. ‘“¢ Ars memorandi notabilis per Evangeliftarum.”? 6. ‘‘ Donatus, feu grammatica in ufum fcholarum confcripta.”’ 7. ‘ Speculum humane falvationis,’? Tt is almoft certain, therefore, that from the cotton and filk-printing of the Indians, the Chinefe block-printing, the books of images juft alluded to, and perhaps from mode of writing among the bards, who cut their poems ppon bars of wood, and which they call carving a book, Vou. XXXIV. — STE the idea of ftereotype printing is not of modern origin, That it was prior to the art of printing by moveable types there can be no doubt, fince this latter mode of printing was firlt fuggefted by the Catholicon, which was printed with wooden tablets, in a feries, and compofed in forms. This mode of printing, except in China, where it is {till practifed, was laid afide foon after the invention of the common letter-prefs printing. The hiftory of the modern ftereotype is involved in fome obfcurity. In the Philofophical Magazine is the following account: “ Above a hundred years ago, the Dutch were in pofleffion of the art of printing with folid or fixed types, which were in every refpeét {uperior to that of Didot’s ftereotype. It may, however, be eafily underftood, that their letters were not cut in fo elegant a manner, efpecially when we confider the progrefs which typography has made fince that period. Samuel and J. Leuchtmans, bookfellers at Leyden, have {till in their poffeffion the forms of a quarto bible, which were conftruéted in this ingenious man- ner. Many thoufand impreffions were thrown off, which are in every body’s hands, and the letters are {till good. ‘© The inventor of this ufeful art was J. Vander Mey, who refided at Leyden about the end of the 16th century. With the affiftance of Muller, the clergyman of the German con- gregation there, who carefully fuperintended the correction, he prepared and ca{t the plates for the above-mentioned bible, in gto. This bible was publifhed likewife in folio with large margins, ornamented with figures, the forms of which are {till in the hands of Elwe, a bookfeller at Am- fterdam ; alfo an Englifh New Teftament, and Schaaf’s Syriac DiGtionary, the forms of which were melted down: likewife a {mall Greek Teltament, in 18mo. As far as can now be afeertained, Vander Mey printed nothing elfe in this manner ; and the art of preparing folid blocks was loft at his death, or at leaft was not afterwards employed.’ The Dutch editor fuppofes, that the reafon why Vander Mey’s invention was dropped was, that the procefs was too expentfive. In the year 1781 was printed, by Mr. Nichols of London, a pamphlet, entitled “ Biographical Memoirs of William Ged,” including a particular account of his progrefs in the art of block-printing. The fir/ part of the pamphlet was printed from a MS. dictated by Mr. Ged juft pre- vioufly to his death: the /econd part was written by his daughter, for whofe benefit the profits of the publication were intended: the third is a copy of propofals iflued by Ged’s fon, in 1751, for reviving his father’s art; and to the whole is added Mr. More’s narrative of block-printing. It fhould feem from this publication, that in the year 1725, Mr. Ged began his fcheme of block-printing. In 1727 he entered into a contraét with a perfon who had a {mall capital, but who, alarmed at the fuppofed rifk of lofing the little which he had, abandoned the concern, after he had expended little more than twenty pounds. In 1729 he entered into a more promifing partnerfhip with a Mr. Fenner, Mr. Thomas James, a type-founder, and John James, an archite&. Some time after a privilege was obtained from the univerfity of Cambridge to pani bles and prayer-books ; but it appears, that one of his partnera was actually averfe from the plan, and, to thwart the pro- je&, engaged fuch people for the work as he thought moft likely to fpoil it. One of his people who was entrulted with the fecret, avowed, that all the books printed in ftereotype had been purpofely made incorreét, in confe- quence of which they were fuppreffed at the univerfity, and the plates fent to the king’s printing-houfe, and from thence to Caflon’s foundery, “ After much ill ufage,”’ fays the Z writer STEREOTYPE. writer in the Philofophical Magazine, ‘* Ged, who appears to have been a perfon of great honefty and fimplicity, re- turned to Edinburgh. His friends were anxious that a fpecimen of his art fhould be publifhed, which was done by fubfcription. His fon James, who had been apprenticed to a printer, with the confent of his matter fet up the forms in the night-time, when the other compofitors were gone home, for his father to ca{t the plates from, by which means Salluft was fimfhed in 1736.” A copy of this work is in Mr. Tilloch’s potleffion, and alfo a plate of one of the pages from which it was printed. Another work was alfo printed from plates manufactured by Mr. Ged; this was the well- known book entitled « The Life of God in the Soul of Man,”’ which has the following imprint; ** Newcattle, printed and fold by John White, from plates made by Wil- liam Ged, gold{mich in Edinburgh, 1742.” Fifty years after the invention of plate-printing by Mr. Ged, Mr. Tilloch tells us he made a fimilar difcovery, without having at the time any knowledge whatever of Ged’s invention. He was aided in bringing his difcovery into practice by Mr. Foulis, printer to the univerfity of Glafgow. They overcame every difficulty, and were able to produce plates, the impreflions of which were as perfect and handfome as thofe of the types from which they were caft. ‘Though we had reafon to fear, fays Mr. Til- loch, from what we afterwards found Ged had met with, that our efforts would experience a fimilar oppofition, we perfevered in our object, and took out patents for England and Scotland, to fecure to ourfelves, for the ufual term, the benefits of our invention; for the difcovery, he adds, was as much their own, asif nothing fimilar had been prac- tifed before. Ged’s knowledge of the art may be faid to have died with his fon, whofe propofals for reviving it, publifhed in 1751, not having met with encouragement, he went to Jamaica, where he died. Owing to circumftances of a private nature, not at all conneéted with the ftereotype art, the bufinefs was laid afide after fome few volumes had been {tereotyped and printed under the direGtion of Meflrs. Tilloch and Foulis. . Some time elapfed, when M. Didot, a French printer, applied the ftereotype art to logarithmic tables, and after- wards to feveral of the moft popular claflics, fuch as Virgil, Horace, &c. and to various French publications. On this account, the French lay claim to the invention, but furely without even the appearance of juftice. About’ the year 1800, Mr. Wilfon, a printer in London, engaged with earl Stanhope, for the purpofe of bringing the {tereotype art into general practice. His lordfhip 1s faid to have had fome communications with Mr. Tilloch on the fubje@t, and afterwards to have received the perfonal attendance of Mr. Foulis at his feat, at Chevening, in Kent, where the noble earl was probably initiated into the practical part of the operation, and for which, we have heard, he paid 700/. as a remuneration. After fome years application, Mr. Wilfon, who at that time lived in the neighbourhood of Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, but who afterwards removed to St. Pancras, and carried on the bufinefs on a very extenfive fcale, announced to the pub- lic, that the genius and perfeverance of earl Stanhope had overcome every difficulty ; and that accordingly, the various procefles of the ttereotype art had been fo admirably con- trived, combining the moft beautiful fimplicity, with the moft defirable economy, the xe plus ultra of perfection, with that of cheapnefs, as to yield encouragement to the public for looking forward to the happy period when an application of this valuable art to the manufacture of books would be the means of reducing the price of all 3 {tandard works, at leaft thirty, and in many cafes forty, per cent, In 1804, Mr. Wilfon offered, upon certain terms advan tageous to himfelf, the ftereotype art to the univerfity of Cambridge, for their adoption and ufe in the printing of bibles, teftaments, and prayer-books. Some differences be- tween the fyndics and the printer caufed the contra& to be difflolved. Into thefe difputes it 1s not our bufinefs to enter; it will be fuflicient to add, that at prefent, at Oxford as well as at Cambridge, the ftereotype art is adopted, and thou- {ands of bibles, &c. iffue annually from their preffes, printed on that plan. The practice of {tereotype printing is readily defcribed : a page of any work is fet up in the ufual mode of printing, (fee the article PrintinG,) from which a mould of plafter, fimilar to plafter of Paris, is taken off, and from this a plate in type metal, from which the ftereotype print is worked. Of courfe the whole is fet up in diftinét pages, which are to be put together in the ufual way before a fheet is worked at refs. r It is evident, therefore, that the beautiful fpecimens of {tereotype printing fometimes exhibited, and which have induced many perfons to afcribe that merit to the art, does not in reality belong to it. A ftereotype plate is a fac fimile of the page from which it was taken, and confe- quently cannot exceed in beauty the original type. Ste- reotype, therefore, can give no additional beauty to printing: this depends on the talte of the letter-founder, and the care of the preflmen. Thofe who produce fine fpecimens of ftereotype printing, could alfo give others equally good with the moveable types from which the plates are catt. : The metal of which the plates are to be caft is a com- pound of regulus of antimony and hard lead, or tea-cheft lead. The general method of mixing the metal is to take one hundred weight of regulus of antimony, and break it into {mall pieces, feparating from it all duft and dirt, and then add to it from five to eight hundred weight of hard lead, according as the metal is required to be more or lefs hard. The lead is to be melted over a flow fire, and when melted, and the fcum taken off, the regulus is to be put in. To every hundred weight of lead may be added a pound or two of block-tin, but this is not neceflary. In cafting the plates, as in every other cafting, a mould muft firft be made, fo as to form the counterpart of the ori- ginal type. The fubftance required for this muft be of fo delicate a texture when foft, as to be capable of receiving an impreffion from the finett lines: and when dry, it muft be capable of bearing the action of melted metal. Thefe qua- lities will be found in gypfum or plafter of Paris. Gypfum in the rock, as it is called, which is the belt, is plentiful in Nottinghamfhire. It has been obferved, that this fubltance, when pulverized and mixed with water, foon becomes very hard, and will bear almoft any degree of heat ; but it con- tra¢ts when expofed to fire, and is liable to warp. It is alfo extremely difficult to expel the air and moifture which it rapidly abforbs, and tenacioufly retains. Thefe are defects refpecting the procefs of ca{ting, which require to be cor- rected by compounding it with other fubftances lefs abforb- ing than itfelf. But whatever be added to it mutt be capa- ble of a fine furface, fo as to preferve a perfect polifh on the plate to be caft. The following procefs has been re» commended: diffolve a quantity of common whiting in a tub of clean water, and make it of the confiftence of what is generally ufed in white-wafhing. Mix the pla{ter with this folution, and it will contract but little from the heat ; the air and the moiiture will be expelled with greater eafe, and STEREOTYPE. and the mould will not be fo liable to crack as the platter would alone. In making a perfect mould for the page to be catt, a frame of ca(t-iron mutt be prepared, nearly half an inch wider and longer than the page or pages locked up in the chafes. The frame determines the thicknefs and {trength of the mould, and requires to be nearly an inch deep. To this muft be added four cubic pieces of metal, whofe height fhould be exactly four-fifths of the height of the letters. On the height of thefe, the thicknefs of the ftereotype plate depends. The pages in the chafes are now to be laid flat upon the moulding table, and the letter, if neceflary, is to be planed down to an even furface. In the openings of the four corners of the page are to be placed the four pieces of metal, on which the frame is to refit when laid over the age. : To prevent the adhefion of the platter, it will be necef- fary to oil the face of the page with a foft brufh; then take a quantity of the white-wafh into a wooden bowl, and add to it fo much fine plafter as will make it into a thin palte. When reduced to an equal confiftency, apply it to the face of the letter with a painter’s brufh, fo as to fill every cavity, and then pour on the remainder of the platter to fill the frame. When beginning to harden, ftrike off the fuper- fluous plafter with a ftraight metal rule, and the back of the mould will be, fmooth and regular. The mould is next to be feparated from the page, and to be dried in an oven. In cafting the plates, the dried mould is to be laid in a pan about two inches deep, with the face upwards, anda {mall moveable {crew is to be placed at each fide or end of the pan to furnifh a prefs on the frame which contains the mould, _and prevent the rifing up, and the metal is applied over the mould in the pan, and carried to the oven, in which it fhould remain from one to two hours, to acquire an equal degree of heat ; for on the principle of equal temperature between the metal and moulds, the fuccefs of the operation wholly de- pends, And unlefs the oven be kept fufficiently hot to raife the temperature of the moulds to that of the melted metal, the experiment cannot fucceed. _ Such is the finenefs of the compofition of the moulds, and fuch the accuracy of the procefs, that plates may be caft from the fineft engravings as perfe&t as the copper-plate itfelf, and might be worked in the fame manner, could it be cleaned after each operation with the fame facility, and if the metal did not difcolour the paper. Wood-cuts, ornaments, &c. are caft in the fame manner, perfe&tly corre&t, The art has alfo been applied to the printing of mufic. When the pages are returned from the foundery, they _require to be thoroughly cleaned; for if the oil be fuffered _to remain on the letter, it will not only be difagreeable to _diftribute and compofe, but the dirt which adheres to it will fpoil the next mould to be made from it ; hence it is necef- fary that the letter be thoroughly cleaned with boiling water and a brufh, which increafes the expences attached to this _art very confiderably. After a plate has been caft, a few {mall imperfections will ' frequently be difcovered; fuch as that the eye of the e, or -fimilar letters, may have been full of dirt when the mould has -been taken; of courfe the plate will exhibit thofe parts filled _with metal, which now require to be corrected. A workman, called a picker, takes the plate, and after clearing it of all fuperfluous metal, pulls a proof, marks the defects, and » proceeds to make the requifite alterations in a manner that _wilk now be eafily underftood. If, in the courfe of the work, _any damage be done to the plate, or any letter or word be broken, the picker cuts it out, and inferts in ite place a -there be any faving whatever by the new procefs. moveable type. This is very praticable, and only requires the letters to be cut {quare, fo that the type may exaétly fit the place. In this way a letter, a word, or even a line, may be taken out and corrected without injuring the plate. The plate is now ready for the prefs, and may be laid on blocks, and.faftened down with a flip of brafs and a fcrew. With refpeé to the advantages to be obtained by the ftereotype over the common mode of printing, it may be obferved, that the calculations of Mr. Wilfon, already re- ferred to, of an aétual faving of 30 or 40 per cent. feem to have been much over-rated. Mr. Brightly, who praétifed the method of ftereotype for fome years, having made fe- veral eftimates, and being himfelf a printer as well as pub- lifher, could have no inducement to give an exaggerated ftatement on either fide of the queftion, feems to doubt if i Among others, he has given the eftimate of the expences of a work printed in both ways, equal to twenty fheets o¢tavo, of which 1000 copies are fold annually. Here he affumes, that in the common mode, the 4000 copies mutt be worked at once, but according to the ftereotype plan, 500 copies are to be worked every fix months, to fave the intereft of money. Suppofing the paper in both cafes to be thirty fhillings per ream, the calculation is as follows: Price of Common Printing. : eS. ds Compofition - - - - ig 0.0 Reading - - - - 310 o Prefs-work - - - - 24.0 0 41 10 0 Other expences and profits - - 20 15 © 62 5 0 One hundred and fixty reams of paper = 240 © 0 30275) Intereft of money for the firft half year Ditto for the fecond half year - : Ditto for the third half year Ditto for the fourth half year Ditto for the fifth half year Ditto for the fixth half year Ditto for the feventh half year Ditto for the eighth half year eh. eye sake 8. 18) OD ' ‘ ' 1 ‘ ' ' ' t ' ‘ ‘ OX NWA QY aS DRO ROE aT. ° as rn | | Price of Stereotype. Compofition, allowing one-fifth extra (fee above) 16 16 o Reading - - - - 310 @ Prefs-work for five hundred copies, fourthextra 3 I5 0 ‘ 24.1 0 Other expences and profits - - 12 1 6 36 2 6 Cafting plates - - 50 0 OG 86 2 6 Twenty reams of paper ° 30 0 © 116 2 6 Intereft for fix months - : 218 6 Carry over 119 I @ STE . F Sala ert Brought forward - - - TIO) te co Colt of the firft five hundred, fecond, and of each fubfequent five hundred, will be 267 16 9 38). 55. 3d. - - - 386 17 9 Common printing - - - Ee (oviay. Sele Balance againft ftereotype, after four years 50 13° 3 The next edition of four thoufand copies ) aaGh-aleb by common printing will coft as before aA Ditto on ftereotype eight times 387 5s. 3d. 306 2 0 Balance in favour of ftereotype in the ) fecond edition = Z if 26) i2aN6 Hence it appears, that it will require more than ten years to clear the expence of the plates only, and after that it will yield a profit of 30/. 2s. 6d. on every fubfequent edition of 4000 copies. From the foregoing eftimate, and feveral others given by the fame author, which are not more favourable to the new mode of printing, other advantages muit be looked for than thofe which refult from pecuniary favings ; but new difco- veries may render the procefs more economical than it is at prefent: thus, if the pages could be caft fo true, that they might go to prefs, and be worked with the fame eafe and expence as moveable types; and if a fubftitute could be found for oiling and brufhing the pages fo as not to wear the type, or increafe the labour of the compofitor, more de- cided advantages would refult from the introduction of fte- reotype: fuch as the following. ft. On books publifhed in parts or numbers. Purchafers frequently take in the early parts and leave off, by which the fets become broken and uneven, and a great lofs is incurred by the waite of paper. This might be prevented by ftereo- type, which fo remarkably facilitates the perfecting any parts or numbers that are found deficient. 2dly. On new books of doubtful fale. The plan of cafting plates would not involve an expence of more than fixpence for an oétavo page, befides the metal, which will {till retain its value. So that a hundred, cr a lefs number of copies, might be {truck off to afcertain the opinion of the public. Tf it did not fell, the lofs on a work of 20 fheets would not be more than about 8/., befides the compofition ; but if 500, or 750 copies were printed in the common way, and not fold, the lofs would be from 30/. to 4ol. gdly. The principal advantage is unqueftionably on ftock books, whether bibles, prayer-books, or {chool-books, par- ticularly works of arithmetic, and other branches of mathe- matics. Thefe, by means of the ftereotype, may be brought to perfect accuracy ; and having once attained to that ftand- ard, may be kept fo without*the poflibility of deviation : for this excellence, the public would not grudge even an extra rice. STEREOXYLON, in Botany, from ST EQEOSy hard and Solid, and Eure, wood, a name given by Ruiz and Pavon in their Flora Peruviana, to the genus which had long before been called by Linneus EscaLronta, (fee that article,) in honour of one of their diftinguifhed botanical countrymen. Of this prior appropriation of the genus, they feem not to have been aware. Poiret, however, in Lamarck’s Diétion- ary, v. 7. 434, has followed their error, and defcribed eleven fpecies of the genus in quettion, all natives of Peru or Chili, in cold, moift, fhady, fometimes very elevated, fituations. STE Their habit is fhrubby ; their eaves fimple, more or lefs oval or obovate, finely or coarfely ferrated ; flowers white or red, fometimes fragrant; young branches, and buds, often refi- nous, aromatic, or bitter. STERILE Lanps, in Agriculture, thofe forts which are unproduétive in confequence of their particular nature and ualities ; or which contain only {mall portions of nutrient foluble matters in their compofitions. In the examination of the conftituent parts or matters of fterile lands, in the intention of ameliorating and improving them in regard to their fertility, any fort of component ma- terial, which is known as acaufe of barrennefs or unprodue~ tivenefs, fhould be well and carefully attended to and con- fidered ; and if the whole of their compofition can be nicely compared with that of fome good and preduétive lands, in nearly the fame fituation and vicinity, the differences in the component fubftances of them may, in different in- ftances, point out the moft proper and ready methods of im- proving them. Where lands of this fort become fo in confequence of their too ftiff clayey nature, they may be improved and brought into a productive fituation by the ufe and appli- cation of fandy, earthy, calcareous, marly, and other fimi- Jar matters. Where lands are deficient in fertility, on ac= count of their abounding too much in calcareous matter, they may be greatly improved and rendered more fruitful by the putting of fandy or clayey materials upon them. Where lands are unproductive, in confequence of abounding too much in fandy matters, they may be improved in their tex- ture and other qualities, as well as rendered more capable of producing good crops, by the applying clay, clayey marle, and earthy vegetable materials to them. The application of peaty or turfy matters over the furfaces of light burning fandy lands, has been found to be attended with immediate and permanent good effe&ts in many inftances. Where lands are fterile in their nature, from containing too great quanti- ties of ferruginous, ochry, or faline, irony, aud acid matters in their compofitions, they may be greatly benefited in their produ@tivenefs by the ufe of quicklime in fuitable proportions. In lands of otherwife good qualities and textures, which were infertile from containing too large proportions of the ful- phate of iron, it has been found that they have been rendered produétive, by having quicklime laid over the furfaces of them, as that fubftance has the property of converting this. fort of fulphate or vitriolated iron into a manure, which ferves as the food of the plants upon them. Where lands become infertile from the deficiency of earthy, vegetable, or animal matters, the obvious means of removing it is the free ufe of fuitable fub{tances of the manure kind in proper proportions. Where the excefs of vegetable or other {uch matters caufes improprieties in the growths of the crops, it is capable of being reduced readily by the prac- tice of burning, or of being altered and improved by the fuitable application of proper earthy materials of different kinds. Where boggy, peaty; moory, or marfhy lands are to be improved in their fertility and produétivenefs, the firlt fteps to be taken for the purpofe are mottly thofe of properly in- clofing and drawing off the fuperabundant moifture or wet- nefs, both of which greatly contribute to thefe ends ; and the latter promotes the growth of all forts of nourifhing kinds of plants, by the removal of injurious ftagnant moifture. Some foft black peaty kinds of land, which have undergone this laft operation, are not unfrequently rendered fertile and productive, merely by the application of fandy or clayey matters over their furfaces in due proportions ; and repeat- ing them as there may be a neceflity. Where fuch peaty lands STE fands are of a four acid nature and quality, or contain fer- ruginous, ochry, and faline matters, the ufe of lime, or other calcareous materials in fufficient quantities, is indifpenfably neceflary for bringing them into a proper {tate of culture, and for rendering them produétive, either in the arable or rafs ftate. When they abound with ligneous matters, and ifferent coarfe vegetable produ&ts, which prevent their being made produétive, they are to be removed or reduced by burning the fuperficial parts; in which latt cafe, the afhes thus afforded may {upply earthy materials fuited to the improvement of the texture and other qualities of fuch lands. In fhort, in this bufinefs the farmer fhould conttantly fol- low, as much as he poffibly can, the leflons and methods held out to him by nature, in her means of improving different lands of this fort ; and the refult of his labours will be the rendering them permanently more beneficial by their in- creafed fertility ; by.their requiriny lefs expence in dreffings afterwards ; and by the value of the lands being for ever after greatly augmented. The particular nature and caufes of fterility in lands, have been ftated and explained in {peaking of foils. See Sort. STERILITY, formed from /rerilitas, of flerilis, barren, the quality of a thing that is barren; in oppofition to Secundity. Sterility was held a grievous affliction by the wives of the ancient patriarchs. Nature has annexed fterility to all mon- ftrous productions, that the creation might not degenerate. Hence the fterility of mules, &c. Women frequently become iterile after a mifcarriage, or a difficult labour, by reafon the uterus, or fome other of the genital parts, are injured thereby. STERIPHA, in Botany, fo named by Dr. Solander from ¢ Tt Differtation on the Sexes of Plants, with a large drop of clear fluid, which is protruded in the day time, fo as to feem in danger of falling to the ground. ‘To this the pollen adheres, rendering it turbid or flreaky, in which ftate it is re-abforbed towards evening into the-tlyle. The concave ftigma of the Violet gapes to receive the pollen; that of the Martyniais {aid to be irritable, clofing from the ftimulus of the pollen, which by that means it more furely retains. That a vital principle is inherent in the ftigma, at leatt till the ends of its formation are anfwered, we learn from an obfervation of Linnzus, in the Dillertation above alluded to. He found that this organ, in female plants of Hemp to which no pollen had accefs, remained for a long while green and vigorous, as not having had the vital principle ex- haufted ; while the ftigma of every bloflom which had been impregnated, evinced the completion of that operation, by fading and withering away. Almoit every flower, when carefully examined, confirms the truth of this remark. In thofe cafes where the flyles remain, to form a crown, or hooks, affifting in the difperfion of the feeds, the ftigmas will generally be found decayed or feparated. See GeRMEN and Sty.us. STIGMANTHUS, in Botany, a name of Loureiro’s, formed of siype, the fligma, and x+9o:, a flower, in allufion to the unufually large fize of that organ.—Loureir. Co- chinch. 146.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Juli. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf; tube fhort ; limb in five deep, long, very flender, fegments. Cor. funnel-fhaped, with a long tube: limb in five deep, ovate- oblong, {preading fegments. Stam. Filaments five, very thort, inferted below the fegments of the corolla; anthers oblong, reflexed (we prefume between the fegments). Pi/?. Germen inferior, roundifh; {tyle thread-fhaped, longer than the corolla; itigma ovate, furrowed, very large. Peric. Berry dry, comprefled, tuberculated, of one cell. Seeds numerous, oblong, angular, bony. Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Stigma furrowed, very large. Berry dry, crowned by the calyx, of one cell, with many bony feeds. 1. S. cymofus. Cay buém ring of the Cochinchinefe.— Native of woods and hills in Cochinchina.—A_ large, branching, climbing /hrué, within tendrils or thorns. Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, entire, {mooth. J’/owers white, in very large, axillary and terminal, cymes. Loureiro hints the affinity of this plant to Muffenda, from which, he fays, it differs chiefly in its feed-vetlel and ftigma. We cannot refer it to any known genus, but it ieems to range near the SoLena of Willdenow. See that article. STIGMAROTA, from /ligma, and rota, a wheel, allud- ing to the large, orbicular, toothed ftigma.—Loureir. Co- chinch. 633.—Clafs and order, Dioecta Polyandria. The name is bad, and of the genus itfelf we have not fufficient materials to form an opinion. Loureiro gives the following. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in four or five deep fegments. Corolla none. Stamens thirty. Female, Calyx in five or fix deep fegments. ‘Corolla none. Stigma wheel-fhaped, fix-cleft. Berry flefhy, with fix feeds. The f{pecies are two. _ 1. S.-Jangomas.—Stem arboreous, with branched fpines. Stalks fcattered, many-flowered.—Cultivated, and perhaps wild, in Cochinchina. This the author confiders as Jan- omas, Bont. Jav. 111, and Spina Spinarum, Rumph. Am- fan v. 7. 36. t. 19. f. 1, 2. He therefore rightly obferves, that the latter fynonym can have no reference to Cariffa /pi- narum, Linn. Mant. 559. STs 2. S. africana.—Stem fhrubby, with fimple fpineg. Flowers folitary, terminal. STIGMATA, in Natural Hiflory, the apertures in dif- ferent parts of the bodies of infeéts communicating with the trachex, or air-veflels, and ferving for the office of re{piration. Nature has given to thefe minute animals a much larger number of trachee and bronchia, than to us. We have the ramifications of the trachea reaching no farther than into the breaft, whereas, in the bodies oF thefe infedts, we find them extended through the whole, and finely and ad- mirably interlaced with one another. We have but one mouth to ref{pire by ; and the organization of the parts, in- fervient to refpiration, is very admirable in us; but in the infe& clafs, the mouths or openings to breathe at, are much more numerous, and the organization much more complex. All the two-winged and four-winged flies, which have a fingle or undivided corcelet, to which their legs are all fixed, have alfo four ftigmata in that corcelet, two on each fide. They have them alfo on the rings of their body, but thofe on the corcelet are the mott confiderable. Of the four on the corcelet, the two anterior ones are ufually the largeft. The bett way to find them, in the ge- nerality of flies, is to examine them firlt in the larger fpecies of the libelle, where they are very diftin& and plain, and after their fituation is welt known in that {pecies, they will be much the more readily found in the reft. : Thefe ftigmata of the corcelet, as well the anterior, as the pofterior, are oblong, and placed obliquely to the length of the body; that end of them next the head is more ele- vated than the other, and their fize is fufficiently large to render them vifible, efpecially the firft pair. Each of thefe feems not a little to refemble a fea-mufcle with its fhells a little open, or is fomewhat like the opening of aneye. It is alfo furrounded by two eye-lids, proportionably thick ; and befide thefe, which make its outer circumference, one may difcover two others within, which are bordered with hairs, and which, when clofed, often quite fhut up the opening. The colour of the ftigmata often is fome help alfo to us for the difcovery of them; they are very frequently different in colour from the corcelet ; fome are yellowifh, others of a coffee colour, or fome degree of a fallow.colour, in flies whofe corcelet is brown, or black, or blueifh. Flies have, befide thefe, feveral ftigmata alfo in the rings of ‘their bodies, perhaps in every one of them, though com- monly thofe in the two or three firft are only to be diftin- guifhed ; thefe are not like thofe of the corcelet, but are round, ufually a little eminent above the reft of the furface, and refembling pins’ heads; they are not eafily difcovered, becaufe they are not only {mall, but ufually hid by the folds, or commiflures of the rings. They are ufually two on each ring, placed on the two oppofite fides, and partly under the belly.» Reaumur, Haft. In. vol. iv. p. 248. Malpighi firit difcovered, that thofe eighteen openings, which are placed nine cr each fide of the caterpillar, and which are called by the name of fligmata, fetve to give re{piration to this clafs of ammals. M. Reaumur repeated his experiments, and made feveral new ones; and he con- cluded that thefe apertures ferved only for the infpiration of the air, which the caterpillar afterwards expired through the whole fuperficies of its body, becaufe he could never obferve that any bubbles of air were ever driven out of thefe fligmata: but Mr. Bonnet, on the contrary, having feen bubbles of air coming out of thefe openings, was led to infer that the in{pired air was alfo refpired or difcharged through thefe fame orifices; and he is of opinion that no part 5rd pes of it is expired pak the pores of the body. From everal experiments he alfo inferred, that of the eighteen ‘ftigmata with which the caterpillar is furnifhed, the two anterior and the two pofterior ones are of greater ufe for refpiration than any 3 the others. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. Pp: he &e. TIGMATA, in Antiquity, certain marks imprefled on the left fhoulder of the foldiers when lifted. ‘See Sriama- TIZING. _SticMATA were alfo a kind of notes, or abbreviations, confilting only of points, difpofed various ways; as in tri- angles, faite crofles, &c. Stigmata is alfo a term introduced by the Francifvans to exprefs the marks, or prints, of our Saviour’s wounds, faid to have been miraculoufly imprefled by him on the body of their feraphic father, St. Francis. A folemn fealt was hereupon appointed to be annually celebrated in memory of the miracle, called «the fealt of the ftigmata of St. Francis ;?? and a peculiar mafs or office was compofed for the fame. An archi-confraternity was ereted on the fame occafion, by Frid. Pizzi, a Roman furgeon, in the year 1594. STIGMATICI, among the Romans, were fervants marked in the face for fome crime. STIGMATIZING, among the Ancients, was infli&ted upon flaves as a punifhment, but more frequently as a mark to know them by ; in which cafe it was done by applying a red-hot iron, marked with certain letters, forming the name _ or fome peculiar charaéter Sere to their matters, to their foreheads till a fair impreflion was made, and then pouring ink into the furrows, that the infcription might be the more confpicuous. Soldiers were branded in the hand with the name or cha- rater of their general. _ After the fame manner it was cultomary to ftigmatize the worthippers and votaries of fome of the gods. The marks ufed on thefe occafions were various ; fometimes they con- tained the name of the god, fometimes his particular enfign, as the thunderbolt of Jupiter, the trident of Neptune, the ivy of Bacchus, &c. or they marked themfelves with fome myftical number, by which the god’s name was defcribed. To thefe three ways of fligmatizing St. John is fuppofed to refer. (Rev. chap. xii. ver. 16, 17.) ‘Theodoret is of opinion, that the Jews were forbidden to brand themfelves with ftigmata, becaufe the idolaters, by that ceremony, ufed to confecrate themfelves to their falle gods. Among fome nations, {tigmatizing was confidered as a diftinguifhed mark of honour and nobility. In Thrace, az Herodotus tells us (lib. v.), it was practifed by none but perfons of credit, nor admitted by any but perfons of the meaneft rank. The ancient Britons are alfo faid to have imprinted on the bodies of their infants the figures of animals, and other marks, with hot irons. Potter Arch. Grec. tom. i. p- 64, &c. * STIGSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Anger- manland, feated on a river which runs into the gulf of ’ Bothnia; 8 miles W. of Hernofand. STIKKESHOLM, a place on the fouth coalt of Ice- land, fituated at the extremity of a {mall peninfula, clofe to the fea, amidit abruptly precipitous rocks, fome of which are columnar. Near the ifthmus, which is pafled in entering this peninfula, is a hamlet, called « Helgafel,” or the Holy Hill, from its fituation on an eminence, with which certain fuperftitious ideas and ufages were anciently connefted. On this {pot was eftablifhed one of the earlieit of thofe fettle- ments which the Norwegian emigrants made upon the coatts ST 1 of Iceland. The accefs to Stikkefholm affords feveral fine views of the ** Breidé-Fiord,’’? which is here completely {tudded with {mall rocky iflands, amounting in number to about 150. Many of thefe iflands contain great numbers of eider-ducks. The houfes are large, and, as well as the {lore-houfes and cottages, belonged (in 1810) to Mr. Thor- lacius, a native of the country, and reputed the richeft man in Iceland. Before the war between England and Den- mark, Stikkefholm was a place of confiderable traffic. The fifhery, which begins earlier than in the Faxé-Fiord, was very produétive. During the early part of Sunday, the occupations of the people in this place were fufpended, and many of them went to the neighbouring church at Helgafel; but at fix o’clock in the evening, the ftore- houfes were again opened, and the inhabitants of the place, refuming their common drefles, went to work as ufual. This is alfo the cafe in every part of the country. The fabbath of the Icelanders, according to the ecclefiaftical law of the ifland, begins at fix o’clock on Saturday evening, and terminates at the fame hour on Sunday. The females of the family at Stikkefholm, as well as thofe of the higher clafs of people in other places, did not fit at the table, when the travellers, to whofe account we now refer, were eating their meals. The malter of the houfe always faluted his lady, when he rofe from the table. Mackenzie’s Travels in Iceland in 1810. 3 STIL de Grain, in the Colour Trade, the name of a compofition ufed for painting in oil or water, and is made of a decoétion of the lycium, or Avignon berry, in alum- water, which is mixed with whiting into a paile, and formed into twifled fticks. It ought to be chofen of a fine gold yellow, very fine, tender, and friable, and free from dirt. STILAGO, in Botany, Linn. Mant. 16.. Jufl. 443. Schteb. Gen. 608, 836.. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.. 4.714. Mart. Mill, Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 367, was fo called perhaps from the fuppofed permanency of its ftyle. The name and the genus, however, require to be abolithed, the charaéters, except that of the erry from Rumphius, having been taken from aepecimen in the Linnzan her- barium, which proves merely the male plant of Antide/ma alexiteria. (See AntipEsMA.) Indeed the Stilago diandra, Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. t. 166, moft evidently agrees in genus with his Antide/ma pubefcens, t. 167. We cannot account for their being kept feparate by the learned editor, who well knew what Stilago was. Still more wonderful is it that Noeli tali, Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 4. t. 56, fhould be quoted by Willdenow, without any remark, for both Stilago Bunius and Antidefma alexiteria. We cannot deny the accidental propriety of this citation, they being, though the author did not know it, one and the fame lant. . STILARO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs into the gulf of Squillace, N. lat. 38° 21’. E. long. 16° sol. STILBE, in Botany, sin, fplendour, an idea not very fuitable to this genus, whofe habit is like that of fome of the les confpicuous Proteacee. Perhaps it alludes to the fhining cafe of the feed. — Berg. Cap. 30. Linn. Mant. 165. Schreb. Gen. 737. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 1116. Mart. Mill. Diét. v. 4. Juff. 418. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 856.— Clafs and order, Polygamia Dioecia; rather Tetrandria Monogynia, near Globularia, Nat. Ord. uncertain. Gen. Ch. Cail. Perianth inferior, double; the outer of three lanceolate, fpreading, pointed leaves; inner of one leaf, tubular, five-toothed, at length hardened. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube the length of the sae : im S Tl limb in four or five linear-lanceolate, nearly equal, decp fegments. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, interted into the throat of the tube, longer than the limb, fomewhat un- equal in length; anthers heart-fhaped, obtufe. Pi. Ger- men fuperior, ovate; flyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; fligma acute. Peric. none, except the inner calyx become cartilaginous, inclofing the feed, and falling off with it. Seed folitary. Some plants are faid to bear only male flowers. Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, double; the outer of three leaves ; inner five-toothed, cartilaginous. Corolla funnel- fhaped. Capfule of one cell and one valve, feparating entire from the bafe. Seed folitary. 1. S. pinaflra. Pine-leaved Stilbe. Linn. Mant. 305. Willd. n.1. Thunb. Prodr. 29. (S. veftita; Berg. Cap. 30. t. 4. f. 6. Selago pinattra; Linn. Sp. Pl. 876.)— Leaves lanceolate, pungent, revolute. Spikesere&. Limb of the corolla hairy.—Native of the banks of rivulets, at the Cape of Good Hope. It feems unknown in the gar- dens of Europe. Commelin’s Valerianella, Hort. Amit. v. 2. t. 110, furely can have nothing to do with this plant. The flem is fhrubby, with many {lraight, round, upright branches, denfely clothed with whorled, fpreading, afcend- ing, rigid, pale, lanceolate, revolute, entire, {mooth eaves, half an inch or more in length; dotted above; on fhort broad ftalks. Spikes terminal, feffile, folitary, ereét, ob- long; with a draéea under each flower, refembling the leaves, but fhorter and broader. We have never feen.the flowers in perfe&tion, which Bergius defcribes as white. We are not without fufpicion of his having, as well as Lin- neus, confounded two fpecies, one with longer whiter hairs upon the corolla, and fhorter lefs pungent /eaves, than what his plate reprefents. 2. S. cernua. Draoping Stilbe. Linn. Suppl. 441. Willd. n. 2. Thunb. Prodr. 2z9.— Leaves prifmatic, abrupt, with a fmall point. Spikes drooping. Limb of the corolla fmooth.—Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good Hope. The /eaves are only four in each whorl, not fix, as in the foregoing. Their form is triangular or prifmatic, with a funk rib. Spikes fhorter than the latt, recurved, with much larger flowers, whofe limb has only four fegments, all {mooth, lanceolate, and acute. 3. S. ericoides. Heath-leaved Stilbe. Linn. Mant. 305. Willd. n. 3. Thunb. Prodr. 29. (Selago ericoides ; Linn. Mant. 87.)—Leaves ovate. Spikes ere&t. Limb of the corolla {mooth.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. A much fraller /orub than either of the preceding, with {mall /eaves, like fome Heath or Thyme, imbricated in four rows, ovate, thick, {mooth,. with a fingular lanceolate keel, lodged in a furrow. Spikes fhort and ere. Flowers apparently purplifh. Ca/yx fringed with white wool. No figure is extant of this or the lait, nor have they appeared in any garden. STILBITE, in Mineralogy. See ZEOLITE. The French mineralogilts, after Haiiy, have divided the mineral called zeolite into two fpecies, mefotype and ftil- bite. ‘I'he latter is often called nacry zeolite, being dif- tinguifhed by its nacry luftre. ‘The properties of this mineral will be defcribed, with the other varieties of zeolite, under that article. STILBOSPORA, in Botany, from s:x8w, to fhine, and exoeo:, feed.—Perf. Obf. Mycol. fafc. 1. 31. Syn. 96.— Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi. EN, Ch. Seeds, or feed-cafes, naked, imbedded col- JeGtively in a black fubfance, flowing from the branches of trees, ' This cannot but feem a very doubtful genus of the vege- STI table kingdom, though not more obfcure than the Chaos of Linnzus, or the Hydatid of Hunter, amongft animals, Perfoon remarks that there is no /pherula, or capfular re- ceptacle, as in Spumria (fee that article); and that a compound microfcope is neceflary for the determination of the different fhapes of thofe minute granular bodies, which he knows not whether to call /eed-veffels, or feeds, or per- haps duds, all forming, to the naked eye, one uniform black mafs. He defines fix fpecies. 1. S. afterofperma. (S. alterofpora; Hoffm. Germ. v. 2. t. 13. f. 3.) —Cales ftellated.—This appears in the form of varioufly-fhaped black fpots, under the cuticle of trees, and is found, under a high magnifier, to contain numerous, compaét, radiated bodies, compofed of oblong pods, crofling each other, and divided internally into three or four cells. 2. S. macrofperma. Perf. Difp. Meth. Fung. 14. t. 3. f. 13. —Cafes elongated, cylindrical.—Perfoon. 3. S. ovata. Perf. Obf. Mycol. fafe. 1. 31. t. 2. 1. 2. (S. pyriformis ; Hoffm. Germ. v. 2. t. 13. f. 2.) —Cafes? or feeds? ovate.—On the trunks of beech. The fhape is exa&ly oval, but no diftiné partitions, or cells, are dif- cernible, according to Perfoon, though Hoffman’s figure feems to exprefs them. " 4. S. anguflata. Perf. Syn. n. 4.—Seeds minute, ovate, inclining to cylindrical. — Intermediate between the laft and the following, nearly agreeing in minutenefs with the latter. 5. S. microfperma. Perf. Obf. Mycol. fafc. 1. 31. t. 2, f. 3.—Seeds minute, unequally ovate, rather acute at each end.—On branches of beech, or the bark of Betula alba, &c. Various in form, roundifh, ovate, or oblong, deftitute of partitions. 6. S. fpherofperma. Perf. Obf. Mycol. fafe. 1. 3r. t. 1. f, 6.—Seeds minute, globofe.—Found on the {tems of the Common Reed, Arundo phragmites, appearing to have run out of fiflures inthe ftraw, and fometimes colleG@ted into round fpots. ; STILBUM, from siA90:,. /hining, a genus of fungi, which Perfoon in his Synopfis, p. 680, thus defines. Eil. Ch. Little, {talked, mucor-like fungi; with a roundifh folid head, at firft watery or gelatinous, becoming generally opaque, or turbid, as it ripens. “de He defines fixteen {pecies, found on rotten wood, of which the moft confpicuous and remarkable is the firlt. S. hirfutum. Perf. Difp. Meth. Fung. 39. Hoffm, Germ. t. 10. f. 2.—Permanent. Stalk yellowifh, rough with ftraight upright hairs—A pretty fpecies, found rarely on rotten trunks of trees. This is among the largeft of its genus, and may even be dried and preferved, The briftly afpe&t of the //a/é, one or two lines in height, readily dif- tinguifhes it. : We cannot perceive why this genus may not be compre- hended under Mucor. See that article. f STILE, and Stitus. See Sty.r. Srivz, in Rural Economy, the name of a well-known contrivance for the admiffion of foot-paffengers, without permitting the {tock of the inclofures to get through, Stiles are made in very different forms and manners, in dif. ferent diftriéts, according to the nature of the materials, fituations, and purpofes for which they are intended. But they may be more clearly underftood, by a fhort defcription of them. Where ftones are in ufe, a {tile of a very fimple conftruétion is formed, by having at the bottom a thin flat ftone fet up edge-ways, to prevent fheep, ‘and other {mall animals, getting out ; and above there is a long crofs itone or bar fixed, to prevent horfes or cattle jumping over. Another ftile of a fimple conftru@tion, and which is well calculated STI calculated for fituations where the traffic is not great, is formed by having ftepping-ftones fixed in the fides of the wall. In the Corni/b ftile, the foundation is a ftone-wall, in which 2 gap is left, and ftones are laid acrofs a ditch of fome depth, made lengthways in the gap: the foot-paf- fengers _ on the ftones, but four-footed animals mifs them, and fall into the ditch. Where wood is employed in forming ftiles, they have many differeat forms, according to the nature of the fitua- tions, and the ingenuity of the workmen who conftru@ them. Common ities of this fort are made with two framed pieces of timber fet upright, part of them parallel to each other, leaving fufficient {pace for a perfon to pafs between them; and by a fort of upright railing fet firmly into the ground, with fteps fixed through it towards the bottom part, by means of which the paffengers are enabled to get over. There is likewife the wicket {tile, which has fome- what the form of a {mall gate, {winging between two other fimilar frames, which are fet faft into the ground in an an- gular manner ; and the regular ftep-form, with a rail. It is probable, too, that there are other different kinds and forms in ufe in different places. Stites, in Carpentry, denote alfo the upright pieces which go from the bottom to the top in any wainf{cot, or the like. STILFRIED, in Geography, a town of Auttria; 7 miles N.E. of Weikendorff. STILI, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago. N, lat. 37,25: E. long. 22° 49/. STILICHO, in Biography, a commander who diftin- guifhed himfelf in the decline of the Roman empire, was of Vandal origin, and the fon of an officer of cavalry in the fervice of the emperor Valens. Brought up to arms, he _rofe rapidly Sanne terns gradations to the pott of malter- general of the cavalry and infantry of the Roman, or at leaft of the Weftern, empire. He accompanied Theodofius in all his wars, and maintained the Roman dignity in ratifying a treaty with the king of Perfia. On his return, he married Serena, the niece and adopted daughter of Theodofius. Although Rufinus, who was the confidential minifter of Theodofius, was jealous of Stilicho, and wifhed to depre- ciate him in the eftimation of the emperor, he was counter- aéted by the influence of Stilicho’s wife; fo that be was with the emperor at the time of his death in 395, and en- trufted by him with the guardianfhip of his two fons, Ar- cadius and Honorius. ‘The latter, who had the Weftern ner for his fhare, appointed Stilicho for his prime mi- nifter ; and he began his adminiftration by renewing the an- cient alliances of ae Romans with the German nations, and eftablifhed peace. In 397, Stilicho reforted to the fuccour of Greece, which was ravaged by Alaric. Having either neglefted or betrayed his truft, by fuffering Alaric to efeape, he was obliged to withdraw from Greece, and was declared at Conftantinople a public enemy, with confifca- tion of all his eftates in the Eait. Stilicho exerted himfelf with vigour in recovering Africa, which had revolted from the Weltern empire; and acquired new influence by the - marriage of his daughter, Maria, to the young emperor, Honorius :—an union elegantly celebrated by Claudian, the perpetual panegyrift of Stilicho. When the timid Honorius was alarmed by the irruption of Alaric into Italy in the year 403, and was difpofed to quit Milan, the feat of his ment, and to retire to one of the Gallic provinces, tilicho oppofed this, difgraceful meafure, and colleGing a powerful force, vanquifhed the Goths at Pollentia, and obliged them to retreat: neverthelefs Alaric, breaking through the paflage of the Apennines with his cavalry, Nie a | {pread an alarm that reached even Rome, {fo that Stilicho advifed the purchafe of his retreat from Italy with a fum of money. When Alaric had finally departed, the policy of Stilicho was publicly arraigned for faflecine him to efcape. In 406, Italy was again invaded by a valt multitude of bar- barians, who penetrated as far as T’lorence, laid fiege to the city, and reduced it to preat diftrefs. Stilicho haftened to the relief of the befieged, difperfed the barbarians, forced them to furrender, and put to death their commander, Radagaifus, who had been taken prifoner. Although Italy was again delivered by Stilicho, Alaric ftill remained at the head of new levies of Goths, and other barbarian’ warriors, Stilicho, either from motives of perfonal ambi- tion, or of {tate neceflity, entered into a negociation with Alaric, by virtue of which he was declared malter-general of the Roman armies in Lllyricum. Whillt Stilicho was forming a purpofe of leading an army of Romans and Goths to Conftantinople, and concurring with Alaric in making an extravagant demand upon Ravenna, the feeble-minded Honorius was conneéting himfelf with a new favourite, who fucceeded in impreffing the mind of the emperor with alarms of the treafonable intentions of Stilicho, Honorius determined to vifit the camp at Pavia; and foon after his arrival at it, a pretext was formed for maflacring all the friends of Stilicho, who occupied diftinguifhed nalts in the army and ftate. Stilicho received intelligence of this mea- fure at Bologna; and a council, which Ke fummoned, ad- vifed him to march immediately, and revenge the flaughter of his friends. Whilft he was hefitating, a Gothic chief rufhed into his camp, killed his guard, and penetrated into his tent, whence he had but juft time enough to efcape. Flying to Ravenna, he took fanétuary in a Chriftian church; but being deceived by count Heraclian, who ap- peared at the gates with a body of troops, and confiding in his oath that he meant only to fecure him, furrendered himfelf into their hands. Upon this the treacherous count produced an order for his immediate execution, to which he fubmitted with a firmnefs becoming the military chara¢ter which he had acquired. His fon Eucherius was foon after apprehended, and put to death; and his daughter Ther- mantia, who had fucceeded her filter in the imperial bed, was divorced. Stilicho’s furviving friends were cruelly tor- tured, in order to procure the confeffion of a fuppofed con- {piracy againft the emperor; but they fuffered in filence. This cataftrophe occurred in the year 408. The apparent piety of Olympius, the new favourite of Honorius, has in- duced the ecclefiaftical hiftorians to treat the memory of Stilicho with great feverity; but Zofimus, though upon the whole not favourable to him, acquits him of the treafon laid to his charge; and the poetry of Claudian eulogizes Sow the hero of his age. Univ. Hift. Gibbon’s Rom. ift. STILL, the name of an apparatus ufed in diftillation. See Disrmttarion and Lasoratory. See alfo ALEm- bic, Retort, Worm, &c. Dr. Lewis has contrived a ftill, adapted to his portable furnaces, which is fufficient for the purpofes of an experi- mental laboratory. The body of the ftillkis a wide copper pan; and, for diftillation in a water-bath, another veflel of the fame figure is received into it almoft'to the top, the fpace between them being nearly filled with water. Both thefe veflels are of the fame width at the mouth, and either may be ufed asa ftill equally wich the other: either of them ferves alfo, on other occafions, as an evaporating pan, a boiler for experiments in dyeing, and other like purpofes, All the parts are made of thin copper plate, and well tinned on the infide with pure tin. In confequence of their thinnefs, Sar «l thinnefs, they admit of fome alteration of their figure about the edges, fo that though they fhould not be perfeétly round, they are readily accommodated to one another, and fit clofe: the junéture is eafily made perfeétly tight, by applying round it narrow flips of moiltened bladder, which are more convenient than luting, as being readily {tripped off when the operation is finifhed. A fhort pewter pipe, with a pewter {topper fitted to it, for returning the diftilled liquor, or pouring frefh liquor occafionally into the ftill, without the trouble of unluting and feparating the veilels, is foldered into the top of the head, which, in thefe kinds of inttruments, is the moft convenient place for it. For feparating, by diftillation, {pirituous from watery liquors, or the reétification of {pirit of wine, the head is raifed, by inferting between it and the breaft, a thin copper pipe about two feet long. A worm and refrigeratory are necef- fary, as for the common ftill; and a glafs head is requifite for fome ufes, particularly for the diftillation of vinegar, and fuch other liquors as would corrode a copper one, and impregnate themfelves with the metal; in which cafe, the ufe of the metalline worm alfo is to be avoided, and the glafs or {tone-ware receiver joined to the pipe of the head. Lewis’s Com. of Arts, p. 9, 10. Srixx-Bottoms, in the Diftillery, a name given by the traders to what remains in the ftill, after the working of the wafh into low wines. a Thefe bottoms are procured in the greatett quantity from the malt wafh, and are of fo much value to the diftiller in the fattening of hogs, &c. that he often finds them one of the mott valuable articles of the bufinefs. They might alfo be put to other ufes, fuch as the affording of a large pro- portion of an acid {pirit, an oil, a fuel, and a fixed falt ; and with fome addrefs, and good management, a vinegar and a tartar. Another very advantageous ufe of them, is the adding of them to the next brewing of the malt for more {pirit: the increafe of the produce from this is more than could eafily be conceived. It alfo more readily difpofes the new wath to ferment, and gives the {pirit a vinofity that it cannot have without it; the proportion, in this cafe, can never exceed that of a fifth or fixth part of the whole quan- tity of the liquor employed. The liquor left behind in the ftill, after the re&tifying of the low wines into proof-fpirit, is alfo called by fome by the name of {till-bottoms; but this is little more than mere phlegm, or water impregnated with a few acid, and fome oily parts, not worth feparating, unlefs for curiofity. The liquor left in the ftill, after the reétifying of the proof-fpirit into alcohol, is alfo of the fame kind. The bottoms of molafles fpirits feem calculated for many ufes. It is very probable that the vinegar-makers would find their account in trying them, and the {trong and lating yellow colour with which they tinge the hands may recom- mend them to the dyers. A fmall proportion of them, added to the new treacle to be fermented, greatly promotes the operation, and increafes the quantity of {pirit. The bottoms of the wine fpirit, that is, the remainder after diftilling the {pirituous part from damaged wines, or wine- lees, may be brought to afford Mr. Boyle’s acid fpirit of wine, and that fubftance, called by Becher the media /ub- flantia vini. A parcel of tartar may alfo be procured in very great perfeGtion ; and the laft remainder may be con- verted into excellent and genuine falt of tartar. The liquor may otherwife be ferviceable in making vinegar and white lead. Shaw’s Effay on Diftillery. Sritt-Houfe. The Dutch have much the advantage of ug in the ftru@ture of their ftill-houfes, and have every thing STI in great readinefs and neatnefs. ‘Che general rules in build- ing thefe houfes fhould be thefe : The firft caution is to lay the floor aflope, not flat, where any wet work is to be performed: it fhould alfo be well flagged with broad ftones, fo that no wet be detained in the crevices, but all may run off, and be let out at the drains made at the bottom and fides. The ftills fhould be placed abreaft on that fide of the itill- houfe to which the floor has its current. The largett ftills in Holland, for their greateft works, are never of that mon- {trous fize which are con{truéted in England, but much more manageable and convenient, as feldom containing more than fix or eight hogfheads; and with fuch ftills a fingle hand will perform more bufinefs than with one of a much larger fize. Fronting the ttills, and adjoining to the back wall, fhould be a ftage for holding the fermenting backs, and thefe being placed at a proper height, may empty them-~ felves, by means of a cock and a canal, into the ftills, which are thus charged with very little trouble. Near this fet of fermenting backs fhould be placed a pump,or two, that may readily fupply them with water by means of atrunk or canal, leading to each back. Under the pavement adjoining to the ftills fhould be a kind of cel- lar, wherein to lodge the receivers, each of which fhould be furnifhed with its pump, to raife the low wines into the {till for rectification ; and through this cellar the refufe wafh, or {till-bottoms, fhould be difcharged by means of a hofe, or other contrivance. Thefe are the principal things to be regarded in the erecting of a itill-houfe for the original pro- duétion of {pirits ; and if thefe rules are well obferved, malt- fpirit will be made with little more trouble than molafles ; for by this means the bufinefs of brewing and cooling the wath, which, according to the method generally praétifed in England, takes up fo much time and trouble, is entirely faved, fermentation 1s carried on toa a much greater advan- tage, and the quantity of fpirit increafed. Shaw’s Effay on Dittillery. STILLATITIOUS Orrts, are fuch as are procured by diftillation, in oppofition to thofe got by infufion, expref- fion, &c. STILLATORY. See Sriti-Houfe. STILLINGFLEET, Epwanrp, in Biography, a learned prelate of the Englifh church, was born at Cranbourn, in Dorfetfhire, in the year 1635; and, after preparatory edu- cation in the grammar-{chools of Cranbourn and Ring- wood, was eleéted in 1648 to St. John’s college, Cam- bridge. Of this college he was chofen fellow in 1653, and prefented to the re€tory of Sutton, in Bedfordfhire, in 1657, having previoufly received epifcopal ordination from. Dr. Brownrig, the deprived bifhop of Exeter. In 1659 he publifhed his ‘ Irenicum, or the Divine Right of parti- cular Forms of Church Government examined,” hoping, by this publication, to remoye the prejudices, and conciliate the attachment of thofe who were alienated from the church of England. In this treatife he maintains, that Chrift did not determine the form of the government of his church by any pofitive laws; that the apoftles adapted it to'the various circumftances of time, place, and perfons; that epifcopacy is lawful ;'that in the primitive church no invariable form of church government was adopted; and that the moft eminent divines, at the Reformation, did not conceive any one particular form to be neceflary. In a new edition of this work, in 1662, he annexed an appendix, concerning the power of excommunication in a Chriftian church. The Irenicum was highly commended for its learning and mode- ration; but the author himfelf, as bifhop Burnet fays, de- firous of avoiding the imputations of hoftility to the pe 8 : whic STILLINGFLEET. which it occafioned, retracted the book, and gave way to the humours of a high fort of people, beyond what became him, perhaps beyond his own fenfe of things. Whilit he was employed in performing the functions of a country paitor, he prefented to the public a fecond work, of exten- five learning and perfpicuous ftyle, which has been always efteemed one of the belt defences of the Chriitian religion ; and which was intitled ‘* Origines Sacre ; or a rational Ac- count of the Chrittian Faith, as to the Truth and divine Au- thority of the Scriptures, and the Matters therein con- tained ;’’ gto. This work eftablifhed his reputation asa writer, fo that he had a commiffion from Dr. Henchman, bifhop of London, to draw up a vindication of archbifhop Laud’s conference with Fither the Jefuit ; and the title of his work was, ‘‘ A rational Account of the Grounds of the Proteftant Religion ;” 1664, folio; which Dr. Tillotfon afferts to be fully anfwerable to this appellation. Soon after, he was eleted preacher at the Rolls chapel, and in 1665 prefented by the earl of Southampton to the living of St. Andrew’s, Holborn, and appointed likewife le€turer at the Temple. In 1668 he took his degree of doétor in di- vinity, diftinguifhing himfelf on the occafion by keeping an a& in which he difplayed great fluency in the Latin lan- age, and logical acutenefs. At the nomination of GSharles II., to whom he was chaplain, he was nominated canon-refidentiary of St. Paul’s, to which preferment fuc- eeeded the archdeaconry of London, and in 1678 the deanery of St. Paul’s, which was his higheft promotion during that reign, Whillt Dr. Stillingfleet was thus ad- vancing from one dignity to another in the church, he was occupied in a variety of compofitions on dotrinal and con- troverfial fubje¢ts, more particularly direéted againft the So- cinians. He alfo publifhed a number of tracts againit the Roman Catholics ; one of the firlt was “* A Difcourfe con- cerning the Idolatry practifed in the Church of Rome, and the Hazard of Salvation in the Communion of it,” 167145 which produced a great number of anfwers and replies. Although much of his time mult have been occupied in controverfial writing, he found leifure to prefent to the public “ A Letter of Refolution to a Perfon unfatistted about the Truth and Authority of the Scriptures ;’? which was confidered as an excellent piece of reafoning. He alfo preached a fermon about the time of the Popith plot, the defign of which was to unite the Diffenters in the common caufe, and to induce them to abandon their feparation from the éftablifhed church, which involved him in a contro- verly with Baxter, Owen, and others, who were not likely to acquiefce in his fundamental pofition ; that, ‘¢ fince, ac- cording to the judgment of divers among themfelves, a con- formity to our church’s worfhip was not unlawful, dy con- Sequence their feparation mutt be finful and dangerous.”” To their ftriGures on his fermon he publifhed a reply. _Dr. Stillingfleet extended his inveftigations oe beyond the limits of theological and ecclefiaftical fubjeéts; and on occafion of the impeachment of the earl of Danby, he vindi- cated the right of bifhops to vote in criminal cafes, in a trea- tife on “ The Jurifdi€tion of Bifhops in capital Cafes,”? which - proved his extenfive acquaintance with parliamentary hif- tory, as well ae ftatute and common law. A fecond work, ‘publithed in 1685, and entitled “ Origines Britannice, or the Antiquities of the Britifh Churches,’’ gave an ample view of the origin and progrefs of Chriftian churches in Britain, fince the firlt istrodu€tion of Chriftianity in the ifland to the con- yerfion of the Saxons. In this refearch, Stillingfleet had been preceded by the learned archbifhop Uther, in his work “ De Ecclefiarum Britannicarum Primordus.’”? King James having initituted an ecclefiaftical commiffion, fummoned VoL. XXXIV. Stillingfleet, who had long been prolocutor of the Lower Houfe of Convocation, to appear before it ; on which occa- fion he drew up a ‘ Difcourfe concerning the Illegality of the Ecclefiaftical Commiflion, in anfwer to the Vindication and Defence of it,” which was not publifhed till the year 1689. : At the Reyolution, the fervices rendered by Dr. Stilling- fleet to the eftablifhed church were recompenfed by the bithopric of Worcetter, to which fee he was confecrated in O&ober 1689; in which high {tation he was fedulous in the difcharge of the duties of his office, and in defending the rights of his order by his {peeches in parliament. On the death of archbifhop Tillotfon, in 1694, the queen is faid to have wifhed for the advancement of Stillingfleet to the fee of Canterbury, but the Whigs oppofed it, from an appre- henfion ‘ that both his notions and his temper were toe high.” The bifhop again engaged in controverfial divinity againit the Socinians and Unitarians: and in a treatife in- titled «« A Vindication of the Trinity, with an Anfwer to the late Objections againft it from Scripture, Antiquity, and Reafon,”? he introduced fome animadverfions on Locke’s Effay on the Human Underttanding, under an appre- henfion that the definition of fubltance, and the account of ideas contained in that work, were unfavourable to the doc- trine of the Trinity. The philofopher replied to the pre- late, who is thought on this occafion to-have fuftained a ees An edition of his 50 fermons appeared in 1707, olio. Dr. Stillingfleet injured his conftitution, which was natu- rally ttrong, by his {tudious and fedentary life; fo that repeat- ed attacks of the gout terminated his life on March 27th, 1699, after he had nearly completed his 64th year. He had been twice married, and had feveral children, three of whom furvived him. His remains were interred in the cathedral of Worcelter, where a monument was ereéted to his me- mory, with a Latin infcription by his chaplain, the cele- brated Dr. Bentley, in the high ftyle of panegyric, part of which has been thought to exceed even the juft encomiums to which this prelate was intitled. The bifhop, who had a good perion, and a lofty temper, fomewhat moderated by good fenfe and a knowledge of the world, had collected a noble library, which was purchafed, after his death, by Dr. Marfh, archbifhop of Armagh, as the foundation of a public library at Dublin. Biog. Brit. STILLINGFLEET, BENJAMIN, grandfon of the bifhop of the fame name, and fon of Edward Stillingfleet, M. D., who loft his father’s favour by marriage, and afterwards taking orders, fettled upon a living in Norfolk. Benjamin was born about the year 1702, and after a previous education at Nor- wich {chool, was entered, in 1720, at Trinity college, Cam- bridge, of which Dr. Bentley was then matter ; who, forget- ting his obligations to the family, procured the rejeGtion of young Stillingfleet, when candidate for a fellowfhip. We may naturally imagine that the difappointed candidate fhould feel refentment at fuch condu&, for which it is difficult to devife a fufficient apology. ‘The fubjeét of our memoir left college, and travelled to the continent ; and upon his return, pafled an unambitious life, which was chiefly devoted to the itudy of books and nature. Under the patronage of lord Barrington, he obtained the polt of barrack-matter at Kenfington. To Mr. Windham, of Felbrig, Norfolk, he was more fubjtantially indebted, being often refident at his houfe, and receiving from him an annuity, which was confiderably augmented when he became Mr. Wind- ham’s executor. He is well known as the author of feveral pieces in profe and verfe, particularly for an ‘“ Effay on Converfation,”’? which was publifhed in the firft volume of Cc Dodfley’s STILLINGFLEET. Dodfley’s Colle&ion of Poems; and alfo from a volume of “ Mifcellaneous Traéts,’’ printed in 1759, and confifting chiefly of tranflations from Linneus’s Amecenitates Aca- demicez. To this work were annexed valuable “ Obferva- tions on Grafles,”’ and alfo a “ Calendar of Flora,’’ formed upon a fuggeftion of the Swedifh naturalift, and adapted to this climate. The poet Gray, with whom he became ac- quainted, mentions him in one of his letters, dated in 1761, in the following terms: “ I have lately made an acquaintance with this philofopher, who lives in a garret in the winter, that he may fupport fome near relations who depend upon him. He is always employed, confequently, according to my old maxim, always happy, always cheerful, and feems to me a worthy honeft man. His prefent fcheme is to fend fome perfons, properly qualified, to refide in Attica, to make themfelves acquainted with the climate, produétions, and natural hittory of the country, that we may underftand Ariltotle, Theophraftus, &c. who have been heathen Greek to us for fo many ages.” It is obferved, that the term garret ued by Gray is rather a difparagement of Stilling- fleet’s town-lodgings at a fadler’s in Piccadilly, where he died in 1771, at the age of 69. He ordered all his papers to be deltroyed at his deceafe. Gen. Biog: This ingenious, learned, and worthy man, was well ac- quainted with the theory of mufic by reading and medi- tation, and with the practice by hearing all the bett per- formers in Italy during his travels, and intimacy with Mr. Price of Foxley, Mr. Tate of Mitcham, and Mr. Smith, the difciple and fucceflor of Handel in carrying on the oratorios, for whom Mr. Stillingfleet wrote new facred dramas, which he fet and had performed in turn with thofe of Handel. His work, intitled «* Principles and Power of Harmony,” the molt clear, agreeable, and interefting tra&t on a dark, obfcure, and f{peculative fubject that we know, is nothing more than a commentary on the theoretical writings of the celebrated Tartini. It has been often obferved with truth, that theory and praétice are more frequently at ftrife in mufic than in any other art. Thofe who treat mufic merely as a fcience, without poflefling the pra€tical part, are natu- rally contraéted in their ideas, and ufelefs to profeffors : and, on the contrary, mere practical mufictans, who have feldom had either education or leifure to qualify themfelves on the fide of learning, produce nothing but crude and in- digeited reveries, which a man of talte in literature difdains to read. That this has been the cafe with fome of the moft able pra¢tical muficians, we can, from our own knowledge, affert. They have the ambition of pafling for men of {cience ; they {peak of Greek writers without Greek ; of arithmetical proportions without figures; of ratios without geometry ; and equations without algebra, ‘The late Dr. Pepufch, a man of great learning, and of univerfal reading in mufical compo- fitions, attempted to explain the Greek fyftems ; but ab- ftrufe calculations being neceflary in the bufinefs, he had recourfe to his friend De Moivre, who was no mutfician, and underftood the door as little as the doétor underftood Euclid: they never met without a quarrel; for as each would talk about what he did not underftand, each muft by turns have been abfurd. The fame thing happened in France between the famous Rameau and d’Alembert ; at Padua, between Tartini and Padre Colombo, his friend, the pro- feffor of mathematics in that univerfity. The work of which we are now f{peaking, however, feems free from fuch objeétions ; as it was written by no half fcholar or fhallow mufician; but by one poflefled of all the requifites for fuch a tafk. In the author’s commentary on Tartini’s firft chapter, he explains clearly the now well-known phenomenon of a fingle {tring or found producing its own harmony, upon which Rameau has built his fyftem of a fundamental bafe. (See Basse Fondamentale.) The author, in the hiftory of this difcovery, traces it no farther than the time of Mer- fennus, with whom he leaves it; but it feems to have been long known before his time, as the organ is conftruéted upon the fame principle ; the ftops of that inftrument being proportioned to each other in the fame manner as the founds above-mentioned, which are generated by a fingle {tring or tone: when the {tops, known by the names of the diapafon, principal, r2th, 15th, and tierce, are drawn out, every fingle key of an organ gives the complete chord, as, when G only is ftruck, and it is imagined that no other founds are mixed with it, wind is conveyed to the pipes G, g, d, g, b, &c. But the principal phenomenon upon which Tartini builds his fyttem, was quite new, and difcovered by himfelf. It is that of the third found produced in the medium by the concurrence of two founds that can be fuftained for any time upon one or two inftruments, as trumpets, horns, flutes, hautbois, two violins, or one in double ftops, two founds on the organ, with only the open diapafon out, &c. a third found will be heard, which is its true fundamental bafe. See Trerzo Suono, where thefe invifible bafes will be f{pe- cified to every interval, but chiefly thofe that are confonant. Tartini’s fecond chapter concerning the circle, its nature and fignification in harmonics, Mr. Stillingfleet examines with great candour, and fome pleafantry. It is in the third chapter that Tartini unfolds his mufical fyftem, and treats of concords and difcords, their nature and definition. ‘The commentator’s remarks on this chapter are very folid and luminous. The fourth chapter of Tartini gives the origin of the mu- fical fcale and genera, their ufe and confequences. In our author’s commentary upon this important chapter, he ac- quits himfelf with great dexterity, and proves that he is not only profound in the theory of found, but endowed with nice feelings, and of great experience and obfervation, with refpe@ to pratical mufic. But though we admire the ingenuity of Tartini in tracing the origin of the o¢tave in modern mufic, and think, with his commentator, that it is not implanted in our nature, as it is never fung by any people out of Europe (nor would it feem fo eafy and natural there, if it were not for the bells and church finging in almott every Chriftian town and village, which infenfibly teach intervals and the feale to every one that has a voice and an ear from early childhood) ; we regard the gammut, and its o¢taves and fcales, as the mufical alphabet ; and nature never teaches an alphabet to the natives of the moft civilized and polifhed country any more than to favages. Our author’s praife of the harp, and wifhes that there were better mufic for it than old and vulgar Welth tunes, would have been highly gratified, had he hved a few years longer ; for in 1771, when his book was publifhed, a fhort time before his deceafe, the pedal harp had not been intro- duced or heard of in England. And it feems as if madame Crumpholtz was not only the firlt great performer upon that initrument in our country, but the firft who had good mufic to perform, to fhew its powers; with which fhe had been furnifhed by her hufband and matter. The commentator joins with Tartini in thinking more fa- vourably of the ancient Greek mufic and modes than late writers have done; and concerning Italian recitative, he gives from Tartini a curious account of its furprifing effeéts, with no other accompaniment than a bafe. e & $.T i “In the year 1714 (if I am not miftaken), in an opera performed at Ancona, there was, in the beginning of the third aé&, a paflage of recitative, unaccompanied by any other initrument but the bafe; which raifed, both in the profelfors and in the rett of the audience, fuch and fo great a commotion of mind, that we could not help ftaring at one another, on account of the vifible change of colour that was caufed in every one’s countenance. The effe& was not of the plaintive kind: I remember well that the words ex- preffed indignation ; but of fo harfh and chilling a nature, that the mind was difordered by it. Thirteen times this drama was performed, and the fame effeét always followed, and that too univerfally ; of which the remarkable previous filence of the audience, to prepare themfelves for the enjoy- ment of the effect, was an uadoubted fign.”? ‘This almott equals the miraculous powers related of the ancient Greek mufic. But this can never happen where the Italian lan- guage is not univerfally known to the whole audience. A period of Tartini in favour of /imple mufic, has fuggefted to his commentator a refleGtion which we cannot pa{s over in filence ; as we are unable, implicitly, to fub{cribe to his opinion, that the tunes in the Beggar’s Opera fhould be the ftandard of good melody, modulation, and harmony. It is true, that many of them are the tunes of our nurfes, to which our ears have been accuftomed from our infancy ; for this reafon, perhaps, ninety-nine out of a hundred at the playhoufe, will prefer them to any other mufic. In fo mixed and popular an aflembly as the audience of an _ Englifh theatre, are not the majority ignorant of other mufic, and as likely to be prejudiced in favour of bad, as more refined ears in favour of a more polifhed and artificial kind of mufic; but would it not be the fame thing with painting, poetry, and fculpture? Would not a fign-poft, highly coloured, be preferred by the ignorant to a picture of Raphael; or a jovial and balderdath fong to the Effay on Man, or Milton’s Paradife Loft? Simplicity is an excellent and defirable thing in all the arts; but let it be an elegant fimplicity, free from vulgarity and barbarifm. Why thould people of refined ideas, and, if you will too, delicate tafte, be governed by the ignorant and unpolifhed, any more than thofe laft mentioned by the former? It has been well faid, that authors and artitts are the only people in this country who are not tried by their peers. What Tartini fays in favour 4 fimplicity could never extend to fuch a medley of tunes of all nations being intro- duced into one piece, as thofe of the Beggar’s Opera, which are made up of Scotch, French, Italian, Irifh, and Englifh ; and is a lover of mufic to be thought affe&edly refined, who wifhes for fomething lefs hackneyed and vulgar? The mufic in the pope’s chapel, with which our author was fo enchanted, could never remind him of that inthe Beggar’s Opera. But the moderns, and modern mufic, are always to be abufed ; it was fo in Plato’s time ; the cuftom has been continued by every writer on the fubjeét ; and every mufi- cian, who, like Timotheus, adds a new itring to his lyre, will be faid to endanger the {tate : but about tafte and pre- judice, it has long been agreed, that there is no difputing ; ‘our habits and our feelings will ever be uppermoft. - STILLINGIA, in Botany, was fent under that name to Linnzus, by the celebrated Dr. ALexanper GARDEN, of ewhom a biographical account may be found in its proper place. This genus is dedicated to Mr. Benjamin Stilling- flect, of whom we have made fome mention in our ac- count of Mr. Witit1 m Hunpson, and who is well known as the author of a popular book of “ Traéts,”’ relating to “natural hiltory, &c. partly tranflated from the writings of Linnzus. He was an elegant fcholar, an enthufiaftic S Ta admirer of virtuous liberty, and a philofophical naturalift; intimately attached to the Price, Barrington, and Littleton families, as well as to fome men of talents and cultivation in Norfolk. A MS. volume of his advice to the late diftinguifhed politician Mr. Windham, we have feen in the Felbrig library.— (See the preceding article.) —Linn. Mant. 19. Schreb. Gen. 658. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 588. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 337. Walt. Carol. 239. Purth 609. Juff. 390.—Clafs and order, Mo- ao Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn. Euphorbia, uff. Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth feven-flowered, coria- ceous, hemifpherical ; pitcher-fhaped, entire. Cor. of one petal, tubular, funnel-fhaped, gradually dilated upwards, much narrower than the calyx ; its margin undivided, but fringed in a jagged manner. Siam. Filaments two, thread- fhaped, twice as long as the corolla, {preading at the fum- mit, very flightly conne¢ted at the bafe ; anthers kidney- fhaped, of two round lobes. Female, at the bafe of the fame fpike, Ca/. Perianth as in the male, but fingle-flowered. Cor. {uperior, fhaped as in the male. Pi/?. Germen roundifh, between the calyx and corolla; ityle thread-fhaped; ftigmas three, difting, recurved. Peric. Capfule fomewhat turbinate, bluntly tri- angular, three-lobed, of three cells, furrounded at the bafe by the enlarged calyx. Seeds folitary, oblong, obfcurely triangular, marked on the inner fide with a tranfverfe f{car. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx hemifpherical, coriaceous, many-~ flowered. Corolla tubular. Female, Calyx hemifpherical, coriaceous, inferior, fingle- flowered. Corolla tubular, fuperior. Style three-cleft. Capfule three-lobed. Obf. The * two cup-fhaped glands,’? which Schreber, after Walter, defcribes in the male flowers of the original {pecies, appear to be each either a bra¢tea, or abortive calyx. They perhaps contain honey. 1. S. /ylvatica. Wood Stillingia. Linn. Mant. 126. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Purfh n. 1.—Stem herbaceous, Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtufe, finely ferrated.—Native of pine-woods on a barren foil, from Virginia to Florida, flowering in May and June. A greenhoufe perennial her- baceous plant, flowering at Kew in July and Auguk, The flems are milky when broken, a yard high, round, {mooth, leafy. Leaves {cattered, on fhort ftalks, elliptical, three inches long, fmooth; paler beneath. Flowers yellow, in a terminal f{pike, refembling a catkin; the males molt numerous. Linnaus fays this plant is efteemed a {pecific in venereal diforders. 2. S. liguflrina. Privet-leaved Stillingia. Michaux Bo- real-Amer. vy. 2. 213. Willd. n. 2. Purfh n, 2.—** Stem fhrubby. Leaves lanceolate, tapering at each end, entire.’’ —In fhady woods of Carolina and Georgia, flowering in June and July. Pur/b. 3. S. febifera. Poplar-leaved Stillingia, or Chinefe Tal- low-tree. Michaux, ibid. Willd. n.3. Purfhn. 3. Ait. n. 2. (Croton febiferum ; Linn, Sp. Pl. 1425. Ricinus chinenfis febifera, populi nigrz folio; Petiv. Gazoph. t. 34. f. 3. Euonymo affinis Sinarum, populi nigra folio, &c. ; Pluk. Amalth. 7. t. 390. f. 2.)—Stem arboreous. Leaves rhomboid, pointed, entire. —Native of China, in moift fitua- tions. Now faid to be naturalized on the fea-coaft of South Carolina, flowering in July and Auguft. It has been known more than a century in our ftoves, or rather greenhoufes. The habit is that of a Poplar, with {mooth /eaves, on long flender ftalks, Spikes terminal, denfe, cylindrical. Male flowers with a roundifh feale or gland at each fide of the calyx, analogous to what we have mentioned after the Ef cz ‘ ST a €h.—Capfule roundifh, pointed, woody, the fize of a fil- berd. Sveds encrufted with a white waxy fub{tance, which being feparated by boiling in water, ferves the Chinefe as tallow.—It feems, by acomparifon of Michaux’s defcrip- tion with that of Ofbeck (fee the Englifh edition of his Voyage, v. 2. 5.), that the latter confidered as /lamens, what are really {talked diandrous male flowers, and hence this plant was erroneoufly referred to Croton, from which it differs in feveral re{pects. STILLWATER, in Geography, a_poft-townfhip of New York, in Saratoga county, 22 miles N. of Albany, bounded N. by Saratoga, E. by the Hudfon or the county of Wathington, S. by Halfmoon, and W. by Malta. It derives its name from the uncommon ttillnefs of the river oppofite to it. Its medial length may be feven miles, and its breadth about five andahalf. The general furface of this townfhip is level, and the hills of a moderate height. Along the river the timber is oak, walnut, maple, &c. ; and the W. part has pine, and a foil of fand or of a light fandy loam. Here are traéts of clay or argillaceous mould, and the whole conftitutes a pretty good farming townfhip. In 1810, the whole population confifted of 2492 perfons, and its ele€tors were 203. The ttage-road from Albany through Waterford, towards lake Champlain and Canada, leads along the river in this townfhip, where are fome pleafant villages. STILLYARD, Srityarp, or Steelyard, in Commerce. «©The Company of the Stillyard’”? was a community, or corporation of foreign merchants, eftablifhed at London ; thus called from the place where they had their refidence, called the Stillyard, near London bridge, which was affigned them by aét of parliament ; and which, in fome records, is called Guilhalda Teutonicorum ; being, as fome write, a broad place or yard, where much fteel ufed to be fold. Lambecius thinks, that the name Sveelyard, or, as he calls it, Staelhof, is only a contraction of Staplehof, whence comes flafelhoff; i. e. a place or general warehoufe for keep- ing merchandize. This company was created, as fome fay, in the year 1215, but, according to others, in 1232, under Henry III. in favour of the free cities of Germany, which had been affiftant to him in his wars again{t France. However, it is faid that foreign. merchants, under this appellation, were fixed at London as early as the Norman Conqueft, and that their privileges were confiderably en- larged by Henry III. at this time, and alfoin 1260. King Edward I., in 1280, granted a charter to the Steelyard merchants, and to them it belonged to guard and keep in repair the gate called Bifhopfgate, in London. The charter of Edward I. was confirmed by Henry V. in 1413; and in 1363, Edward IV. granted them a new charter, which was renewed in 1466. ‘Their privileges were con- firmed by {tat. 19 Hen. VI. cap. 23. It had rendered itfelf miftrefs of all the Englifh manu- fa&tories, particularly thofe of cloth, which it was allowed not only to fell throughout the kingdom, but alfo to tran{port abroad. The prejudice thefe privileges did, and by which the company frequently abufed the nation, occafioned their being revoked by Edward VI. in 1552: they were reftored by queen Mary in 1554, and foon after revoked. In the year 1578, their ancient immunities were totally and finally abrogated by queen Elizabeth ; and in 1597, their houfe, which in former times had ferved as a bank for our princes in their exigence, was fhut up, and its German inhabitants fent away. ST.4 STILO, Ital. Sty, in Mufic, a peculiar manner of finging, playing, or compofing. In ancient ecclefialtical mufic, the {tyles of Paleftrina, Tallis, and Bird, are vene- bh and highly efteemed by matters, and all good judges of that f{pecies of compofition. In oratorios, the ftyles of Handel, Leo, and Jomelli, are marked with an original ttamp of excellence ; the opera ityles of Pergolefi, Hafle, Piccini, Sacchini, and Paeliello; in fymphonies, the elder Stamitz, the Manheim {chool, Haydn, Mozart, and Vanhal at the Vienna {chool, are original; as are the quartets of Haydn; the quintets of Boccherini and Mozart ; the harpfichord pieces of Domenico Scarlatti, Alberti, Schobert; the piano forte pieces of Emanuel Bach, Haydn, and Mozart; but the comic operas of this laft mult be inrolled among the firft for genius, originality, and good compofition, that modern times have produced. Padre Martini fays, there are three kinds of ftyle for the imitation of young ecclefiattical compofers, —the fublime, the middle ftyle, and the inferior ; all which may be perfeét in their kind. There is likewife a recitative ftyle, Stilo di recitativo, Stilo madrigalefco, Stilo femplice, and Stilo finfoniaco. There are likewife national flyles, fuch as the Venetian, Sicilian, Scots, Irifh, and Welfh. All thefe feveral flyles have characteriftic marks or paflages, which an attentive and experienced hearer inftantly difcovers. Sito, in Geography, atown of Naples, in Calabria Ultra, 17 miles N.N.E. of Gierace. — Alfo, a town of European Turkey, on the E. coaft of Morea. N. lat. 36°55’. E. long. 23° 4!. STILOBATUM, in 4rchitedure, denotes the body of the pedettal of any column. STILPO, in Biography, a Grecian philofopher, who was a native of Megara, flourifhed in the third and fourth cen- turies B.C., and is faid to have died after the year 294 B.C. He is confidered as belonging to the Megaric fect, and to have been a difciple of one of the fucceflors of Euclid of Megara. In his youth he is reprefented as having been licentious; but having corre&ted his natural propenfities by the moral precepts of philofophy, he acquired repu- tation among philofophers, and became diftinguifhed for his fobriety and moderation; and alfo for his eloquence and fkill in dialectics. When Ptolemy Soter captured Megara, he prefented Stilpo with a large fum of money, and invited him to his court; but the philofopher returned the greater part of the prefent, and chofe to retire during Ptolemy’s ftay at Megara to the ifland of /Egina. When Demetrius, fon of Antigonus, took Megara, the foldiers were ordered to {pare the houfe of Stilpo, and to return any thing that might have been precipitately taken from him. The philofo- pher being required to give an account cf thofe effects which he had loit, replied, ‘ that he had loft ncthing; for no one could take from him his learning and eloquence.’? ‘To the conqueror he recommended himfelf by the pathetic manner in which he inculcated upon him the exercife of humanity. So great indeed was his fame, that when he vifited Athens, the people ran out of their fhops to fee him; and even the moft eminent philofophers of Athens took pleafure in at- tending upon his difcourfes. Neverthelefs, he excited pre- judices by not paying refpe&t to the Athenian fuperttitions, of which an inftance or two occurred during his abode at Athens. Having afked a perfon, if Minerva, the daughter of Jove, was a deity? and being aflured that fhe was, he rejomed, “ but this before us (referring to the ftatue) is not the Minerva of Jove, but of Phidias, and therefore no deity.” For this fpeech he was carried to the court of Areopagus, and ordered immediately to leaye the city. When S'T di When Crates put the queftion to him, whether the gods took pleafure in prayers and adorations ? experience having taught him caution, he replied, ** you fool, do nor quef- tion me on this fubjeét in the public treet, but when we are alone.”? But there is no proof of Stilpo’s infideliry with refpect to the exiltence of a fupreme divinity. Some of his peculiar doétrines were, that {pecies, or univer fals, have no real exiftence, and that one thing cannot be predicated, or afferted, of another ; and that in ufing the word * man’’ as an univerfal term, we fpeak of nothing; for the term fignifies neither this man nor that man, nor applies to any one man more than another. In order to prove that one thing cannot be predicated of another, he faid, that ‘* good- nefs”? and ‘ man,” for inftance, are different things, which cannot be confounded by aflerting the one to be the other: he farther argued, that goodnels is an univerfal, and uni- verfals have no real exiftence ; confequently, fince nothing cannot be predicated of any thing, goodnefs cannot be pre- dicated of man. Some have fuppofed that Stilpo was not ferious in this kind of reafoning, and that it was his intention merely to expofe the fophiftry of the fchools. If he was ferious, it could not be wholly without reafon that Glycera, a celebrated courtezan, when fhe was reproved by Stilpo as a corruptor of youth, retorted the charge upon him by fay- ing, that he {pent his time in filling their heads with fophif- tical quibbles and ufelefs fubtleties. On moral topics, Stilpo is faid to have taught, that the hichelt felicity confilts in a mind free from the dominion of paflion, a doétrine fimilar to that of the Stoics. He lived to a great age, and is {aid to have haitened his final departure by a draught of wine. Diog. Laert. Brucker by Enfield, vol. i. STILTON, in Geography, a village and parifh in the hundred of Norman-Crois, and county of Huntingdon, England. The houfes are fituated on the fides of the high North road, in a flatcountry. The population of this place in 1800 amounted ‘to 509 ; and in the fucceeding 11 years which occurred before the next report, it appears to have increafed to 663 inhabitants and 107 houfes. This village is chiefly noted for a peculiar fpecies of cheefe, which obtained the name of Stilton from having been firft fold here ; but it is manufactured mottly in certain dif- triéts of Leicefterfhire. In a former part of this work, (fee Cueess,) it has been defcribed: but fince the time of writing that article, (about 1805,) this cheefe has become a more common article in the London markets, and is rendered at a cheaper price. The ufual retail charge is now 15. 6d. per und. Each cheefe is made of about 12lbs. weight, and is formed in a deep round vat. The great Roman road, called Ermine-ftreet, interfected this parifh from N. to S. between the two {tations at God- manchefter, called Durobrivz, and at Caftor, called Duroli- ponte. ‘About one mile N. of Stilton is Norman-Crofs, where very extenfive barracks and a prifon were ereéted during the late wars. The latter was appropriated to French pri- - foners, and feveral thoufands were confined here at the time of ratifying peace. South-welt of Stilton, about one mile and a half, is Den- ton, the feat of the Cotton family, and the birth-place of the celebrated antiquary fir Robert Cotton. (See Corron.) This family, who retained large pofleffions in the north of Huntingdonhhire, had formerly another ettate, denominated Connington, at'a fhort diltance fouch-ealt of Denton, and many of the defcendants of the Cottons are buried in Connington church. Some fragments of the old manfion are remaining. It is now the feat of the family of Heath- cote.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. Hunting- donfhire, by E. W. Brayley. II STI STIMMERDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leitmeritz; 5 miles W.N.W. of Kamnitz. STIMULANT, in Medicine, any agent which has the property of increafing the mobility, or of exciting the mo- tions, of the living body, or its moviug parts. It would be a watte of time to enter into any of the hypo- thetical {peculations of phyficians and phyfiologitts refped- ing the mode of operation by which {timulants influence the living fibre; for the corpufcularian doétrines of the me- chanifm of particles, the chemical notions of combination, and the fuppofition of a nervous fluid, are all equally gra- tuitous, and equally inadequate to account for the phe« nomena. Our object is merely to obferve the phenomena, and to mark the different effects of different agents, accord. ing to their nature, or to the parts of the body to which they are applied. In the firlt place, the organs of fenfe are excited or fti- mulated by the impreffions of certain matters only, light, noife, odours, &c. It muft be obferved, however, that every exercife of fenfation is a {timulant power, by which the mobility of the living fy{tem is fupported; and the ftimulant effect is proportionate to the impreffion. Dr. Cullen remarks, that this impreffion, though it acts through the medium of the brain, as the common fenforium, yet it acts alfo on the adjoining parts, efpecially by exciting the action of the blood-veffels. Thus a {trong light excites a {tronger action in the numerous blood-veffels intermixed with the nerves of the retina; {trong odours inflame the in- ternal membrane of the nofe; and {trong and painful im- preflions upon the tongue inflame the furface of it. — The partial effects of thefe ftimulants on the blood-veflels, in- dependent of their agency on the fenforium, is proved by the operation of certain fubftances applied to the fkin. The firft fenfation which they produce, is that of heat in the part, with fome degree of rednefs, from the greater fulnefs of the veffels, which at length proceeds to every circumftance of inflammation; to pain, tumour, bliftering, fuppuration, and gangrene. Other {timulants, however, which are of more importance in a medical confideration, aét principally upon the fyftem at large, and chiefly through the medium of the ftomach. It is not neceflary to point out here the well-known fads, which prove the conitant and regular communication of all impreflions made upon the ftomach to other parts of the fy{tem, and particularly to the fenforium, through the me- dium of which perhaps the other organs ate exclufively affected. The operation of many ftimulants taken into the {tomach, 1s too fpeedy to allow of the fuppofition of their being taken up by the abforbents, carried into the circula- tion, and thus tranfported to the brain in the blood-veflels. The impreflion is obvioufly communicated through the me- dium of the nerves. The energy of the vital powers is thus excited, as evinced by the attivity of the mental and corporeal powers, under the influence of ftimulants applied to the ftomach; by the increafe in the frequency and vigour. of the pulfe ; by the general determination of blood to the furface of the body, producing at length, flufhing, heat, and even {weating. Various fub{tances have been contrived and manufactured in all ages, for the purpofe of producing this pleafurable ftimuiation in health, and have been alfo em- ployed in the cure of certain difeafes. ‘The moit powerful of thefe are the products of fermentation, in which may be included every thing containing f{pirit, all wines, and malt liqiors, mead, cyder, the koumifs of the Tartars, and every fpecies of alcohol diitilled from thefe liquors. There are befides many other fubltances of a ttimulant quality, though of much leis power, taken from the vegetable and animal kingdoms 5 5 TI kingdoms; among which may be enumerated all the aromatic plants, with their feeds, bark, and roots, the bal- fams, gums, and eflential oils, procured from them; am- moniac, &c. However thefe ftimulant fubftances may have contributed to the fenfual gratifications of mankind, there cannot be a doubt that they, efpecially the vinous and [pirituous matters, have contributed quite as largely to their pains, difeafes, and vices. The derangements of the functions, and ultimately of the {truéture, of fome of the moft important organs of the body, which continued or exceflive ftimulation induces, are well known, as well as the diforder of intelleét, and the diftortion of the moral principle, which fo frequently refult from it. But upon thefe topics it were ufelefs to enlarge. With refpec to the medicinal employment of ftimulants much might be faid; for although the rational and obferv- ing part of the profeffion make a very {paring ufe of them in practice, they experience much difficulty in counteracting the mifchiefs which popular and vulgar medical prejudices are conttantly inflicting by cordials, and nervous drugs, and by the ufe of heating and irritating diet. There are few morbid conditions in which the conttitution is benefited by ftimulants. In all difeafes that are called nervous, fome organ or other is deranged in its ftructure or funétions, moft commonly the ftomach, bowels, liver, or uterus; and he who attempts to remove the lownefs and languor by ftimulants, while the funétion or ftruCture continues difturbed, will only amufe the patient, while the fymptoms remain unmitigated or increafed. In refpeét to many febrile difeafes, indeed, the general acknowledgment of the truth has at length pre- vailed, and fince the {weating and ftifling fyftem was aban- doned, we now never fee the miliary fevers, the lingering difeafes after child-birth, the low nervous fevers, &c. which were once fo prevalent and fo fatal. But too much of this ftimulant plan, too much of bark, and wine, and brandy, remains in the common treatment of al! fevers, which, how- ever, the mott intelligent of our contemporaries have nearly banifhed. The Brunonian fyftem, whofe founder was practically too fond of the diffufible ftimulants to fee clearly upon the fubjeét, contributed to prolong the reign of ftimu- lation in medicine, longer than unbiafled reafon and expe- rience would have maintained it. Gentle {timulants, employed with proper caution and re- gulation, are chiefly valuable under thofe circumttances of debility, which fucceed fevers, haemorrhages, and other vio- lent difeafes, when the morbid aétion has ceafed, and no organic diforder remains. The powers of the conftitution often languifh under fuch circumftances ;_ the circulation is feeble, and the digeitive funétion weak ; and the mufcles, therefore, very flowly recruit their vigour and fubftance. Under fuch a condition of tardy convalefcence, thefe func- tions are materially affifted by a fupply of gentle ftimula- tion ; and it is then principally that f{timulants are ufeful and fafe. STINCHER, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which runs into the fea at Ballantrae, in the county of Ayr. STING, AcuLgus, an apparatus in the body of certain infeéts, in form of a little {pear, ferving them as a weapon of offence. 4 The iting of a bee, or wafp, is a curious piece of mecha- nifm ; it confifts of a hollow tube, at the root of which is a bag full of fharp penetrating juice, which, in {tinging, is injected into the flefh through the tube. Within the tube, Dr. Derham has obferved, there lie two {mall fharp bearded fpears: in the fting of a wafp, he told eight beards on the fide of each fpear, fomewhat like the beards of fifh-hooks. 4 5a One of thefe {pears in the fting, or fheath, fies with Tes point a little before the other, to be ready, as fhould feem, to be firlt darted into the flefh, which once fixed, by means of its foremoft beard, the other then {trikes in-too ; and fo they alternately pierce deeper and deeper, their beards tak- ing more and more hold in the flefh: after which the theath or {ting follows, to convey the poifon inte the wound, which, that it may pierce the better, is drawn into a point, with a {mall flit below that point, for the fpears to come out at. By means of thefe beards it is, that the animal is forced to leave its {ting behind it, when difturbed, before it can have time to withdraw the {pears into their feabbard. See Anatomy, &c. of BEE. SrinG of a Gnat. See Trunk. STINK, or Srencu, a difagreeable fmell exhaling from a corrupted or other body, and which is prejudicial to the nofe and brain. A ftinking breath is ufually the refult either of difeafed lungs, or elfe of {corbutic gums, &c. A ftinking nofe, fetor naris, is the refult of a deep ulcer within the nofe, whence arife foetid feabs, &c. Its caufe, according to Galen, is a fharp putrid humour falling from the brain, on the proceflus mamillares. This is reckoned, by the civilians, one of the legal caufes of anaulling mar- riage. Stink-Horns, in Botany. See PHALLus. Stink-Pot, an earthen fhell charged with powder, and other inflammable and fuffocating materials, with a lighted fufe at the aperture, thrown on board an enemy’s fhip in the adtion of boarding. STINKING Horenounn, in Agriculture, a common weed in hedges and rubbifhy places, of the more troublefome perennial kind. By the Swedes it is confidered as an univer- {al remedy in the difeafes of cattle. See Battora Nigra. SrinxinG-///, a name fometimes provincially applied to a difeafe of the braxy kind, often met with among fheep in fome fituations. See Sromacu-Z//, StinxinG Jflands, in Geography, a clutter of iflands near the E. coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 40° 28’. W. long, 2° 50!. Z STINOS, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, about fix miles in circumference; 6 miles S. of Naxia. N. lat, 46° 52'. E. long. 25° 33/. STINT, Tringa Cinclus of Linnzus, in Ornithology, the name of a {mall bird common about the fea-fhores in many counties of England, and feeming to be the fame with the Cinclus pricr of Aldrovand, and the /cheniclos, or junco of Bellonius, called by the French a/ouette de mer, the fea-lark ; and by Pennant, purre. 7 It is fomewhat fmaller than the common lark, and in fhape refembles the {maller fnipe. Its beak is black, flen- der, and ftraight ; its legs of a dufky green, the toes being divided to their origin; the head and hind part of the neck are afh-coloured, marked with dufky lines; a white ftroke divides the bill and eyes; the chin white; under fide of the neck mottled with brown; the back is of a brownifh afh- colour ; the breaft and belly white ; the coverts of the wings and tail of dark brown, edged with light afh-colour or white; the greater coverts dufky, tipt with white; the upper part of the quill-feathers dufky, the lower white ; the two middle feathers of the tail dufky, the reft of a pale afh-colour, edged with white. Thefe birds come in prodigious flocks to our coafts during the winter; in their flight they perform their evolu- tions with great regularity; appearing like a white or dufky cloud, as they turn their breafls or backs towards you, pul you. They leave our fhores in fpring, and retire to fome unknown place to breed. They were formerly a well-known difh at our tables, under the name of ftints. Pennant. STINTER, in Geography, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the Thur, near Bifchoff-Zell. STIO, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 16 miles S.W. of Cangiano. STIP Viscu, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Dutch in the Eaft Indies to a fith of the clafs of our European ones which have two back-fins, the anterior of which is prickly, the hinder not fo. Its fkin is fpotted, and its flefh very delicate, and well tafted. It is generally caught by hooks. Ray. STIPA, in Botany, an ancient generic name, adopted by Linnzus, moft probably derived from cruz», a /filky or feathery fubflance, the firlt {pecies, S$. pennata, being furnifhed with a long beard at the aeee of its glumes, whence in- deed the Englifh name Feather-grafs.— Linn. Gen. 37. Schreb. 51. ‘Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 440. Mart. Mill Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 138. Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 1. 65. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. 174. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.1. 170. Purfh 26. Jufl. 30. Lamarck Di&. v. 7. 447. Illuftr. t. 41.—Clafs and order, Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina, Linn. Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume fingle-flowered, of two lax, pointed valves. Cor. of two valves; the outermolt ter- minated at the ti by a very long, twifted, erect awn, jointed at the bafe; inner valve the length of the outer, awnlefs, linear. Nettary of two linear-lanceolate, mem- branous feales, gibbous at their bafe. Stam. Filaments three, capillary; anthers linear. Pi. Germen oblong ; ftyles two, hairy, united at the bafe; ftigmas downy. Peric. none, except the glume adhering to the feed. Seed as oblong, paced! by the corolla. Obf. Linnzus remarks that the genus is diftinguifhed by the awn of the corolla being conneéted by a joint to the extremity of the glume. Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, fingle-flowered. Outer valve of the corolla terminated by a very long awn, jointed at the bafe. 1. S. pennata. Soft Feather-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 115. Engl. Bot. t. 1356. Knapp. t. 88. — Awns feathery.— Native of many parts of Europe, and admitted into the Britifh Flora on the authority of Dillenius, to whom fpecimens were fent from Weiftmoreland, faid to be gathered on lime-ftone rocks. The plant has, however, never been deteéted fince in this country. It flowers in June. Root perennial, fibrous, tufted. Stems a foot high, leafy, {mooth, fimple, jointed. Leaves upright, long, flender, acute, roughifh, their oe very long, dilated, embracing the ftem, ftriated, {mooth, fhining on the upper fide. Stipula lanceolate, adhering to the leaf. Fiswers in a fimple panicle, burfting from the fheath. The valve of the corolla, being very fharp and barbed, works its way into the ground, and the awn then feparates from it by means of the brittle joint. “ In curious gardens this elegant plant is cultivated for the fake of its plumy awns, which are fometimes worn by ladies as feathers, or ufed to decorate the chimney-piece im winter, the air of a room keeping them in continual motion.” 2. S. ie some a. Capillary Feather-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 116. Scheuchz. Rirck t. Rents fs aie naked, curved. Calyx longer than the feed. Leaves downy on the upper fide.—Native of France, Switzerland, and Ger- many. Root perennial. Stems numerous, aboat two feet STi high, hard, and folid. Leaves upright, ftraight, rufhy at the bafe, hairy on the upper fide, their /heaths furrounding the item, thickifh. lowers in a compreffed panicle, brown. 3- S. guncea. Rufh-leaved Feather-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 116. - Fl. Gree. t. 85. Desfont. Atlant. t. 28.— Awns naked, ilraight, very long. Calyx nearly {mooth, longer than the feed. Leaves naked. — Native of France and Switzerland, alfo of Greece, flowering in July. Root biennial? Stem three feet high, ere&, round, {mooth, leafy. Leaves linear, pointed, fpreading, folded up by age, rough on the upper fide ; their /heaths dilated, {triated, gue {mooth; the uppermoft leaves a little broader and atter. Stipula oblong, acute. Flowers nearly ereét, forming a branched panicle, all on one fide, with roughifh ftalks. 4. S. Ariffella. Short-awned Feather-grafs. Willd. n. 4- Gouan. Illuftr. 4. Fl. Grec. t. 87. (Agrottis bromoides; Linn. Mant. 30.) —Awns naked, ftraight, twice or thrice the length of the calyx. Calyx furrowed. Panicle {fpiked.— Found in the neighbourhood of Mont. pellier, and about Athens. Roof perennial, fibrous, downy. Stems numerous, tufted, a foot and half high, ere, tiff, flender, round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves linear, narrow, pointed, involute, furrowed above, {mooth, their /heaths ftraight and {mooth. Svipula very fhort, {carcely per- ceptible. Flowers ere&t, in a {piked panicle, of about fix inches in length, erect, branched at the bafe. 5. S. paleacea. Chafly Feather-grafs. Willd. n. 5. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 24. Fl. Grec. t. 86. (S. tortilis; Desfont. Atlant. t. 31.)—Awns hairy at the bafe, twifted. Calyx longer than the feed. Leaves involute-awl-fhaped, downy.—Native of Tunis, and alfo of the Peloponnefus. Root annual, fibrous, downy. Stems feveral, a foot high, erect, jointed, leafy, round, {mooth. Leaves linear, pointed, involute when old, fringed, fmooth and furrowed above, {triated beneath; their /beaths furrowed, fringed, the up- permoft generally elongated and ventricofe, embracing the panicle. Stipula fringed. Flowers ereét, in a ‘branched, arched panicle. 6. S. tenacifima. Tough Feather-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 116. Desfout. Atlant. t. 30.—Awns hairy at the bafe. Panicle fpiked. Leaves thread-fhaped.—Native of fandy hills in Spain and Barbary, where the inhabitants make ropes, baikets, and mats of it. This f{pecies refembles an vena in habit. Stem ere&, jointed. Leaves hardy, {mooth, convolute. Flowers yellowifh, numerous, clofely panicled. 7. S. capenfis. Cape Feather-grafs. Willd. n. 7. Thunb. Prodr. 19.— Awns hairy at the bafe. Panicle fpiked. Leaves {word-fhaped.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. All that we know of this is from the f{pecific charaGter given in Thunberg’s Prodromus. 8. S. fpicata. Spiked Feather-grafs. Linn. Suppl. 111. Thunb. Prodr. 20.—Awns hairy at the bafe. Flowers in a fpiked clufter, all inclining one way.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Root perennial, creeping, producing nu- merous {mooth /lems, a foot and half high. Leaves grafly, f{mooth, the upper ones fhorter. Flowers feflile, fcarcely downy, hairy at the bafe, in a narrow /pike about three inches long. 9: S. bicolor. 'Two-coloured Feather-grafs. Willd. n.g. Vahl. Symb. vy. 2.24. Cavan. Ic. t. 466. f. 2.— Awns naked. Seeds obovate, bearded at the bafe.-—Found by Commerfon at Monte Video. Stem a foot and half high, ere, ftriated, fheathed, {mooth. Leaves inyolute, awl- fhaped, fmooth. Stipwla membranous. Flowers in a branched, STIPA. branched, {preading panicle. Corolla rough at the top. Cavanilles rightly determined the plant of Vahl. 10. S. avenacea. Oat Feather-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 116. (Andropogon folio fuperiore {pathaceo; Gron. Virg. 133.) —Awns naked. Calyx equal to the feed in length.—Native of Virginia. Stems flender. ventricofe, the length of the panicle, which is compofed of conjugate, fingle-flowered flalks. Leaves {triated, {mooth. This grafs refembles dvena /ativa in habit, but is {maller. x1. S. membranacea. Membranaceous Feather-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 116. Willd. n. 11.—Flower-ftalks dilated, membranaceous.—Native of Spain. This fpecies is alfo like an Avena in habit, and is fcarcely a foot in height. Stem {mooth, thread-like. Panicle fimple, fcarcely fub- divided, loofe, feeble. Flower-/lalks compreffed, bluntith. Awn of the calyx the length of the glume of the corolla. Linnzus in his Mantiffa calls the panicle a racemus, and ob- ferves that the upper flower but one is feffile. This is men- tioned in Fl. Brit. 119, as certainly a Fe/luca, very near to uniglumis, if not the very fame. 12. S. barbata. Bearded Feather-grafs. Mart. n. 12. Desfont. Atlant. t. 27.—Leaves rigid, ftriated on one fide. Panicle lax, elongated. Awns very long, bearded from the bafe to the tip.—Native of uncultivated hills in Bar- bary, about Mafcar and Tlemfen. Very like §. pennata, but differs in having rigid, glaucous, flattifh eaves, ftriated on one fide, wider, ferrated, with a very long awn, hairy all over. 13. S. parviflora. Small-flowered Feather-grafs. Mart. n. 13. Desfont. Atlant. t. 29. — Leaves radical, ftiffith, thread-fhaped. Panicle fpreading. Awns naked, capil- lary.—Native of hills near Mafcar, and in the kingdom of Tunis. Roots perennial, fibrous, wavy, long. Stems many from the fame head, flender, ere&t. Leaves {mooth, con- voluted, fhort. Panicle elongated, fomewhat drooping. 14. S. tortilis. Twilted-awned Feather-grafs. Mart. n. 14. Desfont. Atlant. t. 31. f. 1.—Panicle fpiked, in- volute at the bafe. Inner calyx villous. Awns twifted, villous at the bottom.— Native of fields in Barbary. Root annual. Svems ereét, many from the fame root. Leaves {mooth, convoluted; the radical ones almoft capillary. Panicle yellowihh, wrapped at the bafe in a fheathing leaf. Flowers deciduous, prickly. 15. S. canadenfis, Canadian Feather-grafs. Lamarck a. 12. Purfh o. 2. (S. juncea; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. I. 54.) — Leaves fetaceous. Panicle of few flowers. Calyx {mooth, ovate, obtufe, the length of the downy feed. Awns thick and fhort.—In rocky mountainous places, from Canada to Hudfon’s Bay. The /fem and /eaves are flender and rufhy. Panicle {mall. Michaux. 16. S. fericea. Purple Silky Feather-grafs. Michaux ibid. 54. Purfh n. 5. (S. capillaris; Lamarck n. 6.)— Leaves thread-fhaped, very long. Panicle {preading, ca- pillary. Calyx one-third the length of the corolla. Awns ftraight, naked.—In fandy fields, from New Jerfey to Ca- rolina, flowering from June to Auguft. The filky purple panicles exceed in beauty every other grafs. Pur/h. "17. S. expanfa. Spreading-{fpiked Feather-grafs. La- marck n.18. Purth n. 6.—Leaves ftriated, {mooth, rather glaucous. Spikes alternate, panicled, {preading. Flowers diftant, feffile. Calyx longer than the corolla. Awn very fhort, naked.—Found in Carolina, by M. Bofc. Panicle lax, eight or ten inches long, each of whofe very long ca- pillary branches fupports a flender {pike of alternate very {mall flowers. 18. S. panicoides. Panic Feather-grafs. Lamarck n. 19. =—Leaves fetaceous, fmooth. Panicle contraéted, of few Upper leaf flowers. Awn naked, thrice as long asthe calyx. Seed lenticular. — Gathered by Commerfon at Monte Video, This has rather the habit of a Panicum, with ftraight, {mooth flems, and long very flender leaves. 19. S. frida, Clofe-branched Feather-grafs. Lamarck n. 2. Purfh n. 7.— Leaves lanceolate. Panicle elon- gated, with jointed very clofe branches. Awn naked, fomewhat zigzag.—Gathered in Carolina, by the late Mr. Frafer. A tall plant, with reed-like aves, and’ the inflo- refcence of an Andropogon. Pourret. 20. S. mollis. Downy-fheathed Feather-grafs. Brown n. 1.— Leaves involute, with downy fheaths. Corolla filky. Awn feathery from the bafe, beyond the joint; naked at the end.—Found by Mr. Brown near Port Jack- fon, New South Wales. 21. S. /emibarbata. Half-bearded Feather-grafs. Br. n. 2.—Awn feathery from the bafe to the joint; naked beyond. Corolla filky. Calyx coloured, roughifh.—Na- tive of Van Diemen’s land. 22. S. pubefcens. Downy-jointed Feather-grafs. Br. n. 3.—Leaves involute, with a fhort ttipula.. Joints of the ftem downy. Awn very finely downy below its joint. | Corolla filky. Calyx abrupt, fomewhat jagged.—Gathered near Port Jackfon, by Mr. Brown. 23. S. fetacea. Briltle-pointed Feather-grafs. Br. n. 4. —Lieaves involute, {mooth hke their fheaths. Stipula elongated, undivided, naked. Joints of the {tem {mooth. Panicle lax. Awn naked, bent. Corolla downy. Calyx fmooth, with long taper points.:—Native of New South Wales, and Van Diemén’s land. Brown. . 24. S. elegantifima. Elegant Feather-grafs. Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 23. t. 29. Br. m. 5.— Awn naked. Branches of the panicle compound, feathery.—Gathered by Labillardiere at Cape Van Diemen. A yard or more in height, branched, with a folid, rather woody, jlem. Leaves involute, with tumid fheaths. Panicle ample, rather {pread- ing; its branches flender, once or twice forked, finely feathery throughout. Calyx longer than the corolla, downy. Awn long, tapering, {mooth; fpiral at the bottom. 25. S. flavefcens. Yellowifh Feather-grafs. Br. n. 6. Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 24. t. 30?— Leaves involute. Joints of the ftem, and fheaths of the lower leaves, downy. Stipula very fhort, fringed. Awn naked. Corolla downy. Calyx taper-pointed.— Brown. Native of New South Wales, and Van Diemen’s land. 26. S. comprefa. Compreffed Feather-grafs. Br. n. 7. —Stem comprefled, {mooth and even like the fheaths. Leaves involute. Stipula elongated, naked, fomewhat notched.. Awn naked, very long, nearly ftraight. Co- rolla filky._Gathered by Mr. Menzies, on the fouth-weit coalt of New Holland. 27. S. micrantha. Minute-flowered Feather-grafs. Br. n. 8. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 42. t. 467. f. 2 ?—Stem branched, fmooth as well as the fheaths. Leaves nearly flat, rough. Awn naked. Corolla f{mooth, nearly feffile. Calyx pointed.—Gathered near Port Jackfon, by Mr. Brown, who has fome doubt refpeéting Cavanilles’ fynonym. The latter defcribes his as a New Holland plant likewife, flower- ing in April. The fem is flender, a foot and half high, ereét, with three or four reddifh-brown joints. Leaves rather fhort, with long fheaths. Panicle four inches long, denfe, with fhort branches like a fpike. FYoqwers very {mall, fmooth, each with a bent awa, not an inch in length. io 28. S. eminens. Tall Feather-grafs. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 42. t. 467. f.1. Lamarck n. 27.—Stem and fheaths very {mooth, ftriated. Leaves flat. Awn naked, | Corolla downy, STPa downy. Calyx pointed.—Native of Mexico, near the town of Chalma, flowering in Auguit. The fem, three feet or more in height, is nearly covered by the long /heaths of the ftill longer eaves. Panicle lax, compound, a foot in length. Outer valve of the corolla very downy all over. Awn an inch and half long, bent towards the middle. 29. S. humilis. Dwarf Feather-grafs. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 1. t. 466. f. t. Lamarck n. 3.—Leaves convolute; the oral one with an inflated fheath, and taller than the panicle. Awn naked at the bafe ; feathery below the joint.—Native of South America, near Port Defire, in a barren foil, flower- ing in December. Stems feveral, from four to fix inches high, flender, {mooth, leafy. Loyver /eaves flender, invo- lute, awl-fhaped ; the upper one with a long {welling /Leath, embracing the | saps which does not rife fo high as the leaf itfelf, and is fcarcely branched, confifting of but eight or nine flowers, on fhort fmooth ftalks. Calyx whitifh, very acute, more than thrice as long as the corolla. dwn with a feries of long white feathery hairs, below its joint. 30. S. ukranenfis. Tartarian Feather-grafs. Lamarck n. 22. Ill. Gen. v. 1. 157. (‘ Tirfa; Guettard. Mem. v. I. 19. t. 1, 2.7) — Leaves channelled, keeled. Awn naked, itraight. Calyx coloured, longer than the corolla. —Native of the Ukraine. The radical /eaves are copious, forming denfe tufts. Stem two feet high. - Panicle eight inches long, a little drooping, with almoft fetaceous branches. Ca/yx reddifh, with pale taper points. Corolla downy at the bafe, with a itraight, naked, capillary awn, four or five inches long. Horfes are faid to be very fond of the feeds. STIPEL, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Ober- land; g miles N.N.W. of Soldau.—Alfo, a town of Ger- many, in the county of Mark; 3 miles S. of Bockum. STIPEND, Srivenpium, among the Romans, fignified the fame with tribute; and hence flipendarii were the fame with ¢ributarii. STIPES, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, an old Latin word fora ftake, or the trunk of a tree, is technically ufed for the ftalk of a Fronp; fee that article. Thus the ftalk of a fern is a true Stipes. The fame term is alfo ufed in fungi, for the ftalk of an agaric, &c.; but never for any thing except cryptogamous plants. STIPITE, Nativi de Stipite. See Nativt. STIPPLING is a mode of engraving on copper by means of dots ; and is contradiftinguifhed by this word ftip- pling, from that mode of the art which confifts of courfes ef continued lines. The dots in ftippled engravings are either round, that is to fay, each dot forms a {mall cone in the copper, whofe apex is downward ; or they are angular, each dot forming a peek, or fmall ifofceles triangle, on the furface of the plate; or, when the dot confifts of more than one of thefe peeks, (as is commonly the cafe in en- grating in the chalk manner,) its form is of courfe multan- ar. : The round dotsin ftippling are performed by means of adry needle, or an etching-point ; and the angular dots by means of that well-known iteel inftrument which is termed a graver. Stippling with the graver is alfo much ufed in the art of en- graving on wood. - It has happened unfortunately for the public and for this branch of engraving, that fome thirty or forty years ago, while it was imperfectly known and pra¢tifed, it was much fought after by the Englifh traders in art, on account of its cheapnefs, and the uovelty which then rendered it attrac- tive; and that now,—fo fickle is ta{te or fafhion, and fuch its unhappy influence on art ; fo crafty are the majority of dealers, and fo heedlefs the majority of the public ;—now Vou. XXXIV. 5 'T 4 chalk-engraving is improved, it is negleéted. In the hands of the elder Schiavonetti, Cardon, and Holl, it acquired a variety, a rich and harmonious copioufnefs, and an energy it had not before difclofed; of which “« The Landing of General Abercrombie’s Army in Egypt,” after De Lou- therbourg, and * The Woman taken in Adultery,” after Rubens, are felicitous examples. In the former of thefe, the water, fky, fmoke, broken ground, and other paflages of the land{cape part of the performance (which had hitherto oppofed moft difficulties to the progrefs of chalk-engraving), are fcarcely lefs hap- pily difcriminated than they would probably have been, had Schiavonetti employed the line-engraver’s art, in which he was fo great a proficient: but it is obfervable, that the clear- nefs of the water, the crumbly crifpnefs of the ground, &c. are in a great degree owing to the ftippling being wrought into lines, fuch as are ufually hatched in drawing with chalks. The beft line-engravers have always, from the very in- fancy of the art, intermingled with their work a large por- tion of ftippling. The works of the celebrated portrait en- gravers of France more efpecially abound with it. And the beft chalk-engravers have either mixed pofitive lines with their ftippled work, or wrought their ftippling into courfes of chalky lines, as is exemplified in the work above-men- tioned by Schiavonetti, and in the draperies of Cardon’s print of ** The Woman taken in Adultery.” In our account of the Enerisu School of Engraving, we have afferted that the modern improvements in chalk-engrav- ing have “* been effeéted chiefly by /iving profeflors :’? but Schiavonetti and Cardon are now no more ! SrrppPLine is aterm alfo ufed by miniature painters, to exprefs the minute touches of colour laid on with the points of hair-pencils, with which their works on ivory for the moft part confift, and which give that mottled or granulated fur- face to miniature pitures whichis more or lefs obvious, and in which the granulation is larger or fmaller in the different works of this fpecies; ferving to difcriminate the ftyle of execution of one artift from that of another. STIPULA, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, an ancient Latin word for ftubble, as well as for the fheaths of the leaves remaining upon {traw or reeds. Linnzus has adopted it for thofe appendages to the herbage of plants, which ac- company the leaves in a great many inftances, though not prefent in all. See Furcra. STIPULATION, inthe Civil Law, the a& of ftipu- lating, that is, of treating, and concluding terms and con- ditions to be inferted in a contrat. Stipulations were anciently performed at Rome with abundance of ceremonies, the firit of which was, that one party fhould interrogate, and the other anfwer, to give his confent, and obfied hinifele By the ancient Roman law, nobody could ftipulate but for himfelf; but as the tabelliones were public fervants, they were allowed to ftipulate for their mafters ; and the notaries, fucceeding the tabelliones, have inherited the fame privilege. The ftipulation had its origin in the /ex Aquilia, and another law of the emperor Arcadius. See Sarispatio. The word is formed from the Latin /ipula; a ttraw, be- caufe in making a fale, a ftraw was given to the purchafer, in fign of a real delivery : which cuitom is flill retained in fome parts of France, particularly at Verdun. The cuftom always has been on this occafion, for the two parties to break a ftraw between them, and each take his moiety, which they afterwards joined again, to recognize their promife. STIPULICIDA, in Botany, from fipule, the append- Dd ages ST a ages of the leaves, and cedo, to cut, becaufe the itipulas are divided into many fine fegments, a fuppofed genus of Michaux, Fl. Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 26, t. 6, of which he there defcribes and delineates one {pecies, S. /etacea. This is Polycarpon ftipulifidum. Purfh go, after Perfoon. It occurs in barren gravelly foil of Lower Carolina, flowering in May and June. The root is annual. Stem erect, very flender, a {pan high, repeatedly fubdivided in a forked manner, with a pair of {mall feathery Jipulas under each joint. Leaves all radical, {mall, ovate, ftalked. Flowers minute, three or five together in each little terminal tuft. STIRI, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the province of Livadia; 9 miles S. of Livadia. STIRIA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall ifland near the ifle of Cyprus, on the northern coatt, towards the weft, in a {mall gulf, between the promontory Acamus to the N.W. and the town of Arfinoe to the S.E. SrirtaA, or Styria, in Geography, a duchy in the empire of Auttria, bounded on the north by the archduchy of Auttria, on the ealt by Hungary, on the fouth by Car- niola, and on the weft by Carinthia. It is divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Stiria is bounded on the north by Auttria, on the eaft by Hungary, on the fouth by Lower Stiria and Carinthia, and on the weft by the archbifhopric of Salzburg ; and is about 110 miles in length from eaft to we(t, and from 25 to 45 in breadth from north to fouth. Lower Stiria is bounded on the north by Upper Stiria, on the ealt by Hungary and Croatia, on the fouth by Carniola, and on the welt by Carinthia : its extent from north to fouth is about So miles, and about 48 from eaft to weft. Upper Stiria contains many lofty mountains, but, by the indaftry of the inhabitants, the whole country is pretty well culti- vated; infomuch that, in many places, the very highelt tops of the mountains are inhabited. The people who dwell in thefe parts in winter, when large quantities of {now fall, are for feveral months kept as it were prifoners; and even in general feldom come down from their heights. By conti- nual cuftom too they are habituated tothe cold. It is very aftonifhing, that amid{t thefe mountains and fteep heights they are able to fucceed with the plough, and that the emi- nences themfelves are likewile fertile. They cultivate a fine fort of wheat, which is fufficient not only for the fupphes of their own neceflities, but in fome meafure alfo for fale. They have, in particular, large breeds of cattle, wild fowl, game, and chamois: the brooks and Jakes,’ of which there are many fituated between the high rocks, are rich in fifh. In fome places too are {mall vales; and the inhabitants en- deavour to avail themfelves of every fpot of earth. The mountains contain filver, lead, copper, and, in particular, iron. The iron-mines have been already worked above one thoufand years, and ftillcontinuerich. The Stirian fteel is highly valued. The forefts with which the ridges of the mountains here are covered, yield in fufficient quantity the wood neceflary for the {melting-huts. Silver was formerly dug ; but ever fince the year 1658, the mines have been filled with water. In the mountains, likewife, are hot-baths and medicinal fprings. At Auflee are fome good falt-works. The principal rivers which run through this country are the Muehrand Ens. Judenburg is the capital. Lower Stiria contains fewer mountains, and more champaign : the foil is generally fertile, and on the hills is produced fome good wine. In it are hot-baths and medicinal fprings. ‘This part of the country is watered not only by the Muehr, but alfo by the Drave and Save. Gratz is the capital. In the whole duchy are nearly 120 towns, and 500 citadels: many of the laft hand on the higheft fummits of the rocks. The highways are good, notwithftanding the country is moun- S'T+I tainous. The language is very rough. The inhabitants of the quarter of Cilley are Winds or Wends, and {peak the Wendifh language, which is in ufe even among the common people, for fome miles from Gratz. Thofe who are but a {mall degree removed from the common rank {peak Wendifh, German, and Italian, and the principal inhabitants alfo French. No other doétrine, or worthip, was till lately permitted in all this country, excepting that of the Roman Catholic. At Seckau is a bifhop, who bears the-title of a prince of the holy Roman empire ; he is fubjeé& to the arch- bifhop of Salzburg, whofe general vicar he alfo is through the greatelt part of Stiria. The moft important manufac- tures in the country are the iron and fteel works, the produce of which is exported in great quantities. Stiria was formerly a part of Carinthia, but in the eleventh century was feparated from it, and made a peculiar mark. The number of inha- bitants, as {lated by M. Marcel-de-Serres, (Voyage en Au- triche, &c. publifhed at Paris in 1814,) was 800,000, STIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Phocide, fituated in the environs of the frontiers of Beotia, Here was a temple dedicated to Ceres Stiritis: the ftatue of the goddefs was of fine. marble, holding a flambeau in each hand. Ceres was highly honoured in this place. Pau- fanias. STIRK, or Srurk, aterm ufed among country people for a young ox or heifer. : _STIRLING, formerly Stryveling, in Geography, an an- cient town, and capital of the county of Stirling, Scot- land, is noted, in the annals of Scottifh hiftory and topo- graphy, for many important events conneéted with its caftle, and for the: peculiar fituation of that and its other buildings. Like the cattle of. Edinburgh, that of Stirling isereéted on the fummit of a craggy precipice; and the town is built and difpofed along the ridge of a hill, which flopes to the north and fouth, and is very abruptly terminated at the weft. The origin of this fortrefs is not recorded, but it is evidently of remote date. Border wars generally occu- pied its inhabitants till the acceflion of the Stuart family to the throne of Scotland; whence the ancient name of Stry- veling arofe, it is thought, from the frequency of ttrifes in its vicinity. The ready communications between the northern and fouthern parts of Scotland, by means of the bridges and fords in this neighbourhood, rendered the pofleffion of Stir- ling ca{tle always an object of great importance. From its hill may be viewed two of the moft celebrated fcenes of Sra triumph, the fields of Falkirk and of Bannock- urn. : " The hiftory with refpe& to the incorporation of the town is wholly unknown: the earlieft charter which is extant bears the name of Alexander I. ; but as this only confers fome additional privileges, it is f{uppofed that the town ex- ifted at a much earlier period. About the middle of the twelfth century, Stirling was honoured as a royal refidence, for David I. kept his court here, to be near the abbey of Cambuifkenneth, which he founded in'1147. Some marks of regal magnificence yet remain about the cattle. James IT]. afterwards raifed Stirling higher into notice, by making it the principal place of his habitation. He adorned it with a magnificent hall for parliamentary meet- ings, of which the walls alone remain. Pope Alexander VI. when it became a kingly refidence, added a royal chapel ad~ joining the former building. Within the towers of Stirling, feveral of the Scottifh monarchs were either born, or under- went the ceremonials of coronation; and it became a place of retirement for the unhappy Mary, and for the minority of James VI. under his tutor Buchanan. In the north- welt part of this edifice, James II., about the middle of the 8 1gth o Et r5th century, {tabbed Wiltiam, earl of Douglas ; and the clofet is ‘till defignated by the name of the Douglas room. Near the caftle is a flat piece of inclofed ground, once ap- propriated for tournaments, and a rock, whence the female fpeGators ufed to behold the valour of the kmghtly cham- pions, now called «* The Ladies Rock.’’ On the fouth fide of this fortrefs, furrounded by a itone wall, is the park; at the eait end of which, vetliges of the royal garden, anda mount of earth, the frequent {cene of the amufements of James 1V., are yet vifible. This park, with feveral other fieighbouring pieces of land, form the conitabulary of the caftle. Since the reign of queen Anne, when this building wasenlarged, and a battery erected, and called by her name, no material alterations have taken place : it is now commonly commanded by the ufual routine of military officers, and garrifoned by 100 men. The houfes and public buildings which conttitute the town are chiefly of an ancient ftyle ; particularly that began by the earl of Marr, while regent of Scotland, in 1570, yet un- finifhed, and entitled Marr’s work ; and one known by the name of Argyle’s lodging, fome time pofleffed by that fa- mily, but originally erected by Alexander, vifcount of Stirling. Two churches, denominated from their fituations the eaft and weft kirks, have alfo a claim to antiquity ; they conttituted, it is fuppofed, atthe period in which they were built, but one edifice, and were conneéted with the monaf- tery of the Francifcans. They are thought to have been erected by James IV. in 1494 and from the circumf{tance of the eaitern end having received fome additions from car- dinal Beaton, in the reign of Mary, they are fometimes de- fcribed as having been built by different founders, and at dif- ferent times. At the reformation, a partition wall was added, which now forms them into two extenfive and convenient churches. James VI. was crowned here in 1567, and gene- ral Monk raifed his batteries in this church-yard in 1651, when the caftle was befieged. The fteeple and roof yet re- tain the marks of having been violently battered by the fhot from the garrifon. The town-houfe is a large building, with apartments for the town and county courts: in the council chamber is kept the jugg, appointed by law as the ftandard for dry meafure in Scotland. Stirling contains three hofpitals, viz. one, en- dowed by Robert Spittal in 1530, for poor tradefmen; a fecond, founded by John Cowan in 1639, for decayed bre- thren of the guild; and a third, inftituted by John Allen in 1725, for the education and maintenance of the children of poor tradefmen. Befide thefe charitable inttitutions, the merchant company, the kirk feflion, the kirk feffion of the burgh feceders, the town funds, and thofe of each particular incorporation, in addition to large voluntary con- tributions, are all employed to relieve the wants of the poorer inhabitants. In this town is the only prifon in the county. Here area weekly market on Friday, and fix annual fairs. The po- pulation of Stirling, till the manufaCtures caufed the erec- tion of many new buildings, has undergone but very little alteration for the laft 600 years; but or late, as the com- parative reports of 1800 and 1811 prove, it has confider- ably erie: in the former year it amounted to 5271 in- habitants, with 620 houfes; and at the latter period, to 5820 inhabitants, and 749 houfes. The manufaétures which are carried on here are thofe of carpets and cotton, which have been introduced from Glafgow: formerly, fhalloons were made in Stirling to a confiderable’extent ; but though in fome degree ftill carried on, the manufaéture has great y declined from its firft commercial greatnefs. There is a valuable fal- mon fifhery on the Forth, which forms a part of the corporate vel al revenue, (See Fontu.) In this borough, the municipal government is veited in a provolt, four bailies, a dean of guild, atreafurer, feven merchant-counfellors, and feyen deacons of trade: it has alfo the privilege, in conjunétion with fome other places, of returning one member to parliament. To the.north-eaft of Stirling, a {mall village, called the abbey, marks where that of Cambufkenneth formerly itood. ‘The abbot of this place was originally denominated abbot of Stirling. This was founded, as already noticed, by David I. in 1147, and fupplied with inhabitants from Aroife, near Arras, in France. For about 200 years after its erec- tion, it rapidly increafed in ecclefiattical power and {plen- dour. In the reign of David Bruce it was defpoiled of its moft coftly furniture, and in confequence of this, the vicar- age of Clackmannan was prefented to it by the bifhop of St. Andrews. In 1559 the monaftery was again defpoiled, and the reformed religion received by many of its former in- mates. In the commotions attending the reformation, its benefices were feized, its revenues forcibly difpofed of, and its very ftones were carried by the earl of Marr for the conftruétion of the building entitled Marr’s work. The extent of the whole parifh does not exceed 200 acres.— Beauties of Scotland, vol. iii. 8vo. 1805. Carlifle’s Topo- graphical Dictionary of Scotland, vol. il. gto. 1813. STIRLINGSHIRE, one of the counties of Scotland, fituated nearly in the centre of the fouthern portion of that country, and occupying a narrow traét of land; bounded on the eait and part of the north by the Frith of Forth, on the welt by loch Lomond, on the north-weft by Perth- fhire, and on the fouth by Dumbartonfhire. This area of land meafures about 49 miles from eaft to weft, and on an average nearly 16 miles from north to fouth. The bound- ary line is however very irregular, and is formed in a great meafure by the natural demarcation of rivers and lakes: on its fouthern fide was a famous Roman wall. From the pe- culiar natural features and fituation of this diftri@, it ap- pears to have been a repeated {cene of holtilities in former ages, when political jealoufies and animofities impelled the Scots, Piéts, Britifh and-Roman colonifts of thefe iflands, to wage continual wars with each other. Hence this county is particularly noted in the hiftoric annals of Scotland. The Romans erected one of their celebrated barriers on the edge of this diftri€t ; and the moft famous of the Scot-~ tifh battles have taken place at Falkirk and Bannockburn, within this county. The lawlefs Highland chief, Rob-Roy, at one time held the lands along the eaftern fhore of loch Lomond, and levied black mail, or money for proteétion, to the fouth-eait of this diftri€t. Several of his caverns are yet remaining. The parifh of Kilcarn is noted for the birth- place of the poet and hiftorian George Buchanan, and Kil- fyth for the greateit viétory James, marquis of Montrofe, gained in behalf of Charles I. The topographical antiqui- ties of the county are, the northern front of the Roman wall ; two large cairns, wherein human bones and funeral urns have been difcovered ; a fingular druidic monument of three large ftones, denominated * the auld wife’s lift ;”’ and remains of early fortifications along the courfe of the Forth. ‘The em- balmed bodies of lady Kilfyth, with her fon, may be alfo regarded as a fingular though not a remote piece of an- tiquity, they having been preferved in a moft furprifing manner after death, for many years. A rude circular build- ing was formerly ftanding on the banks of the Carron, and entitled by the neighbouring inhabitants “* Arthur’s oven,” It was fuppofed to have been a temple to the god Terminus, the prote¢tor of land-marks, ereéted by Agricola, when he fixed the boundaries of the Roman empire. ‘The parith of Dunnipace is alfo fuppofed to have derived ite name from Dd 2 two STIRLINGSHIRE. two artificial mounts near the church, thought to have been reared at the conclufion of fome important treaty. The remains of a religious houfe, founded by king Malcolm IV. about the year 1156, for nuns of the Bernardine order, called Emanuel nunnery, are fituated on the weft bank of the water of Avon. Mountains. —The mott hilly parts of this county are in the neighbourhood of loch Lomond to the north; and thofe of the fouthern divifion are in the parifhes of Kilpatrick, Bal- dernock, Campfie, Kilfyth, and Denny. ‘The northern ranges of the latter are denominated the Lennox hills. The more fouthern branches receive the names of the parifhes in which they are, and are called Campfie fells, Kilfyth or Kilpatrick hills. The principal northern mountain is Ben Lomond, which rifes from loch Lomond. (See Brn Lomonp.) The higheft in the fouthern divifion of thofe denominated the Campfie fells, is about 1500 feet above the level of the fea; and nearly 1200 from the bafe of the ridge. Although the ac- clivity of the hills is generally very rapid, they poflefs more of the charafter of the Lowland than of the Highland mountains, for their furfaces are either verdant, or covered with mofly patture, and they do not prefent terrific and pre- cipitous naked peaks. Inthe parifh of Kilfyth, thefe moun- tains never exceed in their elevation 1200 feet from the val- ley, or 1368 from the level of the fea: the view from the higheft of thefe is one of the moft extenfive, beautiful, and variegated in all Scotland, and commands nearly one half of that delightful kingdom, the profpeét being fuppofed, at a moderate computation, to embrace an area of 12,000 fquare miles. Mineralogy and Mineral Produés.—The minerals of Stir- lingfhire confift chiefly of coal, iron-ftone, and lime-ftone. The vicinity of the Grampian hills appears to cut off all fecondary {trata to the north-weit ; and towards loch Lo- mond the country is deftitute of any valuable mineral. Ben Lomond is compofed of granite, interfperfed with quartz, which is found near the top in fuch mafles as to weigh feve- ral tons. The fhores of the loch beneath are covered with rounded pebbles, compofed of quartz, granite, and mi- caceous fchiltus, with coarfe red jafper, fimilar to the com- pofition of the adjoining hills, from which they have been wafhed by rivulets, and polifhed by the waves of the lake. Upon the Enrick, and the upper part of the Forth towards the centre of the county, peat is the ordinary fuel; but in Campfie, Kilfyth, and towards the eaft, large ftrata of coal run within the bowels of the mountains. In various parts of the hills, pafling from Dumbarton to Stirling, are ttu- pendous piles of bafaltic rocks ; and a grand colonnade of bafaltic columns rifes in a hill called Dun or Down, in the parifh of Fintry. This confilts of feventy pillars in front, of a gigantic itature, fome appearing to be feparated in loofe blocks, and the thafts of others feeming entire through the whole extent: they {tand perpendicular to the horizon, and rife to the height of fifty feet. They confit of various fhapes, being {quare, pentagonal, and hexagonal. On the eaftern fide of this'range the pillars are parted the diftance of three or four inches. This gradually leffens towards the welt fide, till nothing more than a mark is to be defcried, and which foon difappears in one folid mafs of rock, very much honeycombed, and which has the appearance of hav- ing been ignited. ‘The mountain on which they ftand con- filts of extenfive beds of red ochre. The front of a pre- eipice in the parifh of Strathblane, for the fpace of a fur- long, 1s lined’ with itately columns of the fame kind. They eonfift of four, five, and fix fides; are from two to three feet in diameter, and thirty feet high. They rife from the horizon with a little inclination from the perpendicular, and fome of them are apparently bent in the fegment of a curved line. In the latter mentioned parifh, at the water-fall called the Spout of Ballagan, a very remarkable feétion of the hill is prefented, The fide of it, being perpendicularly cut by the water, difclofes 192 alternate {trata of earth and lime- {tone ; but towards the bottom of the fection are feveral thin ftrata of the pureft alabafter. Near the fame place, ia a late inundation of the river, fome fragments of antimony were thrown up, which on trial were found to be of the fineft quality. The vein, however, from which they were torn, has not been difcovered. Jn what are ftiled the fe- condary hills, coal is very abundant. The ftrata of thefe mountains, immediately fucéeeding the vein of coal, con- fift of lime-{tone mixed with clay, here denominated cam- ftone, and which burns into a heavy lime, but requires to be flaked while hot. Above this mixture of lime and clay are feveral ftrata of excellent iron-{tone, of different degrees of thicknefs, with a foft flate, which interpofes between the layers. The fummit of the mountains is formed of layers of rock, called moor-{ftone. In the inferior hills, about the Glaflart, is a large field of coal on both fides of the ftream, at the depth, on the north fide, of from two to fifteen fa- thoms, and on the fouth of nearly twenty-two fathoms. The coal is, at an average, from forty-two inches to four feet in thicknefs. The neighbouring parifh of Baldernock, upon the Kelvin, contains likewife abundance of coal and lime-ftone. The coal refembles that of Newcaftle, cakin together, and giving out a ftrong heat when allowed to rel fome hours undi{turbed. The parifh of Kilfyth contains alfo very valuable minerals in great abundance ; and iron-ftone, which was wrought by the Carron company upwards of thirty years fince, {till con- tinues to be worked to a great extent. (See Carron and Iron.) In the weftern part of the above parifh are found great qnantities of ball iron-itone, and confiderable beds of lime-ftone. Inthe Garrel Glen is a large quarry of free- ftone; foft and eafily wrought when firft drawn from the quarry. The bed whence it is taken is generally from ten. to fifteen feet, and is placed upon a feam of coal about as many inches thick. There is a variety of {talks arifing, from thin feams like trees, from the furface of the earth. Some of them are fix, ten, or twenty feet long, in propor- tion to the depth of the free-ftone; and they differ as much in diameter as in length, being of all fizes, from an inch to two feet. Thefe are efteemed as confiderable curiofities, and have furnifhed much matter for {peculation. They ex- ceedingly refemble a petrifaétion, and yet the fubftance is not calcareous earth, but folid free-ftone, of a fimilar texture with the circumjacent rock. One of the largeft of them is defcribed as being nearly fixteen inches in diameter, and about fix feet nine inches in length. ‘ Rivers. —OFf the rivers in this county, the Forth is the chief, and though not the largeft, has always been confidered the moft diftinguifhed of the Scottifh rivers. (See Forrn. ) The Carron river rifes in the centre of the county, and run- ning eaftward, enters the Frith of Forth about three miles from Falkirk. (See Carron.) Bannockburn is more cele- brated for the hiftorical events that are conneéted with it, than for any importance it pofleffes as a river, being only a {mall ftream. (See Bannocxsurn.) The lefler rivers im this county are the Avon, which rifes in the fouth-eattern parts; the Enrick; the Kelvin, which defcends from the weit and flows to the fouth-eaft: and the Blane, which gives its name to the parifh of Strathblane, {prings from a high hill called the Earl’s feat, amidft the Lennox hills. In a fhort courfe this river forms feveral water-falls, one of pati calle a STIRLINGS HIRE. called the Spout of Ballagan, forms a cafcade 70 feet in height, confined to a narrow channel, with lofty mountains on each fide. This {tream is fometimes increafed to a tor- rent by violent ftorms of rain, which occafionally pour down like water-{pouts. At fuch times, very confiderable injury is done by the rapidity of the torrents, in overwhelming the low grounds. ws Lakes.—This county contains no lakes of importance, un- lefs loch Lomond be confidered as partially belonging to it. In the parifh of Buchanan, rear loch Lomond, there are three {mall lakes, Dulochlan, Lochlarclet, and Lochaman- cairn. In the parifh of Strathblane are fix lakes; the largeft of them, however, does not exceed half a mile in length, and a quarter of a mile in breadth; but they ferve to beftow a degree of livelinefs upon a defolate region. In the parifh of Kilfyth, the great refervoir for the canal be- tween the Forth and Clyde, though artificially formed, may be confidered as a lake. See Forru and Clyde Cana. Soil, Climate, and Agriculture.—The {foil of this county is extremely various, as may be expected in a territory fo much diverfified by hills and dales. In the weftern parifhes, it generally contains a confiderable portion of clay, that renders it cold, retentive of water, and produétive of mofles and coarfe grafles. The fubfoil is moftly a hard till, impenetrable by water, or elfe an argillaceous kind of grit, of a reddifh colour, blotched and ftreaked with white, grey, and yellow. The car/e lands conftitute one of the moft remarkable foils in the county. They lie in a low fituation on the banks of the Forth, and extend from the river Avon on the eaft, to Kelly-water on the weft; at an averaged fpace of about 30 miles in length and 2 in breadth. They are elevated from 10 to 20 feet above high- water mark, and a {mall portion of them is in fome places overflowed at times by the river. The foil is univerfally allowed to be the alluvial depofited by the Forth and its tributary ftreams, and confequently to be the fpoils of the higher grounds through which the river takes its courfe. It etiay confifts of a high-coloured clay, a {mall quantity of land, and a pretty large mixture of once organized matter. In fome places, are patches of till of various colours; but not a {tone fo large as to ob{truét the plough is to be found. The foil of the beft quality, when dug firft from the natural bed, is of a bright-blue colour, and of a fubttance refem- bling the richeft foap, and fometimes even ferves as a fub- ftitute for fuller’s-earth. In many places, the clay is ex- cellently fitted for making of bricks, tiles, and a coarfe kind of ftone-ware. The depths are from five to-fifty feet: the fubfoils are {tiff clay, hard till, and fea-fhells in a natural ftate. The beds of fhells are from a few inches to four yards in thicknefs; they are chiefly large oyfters, with a mixture of cockles, whilks, and fome other fhells at pre- fent found in the Frith. Patches of rich and fertile loamy foils are interfperfed in different parts of the fhire. Light gravelly foils are chiefly on the banks of the Enrick, Car- ron, Blane, and other rivers in the weftern and midland parts of the county. / The high moors of Stirlingfhire, as in other parts of Scotland, confilt of a mofly foil, extremely loofe when dry ; but. when wet, retentive of moifture. Of the many peat- mofles in this county, fome have been formed upon the kerfe or low grounds adjoining the principal river, by the Romans having cut down the trees, which formerly grew here, and which formed the mott formidable retreats of the natives. Where the mofs is removed, thefe trees are found lying in all directions befide their roots, which ftill continue firm in the ground in their natural pofition; and from im- preffions itill vifible, it is evident that theyhave been cut with an axe, or fome fimilar inftrument. ‘That they were cut down by the Romans, is not only probable from the ac- counts which the hiltorians of that people have given of their operations, but is confirmed by a circumftance that occurred in May 1768, when a large round veflel of thin brafs, and -of curious workmanfhip, 25 inches in diameter and 16 inches in height, was difcovered upon the furface of the clay, buried under the mofs. It was denominated by aie Edinburgh Society of Antiquaties, a Roman camp: eltle. The agriculture of this county is very varied. In the parifh of Gargunnock, and elfewhere upon the Carfe or Kerfe, all eitates confift of moor, dry field, and kerfe farms. The dry fields occupy the fpace between the hills or moor and kerfe grounds ; and upon thefe, great improve- ments have of late been effeGted. The carfe lands, which are all arable, are fubdivided into farms from about 15 to 100 acres each; but thofe of 30 and 40 are moft common. Farms in the higher part of the county are from 20 to 1000 acres, of which there is commonly a mixture of rough wet land, that is paftured only. Almoft univerfally the farms are occupied by the perfons who rent them. Small pof- feffions, from 2 to 20 acres, are to be met with in feveral parts, and in the old language of the country are ftill de- nominated pendicles. The occupiers of them are generally day-labourers, who gain their livelihood by working on the high roads, or for the neighbouring farmers. Many of them are alfo in the pofleffion of manufa€turers or mechanics, for the accommodation of their families. Around the vil- lages there are fome confiderable numbers of {mall proper- ties held in feu. In the Kerfe, wheat is ufually preceded by fummer- fallow; and much barley is reared. The cultivation of fown grafles is become very general. Peas and beans are little cultivated in the high parts ef the county, but very generally in the Kerfe as a mixed crop. The turnip huf- bandry is extenfively carried on towards the eaftern part of the county. It appears from a memoir prefented to the Board of Agriculture by William Wright, M.D. F.R.S. that potatoes were not planted in the open fields in this county, or any where elfe in Scotland, till about the year 1728, when Thomas Prentice, a day-labourer, firft culti- vated them in this mode in the parifh of Kilfyth. About 12 or 16 years after this introdu€tion, a Mr. Graham of that place cultivated them in great quantities for fale. He was one of the firft who fupplied the market of Glafgow with potatoes. Being very fuccefsful, his example in raifing the large, round, reddifh-coloured potatoe in the open field for the market was foon followed by many farmers ; and the practice is now fo univerfal, that they are even planted in {trong clay land. On fome eftates, the farm-buildings are fubftantial and well arranged, and a good fituation is generally chofen. Dwelling-houfes on many eftates are two {tories high, and are ufually covered with flate or tile. About two-thirds of this county, exclufive of the moors, are fuppofed to be inclofed ; and every defeription of fences, from high walls of {tone and lime to neglected quickfet hedges, are to be feen. One proprietor m the neighbourhood of Falkirk, has inclofed within eight years no lefs than 7000 Scottifh acres. The fences are moltly of white-thorn, with double ditches, between which a mourid or dyke of earthiis' raifed, The ditch next the hedge is commonly five feet wide! at the top, and three feet deep ; the other is three feet wide. The dyke or bank between them is four or five feet broad at the bafe, and as much in height above the furface. ‘The lines of the inclofures are all {lraight, at right angles with one Sr ene another, and many of them run in the fame direétion for feveral miles. The ridges follow the fame courfe as the fences, for which the fituation and the ground correfpond remarkably well. Wet ditches alone are in fome parts of the carfe f{uppofed to be fuflicient fences; feveral of them are ten feet wide, and of confiderable depth. It is believed, that the extraordinary dimenfion of thefe excavations has been owing to the long continued pra¢tice of procuring from them clay for various purpofes. The cattle of Stirlingfhire are few; the inhabitants being fupplied by the Highland dealers. A confiderable part of the moors is paftured with fheep, which are almoft univer- fally of the black-faced kind, and are called here the Lin- ton breed, from the name of the village in Tweeddale whence they originally came. It appears, from the valua- tion of lands in the middle of the 17th century, that Bea Lomond, with the whole of the upper part of the parith of Buchanan, was almoft entirely ttocked with goats) A confiderable portion of the rents, in thofe days, confilted of kid’s and goat’s milk cheefe. Very few of that {pecies of ftock are now kept in the county. Woods and Plantations. — Stirlingfhire contains many coppices, that have been ufed as fuch from time imime- morial. ‘Torwood, in the parifh of Dunnipace, and the wood of Callender, in the parifh of Falkirk, are generally believed to be the remains of the Caledonian Forelt, with which the greatelt part of this county, when the Romans invaded Scotland, feems to have been covered. The trees are principally oak, beech, hazel, and birch. Some of the oaks, when allowed to remain, grow to a great fize. Of this, the county affords feveral examples. The moft noted tree in the whole diftri@ was Wallace’s oak, in the midit of the famous Torwood.. This tree, which, when entire, mea- fured 12 feet in diameter, afforded in its trunk, hollowed by age, a fhelter in the hour of danger to that foldier whofe name it bears, and a party of his followers. The oak, the afh, and the beech, are the moft valuable trees in this aounty. Great attention has been paid, efpecially during the laft 35 years, to rearing timber of all kinds. Plant- ations for fhelter, ornament, and profit, form a confiderable part of the improvement of the many eftates which have been inclofed and improved fince that period. ‘The ground which thefe plantations occupy, amounts, exclufive of hedge- rows, to between 2000 and 3000 acres. The trees generally planted are thofe before named, with various pines, e{pe- cially the larix, which at feven years old raiies its head nearly double the height of any other tree of the pine genus.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. iit. Chalmers’s Cale- donia, vol. i. STIRPFING, a town of Auftria; 4 miles N.E. of Weikendorf. STIRRUP, or Stirrop, in the Manege, a reft or fup- port for the horfeman’s foot, ferving to keep him firm in his feat, and to enable him to mount. The great art of a cavalier in the ancient tournaments was to make his antagonift lofe his ftirrup. For combating, it is a rule to have the right-foot {tirrup fomewhat fhorter than the other. Stirrups are allowed to be a modern invention ; no men- tion being made of them in any ancient Latin or Greek author ; no figure of them to be feen in any ftatue or monu- ment; nor any word expreflive of them to be met with in claffical antiquity. Menage obferves, that St. Jerom is the firft author who mentions them. This paflage, however, is not to be found in his epiftles; and if it were there, it would prove nothing, becaufe St, Jerom lived at a time when ftirrups re ig | are fuppofed to have been invented, and after the ufe of faddles. Montfaucon denies the authenticity of this paf- fage ; and, in order to account for the ignorance of the ancients with regard to an inftrument fo ufeful and fo eafy of invention, he obferves, that while cloths and houfings only were laid upon the horfes’? backs, on which the riders were to fit, ftirrups could not have bees’ ufed, becaufe they could not have been faftened with the fame fecurity as upon a faddle. But it is more probable, that in this inftance, as in many others, the progrefs of human genius and inven- tion is uncertain and flow, depending frequently upon acci- dental caufes. Berenger’s Hilt. and Art of Horfemanfhip, vol. i. p. 65, &c. é To lofe one’s itirrups, is to fuffer them to flip from the oot. Stirrup-foot is the near ox left foot before. Stipes is a thong of leather defcending from the faddle down by the hor{e’s ribs, upon which the itirrups hang. Stirrup-bearer, called in French porte etrier, is an end of leather made fait to the end of the faddle, to trufs up the {tirrup when the rider is alighted, and the horfe fent to the {table, Stirrup, in Ship-Building, an iron or copper ftrap or plate, that turns upwards on each fide of a fhip’s keel and dead-wood, clofe forward or abaft, and bolts through all. Stirrups are only ufedto Britifh fhips, when the after-piece of the keel is carried away by accident, and is replaced without the dead-wood bolts being driven through. See Horse. STISSIC Mounrary, in Geography, a mountain of America, that lies between Conneéticut and Hudfon river, near which the Mahikander Indians formerly refided. STITCH, in Agriculture, a term which in fome diltri&s fiznifies a ridge or butt in a field which is under the plough. The forms and breadths of ftitches are liable to vary ac- cording to the nature and ufes of the land in different dif- trits and places. In the county of Effex, their variation is faid not to be confiderable. In the greateft part of the wettern portion of it, the more wet land is laid out on two- bout ridges, or four-furrow work; and a fcattering of thefe is every where, it is faid, to be feen: but on the {trong land in the fea-diftriéts, eights, as they are termed, or ftitches of eight furrows, are more common. And towards the fouth of the county, ten-furrow work is rather more general. Thefe form the chief varieties in ref{pect to this matter. But there is a matterly manner of forming the {titches in fome initances, where they are laid by the plough in an admirable way. In particular cafes, not one falfe furrow can be feen, nor any fort of tendency to any thing of the Aog-trough kind, upon the whole extent of ftitches on the farms: the form of the lands is perfe€tly correét, and fo regularly and gently rounded, that not a drop of water can any where lodge upon them. It is difficult, it is thought, to plough lands of fo {tiff a quality fo thoroughly well. They are all ten-furrow lands or ftitches, and the harrows and other tools for them are made for the breadth in a fuitable manner. Some farmers are particularly cautious in. ploughing down old ftitches or ridges, efpecially where the land is of the cold clayey kind, though others bring them down, with- out much hefitation or caution, in a gradual manner. Some have ploughed down high old ititches for the purpofe of forming gra{s-land, but have repented it ever afterwards ; confidering that the {taple of land is the artificial child of cultivation ; and if it fhould be buried, and the under foil be brought up by fuch levelling, is injured for an age, or for STI for ever afterwards. They are confequently decidedly of opinion, that high lands or ftitches fhould on no account whatever be ploughed down. They have often feen them laid to grafs in their old form with great fuccefs, but fcarcely ever when ploughed down. In fuch cafes, if brought to good patturage, it has been, it is thought, by force of manuring or top-dreffing. There can, however, be no fort of doubt, but that high and badly formed lands or ftitches in grounds may be brought down and reduced, in many cafes, with confider- able advantages in different refpeéts, though it fhould al- ways be done with a good deal of care and caution, as well as moftly, perhaps, in a regular and gradual manner. STITCHEL, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a kind of hairy wool met with on fome forts of fheep. See Surep and Woot. : STITCHING, in Agriculture, a term applied to the forming of ridges in land, the fame as ridging. STITCHWORT, a name fometimes given to the alfine, or flellaria of botanifts, otherwife called chickweed. See STELLARIA. STITHY, or Sruruty, is ufed either fora {mith’s anvil, ora difeafe in oxen, caufing their fkin to itick fo clofe to the ribs, that they cannot ftir. STIVA. See TueEses. STIVER, in Commerce, a money of account and copper coin in Holland and Flanders. The gilders or florins of ac- count contain 20 ftivers, each of which is divided into 16 pennings. A ftiver contains 2 groots Flemifh, and 8 duyts ; and a duyt, 2 pennings: a gold gilder, with which accounts are kept in the corn-trade, is worth 28 ftivers. In filver, there are pieces of 1 ftiver; andin copper, duyts which are the 8th part of a ftiver. At Antwerp, and the whole of Brabant and Flanders, accounts are kept moftly in florins and gilders of 20 ituyvers, or ftivers, formerly called Patars, which were formerly fubdivided into 16 pennings, but for a long time have been divided into 12 parts or deniers. The fmaller filver coins are the new pieces of 5 and 24 ftivers, and plaquettes of 34 ftivers current. A piece of 5 ftivers is valued at 44d., and a plaquette at 3d. See Corn. STIVING, in Sea Language. See StEEVING. STIX Neysirp, in Geography, a town of Auttria; 3 miles N.W. of Brugg. STIXIS, in Botany, sif:-, a dotting or pricking, becaufe of the dotted rind of the fruit.—Loureir. Cochinch. 295. —Clafs and order, Dodecandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee, Linn. ? A/paragi, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. bell-fhaped, of fix oblong, fiefhy, revolute petals. Stam. Filaments fixteen, nearly as long as the corolla, inferted into the receptacle, the outer anes fhorteft; anthers oblong, ereét. Piff. Germen fu- perior, ovate, ftalked, hairy ; {tyle fhort and thick ; {tigmas three, round. eric. Drupa ovate, flefhy, dotted. Seed. Nut oblong-ovate, with a folid kernel. Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Petals fix, revolute. Drupa _ dotted, fuperior, with one feed. 1. S. feandens. Cay Cam of the Cochinchinefe.—Found in the woods of Cochinchina. A large /brub, without ten- drils or {pines, branched, climbing toa great extent. Leaves alternate, oblong, pointed, entire, veiny, hard. Cluflers axillary, long, fimple. Flowers variegated with purple and green. Drupa of a middling fize. Loureiro tuppofes the A/unus, Rumph. Amboin. v. 1.171. t. 66, to belong to the fame genus. But that is an epright tree, with polyandrous or icofandrous flowers. If, indeed, there be no miltake in the author’s account of the flamens in STO , his Siiwis, it cannot belong to the natural order we have guefled, nor are we able to form any further conje&ture on the fubje&. ST. LAWRENCE Counry, in Geography, a county of New York, erected in March 1802; bounded on the N.W. by the river St. Lawrence, and the Britifh potleffions in Canada ; E. by Franklin county ; S. by Montgomery and Herkimer counties; S.W. by a {mall corner of Herkimer county, and by Lewis and Jefferfon counties. Its extent on the St. Lawrence is 654 miles, in a right line; the E. line is 61 miles, the S, line 26, and the S.W. 43 miles; fo that it has an area of about 2000 fquare miles. It is fituated between 44° 3! and 45°. lat., and 30° and 1° so! W. long. from New York. Its number of towns is 12, the capi- tal being Ofwegatchie, 212 miles from Albany ; its popu- lation confilts of 7894 perfons. The foil is principally fand or loam, thickly wooded with maple, beech, afh, tilia or bafs wood, butternut, elm, and groves of white and yellow pines : it is not mountainous nor even hilly ; it is well wa- tered by fprings and ftreamlets, wafhed on the N.W. for an extent of 75 miles by the St. Lawrence, and penetrated by many navigable rivers. In the fouthern part are {mall lakes. This county fends one member to the houfe of aflembly. STO, sox, in Antiquity, the porticoes at Athens. Thefe were full of exedra, ::deus, and fide buildings, fur- nifhed with fears fit for {tudy or difcourfe. Here it is pro- bable philofophers 4nd their f{cholars ufed to meet. See Exrpn®. STOAKED, in a Shit. When the water in the bottom cannot come to the well of the pump, they fay, the fhip is aftoak, or floaked: fo they fay allo, the limber-holes are Jtoaked, when the water cannot pafs through them; and that the pump is floaked, when fomething is got into it which choaks it up, fo that it will not work. STOAT, in Zoology, the name ufed by many for the animal whofe fkin is the ermin. _ See Exmtneum Animal. STOBAA, in Botany, a Cape genus of Thunberg’s, doubtlefs named in honour of Dr. Stobzus of Lund, one of the earlieft patrons of the great Linnzus, and a practical naturalilt ; fee Linn2us.—Thunb. Prodr. part 2, pref. Willd. Sp Pl. v. 3. 1703.—Clafs and order, Syagencfia Po- lygamia-agualis. Nat. Ord. Compofite capitate, Linn. Cina- rocephale, Julf. Eff. Ch. Receptacle hifpid, cellular. Seed-down chaffy. Corolla uniform, Calyx imbricated, with {pinous-toothed {cales. This genus coufifts of nine fpecies, all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, only one of which had previoufly been deferibed by Linnzus. With this original [pecies, Carlina atra@ylotdes of the Amenitates Academica, v. 6. 96, the younger Linneus confounded two other very diltin& plants, which are perhaps the S. glabrata and rigida of Thunberg. The fpecific characters of this writer are too fhort and incomplete to determine the point ; and we mutt content ourfelves with giving all the information he has afforded. 1. S. glabrata. ‘Thunb. Prodr. 141. Willd. n. 1.— “* Leaves heart-fhaped, clafping the ftem, oblong, {mooth.”? —We fhould rather have faid ‘ leaves oblong, {mooth ; clafping the ftem with their heart-fhaped bafe,”’ which is the cale with both the uncertain {pecies alluded to above. 2. S. carlinoides. ‘Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 2.—* Leaves heart-fhaped-oblong, {neooth, with runcinate f{pinous teeth.” 3. S. atrafyloides. Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 3. (Carlina atraftyloides; Linn. Sp. Pi. 1161. Am. Acad. v. 6. 96, C. polycephalos, polyacantho vulgari fimilis, zthiopica ; Pluk. S$ TO Pluk. Almag. 86. Phyt. t. 273. f. 4. bad. Linn.) —Stem {carcely branched. Leaves woolly beneath ; the lower ones {talked ; upper feflile, with {pinous teeth.—The root is {trong and woody. Stems ere&t, four or five inches high, round, woolly, leafy, flightly branched, bearing two or three ter- minal yellow flowers. Leaves numerous, all fmooth above ; white and cottony beneath; thofe of the {tem ovate, fringed with parallel {pinous teeth. Braédeas fimilar to the upper leaves, but with more of a ftrong, {pinous point. This is certainly the plant defcribed in the Amenitates, from whence, with a {mall, but important omiflion of the word /ud, the character was copied into the Sp. Pi. Linneus juitly finds fault with Plukenet’s figure, which indeed appears more like what we take to be S. rigida, our fixth {pecies ; and hence probably the younger Linnzus was led to mark this latter, in his herbarium, as Carlina atraétyloides, after effacing the name of the true one. But in doing this, he confounded with the former a third very diftinét plant, either Stobea glabrata or carlinoides of Thunberg, his definition will not allow us to decide which. 4. S. decurrens. Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 4.—* Leaves de- current, {mooth, cut, pinnatifid, f{pinous.”” 5. S. Janata. Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 5.—** Leaves de- current, ovate, {pinous, downy.”’ 6. S. rigida. Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 6.—¢* Leaves heart- fhaped, pinnatifid, f{pinous, downy.”—Plukenet’s t. 273. f. 4. bears moft refemblance to what we fuppofe to be this fpecies. The /em in our {pecimen is ftout, ereét, furrowed, purplifh, leafy, fmooth. Leaves oblong, three or four inches in length, reticulated, clothed with a deciduous cot- tony web, pinnatifid, with radiating {pinous lobes; heart- fhaped, and clafping the ftem, at the bafe, with radiating fpines. Flowers three or more at the top of the ftem, large, apparently yellow. | Calyx-fcales numerous, lanceolate, {preading, ribbed, fringed about the lower part with fine briftly prickles, and tipped with a ftrong thorn. Florets very numerous, deeply five-cleft, with a roughifh angular oe Seeds crowned each with numerous obovate chaffy cales. 7. S. heterophylla. Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 7.—* Leaves downy ; the lowermoft undivided ; upper ones lyrate.”” 8. S. pinnatifida. Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 8.—* Leaves downy, pinnatifid ; fegments ovate, fpinous on the upper fide and at the extremity.” 9. S. pinnata. Thunb. ib. Willd. n. 9.—*< Leaves downy, pinnatifid ; fegments linear, terminated by a {pine.”’ —Whether the /eaves be really pinnate, or only pinnatifid, cannot be afcertained from Thunberg’s words, nor have we feen any thing that can with certainty be referred to the pre- fent {pecies. STOBEUS, Joannezs, in Biography, a Greek writer, fuppofed to have flourifhed in the beginning of the fifth century, about A.D. 405, was the author of feveral works, none of which have come entire to modern times, except the fragments of a colletion of extraéts from ancient poets and philofophers. Thefe have been publifhed at various times, under the titles of «* Ecloge,’’ « Sententiz,’? and ‘ Ser- mones.’’ The “ Sententi’’ were publifhed by Gefner with a Latin verfion, Tigur. 1659, fol.; and Grotius gave an edi- tion of *«* Didta Poetarum apud Stobeum,”’ Gr. and Lat. Paris, 1623, 4to. The lateft edition of Stobzeus is that en- titled «* Sermones,”’ Lipf. 1797. The writer feems to have been a mere compiler.. Fabricius thinks that he was not a Chriftian, fince his extraéts are exclufively from heathen au- thors. Fab. Bibl. Grec. STOBDUNE, in Geography, a mountain of Scotland, in the county of Perth; 25 miles W. of Crieff, e) STO STOBER, a river of Silefia, which runs into the Elbe ; 6 miles below Brieg. STOBERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, which belonged to the people called Ichthyophagi. STOBI, a town of Macedonia Salutaris, which fuc- ceeded that of Pelagonia, as the metropolis of this province. It was colonized by the Romans. Pliny. ’ Srost, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in Macedonia; 42 miles N. of Edeffa. STOBORRHUM, or Stoborum Promontorium, (Mers- el-Berber,) in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Africa Propria, upon the coaft of the gulf of Numidia, between the promontory Hippus and the town of Aphrodifium. STOBREZ, in Geography, a {mall fea-port of Dalma- tia, near the coaft of the Adriatic, on the {cite of the an- cient Epetium, a colony of the Iffei; the ruins are {till vifi. ble; 4 miles E. of Spalatro. - STOC and Stovel, in our Old Writers, a forfeiture where any one is taken carrying /lipites and pabulum out of the woods ; for floc fignifies flicks, and flovel, pabulum. STOCK, in Commerce, a fund raifed by a commercial company; or a principal fum of property employed in trade. Srocx, in Book-keeping, denotes the owner or owners of the books. Srocks, or Publis Funds, are the loans advanced to go- vernment, for which intereft is regularly paid, from revenues fet apart for the purpofe. This mode of raifing fupplies by levying taxes for the payment of interelt, is called the‘ fund- ing fy{ttem,”’ and the loans thus raifed conttitute the‘ national debt.”” (See Public Funns and National Dewr.) The debts of government differ from other contraéts in this, that the public creditor can claim only his intereft: he may, how- ever, fell his ftock, that is, he may transfer his claim, and thus obtain his capital, more or lefs, according to the price of ftock, which flu€tuates from various caufes. The dif ferent funds or ftocks are varioufly denominated, according to the terms on which they were eftablifhed. Thus, fome are called the 3 fer cents., {ome the 4 per cents., others the 5 per cents., &c. And the manner of buying ftock is to give a {pecific fum for a nominal hundred: e. g.if the price of the 3 per cents. be 60l., this fum is paid for roo/. ftock, which yields a dividend of 3/. a year, that is 5 per cent. per annum; for at the fame rate of 3/. for 60/., 100/. would yield 5/. When ftocks are low, the intereft is high ; and vice verfa. In fome funds there is a higher intereft than in others, and this is chiefly owing to the preference given to that {tock which is moft marketable, or the leat hkely to be redeemed ; for government has an option to pay off or redeem certain loans, when an advantage may be made by fuch redemption. New loans are paid by in{talments of 10 or 15 per cent. at {tated periods, and they generally compre- hend different kinds of ftock, which together are called «omnium.” If thefe be difpofed of feparately, before all the inftalments are paid, the different: articles are called “{crip.’? an abbreviation for /ub/eription. In raifing loans, a douceur is fometimes given by government of an annuity for a limited time: fuch are called ‘* terminable annuities,’’ and “¢ irredeemable :’? but the regular ftocks, on which the com- mon intereft is paid, are Bled “¢ perpetual annuities,’ and alfo ‘‘redeemable.’? Loans are calleda ‘¢ funded debt,”? when taxes are appropriated for paying the intereft: but fums raifed for which no fuch provilion is yet made, are called the “ unfunded debt.”? Of this latter defcription are exche- quer, navy, viétualling, and ordnance bills, which are iffued by thefe different offices, and bear an intereft ued they STO they are paid off. The intereft is moftly 3¢. or 34d. per day for every 100/. Stock, Capital. See Carrrax,and Stock /upra. Srock-Brokers. See Brokers. Stocx-Exchange Fund, an inftitution formed in the year 1801, forthe relief of the decayed members of the Stock- exchange and their unprotected families. The annual fub- feription is one guinea, and that for lifeis 10 guineas. The annual relief does not exceed 4o/. to any applicant: dona- tions are reltriGted to 200/. Perfons receiving any annual allowance are ineligible ; and the allowance may be with- drawn if the party is no longer deferving, or if his circum- ftances have improved fo that he ceafes to be an object of charity. : Srocx-Jobbing denotes the practice of trafficking in the public funds, or of buying and felling ftock with a view to its rife and fall. The term is commonly applied to the ille- gal practice of buying and felling ttock for time, or of ac- counting for the differences in the rife or fall of any particu- lar ftock for a {tipulated time, whether the buyer or feller be potleffed of any fuch real ftock or not. This is that gambling at the Stock-exchange, which ruins numbers of people every year, and which is ee ee in a variety of re- {petts, to individuals and the public. Tranfaétions of this kind are declared to be illegal by an aé& of parliament ‘to prevent the iniquitous sytibics of ftock-jobbing,”” and no debt accruing from {tock-jobbing accounts is recoverable at law. (7 Geo. I. A.D. 1734.) The broker who is unable or unwilling at the fettling day to pay for himfelf or his prin- cipal the difference, becomes, in the cant language of the Stock-exchange, a ‘* lame duck,”’ fo that he can no longer frequent the houfe, nor do any more bufinefs on credit, with his brethren. A ftock-jobber, who has bought ftock for time, which he never intended to take, is called at the Stock-exchange a “ bull” laden with a burden which he _wifhes to thake off. On the contrary, he who has fold, upon {peculation, what he does not poflefs, and confequently cannot transfer, is called a “* bear,’”’ eager and hungry, and trying to devour the property of others. The firtt of thefe parties wants the fund he has bought to rife, that he may fell the fame fum at an advanced price, and receive a profit, which is called the “ difference.”? It is this man’s interelt to propagate falfe intelligence in time of war, of victories, ne- gociations for peace, &c. The bear, ou the contrary, will endeavour to obtain falfe news of defeats by fea and land, in order to lower the price of the fund he has fold on fpecula- tion, that he may have an opportunity of buying the fame fum at a lower price, and thereby receiving a profit. Thus, by the various arts of the ftock-jobbers, real property is aftetted, and the rife or fall of the funds is regulated by the jobbing accounts at the Stock-exchange. The greatelt part of the national debt, confifting of 3 per cent. confol. an- nuities, in which moft bufinefs is daily tranfacted, the greateft jobbing, and the moft frequent variations, happen in that fund. All ranks of people, and perfons of both fexes, en- ge more or lefs in ftock-jobbing, often through the per- can of their brokers; efpecially if they are known by transferring, or by purchafing, to have confiderable pro- perty in the funds. But foreigners invelted with public eharaéters, and perfons conneGted with them, have the bett opportunities of playing a fure game, by means of early intelligence ; and fo they generally carry their gains out of the country : this is a greatevil. Commerce likewife fuffers confiderably by ftock-jobbing, for tradefmen are tempted, by the hope of more rapid profits than any they can make in the ordinary way of bufinefs, to frequent the Stock- exchange ; and not being in the feeret of obtaining true in- Voit. XXXIV. sTO telligence refpecting public affairs, they lofe inftead of gaining, and too often become fraudulent bankrupts. See Stock-BROKER. Stock, in Agriculture, a term fignifying any fort ‘of crop, or other kind of farm property. All kinds of ftock of this nature fhould conttantly be well fuited and adapted to the fize, quality, and nature of the farms, fo far efpe- cially as relates to tools, machinery, crops, and the different forts of animals which are to be kept and employed upon them, whatever this fort may be; as, upon this being nicely and properly adjufted, a great deal in their economy and utility depends. It has now been long well known that very great advantages refult to the farmer, from his thus accurately fuiting his crops and live-ftock of different kinds, as well as other things, to the ttate, qualities, and circum- {tances of his lands; as they are found to be greatly in- fluenced by them, and of courfe to be much benefited, where fuch a correé& attention is had to the matter. This has fometimes the terms of farm and farming {tock applied to it, by different writers on hufbandry. Stock, Live, that kind which comprehends all forts of domeftic animals. See Live-Stock. Srock, Live, Choice of Food for, the particular feletion or choice of that fort to which they are attached, as being the moft agreeable to them. The attachment or diflike to a particular kind of food, as fkewn by animals, however, it is faid, affords no fort of proof of its nutritive properties or powers ; as different forts of neat cattle, fheep, and other animals, at firft refufe linfeed cake, which is well known to be one of the moft nourifhing and fattening fubftances on which they can be fed; and the fame is probably the cafe with fome other matters ufed as food of animals. The writer of the late work on “ Agricultural Che- miftry”’ has given the following remarks on the feleétion or choice of different kinds of common food, by fheep and cattle, on the authority of Mr. G. Sinclair, the gardener to his grace the duke of Bedford, at Woburn Abbey. With refpe& to rye-grafs (lolium pad fheep, it is faid, eat this grals, when it is in the early ftage of its growth, in preference to moft others; but after the feed approaches towards perfe¢tion, they leave it for almoft any other kind, A field in the park at the above: place was laid down in two equal parts, one part with the above grafs and white clover, and the other with cock’s-foot and red clover. From the {pring till midfummer, the fheep kept almoft conftantly on the rye-grafs part ; but after that time they left it, and adhered with equal conftancy to the cock’s- foot part, during the remainder of the feafon. In regard to the cock’s-foot grafs (da€tylis glomerata), oxen, horfes, and fheep, are ftated to eat this grafs readily. The oxen continue to eat the ftraws and flowers, from the time of flowering until the time of perfeéting the feed. This was exemplified in a remarkable and {triking manner, in the field juit alluded to. The oxen generally kept to the cock’s-foot and red clover, and the fheep to the rye-grafs and white clover. In the experiments publifhed in the «« Amecenitates Academice,”’ by the pupils of Linnzus, it is aflerted, it is faid, that this grafs is rejected by oxen. The above fact, however, is in contradiGtion of it. As to the grafs which is ufually known by the title of meadow fox-tail grafé (alopecurus pratenfis), fheep and horfes feem, it is faid, to have a greater relifh for it than oxen. [It delights in a foil of intermediate quality as to moifture and drynefs, and is very productive, Inthe water-meadow at Prieftley, near the above place, it conftitutes, it is remarked, a confider- able part of the produce of that excellent meadow. It there, it is faid, invariably eure pofleffion of the top of = the STO the ridges, extending generally about fix feet from each fide of the water-courfe: the {pace below that, to where the ridge ends, is ftocked with cock’s-foot, the rough- ftalked meadow grals, the meadow fefcue, the hard fefcue, the agroftis {tolonifera and paluttris, with the {weet-fcented vernal prafs, and a {mall admixture of fome other kinds. In {peaking of the nature of the meadow cat’s-tail grafs (phleum ‘pratenfe), it is faid that it is a grafs which is eaten without referye by oxen, fheep, and horfes. It is noticed, that it has been faid by doétor Pulteney, that it is difliked by fheep ; but that in paftures where it abounds, it does not appear to be rejefted by thefe animals, but to be eaten by them incommon with {uch others as are growing with it. In re{peét to the fiorin grafs (agroftis {tolonifera), in the experiments detailed in the Ameemtates Academicz, it is faid that horfes, fheep, and oxen, eat it greedily. On the duke of Bedford’s tarm at Maulden, fiorin hay was placed in the racks before horfes, in {mall diftinét quan- tities, alternately with common hay; but no decided pre- ference for either was, it is faid, manifefted by the horfes in this trial. But that cows and horfes prefer it to hay, when ina green ftate, feems fully proved, it is thought, by Dr. Richardfon, in his feveral publications on fiorm; and of its productive power in England, which has been doubted by fome, there are fatisfaétory proofs. Lady Hardwicke has given an account of a trial of this grafs, it is obferved, wherein twenty-three milch-cows, and one young horfe, be- fides a number of pigs, were kept a fortmight on the pro- duce of one acre of ground. ‘In regard to the rough- ftalked meadow-grafs (poa trivialis), oxen, horfes, and fheep, eat it, it is faid, with avidity. Hares alfo eat it ; but they give a decided preference to the {mooth-ftalked kind, to which it is, in many re{pedts, nearly allied. Re- fpe€ting the {mooth-ftalked meadow-grafs (poa pratentis), oxen and horfes are, it is faid, obferved to eat 1t 11 common with others; but fheep rather prefer the hard fefcue, and fheep’s fefcue, which affe& a fimilar foil. This, it is no- ticed, is a {pecies of grafs that exhautts the foil ina greater degree than almoft any other; the roots being numerous, and powerfully creeping, become, in two or three years, completely matted together: the produce diminifhes, as this takes place. It grows common in fome meadows, on dry banks, and even on walls. With refpeét to the crefted dog’s-tail grafs (cynofurus criftatus), the South-Down fheep and deer appear, it is faid, to be remarkably fond of it. In fome parts of Woburn park, it forms the principal part of the herbage on which thefe animals chiefly browfe ; while another part of the fame park, that contains the agroftis capillaris and pumilis, feftuca ovina, duriufcula, and cambrica, is feldom touched by them. But the Welth breed of fheep almoft conftantly browfe upon thefe, and negle& the crefted dog’s-tail, the rye-grafs, and the rough- ftalked meadow-grafs. The fine, or common bent grafs, (agroftis vulgaris or capillaris,) is noticed to be a very com- mon grafs on all poor, dry, fandy foils. It is not palatable to cattle, as they never eat it readily, if any other kinds be within their reach. The Welfh fheep, however, prefer it, as has been juft obferved ; and it is fingular that thofe fheep, being bred in the park, where fome of the beft grafles are equally within their reach, fhould ftill prefer thofe grafles which naturally grow on the Welfh mountains: it would feem to argue, it is thought, that fuch a preference is the effet of fome other caufe than that of habit. As to the fheep’s fefcue grafs (feftuca ovina), all kinds of cattle are faid to relifh, and perhaps to have a fort of ‘preference for it; but it is thought that it appears, from the trial which has been made with it on clayey foils, that it continues but 10 STO a fhort time in poffeffion of fuch kinds, being foon overs powered by the moft luxuriant forts. Itis fuggefted, that on dry fhallow foils, which are incapable of producing the larger kinds, this fhould form the principal crop, or rather the whole; for it is feldom or ever, in its natural {tate, found intimately mixed with others, but by itfelf. Re- garding the hard fefcue grafs (fe(tuca duriufeula), it is no- ticed, that it is certainly one of the bett of the dwarf forts of grafles. It is grateful to all kinds of cattle: hares, too, are very fond of it; they cropped it clofe to the roots, and negleéted the fheep’s fefcue, and the feftuca rubra, which were contiguous toit. It ie prefent in molt good meadows and pattures, it is faid. The meadow fefcue grafs (feftuca pratenfis), is a grafs, it is faid, which is feldom abfent from rich meadow and pafture lands, and which is obferved to be highly grateful to oxen, fheep, and horfes, particularly the former. It may poffibly be preferred to fome other grailes by thefe. It is noticed as appearing to grow moft luxuriantly, when combined with the hard fefcue, and the rough-ftalked meadow-grafs. The tall oat-grafs (avena elatior) is alfo noticed to be a very produétive grafs, which is frequent in meadows and paitures, but which is difliked by cattle, particularly by horfes. This perfectly agrees, it is thought, with the fmall portion of nutritive matter which it affords. It is faid that it feems to thrive beft on a ftrong tenacious clay. The yellow oat-grafs (avena fla- vefcens) is likewife a grafs which, it is faid, feems partial to dry foils and meadows, and which appears to be eaten by fheep and oxen equally with meadow barley, crefted dog’s- tail, and {weet-fcented vernal grafles, which naturally grow in company with it. It is noticed, that it nearly doubles the quantity of its produce, by the application of calcareous manure to the land on which it grows. The meadow foft grafs (holcus lanatus) is a very common grafs, it is faid, and grows on all foils, from the richeft to the pooreft. It is noticed to afford an abundance of feed, which is light, and eafily difperfed by the wind. It appears to be generally difliked by all forts of cattle. The produce of it is not fo great, it is faid, as a view of it in the fields would indicate ; but being left almoft entirely untouched by cattle, it ap- pears as the moft productive part of the herbage. The hay which is made of it, from the number of downy hairs which cover the furface of the leaves, is foft and fpongy, and difliked by cattle in general. And the laft, or the {weet-fcented vernal grafs (anthoxanthum odoratum), is faid to be eaten by horfes, oxen, and fheep ; though in paf- tures, where it is combined with the meadow fox-tail and white clover, the cock’s-foot, and the rough-{talked mea- dow grafles, it is left untouched, from which it would feem unpalatable to cattle. It is noticed, that Mr. Grant of Leighton, in the fame diftriét as the above place, laid down one half of a field of confiderable extent with this grafs, combined with white clover’; the other half of the field with fox-tail and red clover. The fheep would not touch the {weet-{cented vernal, but kept conftantly upon the fox-tail. The writer faw the field, when the graffes were in the higheft ttate of perfection, and hardly any thing could be more fatisfactory. Equal quantities of the feeds of white clover were fown with each of the grafles; but from the dwarf nature of the {weet-fcented vernal grafs, the clover mixed with it had attained to greater luxuriance than that mixed with the meadow fox-tail. ’ This is perhaps nearly the whole of what has yet been done on this interefting {ubject, which is important in feveral refpeéts ; as, though it may not lead exaétly to the know- ledge of the difference in the nutrient properties or qualities of different fub{tances as the food’of live-flock of the farm kind, STO kind, it may ferve to dire& the proper and molt ufeful means of preparing and laying down lands, for the purpofe of pafturing and feeding fuch {tock in the beft and moft beneficial manner and fucceffion as to the ufe and con- fumption of the food, as well as probably be of utility and advantage in fome other ways. For the nature, qualities, and properties, of the different forts of domettic animals which conititute the living ftock of the farmer, fee Live-Stock. Srock Account, that fort of account which is kept of the ftock of afarm. It is of much utility and advantage to the farmer, in many different ways, that a correct account of the different forts of ftock on the farm be kept in a per- feétly accurate and proper manner; as it not only fhews how he ftands in refpeét to profit and lofs, but, in fome meafure, directs the management which is the be{t and molt proper, as well as the molt beneficial to be followed in dif- ferent cafes. In order to accomplifh the bufinefs in the moft proper manner, a general ftock-book fhould be kept; in which, at the clofe of every year, or at any other more fuitable period, fhould be entered the refult of a full and careful examination and eftimate of the ftate, condition, and worth of the whole of the ftock and property of every kind, as well as of the debts and credits which are exifting. Such a book will at all times, and on all occafions, be of great value and utility for the purpofe of referring to, and for affording the neceffary fatisfaétion how every thing on the farm is going on, whether properly or improperly. In this intention, in the firlt place, all the different tradefmen’s accounts and charges are to be got in, and the {tate and worth of the houfehold property taken, but without any ery great degree of minutenefs in this particular; then more particularly exaét accounts made out for the horfes, the neat cattle, the fheep, and other forts of live-flock, with thofe for grain in the ftraw and threfhed out, for hay and fodder of other kinds, for manure, for growing crops, for fallows, for timber-wood and woods, for ploughs, har- rows, carts, waggons, harnefs, traces, facks, and {mall implements of Oh laces concluding with the fituation and ftate of the fences of all kinds, the gates, the drains, and water-courfes, &c.; with eftimates of the neceflary repairs which they may ftand in need of, on the fide of the pro- prietor, as well as the tenant. Such memoranda being at firft made out upon walte paper, the particulars of them may afterwards be copied and entered into the ftock-book, in {uch a manner as may be confidered neceflary in regard to. minutenefs. 2 After the whole of this fort of work has been completely and properly adjufted, a debtor and creditor account may be made out in the manner of Stock Dr., and Contra Cr., the balance of which will thew, in an exaé and certain manner, the prefent ftate and worth of the farmer’s eitate and property. On the debtor fide of this account is to be entered or put down all the farmer owes, beginning with rent, tythe, and taxes, and proceeding with other items; and on the contra, or contrary fide, all he poffeffes of every kind, and all which is owing to him. Every thing is to be rated at what is thought to be the fair and ju(t worth or value of it at the time: manure, and tillage-work which has been per- formed, zre to be valued at what is the common rate of the particular diftriét ; and the corn which is not threfhed out, and other fimilar articles, are to be taken by eftimation at the fair rate which is then to be had for them. All other a to be valued in the fame manner. re are feveral different modes and forms provided for Ss TO keeping accounts of the farm kind; but for common farmers, the ordinary method is probably the moft fuitable, and may moftly be made fully fufficient for the purpofe. Inftead of the puzzling, though beautiful and correct, phi- lofophical Italian mode, a fort of half that method has been advifed, as both ufeful and unattended with either intricacy or trouble. It is merely that of creating or entering what are called ftock accounts, in a ledger, without any of the ufual conneétions by reference, common in that method, Thus, it is faid, if a farmer wifhes to be very correé in his accounts of the profit or lofs, upon a lot of talled oxen, for inftance, or on the crop of any particular field, his beft and readieft method is to make out an account, either for the one or the other, in his ledger, debtor and creditor. On the debtor fide let him place the colt or expence, in- cluding every minute particular; on the creditor, the re- turns: in courfe, on the fale of the articles, the account 1s clofed; and the balance demonttrates the profit or lofs. The keeping of both a day-book and ledger is nce E for the farmer : the firit, in order to ferve the purpofe of af- fording neceflary memoranda, as guides in the conduéting of his bufinefs ; and the latter, for fhewing the general ftate of his affairs. But he need not be over nice or ftudious of forms, but enter down in the former whatever he may think need- ful, with the date; as, befides other things, the times when the males were put to the females of different forts of do- meftic animals, as accidents are liable to frequently happen, for want of timely notice and care about the period of their bringing forth. [t is alfo of vaft ufe to keep correct ac- counts of the dates of different fowings, as well as of the various tranfactions of the tillage and other kinds on the farm. In faét, the regular taking of the ftock of farms annually, at fome certain period of the year, and of keeping fair and exaét accounts, is, on the whole, when well and perfectly confidered, attended with far lefs trouble and inconvenience, than the everlafting puzzle, confufion, uncertainty, and lofs, of heedlefs negligence in this refpe@, but which is a great deal too common among farmers. Regular accounts and annual valuation will, it is faid, not only afford the farmer an exact knowledge of his real fituation, but won- derfully fharpen and improve his judgment on the real worth and value of all thofe articles in which he deals, or has any concern; and in the neceflary contemplation of the final event, he will have the fatisfation of reflecting that all flands fair for the benefit of his family, and as little liable as poffible to lofs or difpute in any way. ’ In a fituation like that of a farm, where the whole home- ftead or refidence is neceflarily furrounded with different forts of combuttible matter, the infurance againft accidents by fire fhould never, on any account, be neglected, or put off for even the fhorteft {pace of time. The accidents and deaths of different forts of live-ftock may likewife be pro- bably infured againft, both of which fhould, of courfe, form accounts in the {tock-book. Srock, in Gardening. See Srocks. Stock, in Block-making, a wooden inttrument ufed for boring holes, by fixing a bitt in the lower end, and a pin with a round head in the other end; the pin and the bitt ferving as an axis upon which to turn it, . Stock of an Anchor, is compofed of two long pieces of oak, tapering from the middle, faftened together with iron hoops and tree-nails, and fixed on the fhank tranfverfely to the arms. Some anchors have iron ftocks. Srock-Shave, in Block-making, a large fharp-edged cut- ting-knife, with a handle at one end, and a hook at the other, by which it hooks in an iron-ftaple, that is driven Eez inte 31 0 into an elm-block: it is ufed to pare off the rough wood from the fhells of blocks, &c. Srock-Fifh, in the Fifh-Trade, a name given to the common cod-fifh, when cured in a particular manner, which makes it neceflary to beat it with fticks before it is fit for dreffing. The commerce for ftock-fifh is very confiderable in Holland, both from the great confumption of it in the country, and from their victualling their veflels with it. See Cod-Fisuery. Strock-Gilly-Flower, in Botany. See CurrRANTHUS. Srock Rock, in Geography, a rock on the W. coatt of South Wales, in St. Bride’s bay. STOCKACH, atown of Germany, in the landgravate of Nellenburg, of which it was the capital ; 15 miles N.W. of Conftance. N. lat. 47° 52'. E. long. 9° 1'—Alfo, a river of Germany, which rifes in the landgravate of Nellen- burg, and runs into the lake of Conftance, 5 miles S.E. of Stockach. STOCKAU, atown of Germany, in the principality of Culmbach ; 5 miles S.E. of Bareuth. STOCKBRIDGE, locally fituated in the upper half hundred of King’s Sombourne, and divifion of Andover, Hampfhire, England, is a {mall market-town on the eattern fide of the Teft, andon the road from Winchetter to Salif- bury. The population, according to the report of 1811, amounted to 663 inhabitants, occupying 145 houfes. A new bridge was erected here over the river Teft a few years fince : about two miles to the weftward, on Houghton-down, is 2 gocd race-courfe. Stockbridge is a borough by pre- {cription, and its government is vefted in a bailiff, who is the returning officer, a conftable, and a fergeant at mace. This pa fends two members to parliament, which privilege was r{t poffefled at the commencement of the reign of queen Elizabeth ; fince which time, the members and voters have frequently been cited before the houfe of commons for corruption and bribery. This, indeed, is one of thofe boroughs which has brought the Englifh reprefentative {vi- tem into frequent and fevere reproach. The ingenious and learned fir Richard Steele was elected one of the members for this borough in the time of queen Anne; and obtained his election by fticking a large apple full of guineas, and declaring it fhould be the prize of that man whofe wife fhould firft be brought to bed after that day nine months. The two members are now eleéted by 57 voters, who receive, according to Oldfield, 60/.a man. (See a particular ac- count in the Reprefentat. Hilt. vol. i, part ii. p. 5047.) The right of eleGtion is in the inhabitants paying the church and poor rates. A weekly market is held here on Thurfday ; and here are three annual fairs. It is 66 miles W.S.W. from London, and 15 E. from Salifbury. The parith of Stockbridge contains the borough, and Stockbridge-ftreet, alias White-ftreet.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. by J. Britton and E.W. Brayley. Oldfield’s Reprefentative Hiltory, vol. i. part ii. STOCKBRIDGE, a townfhip of America,in Windfor county, and ftate of Vermont, fituated on White river, and contain- ing 700 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town in the ftate of Maflachufetts, and county of Berkfhire, 44 miles W. by N. from Springtield. This is the chief townfhip of the county, incorporated in 1739, and containing 1372 in- habitants. SrocksripGE, Weft, a town of Maflachufetts, in Berk- fhire county, containing 1049 inhabitants. Srocxsripee, New, a tract of land, fix miles {quare, in the S.E. part of Oneida Refervation, in the ftate of New York, inhabited by about 300 Indians, who fome years ago STO temoved from Stockbridge, in Ma{fachufetts, and from this circumflance are called the * Stockbridge Indians.””_ They are an induftrious people, and are employed in agriculture, and in breeding of cattle and f{wine. STOCKDALE’s Harszour, a bay of the North Pa- cific ocean, in Prince William’s Sound, on the W. coalt of America. N. lat. 60° 50’. W. long. 148°. STOCKDORYF, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland; 54 miles N.W. of Calmar. STOCKEM, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Meufe, fituated on the W. fide of the Meufe ; 12 miles N. of Maeltricht. N. lat. 51° 1’. E. long. sl acl, STOCKER, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Ger- mans to the /aurus of the ancients, the trachurus of the later writers. It isa fpecies of the /comber, known among us under the name of the hor/e-mackarel. STOCKERAU, in Geography, a town of Auftria, on the left bank of the Danube ; 12 miles S. of Sonneberg. STOCKERY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Smaland ; 28 miles N.N.W. of Wexio. STOCKHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; z miles N. of Neuttadt. Srockuerm, Frohn, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 4 miles E. of Kitzingen. ; StockHEIm, Munch, a town of the duchy of Wurz- burg; 2 miles N. of Geroltzhofen. . StockHEIM, Tiefen, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 6 miles E.S.E. of Kitzingen. STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, is faid to have been founded by Birger Jarl, regent of the kingdom, about the middle of the 13th century, during the minority of his fon Waldemar, who had been raifed to the throne by the ftates of the kingdom; but the court and royal refidence were not removed hithér from Upfal before the 17th cen- tury. The fituation of this city is fingularly ditinguifhed by its romantic feenery. This capital, which is long and irregular, occupies, befides two peninfulas, feven {mall rocky iflands, fcattered in the Mzler, in the ftreams which iffue from that lake, and in a bay of the Baltic. The har- bour is an inlet of the Baltic ; the water of which is fo deep, that fhips of the largeft burthen can approach the quay, which is of confiderable breadth, and lined with fpacious buildings and warehoufes. At the extremity of the har- bour, feveral ftreets rife one above another, in the form of an amphitheatre ; and the palace, which is a magnificent building, crowns the fummit. Towards the fea, about two or three miles from the town, the harbour is contracted into a narrow ftrait, and winding among high rocks, dif- appears from the fight: the profpeét is terminated by diftant hills, overfpread with forefts. The central ifland, from which the town derives its name, and the Niddarholm, are the handfomeft parts of the town. Excepting the fuburbs, where feveral houfes are conftruéted of wood, painted red, the buildings are generally of ftone, or brick ftuccoed white, moftly ereéted on piles. The palace, fituated in the centre of Stockholm, and on the highett {pot of ground, was begun by Charles XI., and is a large quadrangular ftone edifice, the ftyle of archite€ture being both elegant and magnificent. From an eminence in the fouth fuburbs, called the * Mount of Mofes,’’ the fpec- tator commands a bird’s-eye view, almoft unparalleled in its kind, of the city and various ifles, of the harbour, the channel, and the lake Meler, forming an aflemblage of rocks, houfes, wood, fhips, and water, in all the variety of rugged, beautiful, and romantic fcenery. The feveral parts of Stockholm communicate with one another by 12 9 bridges. © EQ bridges. The arfenal of Stockholm. contains an immenfe number of ftandards and trophies, chiefly taken from the Imperialifts, Poles, Ruffians, and Danes. The manufac- tures of this city are of glafs, china, wool, filk, linen, &c.; and the number of its inhabitants is eltimated, by the latelt accounts, at about 80,000. For an account of its academies, fee Acapemy; and of its bank, fee Bank. For other particulars, fee Swepen. N. lat. 59° 20!. E. long. 17° 40! STOCKHORN, a mountain of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne, the height of which is eftimated at 7218 Englith feet. STOCKING, in Rural Economy, an improper practice with cow-jobbers, or dealers, confifting in obliging the cows to fuffer the pains of retention twenty-four, or fometimes forty-eight hours previous to fale, in order that they may have a great fhow of milk in the udder. Such buyers, however, as know any thing of cattle, are fully aware of the cuftem, and confequently avoid the deception. The idea of any knowledge of the animal being more favourable for the purpofe of milking, when obtained in this ftate, is highly ridiculous; as there are other better rules of judging, and which are familiar to every experienced flock- farmer. Many cows get inflamed and even indurated udders by fuch means. This unnatural pra¢tice ought of courfe to be generally reprobated and put an end to, as being pro- duGtive of much mifchief to thefe animals. Srocxinc of Farms, Fc. in Agriculture, the means of firft fuyplying and providing them with all the different forts of appropriate ftock, according to their feveral na- tures and kinds, both of the living and dead forts, and of afterwards keeping them properly up, fo as that all the neceflary operations and management of the whole may be carried of1 in the mott full, proper, fuitable, and ad- vantageous manner. It comprehends the providing of all the various defcriptions of domeftic animals for carrying on the work, as well as for keeping, felling, or feeding off in the view of profit ; and of the numerous tools, implements, machinery and carriages, as well as all other contrivances and things, which are requifite and proper in the bufinefs. It is a matter which the farmer fhould nicely attend to and adjuft, as much depends upon thefe feveral different kinds of ftock being well fitted, fuited, and adapted to the nature, fize, ftate, fituation, kind, and quality of the farms, what- ever they may be, otherwife great inconvenience, lofs, and difappointment, may be experienced. In addition to what has been faid on hiring and ftocking of farms, under the proper head Farm, in {peaking of and confidering their general nature and management in thefe and different other refpeéts, it will only be neceflary to obferve, that the farmer fhould feldom or never, on any account what- ever, engage for more land asa farm, than what he has ca- pital fully at command for ftocking, managing, and carrying on with proper fpirit, and in the beft, moft proper, and moft beneficial manner; that he fhould, as feldom as pof- fible, divert any of fuch capital from thefe its proper objects, to fpeculations of other kinds ; and that he fhould never, in any material way, negleé& the fupplying of the different ne- pos en forts of ftock, as they may become wanted on the farm, in the moft fuitable and appropriate kinds and quan- tities, as to their nature and extent, as well as the time of providing them. The improved methods of cultivation and farming in general, and the increafed expences of it, as well as the higher prices of tools, labour, and wages, and the vallly augmented ftate of taxation, render the charge of ftocking in different kinds of farms, with all the different STO kinds of ftock, moltly double, often treble, and in fome cafes nearly quadruple as much as it was. twenty-five or thirty years ago. This fhould, of courfe, be conttantly well confidered and attended to by the farmer, before hiring and ftocking any farm which he may be about to enter upon. See Farm. In regard to ftocking different forts and qualities of land with different kinds of live-ftock, in the view of keeping them merely, or thofe of feeding and fattening the animals, or in any other intention, it may juft be noticed, that, for the moit part, probably the beft method is to run them neither too thickly nor too thinly upon the lands, but fo as to have them conttantly, without being either too full or too detti- tute of keep, no food being walted or ftock injured in either cafe, as there may be impropriety and lofs in having the grounds too clofely, heavily, or hard ftocked, as well as in having them too thinly or lightly fupplied with animals; though hard or heavy itocking may be neceflary and ufeful in particular cafes, circumftances, and fituations, and with fome particular kinds of ftock. The difference, however, between thefe two modes of {tocking, has not yet been well decided upon : for though fome farmers are of opinion, and {trongly contend, that light ftocking is lefs hurtful to the land than clofe feeding, which renders it not fo produétive, by its not having fuch alength, or fo much herbage uponit in the hot feafon, during the fummer months; that a full bite of palturage is preferable, efpecially for fome forts of ttock, which do bett where there is a good portion of keep upon the land ; that allowing the land to be well covered with herbage in the {pring festa, it is ufeful in promoting its growth in the fummer, and by keeping it from the effe&s of the heat at that dry hot period; that it admits of the feeding of the grafles on thin poor lands, which renders them more oie: and the land more produétive of herbage ; and that the animals, where there is a full bite on the land, more quickly fill themfelves, chew their cud more frequently, and, of courfe, feed or fatten more expeditioufly : others, on the contrary, equally contend, that it is well known there are two modes of ttocking which {tarve the animals, efpe- cially fome forts, as thofe of fheep, which are thofe of ftock- ing too hard, and too lightly ; that in clofe ftocking or feeding, times and feafons are to be confulted and fixed upon ; con- tinual hard {tocking at fome periods may be injurious to the increafe of the herbage of the land, as well as encourage the growth of plants of the mofs kind, while occafionally hard or clofe itocking, and not ftocking at all, at fhort intervals, will prove more beneficial; that there is not fo much watte of food in clofe ftocking, as by under-{tocking, and the lands are more regularly fed down ; that the young {fprouts or fhoots of grafles are more nutrient, and more powerful in fattening ttock, efpecially of fome forts, while fhort than when long; that where lands are fuffered, from light flocking, to become too luxuriant in their herbage in the fpring feafon, feed-ftems are thrown up, to the injury and mifchief of the fertility of them ; but where clofe- {tocked, and feed-{tems are prevented from rifing, there will be a greater retention of vegetable matter in the foil for the produétion of new {prouts and fhoots; and that ftock, efpe- cially of fome forts, are uot found to lie down and reft themfelves more often in lands which have much keep, from being lightly ftocked, than in thole which are hard ftocked, and clofely fed down; while they conftantly prefer thofle parts which are in a clofe ftate of herbage, and become fat more quickly on it than where there is a great length of coarfe rank herbage. In fa&, the examination of the lands of thofe who are the moft ftrenuous for light ftocking, does not TQ not prove that their ftock is in any way fuperior, or carried on better, or fattened more quickly, than thofe in the fame vicinity, who ftock clofer, or in a heavier manner. In the bufinefs of ftocking lands with live-{tock, it confe- quently feems, that their nature, quality, prefent ftate, and different proportions of different forts, as well as the readi- nefs of markets, and means of procuring /and providing dif- ferent forts of ftock, fhould be well and fully confidered : —alfo the expences of carrying the bufinefs on, and manage- ment with refpeét to them in all ways, the loffes that are at- tending the lands, and the advantages and difadvantages of different feafons in regard tothem. The plans and methods of ftocking for different purpofes and feafons may thus be properly determined upon and adjutted, efpecially where the nature of ftock, and the land on which it is to be fed, are fuffictently underftood. : SrockinG-Up, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying to grub up or eradicate any thing, as trees, hedges, woods, and other fuch fimilar matters. The work is mottly per- formed by means of the {pade and mattock in different ways, according to its nature. StockinG Jfland, in Geography, one of the Bahamas, about 15 miles long and 3 broad. N. lat. 23°30!, W. long. 76° 20!. STOCKINGS, the.clothing of the lex and foot, which immediately cover and fereen them from the rigour of the cold. Anciently, the only {tockings in ufe were made of cloth, or of milled ftuffs fewed together; but fince the inven- tion of knitting and weaving ftockings of filk, wool, cot- ton, thread, &c. the ufe of cloth ttockings is quite dif- continued. Mezerai fays that Henry II. of France was the firft who wore filk {tockings at his filter’s wedding to the duke of Savoy, in 1559. Dr. Howell, in his Hiflory of the World (vol. ii. p. 222.) relates, that queen Elizabeth, in 1561, was prefented with a pair of black knit filk ftockings, by her filk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and thenceforth fhe never wore cloth ones any more. ‘The fame author adds, that king Henry VIII. ordinarily wore cloth hofe, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of filk ftockings. His fon, king Edward VI., was prefented with a pair of long Spanifh filk ftockings by fir Thomas Grefham, and the prefent was then much taken notice of. Hence it fhould feem, that the invention of knit filk ftockings originally came from Spain. How early the invention of knitting was taken up in Spain does not appear; but though it exifted there in the time of Henry VIII., who died in 1547, yet it was not practifed in England till the third year of queen Elizabeth, viz. 1561. Others relate, that one William Rider, an apprentice on London bridge, feeing at the houfe of an Italian merchant a pair of knit worfted {tockings, from Mantua, took the hint, and made a pair exactly like them, which he prefented to William, earl of Pembroke, and that they were the firft of that kind wore in England, anno 1564. Anderfon’s Hitt. Com. vol. i. p. 400. ‘The modern ftockings, whether woven or knit, are a kind of plexufes formed of an infinite number of little knots, called /litches, loops, or mefbes, intermingled in one another. Srockines, Knit, are wrought with needles made of po- lifhed iron, or brafs-wire, which interweave the threads, and form the mefhes of which the flocking confifts. This operation is called Anitting, the invention of which s TO it is difficult to fix precifely, though it has been ufually attributed to the Scots, on this ground, that the firft works of this kind came from Scotland. It is added, that it was on this account, that the company of ftockin -knitters, eltablifhed at Paris in 1527, took for their patron St. Fiacre,’ who is faid to have been the fon of a king of Scotland : however, it is moft probable that the method of knitting ftockings by wires, or needles, was firlt brought from Spain. Srockincs, Woven, are ordinarily very fine; they are manufactured by the frame or machine, made chiefly of iron, the ftruéture of which is exceedingly ingenious, but alfo exceedingly complex; fo that it is very difficult to defcribe it well, by reafon of the diverfity and number of its parts ; nor is it even conceived, without much difficulty, when working before the face. The Englifh and French have greatly contefted the ho. nour of the invention of the ftocking-loom; but the mat- ter of faét, fays Mr. Chambers, after M. Savary, in his Di&tionary of Commerce, waving all national prejudices, feems to be this, that it was a Frenchman who firft invented this ufeful and furprifing machine; and who, finding fome difficulties in procuring an exclufive privilege, which he re- quired, to fettle himfelf at Paris, went over into England, where his machine was admired, and the workman rewarded according to his merit. The invention thus imparted to the Englifh, they becarhe fo jealous of it, that for a long time it was forbidden, un- der pain of death, to carry any of the machines out of the ifland, or communicate a model of them to foreigners. But as it was a Frenchman who firlt enriched our nation with it, fo a Frenchman firft carried it abroad; and, by an ex- traordinary effort of memory and imagination, made a loom at Paris, on the idea he had formed of it ina voyage he had made to England. This loom, firft fet up in the year 1656, has ferved for the model of all thofe fince made in France, Holland, &e. But this account of the original inventor of the ftocking- frame feems to be erroneous, as it is now generally acknow- ledged, that it was invented in the reign of queen Elizabeth, in 1589, by William Lee, M. A. of St. John’s college, in Cambridge, a native of Woodborough, near Nottingham. It is faid that this gentleman was expelled the univerfity for marrying contrary to the ftatutes of the college. Being thus rejected, and ignorant of any other means of fubfiltence, he was reduced to the neceffity of living upon what his wife could earn by knitting of ftockings, which gave a {pur to his invention; and by curioufly obferving the work- ing of the needles in knitting, he formed in his mind the model of the frame which has proved of fuch fingular ad- vantage to that branch of our manufaétures. See London Magazine, vol. iv. p. 337. ‘ Soon after Mr. Lee had completed the frame, he applied to queen Elizabeth for proteétion and encouragement, but his petition was rejected. Defpairing of fuccefs at home, he went to France, under a promife of being patronized and recompenfed by Henry IV. and, with nine of his fervants, fettled at Roan in Normandy. But by the fudden murder of the French monarch, Mr. Lee was difappomted of the reward which he had reafon to expeét, and died of a broken heart at Paris. After his death, feven of his workmen returned with their frames to England, and in conjunétion with one Afton, who had been apprenticed to Mr. Lee, and who had made fome improvements in his matter’s invention, laid: the foundation of this manufacture in England. In the fpace of fifty years the art was fo improved, te the STO the number of workmen fo much increafed, that they pe- titioned the Prote€tor to conftitute them a body corporate, but their requeft was refufed. King Charles IT. in 1663, granted them a charter, extending their jurifdiction to ten miles round London. See Company. Such is the account given of this invention by Dr. Deer- ing in his Hift. of Nottingham, p. 100, who has alfo de- feribed the ftocking-frame, and exhibited feveral figures of this machine, and of the numerous parts of which it confitts. The frame-work knitters or itocking-weavers hall is fituated in Red-Crofs ftreet. They were incorporated 19th Augult, 1663. In this hall is the portrait of the author of this ingenious art, pointing to one of the iron frames, and difcourfing with a woman who is knitting with needles and her fingers. Thefe words are on the pi@ure: ‘ In the year 1580, the ingenious William Lee, A.M. of St. John’s college, Cam- bridge, devifed this profitable art for {tockings, (but being defpifed went to France,) yet of iron to himfelf, but to us and to others of gold, in memory of whom this is here painted.”? Hatton’s View of London, vol. ti. 605. Yet Dr. Howell, in his Hiftory of the World (vol. ii. p- 222.), makes this invention eleven years later, viz. anno 1600; and adds, that Mr. Lee not only taught this art in England and France, but his fervants did the aie in Spain, Venice, and in Ireland. Mr. Lee’s invention was made about twenty-eight years after we had firft learned from Spain the method of knit- ting ftockings by wires and needles; it has proved a very confiderable benefit to the ftocking manufadture, by enabling England to export vaft quantities of filk ttockings to Italy, &c. where, it feems, fays Anderfon (Hift. Com. vol. i. p- 435-) by fir Jofhua Child’s excellent Difcourfes on Trade, firft publifhed in 1670, they had not then got the ufe of the itocking-frame, though not much lefs than one hundred years after its invention. A late writer in the Bibliotheca Topographia Britannica, N° 7, fays that Mr. Lee, after fome years’ refidence in Trance, received an invitation to return to England, which he accepted, and that thus the art of frame-work knitting become famous in this country. This account of the in- vention, he adds, is moft generally received, though it has alfo been attributed to a Mr. Robinfon, curate of Thur- cafton, in Leicetterfhire. The firft frame, we are told, was brought into Hirckley, in Leicelterfhire, before the year 1640, by William Iliffe; and now the manufaéture of this town is fo extenfive, that a larger quantity of hofe, of low price, in cotton, “thread, and worlted, is fuppofed to be made there, than in any town in England. The manufac- ture has fince employed about two thoufand five hundred and eighty-five working people; the number of frames has been computed at about one thoufand, and there have been alfo about two hundred in the neighbouring villages. The towns of Leiceiter, Loughborough, Nottingham, and Derby, with the villages in their dependencies, are the prin- cipal feats of the ftocking manufacture in England. About the year 1756, Meflrs. Jedidiah Strut and Wil- Kiam Woollatt, of Derby, invented a machine, by which, when annexed to the ftocking-frame, the turned ribbed ftockings are made the fame with thofe made upon the common knitting-pins : this is known by the name of the Derby rib. Thefe, together with the manner of making the open-work mills, in imitation of the French mills, a curious fort of lace for caps, aprons, and handkerchiefs, as well as a great variety of figured goods for wailtcoats, &c. have fprung from the fame machine, and form a confider- able additional branch of the ftockiny-trade. ye aa! a Srockine-Frame, a moft ingenious machine for weav- ing or knitting of ftockings. ‘To comprehend the aétion of this machine, which is extremely complicated, it is firft neceflary to have a perfect idea of the nature of the fabric which is produced by it: this is totally diltin€& from cloth woven by a loom, as the flighteit infpeGtion will fhew; for inftead of having two diftinct fyftems of threads, like the warp and the weft, which are woven together, by crofling each other at right angles, the whole piece is compofed of a fingle thread, united or looped together ina peculiar manner, which is called ftocking-{itch, and fometimes chain-work. This is beit explained by the view in fig. 1. Plate Stocking- frame. A fingle thread is formed into a number of loops or waves, by arranging it over a number of parallel needles, as fhewn at R: thefe are retained or kept in the form of loops or waves, by being drawn or looped through fimilar loops or waves formed by the thread of the preced- ing courfe of the work, S. The fabric thus formed by the union of a number of loops is eafily unravelled, becaufe the {tability of the whole piece depends upon the ultimate fa{ten- ing of the firft end of the thread; and if this is undone, the loops formed by that end will open, and releafe the fubfe- quent loops one at atime, until the whole is unravelled, and drawn out into the fingle thread from which it was made. In the fame manner, if the thread in a ftocking piece fails or breaks at any part, or drops a ftitch, as it is called, it im- mediately produces a hole, and the extenfion of the hole can only be prevented by faftening the end. It fhould be ob- ferved, that there are many different fabrics of ftocking- {titch for various kinds of ornamental hofiery, and as each requires a different kind of frame or machine to produce it, we fhould greatly exceed our limits to enter into a detailed defcription of them all. That {pecies which we have repre- {ented in fig. 1. is the common ftocking-{titch ufed for plain hofiery, and is formed by the machine called the common ftocking-frame, which is the ground-work of all the others. Fig. 2. is a perfpeétive view of a common ftocking-frame, exhibiting as many of its parts as can be feen in a general view. The bafis is a wooden frame, confifting of four pillars N, and various crofs-pieces, called rafters: the two uppermott, M, are called caps: upon the top of thefe the {mall parts of the ma- chine are fituated, being futtained in a frame of wrought iron. The pieces which compofe the iron frame are two fole-bars av, whieh are {crewed down upon the wooden caps M, and at the ends have joints, g, to fupport the prefler-bows G, G, of which we fhall foon have occafion to {peak. At the back are two vertical {tandards, V, called the back ftandards, which fupport the axis T, Thefe ftandards are united by back cro{s-bars, which are clearly feen in the figure near V. There are likewife two front ftandards W, ereéted from the fole-bars w, w. To give motion to this machine, the workman feats him-- felf before it, upon a board or feat A, and puts the dif- ferent parts of the machine in motion by his hands and feet: he applies his feet upon two treadles B, C, which have cords, b, c, afcending from them, and pafling in oppofite direétions round a barrel or wheel, upon the axis of which is a large wheel, D, called the flur-wheel. By alternately prefling down one treadle, and allowing the other to rife, he can turn this wheel round in either direétion at pleafure. The object of this movement will be defcribed hereafter. There is like- wife a third treadle, E, upon which he preffes his foot, when he wifhes to bring down what is called the preffer-bar, marked F, the ufe of which will be afterwards explained. This bar is attached to two arms or levers G, which are move- able round the fixed centre pins or joints g. The ends of the levers-are of a curved form ; hence the pieces G are erra the STOCKING-FRAME. the prefler-bows. The conneétion with the treadle E is by a {tring or wire e, which afcends behind the machine, and 18 attached to the crofs-bar H, which is extended from one of the prefler-bows to the other, and is cranked down, to avoid fuch parts of the machine as it would otherwife intercept in its motion. The return of the prefler and middle treadle, E, is produced by the re-aétion of the wooden {pring I, which draws it up with two ftrings; but in fome frames a counter- weight is ufed inftead of the {pring. The weaver produces all the other movements by his hands: for this purpofe, he applies them to the ends K, K, of the hand-bar, and he can then very conveniently prefs his thumbs upon the thumb-plates L, L. By drawing forward or lifting up the hand-bar K, and at the fame time preffing upon the thumb plates L, or relieving them, he gives the requifite motions to what is called the frame of finkers, or fimply the frame, becaufe it contains the principal works of the machine. The thread of which the itocking is to be made is kept upon a bobbin M, {tuck upon a pin in the front upright, N, of the frame, and the thread from this is carried upon the needles; and when it is woven into the ftocking piece by the action of the needles and finkers, the piece hangs down at S, and is received upon a fmall roller fixed in an ‘iron frame #, called the web, which is made fuf- ficiently heavy to ftretch the piece to a moderate tenfion. Asan introduétion to a defcription of the whole machine, it will be proper to give the reader an idea of thofe parts which operate upon the thread, and of the motions which are given to them to produce the loops or mefhes. Thefe parts are the needles, the frame of finkers, and the prefler-bar: the needles are ftationary, the reft moveable. Fig. 1. reprefents what are called the needles ; thefe are made of iron-wire, of the fhape reprefented, and are hooked or barbed at the ends, the returned points of the hooks or barbs being made very delicate. There is a {mall cavity or groove punched or {unk in the ftem of the needle, imme- diately beneath the barb, of fufficient depth to receive the point, when an adequate preflure is applied upon the hook to bend the barb down. The barb then becomes a clofed eye; and if athread is looped over the wire or {tem of the needle, and drawn forwards while the barb is thus clofed, it will draw over the barb of the needle, and come off at the end of it: but if the thread is drawn forwards whilft the barb is open, it will be caught under the hook, and be thus detained, as fhewn at R. This circumftance mutt be particularly attended to, as the principal aétion of the machine depends upon it. The depreffion of the barbs of the needles is produced by the edge of the prefler-bar F', which is extended horizontally over the whole length of the needles, and actuated by prefling the foot on the middle treadle, as before explained. Between every two adjacent needles, 1, 1, a thin plate of feel, 2, 3, 1s placed: thefe plates are called finkers; they are formed to a particular fhape (as fhewn in fig. 4.), and are capable of being elevated or deprefled, and alfo of being drawn backwards or forwards between the needles. Thele motions are given by the hands of the weaver, as the hand-bar K, which he holds, is part of the frame containing the jacks and finkers. The finker-frame confilts of the hand- bar K K ( fg. 2 or 4.), extending acrofs it at the bottom ; the hanging cheeks O, O, which form the upright fides of the frame; and the upper bar P, which is called the finker- bar, becaufe the finkers are fixed to it, being united feve- ral together in pieces of lead each an inch wide, which are caft round the ends of the finkers, and fattened by fcrews to the bar P. To allow the frame of finkers to have the motions of which we have fpoken, it is fufpended by joints at the top of the hanging-cheeks, called the top joints: thefe joints are formed at the ends of the top arms, Q, Q, which are two horizontal levers fixed to an axis T, called the {pindle- bar: the extremities of this turn on pivots, fupported by the upper ends of iron uprights V, called the back ftandards, By the motion of the {pindle-bar upon its centres, the frame of finkers can rife and fall, and the quantity of this motion is limited by ftop-ferews applied to the vertical ftandards W. To draw the finkers forward between the needles, the finker-frame can be inclined upon the top joints of the hanging-cheeks, by drawing forwards the hand- bar K. From the middle of the f{pindle-bar, T, a fhort lever proje&ts, which is borne upwards by a fpring, Y, called the main-fpring : this is fupported by a piece which projets from the fixed crofs-bar of the frame, and is of fufficient force to bear the frame of finkers upward, and give the top arms, Q, Q, a tendency to reft always againft the upper ttop-fcrews, X, of the ftandards W. The hooked part or nips f (fig. 4.) of the finkers, are for the purpofe of forming loops in the thread between the needles. To effeé this, the nips, f, of the jacks and finkers are raifed above the level of the needles, as in fig. 4, and the thread is extended acrofs all the needles, immediately be- neath the nips. If then the jacks and finkers are all prefled down between the needles, it is evident that the nips of the finkers muft carry the thread down before them, and form it into loops hanging down between each needle, as fhewn at X. This, then, is the principal office of the finkers: but to perform the operation of finking in the manner now de- {cribed, by deprefling the whole number at once, would not be practicable ; becaufe, as a greater length of thread is required when it is deprefled into loops, than when it lies ftraight acrofs the needles, it would require to draw the thread all at once fromthe bobbin M ( fg. 2.), in fufficient quantity to make up the difference ; to do which, the thread mutt flide or draw beneath between the nips and the needles, which it could not do, on account of the friction. The contrivance to render this depreflion or looping down of the thread between each needle practicable is very in- genious. The row of finkers fhewn in fig. 4. is compofed of two kinds, called jack-finkers and lead-finkers, which are very different in their movements, although we have hi- therto fpoken of them as one. The lead-finkers are all thofe of which we have fpoken as being faftened to one bar P, called the finker-bar, which is part of the finker-frame, and which the workman moves by his hands: on this account, the lead-finkers all move together ; they are one half of the whole number, and are difpofed between every other needle, fo that the {pace between each lead-finker has two needles init. The jack-finkers are made of the fame form as the lead-finkers, one being placed between each of the two needles contained between every lead-finker ; therefore the lead-finkers and jack-finkers are difpofed alternately to form a row, and a needle is placed in every {pace in the whole row. Each jack-finker is fupported by a {mall lever, 47, ( fig. 3-) called a jack, freely movable on a centre-pin: the oppofite end #, or tail of each jack, is prefled by a {pring £, which has a notch or indentation at a particular place; and when the jack-finker is elevated, fo that its nip, f, is above the level of the needles 1, ready to receive the thread, the end of the tail, 7, is received in the notch of the {pring &, which retains it in that pofition; but at the fame time a flight force applied beneath the tail, i, of the jack to lift it up will deprefs the nip, f, of the jack-finker, 3, between the needles. It is to be underitood, that all the jacks, #4, are arranged ina row, and move upon one wire, which is a common centre of motion 5 STOCKING-FRAME. motion ; but the motion is given to them one at a time, be- ginning at one end of the row, and proceeding one by one to the other. To effect this, a ftraight iron bar, or ruler /, called the flur-bar, is extended beneath all the jacks, and upon this a piece of metal, m, called the flur, travels, with rollers to reduce the friGtion: it is drawn by a line extended from each fide, and conduGed over a pulley n, at each end of the bar /, to be carried round the flur-wheel D, Jig: 2. We have before explained how an alternate motion is given tothis wheel, by the aétion of the two feet upon the two treadles B, C: it is plain by this conneétion, that the flur, m, can be made to travel from one end of the flur-bar, /, to the other, and in fo doing, that it will elevate the tails, ¢, of all the jacks, i, 4, beneath which it pafles, and produce a cor- refponding depreffion of the jack-finkers, 3, between the needles. After the flur has pafled, the jacks retain the pofi- tion given to them by the preflure of the {prings &. The operation of finking or forming the loops between the needles is thus conduéted: the nips of all the finkers are raifed above the needles, as in fig. 4; the thread is then extended lightly acrofs the {tems of the needles, beneath the avs f- By prefling on one of the treadles, B or C, the flur- wheel D is made to turn round, and this, by the flur-line, draws the flur, m, from one end of the flur-bar, /, to the other. In its paflage it encounters the tails, 7, of the jack, and lifts them up one by one, which at the fame time deprefles the correfponding jack-finker 3; and its nip, f, finks the thread between the needles, and forms a loop. As thefe loops are formed fucceflively, the thread draws eafily beneath the nip to produce each fingle loop, and the workman allows the threads to draw off from the bobbin, M, through his fingers, as faft as it is required. When all the jack-finkers are deprefled, a loop of the thread will be formed between every other pair of needles. The workman then deprefles the lead-finkers, 4, by pulling down the hand-bar K, and their nips carry down the thread between the remaining needles in loops, in the intermediate {paces between the for- mer loops: in doing this, he caufes the jack-finkers, 4, to rife up, as much as he depreffes the lead-finkers 3 ; becaufe it fhould have been mentioned before, that the firft loops formed by the jack-finkers were double the depth intended, although only half the number: by this means they contained the proper quantity of thread to form the whole number of loops; viz. one between every two adjacent needles. The jack-finkers are caufed to rife up by means of the locker-bar, p, extending over all their tails 7, Each end of this bar is {crewed to a lever, g, called a locker, which moves upon the fame centre as the jacks, and the front ends of thefe levers are made with inclined ends, fo as to be lifted up by wedges fixed at the back of the thumb-plates, L, which move on joints fixed to the finker-bar, and hang down in a convenient fituation to be aéted upon by the thumbs of each hand, when holding the ends of the hand- bar K. The weaver, therefore, prefles back the two thumb- plates L, at the fame time that he depreffes the hand-bar, K, of the frame containing the lead-finkers ; by which means he produces the afcent of the jack-finkers, in ah equal degree to the defcent of the lead-finkers, until the nips of the two ar- range exaétly in one line, which pofition is determined by pro- per ftops attached to the finker-frame. By this means, a com- plete row of loops is formed, one loop between each needle. Thefe loops are now to be carried backwards upon the needles, into the pofition of S, fig. 1, fo as to occupy the arch or opening, s, of the finkers, which open part is made purpofely to admit the loops laft made to remain upon the tems of the needles, quite detached from the aétion of the VoL, XXXIV. finkers, which are at liberty to form a new courle of loopy by the nips, f, of their points ¢. If we fuppofe the frame has been before at work, the loops laft formed, which hang upon the {tems of the needles, will not be a fingle thread, but the loops at the upper part of the work S, fig. 1: it is only when the frame fir begins to work that the loops will be a detached thread, as we have juft deferibed. But it remains to fhew how the loops are put back upon the needles: this is done by merely lifting up the hand-bar K, till the points, ¢, of the finkers rife above the needles: the hand-bar is then drawn forwards a little, to advance the finkers fo much, that the points t, which were behind the loops of thread upon the needles, will now come before them, and then the hands are deprefled, to infert the points, ¢, between the needles again before the threads ; and by puthing back the hand-bar, the points, ¢, carry back the work upon the ftems of the needles, fo that it will be fituated in the arch, or opening, s, of the finkers. When the finkers advance or recede, they mutt all move together both the lead-finkers and jack-finkers, as if they were one. It is clear that there is no impediment to the moving forwards of the lead-finkers, becaufe they are at liberty to incline or {wing forwards upon the joints at the tops of the hanging-cheeks, O, O, which fufpend the frame containing them; but for the jack-finkers to advance at the fame time, it is neceflary to bring forward the jacks, and their centre of motion, together with the fprings and flur- bar. To admit of this motion, all thofe parts are framed upon a {trong bar called the camel; and upon this is placed four wheels, which run upon the fole-bars, fo as to become a carriage. ‘To communicate motion to this carriage, a link is jointed to a piece at each end, marked r, fig. 2 or 4, which is ferewed to the finker-bar P, juft within the thumb- plates L. ‘Thefe links are jointed at the other ends to the common centre of motion of the jacks. The joints of the pieces, r, are fo adjufted, that they will exaétly line with the joints which unite the jacks and jack-finkers together ; and the links are the fame length between the centres as the jacks, for which reafon they are called half-jacks. By means of this conneétion, the carriage, with all its appendages, viz. the jacks, with their f{prings and the flur- bar, are drawn forwards at the fame time that the finker- frame is drawn forwards, by pulling the hand-bar K K ; or, by a contrary movement, the loops of threads which were laft formed upon the needles, will be carried back from the hooks or beards of the needles upon their ftems, as fhewn at S, fig. 1, fo as to be in the arch, s, of the finkers, as before defcribed. The firft row of loops being thus difpofed of, the frame of finkers is reftored to its former pofition, and a fecond row is formed upon the {tems of the needles by a repe- tition of the fame procefs, viz. extending the thread acrofs the needles beneath the nips, f, of the finkers ; moving the flur by the two outfide treadles B,C, which deprefles all _ the jack-finkers, and makes a loop of double depth between every other pair of needles; this is called drawing the jacks: next prefling on the thumb-plates L, and depreffing the hand-bar, K, at the fame time, which elevates the jack- finkers, and deprefles the lead-finkers by one movement, and produces a loop of thread between every two adjacent needles. Another complete row of loops is now formed upon the ftems of the needles; and this row is to be brought forwards, fo as to be under the beards or hooks of the needles, in the manner fhewn by R, Ag. 1. This is produced by fimply drawing forwards the hand-bar K, Ff which STOCKING-FRAME. which advances all the finkers together, and their points, ¢, puth forwards the thread till it comes into the beards, and thefe prevent it from coming off the needles. The next operation is lifting up the hand-bar and frame of finkers as much as will raife their points, f, quite clear up above the needles between which they were fituated, and applying the foot on the upper treadle E, to bring down the prefling-bar, F, upon the beards of the needles, to clofe them up, and while fo clofed, they hold the loops of thread ‘at R, as if they were looped through the eyes of as many needles. The upper loops of the works which are at S, Jig. 1, upon the ftems of the needles, in the arch, s, of the finkers, are next brought forward upon the needles, by draw- ing forwards the frame of finkers; but in advancing thefe loops, draw over the clofed beards of the needles, and con{e- quently over the laft-formed hoops, which remain under the beards, in the pofition fhewn at R, fig. 1; or, in other words, the loops laft formed, and refting under the beards at R, fig. 1, are drawn through the loops of the upper or Jaft courfe of the finifhed work which remained upon the ftems of the needles, as reprefented at S. By this means, the loops of what was the upper or laft courfe of the finifh- ed work, become fecured from opening or unravelling, and the loops under the beards now become the laft or upper courfe of the work, and are preferved from unravelling by the needles, one of which pafles through each loop ; and thefe loops will not be drawn off from the needles until there is another row of loops prepared, and referved under the beards of the needles, ready to be drawn through them, When the piece of work is finifhed, and taken off from the frame, the laft made row of loops mutt be fecured by running a thread through them, or other means, or they would draw through the preceding loops, and releafe them, which in like manner would releafe their predeceflors, and fo the whole piece would unravel. The motion of the frame of finkers, which produces the ad- vance of the finkers towards the points of the needles, or their receflion towards the ftem, takes place upon the centres, called the top joints 00, and the wheels of the carriage, as before mentioned. The quantity of motion is limited by a piece, fig. 7, called the arch, which is fixed faft again{t the in- fide of the wood-frame N, fig. 2: a part of the hanging-cheeks O,0, of the frame of finkers defcends with a projecting part to a& round this arch, which, at the fame time that it limits the quantity of motion, prevents the motion being made, except in a proper fucceflion, to produce the effeéts before defcribed. Thus, when the hook is beneath the arch, the points, ¢, of the finkers will be beneath the level of the needles, and then the frame of finkers cannot be raifed up without firft moving the lower part of the frame either forwards or backwards. In the fame manner, when the hook is above the arch, the finkers cannot be deprefled till they are moved. When the thread is firft extended acrofs the needles, in order to be funk into loops, the frame is faid to be over the arch, that is, the hook is at the back, or on the farther fide of the arch, and by applying thereto, the finkers are guided in their finking, that 1s, when they defcend, they deprefs the thread to form the loop. When this finking has taken place, the finker-frame will be at its loweft pofition, and the top arms, Q, will reft upon the lower ftop-fcrew of the ftandards W. When the finkers are brought forwards, to draw the loops from the ttems of the needles into their beards or points, the hook of the frame moves along the under fide of the arch, and this prevents the points lifting up, while the lower ftop prevents them from finking down: but when the finkers are brought fufliciently forwards, the frame is lifted or thrown up by the main-{pring, the hook following the curvature of the arch, until the points are completely above the needles, or the frame has reached the upper ftop. The finkers are then brought forwards upon their centre of motion, while the prefler is drawn down to clofe the beards of the needles and draw the loops over them; in doing which, the hook quits the arch, and the frame comes forwards without any guide, the fame being unnecefiary, becaufe the elevation of the finkers is determined by the upper ftop, again{t which the frame rifes by the action of its main-fpring ; and the proper degree for the advance of the finkers is determined by the drawing forwards of the frame with fufficient force to draw the loops of the work tight: this force the workman mutt regulate by habit, fo as make his work clofe. In returning the frame of finkers, in order to put back the work upon the ftems of the needles, fo as to be out of the way while a new row of loops is made, the hook, g, mutt be carried back beneach the arch, which will keep down the points of the finkers, fo as to prevent them from rifing above the needles, as they would then quit the work they are in- tended to drive back upon the needies. By the operation which we have defcribed, one courfe of the work is formed ; but, to render it more clear, we will continue the defcription, in afew words, of the working of another courfe. Preparatory to working it, the loops of the laft courfe of the work, and by which the work is fuf- pended from the needles, muft be puthed back upon the {tems of the needles to the pofition S, fig. 1, fo as to come into the arched or open part s, fig. 4, of the finkers: this is done by depreffing the finkers low enough for their point, ¢, to enter between the needles, and then pufhing back the hand-bar and frame of the finkers to carry back the work upon the ftems of the needles. This is the fituation in which we {uppofe the frame, when the operation commences ; and the frame is over the arch. The firft movement is the gathering of thread. The thread laid over is lightly extended acrofs the needles, beneath the nips, f, of the finkers; and by prefling the flur-treadle BC, the jack-finkers are deprefled one by one, fo as to form double loops. This is called drawing the jacks. ; The fecond movement is finking. This is done by draw- ing down the hand-bar K, and bearing upon the thumb- plates, L, at the fame time: the whole row of lead-finkers 1s thug deprefled, whilft the jack-finkers rife, and the thread is carried down into a loop between every two needles. The third movement is to bring the frame’ forwards under the arch. This is done by drawing the hand-bar forwards, and the row of loops juit. made is brought under the beards of the needles. ; The fourth movement is to bring the work forwards from the {tem of the needles. To do this, the finker-frame is lifted up, by elevating the hand-bar K, fo that the point, ¢, of the finkers will be quite drawn out above the needles ; and in this fituation, the hand-bar and finker-frame being brought forwards, the breaft or curved part of the arch, s, of the finker will bring forwards the piece of work which hangs upon the ftems of the needles, by its loops laft made. The fifth movement is clofing the work, or drawing the loops laft made, through the finifhed loops of the work. The preffer-treadle E, being borne upon at the fame mo- ment, will bring down the preffer, and it will bear upon the beards, and clofe them, while the loops are drawn for- wards; confequently the loops of the old work will be drawn over the beards, and quite off from the needles: this draws the loops thereof over the loops laft made, which re- il main ys FO sain in the beards of the needles. To draw the work tight, the hand-bar, K, is drawn forwards two or three times with a flight jerk, fo as to extend all the loops to their fulleit quantity, and make the loops of the work unite clofely. The courfe is now finifhed; but as a preparation for making another courfe, the work mutt be carried back upon the ftems of the needles into the fituation of S, fig. 1- This is the fixth and lait movement. To put back work, the frame is pulled down to bring the points of the finkers below the level of the needles; and in this pofition, by prefling back the hand-bar, and all the finkers together, the points, ¢, will enter between the ends of the needles, and carry back the loops of the work upon the ftems of the needles, where it will remain in the arches of the finkers, fo as to be detached from them, and out of the way, while a new fet of loops is formed by the nips of the points of the finkers ; and then the loops of the old work are to be drawn over thofe laft made. The movements are then repeated: rit, gathering the thread upon the needles, and deprefling it into large loops between every two needles, by the motion of the flur; 2d, finking, to make the loops between all the needles; 3d, bringing the thread under the beards of the needles; 4th, bringing the work forwards from the ftems of the needles towards the beards; 5th, clofing the beards by the preffure of the preffer-bar, and drawing the work over the beards; and, 6th, putting the work back on the needles, ready for working another courfe. The operation of the machine proceeds in the manner deferibed ; and as faft as the courfes are completed, the work defcends lower, and hangs down in a web from the needles. When the piece is of a confiderable length, it is rolled upon a roller, in an iron frame #, called the web, and the weight of the frame is fufficient to keep the piece to a proper tenfion. The roller in the web can be turned round occafionally to wind up the piece, and is retained by a ratchet-wheel and click. Having given an idea of the manner of the operation of this curious machine, it only remains to explain the adjuftments with which it’s provided, in order to make it work corre@lly. The finenefs of the work depends on the number of loops which the thread will make in any given length, and this will be equal to the number of needles and finkers in the fame fpace. The number of needles in an inch is called the gauge of the frame, and they vary from 15 to 40, which latter are ufed for the fineft itockings. The gauge of a frame cannot be altered when it is once made, and the work which it will produce muft always be of the fame degree of finenefs, although it may be made a little more denfe or more flight by drawing the loops very clofe, or by allowing a greater quantity of thread, and making the loops longer. This circumftance will evidently depend upon the depth to which the nips of the finkers defcend between the needles, when they carry down the thread into loops. To regulate this depth, the needle-bar, or that piece which fuitains the leads containing the row of needles, is made to rife or fall a flight quantity, by means of two long adjult- ing {crews, the heads of which are made with notches, and fprings fall into them to keep the fcrews from turning back: thefe heads are called the ftar, and the notches nicks: one is marked 9, in Jigs. 2 and 3. The motion allowed to the frame of finkers is limited, as before-mentioned, by ftops projeCting from the two up- right ftandards, W; and through thefe flops, itop-ferews, x, are fitted, to regulate the degree of afcent and defcent. The main-fpring, y, is made of {ufficient ftrength to lift the STO weight of the frame of finkers, and make them always rife up as high as the upper ftop-fcrews will permit. The manner of making different parts of the {tocking- frame is worthy of notice. 'The needles are made of iron- wire, of a proper degree of finenefs: it mutt be of good quality, as.that which is liable to {plit or {plinter, either in filing, punching, or bending, is totally unfit for the pur- pofe. The wire is cut to lengths, and annealed or foftened in a box of charcoal, in which they are heated to rednefs, and fuffered to cool gradually: The needles are next punched with the {mall cavity which is neceflary to receive the point of the beard: this is done by a fimple ferew-prefs. The point of the needle is next formed by the file and burnifher, and the hooks are then bent to form the barb: next the needles are flattened, each with a blow of the hammer. To faiten thefe needles together, and fix them in the machine, they are placed parallel to each other in a mould or frame, and tin or pewter poured into the mould, round the flattened ends of the flems. The piece of lead or pewter is juft an inch in width, and the number of needles which it will con- tain, gives the denomination to the gauge of the frame. Thefe leads of needles are faftened to the needle-bar by a ferew through each. The lead-finkers are made of {teel- plates, which are put together by calting lead round them at the upper ends, in the fame manner as the needles. The rack or piece, which contains the centre of the jacks, is called the comb, becaufe it is compofed of a number of {mall plates, fixed into a bar by cafting them with lead or tin. The ftocking-frame has undergone very few alterations fince its firft invention, a circumftance highly creditable to the genius of the inventor. A ftocking-frame for weaving the tartan plaid hofe which is worn in Scotland, is defcribed in the Society of Arts Tranfaétions, vol. xxix. p- 84: it contains fome additions invented by Mr. John Robertfon. STOCKKIGT, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland; 3 miles S.Z. of Plauen. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 3 miles S. of Konigfhofen in der Grabfeld. STOCKPORT, anciently written Stokeporte and Stoc- port, a town in the hundred and deanery of Macclesfield, is feated 175 miles from London, on the banks of the river Merfey, partly in Chefhire and partly in Lanca- fhire. The part of the town in the latter county is called Heaton-Norris, and is united to the Chefhire part by abridge. In 18rz it confifted of 859 houfes, and 5232 inhabitants; whil{t the remaining portion of Stockport con« tained 3326 houfes, and 17,545 inhabitants. ‘Che popula~ tion of the town and its neighbourhood is chiefly employed in various branches of the cotton manufaéture. According to Mefirs. Lyfons’s ftatement in 1810, there were then 25 faCtories for cotton goods, one filk-mill, and feveral efta- blifhments for the making of muflins. The parifh of Stock- port contains fourteen townfhips, viz. Stockport, Bramhall, Bredbury, Brinnington, Difley, Duckinfield, Etchells or Stockport-Etchells, Hyde, Marple, Norbury, Offerton, Romiley, Torkington, and Wernith. Thefe are all popu- lous, and appear chiefly to have been parts of baronies and manors; and there yet remains in fome of them, armorial or archite¢tural relicks of their antiquity. In the time of Edward I. Robert de Stokeport, earl of Chefter, made Stockport a free borough. In 1260 he alfo obtained a grant of a market, and an annual fair: at prefent there are four of the latter, and the former continues Friday and Saturday. Although there be no charter extant, yet a mayor is annually eleGted, or rather nominated, at the lord of the manor’s court. Soon after the Norman conquett, the manor of Stockport belonged to the De La Spencers ; f2 it s TO it is now the property of lord Vifeount Bulkeley, in right of his lady. In the year 1173, the caftle of this place was held by Geoffrey de Coftentine againft king Henry II. It afterwards belonged to the Stockports, and fubfequently to the earls of Warren; but the whole has been long fince demolifhed. During the civil wars in Charles I.’s reign, Stockport was garrifoned by the parliament’s army, and was confidered an important pott. In May, 1644, prince Rupert appeared before it with his army; the garrifon, to the number of 3000, drew out to oppofe him, but were re- pulfed, and the town taken. In 1745, Stockport bridge was blown up, to prevent the retreat of the rebels after their advance to Derby. The places of religious worfhip at Stockport are, the parifh-church of St. Mary, which, from the ftyle of its architeture, appears to have been ereéted about the 14th century; the chapel of St. Peter, built and endowed, in 1768, by William Wright, efq.; a meeting-houfe for Prefbyterians ; another for Quakers ; and feveral for Me- thodilts. Near the town is a chapel for Roman Catholics, many perfons of that perfuafion, emigrated from Ireland, being refident here. The chief public inftitutions are, a free-{chool, founded, in 1487, by fir Edmund Shaw; an alms-honfe, endowed, in 1683, by Edward Warren, efg. ; a difpenfary, on a very enlarged plan, eftablifhed in 1792 ; and feveral Sunday fchools, inftituted in 17143 one of which, conduéted chiefly by the Methodilts, is fupported on fuch an extenfive {cale, that three thoufand children are now educated in it wholly by gratuitous teachers; a large {chool- houfe was ere€ted by fubfcription in 1805.— Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, Chefhire, 4to. 1810. Beauties of Eng- land and Wales, vol. ii. 8vo. by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. SrocKPort, a town, or rather village, of America, in the ftate of Pennfylvania, and county of Northampton, on the W. fide of the Popaxtunk branch of Delaware river ; from which is a portage of about 18 miles to Harmony, on the E. branch of the Sufquehannah river. . STOCKS, in Gardening, fuch young trees as are raifed from feed, fuckers, layers, or cuttings, and defigned for the reception of grafts and buds of other trees, to continue them the fame and become trees in every refpeét like the parent trees from which they were taken. Stocks for gene- ral ufe are proper when from the fize of a good large goofe- quill to half an inch, or not more than an inch thick in the part where the graft, &c. is to be inferted ; but they are fometimes ufed when two or three inches in diameter : thefe are made ufe of in moft kinds of fruit-trees, and occafionally for fome varieties of foreft and ornamental trees, and many of the fhrub kind: they fhould in general be {pecies or va- Tieties of the fame genus as the trees with which they are to be engrafted. They are ufually divided into three kinds; as crab flocks, Sree flocks, and dwarf flocks, each comprehending various forts, both of the fame and different genera, fpecies, and varieties. Crab Stocks. —Thefe are all fuch as are raifed from feeds, &c. of any natural or ungrafted trees, particularly of the fruit-tree kind; fuch as the crab-apple of the woods and hedges, any kind of wild thorny uncultivated pears, plums, wild black and red cherry, &c.; and alfo of fuch trees as have been grafted or budded: fome forts, being ftrong fhooters and hardy, are preferred, on which to graft parti- cular {pecies, to improve the fize and duration of the trees; for example, apples are very commonly worked upon the common wild crab ftock, and cherries on the great wild black and red cherry ftock, as tending to promote a large, i S To hardy, and durable growth, proper for common {tandards and the larger kinds of dwarf trees. In ufing crab ftocks to graft any forts of fruit-trees, it is proper to reject fuch of them as aflume a very wild crab-like growth, or of a ftunty, thorny nature, preferring thofe that are the freelt clean growers: fometimes, however, the appellation of crab {tocks is given to all {tocks indifcriminately, before bein grafted, whether raifed from the feed, &c. of wild or ae tivated trees, until worked with grafts or buds, but with the diftinétions of wild crabs and free crabs. Free Stocks.—This is a term commonly applied to fuch forts as are raifed from the kernels of the fruit, layers, &c. of any of the cultivated garden and orchard fruit-trees, and others, which often prove more free clean fhooters than the wild crabs, and are more proper than they for grafting choice apples, pears, peaches, neétarines, apricots, and plums ppens to improve the growth of the trees and quality of the ruit. Dwarf Stocks. —Thefe are fuch forts as are raifed from low growing trees, of a fhrub-like nature, or but very mo- derate tree-growth, being ufed for the lower and middling forts of ttandards and to form dwarfs, either for walls or efpaliers, or as dwarf ftandards in {mall gardens, and others occafionally for variety, as well as for planting in forcing- frames, or to pot for forcing, or euriofity, &c. as the para- dife apple and codlin ftock, for dwarfing apples ; the quince ftock, for pears; the bird-cherry, morello, and {mall May cherry ftock, for cherries; the bullace and mufcle itock for dwarfing apricots, peaches, and neétarines, and fometimes dwarf-almond ftocks for the two latter, when defigned to have thefe trees of a very dwarfith growth, either to pot for curiofity, or for forcing in {mall forcing-frames. But the moft dwarfifh kinds are: the paradife ftock, bird-cherry, black bullace, and dwarf-almond; but they are not fo proper in general culture as common dwarf trees, as they never attain a large growth, fufficient to produce any confiderable quantity of fruit: the codlin dwarf ftocks, quince {tock, morello cherry, and mufcle-plum ftocks, are proper for the middling or larger kinds of dwarf trees, either for walls or efpaliers, or dwarf and half ftandards : they are all raifed from fuckers, layers, or cuttings. Sorts of Stocks adapted to each Kind.—For apples, in all the kinds, they are thofe of their own fort, raifed from the kernels of any of the cultivated apples or crab for common {tandards, and the larger kinds of dwarfs; but the wild crab {tock is often efteemed preferable to the free ftock, for its hardy and durable nature, on which to graft common ftandards, and fometimes dwarfs for efpaliers ; and for lower dwarfs, the codlin, Siberian crab, and paradife ftocks are fometimes ufed; the. former for middling dwarfs, and the latter for the {malleit dwarfs: they are all eafily raifed, the free {tock and the crabs from the kernels of the fruit; and the codlin and paradife ttocks, likewife from fuckers, layers, and cuttings. See Pyrus Malus. But for the pear, it is chiefly grafted and budded on pear ftocks for general ufe, but on quince for dwarfs; the former chiefly raifed from the kernels of any forts of pears ; and the latter freely by fuckers, layers, and cuttings: but the pear ftock is always to be preferred for the general fup- ply of larger trees, for all common ftandards, and the larger dwarf pear-trees for extenfive walls and efpaliers: the quince {tock is eftimable principally for its dwarfing pro- perty, or in being productive of moderate fhooting trees for walls, efpaliers, or middling ftandards, fooner arriving to a bearing growth. In order to form dwarf pears, white thorn ftocks, raifed from feed, were formerly fometimes in repute, but they are very improper, as the trecs rarely profper STOCKS. profper well: as the goodnefs of the pear is often improved or diminifhed by the nature of the ftock on which it is grafted, it is of importance to ufe free ftocks, raifed from the kernels of the beft fummer and autumn pears, as much as poffible ; and the prime pears fhould be worked always on the fineft free-fhooting ftocks of the moft cultivated-like owths: fometimes, to improve the quality of particular choice kinds of pears, it is the praétice to double-work them, which is to graft the beft forts into free {tocks in the fpring, which fhoot the fame year; then about midfummer, or foon after, to bud the young fhoots of the graft with buds of the prime forts of pears, fuffering only the fhoots from the fecond budding to run up to form the tree: the breaking kind of pears are often rendered lefs hard and ftony in this way, and the melting property of others is confiderably improved. See Pyrus Communis. And for quinces, two forts of ftocks are occafionally ufed, as that of its own kind, and the pear {tock ; the quince ftock is raifed from feed, fuckers, cuttings, &c., and the pear kinds from the kernels of any fort of pears; but as all the varieties of quinces are fo expeditioufly raifed with cer- tainty the fame by layers and cuttings, it renders the raifing of ftocks for grafting or budding them on almolt unnecef- fary. See Pyrus Cydonia. Alfo for plums, the operation is performed only upon ftocks of their own kind, raifed from the ftones of any fort of cultivated plum, or by fuckers and layers, as the moft certain methods to obtain any particular variety of free plum ftock, as the mufcle-plum ftock, which many prefer as the belt ftock of all on which to work the finer kinds of plums, as 2 ater producing very thriving moderate grow- ing fruitful trees; raifing it, not from feed, which would vary exceedingly, but by fuckers from the root of real mufcle-plum trees, or of thofe worked upon the true mufcle ftock, or from layer ftecks of the mufcle-plum tree: the plum will alfo grow upon the apricot and cherry ftock, but . not in a thriving ftate for any length of time. See Prunus Domefica. For cherries, the proper ftocks are thofe of the cherry kind only ; as the great wild cherry ftock for large trees, the cultivated garden cherries for the more moderate growths, and the bird-cherry ftock for {mall dwarfs: the two former are raifed from the ftones of the fruit, and the latter alfo by feed, or by layers and cuttings: for general ufe, the wild black and red cherry ftocks, being ftrong free growers, are preferable for all common large ftandard cher- ries, alfo the larger dwarf trees for extenfive walls and efpa- liers ; as thefe ftocks, being of ftrong hardy growth, gene- rally produce larger, more hardy and durable trees than the cultivated cherry ftocks; fometimes ftocks of the morello and May cherry, as being moderate growers, are ufed to raife the fmaller cherry-trees upon, either in dwarfs for low walls and efpaliers, or for {mall moderate ftandards; but the former, when raifed from layers, is more certain of producing the real fort in its naturally moderate growth: the common bird-cherry, as being a very moderate grower, is ufed to raife dwarf cherry-trees on, either to plant in borders, pots, forcing-frames, or to pot for forcing, &c.: they are raifed plentifully from feed, cuttings, and layers ; and have the effe& of dwarfing trees exceedingly, fo as to bear fruit when but one or two feet high ; and fhooting very little to wood, generally bear abundantly for their fize: and cherries will alfo grow upon plum, apricot, and laurel ftocks, as being of the fame genus. See Prunus Cerafus. . For apricots, thefe prove the moft durable on ftocks of the plum kind, as common plum ftocks of any variety-for all common wall, efpalier and ftandard trees ; and the bul- Jace ftock for fmall dwarfs; the plum ftocks are raifed from the ftones of any kind of cultivated plum, or by fuckers from the root; and the bullace from feed, fuckers, and layers; though they fucceed almoft equally well upon {tocks of any kind of plum, it is probable they may prove the moft fuccefsful on the mufcle-plum Itock, like peaches, &c., as being of a more moderate regular growth, and more prolific nature: the bullace {tock is only ufed occafionally to raife moderate {mall dwarfs for low walls, or to plant in pots, or in forcing frames for forcing: the apricot will like- wife grow on its own, and on peach and almond tftocks raifed from the ftones, but never in fo profperous or durable amanner. See Prunus Armeniaca. For peaches, feyeral forts of {tocks are occafionally ufed ; as almond, peach, neétarine, apricot, and plum ftocks: the are all raifed from the ftones of the fruit, and the latter alfo by fuckers and layers; but the plum ftock, being the moft hardy, is the moft proper for general ufe; but the free plum flock is preferable for all the forts of peaches and neétarines, as being produétive of the molt hardy, thriving, and durable trees; though it is remarkable, one fort of plum ftock in particular is generally pre. ferable on which to work peaches, which is that of the muf{cle-plum, as producing the molt: profperous trees, and of amore moderate, regular, and fruitful growth, the fruit being of a fuperior quality, when the ttocks are genuine; being raifed from fuckers or layers of the true mufcle-plum tree, or by fuckers from the roots of fuch peach, ne€tarine, plum, &c., as are worked on mufcle-pluin ftocks, which generally fend up plenty from the roots an- nually ; planting them off at one year’s growth into the nurfery to train them for ufe: double ftocks, or double working, is fometimes ufed for the more delicate peaches, to improve their bearing, and the flavour of the fruit. For ne€tarines, the fame ftocks as in the peach are ufed : as almond, peach, ne¢tarine, apricot, and plum; all raifed as for the peach-tree: the plum ftock fhould be preferred in general as for peaches. For almond-trees, when raifed for their fruit, the ap- proved varieties may be budded into ftocks of any fort of almond, peach, neGtarine, apricot, or plum, raifed from the ftones, and the latter alfo from fuckers, &c.; but the trees are generally the moft hardy and durable on plum ftocks. See AmMyGDALUs. For medlars, three or four different ftocks are occafionally ufed, to raife the approved varieties: as the medlar, white- thorn, pear, and quince ftocks; the three former raifed from feed, and the latter from fuckers, layers, and cuttings: the medlar feedling-raifed ftocks are very proper to graft the approved varieties ; and the white-thorn and quince ftocks are only ufed occafionally : but free ftocks, raifed from the kernels, of medlars, or fummer or autumn pears, are pre- ferable to the two laft for all the varieties of the common medlar, which, either on their own or pear ftocks, generally aflume a more free growth, and produce the fruit in greater perfeétion and abundance, See Mespitus. For {weet fervice-trees, when defigned as fruit-trees, the approved varieties fhould be grafted or budded upon proper ftocks ; either principally their own raifed from the feed, or occafionally on pear or quince ftocks, raifed as for the med- lar and other trees; though any of the forbus, or the pear kind of ftocks, are preferable to the quince to work this tree on to have it large and durable: but quince ftocke may be ufed to have trees of fmaller growth, for low flandards, efpaliers, &c. ’ For the wild maple-leaved fervice bexry-trees, the proper ftocks are either their own kind, or thefe of the haw- thorn, STOCKS. thorn, raifed from the feed: they alfo take upon pear ftocks, &c. For hazel-nuts, the filberd,*&c. the ftocks of the com- mon nut-tree, raifed either from the nuts, or by fuckers from the root, may be ufed; but this method is feldom em- ployed. See Coryius Avellana. For orange-trees ; thefe are worked upon ftocks of their own kind only, as any kind of orange, lemon, or citron ftocks, raifed from the kernels of the’ fruit; though the Seville orange, as being a very free {trong fhooter, is gene- rally preferred for orange ftocks ; but the lemon and citron, being alfo free growers, form very proper ftocks to raife any variety of oranges on. See Cirrus Aurantium. For lemon and citron trees ; thefe varieties are alfo budded or inarched upon lemon, citron, or orange ftocks, raifed from the kernels of the fruit, as for oranges. It is evident, that in this method, for curiofity, the fame ftock may be made to fupport two, three, or more different varieties of fruit, grafted or budded, either all into the flock, being previoufly trained with branches, forking off for the pur- pofe one for each graft, or by cleft or crown grafting fingle large ftocks, with two or more different buds by ino- culation ; likewife the ftock being fingly grafted or budded, different forts may be inferted into the fhoots arifing from the graft or buds; and thus two, three, or more forts of apples may be had on the fame root: and by the fame me- thod, different forts of fruit may be had upon the fame ttock, as plums, cherries, and apricots all on a plum ftock ; or peaches, neétarines, and apricots on the fame, or on ftocks of their own kind; and pears, medlars, and quinces upon the pear ftock; alfo red and white currants, or cur- rants and goofeberries, on a currant or goofeberry ftock ; or white and red grapes on a vine ftock ; likewife red and white rofes, or other different forts, upon a common rofe ftock ; as well as on numerous other trees and fhrubs, which are {pecies or varieties of the fame genus. See Cirrus Medica. Method of Raifing the Stocks.—A\l the different forts may be raifed by feeds, fuckers, layers, and cuttings. In the firft or feed mode, various forts of flocks may be raifed from the ftones and fruits of different forts of trees: as the ker- nels of all the apple kinds, pears and quinces; and the ftones of plums, cherries, apricots, peaches, and neétarines; the feeds or ftones of medlars, fervices, &c.; alfo nuts, when defigned for ttocks; ali of which fhould be obtained in autumn from their refpective fruits when fully ripened ; and when well cleared from the pulpy fubftance, each fort may be fown feparately, in beds of common light earth in the nurfery, either dire@ly, or after being preferved in fand till February, but the early autumn is the beft feafon; and if the winter fhould prove fevere, the beds of the more tender kinds, as almonds, peaches, &c. may be covered with dry litter to defend the feed from the froft. See Nursery. But before the appearance of the plants above ground, where the furface of the bed is hard-bound or caked, it is often beneficial to ftir the furface lightly with a {mall iron rake; alfo, if very dry weather prevails, to give frequent moderate waterings, both before and after the plants are up, repeating the waterings occafionally in dry weather all the {pring and early part of fummer, to encourage a free ftrong growth ; being likewife careful to keep the beds very clean from weeds, by diligent hand-weedings ; and by thus giving every encouragement, the feedling ftocks will grow fo freely during the fummer, as, by the autumn or the {pring following, to be moftly of a proper fize to plant out into nurfery-lines in the open quarters, in rows two feet afunder, to remain for grafting and budding upon: though, if they have made but middling progrefs the firft fummer in the feed-bed, and are rather fmall and weakly, the ftrongeft only fhould be planted out, leaving the rett growing until the next autumn, when they will be all of full fize for plant- ing out wholly into the open prepared nurfery quarters, forking the feedling plants up out of the beds, fhortening any perpendicular tap-root and long itragglers, but leaving all their tops entire, and then planting them in lines, either by trench-planting, flit-planting, or dibble-planting, as the fizes of the plants admit, in rows two feet or two feet and a half afunder, fetting the plants one foot or fifteen inches apart in each row, in an upright pofition; and after havin planted one row, treading the earth gently all along Boe: to the roots of the plants, to fix them firmly in the earth all evenly in a flraight range ; proceeding in the fame manner, row and row, till the whole is planted, levelling the furface of the ground between all the rows with the {pade or rake. Their future culture, until grafted or budded, confiits in occafional waterings in the firft {pring, hoeing over the ground every fummer, digging between thé rows annually in the winter or {pring, and training the ftocks each to one ftem; preferving their top always entire, but trimming off the ftrong laterals below, to encourage the {trength of the main ftem, when they will be fit for grafting or budding upon, in from one to two or three years. See PLANTING, in Gardening. It may be noticed, that they are proper for working when from about the fize of a large goofe-quill, as already obferved, to the thicknefs of a man’s little finger, or a little more; but the fooner they are worked upon, after they are of a due fize, the better they fucceed, and the fooner they form trees. See Grarrine and Buppine. In fome cafes, however, where the ftocks have fhot freely the firft fummer after planting out from the feed-bed, many of them may probably be of a due fize to graft the fol- lowing {pring and fummer, at five or fix inches height, to form dwarfs for walls and efpaliers, &c.; or even, in fome forts, for full or half ftandards, provided the firft main fhoot from the graft or bud is trained up lingly, two or three years, to form the ftem, of from four or five to fix or feven feet ftature: however. if they have grown but mo- derately the firft and fecond feafons, and are not generaily in a condition for the operations of grafting or budding, it is better to let them have another year’s growth. But in the fecond’or fucker mode, the fuckers of all the trees which afford them fhould be planted off at one year’s growth, in autumn, winter, or fpring, which is a very ex- peditious method of raifing feveral forts of ftocks ; fo that, after being tranfplanted into the nurfery, they often, in one or two years’ growth, afford proper ftocks for the reception of grafts and buds; and many of them are often fit for bud- ding ia the fummer following, at the proper budding feafon, or for grafting in the {pring afterwards. é The fuckers are generally fit to take up for the purpofe of ftocks, when of one year’s growth, and about the fize of a tobacco-pipe, or but little bigger, and fhould be colle&ted in autumn, or the early part of winter; taking them up as well rooted as poffible, cutting off all knots or knobbed woody parts of the old roots that may adhere to their bot- tom, trimming the ftraggling fibres, and cutting off all fide-fhoots from the ftem; then planting them im rows two feet afunder, and one foot diftant in the lines; treading the mould gently to their roots, and finifhing the work by level- ling the furface between the rows. The culture afterwards, until grafted or budded, is nearly the fame as that of the feedling ftocks, keeping them clean from weeds in fummer by hoeing; and probably fome of the flrongeit fhooters may | by r 7 STOCKS. may be fit to bud in the July or Auguft following, though the general or greatelt part will require two years’ growth, before they are proper for working; ftill continuing them all to one ftem, by timely difplacing ftrong laterals, and preferving their top or leading fhoot generally entire until fted, &e. The third or layer method is praétifed for fome forts of ftocks of fruit and other trees, and when any particular variety of itock is required, fuch as the paradife {tock for apples, mufcle-plum for peaches, &c. that they may be Guasited of the real fort with certainty ; but as this method of raifing ftocks would be attended with great trouble for neral grafting or budding, it is only praétifed occafionally. n providing them in autumn or winter, fome of the young fhoots of fuch trees as have the branches naturally growing near the ground, or in which the {tems have been cut down low while young, to force out branches near the bottom, to furnifh fhoots properly fituated for laying, fhould be flit- layed in the common method, when they will moftly be rooted by the autumn following, and be fit to take off and lant into the nurfery, being managed as direéted for the eedling and fucker itocks. In the laft or cutting method, cnttings of the laft year’s fhoots fhould. be chofen in autumn, planting them in the nurfery, ina fomewhat fhady border, giving occafional wa- terings the following {pring and beginning of fummer, in dry weather, when they will be mottly well rooted by next ‘autumn, and may then be planted out in nurfery-rdws two feet afunder, managing them as the others. They fhonld be kept with upright ftems, except any fhould affume a ftunted or crooked growth; in which cafe, they fhould be headed down to the ground in the fpring, when they will ufh out itrong from the bottom the enfuing fummer, train- ing them to one {tem, and with their leading top-fhoot entire as above; and according as all the forts advance in growth, they fhould be divefted of {trong lateral fhoots below, re- peating it particularly in the taller ftandard ftocks, to en- courage their upright direGtion more expeditioufly to the proper grafting and budding heights. But the proper me- thods Gf gtatigg and budding, for the different forts, are fhewn more fully under the culture of the different kinds, as well as under the heads BuppinG and GRAFTING. In regard to ftocks in general, but little that is fatisfac- _ tory has yet been done, in either determining the utility _ and advantages of fuch as are taken from different {pecies of the fame kind, or in any other way; but an ingenious inquirer on horticultural fubjeéts, T. A. Knight, efq., has lately been engaged in fome experimental trials for afcer- taining the advantages or difadvantages of ufing itocks of different {pecies in the culture of the peach, the netarine, and the apricot, which may probably throw fome additional light on this intricate and imperfeétly elucidated pra€tice. It has been ftated by this writer, on the authority of fir Jofeph Banks, in the “ Tranfa@tions of the Horticultural Society of London,” that in the pratice of the French gardeners, they confider ftocks of different fpecies to be -neceflary to correé& the defeéts of different foils and varieties of fruit; and that the peach-tree fhould, in fome cafes, be’ _ budded upon the plum-tree, in others upon the almond- _ tree, and in others again upon its natural ftock, that of the apricot ; while, on the contrary, our gardeners fuppofe the plum itock to be, under all circumftances, the belt adapted _ tothe peach; and {till farther, that Du Hamel, to whofe _ Opinions the greateft deference is conitantly to be paid, pro- | Mounces the plum ftock as never to be eligible, and aflerts that he has feen the peach-tree thrive upon ftocks of the P ‘ apricot, in foils where it would not fucceed either upon the almond or plum ftock. It is alfo ttated by the lalt writer, it is faid, to be the opinion of the French gardeners, that the peach-tree, when grafted upon its natural ftock, is more lable or fubjeét to generate gum, than when it grows upon a ftock of another fpecies; and that, whenever the tree is confined to a {mall fpace, and confequently clofely pruned, this opinion is believed by Mr. Knight to be, in fome cafes, well founded. But as he is not acquainted with any advantages that can be obtained or derived from feleGting ftocks of a f{pecies different from that of the bud or graft inferted, except in cafes where it is neceflary to render any tree more dwarfifh and governable in its manner of growing, and confequently more produétive, in foils and fituations where rapidity and exuberance of growth and health might prove injurious: it is indeed fufpeéted, that the peach-tree might be budded upon its own ftock, in many cafes, with confiderable advantage. The growth of the peach-tree, it is faid, is fo rapid under thefe circumftances, that, with the aid of artificial heat, the flock which is raifed from a feed in the fpring may be budded and headed down in the fame feafon, and afford a tree large enough to bear many peaches in the fucceeding year; and for forcing- houfes, where exuberance of growth may be effeCtually checked by a fucceflion of heavy crops of fruit, the writer fays he fhould prefer fuch trees to any others. The fruit which they afford in the firft feafon has, however, been found to be inferior in flavour to that which older or trees of longer growth produce. The following interefting circumftance is ftated by Mr. Knight, in refpeét to the Moor Park apricot. In his gar- den, this tree, as in many others, he fays, becomes, in a very few years, difeafed and debilitated, and generally ex- hibits, in {paces near the head of its ftock, lifelefs alburnum, beneath a rough and fcabrous bark. About fixteen or feventeen years ago, a fingle plant of this variety was, it is faid, obtained by grafting upon an apricot ftock; and that the bark of this tree ftill retains a fmooth and polifhed fur- face; and the whole tree prefents a degree of health and vigour, fo perfeély different to any other tree of the fame kind in his garden, that he has found it difficult to convince gardeners, who have feen it, of its fpecific identity. It is hoped that this {tatement may induce the poffeffors of public nurferies to try the effect of flocks of different fpecies, and particularly thofe of the apricot ; for though it may be their intereft that the trees they fell fhould perifh, as they now generally do within a very few years, it cannot be fuppofed that the more refpe€table nurferymen would be influenced by fuch a confideration: befides, an additional price, which will, it is faid, to fome extent be neceflary, if fuch a method fhould be had recourfe to, will afford a fair compenfation, fhould the number of trees on fale be in any way diminifhed. Such a mode of raifing and providing fruit-trees of feveral different kinds is certainly well worth being put to the trial, as it is of great confequence, in many cafes, to have more lafting trees of fuch forts than thofe which are at prefent employed in the ordinary praétices of the garden. Stocks, pple and Pear, for Field Fruit-grounds, in Rural Economy, the ftocks which are made ufe of in raifing and proyiding them with trees of thefe forts, in different diftri€@ts. Several kinds of ftocks are employed in this in- tention, fometimes by way of having the branches or parte of fuitable and proper trees of thefe kinds inferted into them, and at others as feedling-trees, without that being done; though the firft mode is the molt ready, and for 93 mo STOCKS. mot part had recourfe to, efpecially in fome diftri€ts. The pear 1s, however, the moft advantageoufly raifed on ftocks of its own fpecies, and lafts longer than the apple-tree. Raifing the Stocks.—In performing this, the frefh pulp of the apples affords a fufficiency of pips or kernels for the fupply of the feed-bed; which, after it has been well pre- pared by digging and other means, has them fomewhat thickly fown, or the pulp fpread evenly upon it, either in the autumnal or {pring feafon, and carefully raked or lightly harrowed in, fo as to be well covered with the furface- mould: the latter of thefe feafons is, however, fuppofed to be the beft and moft praétiled, as there is then lefs danger of their being deftroyed by mice and other vermin, which often greedily prey upon them during the winter months. All weeds are carefuliy prevented from rifing during the enfuing fummer-feafon ; and in the fecond or third autumn, the young ftocks are moitly ready to be put out into the nurfery-ground. This is to be dug with the fame care as the feed-bed ; and at the time of the removal of the ftocks or plants, the roots of them are to be pruned and rettrained, by taking off the tap or down-ltriking ones, and fhortening the fibres of others. They are there to be planted out in rows at three feet diftance, and about eighteen inches from each other. In this method of planting them in the nur- fery-ground, 9522 ftocks may be raifed on the acre, or thereabouts. hey remain in thefe grounds from eight to ten years, when they will moftly have attained fizes proper for being finally put out into the field fruit-grounds. While in the nurfery-ground, they are kept regularly pruned and trained: the fide-fhoots are cut off, and one neat upright ftem preferved, with fix or feven fhoots re- gularly branching out each way at the head. In this ftate, the price for them was, fome time ago, for the apple ftocks Is. 6d., and for thofe of the pear 2s. 6d. ; confequently the profit of an acre of ground thus employed is very confider- able: 9522 ftocks, difpofed of at the above prices, amount, it is faid, in the firft cafe, to 714/.; in the latter, to 11go/, ss.: and that after the third year, the profit may be reckoned on as neat, fince the occafional crops, raifed in the void {paces and parts between the ftocks, will pay the ex- pences of labour and rent. In fome diftricts, when the young ftock plants are come up from the feed, in the progrefs of their enfuing growth, care is taken to fele&t all fuch as produce the largeft and moft luxuriant leaves, as it is from that charaéter that the beft expeCtations are formed for procuring the moft valuable fruit in this view. The rejeéted plants or ftocks are drawn out from time to time, and the preferved ones left, for the purpofe of difcovering their {pecitic qualities. Thefe, when approved of, which point is moft commonly afcertained by the end of the fixth year from the time of fowing the pips, their heads being previoufly formed upon ftems of about five feet high, are removed to any ealtern afpe&t, except that of the north-eaft ; and on to the floping fides of hills, where there is no ftagnant moifture of any kind in the under foil, and are there, for the moft part, planted finally out at the diftances of from 25 to go feet apart, according to circumitances, as will be feen below. In fome diltricts, the ftocks of thefe forts of tree-plants are planted out finally fooner, or after they have had lefs growth, than in others; but they fhould never be put out in this way, until they are of fufficient ftrength and growth, as has been direéted above. Planting the Stocks out in the Fruit-Grounds.—As foon as the ttocks have arrived at or attained the height and growth of fix or feven feet, and are become about five inches in circumference, they are in a proper ftate for being planted out in thefe grounds. Where the land js in the fate of grafs, they are generally planted at the diltance of from 8 or 10 to (2 or 15 yards from each other, fuitable open- ings being prepared for them in a proper manner. In Devonshire, where {maller diftances are allowed, holes are previoufly made, in which are depofited road-ferapings or way-foil in the proportion of about two feams or horfe- loads to each. Where the grounds are under the plough, the diltances of planting are from 16 to 18 or more yards, with an interval of 20 and upwards, and oppofite to each other in fome places: the particular diltance of the rows, however, depends greatly on the width of the ridges, as they are planted on the tops of thefe in moft cafes: if the ridges be {mall, every other one is omitted, in fome places ; and where the contrary is the cafe, as where they are wide, always managing fo as that the laft diftance may be nearly preferved. In {ward land, the quincunx order of planting the ftocks is fometimes praétifed, in order that {pace may be gained for the fpreading of the heads of the trees, as the diftance allowed in fuch cafes is lefs. When the planting is performed on tillage lands, advan- tage is fuppofed to arife not only from the manuring and keeping the mould loofe over the roots of the ftock plants, but from there being a confiderable faving of expence in the articles of fencing and defending the plants. The young ftocks or trees are to be proteéted and defended from external injuries of all kinds, until they have gained a con- fiderable ftate of growth, and are become firm in the roots, and perfeGily hardin the bark. There are different methods of effeting this, which will be noticed below. Good ftocks of thefe kinds are fometimes met with in the hedge-rows of fruit diftri€ts, and might, perhaps, be occafionally planted there with great utility and advantage. In ref{peé&t to the moft proper time for planting out the flocks, though fomething may moft probably depend upon the feafon and the nature of the foil, February is the moft ufual and probably the beft, as a long ferics of drought is inimical to late planting, while fevere frofts are not lefs fo to that of the autumnal feafon. It is, however, much eafier to proteét the roots of the ftocks during the winter, than to be continually watering them during the fummer-feafon. There is much lefs care alfo required in planting them out on light and loofe foils, than on fuch as are of a heavy or of aclayey nature. In the former, it is fufficient to jult dig out the holes deep enough to cover the roots perfectly, and to return the mould as it came out of them ; but in the latter, the digging of holes is complete ruin to the ftock plants, as the whole depth underneath the cultivated foil is fo retentive as to form a fort of pool of ftagnant water or moiiture; and where they are even filled with good mould, it is impoffible for the roots to extend themfelves into the furrounding clay or clayey matter. The beft prac- tice is, therefore, probably, to take off the furface-turf to fome depth in a circle of about four feet diameter, and to {tir the under foil in a light manner ; on this to place fome good earth, and then to plant the ftock, with another lay- ing of good earthy mould, covering the whole over with the fod or turf, generally laid upfide down. ‘The tap- roots of the ftocks are to be previoufly cut off or fhortened, and the fibrils alfo to be pruned at the ends, when they are to be placed out in regular order, having fome new earth blended and fhook down among them. But before the planting, the ftocks are to be headed down; or at leatt the branches are to be fhortened to fix or eight inches, to guard STOCKS. guard againft the power of the wind, and throw the juices more into the ftems, by which the vigour of the ftocks is increafed. The newly planted ftocks are then to be well guarded from being in any way injured by live-flock, or in any other manner, in fome of the modes which are direéted a In the filling up old fruit-grounds, or the replanting new ones on the fame ground, it is confidered a bad practice, in fome diftri€&s, to plant the ftock on the exaét {pot where the old tree ftood; but it is otherwife, if a pear be planted where an apple grew before, efpecially in cafes where the furface and under foil has been well prepared by digging and properly manuring the ground. Grafting the Stocks—When the ttocks have been three or four years planted out in the fruit-grounds, they are in a ftate ready for grafting, where that method is had recourfe to in completing the trees. But though this mode, as be- ing the mott expeditious, may have been the moft frequently had recourfe to, it has been {uppofed by fome, that no me- thod of performing the operation that has yet been attempted, has been found fully adequate to the purpofe. For the fhoots that are inferted, in confequence of being taken from old trees, though they grow vigoroufly for a few years, on account of the {trong growth 3 the flocks, they then often decay, decline, and degenerate, or run into all the infirmities of their parent trees. Of courfe, on this principle, the reftoring or renoyation of the old fruits of thefe kinds would feem to be impratticable ; as by the general laws of nature, each of the different beings endued with life, lives to propagate its kind, and after a time refigns its place to a fucceflor. It has been obferved, that the branch from which a twig is taken for this purpofe, evidently partakes of the life of the tree to which it belongs; and that it is not lefs evident, that when part of a tree is detached, no new life is afforded to it, whether it be employed in this way, or placed in the ground to emit roots as a cutting: in this manner, a tree raifed from a cutting, foon produces fruit in every refpe& fimilar to that of the tree from which it was taken. Alfo, that the habits of feedling trees are very effentially different, that their leaves are {mall and thin, and that the general habit changes gradually, afluming in an annual manner a more cultivated charaéter; that if a fhoot for grafting with, be taken from a feedling tree of one or two years’ growth, it will retain the character, and undergo the ‘fame annual change, as the feedling plant or tree from which it was procured, whatever may be the age of the flock into which it is inferted ; and that it will remain un- produGtive of fruit or bloflom until the feedling tree has acquired its proper age and maturity or ftate of production. In fupport of thefe conclufions it has been ftated, that a feedling walnut, grafted with part of the bearing branch of an old tree, produced blofloms at three years’ growth; that the Spanifh chefnut, under a fimilar procefs, bloffomed in the year after it was grafted; and that the annual fcion or twig of a mulberry-tree thus grafted, yielded a plentiful crop of fruit, in proportion to its fize, in the third year after the operation, and has continued to bear every year fince. The grafts in thefe cafes mutt, it is thought, have carried the mature habits of the parent trees with them ; and that, if they retain thefe habits, it may fairly be in- ferred, that they alfo retain the fame progreflive tendency to decay, difeafe, and deltruction. ‘The feeds of the fruit of the old trees fhould, therefore, probably be fown, and the ftrongeft and moft healthy plants fele¢ted and fet afide for the purpofe of cultivation, and the fupply of grafts which are neceflary. In the work of grafting, the heads of the ftocks are Vor. XXXIV. firft taken off by means of a proper faw, and then rendered quite {mooth by the ufe of a very fharp {tron knife; the height of doing which depends much upon the fancy of the planter, but is mottly performed at about feven feet high. The rett of the operation is done in the ufual manner, ac- cording tb fome of the modes commonly practifed in this fort of work, as either by the fimple common method, that of the crown method, or the root and whip methods. A new plan of the root kind has, in fome dittriéts, been lately had recourfe to. In this, when the ftocks have reached a proper age or ftate of growth for plant- ing out, the ground is opened about them, and they are feparated from the largeft roots; of which, fuch are chofen as are of a fufficient fize for cleft-grafting, which method is to be preferred; and if the roots be inclining, they are raifed to a perpendicular, without difturbing their extremities which are in the ground; the fhoot or fcion is then inferted in the ufual way, and rendered perfectly fecure. The earth is then returned to them all round, and one bud, or at moft two, are left above the ground in order to guard again{t failure, which are moltly found to ftrike with extraordinary vigour. Where both fucceed, the leaft promifing is removed. ‘The buds, which are covered with earth, fhoot out into roots, fo that when the trees are to be removed to their deftined fituations, they may be en-~ tirely feparated from the original root on which they were grafted. Sufficient roots remain to the parent ftock for the future fupport of it, and it may be planted elfewhere, for the purpofe of either producing a frefh fupply of roots for the fame procefs, or for grafting in the fruit-pgrounds. It is ftated, that fome trees, raifed by grafts in this way, have become handfome ones eight feet high, and had fine fruit on them in the courfe of four years. That fix of the ftocks, which had been feparated from the roots, and deemed ufelefs, on being replanted, had kernel-fruit upon them in the fame length of time. This method is faid to be the difcovery of Dr. Chefton of Gloucetter. In fome places it is the praétice, in performing this fort of work, to infert two fhoots or {cions, one in or on each fide the head of the ftock ; but one is moitly fufficient to form-a head large enough. With fome, where two are inferted, it is the cuftom, however, to remove that which is the leaft promifing, where both {ftrike, in the enfuing {pring, and with a fharp knife or chiffel, to pare off the top of the ftock in a floping manner to the remaining graft, which prevents water from lodging, and the fap then be- comes direéted to and concentrated in a fmaller compafs. After this, the wounded part fhould be well guarded and proteGed, in order to promote the more f{peedy healing of it, and the whole graft be firmly and properly fecured. Where both the grafts are fuffered to grow, the head of the tree, from becoming double, is not unfrequently fepa- rated, and the trunk rended by ftrong blowing winds, or even by the weight of the branches alone. In cafe the grafts do not ftrike or take, it is confidered dangerous, if not fatal to the ftock, to infert new {cions or fhoots until the third or fourth year. Where they do ftrike, it is but feldom that any farther care is taken of them, until the trees begin to be produCtive of fruit. This fort of negligence is, however, highly improper and dif- advantageous, as they ought to be carefully watched in re- gard to the progrefs of the fhoots, and the removing and cutting off the ftraggling, irregular, and ufelefs branches, as by thefe and other means, the interior of the trees may be prevented from becoming loaded and incumbered with a red.ndancy of wood. See Grarrinc. Defending the Stocks —Thefe are to be well guarded, pro- Gg tectedy. - al O teCted, and defended, when newly planted, as well as in their growth afterwards; as they are very liable and much expofed to be rubbed, barked, and otherwife injured, in many cafes, by different forts of live-(tock, and in other ways. There are many different modes of accomplifhing this ; as by frames of wood differently formed and fet up ; by polts differently placed, and flips of ftrong board pro- perly nailed upon them; by pofts and rails differently con- trived ; and by various prickly and thorny fubftances and plants twilted and tied round the ftocks in different ways. But the belt method is probably that of having three pofts put in a fort of triangular manner about the tree or ftock, fo as to come within a {mall diltance of each other at the bottom or root part, and to diverge confiderably in their upward direction, and formed into a fort of frame by proper fhort crofs pieces being nailed againft them at fuitable dif- tances apart. Though this requires more wood than fome other modes, the coarfer forts may anfwer the purpofe very effe€tually. There are objeGtions to many of thefe methods from the ftocks and trees, when they begin to fhoot freely, having their lateral branches rubbed greatly by them, and from the pofts forming holes in the ground, by being agitated by the winds, into which the moifture is drawn from the roots of the ftocks or trees, as well as from other circumftances. The thorny matters are cheap me- thods, but they are readily removed by live-ftock, by which means the bottom parts of the ftocks are liable to become naked and be rubbed by fheep, which is very hurt- ful to them. The trees raifed and formed from ftocks in this way moftly come into bearing in from fix to feven years after the grafting has been performed, but the quantity of fruit is feldom large for fome length of time afterwards, then, however, it becomes confiderable for a great number of years. See Appre Tree. Srocks, Cippus, a wooden machine to put the legs of offenders in, for the fecuring of diforderly perfons, and by the way of punifhment in divers cafes ordained by fta- tute, &c. And it is faid that every vill within the preciné&t of a torn, is indictable for not having a pair of ftocks, and fhall forfeit 5/. Srocks, in Ship Carpentry, a frame ereéted on the fhore of a river or harbour, on which to build fhipping. It gene- rally confifts of a number of wooden blocks, ranged paral- lel to each other, at convenient diftances, and with a gradual declivity towards the water. See Launcu. Hence we fay, a_/hip ts on the flocks, when fhe is building. STOCKSEE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 8 miles N. of Segeborg. STOCKSTADT, a town of Germany, on the Maine ; 3 miles W. of Afchaffenburg. STOCKSUND, a town of Norway, in the province of Drontheim ; 60 miles N. of Drontheim. STOCKTON-UPON-TEES, is a borough by pre- fcription in the fouth-welt divifion of Stockton ward, and parifh of Stockton, in the county-palatine of Durham, England. ‘The antiquity of this place may be readily in- ferred from giving its name to one of the county wards; but its origin is not afcertained. Stockton cattle, on the fouth fide of the town, was at one period inhabited by the bifhops of Durham, who were appointed to govern the whole province committed to their care. This fortrefs was onthe northern bank of the river Tees, and commanded an extenfive profpect over the valley and country. Inthe time of Charles I. it was garrifoned in behalf of the king ; but afterwards fell into the power of the parliamentarians, who ordered it to be dettroyed ; which was fo completely exe- 10 STO cuted, that not a ftone of the former edifice remains. The only veftiges are the moat, which defended the caftle on three fides ; and a barn, which appears to have ftood within the area of the works, In the year 1325, Stockton was nearly deftroyed by the Scots ; but at the clofe of the civil wars it recovered its importance. ‘The population, in1725,amounted to 430 families ; but in the reports of 1811, the inhabitants had increafed to 4229, andthe houfes to $12. Stockton confitts of two parts ; one, called the Borough, where all the land is freehold; and the other, denominated the Town, where it is copy or leafehold; the latter held under the vicar and veftry-men, and is not within the borough jurifdiction: for this reafon there are two conftabularies, with peculiar officers, though both form one parifh. The civil government is vetted in a mayor, alderman, and recorders (who is always fteward of the bifhop’s court-leet and baron, befides inferior officers. The mayor is elefted by a ma- jority of the burgefles, yet it is not required that he fhould firft have been an alderman. The fituation of this town, on the northern banks of the Tees, at a convenient diftance from the fea, renders it very favourable for commercial pur- pofes: its maritime trade began te revive foon after the re- ftoration, the officers of the cuftoms removed hither from Hartlepool in 1680, and lawful quays were ereéted in 1683. Below Stockton, the river flows in a very circuitous courfe ; and as it approaches the German ocean, expands into a large bay, upwards of three miles in width. Stock- ton is probably the moft handfome town in the north of England, as well for the breadth of its principal ftreet, as the general neatnefs of its buildings. This ftreet is about half a mile in length, and upwards of fixty yards broad at the market-place, which is in the centre; and this renders the entrance to the town, either from north or fouth, par- ticularly impreffive. Several {maller ftreets branch off in different direGtions ; and at the north-eaft fide is a fpacious {quare, which contains fome good buildings. The town- hall, near the middle of the principal itreet, is a large {quare building, partly occupied as a tavern, and containing various elegant apartments, devoted to civil and other public pur- pofes. At a fhort diltance is a handfome column, thirty- three feet high, of the Doric order, where the market is held; the fcite of which was formerly occupied by an open crofs. Stockton was originally a chapelry to Norton, a pleafant village about two miles to thenorth, but was conftituted a difting parifh in the year 1711. During the epifcopacy of bifhop Poore, who died in 1234, a chapel of eafe was ereéted here, which, upon becoming both ruinous and teo {mall, was taken down, anda new cliurch opened in Auguft 1712. ‘The church is a handfome brick building, with the doors and windows cafed with ftone: its length, including the tower and chancel, is 150 feet: this tower is at the weit end, and is 80 feet high. The veltry contains a col- leGtion of divinity, which is {till increafing from donations and fubfcriptions. The various denominations of Prefby- terians, Quakers, Methodifts, and Roman Catholics, have each a meeting-houfe in this town; which alfo contains the public inftitutions of a grammar-{chool, charity-{chool, {unday-{chool, and an alms-houfe, or hofpital. The manufaétures of Stockton are fail-cloths and cordage, both of which are carried on to a great extent. The making of damafks, diapers, huckabacks, towelling, and checked linens, has likewife lately been executed in confi-~ derable perfe&tion. Two docks for building fhips are alfo fituated on the banks of the Tees. Anelegant bridge, with five arches, was erected over this river, towards the clofe of Jafl century, at_the expence of 8000/. The tolls on this bridge STO bridge gradually augmenting, now let for 8o0o0/. annually, which is appropriated to difcharge the principal and intere{t already incurred ; and when thefe are liquidated, the bridge will be free, and the future incidental charges be defrayed by the county of Durham, and the North Riding of York- fhire, jointly. The fhock of an earthquake was felt at Stockton in December 1780: and in Auguft 1783, a violent ftorm of thunder and lightning took place, with a fhower of irregular pieces of ice, fome of which meafured from three eaike inches in circumference. Stockton is the birth-place of Jofeph Reed, a dramatic author, who was born in 1722: of Brafs Crofby, efq. born in 1726, who rofe from a very humble {tation in life to be lord mayor of London: Jofeph Ritfon, an emi- nent literary eritic, was alfo a native of Stockton. See Ritson. Near this town, on the river Tees, is a confiderable fal- mon fifhery ; and at the mouth of the river is a fifhery for cockles. About four miles north of Stockton is Winyard, the feat of fir Harry Vane Tempeft, bart. The houfe, a handfome, modern edifice, occupies the {cite of an old build- ing, ina park which prefents fome interefting fcenery.— Hitory, &c. of Stockton-upon-Tees, by the Rev. J. Brew- fter, 4to. vol. v. Beauties of England, &c. Durham, by J. Britton and E.W. Brayley. STOCKUM, a town of Welftphalia, in the bifhopric of Ofnabruck ; 5 miles E.S.E. of Ofnabruck. STODDARD, atownfhip of America, in the ftate of New Hamphhire, and county of Chefhire ; about 15 or 18 miles E. of Walpole, on Conneéticut river, containing £132 inhabitants, STODE, a town of Sweden, in Medelpadia; 18 miles W. of Sundf{wall. STODGED, in Rural Economy, a term provincially fig- nifying filled to the ftretch, as the udder of a cow by milk STODHART Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.W. coaft of Jamaica. STOEBE, in Botany, a name received by Pliny from the Greeks, which he fays is fynonimous with Phleum. If the latter be, as many have believed, our Typha, the ufe made of its downy feeds, for f{tuffing cufhions or beds, may account for the origin, or rather the application, of the name ; sof» in its primary fenfe appearing to have defignated a plant ufed for ftrewing, or for making what was, doubtlefs, the moft ancient and fimple fort of beds. The +08» of Diof- corides however, merely mentioned by him as a well-known plant, ufeful for the aftringent properties of its feeds and leaves, is believed to be Poterium /pinofum, whofe qualities anf{wer to this defcription, and which is called in modern Greek asci@n. How Linnzus came to feleé&t the name of Stocbe for the genus before us, in his Hortus Cliffortianus, where, without any explanation, it for the firft time appears in his works, we are at a lofs te explain. The hard rigid African fhrubs which compofe it are, like the above Poterium, of all things moft unfit to make a bed, except for a rhi- noceros or hippopotamus. He feems to have taken up this name, for a new fyngenefious genus, becaufe it had been varioufly applied by old botanifts to certain compound flowers, and was then vacant, nor did he advert, in any manner, to its fenfe or etymology.—Linn. Hort. Cliff. 390. Gen. 454. Schreb. 594. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2403. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew, v. 5. 187. Thuab. Prodr. 169. Jouff. 180. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 722. Gartn. t. 167.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fegre- gata. Nat. Ord. Compofite nucamentacee, Linn. Corymli- Jere, Jaf. | Te at 6 Gen. Ch. Common Calyx roundifh, imbricated ; its {cales awl-fhaped, permanent, invefting the common receptacle on all fides. Partial Perianth folitary within each f{eale of the common calyx, fingle-flowered, of five linear, acute, equal, erect leaves. Proper Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; its limb in five {preading fegments. Stam. Filaments five, fhort, capillary ; anthers united into a five-toothed cylinder. Pi. Germen oblong ; {tyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma acute, divided. Peric. none, except the unchanged calyx. Seeds folitary, oblong. Down feathery, long. Proper Recept. naked. Eff. Ch. Partial calyx fingle-flowered. Florets tubular, all perfe&t. Receptacle naked. Seed-down feathery. Obf. Gertner confiders the common calyx as nothing elfe than, either the upper leaves of the plant, or the outer {cales of the receptacle, while the partial calyx confilts of the inner fcales of the receptacle. According to this view of the fubje&t, Stocbe fhould be removed to the third, or difcoid, feG&ion of the order Polygamia equalis, and we are much difpofed to concur in that opinion. The difcoveries of Thunberg have greatly enriched this, as well as other Cape genera, fo that Willdenow reckons up twenty f{pecies, about half of which were known to Lin- neus. But two or three of thefe really belong to Srext- PHIUM, abolifhed by Willdenow ; fee that article. Nine- teen are natives of the fouth of Africa; one of the ifles of Mauritius and Bourbon. Seriphium, which has alfo a feathery feed-down, differs from Stocbe in having only one flower in each outer calyx. 1. S. incana. Hoary Stoebe. Thunb. Prodr. 169. Willd. n. 1.—“ Leaves fharp-pointed, thread-fhaped, woolly.’’—Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. We have feen no fpecimen. 2. S. athiopica. Juniper-leaved Stoebe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1315. Willd. n. z.. Ait.n.1. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 722. f. 2.—Leaves awl-fhaped, pointed, reflexed, keeled; po- lifhed on the under fide. Stem ere&t.—Specimens of thts plant were brought very early from the Cape; and Lin- nzus feeing it in Clifford’s herbarium, though not alive in his garden, founded hereon the genus of Stoebe. Miller cultivated it in 1759, but no figure, except Lamarck’s and Gertner’s, has ever appeared, Petiver’s tab. 8. f. 1. being a different plant, as we fhall mention hereafter. The fem is fhrubby, of humble growth, with round leafy branches. Leaves crowded, almoft imbricated, fearcely half an inch long, twifted, recurved, entire, concave, with a f{pinous point; fringed with long foft hairs towards the bafe. Flowers terminal, feffile, hemifpherical, three-quarters of an inch in diameter. It is from this, the original {pecies of the Hortus Cliffortianus, that the charaéter and idea of the genus are taken. 3. S. ericoides. Heath-like Stoebe. excluding the reference to Breynius and Morifon. Willd. n. 3. Thunb. Prodr. 169. Berg. Cap. 339. (Eupato- roides capenfis capitatus ; Petiv. Gazoph. t.8. f. 1.)—Leaves minutely pointed, linear, revolute, oblique, reflexed. Stem erect. Some ligulate florets.—Native of the Cape. The fiemis a {pan high, determinately and repeatedly branched, twifted, leafy. Leaves about two lines long; {preading every way, obtufe, with a minute point, roughifh, with a few little difperfed tubercles; hoary when young. Lowers round, feffile, terminal, pale red or flefh-coloured. Each partial calyx ufually contains, along with ite proper tubular perfe& floret, another fhort ligulate neuter one. The /éed- down is loofely feathery. Petiver’s figure undoubtedly re- prefents this plant very chara¢teriltically, That of Brey- eS 2 Hlus, Linn. Mant. 574. STOEBE. nius, erroneoufly quoted t.9, infkead of 69, by Linnzus, is S. fufea, the leaves of which are lefs {preading. 4. S. proflrata. Proltrate Stoebe. Linn. Mant. 291. Willd. n. 4. Thunb. Prodr. 169.—Leaves pointed, lan- ceolate, oblique; woolly beneath. Stem decumbent.— Found at the Cape by Thunberg.—The /em is much branched, clothed with {preading, ovato-lanceolate, thyme- like aves ; green and {mooth above; very white, with a concealed rib, beneath. Flowers the fize of a large pea, tawny or reddifh, with very whfite anthers. Scales of the common calyx exactly like the leaves, in this as well as other {pecies. 5. S. phylicoides. Phylica-leaved Stoebe. Vhunb. Prodr. 169. Willd. n. 5.—*‘* Leaves pointed, lanceolate, ere&. Stem eredt.”,—From the fame country. Thunb. This de- finition is infufficient to give any diftin¢ét idea of the plant. We have feen no f{pecimen. 6. S. gomphrenoides. Amarantine Stoebe. Linn. Suppl. 391. Willd. n.6. Berg. Cap. 336. Thunb. Prodr. 169. ‘© Houttuyn Linn. Pfl. Syft. v. 4. 435. t. 34. f. 1.7— Leaves elliptic-oblong, concave, fringed; woolly on the upper fide; the lower ones minutely pointed.—Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape. ‘The /fems are numerous, erect, leafy, a foot high, molt branched at the bottom. Leaves half an inch or more in length, imbricated ; convex, green and fomewhat filky, at the back, with a fhaggy marginal fringe. They are moltly obtufe, without any minute fharp point, except on the lower ones. F/owers round, whitifh, rather polifhed, refembling the heads of a Gomphrena. Each floret appears to have a double calyx ; the outer one fhortett, coloured, and fomewhat woolly; fo that this {pecies fhould feem rather to belong to Seriphium, as Lin- nzus has marked it in his copy of Bergius. 7. 8. gnaphaloides. Cudweed Stoebe. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 664. Willd. n. 7. Thunb. Prodr. 169. (Seri- phium corymbiferum; Linn. Mant. 119. Gnaphalium niveum; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1192. G. incanum, folio lineari cauli accumbente ; Burm. Afric. 215. t. 77. f. 1, bad and incomplete. )—Leaves fharp-pointed, ovato-lanceolate, con-- eave ; woolly on the upper fide; polifhed at the back. Panicles cymofe.—Gathered at the Cape by fome of its earlieft botanical vifitors. The /fem is {hrubby, rigid; its upper branches leafy, woolly. Leaves ere, crowded, fome- what imbricated, half an inch long, pungent ; fmooth at the back and margin, curioufly dotted, or reticulated. Flowers numerous, yellow, in denfe, terminal, corymbofe tufts; each flower cylindrical, with a {quarrofe, imbricated, tight, partly woolly, common calyx. Florets two or three. Seed-down club-fhaped, very flightly feathery. We cannot but conceive the genus of this plant to be very doubtful, the inner ca/yx being f{earcely diftinguifhable. 8. S. fcabra. Rough-leaved Stoebe. Linn. Suppl. 391. Willd. n. 8. Thunb. Prodr. 170.—Leaves ereé, linear ; woolly above; muricated at the back. Flowers racemofe. —Found at the Cape by Thunberg. The minute cari- mated eaves, and outer calyx, are rough with glandular prickles. Florets four or five. Their proper calyx is {mooth, twice as long as the outer. Sometimes, but not always, the rough feales of the outer calyx furround and feparate each particular foret, making the plant a true Seriphium ; fo nearly are thefe two genera related ! 9. S. cinerea. Grey Heath-leaved Stoebe. Willd. n. 9. Thunb. Prodr. 169. Ait. n. 2. (Seriphium cinereum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1316. Breyniana cineroides capenfis; Petiv. Gazoph. t. 3. f. 9.)—Leaves f{preading, hnear ; woolly above; {mooth at the back. Flowers in denfe whorled {pikes. (See SuripHium, n. 1.) This appears however to 9 be a true Stoche. The common calyx has woolly obtufe fcales, and contains many florets, whole partial calyx is {mooth, with long briltly points, feeming to furround each floret diftinétly. to. S. fubulata. Awl-leaved Stoebe. (Seriphium gna- phalodes ; Linn. MSS.)—Leaves fomewhat f{preading, in- volute, pointed, awl fhaped ; woolly above ; flightly muri- cated at the back. Flowers fpiked. Outer calyx woolly. —Native of the Cape of Good Hope.—The /lem is ereét, woody, branched, leafy, round, flightly woolly. Leaves at firft erect, then fpreading or recurved, hardly an inch long at moft, very flender, and apparently thread-fhaped, but they are concave and woolly above; the under fide is clothed ina deciduous filmy web, and armed here and there with prominent prickles. Spifes terminal, fhort, ovate or oblong, rather compound, fomewhat leafy. Commen calyx very diltinét from the leaves, with fhort, obtufe, partially woolly fcales, contaihing two or three, rarely four, florets, whofe partial calyx is long, pointed, and membranous. Seed-down loofely feathery. We cannot find that this plant has ever been publifhed before. 11. S. reflena. Reflexed Stoebe. Linn. Suppl. gg1-. Willd. n. 10. Thunb. Prodr. 169.—** Leaves thread- fhaped, partly pointed. Branches reflexed. Spikes ovate.’’ —Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape. The /lem is faid to be procumbent. : 12. S. difticha. Two-ranked Stoebe. Linn. Suppl. 391. Willd, n. rr. Thunb. Prodr. 169.—Leaves fafciculated, linear, partly pointed. Spikes two-ranked.—Gathered by feveral botanilts at the Cape. The /fem is very copioufly branched. Leaves very flender, half an inch long, em- bracing denfe, grey, woolly, axillary tufts of {maller ones. Flowers {mall, feflile. Common calyx many-flowered, fcarce- ly diltinguifhable from the minute tufted leaves ; partial one longer, with blunt, tawny, fhining f{eales. 13. S. fafciculata. Fafciculate Stoebe. Thunb. Prodr. 16g. Willd. n. 12.—* Leaves fafciculated, triangular-awl- fhaped. Spikes two ranked.””—Found by Thunberg at the Cape. 14. S. plumofa. FeatheryStoebe. Willd. n. 13. Thunb. Prodr. 169. ( Breyniana capenfis, capitulis albis plumofis ; Petiv. Gazoph. t. 5. f. 4.)—See SpripHiuM, n. 2, where this {pecies is properly placed, having but a folitary floret, whofe long, fmooth, prominent, partial calyx, proje@ing out of the woolly fhort external calyx, is very remarkable. We cannot underitand the obfervation in Linu. Mant. 481, “ flores 5-five 6-flori,” unlefs each fcale of the inner calysx was taken for a floret. 15. S. fufca. Brown Stoebe! Willd. n. 14. Thunb. Prodr. 170. (Eupatorium ericoides, capitis bone {pei; Breyn. Cent. t. 69. Abrotanoides capenfis, erice folio ; Petiv. Gazoph. t. 5. f. 2.)—See SrripuiuMm, n. 3, to which genus this fpecies undoubtedly belongs, each floret having a diltin@ outer, as well as inner, calyx, notwithiland- ing its.great refemblance to Stocbe ericoides, n. 3. 16. S. virgata. Wand-like Stoebe. Thunb. Prodr. 170. Willd. n. 15.—*¢ Leaves linear, pointlefs, downy. Spikes terminal.” 17. S. afpera. Harfh Stoebe. Thunb. ibid. Willd. n. 16.—‘* Leaves linear, pointlefs, fmooth, reflexed. Flowers lateral.”’—This and the iaft were found by Thun- berg at the Cape, and do not appear to be known to any other author. 18. S. paferinoides. Sparrow-wort Stoebe. Willd. n. 17. (Seriphium paflerinoides; Lamarck Did. v. 1. 271.)— Leaves triangular-awl-fhaped, clofe-prefled ; woolly above. — Flowers folitary at the ends of the fhort lateral branches.— Gathered STO Gathered by Commerfon in the ifle of Bourbon. This is certainly a Seriphium, not a Stocbe. The /lem is fix or eight feet high, with innumerable branches, refembling a Tamarix in habit. Zeaves minute, imbricated ; fmooth at the back. Inner calyx long aud fmooth, at length {preading widely. The owfer is cylindrical, of many rounded imbricated fcales, woolly within, and contains a fingle flower only. This fhould follow Seriphium fu/cum in its proper place. 19. S. rhinocerotis. Rhinoceros Stoebe. Linn. Suppl. 39t. Willd, n. 18. Thunb. Prodr. 170.—* Leaves triangular- awl-fhaped, clofe-prefled. Branches downy, drooping. Clufters proliferous.””—Native of the Cape, and faid to be the chief food of the rhinoceros. We have feen.no f{pe- cimen, but it is very poflible, as Lamarck fufpeds, that this may not be different trom the la{t {pecies. 20. S. cernua. Drooping Stoebe. Thunb. Prodr. 170. Wilid. n. 19.—** Leaves ovate, pointlefs, {mooth, imbri- cated. Young branches downy.’’—Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg, as well as the following. 21. S.nivea. Snow-white Stoebe. Thunb. ibid. Willd. n. 20.—* Leaves triangular, obtufe, clofe-prefled. Flowers terminal.”?—In this view of the genus Svoebe, as it {tands in Willdenow, we have been chiefly folicitous to afcertain f{pecies and their fynonyms. The intelligent reader may arrange fome of them under this genus, others ‘under Seriphium ; but the greater part muft remain in uncertainty, either from the obfcurity of Nature herfelf, in this very ambiguous cafe, or becaufe we have not fufficient information from Thunberg, who alone has feen fome of the fpecies. The genera appear to us too diftin@t to be refolved into one. They require to be carefully ftudied by an adept, who ought to be poffefled of all the known fpecies of both, and to examine the {tructure of all their flowers, before he attempts to draw any conclufion refpeGting their generic diftinétions, or even their precife place in the Linnean fyitem. STOECHADES, in Ancient Geography, iflands of the Mediterranean fea, upon the coaft of Gallia Narbonnenfis. Thefe iflands are the fame with the iflands of Hieres. Strabo mentions five of them; and three of thefe deferve to be recorded, viz. Prote, Mefe, and Hypeea. Storcuapes Minores, or the Leffr Stoechades, were two {mall iflands of thé-five above-mentioned, fituated op- fite to Marfeilles, called Ratoneau and Poméque. STOECHAS, in Botany, sixa< of Diofcorides, appears very clearly, from his defcription, to be the Lavandula Stoechas of Linneus. (See Lavanpura, n.2.) The above ancient writer fays it owes its name to the iflands called Stoechades, on the coa{t of France, now called if/les @ Hyeres, where it was known to grow. Srorcuas is alfo the {pecific name of a Gnaphalium, Lion. Sp. Pl. 1193, the S. citrina of old writers. STOEFLER, Joun, in Biography, a German mathe- matician, was born at Juftingen, in Swabia, in 1452, and was raifed from humble lite into a reputable fituation by his abilities. About the year 1482 he became profeffor of mathematics at Tubingen; and Philip Melanchthon and Sebaftian Munfter were his fcholars. He improved geo- graphy, to which he was much attached, and conftructed various maps; all which, with many MSS., were con- fumed by a fire which broke out in 1534. Being an induf- trious calculator, he computed ephemerides for many years ; which were firft publifhed at Ulm in 1499, when they begin, and extend to 1531. At the Jatter year they commenced at Tubingen, and continued for twenty years, to 1552. He alfo conftruéted very neat mathematical inftruments and globes. He compofed likewife feveral ule- a @ ful works. Confiding in the reveries of judicial aftrology, he is faid to have prediéted a general flood ; which threw Europe into great alarm, {o that univerfal terror prevailed. But when the year arrived, no inundation took place. Stoefler died at Blaubauren in 1531. He was author of feveral altronomical works, befides the ephemerides ; and he left in MS. a commentary on Ptolemy’s Geography, preferved in the library of Ulm. Gen. Biog. rae e STOER, in Geography, a river of Holftein, which runs into the Elbe; 2 miles N.W. of Gluckftadt. STOERCKIA, in Botany, is one of thofe two famous genera, which Crantz, a fevere critic of fuperior writers, made out of one fingle {pecies, Draceana Draco of Linnxus. For this he is held up to admiration in the Sy/t. Veg. under Dracena; the only vengeance which Linneus took, for his many petulant and unjuft attacks; but it is con- clufive. STOF, in Commerce, a liquid meafure at Dantzic, Riga, &c. See Tab. XXXII. under Measures. STOGUMBER, or Sroxe-Gomer, in Geography, a market-town in the hundred of Williton and Freemanors, and county of Somerfet, England, is feated in a valley to the fouth-weft of the Quantock hills, near the northern fide of the county, and confifts chiefly of two ftreets. A large church, dedicated to St. Mary, contains a nave, chancel, two aifles, and as many chapels: the fouth aifle is {urmounted by an embattled tower, feventy-two feet in height. On the fouth fide of the chancel is a tomb, with the effigy of fir George Sydenham, and in the church-yard ° is an ancient iftone crofs. This town is endowed with one annual fair, and a weekly market on Saturday: its popu- lation in 1811, was 1214 inhabitants, who occupied 234 houfes. About two miles from the church of Stogumber, are the remains of Combe Sydenham, the ancient manfion of the family of that name. Some of the old {taircafes are yet tolerably entire, as well as the kitchen, which appears to have been very large; and near the centre of the building is a tower. The parifh of Stogumber contains an alms-houfe, founded by one of the Sydenham family, with a provifion for it from their eftate. There is alfo a charity of thirteen pounds fer annum to the poor for ever. In this town and its vicinity, many Roman coins have been found, together with other antiquities of the fame people. The adjoming parifh of Bicknoller is fuppofed to have derived its name from two Britifh words, fignifying a {mall trea- fury, in allufion to the quantity of fpecie there difcovered. On an eminence near the church, in the fame parifh, are the remains of an ancient fortification, called Trendle caltle, the foffe and entrance of which ftill remain. Weltward from this, on the fummit of the fame hill, is another, of much {maller dimenfions, called Turk’s caftle; and near this {pot is a beacon, which has an extenfive and command- ing view of the whole country. The parifh of Strington, on the oppofite fide of the Quantock hills, contains a large intrenchment, called Douxborough caftle, of a circular form, confilting of a double rampire, with a very wide and deep foffe. The church of this parifh is a {mall build- ing, having a nave, chancel, and an aifle or chapel: the church-yard contains an ancient ftone crofs. Hiftory, &c. of Somerfetfhire, by the Rev. J. Collinfon, 4to. 1791, vol. iii. STOJANOW, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 44 | miles S.W. of Lucco. STOICAL Fare. See Fate. STOICISM, the doétrines and opinions of Zeno’s fol- lowers, called Svoics. STOICS, a feé of ancient philofophers, the are ° STOICS. of Zeno; thus called from the Greek sox, portico, or the porch ; becaufe the place which Zeno chofe for his fchool was the “ Poecile,’’ or painted porch, a public portico fo denominated from the pictures of Polygnotus and other eminent painters, with which it was adorned. This por- tico, which was the moft famous in Athens, was called sox, the porch. The author of this fe&, Zeno, was a native of Cittium, a maritime town in Cyprus, originally peopled by a colony of Pheenicians, whence he is fometimes called a Pheenician, and is fuppofed to have borrowed many of his dogmata from Phcenician philofophy, which many learned men maintain was, itfelf, borrowed from the Jewifh: hong it muft be allowed, there appear as many things in the Stoic philofophy, borrowed from Plato’s and Socrates’s {chool, as from that of Mofes. The profeffion of his father was that of a merchant ; but his fon, manifefting an early propenfity towards literature, he early devoted him to phi- lofophy. The father, having frequent occafion, in his mer- cantile capacity, to vifit Athens, purchafed for his fon fe- veral of the works of the moft eminent Socratic philofophers. Thefe he read with great avidity ; and when he was about thirty years of age, he determined to take a voyage to a city, which was fo celebrated as a mart both of trade and of {cience. What were his views in this voyage, whether mercantile or fcientific, is not certain. Some writers re- port, that he made a trading voyage from Cittium to Athens, richly freighted with Tyrian purple, and ‘was fhip- wrecked not far from port; upon which we are told, con- fulting the oracle how he fhould beft {pend the reft of his life, he was an{wered, eb CoyxewriCorro TOS VEXED, by becoming of the fame colour with ihe dead ; wpon which he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the ancient philofophers, and became a hearer of Crates, the Cynic. Others relate, that upon his firft arrival in Athens, he went accidentally into the fhop of a bookfeller, and taking up a volume of the Commentaries of Xenophon, read a few paflages, and that, being highly gratified by the perufal, and forming a very favourable idea of the author, he afked the bookfeller where he might meet with fuch men. Crates, the Cynic philofopher, matical by the fhop at this moment, and the bookfeller pointing to him, faid to Zeno, “ follow that man.”? Availing himfelf of an early opportunity of attending upon the initrutions of Crates, he enlifted him- {elf in the number of his difciples. But highly as he ad- mired the general principles and {pirit of the Cynic {chool, he could not reconcile himfelf to their peculiar manners ; and, befides, his inquifitive difpofition would not allow him to imbibe that indifference to every fcientific enquiry, which formed one of the diftinguifhing charaeriltics of that fect. Abandoning Crates, he repaired to the fchool of Stilpo; and when his former matter attempted to drag him away from it by force, he faid to him, ‘¢ you may feize my body, but Stilpo has hold of my mind.’? Having for feveral years attended upon the lectures of Stilpo, he had recourfe to other {chools, particularly thofe of Xenocrates, Diodorus Cronus, by whom he was inftru@ted in dialeétics, and on whom he conferred a large pecuniary gratuity for the difco- very of fome of his ingenious fubtleties, and various other malters ; and at length he offered himfelf as a difciple of Polemo. Polemo, however, apprized that Zeno, by re- moving from one fchool to another, was merely colle&ting materials to form anew fy{ftem of his own, when he came to his {chool, faid to him, “ Iam no ftranger, Zeno, to your Pheenician arts: I perceive that it is your defign to creep flily into my garden, and to fteal away my fruit.’ Polemo was not maitaeen in his conjeture ; for Zeno, after having made himfelf thoroughly acquainted with the tenets of others, determined to become the founder of a new fe&, and eftablifhed a {chool at Athens. Zeno was diftinguifhed by that kind of fubtle reafoning, which was at the period in which he flourifhed popular. He likewife exemplified the fy{tem of moral doétrine which he taught in his own life, We need not wonder, then, that he fhould attra& a num- ber of followers, and alfo enjoy the favour of the great. His lectures were attended by Antigonus Gonates, king of Macedon, whilft he refided at Athens ; and upon his return, Zeno was invited to his court. So highly was he efteemed among the Athenians, on account of his approved integrity, that they depofited the keys of their citadel in his hands. They alfo honoured him witha golden crown, and a ftatue of brafs. Among his countrymen, the inhabitants of Cy- prue, and among the Sidonians, from whom his family was derived, he was likewife highly efteemed. In his perfon, Zeno was tall and flender ; his afpe& was fevere, and his brow contra&ted. His conttitution was feeble ; but he preferved his health by great ab{temioufnefs. The fupplies of his table confifted of figs, bread, and honey ; notwithftanding which, he was frequently honoured with the company of greatmen. It wasa fingular proof of his mo- deration, mixed, indeed, with that high fpirit of independ- ence which afterwards diflinguifhed his feét, that when De- mocharis, fon of Laches, offered to procure him fome gra- tuity from Antigonus, he was fo offended, that from that time he declined all intercourfe with him. In public com- pany, to avoid every appearance of an afluming temper, he commonly took the loweft place. Indeed, fo great was his modeity, that he feldom chofe to mingle with a crowd, or wifhed for the company of more than two or three friends at once. He paid more attention to neatnefs and decorum in external appearance, than the Cynic philofophers. In his drefs indeed he was plain, and in all his expences frugal ; but this is not to be imputed to avarice, but a contempt of external magnificence. He fhewed as much refpe& to the poor as to the rich; and converfed freely with perfons of the meanett occupations. He had only one fervant, or, ac- cording to Seneca, none. Honoured and efteemed as Zeno was by a great number of perfons, and unafluming and irreproachable as were his man- ners, he had his enemies. Philofophers of diftinguifhed ability and eloquence employed their talents againft him. Amongft thefe we may reckon Arcefilaus and Carneades, the founders of the Middle and New Academy. Towards the clofe of his life, Epicurus, whofe temper and doftrines were alike inimical to the fevere gravity and philofophical pride of the Stoical fe&t, was his powerful adverfary. Zeno is faid to have lived to the extreme age of 98 years, and at la{t, in confequence of an accident, voluntarily put an end to his life. In walking out of his fchool, he fell, and broke one of his fingers; upon which, he was fo affeéted with a confcioufnefs of infirmity, that, ftriking the earth, he faid, “« Why am I thus importuned? I obey thy fum- mons :”” and immediately going home, he ftrangled himfelf. He died in the firft year of the 129th Olympiad, B.C. 264. The Athenians, at the requeft of Antigonus, erected a monument to his memory in the Ceramicum. If we compare the doétrines of Zeno with the hiftory of his life, his heterogeneous fyftem will appear to have been compiled out of the various tenets of the {chools. which he frequented ; and on the credit of thefe he affumed to him- felf the title of the founder of a new feét, which fpread widely, and fubfitted for many ages. Of Zeno, Cicero fays, that he had little reafon for deferting his mafters, efpe- cially thofe of the Platonic fchool, and that he was not fo much . nal STOICS. much an inventor of new opinions as of new terms. A comic poet, quoted by Athenzus, thus ridicules the logomachies of Zeno and his followers : Axuox) o Droaxes Eurrogos Ape Aoywy Umoxeiliets. « Ye fagesof the Porch, loquacious tribe, Traders in trifles, arbiters of words, And cenfors! hear!” Zeno transferred the diale&tics of Diodorus Cronus, and the moral doé¢trine of the Cynic feét, into his own fyftem ; the principal difference between the Cynics and Stoics con- fifting in this particular, that the former difdained the culti- vation of nature, and the latter affeted to rife above it. On the fubje& of phyfics, Zeno received his doétrine from Pythagoras and Heraclitus, through the channel of the Platonic fchool. Cicero cenfures the Stoics for encouraging in their fchools a barren kind of difputation, and auiieg: ing themfelves in determining trifling queftions, in which the difputants can have no intereft, and which, at the clofe, leave them neither wifer nor better. And that this cenfure is not, as fome modern advocates for Stoicifm have maintained, a mere calumny, but grounded upon faé, fufficiently ap- pears from what is faid by the ancients, particularly by Sextus Empiricus, concerning the logic of the Stoics. raaGy who was himfelf a Stoic, candidly acknowledges S. i The Stoics, whofe ruling paffion wae vanity, were ambi- tious of that kind of reputation which was derived from {kill in the arts of reafoning and fophiftry. The moral part of their philofophy partook alfo of the defects of its origin. It may be as juitly obje&ted againft the Stoics as the Cynics, that they aflumed an artificial feverity of manners, and a tone of virtue above the condition of man. Their do&rine of moral wifdom was an oftentatious difplay of words, in which little regard was paid to nature and reafon. It profeffed to raife human nature to a degree of perfection before unknown ; but its real effe€& was, merely to amufe the ear, and captivate the fancy, with fi€tions which can never be realized.’ Lajftly, the phyfical and theoretical fyftem of the Stoics, like thofe from which it had been borrowed, had, in its principles, a {trong bias towards enthufiafm. The extravagancies and abfurdities of the Stoical philofo- hy may in fome meafure be afcribed to the vehement con- tefts which fubfifted between Zeno and the Academics on the one hand, and between him and Epicurus on the other. Whilft Epicurus taught his followers to feek happinefs in tranquillity, or a freedom from labour and pain, Zeno ima- gined his wife man not only free from all fenfe of pleafure, but void of all paffions and emotions, and capable of being happy in the midft of torture. That he might avoid the tor- pid indolence of the Epicureans, he had recourfe to a moral inftitution, which bore indeed the lofty front of wifdom, but which was elevated far above the condition and powers of human nature. The natural difpofition of Zeno, and his manner of life, had no inconfiderable influence in fixing the peculiar chara@ter of his philofophy. By nature fevere and morofe, and con- ftitutionally inclined to referve and melancholy, he cherifhed this habit at an early period, by fubmitting to the aultere and rigid difcipline of the Cynics. Qualities which he con- ceived to contrtbute to his own. perfonal merit, he transferred to his imaginary charaéter of a wife or perfe& man. His followers, therefore, affeed an appearance of gravity and dignity, which they fupported more by external fhow than by the real practice of fublime or ufeful virtues. Hence many of them were philofophers in words, ratlier than in their aétions ; and thus it was that their adverfarics found fo much fcope for fatirical ridicule and inveétive againtt Stoical pride and hypocrify. Indeed, a fyftem of philofophy, which aims at raifing men above their nature, muft com- monly produce, either wretched fanatics or artful hypocrites. It is no proof of the perfeGtion which fome have been willing to afcribe to the Stoic philofophy, that there were among its profeflors many perfons highly diftinguifhed by genuine wifdom and virtue. For their uncommon merit was rather the effect of ahappy temperament, or of fortunate circum- {tances in concurrence with thofe moral principles which are common to all mankind, than to the peculiarities of the Stoical fyftem, which, as we fhall prefently fee, were not adapted to cherifh the genuine fentiments either of virtue or jety. : in forming an accurate judgment of the Stoical philofo- phy, itis neceflary to guard againit two errors, into which thofe have been betrayed who have appreciated it too highly. We fhould not form our opinion of this philofophy from words and fentiments detached from the general fyitem, but confider them in their conneétion both with the premifes and conclufions: nor fhould we confound the genuine doétrines of Zeno, and other ancient fathers of this fe, with the glofles, or improvements, of the later Stoics ; who, after the introdudtion of the Chriftian doétrine, artfully accommo- dated their language, and even their tenets, as far as polli- ble, to the Chriftian model. (See Fare.) Brucker, in his “* Hiftory of Philofophy,”’ tranflated by Enfield, has given an abftraét of the Stoic philofophy, deduced from the writings of Cicero, Plutarch, Laertius, Sextus Empiricus, Simplicius, and Stobeus, compared with thofe of Seneca, Antoninus, and Epiftetus, under the diftinét heads of phi- lofophy in general, logic, phyfics, metaphytfics, and morals. Our limits will only admit a few extraéts. The doétrine of the Stoics, with regard to “ philofophy in general,’’ was, that wifdom confiftsin the knowledge of things divineand human; that philofophy is fuch an exercife of the mind as produces wifdom, and that in this exercife confilts the nature of virtue ; and confequently, that virtue is a term of extenfive meaning, comprehending the right employment of the mind in reafon- ing, in the ftudy of nature, or in morals. With Socrates and the Cynics, Zeno reprefented virtue as the only true wifdom ; but being difpofed to extend the purfuits of his wife man into the regions of fpeculation and fcience, he gave, in his ufual manner, a new fignification to an old term, and comprehended the exercife of the underftanding in the fearch of truth, as well as the government of the appetites and paflions, under the general term Virtue. “« Logic,”’ according to the Stoics, is either rhetorical or diale&tic ; the former being the art of reafoning and dif- courfing on fubjeéts which reqnire diffufe declamation, and the latter being the art of clofe argumentation, in the form of difputation or dialogue. Rhetoric is of three kinds, de- liberative, judicial, and demonttrative. The dialeétic art is the inftrument of knowledge, by enabling a man to diftin- guifh truth from error, and certainty from bare probability : and it confiders things as exprefled by words, and words themfelves. External things are perceived by a certain im- preffion made either upon fome parts of the brain, or upon the percipient faculty, which may be called an image, Quracix, fince it is impreffed upon the mind, like the image of a feal upon wax. This image is commonly accompanied with a belief of the reality of the thing perceived ; but not neceffarily, fince it does not accompany every image, but thofe only which are not attended with any evidence of de- ception, Where only the image is perceived by a ave thing STOICS. thing is apprehenfible; where it is acknowledged and ap- proved as the image of fome real thing, the impreflion is called apprehenfion, x«Jaanlic, becaufe the obje& is appre- hended by the mind, as a body is grafped by the hand. Such apprehenfion, if it will bear the examination of rea- fon, is knowledge ; if it is not examined, itis mere opinion ; if it will not bear this examination, it is mifapprehenfion. The fenfes, correéted by reafon, give a faithful report ; not by affording a perfe& apprehenfion of the entire nature of things, but by leaving no room to doubt of their reality. Nature has furuifhed us with thefe apprehenfions, as the ele- ments of knowledge, whence further conceptions are raifed in the mind, and a way is opened for the inveftigations of reafon. Some images are fenfible, or received immediately through the fenfes ; others rational, which’are perceived only in the mind. Thefe latter are called évvo«l, notions or ideas. Some images are probable, to which the mind aflents with- out hefitation; others improbable, to which it does not rea- dily affent ; and others doubtful, where it is not entirely perceived, whether they are true or falfe. True mages are thofe which arife from things really exifting, and agree with them. Falfe images, or phantafms, are immediately derived from no real object. Images are apprehended by immediate perception, through the fenfes, as when we fee a man; confequentially, by likenefs, as when from a portrait we apprehend the original; by compofition, as when, by com- pounding a horfe and man, we acquire the image of a Cen- taur ; by augmentation, as in the image of a Cyclops; or by diminution, as in that of a pigmy. Judgment is employed either in determining concerning particular things, or concerning general propofitions, ufing in the latter cafe our preconceptions, or univerfal princi- ples, as criteria or meafures of judgment. The firft im- preffions from the fenfes produce in the mind an involuntary emotion ; but a wife man deliberately examines them, and fufpends his affent or approbation (cuvxa]xfeces) with regard to the report of the fenfes, tili he has invettigated the nature of things, and fully eltimated the weight of evidence. The mind of man is originally like a blank leaf, but capa- ble of receiving aay impreffions. Thefe impreflions, made by the fenfes, remain in the memory, after the objects that occafioned them are removed ; a fucceffion of thefe continued impreffions, made by fimilar objects, produces experience ; and hence arife permanent notions, opinions, and knowledge. Even univerfal principles, reodn)es, are originally formed, by experience, from fenfible images. All men agree in their common notions or preconceptions ; difputes only arife con- cerning the application of thefe to particular cafes. Thefe three things are mutually related; the expreffion, the notion or image in the mind which ts exprefled, and the external objet. Under the head of expreffion, dialectics confider vocal found, as exprefled by letters; the feveral parts of fpeech; the etymology, analogy, or anomaly of fyntax ; the fignification of words, and other properties of language. The notion or image exprefled is the Paracia, phantafy, already explained. DialeGtics confider things as capable of being clafled under {pecies and genera. The molt comprehenfive genus is that which includes all things, both real and imaginary. Of things there are four fubdivifions, viz. fubftance, qualities, modes, and relations. Things confidered with refpect to {peech are faid to be AeIa, capable of being exprefled in words. Predicates are things predicated, or declared, con- eerning another. Hence arife axioms, fimple and compound, and thefe admit of different chara¢ters. An argument (Asyes) commonly confifts of a general truth admitted (Anzu) 3 a particular cafe fuppofed (mescanupyx) 3 and a conclufion (igo). Arguments admit of different forms, According to the Stoical doctrine concerning nature,” there exilted from eternity a dark confuled chaos, in which were contained the firft principles of all future beings ; which chaos, being at length arranged, and emerging into variable forms, became the world, as it now fubfilts. The univerfe, though one whole, contains two principles, diitin& from elements; one paffive, which is pure matter, without qualities, and the other a¢tive, which is reafon or God. Zeno, determining to innovate upon the doétrine of the Academy, and declining to adopt the Dualiftie fyftem, which held God and matter to be two principles, eternally oppofite, not only differing in their efleuce, but having no common principle by which they can be united, and alfo the emanative fyftem (fee EmManation) embraced a third hypo- thefis, which is diftinguifhed by the appellation of the “ Stoical fyflem.”? Unwilling to admit, on the one hand, two oppofite principles, both primary and independent, and both abfolute and infinite; or, on the other, to fuppofe matter, which is in its nature diametrically oppofite to that of God, the aétive efficient caufe, to have been derived by emanation from him; yet finding himfelf wholly unable to derive thefe two principles from any common fource, he confounded theif eflence, and maintained that they were fo effentially united, that their nature was one and the fame. The Stoical fy item teaches, that both the ative and paflive principles in nature are corporeal, fince whatever aéts or fuffers muft be fo. The efficient canfe, or God, is pure ether, or fire, inhabiting the exterior furface of the heavens, where every thing which is divine is placed. This ethereal fubftance, or divine fire, comprehends all the vital principles by which individual beings are neceffarily produced, and contains the forms of things, which, from the higheft re- gions of the univerfe, are diffufed through every other part. of nature. Matter, or the paffive principle, in the Stoical fyftem, is deftitute of all qualities, but ready to receive any form ; in- active, and without motion, unlefs moved by fome external caufe. The contrary principle, or the ethereal operative fire, being aGtive, and capable of producing all things from matter, with confummate fkill, according to the forms which it contains, although in its nature corporeal, confidered in oppofition to grofs and fluggifh matter, or to the elements, is {aid to be immaterial and {piritual. Some perfons have been mifled in forming their notions of the Stoical fy{tem, by the bold innovations of its advocates in the ufe of terms ; and accordingly they have inferred from the appellations fometimes ‘applied by the Stoicsto the Deity, that they conceived him to be f{tri€tly and properly incor- poreal. Whereas the truth feems to be, that, as they fometimes {poke of the foul of man, a portion of the divi- nity, asan exceedingly rare and-fubtle body, cwna aecsoregoy xas Aemroecerscgov, and fometimes as a warm or fiery fpirit, meu %ceuov, fo they fpoke of the Deity as corporeal, confidered as diftin& from the incorporeal vacuum, or infinite {pace, but as {piritual, confidered in oppofition to grofs and ina€tive matter. They taught, indeed, that God is unde- rived, incorruptible, and eternal; poffeffed of intelligence ; good and perfect ; the efficient caufe of all the peculiar qua- lities or forms of things; and the conftant preferver and go- vernor of the world: and they defcribed the Deity under many noble images, and in the moft elevated language. The hymn of Cleanthes, in particular, is juftly admired for the grandeur of its fentiments, and the fublimity of its dition. But if, in reading thefe defcriptions, we haitily affociate with them modera conceptions of Deity, and negleé to re- cur STOICS. curto the leading principles of the fect, we fhall be led into fundamental mifapprehenfionsof the true doctrineof Stoicifm. For, according to this fe&t, God and matter are alike unde- rived and eternal, and God is the former of the univerfe in no other fenfe, than as he has been the neceflary efficient eaufe, by which motion and form have been imprefled upon matter. What unworthy notions the Stoics entertained of God, fufficiently appears from the fingle opinion of his finite nature, an opinion which neceflarily followed, from the notion that he is only a part of .a {pherical, and therefore a finite univerfe. With refpe& to the doGtrine of divine Providence, it ap- pears that, according to the Stoics, the agency of the Deity is nothing more than the aétive motion of a celeftial ether, or fire, pofletled of hs which at firlt gave form to the fhapelefs mafs of gro{s matter, and being always effentially united to the vilible world, by the fame neceflary agency, preferves its order and harmony. The Stoic idea of Providence is, not that of an infinitely wife and good being, wholly independent of matter, freely direéting and govern- ns all things, but that of a neceflary chain of caufes and eflets, arifing from the aétion of a power, which is itfelf a part of the machine which it regulates, and which, equally with that machine, is fubjeé& to the immutable law of necef- fity. Providence, in the Stoic creed, is only another name for abfolute neceffity, or fate, to which God and matter, or the univerfe, which confifts of both, is immutably fubje@t. The rational, efficient, and ative principle in nature, the Stoics called by various names ; nature, fate, Jupiter, God. «« What is nature,” fays Seneca, ‘* but God; the divine reafon, inherent in the whole univerfe, and in all its parts ; or you may call him, if you pleafe, the author of all things.” And again: “ Whatever appellations imply celeftial power and energy, may be juflly applied to God ; his names may properly be as numerous as his offices.”’?_ The term nature, when it is at all diftinguifhed in the Stoic fyftem from God, denotes, not a feparate agent, but that order of things which is neceflarily produced by his perpetual och The univerfe, according to Zeno and his followers, is aoice eubinos xs aarSntixn, © a fentient and animated being.’” But Zeno underttood this dotrine in a fenfe different from that in which it was conceived by mary former philofophers. Zeno, adopting the ideas of Pythagoras and Heraclitus, and affuming that there is no real exiltence which is not corpo- conceived nature to be one whole, confilting of a fubtle ether and grofs matter, the former the active, the latter the paflive principle, as effentially united asthe foul and body of man; and fuppofed God, with refpeé to nature, to be, not a co-exifting but an informing principle. Whilft the Stoics allowed that the Deity is the efficient and intelligent caufe of all the effe&ts which are produced in the world, their notions of his nature and attributes were confufed and de- grading. Refiding primarily in the fuperior celeftial region, and being thence diffuled, Hf a (ube fire through a eaite world, his univerfal prefence is limited, and falls far fhort of the attribute of immenfity, as it belongs to the divine nature. United to matter by the immutable chain of neceflity, he wants that freedom of aétion which appears to be one of the mok effential charaGters of the Supreme Being. The origi- nal communication, and the perpetual prefervation of forms and qualities, by the neceflary aétion of a fubtle fire upon matter, though this principle be fuppofed to be poflefled of reafon and intelligence as well as energy, is certainly an idea of Deity, which falls far fhort of that pure and fublime doc- trine, which reprefents God as creating and governing the world by voluntary agency, and with wife defign. That Vou. XXXIV. the Deity is, according to the Stoic dofirine, fubje& to the law of neceffity no lefs than matter and all fubordinate beings, Seneca, and other writers of this feé&, exprefsly aflert. «* Both gods and men are bound,” fays he, « by the fame chain of neceflity. Divine and human affairs are alike borne along in an irrefiftible current ; caufe depends upon caufe; effects arife in a long fucceffion ; nothing happens by accident, but every thing comes to pafs in the eitablifhed order of nature.”’ Portions of the ethereal foul of the world being diftri- buted throughout all the parts of the univerfe, and ani- mating all bodies, hence arife, in the fyftem of the Stoics, inferior gods or demons, with which all nature is peopled. All thefe divinities they confidered as derived from the foul of nature, and as limited in their duration. Demons were divided by the Stoics into fuperior and inferior ; the fuperior, thofe which inhabited the fun and ftars, which they con- fidered as woixs Luxsxes, animated fubftances; the inferior, human fouls feparated from the body, or heroes. ¢ Illufs trious men,”’ fays Cicero, ‘* whofe fouls furvive and enjoy immortality, are jultly efteemed to be gods, fince they are of an excellent and immortal nature.’? Befides this, there {eems little reafon to doubt, that the Stoics acknowledged the exiftence of other inferior divinities, portions of the foul of the world, and taught that they are endued with human paffions, and therefore are proper objects of facrifice and worfhip. As the Stoics held, that all the inferior divinities are por- tions feparated from the foul of the world; fo they con- ceived, that a period would arrive, when they would return into the firlt celeftial fire, and fuppofed that, at the fame time, the whole vifible world would be confumed ia one ge- neral conflagration. On the fubject of the origin of evil, they had recourfe to fate, and taught that evil was the neceflary confequence of that eternal neceflity, to which the great whole, comprehend ing both God and matter, is {ubjeé. Concerning the fecond principle in the univerfe, matter, and concerning the vifible world, the doétrine of the Stoics is briefly this: matter is the firft eflence of all things, defti- tute of, but capable of receiving, qualities. Confidered univerfally, it is an eternal whole, which neither increafes nor decreafes. Confidered with refpeé to its parts, it is ca~ pable of increafe and diminution, of collifion and feparation, and is perpetually changing. Bodies are continually tending towards diflolution ; matter always remains the fame. Mat- ter is not infinite but finite, being circumf{cribed by the limits of the world ; but its parts are infinitely divifible. The world is {pherical in its form, and is {urrounded by an infinite vacuum. The aétion of the divine nature upon matter, firft produced the element of moifture, and then the other elements, fire, air, and earth, of which all bodies are compofed. Air and fire have effential levity, or tend to- wards the exterior furface of the world; earth and water have effential gravity, or tend towards the centre. All the elements are capable of reciprocal converfion; air pafling into fire or into water ; earth into air and water ; but there is this effential difference among the elements, that fire and air have within themfelves a principle of motion, while water and earth are merely paflive. The fun is a {phere larger than the earth, confifting of fire of the pureft kind: it is therefore an animated being, and the firft of the derived divinities. The ftars too are of the fame kind, fiery bodies endued with perception and in- telligence, and therefore to be ranked ae? the gods, They are nourifhed by exhalations from the feas and H bh TIVeT¢s STOICS. rivers. .Becaufe the heavenly bodies are animated, they are capable of forefeeing future events, and of declaring to mankind, by certain figns, the appointments of fate. The celeftial bodies move, in their orbits, in the following order: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, the Moon, The moon, which occupies the loweft part of the ethereal region, is, like the rett, a fiery luminary pof- fefled of intelligence ; but the fire is mixed with air ; whence the {pots upon its furface. Its form is fpherical, and its motion fpiral, and of two kinds; the one, from eaft to welt, with the heavens; the other from welt to ealt, through the figns of the zodiac. Below the {phere of the moon is the region of the air. The earth is the moft denfe part of the world, and is the main fupport of nature, like the bones of an animated body. The earth, with its waters, forms a globe, which is the centre of the world: it always remains immoveable. The world, including the whole of nature, God, and matter, fubfifted from eternity, and will for ever fubfitt ; but the prefent regular frame of nature had a beginning, and will have anend. The parts tend towards a diffolution, but the whole remains immutably the fame. The world is liable to deftrution from the prevalence of moifture, or of drynefs ; the former producing an_univerfal inundation, the latter an univerfal conflagration. Thefe fucceed each other in nature as regularly as winter and fummer. When the univerfal inundation takes place, the whole furface of the earth is covered with water, and all animal life is deftroyed ; after which, nature is renewed, and fubfilts as before, till the element of fire, becoming prevalent in its turn, dries up all the moifture, converts every fub{tance into its own na- ture, and at laft, by an univerfal conflagration, reduces the world to its priftine ftate. At this period, all material forms are loft in one chaotic mafs: all animated nature is re-united to the Deity, and nature again exilts in its original form, as one whole, confifting of God and matter. From this chaotic ftate, however, it again emerges, by the energy of the efficient principle, and gods and men, and all the forms of regulated nature, are renewed, to be diffolved and renewed in endlefs fucceffion. Asa neceffary confequence of the doérine of the con- flagration, and fubfequent re‘toration of all things, the Stoics maintained, that the human race will return to life. Hence it appears in what fenfe we are to underftand the Stoic doétrine of refurre€tion, upon which Seneca has written with fo much elegance ; and what meaning we are to annex to his words, when he fays, ‘¢ Death, of which we are fo much afraid, and which we are fo defirous to avoid, is only the interruption, not the deftru€tion, of our exiltence ; the day will come which will reftore us to life.” This tenet is not to be confounded with the Chriftian doc- trine of the refurre@tion of the body ; for, according to the Stoics, men return to life, not by the voluntary appoint- ment of a wife and merciful God, but by the law of fate, and are not renewed for the enjoyment of a better and happier condition, but drawn back into their former ftate of imperfe&ion and mifery. Man, according to the Stoics, is an image of the world ; one whole, compofed of body and mind. The mind of man is a {park of that divine fire which is the foul of the world. The human foul, being a portion of the Deity, is of the fame nature; a fubtle fiery fubfance, endued with intel- ligence and reafon: but the energy of this principle is con- fined and reftrained, in the birth of man, by its union with grofler matter. Concerning the duration of the foul of man, the Stoics entertained very different opinions. Cleanthes thought that all fouls would remain till the final conflagration. Chryfip- pus was of opinion, that this would only be the lot of the wife and good; and Seneca feems to have entertained the fame notion, Epiétetus and Antoninus aflerted, that as foon as the foul is releafed from the body, it returns to the foul of the world, or is loft in the univerfal principle of fire. Some were fo abfurd as to believe, that the human foul, con- fitting of a fiery fpirit condenfed by its union with air, is capable of being extinguifhed. While others, with equal abfurdity, conceived that the human foul, fhut up within the grofs body, could not, at death, find a free paflage, but remained with the body till it was entirely de- {troyed. The only idea of the immortality of the foul, which feems to have been entertained by the Stoics, was that of a renovation of being, in that fated circuit of things which we have feen to be one of their fundamental doétrines. In the univerfal reftoration of nature, fome imagined that each individual would return to its former body ; while others conceived, that after a revolution of the great year, fimilar fouls would be placed in fimilar bodies. The foul, conceived by the Stoics to have been material, was reprefented by them as confifting of eight diftin& parts, viz. the five fenfes, the produétive faculty, the power of {peech, and the ruling part, 70 myeponxey, orreafon. Thofe who held the exiftence of the foul after death, {uppofed it to be removed into the celeftial regions of the gods, where. it remains, till, at the general conflagration, all fouls, both human and divine, fhall be loft inthe Deity. But many fup- pofed, that before they were admitted among the divinities, they muft purge away their inherent vices and imperfections, by a temporary refidence in the aerial region between the earth and the moon, or in the moon itfelf. Withrefpe& to depraved and ignoble fouls, it was a common opinion, that after death they were agitated in the lower region of the air, tll the fiery parts were feparated from the grofler, and rofe by their natural levity to the orbit of the moon, where they were ftill further purified and refined : a kind of mechanical purgatory, which very well agreed with the mechanical principles of the Stoic philofophy. Thefe fancies are treated with ridicule by Epiftetus and Seneca, who fre- quently {peak of the happinefs of good men after death in terms which might have fuited a better fyftem. Seneca, confoling Marcia under the lofs of her fon, fays, ** The facred aflembly of the Scipios and Catos, who have them- felves defpifed life, and obtained freedom by death, fhall welcome the youth to the region of happy fouls. Your father himfelf (for all are there known to all) fhall embrace his grandfon, and fhall dire& his eyes, now furnifhed with new light, along the courfes of the neighbouring ftars, with delight explaining to him the myfteries of nature, not from conjeGture, but from certain knowledge. Like a welcome guide in an unknown city, he will unfold to the inquiring ftranger the caufes of the celeftial appearances.”” The Stoical doGtrine of ‘ Morals’? is founded on the principles of phyfics. Conceiving God to be the principal part of nature, by whofe energy all bodies are formed, moved, and arranged, and human reafon to be a portion of the divinity, it was their fundamental do@trine in ethics, that in human life one ultimate end ought for its own fake to be purfued ; and that this end is, to live agreeably to nature, that is, to be conformed to the law of fate by which the world is governed, and to the reafon of that divine and ce- leftial fire which animates all things. Since man is himfelf a microcofm, compofed, like the world, of matter and a rational principle, it becomes him to live as a part of the great STOICS. great whole, and to accommodate all his defires and pur- fuits to the general arrangement of nature. To live according to nature, as the Stoics teach, is virtue : and virtue is itfelf happinefs; for the fupreme good is, to live according to a juit conception of the real nature of things, chufing that which is in itfelf eligible, and reje&ting the contrary. Every man having within himfelf a capacity of difcerning and following the law of nature, hath his happinefs in his own power, and is a divinity to himfelf. Horace feems to have adopted this notion, Ep. 1. i. 18. ult. « Sed fatis eft orare Jovem que ponit et aufert : Det vitam, det opes: zxquum mi animum ipfe parabo.”’ “© For life and wealth to Jove I’ll pray ; Thefe Jove can give or take away : But for a firm and equal mind, This bleffing in myfelf I'll tind.” Frascis. Wifdom, fay the Stoics, confifts in, diftinguifhing good from evil. Good is that which produces happinefs, accord- ing to the nature of a rational being. As the order of the world confilts in an invariable conformity to the law of fate, fo the happinefs of man is cvgoix, that courfe of life which flows in an uninterrupted current, according to the law of nature. Since thofe things only are truly good which are becoming and virtuous, and virtue, which is feated in the mind, is alone fufficient for happinefs, external things contribute nothing towards happinefs, and therefore are not in themfelves aid. The wife man will only value riches, honour, beauty, and other external enjoyments, as means and inftruments of virtue; for, in every condition, he is happy in the pofleflion of a mind accommodated to nature. Pain, which does not belong to the mind, is no evil. The wife man will be,happy in the midft of torture. All exter- nal things are indifferent, fince they cannot affe& the hap- pinefs of man: neverthelefs, fome of thefe are conducive, others unfavourable, to the life which is according to nature, and as fuch are proper objeéts of preference or rejection, meonyunn 1 anoreonyueva. Every virtue being a conformity to nature, and every vice a deviation from it, all virtues and vices are equal. One act of beneficence, or juftice, is not more truly fo than another; one fraud is not more a fraud than another; therefore there is no other difference in the effential nature of moral aétions, than that fome are vicious, and others virtuous, The Stoics advanced many extravagant affertions con- cerning their wife man. For example, that he feels neither ain nor pleafure ; that he exercifes no pity ; that he is free rom faults ; that he is divine ; that he can neither deceive nor be deceived ; that he does all things well ; that he alone is great, noble, ingenious ; that he is the only friend ; that he alone is free ; that he is a prophet, a prince, and a king; and the like. Dhefe paradoxical vauntings are humoroufly ridi- culed by Horace. Serm. I. i. fat. iii. apud fin. The Stoics, however, did not fuppofe that their wife man attually exifted ; but they formed in their imagination an image of perfeétion, towards which every man fhould continually bee. The firlt obje& of purfuit, according to the Stoics, is, not pleafure, but conformity to nature ; and every one who has a juit difcernment of what is good, will be principally folicitous, in all his aétions and purfuits, to conform to na- ture. This, they teach, is the origin of moral obligation. Violent emotions and paflions, arifing from falfe concep- tions of good, are contrary to right reafon and nature; and thefe it is the office of reafon to prevent or remedy. Of virtues, fome are contemplative, others practical s fome primary, others fubordinate. The contemplative or fcientific virtues are thofe which confilt in juft conceptions and prin- ciples ; the practical, thofe which concern the conduct of life. The primary virtues are, prudence, temperance, for- titude, and juftice. Prudence refpeés the choice and purfuit of goods; temperance, the government of the appetites ; fortitude, the endurance of that which is commonly eiteemed evil ; and jultice, the offices of focial life. Duties were diftributed by the Stoics into three claffes, as they refpeét God, ourfelves, and our neighbour. The du- ties of religion are, to think jultly concerning God, and to worfhip him pioufly. He thinks juftly of God, who be- lieves him to be the fupreme diretor of human affairs, and the author of all that is good and fitting in human life. He worfhips God pioufly, who reveres him above all beings ; who perceives and acknowledges him in all events ; whois in every thing refigned and obedient to his will ; who patiently receives whatever befals him, from a perfuafion, that what~ ever God appoints muft be right ; and in fine, who cheer- fully follows wherever divine Providence leads him, even though it be to fuffering and death. The fum of a man’s duty with refpeé& to himfelf is, to fubdue his paffions of joy and forrow, hope and fear, and even pity. He who is, inthis refpe€&t, perfectly matter of him- felf, is a wife man; and in proportion as we approach to- wards a {tate of apathy, we advance towards perfection. The duty we owe towards others, is to love all men, even our enemies. A good man will love his neighbour from his heart, will refrain from injuring, and take pleafure in pro- tecting and ferving him. He will not think himfelf born for himfelf alone, but for the common good of mankind, and will fhew himfelf kind to all, according to his ability. He will think himfelf fufficiently svanied iy the confcioufnefs of well doing, and will never ceafe to do good, although he has no witnefs of his good deeds, nor is ever likely to re- ceive any applaule or recompence for his beneficence. The wife man never remits the punifhment due to a criminal through pity, which is a weaknefs not to be indulged: ne-_ Sentilles in cafes where reafon fuggefts a fufficient ground for clemency, he will not treat a delinquent with rigour. He will relieve the fick, affift the fhipwrecked, afford pro- teGtion to the exile, or fupply the carat) with food, but with an undifturbed mind, and a cheerful countenance ; dif- daining all forrow arifing from fympathy, as well as from perfonal fufferings. No one is more ready than the wife man to exercife lenity and benignity, and to attend to the welfare of other individuals, and to the general intereft of mankind. Concerning the whole moral fyftem of the Stoics, it muft be remarked, that, although it be highly deferving of praife for the purity, extent, and variety of its do¢trines, and although it mutt be confefled, that in many felect paflages of the Stoic writings it appears exceedingly brilliant, it 1s never- thelefs founded on falfe notions of nature and of man, and is raifed to a degree of refinement which is extravagant and impra¢ticable. The piety which it teaches, is nothmg more than a quiet fubmiffion to irrefiftible fate. The felf-com- mand which it enjoins, annihilates the beft affe€tions of the human heart. The indulgence which it grants to fuicide is inconfiftent, not only with the genuine principles of piety, but even with that conftancy which was the height of Stotc perfeGtion. And even its moral doétrine of benevolence is tin@tured with the fanciful principle, which lay at the foundation of the whole Stoic fyftem, that every being is a portion of one great whole, from which it would be un- natural and impious to attempt a feparation. i We muft then conclude, that the ethics of Zeno and his Hhz followers, Sr. O followers, however {plendid, and in many particulars well- founded, deviated, as a fy{tem, from the true principles of nature, and had a tendency to produce artificial characters, and to encourage moral affectation and hypocrify. Zeno, the founder of the Stoical fy{tem, had many dif- ciples and fucceflors ; fuch were Perfazus, Arifto the Chian, Herillus, and Spherus. His immediate fucceffor in his {chool was Cleanthes. (See his article.) After Zeno, no hilofopher more truly exhibited the chara&er, or more illutrioufly difplayed the do¢trine, of the Stoic feét, than Chryfippus. (See Cunystppus.) The immediate fucceffor of Chryfippus in the Stoic {chool was Zeno of Tarfus, or, as fome fay, of Sidon. The chair was next aflumed by Dio- genes of Seleucia, called alfo the Babylonian. (See his article.) His difciple and fucceffor was Antipater of Tarfus. The laft of that feries of Stoics which belongs to the hiltory of the Greek philofophy was Potidonius. See Posipontus. The Stoic fchool was patronized by many eminent men in the Roman republic; but the man who claims more {pecial notice, as a Stoic in charaéter as well as principle, was the younger Cato. See his article. The Stoic philofophy, which under the republic found many patrons, particularly among the profeffors of the law, continued to flourifh under the emperors till after the reigns of the Antonines. Its ethical doétrine became the perma- nent bafis of the Roman jurifprudence; and the high tone of wifdom and virtue which it aflumed, induced many perfons of great diftin@ion and eminent merit to declare themfelves of the Stoic fe, or at leatt to prefer its moral fyftem to that of any other fchool. The prevalence of Chriftianity contributed alfo, in no {mall degree, to the fuccefs of Stoicifm. Befides, the Stoic feét acquired great credit and authority from the illuftrious examples of many perfons of both fexes, who, in thofe times of civil oppreffion, bravely encountered death in the caufe of liberty and virtue. Among the heroines of this age, Tacitus mentions the two Arrias, the wives of Czcina Petus and Thrafeas, and Fannia, the wife of Helvidius. For thefe and other caufes, the Stoic fe&, in the time of Juvenal, prevailed almoft through the whcle Roman empire. (Sat. xv. v. 108.) Under Antoninus Pius, fchools of Stoicifm were fupported at the public expence in Athens, Alexandria, and probably too at Rome; for Antoninus, after he came to the purple, vifited the houfe of Apollonius the Stoic to {tudy philo- fophy. At Tarfus in Cilicia there was alfo a Stoic {chool, which produced feveral celebrated philofophers. The Stoic philofophy, however, ftruggled with powerful oppofition from feveral quarters; and from the period when the motley Ecle&ic fyftem was eftablifhed, Stoicifm began to decline ; and in the age of Augultine it no longer fub- fitted as a diftin& fe&t. It was only during the fhort {pace of 200 years, that the Roman {chool of Zeno was adorned with illuftrious names which claim a place in the hittory of philofophy. The firft Stoic who merits attention in this period is Athenodorus, of Tarfus in Cilicia (fee ATHENO- porus); Annzus Cornutus, an African, who lived at Rome in the beginning of the reign of Nero, and excelled in cri- ticifm and poetry, though philofophy was the principal object of his ftudy (fee Cornurus); Caius Mufonius Rufus, who was banifhed by Nero to Gyzra, but after- wards recalled by Vefpafian (fee Musonius); Cheremon, an Egyptian; Lucius Annes Seneca (fee his article) ; Dio, of Prufa in Bithynia, called for his eloquence Chry- foftom; Euphrates of Alexandria; Epiétetus (fee his ar- ticle) ; Sextus, of Chzronea in Beeotia; and, latt of all thofe whom we fhall mention, the great and good emperor, STO Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. (See his article.) From the time of the Antonines to that of Alexander Severus, there were public fchools of the Stoics in Athens and Alex- andria; but their doétrine was corrupted by the prevalence of the Ecleéic philofophy. In the fixteenth century fome attempts were made for reviving the Stoic philofophy by Liptfius, (fee his biographical article) Gafper Scioppius, Daniel Heinfius, and Thomas Gataker. See Brucker’s Hilt. of Philofophy by Enfield, vols. i. and ii. STOIS, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 10 miles N.W. of Cafchau. STOKAIM, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 30 miles 8.S.E. of Konigfberg. STOKE, a townfhip of Lower Canada, on the St. Francis river, N. of Afcot. Stoxr’s Bay, a bay on the S. coaft of Hampfhire, between Portfmouth harbour and Southampton river, S. of Gofport. STOKE-COURCY,a parihh of large extent in the north- weft part of the hundred of Cannington, and county of Somerfet, England. One extremity of this parifh is a long, narrow peninfula, called Start Point ; which {tretches nearly four miles into the fea, and terminates at the weftern edge of Bridgewater bay. The river Parret empties itfelf into the fea at this point. The town of Stoke-Courcy confifts chiefly of one long ftreet, and is fituated at the fouthern extremity of the parifh: it is ftyled in ancient re- cords, the borough and honour of Stoke-Courcy, and the above-mentioned ftreet {till retains the former of thefe ap- pellatives ; though we do not find that it fent members to parliament more than once in the time of Edward III. It was formerly privileged with a market; this, however, has been long fince difcontinued; but here are yet held two annual fairs. Near the old crofs, in High-ftreet, are two fine fprings, inclofed within cifterns, which, after fupplying the inhabitants with water, unite with the brook that runs near the town, and fall into the fea at Stoford. The church of Stoke-Courcy, built at feveral periods, is a large building, with a tower in the centre, fupported by four large arches. The eattern end of this edifice is of great antiquity, and was the conventual church belonging to the priory of Benedi&tine monks, which was formerly founded near this place. The arches which feparate the body of the church from the north and fouth aifles are femicircular, and {pring from very rich capitals. The name of Stoke-Courcy is Saxon, the former word fignifying a village, and the latter the name of its original proprietor ; whofe ruined manfion lies a fhort diftance to the fouth of the town. This parifh, in- clufive of Fairfield, contained, in 1811, 1208 inhabitants, and 222 houfes. — Hiftory of Somerfetfhire, by the Rev. John Collinfon, 4to. 1791, vol. i. STOKEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Zurich; 16 miles N. of Zurich. STOKERAU. See Srockrrau. . STOKES, a county of North Carolina, in Salifbury diftri@, bounded E. by Rockingham and W. by Surry, containing 11,645 inhabitants, of whom 1746 are flaves. The capital is Germantown. Strokes, a town of North Carolina, near the Yadkin ; 20 miles N.N.W. of Salifbury. STOKESIA, in Boiany, was fo named by L’Heritier, in honour of Jonathan Stokes, M.D., well known as the coadjutor of Dr. Withering, in his Botanical Arrangement of Britifh Plants; and particularly diltinguifhed for his critical acutenefs, difplayed in his references to figures throughout that work. Dr. Stokes has recently publifhed an elaborate Materia Medica, in four o€tavo volumes, S pole STO pofed according to the Linnean fyftem.—L’Herit. Sert. Angl.27. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1703. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. got. Purfh 505. Julf. 450. - Poiret in Lam. Di&. v. 7. 458.—Clafs and order, Synge- nefia Polygamia-equalis. Nat. Ord. Compofite capitate, Linn. Cinarvcephale, Jul. Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, fomewhat imbricated, with leafy feales. Cor. compound, radiated ; florets tubu- lar, all perfeét ; thofe of the difk numerous, regular, in five ual fegments ; thofe of the radius larger, funnel-fhaped, with a dilated, five-cleft, unequal limb. Svam. Filaments five, capillary ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Pi. Germen angular; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftigmas two, divaricated. eric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds to each floret, folitary, ob- long; thofe of the difk with four angles; thofe of the radius with three. Down of four ereé& briitles in the feeds of the difk, of three only in thofe of the radius. Recept. naked. Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seed-down of three or four briftles. Calyx leafy, fomewhat imbricated. Florets of the circumference funnel-fhaped, irregular. 1. S. cyanea. Blue Stokefia. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Carthamus levis; Hill. Hort. Kew. 57. n. 5.) — Native of South Carolina. Cultivated at Kew from about the year 1766, when Mr. Gordon is faid to have introduced this elegant plant. It is perennial, flowering in Augult, requir- ing fhelter in winter. The /fem is ere, fimple, leafy, about two feet high. Lower leaves lanceolate, clafping the ftem, toothed at the bafe; upper feffile, heart-fhaped, ferrated ; all {mooth, bright-green. Fowers large and very hand- fome, of a fine blue. It is by miftake that Hill and L’He- ritier are cited as having given figures of this plant. STOKESLEY, in Geography, a town in the wett divifion of the liberty of Langbaurgh, and North Riding of Yorkfhire, at the diftance of 2424 miles north-weit from London, and 43} from York. th 1811 it contained p88 houfes, and 1439 inhabitants. The lordfhip of Stokef- ey, at an early period, was granted to the family of Baliol, and was poflefled by Guy de Baliol, who came into England with king William I. The manor, after defcending throush the family of Foriter, has fince been fold to the Rev. Mr. Hillyard, the prefent proprietor. The town is feated on the north fide of a large branch of the river Leven, and is formed chiefly by one broad {treet. The buildings are principally modern, with the exception of the fhambles and the toll-booth, which have an appearance of antiquity. Though no evidence of the original found- ation of St. Peter’s church in this town can now be produced, yet a church is mentioned in the Domefday furvey. About 1363, a chantry was founded at the Virgin’s altar, within is building, by William de Stokefley, for the repofe of the fons of John de Middleton and his wife. There is a church at the eaftern extremity of the town, of modern ereétion, but the ancient town is yet remaining. The rectory-houfe was rebuilt in the year 1792, and is an agreeable refidence, greatly improved by the prefent incumbent, the dean of ork. Adjoining to the church-yard, on the north, ftands the manor-houfe, a f{quare ftone edifice, with gardens, and a rifing fhrubbery in front. This town is endowed with two fairs, and a weekly market, held on Saturday. The petty feffions for the weltern divifion of Langbaurgh are held here. The parifh of Stokefley is of confiderable extent, and ofes an area of about feven {quare miles. Within it are comprifed the townfhips of Stokefley-Bufby and Eafby, with the hamlet of Tameton, and a part of Newby. Thefe were manorial refidences held under feudal tenures; little 4 ae oe) remains of their ancient greatnefs are vifible. Eafby Hall, formerly a feat of the lords Eures, now falling to decay, and an ancient chapel at the fouth end of the village, dedi- cated in 1349, are the only veftiges left. The environs of Stokefley are fertile, and the lands near the town chiefly laid into palture.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. Yorkthire; by J. Bigland. Hiltory of Cleveland; by the Rev. John Graves, 4to. 1808. STOKLDORFF, a town of Auftria; 4 miles N.E. of Sonneberg. STOKOLETZ, a town of Croatia; 12 miles S.W. of Petrina. _STOLATZ, a town of European Turkey, in the pro- vince of Servia, on the Morava; 30 miles N.N.W. of Niffa. STOLBERG, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 8 miles S.W. of Chemnitz. N. lat. 50° 4o!. E. long. 12° 42'.— Alfo, a town of Wettphalia, capital of a county to which it gives name, and refidence of the counts ; 40 miles N. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 29'. E. long. 11° 5/. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Roer ; 3 miles S.S.W. of Efchweiler.— Alfo, a county fituated in Thuringia ; about 20 miles long and 15 broad. It af- fords fome good pafture and arable land, with fome rich mines of copper and iron, fome fine woods, and plenty of ame; now annexed to the kingdom of Wetftphalia. STOLBOVOI, a cape on the E. coaft of Kamtfchatkas 40 miles E. of Kamtfchatkoi. N. lat. 56° 25. E. long. 161° 44!. STOLCKERN, a town of Auitria; 3 miles S.W. of Eggenburg STOLE, Srora, from sodn, fignifying a long robe, or veflment, a {acerdotal ornament, worn by the Romifh parifh- priefts over their furplice, as a mark of {uperiority in their refpective churches. The ‘tole is worn by other priefts over the alb, at celee brating of mafs ; in which cafe it goes acrofs the ftomach; and by deacons over the left fhouider, fcarfwife. The ttola is a broad {wath, or flip of cloth or ftuff, hang- ing from the neck to the feet, with three croffes upon it. The bifhops anciently pretended, that the parith priefts were never to appear before them but in their ftoles. In Flanders and Italy they always preach in ftoles. It is fup- pofed to be a reprefentation of the borders of the long robe worn by the Jewith high-prietts. The ftola of the ancient Romans, &c. was very different from that now in ufe; the former was a kind of robe fitter for women than men, though it was held a robe of honour among all nations. Kings themfelves fometimes ufed it, and fometimes beftowed it as a reward of virtue. STOLE, Groom of the, the eldett lord of his majefty’s bed- chamber, whofe office and honour is to prefent and put on his majeity’s firlt garment or fhirt every morning ; and to order the things in the chamber. Srore, Order of the, an order of knights inftituted by the kings of Aragon; though, as to the particular author or time of the inftitution, we are in the dark. The firlt time we hear of it is under Alphonfus V. who mounted the throne in 1416. Jultiniani takes it to have been inftituted about the year 1332. StoLe, Order of the Golden, a military order at Venice, thus called from a golden ftole, which the knights wore over their left fhoulder, reaching down to the knee, both before and behind, a palm and a half broad. None are raifed to this order but the patricians, or noble Venetians. Juitiniani obferves, that the time of the inftitution of this order is unknown. STOL- Su ee | ST oO STOLHOVEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Baden, not far from the Rhine; 16 miles N.N.E. of Strafburg. N. lat. 48° 45’. E. long. 8° 7'. STOLLEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober- land; 3 miles E. of Liebftadt. STOLMIRZ, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ; 28 miles E. of Lemberg. STOLOWICZE, a town of Ruffian Lithuania; 30 miles S. of Novogrodek. STOLPE, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Erme- land; 4 miles N.E. of Allenftein. —Alfo, a river which rifes in Pomerania, and runs into the fea; 27 miles W. of Dantzic. —Alfo, a town of Anterior Pomerania; 5 miles W. of Anclam. —Alfo, a town of Farther Pomerania, on a river of the fame name, which here begins to be navigable to the Baltic. It contains three churches, and a Lutheran convent for ladies. The trade is confiderable; 80 miles N.E. of Stargard. N. lat. 54° 25'. E. long. 16° 43!. — Alfo, a river of Farther Pomerania, which runs into the Baltic at Stolpemunde. — Alfo, a lake of Brandenburg, in the Mark of Pregnitz; 2 miles E. of Kyritz. — Allo, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark; 6 miles S.E. of New Angermunde. N. lat. 52° 58'. E. long. 14° 14/. STOLPEMUNDE, a town of Farther Pomerania, fituated on the coatt of the Baltic, at the mouth of the river Stolpe; 10 miles N. of Stolpe. N. lat. 54° 32!. E. long. 16°, 33!. STOLPEN, a town of Saxony, in the marggravate of Meiflen, with a citadel. In 1622, this town was burned by the Croats; and in 1765, the fortifications of the citadel were deltroyed by the Pruffians; 33 miles W.N.W. of Zittau. N. lat. 51° 3!. E. long. 14° 5/. STOLTENBERG, a town of Pomerania; 10 miles S.S.W. of Corlin. STOLTZENBURG, a town of Tranfylvania; 6 miles N. of Hermenttadt. STOMACACE, in Medicine, from czoye, the mouth, and xexo:, evil, an erofion of, and {pontaneous hemorrhage from, the gums and internal furface of the cheeks, together with an unufual fcetor of the mouth, is, in fat, a fymptom of fcurvy, or purpura, affeCting that part. The term is fometimes ufed as an appellation of fcurvy. See Scurvy and HaMmMorRHmA. STOMACH, in Anatomy and Phyfiology, (Ventriculus, Stomachus,) the large membranous bag, conftituting the ampleft portion of the alimentary tube; intervening be- tween, and communicating with, the cefophagus and duo- denum ; receiving from the former the food which has un- dergone maftication, digefting it, or converting it into an uniform pulp, and tran{mitting it into the latter; fituated in the upper part of the abdomen, It may be regarded as the commencement of the digeftive apparatus ; for in it the food undergoes the firft change of properties in that feries of changes, which ends in its affimilation to our organs : the cefophagus, which precedes it, ferves merely to convey the aliment froma the mouth; and the a& of mattication is a fimply mechanical procefs, auxiliary, but not effential, to digettion, The {tomach is a conical bag, being large at one end, and gradually decreafing to the other: hence the terms, great or left, and {mall or right extremities (extremitas cefophagea, fuperior, major; cardia; and extremitas py- lorica, inferior, minor; pylorus.) It has two openings: a circular one with fmooth fides, and no thickened or ele- vated ring, which is the termination of the efophagus, and called the fuperior, cardiac, or cefophageal orifice; a Jmaller, alfo circular, furrounded by a thick prominent 2 STO ring, called the inferior or pyloric orifice, through which the digefted aliment is tran{mitted into the {mall intettine. Any perpendicular feétion of the ftomach is circular: the largett circle is oppofite to the termination of the ceefophagus ; from that point the diameter gradually diminifhes to the pylorus, where the ftomach is not larger than the duodenum. The ftomach alfo diminifhes from the eefophagus in the op- pofite dire@ion, or towards the great end, and forms a {mall hemifpherical blind bag (fundus, faccus cecus), pafling about two or three inches to the left of the cefe- phageal orifice. The two apertures, therefore, are dif- ferently circumi{tanced in their relation to the two ex- tremities; the pylorus is aétually at the right extremity, while the cardiac opening is placed two or three inches to the right of the left extremity. The conical tube of the ftomach is incurvated towards its {mall end: two-thirds of the bag, from the great end, are ftraight; but. the re- mainder is bent upwards or backwards, fo that the pylorus is turned towards the cardiac orifice: hence thefe two open- ings are near together on the upper or back afpett, very far apart on the front or lower. The concave line joining them in the former direétion is called the fmall arch or curvature ; the convex line, by which they are united in the latter, the great arch or curvature of the ftomach. The furfaces, included between thefe lines, are called the fuperior or anterior, the inferior or pofterior. For the beft view of the human ftomach, fee plate xi. fig. 1, in the Phil. Tranf. 1807, in illuftration of a paper by fir Everard Home. When the ftomach is full, a vertical fe€tion of it, at any part, as we have already obferved, is circular; when it is empty, its fides, formed of foft membranes, fall together. The organ, in the latter ftate, is quite flat. e fize of the organ depends on the quantity of its contents, fince its fides have the, power of accommodating themfelves to every variation of this kind. When perfectly empty, it is hardly larger than an inteftine, It is difficult to determine its ca- pacity. Soemmerring fays, that in an adult of middle ftature it will hold, when moderately diftended, from five to eleven pints of water. In various unnatural ftates, we find its capacity much augmented. Very frequently we find, after death, the great end more or lefs diftended, and the {mall extremity empty and contraéted: often, too, there is a mufcular conftri€tion about the middle, dividing it im- erfeétly into two compartments. The ttomach is fituated in the epigaftric region, and chiefly in the left portion of that region ; its long axis being nearly tranfverfe, or crofling the axis of the trunk at right angles. The great extremity is placed in the left hypo- chondrium, with the fpleen attached to it behind by means of the omentum, and the diaphragm in contaé with it to- wards the front. It ftretches acrofs the vertebra! column, and ends, by its leffer extremity, in the left hypochondrium. The {mall lobe of the liver covers it above, being interpofed between the ftomach and diaphragm, fo that thefe are in conta&t for a {mall {pace only at the left: the pancreas and colon are in conta&t withit below. .The cefophagus lies on the middle of the fpine; the {mall curvature includes, in its curve, the lobulus Spigelii and the aorta. The enfiform cartilage does not an{wer to the middle of the ftomach, but rather to its right portion: the pylorus correfponds nearly to the fundus of the gall-bladder, or to the notch between the two lobes of the liver. ‘The openings of the ftomach are placed farther back than the ftomach itfelf; and this is particularly the cafe with the ccfophageal: the latter is alfo higher in the body, by about two inches, than the pyloric, From the {mall arch, which is turned towards the ipints ite ma STOMACH. fmall omentum departs to the liver: the convexity of the great arch approaches to the front of the abdomen, and the great omentum defcends from it in its whole length. The ftomach, therefore, occupies the fpace included be- tween the falfe ribs, extending acrofs the open interval between thofe of the right and left fide: it does not ufually defcend lower than the margin of the cheft, except when very full. The relative pofition of the ftomach is fubje& to change from many atehess particularly from its various conditions of fulnefs and emptinefs. Its pofition in the dead fubject may be called perpendicular: the bowels fink down to the pelvis, the fupport of the abdominal mufcles is loft, and the parts naturally belonging to the epigaltric region defcend into the umbilical. The efophagus defcends into the f{to- mach, and the pylorus afcends: the great arch is turned downwards, the imall upwards: the upper furface is now anterior, and in contaé& with the front of the abdomen; the other furface is pofterior; the pofition of the f{pleen, follow- ing that of the ttomach, is alfo perpendicular, with the two extremities turned upwards and downwards. The relations of the organ are different in the living fubje@ ; the refiltance of the bowels, and the fupport of the abdominal mufcles, carry the ftomach higher; the anterior furface is at the fame time rather turned upwards, and the pofterior down- wards; the great arch is forwards, the {mall backwards ; and the efophagus entering the organ, is rather inclined forwards. When the cavity is diftended, ail thefe circum- itances are more ftrongly marked; the anterior furface is now turned completely upwards, the pofterior downwards ; the great arch ftands forwards again{t the abdominal parietes, the inferior is turned direétly backwards. When the tto- mach is inflated, it rifes upwards to the diaphragm, rather than extends downwards. The cefophagus clofe to the ftomach is now horizontal; the pylorus, which afcended, now goes back tranfverfely, and confequen lefcends in the fupine pofture: the ftomach may be fo diftended, that the pylorus will rather defcend. The pyloric end is brought up againit the gall-bladder. In this ftate of things, the liver is rather compreffed between the ftomach and dia- phragm. The fpleen undergoes a correfponding change: its ends are now anterior and pofterior, inftead of fuperior and inferior. : The motions of the diaphragm, and changes of fituation in other neighbouring organs, neceflarily affect the pofition of the ftomach. When the diaphragm defcends in infpira- tion, the ftomach is pufhed down into the umbilical region ; and this change is permanent, when any permanent caufe in the thorax protrudes this mufcle towards the cheft ; as col- le&tions of pus or water, enlargement of the heart, &c. When the whole of the great omentum is protruded ina hernia, the ftomach is drawn down by it more or lefs: the pylorus, from fuch a caufe, has been feen at the abdominal ring. The ftomach has pafled through fiffures of the dia- phragm into the cheft. * The organ is held in its fituation by various conneétions. The cefophagus, with which it is continuous, unites it to the fiffure of the diaphragm, being furrounded here by a loofe cellular tifflue. The continuity of the pylorus with the duodenum confines it in a fimilar way on the oppofite fide. By the little omentum its {mall curvature is conne¢ted to the under furface of the liver; by the great omentum, the great arch is united to the fpleen and colon. (See Erirtoon.) Further, two folds of peritoneum are ob- ferved, under the name of ligaments; one conneéting the termination of the cfophagus to the diaphragm (liga- mentum phrenico-gaftricum), the other pafling between the diaphragm and the fpleen and fundus of the ftomach ({plé= nico-gattricum). Thus the two ends of the ftomach are connected backwards, and form two fixed points, between which the organ rifes and finks, according as it is full or empty ; the principal effect taking place at the great curvas ture, or the fituation mott diftant from thefe fixed points. Struure of the Stomach.—It confilts, like the reft of the alimentary canal, of three coats; a ferous, a mufcular, and a villous; which cannot be better demonftrated than on the cut furface of a fimple incifion. There is nothing peculiar in the ftruéture and difpofition of the former. It is thin, quite tranfparent, clofe in its texture, firmly conneéted to the mufcular coat; and it gives the whole exterior of the {tomach a polifhed furface. At the two arches, the ferous coat does not adhere fo intimately to the mufcular: here the omenta are conneéted to the ftomach; and between their two layers the blood-veflels and nerves of the organ run, furrounded by a copious cellular tiflue. In this fituation, confequently, the ftomach is not covered by ferous mem- brane. For fome diltance from the curvature, on each fide, the peritoneal coat can be eafily feparated by difle@tion. When the ftomach is diftended, it rifes in thefe fituations into the intervals of the two omental layers, which are then applied on its furface; while, in the empty ftate, they are in conta& with each other. The mufcular covering is the thickeft portion of the or- gan, enabling it to execute the motions which are neceflary in the performance of its funétions. It confifts of a thin, nearly uniform layer of fibres, {pread out into one con- tinuous fheet like a membrane; and it will, of courfe, ap- pear thicker or thinner, according as the ftomach is con- tracted or expanded. Independently of this circumftance, it feems to be naturally thicker in the pyloric than in the cardiac portion of the ftomach. The colour of the fibres is pale, not red, like thofe of the voluntary mufcles. Two orders of fibres are eafily diftinguifhed, longitudinal and circular. The former are exterior, and much the feweft in number: they confift of the longitudinal fibres of the cefo- phagus, expanded in a radiated form in all direGtions from the end of that canal over the ftomach. The molt con- fiderable of them run along the fmall arch as far as the pylorus, and may then be traced into the duodenum. Others go towards the great cul-de-fac ; and fome few are feattered over the two furfaces. Thefe longitudinal fibres decuffate the circular ones obliquely at different angles, and mix with them, ending amongit them. The circular fibres are much more numerous, and form a continuous covering over the whole ftomach. They are rather thin at the great cul-de-fac, but they increafe in thicknefs towards the op- pofite end. ‘They form numerous rings parallel to each other, conneéted together, and extending from one ex- tremity to the other. The individual fibres do not furround the ftomach themfelves ; but one ends, and another begins ; and they partly turn afide to mix with other fafciculi. Thefe circular fibres are continuous with thofe of the efo- phagus on one fide, and with thofe of the duodenum on the other. At the pylorus they are colleéted into a thick ring, which forms the conftriétion of the canal at that part. The mucous membrane, forming the internal furface, is the moft important part of the ftomach. It does not pof- fefs the fame power of accommodation to various capacities, as we find in the ferous and mufcular coats: hence, although it is {mooth when the ftomach is diftended, it is collected all over the organ into numerous prominent folds, or ruge, when the cavity is contra¢ted. The mucous coat is con- neéted to the mufcular by a very copious and loofe cellular tifflue, fo that it can eafily accommodate itfclf to the con. tractiong STOMACH. tractions of the latter. Thefe rug, which we fee even in a half-filled ftomach, confift merely of the mucous mem- brane; the ferous and mufcular have nothing to do with them. When the cavity is very empty, the ruge lie fo clofe that they touch each other laterally; if the coats of fuch a ftomach are diftended in any way, all thefe pro- minences difappear. The principal fibres of the ftomach being circular, and their contraction confequently taking place in the tranfverfe diretion, the folds produced by this caufe are longitudinal, or follow the long axis of the fto- mach: thefe, which are the principal, are joined by {maller lateral folds. The cellular fub{tance on the external furface of this membrane is the nervous coat of Haller, and other anatomilts. It is foft, copious, whitifh in its colour, and raifed by inflation into the appearance of a downy or cottony texture. The blood-veflels of the organ ramify in this, be- fore they enter the mucous furface. Befides the great folds of the mucous membrane, we ob- ferve feveral lefs confiderable ones, compofing a net-work with larger or fmaller intervals : thefe are all deftroyed by extenfion. The mucous membrane then appears as a {mooth furface, but foft and rather pulpy: it is the kind of furface called villous, which is the name ufually given to the mem- brane, although it does not poflefs the fine pointed pro- ceffes which conttitute the villi of the {mall inteftines. “The mucous membrane, in its moft recent ftate, has a tint formed by the mixture of a very light red and a ftraw colour. Its true character is not eafily feen, as the furface is generally covered by a clofely adhering tenacious mucous layer. Soon after death, the tranfudation of the blood through the blood.veflels gives a different colour to the mucous mem- brane. Often, even in the healthieft fubjeéts, there is con- fiderable vafcularity obfervable in the mucous furface of the fkomach ; and more. particularly when death has been ac- companied by circumitances, which might impede the re- turn of the venous blood. This appearance (which does not indicate any difeafe of the organ) has been often deemed the refult of inflammation. (See a paper by Dr. Yelloly, in the fourth volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Tranfac- tions.) The capillary fyitem exifts in great abundance in the mucous membrane of the {tomach; fo that it becomes of an uniform red, when the blood-veflels are injected with fize and vermilion. It has been a queftion, whether the fluids fecreted from this furface are exhaled from its capillaries immediately, or are fecreted in a diitin& apparatus of mucous glands. The latter are not eafily feen, but they have been defcribed by feveral anatomifts. After defcribing them in various ani- mals, Haller fays, “ they are not equally evident in man: I have generally been able to obferve pores, which are vifible all over the furface, and more numerous about the pylorus ; from thefe, mucous fluid can be exprefled. Others defcribe excretory ducts, and orifices, and fluids exprefled from them. Once or twice I have feen the glands them- felves, of the nature of crypts, fimple, round, membranous, hollow, fituated in the cellular membrane under the mucous coat, and perforating the latter by their fhort duéts.” (Elem. Phyfiol. tom. vi. p. 139.) Soemmerring fpeaks of the orifices of mucous glands as being vifible about the pylorus; but not always very-conf{picuous. (De Corp. Hum. Fabric. tom. vi. p. 223.) Liaftly, they are delineated in confider- able number, along the {mall curvature of the ftomach, in the figure already referred to, publifhed by fir E. Home, The mucous membrane of the ftomach is continuous with that of the efophagus on one fide, and with that of the duodenum on the other ; but differs clearly in its ttru@ure from both. The lining of the cefophagus has nothing villous in its ftru€ture, which is compaét, fmooth, and re- markably white: it is produced into the efophageal orifice of the {tomach, round which it terminates in a feftooned border. See fir E. Home’s plate. The communication between the ftomach and duodenum is formed by the pylorus (janitor, {phinéter), a contraéted orifice {urrounded by a thick ring. The ferous membrane and the mucous are the fame in the pylorus as elfewhere : the ring is formed by a thicknefs of circular mufcular fibres. Soemmerring {peaks of the pyloric ring being compofed “e peculiar’ glandulofa pzne fubitantia:’? but this does not accord with our own obferyation. The folds of the mucous membrane pafs through the pylorus into the duo- denum ; confequently the orifice is plaited internally. If the {tomach and duodenum be laid open after death, with- out diltending the parts, the pyloric orifice will be found about equal in diameter to a goofe-quill, and its circum- ference plaited. The finger can, however, be eafily forced through it, enlarging the opening, ftretching the mufcular ring, 2nd deftroying the folds. It then appears a fimple circular opening, with a thick prominent edge. If the {mall end of the ftomach and the neighbouring portion of the duodenum be inflated, the pyloric conltriGion is very vifible externally : if {uch a preparation be dried, it appears as if a ftring had been tied round, and on cutting the parte open, a tranfverfe produétion is feen, perforated in its middle by a circular aperture. Some unimportant varieties of figure have been obferved in this opening: viz. it has been feen oval, or oblong, &c. inftead of circular. The office of the pylorus, as its name implies (from zuAx, @ gate, and xpo:, « keeper), is to protect the entrance of the inteftine, and prevent the paflage of the alimentary matter, until it fhall have fufficiently undergone the ation of the ftomach. Jts mufcular ilruéture enables it to accomplifh this effe€tually ; for it-can contraét fo as completely to fhut the opening, in which ftate it is fometimes found after death; at the fame time it has the power of relaxing, and thus allowing the alimentary pulp to pafs. This contrac- tion and relaxation are probably regulated by the exiftence of fome relations between digefted and undigetted fubftances, and the peculiar fenfibility of the organ: there is no mecha- nical explanation of the phenomenon, which is quite a vital procefs. The refiltance of this mufcular ring is different in the cafe of folids and fluids; it allows the latter to enter the inteftinal canal eafily, as we find from the rapidity with which they gain admiffion into the circulating fyftem ; and alfo from the fhort time after drinking, in which they flow out from the inteftine, when an unnatural external opening from its canal gives us the opportunity of obfervation. Although the pylorus is commonly found after death of the dimenfions already fpecified, we cannot doubt that it is much larger during the paflage of the chyme; indeed we occa- fionally find folid fubftances of confiderable dimenfions pafl- ing this part. This is principally the cafe with pieces of coin, {wallowed either by accident or defign. Vaillant, a celebrated French medalliit, {wallowed twenty valuable gold medals, when purfued by corfairs: the procefles of nature reftored him the treafure in a fhort time ; and he fold one of them, by anticipation, before it had made its appearance. A boy is mentioned by Habicot, in his ‘* Queftion Chirur- gicale fur la Bronchotomie,” who fwallowed feveral piftoles, which were recovered in the fame way. Half-crowns, and we believe alfo crown-pieces of this country, have travelled fafely through the alimentary canal, The arteries of the ftomach are numerous, and fome of them large: they are all branches of the czliac, or its pri- mary ramifications: viz. coronaria ventriculi, pylorica, gaftre~ STOMACH. galtro-epiploica dextra and finiftra, arterie breves. The trunks of thefe veflels lie principally on the curvatures of the ftomach, furrounded by a loofe cellular tiffue, and at a {mall diftance from the organ in its empty ftate: their branches communicate moft freely with each other in all direGtions, both by large and fmaller innumerable anatto- mofes : they are tortuous, and thus can accommodate them- felves to the full and empty ftate of the cavity. They penetrate the mufcular coat, without producing very con- fiderable branches to be diftributed on it, giving {till fewer and {maller to the ferous, and form an extenfive minute net- work in the copious cellular texture of the mucous coat, from which fuch an abundance of branches enter the mucous furface, as to occafion it to aflume, all over, the colour of any fluid injeéted into the arteries of the ftomach. See ARTERY. . : The veins accompany the arteries, larger in fize, and forming larger communications: they are without valves, as is the cafe with the whole fyftem of the vena portarum ; and they terminate by feveral {mall trunks, either in the fplenic vein, or in the trunk of the vena portarum. See VEIN. The nerves of the ftomach are from the eighth pair, of which the two cords penetrate the diaphragm with the cefo- hagus, and divide into numerous branches, which form an intricate plexus along the {mall curvature, clofely adher- ing to the arteries, of which they follow the ramifications. Several branches come to this plexus from the czliac gan- glia, and there are alfo communications with the hepatic plexus. See NERVE. . The abforbing veffels of the ftomach are much fmaller than thofe of the {mall inteltines, and have tranfparent con- tents, inftead of the opaque milky fluid feen in the latter. Like them, however, they may be divided into fuperficial and deepfeated. From both furfaces of the ttomach they partly go to the glands of the {maller arch, {cattered in the omentum, and partly join the abforbents and glands of the fpleen. They unite and form a plexus with the lymphatics of the liver and leffer omentum, pafs behind the pancreas, and uniting with thofe of the fpleen and inteftines, end in the thoracic du€&t. Others accompany the blood-veffels on the at arch, proceeding to glands in the omentum, and hav- ing formed various plexufes, proceed above and behind the pancreas, to glands about the czliac and fuperior mefenteric arteries, terminating in the thoracic dud. i Fun@ions of the Stomach.—The matticated aliment, and the drink, are received into this bag, brought into contaé& with its mucous membrane, expofed to the aétion of the fluids poured out by the latter, and varioufly moved by its mufcular fibres. We have to confider, therefore, the phe- nomena exhibited both by the mufcular and the mucous parts of its ftru€ture. : The mucous furface of the ftomach, as the experience of every individual muft have inftruéted him, poffefles the wer of perceiving warmth and cold. But it is not fen- fible to the properties of the fub{tances ufually received into it, as their weight, their odour, tafte, &c. their tempera- ture within certain limits, their ftate of folidity and fluidity, &c. &c. So far as the ftomach is concerned, we could not diftinguifh fugar from jalap, or wine from medicine. Spiri- tuous and fpicy fubitances are, however, perceptible by a kind of warmth which they excite. The ftomach is the feat, on the other hand, of feelings peculiar to itfelf, re- fulting from relations between various fubltances and dif- ferent ftates of the body, and its organifation and peculiar fenfibility. Hunger and thirft, fatiety, {queamithnefs, waufea, &c. are examples of thefe. Vow XXXIV. Different chemical and vegetable fubftances produce {pecific effe&ts on the ftomach, which are not in propor- tion to any of their fenfible qualities: various fub{tances, infipid or nearly fo, difturb it moft vehemently, while others of powerful tafte and acrid nature, as the {trongeft condi- ments, which heat the whole frame, do not affe& it. The diftilled water of the laurocerafus, emetic tartar, and feveral others, are of the former kind, although they hardly excite pain in the conjunGtiva of the eye. Cinnamon, pepper, and muftard, of which the flighteft conta& with the eye would produce excruciating agony, are not felt in the {tomach. Great variety is obferved, in different animals, in the effects of various fubftances, both chemical and vegetable, on the ftomach. Conium maculatum, hyofcyamus, euphor- bium, and hellebore root, are poifons to man ; while conium affords wholefome food to the cow and hare, hyofcyamus to the pig, euphorbium to the goat, and hellebore to the quail. A quantity of opium or arfenic, that would deftroy a man, may be taken with impunity by a dog, which, on the contrary, is much more affeGted than man by a given dofe of jalap or nux vomica. Bitter almonds, which we eat with impunity, are poifonous to dogs and various birds : the mountain parfley is fatal to parrots. Like other parts, the ftomach becomes accuftomed to ftimuli, and can bear larger and larger quantities of opium, of aromatic, and {pirituous fubftances. Although, in its natural ftate, the {tomach poffeffes but flight animal fenfibility, it exhibits the moft acute feeling under difeafe. Cramp of the ftomach, and inflammation of the organ, are as painful as any affections of any parts of the body. The moft important circumftance in the phyfiology of the ftomach, is the fecretion performed by its mucous mem- brane. The nature of this, and the changes it produces in the food, are confidered in the article Digestion. It is an interefting fubje&t of inquiry, how far the fecre- tions of the ttomach, and confequently the procefs of digef- tion, are influenced by the brain, which is the immediate fource of its nerves. It is not eafy to determine the point, becaufe the eighth pair fupplies the lungs as well as the ftomach; confequently the divifion of thefe nerves pro- duces effeéts on the procefs of refpiration, which are foon fatal. On the other hand, if they are divided on the ofo- phagus in the abdomen, the injury is too great for the ani- mal to furvive in fuch a way as to enable us to judge of its digeftive powers. ‘The experiments hitherto made tend to fhew, that the brain influences the itomach through the eighth pair. Le Gallois divided one nerve in a Guinea pig of eighteen months: the animal breathed tolerably well, and continued to eat; but the belly increafed proportionally in fize. It died four days and five hours after the opera- tion: the {tomach occupied nearly the whole abdomen, dif- tended with food very little altered from the ftate in which it had been fwallowed. Expériences far le Principe de la Vie, p. 214. Mr. Brodie found, that the mucous and watery fecre- tions, which diftend the ftomach and inteftines in animals poifoned by arfenic, do not take place if the nerves of the eighth pair be previoufly tied, either in the neck, or in the cardia. Phil. Tranf. 1814, p. 102. It is well known that emetic tartar, injeéted into the veins, produces vomiting as certainly, as when introduced into the ftomach ; it has the fame operation when brought in con- ta&t with any mucous or ferous furface, or with a wound. Mr. Magendie found that twelve or eighteen grains injected into a vein will kill a dog in half an hour. But if the Ti nerves STOMACH. nerves of the eighth pair be immediately divided, death does not take place till three or four hours after the injection. This phyfiologilt felected three animals of the fame age and weight, and injected into the veins of each twelve grains of emetic tartar. He divided one nerve in one dog; both trunks in another ; and neither in the third. The latter died firft ; then the firft: and the animal in whom both nerves were divided, lived the longeft. De l’ Influence del’ Emétique fur ? Homme et les Animaux, 8vo. Paris, 1814. The mutcular fibres of the ftomach contraét its cavity, and thus propel its contents, when they have been fufficiently ated on by the gaftric fluid. Being longitudinal and cir- cular, they can diminifh the tube both in its length and breadth. ‘The fibres contraé& and relax in various fituations fucceflively, and thus produce an appearance fimilar to that of the contractions and relaxations of the inteftines; this is called the perittaltic motion of the ftomach. Thefe motions are not only vifible when the organ is irritated in a living animal, but they may be feen on opening the abdomen of thofe recently flaughtered. The power of contra¢tion con- tinues for fome time after apparent death, on the application of ftimuli; and it may even be excited in a portion of the ftomach cut out from the rett. This contra¢tion is completely foreign to the will: it takes place without our confcioufnefs, and feems to refult from the prefence of the digefted aliment. If difeafe of the py- jorus, or any other caufe, prevent the paflage of the food into the inteftine, its prefence irritates the {tomach, and provokes its rejection by vomiting. While the ttomach is empty, it remains at reft : when the gaftric fecretions have aéted on the food, we have already faid that the mufcular contraction of the organ expels the chyme through the pylorus. What is the ftate of the fto- mach, in refpect to its mufcular part, while digettion is going on? Js the organ at reft? or is there a perittaltic motion, by which its contents are agitated, expofed fucceflively to the mucous furface, and more intimately mixed with the gaitric fecretions? Phyfiologifts in general feem to admit the latter opinion, but we believe without any very dire& proofs ; which, indeed, it is not eafy to obtain, as the divifion of the abdominal mufcles, and the expofure of the ftomach, caufe an univerfal difturbance, inftead of unveiling to us the natural {tate and actions of the animal organs. “ It mutt be allowed,”? fays Haller, « that for fome time the action of the flomach does not dire& the food to any certain point, but that the contents are driven to and fro by a peri- {taltic and antiperiftaltic motion, which latter has been by fome writers improperly difallowed. So long as both its orifices are fhut, either the ftomach mutt reft, or the food muft be driven backwards and forwards. ‘This agitation la{ts while the cefophagus is clofed, and the pylorus remains contracted ; it ceafes, when either the former or the latter gives way to the food.’? Elem. Phyfiol. lib. xix. feét. 4. § 10. The ftomach may contra& in fuch a manner as to give its contents a direction contrary to their natural paflage down- wards ; this is called the antiperiftaltic motion. In this way air is expelled from the ftomach in erudtation, and an acrid liquor rifes into the throat after feeding on indigeftible mat- ters, or in the affe€tion of heartburn. In indigeition, the breath is often tainted in this way by ftomachic impurities. Vomiting was confidered alfo a refult of this antiperi- ftaltic contraétion of the fibres of the ftomach. Experi- ments on living animals, however, made this latter point ‘doubtful. Bayle put his finger into the ftomach of a dog, after giving him an emetic, and {carcely found the organ move ; he obferved further, that vomiting was ftopped by It opening the abdomen, and renewed when the wound was fewed up. Chirac found that the ftomach moved very feebly, if at all, under the aétion of an emetic; fo that the violent fymptoms of vomiting could not be explained from this caufe. Other experimenters met with fimilar refults, finding that the irritation of the flomach did not produce vomiting ; that very little antiperiltaltic motion of the fto- mach took place, or came on late in the procefs. Such was the refult’ of Haller’s inveftigations. The aétion of the re{piratory powers was pointed out by Wepfer as the ex- planation of the phenomena of vomiting: he obferved it in different animals, and has exprefsly referred to the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles as the caufe of thig action, the fto- mach being nearly inert. The refearches and obfervations of other inquirers led them to the fame refult. ** If,”” fays Haller, « you obferve a man who is fick, you will foon fee that the ftomach and refpiratory mufcles are both concerned. The original caufe is in the ftomach: the naufea, anxiety, feeling of depreflion approaching to fainting, and taking away all power of exertion, with pale face, {mall and weak pulfe, have their feat in the ttomach, and in the nerves af- _ fected by fympathy with the ftomach. The organs of re- fpiration come into aétion, and a violent effort or {training takes place, marked by the moft unequivocal figns; a deep infpiration, congeftion of blood in the head, and pain, red- nefs of the face, heat of the forehead, not unfrequently aGtual rupture of veflels, and copious fweat as from the greatett exertion. The effects of vomiting are too violent to be attributed to the ftomach: among them we may men- tion rupture of the cefophagus, protrufion of the ftomach through the diaphragm into the cheft.”? (Elem. Phyfiol. lib. xix. feet. 4. § 14.) To the fame effeét, Soemmerring calls vomiting ‘¢ motus ventriculi periltalticus inverfus, cujus vi, adjuvante eam vehementiflima diaphragmatis et mufculorum abdominis a€tione, contenta in ventriculo per cefophagum atque os convulfivo impetu ejiciuntur.”” De Corp. Hum. Fab. t. vi. p. 269. The examination of this fubje& has lately been refumed in France, and an interefting feries of experiments, prefented to the National Inttitute, has been publifhed by their author, Mr. Magendie, in order to prove that the ftomach is alto- gether inert in the a& of vomiting. When one or two fingers were introduced through an opening in the abdominal parietes, it was found that the ftomach did not aét in vomit- ing ; but that the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles com- prefled it fo as to expel its contents. At each retching, the action of the refpiratory mufcles could be felt, while the ftomach was emptied without any diminution of volume, atmofpheric air fupplying the place of its rejeéted contents. When the incifion was enlarged, fo that the ftomach could be brought out through it, vomiting was at end. The retch- ings and efforts at vomiting could be renewed by placing the hands fo as to comprefs the ttomach. When brought out of the abdomen, and not comprefled, it remained quiet, although emetic tartar was injeéted into the veins. The abdominal mufcles being removed, vomiting was itill produced by the aGtion of the diaphragm comprefling the ftomach againft the linea alba. If the phrenic nerves were divided fo as to render the diaphragm motionlefs, vomiting could no longer be excited. Laftly, having tied the arteries of the {tomach, Mr. Magendie removed it, fubftituting in its place a pig’s bladder, containing a coloured fluid, which he conneéted to the cefophagus by means of a cannula, then fewed up the ab- domen, and injected emetic tartar into the veins. In a few minutes naufea was produced, and efforts at vomiting, and the animal aCtually vomited the contents of the bladder. On opening the abdomen again, it was found, that, on Eee ~ effort STOMACH. effort to vomit, air pailed into the bladder as if it had been the itomach itfelf. The author concludes from thefle fa&s, that emetic tartar injeted into the veins does not act on the ftomach, as is generally believed ; but determines a convul- five aGtion of the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles. Me- moire fur le Vomiflement, 8vo. 1813 ; or Journal de Cor- vifart, tom. xxvili. p. 184. Another inquirer has taken up the fame inveftigation, and has arrived, by experimental inquiry, at conclufions directly contrary to the preceding. After opening the abdomen, and removing the abdominal mufcles, he ttrangulated a por- tion of inteitine, and thus produced vomiting. When he had divided the phrenic nerves, and con{trited the inteitine through a {mall opening in the abdominal parietes, vomiting ftill took place. It even took place whenever any thing was introduced into the ftomach, after cutting the phrenic nerves, dividing the abdominal mufcles, and taking away a portion of the diaphragm, as far as the tendinous centre: the inteftine was ftrangulated, as in the preceding experiments. He produced vomiting by injeGling tartar emetic into the veins, after the abdominal mufcles and diaphragm had been removed ; {fo that the effect could not arife from any action of the emetic on thofe mufcles, as is aflerted by Magendie. Thefe and other experiments in the fame eflay reftore the ftomach to the full enjoyment of its former rights, from which it feemed on the eve of being degraded, and go to prove, that the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles are alto- gether inert in the a&t of vomiting. Mem. ftir le Vomifle- ment, par M. Maingault. 8vo. 1813 ; or in Corvifart’s Jour- nal, tom. xxviii. p. 193. As the two experimentalifts, whofe refearches we have jutt detailed, fo direétly contradi& each other, we fuppofe that the point cannot be fettled without a frefh flaughter of dogs, and a renewal of thefe truly barbarous and difgulting experiments. Our own opinion inclines to the fide of Mr. Magendie, from obferving the phenomena of vomiting both in ourfelves and others ; and the mufcular power of the fto- mach, apparently calculated for the mere purpofe of expel- ling the food through the pylorus, feems to us quite inade- quate to account for the vehement and forcible rejection of the ftomachic contents in vomiting. Yet we cannot but entertain doubts about the (at firtt fight certainly) paradoxical ftatement, of vomiting being excited when the flomach had been removed. The caufes that excite vomiting are numerous and various. Overloading the organ, and particularly with unufual mix- tures of food and drink : the introduétion of various animal, vegetable, or mineral fubflances called emetics ; warm water, or atmofpheric air ; the injection of emetics into the veins, or the application of them, at leaft of arfenic, to a wounded furface ; the dragging of the omentum in a hernia, the irri- tation of a broken rib preffing on it, ob{truction in the courfe of the alimentary canal, &c. ; inflammation of the itomach, or difeafe of the pylorus; injuries of the head ; calculi pafling the ureters; pregnancy ; particular motions of the body, as fwinging, riding backwards in a carriage, turning round : to this head we may alfo refer fea-ficknefs ; certain impref- fions on the organs of fenfe, as touching or feeing a dilguiting obje&, difagreeable {mells or taftes, tickling the fauces, &e. &e. - The caufes of vomiting now enumerated are fo different from each other, that we cannot expect to find out any cir- cumftance in which they will all agree. Their only common charater is the circumitance of their aGtion on this vifcus : they irritate it, and vomiting feems to be the common re- fult of fuch irritation. Is the vomiting produced by an impreflion terminating in the ftomach itfelf ; or does it take place through the medium of the nerves? There are not, we believe, fufficient faéts to determine this point. As the digefted aliment fupplies the blood, which affords to all parts of the frame the materials of nutrition, growth and action, the right performance of digeftion is a matter of the higheft importance to the whole body : hence all parte fympathize with the ftomach, which, in its turn, is affeted by the various ftates of all other organs. When it is healthy and vigorous, we have a general feeling of ftrength and capacity for exertion. On the contrary, every facult of body and mind feems to languifh, when the {tomach fails, as in dyfpepfia and naufea. Acute difeafes of this vital organ teftify its importance by the alarming fympathetic diiturbance of the whole economy. A violent blow on it is fometimes immediately fatal. As digeftion is ill or well performed, we are more or lefs fenfible to external heat and cold, to the qualities of food and drink ; the fenfes are more. or lefs acute, and the paffions of the mind affeét us more or lefs eafily. The fame morbific caufes produce different effects according to the condition of the digeftive funétion : when it is unhealthily executed, wounds, even in the moft diftant parts of the body, are much more dangerous ; and their ftate will be immediately changed, as foon as healthy digettion returns. The exiftence of impurities in the fto- mach, as indicated by a foul tongue, tainted breath, flatu- lence, &c. during any great fuppurations, is not unfre- quently attended with delirium and convulfions. In a word, there is hardly a difeafe, which is not either produced or aggravated by diforder of the ftomach, indigeftion as it is called. The fa& is fo obvious, even to common obfervation, that the general debilitation and oppreffion pf the frame from a loaded ttomach have been defcribed by poets. At fimul affis Mifcueris elixa, fimul conchylia turdis ; Dulcia fe in bilem vertent, ftomachoque tumultum Lenta feret pituita. Vides, ut pallidus omnis Cena defurgat dubia? Quin corpus onuftum Hefternis vitiis, animam quoque pregravat una, Atque affigit humo divine particulam aure. No part is more quickly or remarkably influenced than the ftomach, in all important general affections of the frame; and the {tate of this organ affords an important indication in the attack, progrefs, and decline of the diforder. Sicknefs is an early fymptom in mott fevers: the appetite is entirely deflroyed; its return and increafe are the furett criteria of abated difeafe and convalefcence. Hardly can any part be difordered, as the eye, nofe, &c. or any internal organ, or a joint, without fympathy of the ftomach. The fympathy between the head and the ftomach is feen in the effeéts of various poifons, which, when introduced into the latter, quickly put an end to fenfation and voluntary motion (fee Porson): in the phenomena of fick head-ache, as it is popularly and properly called (fee CepHALALGIA) : in the ttrabifmus, dilated pupil, itching of the nofe, head- ache, palenefs, delirium and even convulfions produced by worms in the ftomach: inthe palfy and apoplexy produced by a full meal : in the f{queamifhnefs and even ficknefs caufed by feeing or thinking of a difgufting object, &c. &c. Numerous phenomena evince the influence of the ftomach upon the heart: viz. the hurried circulation from eating or drinking ftrong or warm fub{tances ; the intermittent pulfe, palpitation of the heart, &c. caufed in fome individuals by particular articles of food. We fee the heart influencing the ftomach, when ficknefs attends fyncope. The cough Egi2 arifing STOMACH. arifing from a loaded {tomach, and even called the ftomach cough, or from a wound of the ftomach, and the effects or emetics in diftrefs of breathing, together with analogous occurrences, exemplify the mutual influence of the ftomach and lungs. In hiccough, the diaphragm is influenced by the ftomach, ficknefs attends inflammation of the kidney, and the paflage of calculi through the ureters. How powerfully the uterus a¢ts on the {tomach, is feen in the naufea, ficknefs, heartburn, and depraved appetite attending pregnancy. The ftate of the {kin in dyf{pepfia and other {tomachic affeétions, and the numerous cutaneous dileafes, either caufed or aggravated by difturbed digettion, clearly thew us the great mutual influence of thefe parts. Refpeéting the circumftances which attend the introduc- tion of poifons into the ftomach, and the manner in which they prove fatal, we refer the reader to the article Poison. _ Sromacn, Difeafes of the. The principal difeafes to which the ftomach 1s liable, are, infammation; the various modifications of dy/pepfia, or indigettion ; and fomé chronic changes of its ftru&ture, which are not readily influenced by phyfical remedies. The two former clafles of thefe maladies have been treated of at confiderable length under their ref{pe@tive heads, to which we refer the reader. The acute inflammation of the ftomach is defcribed under its nofological term Gastritis: and the varieties of [Np1GEs- TION are detailed under that head; and more particular ex- planations of certain modifications or fymptoms of it, under the heads Carpratcia, Hmatemesis, GAsTRODYNIA, Nausea, Pyrosis, &c. It remains in this place only to notice thofe chronic difeafes of ftru€ture in the ftomach, which could not be included under thefe heads, and which are not capable of being much relieved by art. The nature of thefe is chiefly afcertained by an examination of the organ after death. Both the apertures of the ftomach are liable to be con- tracted, or to be the feat of /ri@ure, as it is technically called, under which confiderable fuffering is produced. A Siridure of the cardia, or upper aperture of the ftomach, may be diftinguifhed, according to Dr. Pemberton, from all other difeafes of that organ, or of the neighbouring parts, by the production of pain on any attempt to fwallow folid food. This pain has fomething peculiar in its nature, and is defcribed by the patient as very different from what is generally underftood by the word pain. * It is a fort of tenfive, circumf{cribed fenfation about the pit of the fto- mach, ftriking through to the back, and producing a feeling of incipient fuffocation. This continues till the food is rejected, which is done by an effort very unlike vomiting. Tt feems to approach nearer to that effort which occafions hiccough. After this rejection of the food, the patient obtains relief. In confequence of the inability to pafs a fufficient quantity of nourifhment through the contraéted paflage into the ftomach, the body becomes very much emaciated, often to fuch a degree, that a tumour furrounding the cardia may be difcovered by a careful inveftigation in the region of the ftomach. A more common fituation of ftriGture is in the lower aperture of the {tomach, leading into the inteftines, which is called the pylorus: this, however, fortunately, is alfo a rare difeafe. Dr. Baillie mentions one cafe, which fell under his obfervation, in which the contraétion was fo great as hardly to admit a common goofe-quill to pafs from the ftomach into the duodenum, and it had prevented a number of plum- {tones from pafling, which were therefore detained in the ttomach: and he fuppofes that the pallage may in fome cafes be entirely fhut up. This ftrifture occurring in the pylorus may be diftinguifhed from ftrigture of the cardia, by 3 the food readily pafling into the ftomach without exciting pain; and when it is thrown up it is by vomiting, and not by the peculiar effort before mentioned, when {peaking of ftricture of the cardia. After the ftri€ture of the pylorus has continued fome time, the body generally becomes much emaciated, as but little nourifhment can pafs into the in- teflines to be taken up by the laéteals, and the tumour, as in the former cafe, canthen be difcovered by examination of the abdomen. Pemberton on Dif. of Abdom. Vifcera, chap. vii. Ulcers of the ttomach occafionally occur, and have been defcribed by Dr. Baillie as fometimes refembling common ulcers in any other part of the body, but frequently having a peculiar appearance. Many of them are fearcely fur- rounded by any inflammation, nor have they irregular eroded edges, {uch as ulcers have generally, nor are they attended with any particular difeafed alteration in the ftru€ture of the ftomach furrounding them. They appear very much as if, fome little time before, a part had been cut out from the ftomach with a knife, and the edges had healed, fo as to pre- fent an uniform fmooth boundary round the excavation which had been made. Thefe ulcers fometimes deftroy only a portion of the inner coat of the ftomach at fome one part; but occafionally they deftroy a portion of all the coats, forming a hole in the ftomach. It is probable that thefe ulcers of the ftomach are often flow in their progrefs. They are attended with pain, or an uneafy feeling in the organ, and what is {wallowed is often rejeGted by vomiting. This ftate of diforder often continues for a confiderable length of time, and is little relieved by medicine, which ma ferve as fome ground of diftin@ion between this difeafe and a temporary deranged aétion of the ftomach. Baillie’s Morbid Anatomy, chap. vii. Schirrus and cancer of the ftomach are not uncommon affeGtions at an advanced period of life. They appear to be more frequent in men than in women, which Dr. Baillie f{uppofes may arife from the greater intemperance of the one fex than of the other. He admits, however, that thefe dif- eafes are not entirely produced by intemperance, but only where intemperance concurs with a ftrong predifpofition to them. It is furprifing to find the very extenfive mifchief which the ftru€ture of the ftomach has in fome initances undergone without the conftitution being fenfibly affected by it, provided the mifchief is fo fituated as not to interrupt the paflage of the food. Dr. Pemberton mentions that he has feen a large {chirrus in the ftomach, near the pylorus, with an open cancer in one part of it, which had made its way through the ftomach, and through the left lobe of the liver ; and an adhefion had taken place between the fides of the abfcefs and the peritoneum: fo that had not the patient been carried off by a difeafe in the aorta, it was probable that this abfcefs would have made its way out through the integuments of the abdomen. Still, however, though this mu{t have been a difeafe of very long ftanding, the body was but little emaciated, and the patient had never fhewn any one fymptom, by which fuch a difeafe of the ftomach could poffibly have been fufpe@ed. The writer of this article witnefled the exiftence of a moft extenfive cancerous condition of the interior coat of the ftomach, in which many large tubercles were found in a ftate of ulceration, in an elderly man, who, however, was not much emaciated, and who had never exhibited any more fevere fymptoms, than thofe of flight indigeltion, and, therefore, none that could lead to a fulpicion of {uch an extenfive and formidable dif- eafe. In general, however, when the {chirrus has ulcerated, and formed what is called open cancer, there is a conttant pain, though varying in degree, and which is increafed by taking SIG taking any acrid or acid fubflance into the ftomach; whereas mild fluids, fuch as milk, gruel, &c. occafion little or no uneafinefs. What is {wallowed, in many cafes, is often re- jected by vomiting, and there is frequently thrown up alfo a dark-coloured fluid, which has fometimes been compared to coffee-grounds. ‘There is often an eructation alfo of very fetid air. The patient commonly becomes emaciated, and the countenance fallow ; and the pulfe is frequent, and heétic fymptoms at length enfue. The condition of the ftomach, as afcertained by diflec- tion, after death has terminated the courfe of the difeafe, is © defcribed by Dr. Baillie. ‘ When the whole {tomach, or a portion of it, is {chirrous, it is much thicker than ufual, as well as much harder. When the difeafed part is cut into, the original ftruéture of the ftomach is frequently marked with fufficient diftinétnefs, but very much altered from the natural appearance. The peritoneal covering of the fto- mach is many times thicker than it ought to be, and has almoft a griftly hardnefs. ‘The mufcular part is alfo very much thickened, and is interfected by many pretty {trong membranous fepta. Thefe membranous fepta are probably nothing elfe than the cellular membrane intervening between the fafciculi of the mufcular fibres, thickened from difeafe. The inner membrane is alfo extremely thick and hard, and not unfrequently fomewhat tuberculated towards the cavity of the ftomach. It very frequently happens that this thickened mafs is ulcerated upon its furface, and then a ftomach is faid to be cancerous.”” Morbid Anatomy, loc. cit. With refpe& to the treatment of thefe ftru€tural changes, little can be faid; for, in truth, it muft not be concealed, that a temporary relief is all that can be expe€ted under difeafes fo deplorable. No phyfical means that we poflefs can change the morbid growth into healthy ftru€ure, or induce new aétions. All that can be done, is to afluage the pains of the patient, by adminiftering gentle narcotics, fuch a3 cicuta and hyofcyamus, and by employing a milk diet, or other foothing light and liquid food. Sromacu of Birds. See Anatomy of Birvs, and D1- GESTION. | ’ Stomacu of Fifh. See Fis. Stomacu of Flies. In examining with care the bodies of thefe little animals, one may perceive, that when the paflage of the aliments is got beyond the lungs, and below the place where they form a fort of diaphragm, the canal that ferved for this paflage forms a large though fhort body, the diameter of which exceeds three or four times that of the canal itfelf. This body is compofed of three flefhy lobes, and is unqueftionably the ftomach of the ani- mal. The inteitine goes out of it, very nearly from the fame part where the other paflage is admitted into it; the inteftine then direéts itfelf toward the anus, and afterward runs upward again toward the diaphragm, or bottom of the lungs; and thence, after many convolutions, many times running backward and forward, it terminates in the anus. In caterpillars and butterflies, the canal from the mouth to the anus is only one ftraight inteftine ; but it is much otherwife in thefe creatures, the inteftines, both in the fly, and in the worm from which it is produced, always making a number of contortions and convolutions. Stomacu-Brufh. See Excutia Ventriculi. Stomacu-Z//, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes ap- lied to a difeafe in fheep that {trikes them fuddenly, which 1s probably of the éraxy kind, and in which there is much pain aad inflammation about the ftomach. Initant bleeding is fuppofed to be the chief remedy. See Srrixuyc-///, or STO STOMACHIC, Zroux xcs, a medicine that ftrengthens the ftomach, and promotes the office of digeftion. Of this kind are wormwood, rhubarb, mint, mattic, aloes, pepper, cinnamon, and aromatic bitters: good wine is alfo a ttomachic. Stomachic, in Anatomy, a name fometimes given to the arteries, nerves, &c. of the ftomach. Sromacuic Coronary. See Coronary. Sromacuic Llixvir. See Exixir Stomachic. Stromacuic Pills. See Prtxs. Sromacuic Water. See WaTER. ' STOMACHICA Fenris, the fomachic fever, a name given by Heilter, and fome others, to a {pecies of fever, called by others a mefenteric fever, and by our Sydenham nova febris, in a peculiar treatife. See Fever. STOMATIA, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a genus of fhell-fith, frequently confounded with the ear-fhell. The fhell of the ftomatia is formed of one piece, has no perforations in any part of its furface, and is of a deprefied flat figure ; and its mouth is the moft patent of all the uni- valve fhells, the limpet only excepted. It has a fhort {piral turn running into the mouth at the head. There are feveral fpecies of this genus. STOMATICA, aterm ufed by fome for all medicines ufed in diforders of the mouth. STOMBLE, in Agriculture, provincially a term which fignifies to trample or peach, as a wet foil by means of cattle ftock, or in the time of ploughing, &c. STOMOXYS, in Entomology, a genus of infeéts of the order Diptera: the generic charaéter is: Sucker with a fingle- valved fheath, enclofing bri{tles in their proper fheaths ; two feelers which are fhort and fetaceous, with five articulations ; the antennz are fetaceons. There are fixteen {pecies, in two divifions. Species. A. Sheath convolute and geniculate at the Bafe, with two Brifiles. Morio. Black; fore-part of the thorax hairy, ferru- ginous; wings black, with white fpots. This is found in Brazil. A fpecimen of it exifts in the mufeum of fir J. Banks. The head is ferruginous, with black probofcis, an- tennz, and ftemmata; abdomen black, with a blue glofs; the tips of the wings are whitith. Grisea. The antennz of this fpecies are feathered ; hairy, grey, with teftaceous thighs. It is found in Ger- many. The probofcis is black, a little teftaceous at the bafe; the head is white, with a teftaceous line on the front ; the wings are whitifh; the legs black, with rufous thighs. Getinidds Antennz fezthered; hairy, grey; fides of the abdomen pale diaphanous. It inhabits Germany. Or- bits fnowy ; legs black, with pale thighs. *Caxcitrans. Antenne flightly feathered ; Brey, with black legs. This very much refembles the common fly, and is the infe&t which buzzes about the legs of cattle, making them continually ftamp with the feet ; and which ftings our legs in autumn. TesseLLata. Hairy, cinereous; abdomen grey, teflel- late with brown. It inhabits Kiel, and is larger than the S. irritans, next to be deferibed. *Irritans. Cinereous, flightly hairy ; abdomen {potted with black. This is found in many parts of Europe, as well as in our own country, and is extremely troublefome on the backs of cattle. Muscaria. Antennz flightly feathered ; hairy, black ; abdomen paler, with deep black bands. This is found in Denmark. STO Denmark. ‘The fegments of the abdomen are black at the bafe ; the wings are white. Puncens. Cinereous, with black ‘thighs. It is found in divers parts of Europe, and harafles cattle, though it is of a diminutive fize. The body is flightly hairy ; the wings whitifh. Asitirormis. Antenne fetaceous; the body is duflcy ; wings with black marginal {pots. This is found in Italy. The fucker is fhort and yellow; the antennz are yellow, with a long fimple hair; the legs are yellowifh, hind-thighs black. SryraTa. Cinereous; abdomen rufous, with a project- ing ftyle, black at the end; wings hyaline, with five brown bands, every other one abbreviated. This inhabits Barbary. Dorsatis. Black; abdomen {nowy on the back, with three pair of black dots. It inhabits France, and is {mall. Lonerers. Orbits white; thorax grey ; abdomen grey- brown ; legs ferruginous, black at the ends. B. Sheath covering the Mouth, with five Brifiles. * Rosrrata. Thorax with obfcure lines; probofcis, abdomen, and legs, teftaceous. It refembles the common fly, and is very troublefome to cattle. Lineata. Thorax black, with four white lines ; abdo- men black, with three lateral yellow fpots, and tail. It is found in Germany. The probofcis is yellow, the tip emar- ginate and black. Muscrrormis. Thorax brown, with four whitifh lines ; abdomen black, with three pair of white lunules. This is alfo found in Germany. The antenne are black, with a broad comprefled ferruginous club; the mouth is hairy ; the head is brown; the tail is blueifh ; legs yellow, {potted with black. STONDLE, in Rural Economy, the provincial name of a bearing tub, or any fimilar fort of veflel of the fame kind. STONE, Epmunn, in Biography, a native of Scotland, the place and time of his birth being unknown, and an ex- cellent mathematician. He was the fon of the duke of Ar- gyle’s gardener, and probably born in the fhire of Argyle, about the beginning of the lait or end of the preceding cen- tury. He was eight years old when he began to read, but afterwards he made very rapid progrefs by his own almott unrivalled efforts. Before he attained the age of eighteen years, he had acquired a knowledge of the moft fublime geometry and analyfis without a matter. When he was afked by the duke of Argyle, how he had gained this knowledge, he replied, ‘I firft learned to read ; and the mafons being at work on your houfe, I faw that the archite& ufed a rule and compaffes, and that he made calculations. Upon in- quiry into the ufe of thefe things, I was informed there was a {cience named arithmetic; I purchafed a book of arith- metic, and I learned it. I was told there was another fcience called geometry, and I learned that alfo. Finding that there were good books on thefe two fciences in Latin, I bought a diGtionary, and learned Latin. I alfo underftood there were good books of the fame kind in French, and I learned French. This, my lord, is what I have done; and it feems to me, that we may learn every thing when we know the twenty-four letters of the alphabet.’’? The duke, pleafed with this fimple anfwer, drew Stone out of obf{curity, and provided for him an employment which allowed of his fa- vourite purfuits. He foon difcovered that Stone poflefled the fame genius for mufic, painting, archite€ture, and all the {ciences that depend upon calculations and proportions. The works of Stone, partly original and partly tranflations, are as follow: viz. * A New Mathematical Diionary,” firft printed in 1726, 8vo. ; A Treatife on Fluxions,”’ 1730, STO 8vo.; the direét method being tranflated from the marquis de ? Hofpital’s « Analyfe des Infiniments Petites,’”? and the inverfe method fupplied by Stene himfelf; ‘lhe Elemente of Euclid,” 1731, 2 vols. 8vo., with an account of the life and writings of Euclid; befides fome fmaller works. Stone was a fellow of the Royal Society ; and communicated to it an account ef twe fpecies of lines of the third order, not mentioned by fir I. Newton or Mr. Stirling, which was printed in the 41ft volume of the Phil. Tranf. Hutton’s Math. Dia. Stone, Henry, known by the name of Q/d Stone, to diftinguifh him from his younger brother John, was the fon of N. Stone, a ftatuary. He is principally known as the copyift of many portraits by Vandyck ; and they are ex~ ceedingly clofe in their refemblance to the originals. He pafled feveral years in Holland, France, and Italy ; but died in London in 1653. Stone, in Geography, a market-town in the hundred of Pirehill, and county of Stafford, England, is 141 miles N.W. of London, 7 from the county town, and 34 from Birmingham. In the year 1814, this parifh contained 463 houfes, and 2314 inhabitants. At a remote time, Stone was diftinguifhed by fome monaftic foundations. Wulfere, king of Mercia, after murdering his two fons, was induced, by the perfuafion of his queen and St.Chad, to embrace the Chriftian faith, and founded a monattery, in 670, at this place, in expiation of his crimes. This became a college of regular canons of the order of St. Auguftine. His queen, Ermenilda, next eftablifhed a nunnery here; but both thefe houfes were injured, and the inmates difperfed, by the Danes. After the Norman conquelt, the college and nunnery were replenifhed with monks and nuns; at leaft it feems evident that Enfyan, a Norman, brought canons from Kenelwerth, and made the eftablifhment at Stone a cell to the more emi- nent houfe at Kenelworth. Robert de Staiford, about the year 1260, rendered the former independent of the latter. Several perfons of the Stafford family were interred in the church at this place, to whom fome ‘fine and curious tombs were raifed; but thefe were removed, at the diffolution of the priory, to the church of the Auguftines at Stafford-Green. A new church has been erected on the fcite of the old ttruture. Stone confifts moftly of one long ftreet, in which is a newly formed market-place. In the town 1s a free-{chool, or charity-fchool, and an endowed alms-houle. Here are a weekly market on Tuefday, and three annual fairs. By means of the Trent and Merfey canal, which comes to this place, there is regular and cheap communication with many of the great manufaéturing and commercial towns of Lan- cafhire, Staffordfhire, Warwicfkfhire, and more diftant counties. Near Stone, lord Archibald Hamilton, in the year 1772, built an elegant houfe, called Sandon-Hall. This was for- merly the property of the Erdefwick family, one of whom, Sampfon Erdefwick, was author of a topographical ac- count of this county, and lies interred in the church of San- don. Statues of himfelf and his two wives conttitute parts of the monument, on which is a long and curtous Latin in- fcription. He was born im this village in the middle of the fixteenth century, and died here April 1603. See Fuller’s Worthies of England. Alfo Chalmers’s Biographical Dic- tionary. In the vicinity of Stone was Aften-Hall, an ancient and magnificent manfion, furrounded by a moat, terraces, gar- dens, and a park. A large maufoleum was ereéted in the gardens at this place by fir James Simeon, who alfo rebuilt the houfe. The property now belongs to Edward Weld, efq. of Lulworth cattle, in Dorfetthire.—Beauties of England, &e. STONE. &c. vol. xiii. from Shaw’s Hiftory, &c. of Staffordthire : and Pennant’s Journey from Chefter to London, 8vo. 1811. Stone, in Natural Hiflory and the Arts, is an indurated mafs of earth. The folid parts of the globe are principally compofed of ftones, formed of the different earths more or lefs combined with each other, and in different {tates of in- duration. The phytical and chemical properties of ftones fall properly under the inveltigation of the mineralogift: and the order in which they are arranged over each other in the great {tony matfles that compofe rocks and ftrata, conttitutes a part of the f{cience denominated geology. The ingenuity and indultry of modern naturalifts have led them to form a variety of fy{tems in the arrangement of foffils in general, and of {tones in particular: fome of the principal of thefe it may not be improper to enumerate. Some have founded the bafis of their fyitem on the figure, colour, ftru€ture, and other external and vifible characters ; calling in the aid of chemiltry, fo far at leaft as the mine- ral acids would affiit them. Others, as the profefled che- mifts and metallurgifts, have. eftablifhed their arrangement chiefly on chemical principles, as more immediately feaditig to the origin of foflile bodies in general. And, at prefent, mineralogifts feem more intent on this view than ever; and probably the due confideration of the volcanic {yftem will open new fources of information in this way. With refpe& to the fyftematic arrangement of {tones, Bromelius, in 17 3° diftributes them into Fach as are perma- nent in the fire, fuch as the lapis ollaris, amiantus, bY thie and fuforii; calcinable, fuch as the calcareus, fuillus, mar- mor, gypfum, {patum, ftalaGtites, fiffilis, and fpecularis ; and thofe that are vifrifiable in the fire, fuch as the arena, arenarius, gemma, granatus, filex, quartzum, cryttallus, and fluor. The other foffile bodies he ranges under the feveral clafles of earths, falts, fulphurs, figured ftones, petrifactions, calculi, femi-metals, and metals. Wallerius, in 1747, diftributes ftones into calcareous, as the calcareus, marmor, gypfum, and {patum ; the vifre/cent, as fiffilis, cos, filex, petrofilex, quartzum, and cryftallus ; the rous, aS mica, talcum, ollaris, corneus, amiantus, and {tus ; and /axa, or rocky {tones, as the fimplicia, mixta, grifea, and petrofa. The other bodies pertaining to the foffile kingdom, he clafles under the general heads of earths, lean, fat, mineral, and arenaceous; minerals, ful- phurs, femi-metals, metals, concrete fubftances, fuch as the pori, petrifactions, figured ftones, and calculi. Wolterfdof, in 1748, divides ftones into the vitre/cent, as n cryftallus, quartzum, arenarius, corneus, fpatum vitrefcens, faxum, and pumex ; the argillous, as the {meétis, afbeftus, talcum, mica, and fchiltus; the gyp/eous, as gyp- fus, alabaftrum, and fpatum gypfeum ; and the alkaline, as caleareus, marmor, fpatum alcalinum, tophus, ftala¢tites, and margodes. The other foffile fub(tances he diftributes under the titles of earths, argillous and alkaline ; falts, acid, alkaline, and mean; bitumens, fluid and folid; femi-metals, fluid and folid; metals, noble and ignoble ; and petrifac- tions of fanguineous animals, of infeets, of tefltaceous ani- mals, of vegetables, and of marine bodies. Cartheufer, in 1755, diftributes ftones into the Jamellous, as fpatum, mica, and talcum; filamentous, as amiantus, af- beftus, and inolithus ; /olid, as filex, quartzum, calcareus, pfeus, fiffilis, and fmectis; and granulated, as arenarius om is. The other foffils he clafles under earths dif- foluble and indiffoluble ; falts, alkaline, acid, mean, and ftyptic ; inflammables, both genuine and fpurious; femi- metals, not malleable, fub-malleable, and fluid; metals, flexile, hard, and fixed; and heteromorpha, including the true and fpurious petrifaGtions, and the figured fubttauces. Jufti, in 1757, diftributes terrene bodies into the noble, as the adamas, fapphirus, fmaragdus, amethyftus, topazius, turcois, opalus, cryfolithus, and hyacinthus; the /emi-noble, ascryttallus, cameolus, achates, chalcedonius, onyx, fardonyx, malachites, and lazuli; apyrous ignoble, as talcum, mica, molybdna, vitrum mofchouit, fteatites, corneus, jafpis, and afbeltus ; calcareous, as marmor, gypfum, and {patum ; and vitrefcent, a8 cos, quartzum, len, {chiftus, ferpentinus, tripela, pumex, granites, faxus, argilla, marga, limus, and umbra. The other foffils he ranks under the heads of metals, noble and ignoble; {femi-metals, fluid, hard, and mineralized ; falts, acid, alkaline, and mean; and petrifac- tions, animal, plants ob{cure, figured, and cryttal. Cronitedt, in 1758, arranges foffils under the clafles of earths, calcareous, filiceous, granate, argillaceous, mica- ceous, fluor, afbeftine, zeolitic, and magnefian ; falts, acid and alkaline ; phlogiftic bodies; and metals, perfeét and femi-metals. Vogel, in 1762, diftributes {tones into the argillaceous, calcareous, margaceous, felenitic, pyromachous, {chiftous, folious, plumous, faline, metallic, fufile, petre or rocky, and new: and the other foffils under earths, argillaceous, calcareous, filiceous, margaceous, felenitic, talcous, mica- ceous, inflammable, faline, metallic, and mould; petrifac- tions of animals, plafits, lithophytous, lithotomous, and pori: falts, ftyptic, fufile, fuch as are capable of being hardened, volatile, and alkaline ; combuftibles, as fulphu- reous, bituminous, fevum, and balfam ; and metals, perfect and femi-metals. Pott, in his ‘* Lithogeognefia,”’ diftributes {tones into calcareous, gypfeous, argillous, and apyrous. It has been doubted by fome of the moft refpectable mineralogifts, whether we ought to defcend below what are called generical diftinGtions in the foffile kingdom, becaufe the fubjects are infinitely various, and the gradation by which they run into one another is in general imperceptible in the various combined forms in which they are found in the earth. Neverthelefs, fome diftin€tions of this kind feem to be quite neceflary in fy{tems eltablifhed principally on external characters. Linnzus and Wallerius have been among the firft who attempted the arduous tafk of fixing the {pecific characters. For this purpofe, Linneus has formed a fet of terms that exprefs all differences in the figures of foffile bodies, in their cruft or outward appearance, their fuperticies, their corre- {ponding particles or fibres, in their texture, whether plated, fiffile, &c. in their hardnefs, or in their colour, and in the alterations they undergo by folution, both by acids and by fire. The chemical fy{tematics and metallurgifts, in their ar- rangements, ufually begin with the earths, confidering them as the bafis of ftones: Linnzus begins with the latter, pro- fefling to take a middle way between the mere metallurgift, and thofe who charatterize from external appearance only. He divides the whole regnum Japideum into three clafles, under the names of petre, minere, and fofilia, each being fubdivided into feveral orders, and comprehending in the whole fifty-four genera. To the firtt clafe belong petra, or ftones, which he defines to be foflile bodies, originating from a terrene principle by cohefion : thefe are fimple, as in their compolition they are deftitute of faline, inflammable, and metallic principles ; they are fixed, as not being entirely and intimately foluble in any menftruum; and fimilar, as they confift of homo- geneous compouent parts. Of thefe there are five orders ; viz. 1. The Aumofe, or flaty ftones, which originate from vegetable earth, are combuftible, and leave grofs light afhes. Under this order there is one genus, viz. the Jorge or ate, STONE. flate, including thirteen {pecies, among which the moft diftinguifhed are the table-flate, black flate, blue houfe- flate, and black crayon. 2. The calcaree, or calcareous ftones, which originate from calcareous marine animal bodies, become light and porous in the fire, and fall into an impalpable powder, and effervefce, and are foluble in acids, unlefs they are previoully faturated with an acid, as the gypfum. This order com- prehends four genera, viz. marble, of which there are fifteen {pecies, fuch as the black flaty marble, the Parian marble, and all its varieties ; the Florentine marble, the white grain lime-ftone, the f{caly lime-ftone, &c. ; gyp/um, or platter- ftone, of which there are three {pecies, {uch as the common platter, alabalter, &c.; /lirium, or fibrous alabafter, in- cluding four fpecies, as the fibrous gypfum, or Englith talc, &c. 3 and /patum, or {par, of which there are fourteen {pecies, fome foluble in aqua fortis, as the foft fpar, re- fracting {par, or ifland cryftal, fubdiaphanous compact {par of different colours, pellucid coloured fpar, as f{purious topaz, emerald, and fapphire, &c. ; and fome not foluble in aqua fortis, as the felfpar, &c. 3. The argillacee, or argillaceous ftones, which originate from the vifcid fediment of the fea, are fomewhat unctuous to the touch, and hardened in the fire. To this order be- long three genera, viz. talcum, or foap-earth, including twelve fpecies, as the ruddle, {meétis, or French chalk, or foap-earth, ferpent-ftone, and hornblende, &c. ; amianthus, or earth-flax, of which there are ten {pecies, as the afbettos, plumofe afbeltos, mountain cork, and aluta, or mountain leather, &c.; and mica, or talc, of which there are ten {pecies, as Mufcovy glafs, gold glimmer, and green talc, &c. 4. The arenate, or fand-ftones, which originate from the precipitation of rain-water, are extremely hard, {trike fire with fteel, and by triture, yield a very rough powder. This order comprehends three genera, viz. the cos, or whet ftone, of which there are fixteen {pecies, as the grind-{tone, filtering-ftone, mill-ftone, building-ftone, &c.; the quartz, including eight fpecies, as the pellucid rock quartz, co- loured rock quartz, red, blue, yellow, &c. milky quartz, seule’ quartz, pebble quartz, &c.; and the flex, or int, of which there are fixteen fpecies, fome being vague or loofe flints, as the common flint, gun-flint, Egyptian pebble or Mocoa-itone, opal, onyx, or cameyeu, chalce- dony, cornelian, &c.; and fome being rock-flints, as the agate, petro-filex or chert, jafper, &c. 5. The aggregate, or rock or compound ftones, which originate from a mixture of the four preceding orders va- rioufly conglutinated ; the interftices, ufually filled up with quartz, {par, or glimmer. Of this order there is only one genus, viz. the /axum, or rock-ftone, including thirty-nine {pecies, as the porphyry of different colours ; the trapezium, or trap-{tone, the granite, the fuforium, or founder’s-ftone, the filicinum, or pudding-ftone, &c. The fecond clafs of foffile bodies are the minera, or minerals, which Linneus defines to be foffile bodies origi- nating from a faline principle by cryftallization ; they are compound, as confifting of a bafe, united with faline, in- flammable, or metallic principles; and they are foluble, perfeGtly, in an appropriate menitruum: of thefe there are three orders, viz. 1. Sala, falts, or cryftals, which are fapid bodies foluble in water; diftinguifhed from each other by their different effe&ts on the organs of tafte: under this order there are fix genera, viz. nitre, of which there are nine {pecies, as the faline, or native faltpetre; the quartzofe, or mountain eryftal: fluor, or coloured cryftal, from the varieties of which are the true hyacinth, the falfe topaz, ruby, amethyft, fapphire, beryl, and emerald; and the calcareous, as: the ‘e hexagonal truncated f{par, the fuillum, or fparry fwine-ftone, &c.; natron, including fourteen f{pecies, as the faline, or native mineral alkali, aphronitrum, and Epfom falt ; the lapidofe, or {patofe, decahedrous natron, the gypfeous, pellucid, fufiform natron, the felenite, or rhombic natron, the hyodon, or pyramidal, or dog-tooth fpar, &c. ; borax, of which there are fix {pecies, as the faline, or tincal, or native borax; the lapidofe, to which belongs the gemma nobilis, or lapidofe, prifmatic, pellucid borax, with trun- cated pyramids, and as varieties of this {pecies, the yellow or topaz, the pale green or chryfolite, the fea-green or beryl, and the deep green or emerald, the bafaltes, the tourmalin, the garnet, and the margodes, or opaque, argillaceous, teffellated borax; the muria, or {fea-ialt, of which there are nine fpecies, as the faline, or fea-foffil, fountain, and hot-bath falt; the lapidofe, or Bononian ftone, {parry fluor, or Derbyfhire fpar, &c.; a/umen, or alum, including fix f{pecies, as the native, or native alum, plumofe, &c.; foluble, or alum-flate, ftone-alum, or cal- careous alum-ftone, called Roman alum; and lapidofe, to which belong. the {patofe alum, or falfe amethyft, the gemma, pretiofa, or diamond, ruby, and fapphire, &c. ; vitriolum, or vitriol, of which there are eight {pecies, as the fimple, or thofe of iron, of copper, and of zinc ; the compound, or triple vitriol of iron, zinc, and copper ; the atramentarium, i. e. vitriols mineralized with friable ftone, fuch as red chal- citis, grey fory, black melanteria, and yellow mify, &c. 5 and the lapidofe or {patofe vitriol of zinc. 2. Sulphura, or inflammable bodies, flaming and odorous while burning ; foluble in oil ; and diftinguifhed from each other by their different effets on the organs of fmell: of this order there are five genera, viz. ambra, or ambergris, including two fpecies, as the grey and the brown ; /uccinumy or amber, of which there is one fpecies, as the eleétric amber, and the varieties of diaphanous, opaque, yellow, brown, and that which includes infects ; bitumen, of which there are ten {pecies, as the naphtha, petroleum, or rock-oil, maltha, or Jew’s pitch, mumia, or fevum minerale, af- phaltum, or foffile pitch, ampelites, or peat, lithanthrax, or common coal, or {chiftofe bitumen, gagas, or jet, fuillum, or calcareous fetid bitumen, of which there are the varieties of compat, granulated, fquamofe, and cryftalline, and the hepaticum, or liver bitumen ; pyrites, or fulphurs, including feven fpecies, as native fulphur, orpiment, cryftallized pyrites, or marcafite, figured pyrites, iron pyrites, copper pyrites, of which there are thirteen varieties, and aquofe, or liver-coloured pyrites ; and ar/enic, comprehending eight {pecies, as the folid teftaceous arfenic, the fandaraca, or red arfenic mineralized with fulphur; the arfenical marcafite, the arfenicum albicans, or arfenic mineralized with iron, &c. 3- Metalla, or metals, which are fhining heavy bodies, fufible in the fire, and foluble in appropriated acid men- ftrua ; diftinguifhed from each other by infpe€tion; of this order there are two fubdivifions, into femi-metals not mal- leable, and metals malleable. The firft fubdivifion includes fix genera, viz. hydrargyrum, or mercury, of which there are five {pecies, as virgin, or native quickfilver, cubic cry{- tallized quickfilver, cinnabar, with the varieties of lamellated, granulated, and cryftallized, and pyritical, cupreous, itone mercury, &c. ; molybdenum, wadd, or black-lead, of which there are three fpecies, as plumbago, or black-lead, or wadd, or fulphur faturated with iron and tin, manganefia, or black manganefe, and {puma lupi, or red manganefe, or wolfram 5 Jiibium, or antimony, of which there are four fpecies, fuch as native regulus of antimony, cryftallized {tibium, fibrous, or common antimony, and red antimony mineralized with fulphur and arfenic; zinc, or tutenag, of which there are eight fpecies, as cryftallized zinc, that mineralized with : fulphur STONE. fuiphur and lead, or iron, that mineralized with fulphuretted iron, fibrofe zinc, calamine, or ftone zinc, or zinc mixed with martial ochre, blend or mock-lead, or black jack, or femi-teflellated black zinc, andred zinc, or micaceous liver- coloured zinc: di/mutum, or bifmuth, of which there are four {pecies, as native bifmuth, common bifmuth, minera- lized with fulphur and arfenic, martial bifmuth, and bif- muth mineralized with fulphur only: and cobalt, of which there are four {pecies, as cryftallized cobalt with fulpbur, arfenic, and iron, cobalt mineralized with arfenic and iron, pyriticofe cobalt and flag-cobalt. The fecond fubdivifion comprehends malleable metals, and of thefe there are fix genera, viz. flannum, or tin, in- cluding four fpecies, as cryftallized tin or tin-grains, tin- ftone, oe tin, &c. ; plumbum, or lead, of which there are ten {pecies, as native lead, cubic lead eryftallized, cubic Jead mineralized with fulphuretted filver, or galena, {ti- biated lead-ore, greenifh arfenical lead-ore, {parry arfenical lead-ore, &c.; ferrum, or iron, including twenty-feven {pecies, as native iron in grains, cryitallized iron, fuch as obey the magret, to which denomination belong {teel-grained iron-ore, fine-grained iron-ore, common iron-ore, pyriticofe iron-ore, talcy iron-ore, calcareous iron-ore, emery, &c. ; fuch as do not obey the magnet, of which there are red micaceous iron-ore, blood-ftone, red blood-ttone, fpar-like iron-ore, &c. and magnetical, or the magnet; cuprum, or copper, of which there are fixteen fpecies, as copper precipitated upon iron, native copper, cryttallized oéta- hedral copper, pyriticofe yellowifh-green copper-ore, py- riticofe purple copper-ore, foft pyriticofe grey copper- ore, footy, pyriticofe, arfenical copper-ore, white arfe_ nical, pyriticofe copper-ore, indurated ochraceous red copper-ore, which is fometimes liver-coloured; {andy ochraceous copper-ftone, green and blue copper-flate, lapis lazuli, lapis armenius, or blue calcareous copper-{tone, mala- chites, or green gypfeous copper-ftone, nickel, or copper mineralized with fulphur, arfenic, and iron, &c.; argentum, or filver, of which there are nine fpecies, as native filver in various forms, horn filver-ore fhining, fubmalleable, and fomewhat diaphanous, mineralized with fulphur and arfenic, lafs filver-ore, or lead-coloured malleable filver-ore mine- ralized with fulphur, red filver-ore mineralized with fulphur and arfenic, white filver-ore mineralized with arfenic, cop- per, and fulphur, grey filver-ore mineralized with fulphur, antimony, copper, and iron, filver-ore mineralized with arfenic and iron, filver-ore mineralized with fulphur and zinc, and footy filver-ore mineralized with arfenic and copper; and gurum, or gold, of which there are two {pecies, as native gold, found in various forms, as in thin plates or leaves, folid, or in thick pieces, and a cryftalline form ; it is alfo found imbedded in quartz, talc, and cinnabar, and in rivers in loofe grains and lumps, called gol/d-duf; and mineralized pyritical gold-ore. The third clafs are foffils, which are bodies originating from different modifications of the fubjects comprehended in the preceding claffes: of thefe there are three orders, viz. 1. Petrificata, or {uch foffile bodies as reprefent in figure certain animals or vegetables, or parts of them. The true petrifa€tions are fuch as have the texture and organic parts of the bodies entirely filled up with ftony particles, either of a calcareous or flinty, and fometimes marcafitical nature : there are others in which the bodies are preferved and un- altered, as having loft only the animal gluten: others, again, are only bodies incruftated with italaétite, or calcareous matter; and frequently they are ouly impreffions received jn their foft ftate. OF this order there are eight geuera, Vor. XXXIV. viz. zoolithus, or the petrifactions of mammalia, including four {pecies, as bones of men, remains of the rein-deer, foflil, ivory, and turquoife, or teeth tinétured by copper : ornitholithus, or petrifactions of birds, in whole or in part, and of their nefts, of which the firft {pecies are {carce, and are ufually. ftalaGtitical incrultations : amphibolithus, or petri- factions of amphibia, of which there are fix fpecies, as of an entire tortoife, of a toad, of the fkeleton of a crocodile, of an entire ferpent, of various nantes, as of the raiay baliites, &c. and gloflopetre, or fhark’s teeth : ichthyolithusy or petrifaétions of fifhes, including three fpecies, as thofe of entire {keletons, with the fins in flate, and in marble, and the bufonites, or grinding teeth of the wolf-fifh: ento- molithus, or petrifactions of infeéts, including three fpecies, as the cancri or petrified crab, lobfter, &c- paradoxus, or unknown infe&t, petrified, and infeéts inclofed in amber, which indeed are not proper petrifactions: helmintholithus, or petrifactions of worms, including twenty-four {pecies, as the cornu ammonis, orthocerotes, or {traight nautilus, ano- mites, or various anomix, gryphites, or crow-{ftone; Jew’s {tone, fuppofed to be fpines of echinites, madrepores of various kinds, entrochus, ttar-ftones, belemnites, &c. et tolithus, or petrifations of plants, of which there are feven {pecies, as of the entire plant in coal-flate, of ferns in flate, of roots in marble, of wood in various flates, as of lime- {tone, agate, flint, fand-ttone, and flate;-of leaves in flate and marble, of flowers in flate, and of fruits in coal ftrata, commonly cones of the pine, nuts, acorns, &c.: grapto- lithus, or {tones refembling pi€tures, including eight {pecies, among which are Florentine marble or flate, refembling ruins ; dendrites, reprefenting woods, land{capes, &c. arifing from vitriolic folutions infinuated between the plates of fiffile ftones, or in marble. 2. Concreta, which are flight conglutinations of different kinds of earths, whofe fpecific differences arife principally from the nature of the component parts: of this order there are fix genera, viz. calculi, or animal concretions, in- cluding eight {pecies, as the {tone in the kidney, or bladder; tartar of the teeth, of the lungs; bezoar-ftones, formed in the abomafus, or fourth ftomach of ruminating animals ; xgagropila, or hair-balls, formed in the firft ftomach ; bile- ftones, pearls, and crab’s-eyes: tartari, or vegetable con- cretes, of which there are two {pecies, as yeaft, and red and white tartar: efites, or concretions within the cavity of itones, of which there are the true, having a loofe nucleus, as the geodes with an earthy nucleus, and the aquilinus with a ftony nucleus; and the fpurious, as the hamachates, or flinty ztites, with a fixed cryitalline nucleus, marble ztites, includiag dog-tooth {par, and echinated 2tites, in- cluding fluor cryftals: pumex, or concretions by means of fire, including eight {pecies, fuch as black flate pumice, white pumice of iron-furnaces, red copper pumice, foot, afhes of volcanoes, Rhenifh mill-ftone, vitreous pumice, or black and green Iceland agate, &c.: flalaGites, or concre- tions by means of air, including twelve {pecies, as vegetable incruftations, drop-ftone, folid and branched marmoreous ftalaétite, folid fpatofe ttalaétite, red {patofe flalatite, or zeolite, &c.: and tophus, or concretions in water, including twenty-two fpecies, of which there are the metallic tophs, as the marly toph-ftone, the tubular, marly, ochraceous toph-ftone, the fandy ochraceous fea toph-ftone, the bog iron-ore in various forms, &c. ; and the fimple tophs, as alum toph, concretions of tea-kettles, pea-{tone of hot fprings, ofteocolia, or bone-binder, folid black {chiftofe toph, &c. 3. Terre, or earths, which are foffile fubftances not con- glutinated, but ufually in a flightly cohering or pulyerized Kk flate + STONE. ftate: of this order there are five genera, viz. ochra, or ochres, or earths of metals, of which there are fifteen {pecies, fome in the form of powder, as ochre of iron, green and blue ochres of copper, native cerufs, ochre of cobalt, &c. ; and others plumofe, or germinating ochres, as copper blue, or plumofe copper, flowers of antimony, plumofe filver-ore, with fulphuretted antimony and arfenic, &c.: arene, or fands, including fourteen f{pecies, as fea-fand, coloured fands, fand of heaths, fabulum, or common fand, micaceous, or glitter- ing or writing fand; gold, iron, and flint fand, é&c. : argille, or clays, boles, and marles, including twenty-one {pecies, fome fimple, among which are porcelain clay, tobacco-pipe clay, China porcelain earth, Lemnian earth, fuller’s-earth, tripoli, or rotten ftone, brick-clay, potters’ clay, boles of different colours, &c.; others mixed, as fermenting clay, marle, umbre, marle of the Nile, &c.: calx, or chalk, comprehending nine fpecies, fome foluble in acids, as creta or chalk, mineral agaric, fhell-chalk, or mouldered fhells, &c. 3 fome not foluble in acids, as true mineral agaric, gyp- feous gur, or lac lune ; and others granulated or fandy, as alabafter, chalk, foluble arenaceous calx of the ifle of Af- cenfion, and lenticular granulated calx: and Aamus, or mould, of which there are fourteen {pecies, as the impal- pable vegetable mould, common black mould, depauperated mould of heaths, {pongy mould of marfhes, alpine earth, turf, mould of lakes, or mud mould, red mould, animal mould, &c. See Linnzi Syitema Nature, tom. ili. 1770, paflim ; and Pulteney’s General View of the Writings of Linneus, 1781, p. 131—166. M. Da Cotta, in his Natural Hiftory of Foffils, 1757, diftributes {tenes into four general clafles. ‘The firft clafs eomprehends thofe ftones which are found forming con- tinued ftrata, coarfe, harfh, and rough, of a lax texture, of a vifible grit or grain, refembling {and in form, ufually immerfed in a cementitious matter, of little brightnefs, and fcarcely capable of any polifh: of this clafs there are two genera, viz. {tones harfh and rough, compofed of a vifible grit, not of a laminated {truQure, and {plitting equally in any dire€tion, called p/aduria by Hill, of which there are the alkaline fand-ftones, as the Portland-ftone, free-ftone, &c.; fand-ftones not acted on by acids, as the whet- ftone, filtrum, mill-ftone, grind-ftone, &c.; and fand-ftones imperfe&ily defcribed by authors; and ftones harfh and rough, eompofed of a vifible grit, of a laminated ftruécture, and {plitting only horizontally, or into plates. See Frac. See alfo each ftone refpetively. The fecond clafs includes {tones that are found forming continued ttrata, of a clofe, folid, {mooth texture, or com- pofed of no vifible grit, and generally deftitute of bright- nefs, though in fome degree capable of a poliih: of this clafs there are two genera, viz. ttones of a clofe folid tex- ture, of a plain uniform ftructure, and {plitting with equal eafe in any direction, diftributed, according to their colours, into black, white, afh, and grey, red, brown, blue, green, and variegated, each of which 1s again fubdivided into alka- line ftones, and thofe which are not ated upon by acids, comprehending the Purbeck-ftone, oil-ftone, &c. and ftones called flates. The third clafs comprehends marbles and marmoroide. The fourth clafs includes the marmoro-profera, the gra- nites, and the porphyries. See Fossris. For an account of the modern fyitems of geology, fee Rock, Strata, and System of Geology. In the fequel of this article, we fhall confider ftone as applicable to archite€ture and fculpture. Svone for Architedure and Sculpture. The application of {tone to the conftru€tion of houles, appears to have been I almoft coeval with the eftablifhment of civilized focieties. The advantages which ftone poffeffes over wood, in hard- nefs, ftrength, and its capability of refifting the aétion of fire, would naturally direé thofe tribes or nations that re- fided in countries where {tone was plentiful, to employ it in architeéture. Thus we find in America, where the human race was in its rudeft {tate, no fooner were men col- leéted in large bodies, under the kings of Mexico and Peru, than they began to build houfes of ftone. In Aflyria, where one of the firft great monarchies was founded, the people were deprived of the ufe of ftone, the ground being formed to a great depth of alluvial foil brought down by the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. To overcome this difficulty, they made artificial ftone, by bak- ing fquare mafles of clay in the fun. Bricks formed in this, or in any other manner, are properly artificial ftones, and have been formerly ufed to fupply the abfence of natural ftone, by the Egyptians, the Affyrians, and the Romans, as well as by the moderns. In the choice of different ftones for public or private edifices, the contiguity of certain ftones, and the eafe with which they could be obtained and worked, would be firft attended to, particularly in the early periods of architec- tural {cience: but there cannot be a doubt that durability and beauty were foon regarded as effential qualities of build- ing ftone, and thofe itones which pofleffed thefe properties in a remarkable degree, were fought for with great afliduity, and conveyed to diitant. countries at a great expence. Such was the care of the ancients to provide durable materials for their public edifices, that, had it not been for the defolating hands of modern barbarians, and the in- evitable deftru€tion attendant on warfare, many of the temples and other public works of the Greeks and Romans would have remained perfeét to the prefent day, uninjured by the action of the elements during a period of raore than 2000 years. On the contrary, in modern Europe, and particularly in Great Britain, there is fearcely a public building of recent date which will be in exiftence a thoufand years. hence. Many of the moft {plendid works of modern architecture are haftening to decay, in what may be juftly called the very infancy of their exiftence, if compared with the date of public buildings that remain in Italy, in Greece, in Egypt, andthe Eaft. This is remarkably the cafe with the three bridges of London, Weltminfter, and Black- friars, the foundations of which began fpeedily and vifibly to perifh in the very life-time of their founders. The fame obfervation is applicable to Somerfet-houfe, and many other public buildings in London; the fine chiflelling of the alte relievo figures having already difappeared by the aGtion of the elements mouldering away the ftone. The mott care- lefs obferver may notice, that this effeét is more rapidly taking place in fome {tones thaw in others in each of thefe buildings, though they are all of Portland ftone, a calcareous {tone, called roe-{tone by mineralogifts, and obtained from the ifle of Portland. We have reafon to know, that very little attention was paid to the feleGtion of the ftones during the building of Somerfet-houfe ; and the damaged ones, or thofe which contained hollows lined with clay, were not rejected, but the hollows were filled up with mortar. No foft calca- reous ftone, fuch as Portland ttone, can be very durable in a climate like that of England, where it mult be expofed to the action of frequent rain; and for the foundation of bridges, {carcely any ttone could be more unfit. The qualities requifite for building-{tone in bridges or water-works, are hardnefs, tenacity, and compactnels, vis the STONE. the property of refifting the decompofing effects of water and the atmofphere. Befide the ftrength neceflary to fup- port their own weight in fuch buildings, they may alfo have to refilt the impetus of floating bodies, and particularly of large mafles of ice. Thofe ftones which are the hardeft, are not precifely thofe which have the moft tenacity or toughnefs, of which we have a familiar illuftration in com- mon lime-ftone and glafs; the latter, though much harder, is far more eafily frangible than the former. In public national buildings, intended to preferve the memory of the ages in which they were con{tructed, and to perpetuate the ftate of the arts at the period of their erec- tion, befide the properties which enfure durability, we require a certain degree of beauty in the ftone itfelf. The caufes that accelerate the decay and deftruGtion of ftone in buildings, are nearly the fame with thofe which oc- cafion the deftruction or wear of rocks on the furface of the globe: they may be clafled into two kinds, thofe of de- compofition, and thofe of difintegration. By the former, a chemical change is effected in the ftone itfelf; by the latter, a mechanical divifion and feparation of its parts. The decompofition takes place, when the ftone contains parts that are more or lefs foluble in water, or which enter into combination with oxygen or acids. To have a diftin@ idea of the decompofition of ftones, we mutt firft confider the elementary parts of which they are compofed: thefe are either filex, alumine, or lime, (fee Smmex, ALUMINE, and Lime,) to which we may add magnefia, which, though of more rare occurrence, enters largely into the compofition of ferpentine and fome lime-itones. Iron, in different ftates of oxydation, and in different proportions, enters alfo into the compofition of almoft all ftones, and is frequently an important agent in their decompofition. The different kinds of building-ftones may, therefore, be claffed as fili- ceous, argillaceous, calcareous, and magnefian. Of thefe, the filiceous are the leaft liable to decompofition ; filex being infoluble in water, or any of the acids, except the fluoric, which is never found in a free ftate. Stones compofed almott entirely of filex, if compact, may be con- fidered as the moit durable ; but they are frequently brittle, and extremely difficult to work. When the filex is com- bined with a certain portion of alumine, as in fome horn- ftone and jafper, it conftitutes a ftone which may be re- garded as imperifhable, when compared with the duration of ftates and empires. Such {tones frequently contain im- bedded cryftals of quartz and felfpar, and are then deno- minated porphyries. Porphyry, with a compaé filiceous bafe of hornitone or jafper, is far more durable than granite, and is peculiarly appropriate for columns or obelifks, def- tined to tranfmit the events of former times to diftant ages of the world. Some porphyries are alfo very beautiful, and take a high polifh. Granite (fee Granite) is a compound filiceous rock, which varies much in the proportion of its conftituent parts ; and its degrees of induration. Compared with many rocks, ite may be confidered as forming a durable building- one; but thofe granites that contain much white felfpar, and only a {mall portion of quartz, like the greater part of the ites of Cornwall and Devonfhire, are liable to de- compofition and difintegration much fooner than many of the Scotch granites, in which the quartz is more abundantly and equally difleminated. In the feletion of granite in Cornwall and Devonhhire, the preference is given to that which can be raifed in the largeit blocks, and worked with the greateft eafe ; and for common purpofes, or for paving ftones, it may anfwer very well; but for the foundations and piers of bridges, the harder granite will be found much more durable. The prefent ftate of Cornwall proves the rapid difintegration and decay of its granite rocks. The felfpar in that granite contains a large portion of potafs, and to this its more rapid decompofition may be principally afcribed. The naval hofpital of Plymouth (an eltablith- ment which does honour to the country) is built of Cornifh or Devonthire granite, which appears to have been well feleGed. It has been ereéted about 70 years, and exhibits no fymptoms of decay, except in the columns forming the colonnade in front of each building: here, on their more expofed fides, we have obferved the felfpar to be difinte- grating, and lichens have already attached their roots to fome parts of the furface. With granite may be claffed all granitic rocks containing a large portion of filiceous earth, particularly fienite. (See Srenrre.) This rock was extenfively quarried by the Egyptians at Sienna, in Upper Egypt, and afterwards by the Romans; and many works con{truGted of this ftone, preferve the marks of the chiflel frefh to the prefent day. Of the rocks here enumerated, we have abundance in various parts of the Britifh empire; and in the con{truétion of na- tional works, the feleétion of the {tone fhould not be left to the difcretion of architeéts, few of whom have made mine- ralogy any part of their ftudies. Many of the fand-ftones, in what are called the fecondary ftrata, are compofed of grains of filex; and where thefe are united by a filiceous cement, they are almoft as durable as granite. In filiceous fand-ftones, the coarfenefs or finenefs of the grains is of far lefs importance than the fubftance by which they are united. Thofe which are united by ferruginous clay, are very liable to perifh by expofure to the atmofphere. Some filiceous fand-{tones appear to be of alluvial formation, and have their parts fo loofely cemented, that they are quite unfit for archite@ture: fuch is the fand-{tone rock on which the town and cattle of Nottingham are built. In the feries of {trata which alternate with coal, there are confiderable beds of fili- ceous fand-ftene, which vary much in their quality ; fome containing a large portion of clay and iron, others being almoft purely filiceous. Of the latter kind are fome of the loweft beds in Yorkfhire and Derbyfhire, which have been denominated mill-{tone grit, being formerly ufed for coarfe mill-ftones. Kirkitall abbey, near Leeds, is built of this ftone: it is now a ruin, but the ftones which remain are perfect, and preferve their angular fharpnefs as frefh as if they had been recently worked, though fix hun- dred years have elapfed fince the ereétion of this building. There is a quarry of fimilar ftone in the neighbourhood, extenfively worked at prefent. It may be proper to ob- ferve, that in all quarries of fand-ftone, the ftrata vary con- fiderably in their power of refifting the effets of the atmofphere. Some {trata are marked with ftripes and veins, and thefe are frequently found to be more perifhable than the general mafs of the ftone. We have known fuch ftones preferred for the fronts of buildings, on account of their fuppofed beauty ; but, in the courfe of a very few years, the celoured parts began rapidly to decay, by the aétion of water on the iron, which thefe parts contain more abun- dantly than the reft of the ftone. From what has been ftated, it may be feen that ftones, which are purely filiceous, are of all others the leaft liable to decompofition ; but where there is an admixture of filex with different fubftances, great fkill is required in their fele€tion for durable archite¢ture. Some dire¢tions for the choice of fuch {tones will be fubfe- quently given. Argillaceous ftones, or thofe which contain in their com- pofition a confiderable portion of clay, are generally found to contain alfo a large portion of iron. ‘This metal appears Kk 2 to STONE. to have a greater affinity for argil or clay than for any other earth, and is frequently combined with argillaceous ftones in the proportion of one-fourth of the whole mafs. The iron is frequently in the {tate of black oxyd, and in this ftate rapidly combines with a larger portion of oxygen, when expofed to the atmofphere, and thus occafions the {urface of the itone to {well and fhiver away. We have {een {tones of this kind in their native beds, fome hundred feet under the furface, fo extremely hard that they refifted the point of the pick, and could only be removed by blait- ing ; yet, when the fame {tone was expofed for fome months to the air, it became foft, and fhivered into {mall pieces. It rarely happens that builders or engineers have fufficieat mineralogical {cience, to enable them to anticipate the changes ‘which will be effeGed by air and moifture on the materials they fele€t. The lofs which this ignorance has occafioned in the conftru€tion of many public works is well known. A remarkable inftance of this kind took place a few years fince in Paris. A gentleman was walking with an eminent mineralogift in one of the newly ereéted public edifices. They were particularly {truck with the appear- ance of fome large columns that fupported the roof. On a clofer inipeétion, the mineralogiit predi€ted that they would perifh in lefs than three years. About ten months afterwards, the gentleman had occafion to pafs through the fame building, and obferved workmen were then removing the columns, and replacing them with a different ftone; the decay having been fo rapid, as to render their removal neceflary. In forming the tunnel of the Huddersfield canal, in York- fhire, through Pule Mofs, a lofty mountain three miles in breadth, the workmen, in one part, had to cut through a dark argillaceous ftone, fo extremely hard, that they were obliged to remove it by blafting. On account of its hardnefs and compattnefs, it was deemed unneceflary to wall the paflage in the part which was cut through this bed; but in a few months after the accefs of air, it fhivered and fell in, and the removal and repair occafioned much delay and expence. Many bafaltic rocks, which are almoft as hard as flint in their native beds, on expofure to air or moifture, are foon covered with a brown incrultation, which penetrates deeper and deeper into the ftone, till the whole is reduced to a foft pul- verulent mafs: this is occafioned by the rapid abforption of oxygen, the iron in the bafalt being in a low {tate of oxy- genation. On this account, bafaltic ftones are ill fuited for durable architeCture, though there are fome {tones of this clafs which appear more perfectly vitrified, and refilt the action of the atmofphere for ages. This is alfo the cafe with lavas which are nearly allied to bafalt : fome lavas rapidly decompofe and form a fertile foil, others remain unchanged for centuries. In all ftones called argillaceous, the quantity of alumine, or pure clay, is, in fa&t, generally lefs than that of the other earths. Alumine or clay, when pure, is foft and un@tuous, and abforbs more than 22 times its own weight of water. It communicates, in a greater or lefs degree, its own proper- ties to {lones, where it 1s combined in the proportion of from 20 to 30 per cent. The properties of clay are loft by vitrifi- cation, or by expofure to a {trong heat, as we may obferve in the procefs of brick-making. In the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, it is frequently the pra€tice to mend the roads with argillaceous fand-ftone ; but it is foon reduced to mud: to prevent which, it is piled in heaps, with alternate layers of coal, and burned before it is laid upon the roads: this makes it more durable, but the heat is feldom fufficiently powerful to vitrify the ftone, and the roads frequently want repair. The remains of vitrified forts in fame parts of Scotland, prove that the North Britons were acquainted with the du- rability imparted to argillaceous {tones by expofure to great heat. In fituations at a great diftance from durable building~ {tone, it would be advantageous to have the bricks employed in the conftruétion of bridges expofed to a greater degree of heat, and vitrified on the furface. This may be more eafily effeGted by a mixture of calcareous earth with the clay. Calcareous {tones include all the different kinds of lime-ftone, from the moft cryftalline marble, to chalk and calcareous fand-ftone. Of marbles, there is an almoft infinite variety ; indeed every variety of lime-ftone that admits of a good po- lifh is denominated marble. (See MARBLE.) The lime-ftones or marbles that occur in primitive mountains, among blocks of granite, gneifs, and mica-flate, are generally the moft dur- able, as they are highly cryttalline ; and many of them con- tain a confiderable portion of filiceous earth, which com- municates a greater degree of hardnefs to fuch marble. Though calcareous earth is in a certain degree foluble in water and carbonic acid, yet in its moft indurated ftate, as in primitive marbles, the a¢tion of the atmofphere produces little change in the courfe of centuries ; but when expofed to the con{tant action of water, the decompofition is more rapid. Thofe marbles which are the moft uniform in their texture, which poflefs the greateft degree of fpecific gravity and hardnefs, and which will receive the higheft polifh, are thofe which will prove the moft durable. There is another teft applicable to marbles, and all {tones purely calcareous, which affords no bad proof of their durability. Let a given weight of different marbles be cut into cubes, or any other regular figure, and immerfed in dilute muriatic acid of the fame degree of ftrength: that marble which diffolves moft flowly, will be the leaft liable to decay. Some lime-ftones confift of calcareous earth, combined with a confiderable portion of magnefia; the primitive lime- {tones which contain this earth have a milky whitenefs. All lime-ftones of this kind diffolve very flowly in acids ; and fuch of them as poflefs the other properties of hardnefs, and an uniform texture, may be confidered as the moft durable of all marbles. ‘The importance of an uniform texture is evinced in the different durability of the Parian and the Pentelic marbles. They were both extenfively employed by the {culptors and architeéts of ancient Greece. In the age of Pericles, the preference was given to the latter. ‘The Par- thenon was built entirely of marble from mount Pentelicus (Pentelic marble), near Athens. Many of the Athenian {tatues, and the temples of Ceres or Eleufis, were of this marble. The preference arofe from its fuperior whitenefs, and probably from its vicinity to Athens. It is remarked by Dr. Clarke (Travels, vol. iii.), that while the works exe- cuted in Parian marble remain perfeét, thofe of Pentelic marble have been decompofed, and fometimes exhibit a fur- face as earthy and rude as common lime-ttone. This is prin- cipally owing to veins of extraneous fubftances which inter- feét the Pentelic quarries, and which appear more or lefs in all the works executed in this kind of ftone. The Parian marble has fomewhat of a waxy appearance when polifhed ; it hardens by expofure to the air; it receives with accuracy the moft delicate touches of the chitlel, which it retains for ages, with the mild luitre of the original polifh. The Medi- cean Venus, the Diana Venatrix, the coloflal Minerva (called Pallas of Veletri), and the Juno, called Capitolina, are of Parian marble. The Parian tables at Oxford are alfo of this ftone. Of the marbles of South Britain, thofe of Devonfhire are by far the moit beautiful; for the Anglefea marble, as it is called, is principally pure ferpentine - SERPENTINE) ; though it is clafled by profeflor Jamefon, $ py STONE. in the late edition of his Mineralogy, with granular lime- ftone. The Devonfhire marbles have fcarcely been noticed by mineralogifts, but many of them atte a degree of beauty {carcely inferior to any of the foreign marbles, par- ticularly thofe of Babicomb. They are veined and {potted with a variety of colours, from a bright red to a beautiful dove-colour, and are fufceptible of a very high polifh. The altar, and the interior of lord Clifford’s elegant chapel at Ugbrook, near Chudleigh, are executed in this marble, which may vie with the moft coltly marbles of Greece or Italy. The great national work called the Break-Water, at Ply- mouth, is formed of blocks of Devonfhire marble: it is an artificial mole of vaft extent, intended to form a bay, where our largeft fleets may ride in fafety. The marble is pro- cured at Cat Down quarries, clofe to the water’s edge, from whence it is conveyed in boats about two miles, and thrown into the fea. The blocks are raifed of valt dimenfions by blaiting, and from their hardnefs and fize may refift the de- compoling effects of fea-water for ages, particularly if the weitern fide fhould get a covering of fand. The contiguity of the ftone neceffarily determined the choice where {ome million tons were wanting to complete the work, but there cannot be a doubt that the granite of Cornwall would have made a more durable barrier. Among the fecondary lime-ftones, there are fome which contain a confiderable quantity of magnefia, particularly in the counties of Nottingham, York, and Durham. Thefe lime-ftones have generally a yellowifh colour: they diffolve flowly in acids, and form a very durable {tone for architec- ture. York Minfter is faid to be built of this ftone. The roe-ftone, particularly that of Portland and Bath, is very extenfively employed in archite&ture: it can be worked with great eafe, and has a light and beautiful ap- arance ; but it is porous, and poffeffes no great durability, and fhould not be employed where there is much carved or ornamental work, for the fine chiflelling is foon effaced by the aétion of the atmofphere. On account of the eafe and cheapnefs with which it can be carved, it is much ufed by our Englifh archite&ts, who appear to have little regard for futurity. The chapel of Henry VII. affords a lamentable proof of the inattention of the architect to the choice of the ftone. All the beautiful ornamental work of the exterior had mouldered away in the fhort comparative period of three hundred years: it has recently been cafed with a new front of Bath ftone, in which the carving has been corre&ly copied ; but from the nature of the ftone, we may predict that its duration will not be longer than that of the original. Pro- bably the archite&t was limited by contract, which precluded the ufe of a more durable, but more coftly ftone. Portland, as well as Bath ftone, varies much in its quality ; and we think greater attention was paid to its felection in the conftruction of St. Paul’s church, than in many of the modern edifices built of this ftone. Though we have obferved many {tones in the upper part of the building mouldering away, yet, on the whole, it is lefs injured by the weather than Somerfet-houfe. In buildings conftruéted of this ttone, we may frequently ob- ferve fome of the ftones nearly black, and others prefenting a white clean furface. The black ftones are thofe which are more compat and durable, and preferve their coating of fmoke: the white ftones are decompofing, and prefenting a freth furface, as if they had been recently fcraped. This effe& is ftrikingly exhibited in the columas of Somerfet- houfe, in which black and white ftones may be {een alter- Rating in the fame column. Some of the lower beds of chalk are occafionally ufed for building-ttoné, though, from its loofe texture, it cannot poflefs great durability. We have feen the cloifters of Weft. miniter Abbey repaired with a ftone of this kind, fo fofe as to yield to the nail; and on inquiring of the workmen why they made ufe of fuch a material ? the reply was, “the cheapnefs of the cutting.” Alabafter or gypfum is fometimes employed for orna- mental archite¢ture. The name alabafter is alfo given to {talaétitical lime-ftone. (See Sravactirer.) This variety of lime-ftone poffefles nearly all the properties of granular lime-ftone. The gypfum alabatter is a f tohate of lime, and poffefles a confiderable degree of folubility in water. Dr. Watfon, in his Chemical Effays, ftates, that he fufpended two ounces of this ftone ina pail of water forty-eight hours, changing the water feveral times, and found at the end of that time it had loft one-thirticth part of its weight. From the folubility of gypfum, it is obvioufly improper for any purpofe where it is to be expofed to the a¢tion of rain or water. Of the magnefian ftones, there is only one applicable to purpofes of architeCture ; this is ferpentine, which has been fully defcribed under that article. The difintegrating caufes to which building-ftones are expofed are moifture, variation of temperature, and vege- tation: the action of thefe is diltin@ from that of decom- pofition. The earths which are not foluble in water are capable of being mechanically fufpended in it, when mi- nutely divided. A drop of water, con{tantly running along the hardeft itone, marks its path by cutting a furrow in the furface, according to the well-known adage: «« Gutta caveat lapidem non vi fed fepe cadendo.”’ This caufe is, however, flow, compared with others which are conftantly operating. Water infinuates itfelf into the minute pores and crevices of ftones, and being ex- panded by variation of temperature, and particularly by froft, breaks afunder the hardeft ftone, or fhivers off a portion of the furface. Thofe ftones which have a lami- nated {tru€ture are moft liable to be injured by the effets of frolt, from the facility with which water inftnuates itfelf between the laminz. Lichens and mofles fix their roots on the furface of ftones, particularly on thofe argillaceous ftones which yield an earthy {mell, when breathed upon. By infinuating their roots, they accelerate the decay of fuch ftones, and prepare a vegetable mould for plants of a larger growth. In calcareous and other fand-{tones, where the cementing material is of a foft kind, it is wafhed out by rain, and the ftone falls in pieces, or moulders away. In general, thofe {tones which are the moft hard, compaét, and uniform, in their texture, and which can be brought to the fmootheit furface, are thofe leaft liable to difintegration. In order to form a judgment of the durability of any building-ftone, which has not had the telt of experience, it is defirable to examine it in its native bed, particularly thofe parts of the bed which have been long expofed to the air. This may not unfrequently be done in fome part of the country where the ftone is quarried; for as each {ftratum rifes in a certain direétion, it will come to the furface fomewhere, if not covered by foil. The ftone, in fuch fituations, offers cer- tain indications of the effeét which atmofpheric agency pro- duces upon it. Where this examination cannot be made, all ftones that are not calcareous may be in fome degree proved, by obferving what effeét is produced by immerging them in water for a given time, by expofing them to a red heat, and to froft, or by covering them with dilute nitric acid for feveral days. Thofe {tones which abforb the {malleft quantity of water, and which are leaft changed td the STONE. the aétion of heat, froft, or acids, may be fairly confidered as moft capable of refifting the decompofing or difinte- grating effects of moifture and change of temperature. We have before fuggelted a teft in the choice of calcareous ftones. It has recently been the prattice to rub the cal- careous fand-ftones with oil; and this muft to a certain de- ree refift the abforption of water, and contribute to the ee ntey of the ftone. s , Foreigners generally clafs building-{tones into two kinds, hard and foft. In the latter they comprife all ftones that can be cut with the faw in any dire¢tion, and with fome degree of eafe: the hard ftones are all thofe which cannat be worked by the fame procefs. In Exsgland, the name free-{tone is given to all the fofter ftones, which can be cut eafily with the faw into large blocks fuited for building- ftone : it includes a variety of fand-ftones very different in their nature. Experience has taught our architects, that all {tratified ftones laft much longer, when laid in the fame direction which they had in their native quarries; a circumttance which ought always to be attended to by the mafon. As {tratified {tones generally {plit with the greate eafe in the dire@tion parallel with the furface of the {trata, it is obvious that they will bear lefs preffure in this dire€tion than in a line perpendicular to their natural pofition. The following table fhews the value at Rome of marbles, alabafter, and hard ftones, regulated by the cubic Roman palm, which is about nine inches in each dimenfion. The {cudo, which contains one hundred hajacci, is about 45. 6d. Englifh. Marbles. Se. haj- Marmo bianco di Carrara - - il palma ©; (70 Greco - . - - - - °o go nero di Carrara - - - - 2) Hi aO antico, detto vulgarmente di paragone Sad giallo di Sienna - i. 2 - - 2 50 detto Porta Santa, antico = - Ge) detto fior de perfico antico - - 14 0 detto Settebafe femplice antico - 21 1Q arofe antico - - Senate) giallo antico” - - - - - 7a. verde antico (of fine quality) - - sibpe fe' ditto in large mafles - - - 20. oO roflo antico —_- - . - - LZ), 1 0 ditto in large matles, very {carce - CY etal) Africano - - - - - I 50 cipolino - - - - - o 60 bianco e nero antico - . - BO) ata) delle cofte di Francia - - - 8,410 di Polcevera - - - - - eile Fe) verde Prato - - - - - EY Mie) porto Venere con macchie gialle - 2 50 Breccia corallina antica - - =i) as Ce di Saravezza_ - - - - - 2 50 di Francia - - - - - © 50 The term antico, like oriental in gems, fometimes implies only a beautiful ftone. Alabafters. Se. haj. Alabaftro orientale - - - - - 20) 0 e pecorella antico - = - 30 0 di S. Felicita o fia monte Circello 4,0 di Polombara e di Civita Vecchia - 2 50 Alabaftro di Montanto - - . . Bicle d’Orte bianco ° - 7 A biondo del foffo della Penna 25.0 Hard Stones. Granito roffo delle guglie - = - - ° 50 ditto in great mafles - - - Eas Egiziano nero con macchie bianche rofligne 3 0 bianco e nero antico - - - 8. .@ porfiritico, detto porfido roffo - - B=il'lO ditto in large mafles - - - 12,0 prafino, detto porfido verde = « - 8 oO ditto in great maffes, fcarce - - Le 10 rofato - = = = - - 6.0 Granitone bianco e verde’ - - - - 6 o Granitello - - - - - - © 50 Bafalte nero d’Egitto - - - - 10) 50 orientale verde - - - 20 Oo Verde di Memfi, vulgarmente detto ferpentino antico - - - - - - I re hed Breccia d’Egitto di fondo verdino - - § 0 The prices of the above ftones are enhanced not only by their fize, but by any extraordinary beauty of colour which each {pecimen may poflefs. Sone, in Agriculture. It is a point not yet determined, whether {tones are hurtful or beneficial to arable lands. Ex- amples are not wanting on both fides of the queftion, though, in general, it feems rather to be carried for them. However, nothing can excufe leaving a ftone in any ground fo large as to interrupt the plough. If they are very large, they fhould be blown to pieces with gunpowder, and then be carried off. Some fpots, very fertile in feveral kinds of grain, feem to confift of nothing but ftones; and inftances are given of fields being rendered barren, by taking away the {tones which covered them. Theophraftus accounted for this in a hot country, where it happened to the Corinthians, by faying that the ftones fheltered the earth from the fcorching heat of the fun, and thereby preferved its moifture. The fame holds true even in our colder latitude, where the heat of the fun is lefs apt to hurt us. And Evelyn is clearly of opinion, that hufbandmen rather impoverifh than improve thofe grounds which are almoft covered with ftones, efpe- cially where corn is fown, if they pick them off too mi- nutely ; becaufe they thereby expofe the land too much to the effeéts of heat and cold. Certain it is, that a moderate mixture of {mall gravel preferves the earth both warm and loofe, and prevents too fudden exhalations. But it feems highly probable that there muft be fome farther reafon, be- yond what has been yet afligned, for the benefit arifing from the ftones. However, the concealed {tones fhould be always removed from lands that are to be kept in a ftate of tillage, other- wife many accidents muft happen in ploughing, by the {training and breaking of the ploughs, and the deftruction of other implements. And where the lands require under- draining, it may often be proper and beneficial, as well as a cheap method, to have the ftones made ufe of, and gathered from the ground; as, by fuch means, two objects may be accomplifhed at once. See Cirarine of Land, and Drainine of Land. See alfo Sprine and SuRFACE Draining. : An opaque imperfe&tly cryftallized fort of ftone, pro- bably of the quartz kind, is found very troublefome to the farmers, in many parts of Cornwall. It lies, it is faid, loofe on the furface, in all fizes, from that of rocks to ein nules. — STONE. nules. In fome places it is met with a few inches under the furface, like a clofe pavement. In whatever pofition or fize thefe {tones infeft the land, it is there the prevailing opinion, that until it fhall have been in fome meafure Sree, by digging, or ploughing and picking, little hopes of fuccefs can be entertained, even from the beft modes of cultivation ; although initances of the contrary may fome- times be produced. Lands have been cleared of this ftone, by f{creening the whole mafs of ftony matter and earth as deep as the yellow clayey under-{tratum, in the fame man- ner as mafons fcreen the fandy materials for their mortar, with very great fuccefs and advantage, though at much ex- pence. The refufe flones, in this or other ways, are pur- chafed at one fhilling the load from the farmers, for their ufe in repairing the roads. The round cobble ftones, picked from the land, are much ufed in the fouth of Lancafhire, and probably in fome other places, for paving the roads. Whatever may be the caufe of the produétivenefs of tillage-lands, fo befet with loofe round ftones as fearcely to have any appearance of earthy matter or mould amongtt them, the writer of this article has over and over again feen vaft crops of different forts of excellent grain produced on fuch land. See Stony Land. Stones, as to the Origin .and Formation of, M. Tourne- fort, on his return from the Eaft, in the year 1702, pro- pofed to the Royal Academy a new theory. On a curious furvey of the famous labyrinth of Crete, he obferved, that feveral people had engraved their names in the living rock, of which its walls are formed ; and what was very extraordinary, the letters whereof they confilted, inftead of being hollow, as they muft have been at firft, being all cut with knife-points,) were prominent, and ood out from the furface of the rock, like fo many baflo- relievos. _ This, he fays, is a phenomenon no otherwife accountable for, than by fuppofing the cavities of the letters filled in- fenfibly with a matter iffuing from out of the fubftance of the rock, and which even ilued in greater abundance than was neceflary for filling the cavity. Thus is the wound made by the knife healed up, much as the fra¢ture of a broken bone is confolidated by a callus, formed of the extravafated nutritious juice, which rifes above the furface of the bone: and this refemblance is the more juit, as the matter of the letters was found whitifh, and the rock itfelf greyith. Something very like it is obferved in the barks of trees, in which letters have been cut with the knife; fo that the poet had reafon to fay, that the characters grew as the trees themfelves grew: ‘ Crefcent ill; crefcetis amores.”? M. Tourncfort fupports his opinion by fimilar callufes ap- parently formed in feveral other ftones, which had re-united after, by accident, they had been broken. From thefe obfervations, he fays, it follows, that there are flones which grow in the quarries, and of confequence that are fed; that the fame juice which nourifhes them, ferves to rejoin their parts when broken ; juft as in the bones of animals, and the branches of trees, when kept up by _ bandages; and in a word, that they vegetate. There is then, fays he, no room to doubt but that they are organized; or that they draw their nutritious juice from cS earth. This juice muft be firlt filtrated and pre- ay in their furface ; which may be here efteemed as a ind of bark: and hence it muft be conveyed to all the arts. It A highly probable, that the juice which filled the cavities of the letters, was brought thither from the bottom of the Toots; nor is there any more difficulty in conceiving this, than in comprehending how the fap fhould pafs from the roots of our largeft oaks to the very extremities of their higheit branches. It muft be owned that the heart of thefe trees is exceed- ingly hard; and yet thofe of Brafil, called iron-wood, guaiacum,-and ebony, are much harder. Coral is as hard in the fea as out of it; and fea-mufhrooms, which every body allows to grow, are true ftones, and fo, like the com- mon ftones, are ufed in America to make lime. Some ftones, then, he concludes, muft be allowed to vegetate and grow like plants. But this is not all: he adds, that probably they are generated in the fame manner 5 at leaft, that there are abundance of ftones, whofe genera- tion is inconceivable, without fuppofing that they come from a kind of feeds, in which the organical parts of the itones are wrapped up in little; as thofe of the largeft plants are in their feeds. The ftones called cornu Ammonis, lapis Judaicus, aftroites, thofe of Bologna and Florence, the feveral kinds of pyrites, cryftals of the rock, and an infinity of other ftones, he fup- pofes to have their feveral feeds: as much as mufhrooms, truffles, and various kinds of mofles, whofe feeds were a long time before they were difcovered. He continues, how fhould the cornu Ammonis, which is conftantly in figure of a volute, be formed without a feed, containing that fame ftruéture in little? who moulded it fo artfully ? and where are the moulds? Far from this, thefe kinds of ftones are found in the earth, like common flints. Nor were either their moulds, or any thing like them, ever difcovered. M. Tournefort examines the feveral kinds of ftones above mentioned, and finds them under the fame neceflity of feed. Again, that immenfe quantity of pebbles, with which the Crau of Arles is covered, he thinks a ftrong argument in behalf of this theory. The country there, for twenty miles round, is full of roundifh pebbles ; which are ftill found in equal abundance, to whatever depth you dig. M. Pierefc, who firft propofed the generation of ftones by means of feeds, (though he took the word feed in a very different fenfe from M. Tournefort, ) firft brought this extraordinary colleGtion of them as a proof of it. In effe&t, how could fo many fimilar pebbles be formed? There is no faying they are coeval with the world, without aflerting, at the fame time, that all the ftones in the earth were produced at once; which were to go dire@ly contrary to the obfervations above mentioned. Among the feeds of ftones, M. Tournefort obferves, there are fome which do not only grow foft by the juices of the earth, but even become liquid. Thefe, then, if they pene- trate the pores of certain bodies, grow hard, petrify, and affume the figure or impreffion of the body: thus, what we call peéfinites, conchites, mytulites, ofpracites, nautilites, echinites, &c. are real tones, the liquid feeds of which have infinuated into the cavities of the fhells called peden, concha, mytulus, oftrea, nautilus, and echinus. On the contrary, if thofe liquid feeds fall on flints, on fhells, fand, &c. they enclofe thofe feveral bodies, and, fixing between them, form a kind of cement, which yet grows like other ftones. It is highly probable, that fuch rocks as are only an aflemblage of cemented flints, have been formed by a number of thefe liquid feeds; in like manner as the quarries full of fhell: unlefs the rocks have enveloped thefe bodies in their growth. He even fuppofes, that there are feeds of real ftones en- clofed in the foun of certain fhell-fifh ; as well as that hard folid matter deftined for the forming their fhells. There is, fays he, a particular kind of thell-fifh, called pholas, STONE. pholas, which are never found any where but in the cavities of flints, which are always found exactly fitted to receive them. Now, it is highly improbable the fifh fhould come and dig fuch a nitch to {pawn in: it is much more likely, that the ftones they are found enclofed in were at firft foft ; and that the matter of which they are formed, was originally found in the fpawn, in like manner as the matter which forms the egg-fhell is really found in the feed thereof. From the whole he concludes, that the feed of ftones, and even of metals, is a kind of duft which probably falls from them while they are alive, 7. ¢. while they continue to vegetate as above. ‘This du{ft may be compared to the feeds of feveral plants, which no microfcope ever yet difcovered ; though their exiftence is not at all to be doubted. Probably, flints and pebbles are among {tones, what truffles are among plants: nor is this opinion new: Pliny aflures us, that Theophraftus and Mutianus believed, that ftones produced ftones: and Gregory Nazianzen adds, that there were authors who even believed, that ftones made love, Ess xa aLuxoroiya pos xu der puos EeWTOCe Poem. de Virgin. All this, however, is founded on the imperfe&t know- ledge of thofe times. Since M. Tournefort’s days, we have difcovered other ways of formation for the lapis Judaicus and cornu Am- monis ; the firft being only a petrifaction of the {pines of an echinus marinus, and the other of a fhell-fifh nearly allied to the nautilus kind. See Fossiz, Jupaicus Lapis, and Cornu Ammonis. M. Geoffroy accounts for the origin and formation of ftones in a different manner. He lays it down as a prin- ciple, that all ftones, without exception, have been fluid ; or at leaft a foft pafte, now dried and hardened: witnefs the ftones in which are found foreign bodies ; witnefs alfo figured ftones, &c. On this principle, he examines the formation of the dif- ferent kinds of ftones; and fhews, that the earth alone fuffices for the fame, independent of all falts, fulphurs, &c. The metallic particles contained in flints give them their colour; but thefe are only accidents: for proof of which, he inftances the fapphires and emeralds of Auvergne, which lofe all their colour by a moderate fire confuming their metallic parts ; but without any damage to their tran{- parence ; they being hereby rendered mere cryttals. To view rock-cryttal, indeed, one would not take it for earth ; and yet earth it mult be, not water congealed, as the ancients imagined. M. Geoffroy conceives two kinds of primitive particles in the earth. Thofe of the firlt kind are exceedingly fine, thin lamellez, equal to each other, or nearly fo. Now, when thefe meet together, from any caufe whatever, in a fufficient quantity, the regularity and equality of their figures determine them to range themfelves equally and regularly ; and thus to form an homogeneous compound, which is very hard, from the immediate conta& of the parts; and very tran{parent, by reafon of their regular dif- pofition, which leaves a free paflage to the rays of light every where: and this is cryttal. The parts of the fecond kind have all forts of irregular figures ; and muft accordingly form aflemblages that are much more opaque, and lefs hard, Now crytftal is formed wholly of parts of the firft kind ; and all other ftones of a mixture of the two kinds of parts together; this mixture is abfolutely neceffary, in order to unite and bind together the parts of the fecond kind, and give them a hardnefs and confiftence, without which they would only make a fand or duft. Water now appears the fitteft vehicle to carry the parts of the firit kind.. This is feen from feveral petrifying {prings, which incruftate the pipes through which their water Is conveyed, or even folid bodies laid in them for fome time. The water does not diffolve thofe earthy parts ; it only keeps them in fufion, as it does the juices with which plants are fed. This water, thus charged with earthy particles of the firft kind, M. Geoffroy calls the fony, or cryflalline juice, of which thofe bodies are primarily formed. See Crysrax. Some look upon {tones as unorganized vegetables, and that they grow by the accretion of falts, which often fhoot into angulas and regular figures. This, it is faid, appears in the formation of cryttals on the Alps; and that ftoues are formed by the fimple attraétion and accretion of falts, appears by the tartar on the infide of a claret-veflel, and elpecially by the formation of a ftone in the human body. Henkell has thrown together fome very ingenious thoughts on this ab{trufe fubject, in a treatife publifhed in the year 1734, where he builds no opinions on any other bafis than that of faéts, obfervations of nature, and experiments. He fuppofes that the earth was at firlt every where foft on the furface, and that this foft matter by degrees har- dened, and formed ftones of feveral kinds. He feems to imagine, that the furface of the earth was a fecond time all reduced to this foft ftate by the univerfal deluge at the time of Noah, and that this matter afterwards hardening into ftones of various kinds, included the fhells of fea-fifhes, and other animal remains of the produce of the feas, in flints, in lime-ftone, or in whatever other fubftance the matter, among which they lay, chanced to harden. Thus may the fea-fhells, found fingiy in the middle of hard flints, or lodged in vaft numbers in the ftrata of earth, lime-{tone, or marble, be accounted for. Nor is water alone the agent that may have made thefe changes in the once foft parts of the earth’s furface; we can by fire reduce the pooreft earths into a fort of glafs, a hard tran{parent body, not a little refembling the nature of flint, or the other femi-pellucid ftones. Fire is of power to do great things in the bowels of the earth, and the way to learn what changes it may there make in ftones, is to try its effeét upon the feveral different kinds of ftones and earths here. By experiments of this kind we learn, that of the feveral fpecies of {tones in their prefent ftate, fome are reduced to a friable mafs, and finally to powder, by the force of fire ; others are hardened by it ; others are melted, and become a kind of glafs: and by experiments on the other foffile fubftances, it appears that the original matter of all ftones has been earth, either of the nature of chalk, marle, or clay; and that many of them have been greatly altered by receiving metallic or other mineral matter into their earthy matter, at the time of their formation ; and all feem to have owed their change into their hard ftate, either to fire alone, or to faline, oily, metallic, or faline fulphureous matters, either conjunétly with the force of this agent, or alone. Henkell, Lithogenefia. Thofe ftones which are formed in their prefent ftate, immediately out of fluids, have been produced either by congelation, a rude coalition, or cryftallization; and that all the gems have been once fluid is plain, from their im- perfeGtions in certain initances, as from their containing grains of fand, or the like extraneous fubftances, firmly embodied in them. If thefe, the hardeft of all ttones, have been once fluid, there is no reafon to difpute, but that all the other kinds may have been fo, which are lefs hard and lefs perfe&t. For the formation of ftones, according to modern fy{tems of geology, fee Rock, Strata, and Sys- TEM of Geology. Stongs, formed, among Naturalis, mineral oy ftony matters — a } i 4 ) \ STONE. matter, caft in the cavities of certain fea-fhells, or other s of marine animals. Of thefe, fome are found quite naked and bare; others have the remainder of the fhell about them: and among thefe there are alfo found many real fhells, fcarcely at all altered from their recent ftate, buried at great depths in the earth, far from feas, and even on the tops of mountains. This is by moft fuppofed an effet of the general deluge, and by many is thought a convincing proof of the truth of that hiftory ; but there have been many who have allerted, that thefe bodies can convey no fuch proof, fince, as they affirm, they aré not, nor ever were, marine bodies, or owed their form to fuch, but mere /u/us nature, {tones formed in the places where they are found, having no relation to animals of any kind, but only accidentally refembling them. But the affertors of the former opinion have rather the better fide of the argument. It feems, indeed, contrary to the great wifdom of nature, which is, in all its productions, to defign every thing to fome determinate end, that thefe bodies fhould have been fo nicely formed by a mere plattic virtue in the earth, or endued with all the charaters and neceflary parts of animal coverings, &c. for no other end but merely to exhibit fuch a form, without having any relation to the ufes thefe par- ticulars are appropriated to in the animal. But if the origin of ftones, found in the fhape of fhells, be doubtful, yet the real fhells found in the earth cannot be fuppofed to have been formed there: yet thefe are found at as great diftances from the fea, and not only in the low grounds and hillocks, but in the higheft parts of the loftieft mountains, even without the leaft particle of {tony matter about them ; mere fhells unpetrified, uncorrupted, and of the exa& figure, ftru€ture, and confiltence of the fea-fhells, which are now habitations of living animals of the fame {pecies. _ That nature fhould form real thells, without ever intend- ing them for the covering of an animal, feems no way pro- bable ; and indeed, were it true, would give great ftrength to the atheift’s opinion, that all things exifted by mere chance, and were intended for no end or ufe. Nor are the fhells the only inftances of thefe foffile bodies perfectly re- fembling animal ones, but we find with them other parts of animals, as the teeth of fifhes and land animals; which, though met with buried in earth, or on the tops of moun- tains, are plainly the fame with the fubftances produced by the fifhes, &c. Of this kind are the teeth of the feveral fpecies of fharks, called glofopetre ; thofe of the wolf-fith, called bufonite ; the vertebrez of feveral fith, and the like. The very infpeétion is abundantly fufficient to prove, that thefe were once parts of animals; but were that in- fufficient, they have not, even in this their foffile ftate, fo far divefted themfelves of their animal nature, but that they carry proofs of it; and Columna has evidently proved their true origin from thefe. He obferves, that all animal and vegetable fubitances, whether of a woody, bony, or flefhy nature, by burning, are changed firft into a coal, before they go into a calx of afhes; whereas ftony fub- ftances, on the contrary, do not burn into a coal, but are reduced at once into their calx or lime, or elfe into glafs. But thefe teeth, fuppofed by fome mere produétions of the earth, all burn firlt to a coal, while the {tony matter ad- hering to them dves not; whence alone it is fufficiently in, that they and that fubitance are of very different inds, and that they are truly of a bony, not a ftony matter. It is alfo repugnant to that great maxim, that nature does nothing in vain, to fuppofe thefe teeth formed in the earth where they are now found, fince they could there have no ufe as teeth, nor the vertebrz, or other bones, Vou. XXXIV. as bones. It is very certain, that nature never made teeth without a jaw, nor fhells without an animal inhabitant, nor bones without the reft of the body they belong to: thefe things are not made in this feparate and ufelefs {tate in the element to which they naturally belong, much lefs in a foreign one. Their very fubftance and place alfo evince plainly, that they were not formed where they are now depofited, for they are ufually lodged in ftones, and {tones contain not the matter of which they are made: and as to their place, they might have been lodged there either when formed, which proves our aflertion, or elfe they muft have been at fome time generated all of a fudden there, or have grown from a {mall origin, increafing by little and little, as the animal fubftances which they refemble do. Now, if the ftone, in which they lie, was formed before them, and they were formed on a fudden in it, how came the cavity there Jult to correfpond to their fize? and if they grew by little and little, how could they form a cavity in the ftone, with- out burfting or cracking it? It is alfo no {mall proof of thefe teeth being of a marine or animal origin, that they are not regularly fhaped at the bafe, but are all broken, and that in various manners ; which proves very plainly, that there has been no vegeta- tion in the cafe, becaufe in all other figured foffils they are never found mutilated or imperfe&t. It cannot, with any fhow of reafon, be fuppofed that thefe teeth were thus broken within the body of the {tone where they now lie, but it is plain that they were lodged in the ftone at a time when it was foft, and were before that broken off from the jaw of the creature in this irregular manner. It is likewife no weak argument, that thefe bodies are not formed at this time in the ftone, that they are all found perfectly alike; for, if they were continually increafing in fize and number, it is probable that the new formed ones would be fome way different from thofe which were of older date. The variety of {pecies in the gloflopetre alone may evince, that they belong to the animal to which they are attributed, fince they are of very different kinds. See GLossopeTR#, and SERPENTS’ Tongues. The perfeétion of the figures of thefe bodies is a farther proof of their oe from animals which they reprefent, fince in all cryitallizations there are many imperfeét and mutilated figures, nay more than perfeé ones. To all this it may alfo be added, as an unanfwerable proof of the foffile fhells having been marine, and havin lived in the fea, that they are found with injuries hie could have been no way elfe received. ‘The purpura, and fome other fhell-fifhes, have bony tongues, with which they bore regular holes through the fhells of fhell-fith of other kinds, in order to make their way in, and prey upon their fliefh. Thefe holes are always eafily known by their regu- larity and fhape ; and fhells bored through in this manner are not only frequent on our fhores, but there are fuch alfo found foffile, bedded in the ftrata of earth or ftone ; and furely, if falts could be allowed to have fhot into the figures of fea-fhells, they could never be fuppofed able to fhoot into the figures of fuch wounds, as a few of thofe fhells have received in their recent ftate from other animals. The general opinion is, that the deluge brought all thefe fhells into the places where we fee them; but this feems not eafily conceived ; and as there is no argument fo good, but that being carried too far it will make againft its pur- pofe, fo the laying too much to the effects of the general deluge, has made many believe it has done nothing at all. Thefe formed ftones and real fhells are both found in vaft trata on the tops of the higheft mountains, the Alps, Ll Apennines, STONE, Apennines, and others in different parts of the world. The deluge lafted only ten months, and probably the tops of mountains were not covered half that time; and thefe immenfe quantitics of fhells cannot be fuppofed either to have bred there in that time, or to have been carried fo high in fuch prodigious numbers. It is more probable that thefe tops of mountains were once not fuch, but bottoms of the fea. The hiftory of the marine bodies they contain is then very plain, and earthquakes may have raifed them, or they may indeed not be fo high above the level of the fea, as we at firlt fight fuppofe. If, indeed, we adhere to the letter of the text, in the Scripture hiltory of the creation, we can find no account for thefe bodies from that time ; for if the creation of fifhes fucceeded the feparation of the land from the water in all parts of the globe, they could not be then depofited there; but it is poflible, that at the creation the whole earth was not all at once uncovered, but only thofe parts where Adam and the animals were created, and the reft gradually afterwards, perhaps not in many years, as there feems no neceflity of underitanding the account of the creation to have been in fix natural days. If we may thus underftand, and conjecture in this refpeé, it is not difficult to conceive, that during the years in which the earth re- mained covered with fea-water, fhell-fifh might breed and multiply abundantly all over its bottom; and this bottom being afterwards elevated, deferted by the fea, and made dry lands, thefe fhells muft be elevated with it, and retained in thofe ftrata, which afterwards hardened into the various kinds of earth and ftone: and fomething of this kind feems to have been the cafe, much rather than, according to Dr. Wood- ward, that -all ttony matter fhould have been diflolved by the deluge, and afterwards have concreted again. Ray’s Phyfico-theological Difcourfes. For other hypothefes and obfervations relating to this fubje&t, fee Adventitious Fosstts, MARINE Remains, PeTRI- FACTIONS, SEMINIUM, and SHELLS. Stones, Solutions and Colours of. The various beauties of the form and colour of the feveral more precious {tones, cannot but have been always the admiration of the curious part of the world, and the ingenuity of the ableft chemitts hath been tried, in attempting to counterfeit them; and much may be gathered even from their attempts, which have not fucceeded, toward the learning of the true nature and hiftory of thefe beautiful bodies. The beautiful figures of the Florentine marble, whofe veins reprefent trees, rivers, and ruins of buildings, are well known; as are alfo the delineations of trees and fhrubs in thofe {pecies of white agates, called Mocoa ftones. All the {tones of this kind are natural, for art has yet not been able to come up to any counterfeit of them; but it is not fo in regard to thofe agates which reprefent regular figures of beafts, &c. thefe are all affifted by art, and that by a very fimple and eafy procefs; and M. Du Fay, in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy, has given at one view the feveral ways, then known, to penetrate into the fubftances of agate, marble, &c. and to lodge figures in them. The {tones fubje& to be tinged he divides into two clafles, the harder and the fofter. Of the harder kind, are thofe which refift the force of acids, even of the moft powerful kind; and of this clafs are agates, onyxes, and all that are vulgarly comprehended under the general name of the gems, or precious ftones, with cryftal, porphyry, granite. Thefe, and the like ftones, are not foluble in any of the known acids, yet thefe fame acids, impregnated with the folutions of metals, are capable of penetrating very deeply into them, and tinging them with different colours. The fimple agates and jafpers, and other {tones of the like uniform ftru&ture, are eafily coloured in an uniform manner ; but thofe which are variegated with veins are com- pofed of feveral different forts of matter, and therefore are lefs eafily, and lefs evenly ftained. As the tinging matter does not penetrate the feveral beds, or veins, in the fame manner, therefore, all that can be done to thefe, is to add {pots and veins to their natural ones, but they cannot be tinged throughout to one uniform colour, as the chaleedony or white agate may. If a {mall quantity of a folution of filver in fpirit of nitre be poured upon one of thefe agates, and the ftone ex- pofed to the fun, it will in a few hours be tinged to a red- difh-brown colour; and if more of the fame folution be added, and it be again expofed, the cvlour will become {tronger, and will penetrate deeper into the body of the ftone ; and if the ftone be not too thick (e. ¢. more than a fixth part of an inch), and the folution be rubbed on both fides, it will tinge it throughout. Nor is this all the effeét, for it will give it feveral veins and lineations, which were not diftinguifhable in it before ; the reafon of which is, that in all thefe ftones there are fome parts harder than the reft, and confequently more difficultly coloured, and thefe remain- ing, therefore, paler than the reft of the mafs, make the lines and veins in it. If there be added to the folution of filver, ufed for thia purpofe, a fourth part of its quantity of foot, and as much falt of tartar, the colour becomes grey; and if, inftead of this foot and tartar, the fame quantity of plumofe alum be ufed, the ftone will be tinged to a deep violet colour, tend- ing to black. A folution of gold gives agate only a pale brown colour, and that penetrates but a little way into it; and a folution of bifmuth gives a colour, which appears white when the light falls dire€tly upon it, but brown when it is held againft the fun-fhine, or a candle; and all the metallic and mineral folutions, employed in the fame manner, affe& the ttone more or lefs in the fame way. The expofing of the ftones to the fun is a very neceflary article in the procefs, fince without that the tinge is but very faint, and penetrates but to a very little depth. To trace in the chalcedony, or white agate, figures of any de- terminate kind, the ufual method is this: before the agate is polifhed, mark out the intended figure with the point of a fine needle, and afterwards with a brufh, or a pen, follow thofe lines with a very ftrong folution of filver. One would imagine that the dendritz, or delineations of trees in Mocoa ftones, might be imitated in this manner ; but it is difficult to give the due blacknefs of colour, and to mark the figures with a like precifion and exaCinefs. See AGATES. If any ftone fhould, however, be fufpefed to be adulte- rated, or counterfeited in this manner, it is eafily brought to the trial; for if it be thus made, a {mall heat over the fire will almoft entirely divett it of its colour, and the rub- bing a little {pirit of nitre or aqua fortis over it will have the fame effeét. In both cafes the {tone may, however, be reftored again to its beauty: in the firlt, by tinging it afrefh with the fame liquor, and in the latt, by only expofing it for feveral days to the fun. : It is well known, that by means of fire alone the ame- thytt, the fapphire, and the other gems, may alfo be wholly divetted of their beautiful colours. The method of doing this is, to put the gems into a crucible, furrounding them with fand, or with fteel-filings; then putting them into the fire, they lofe their colour as they become hot, and are taken out wholly colourlefs. If the white agate be calcined in this manner alone, it becomes of a cloudy or opaque white ; STONE. white ; but if it has before been ftained with the folution of filver, thofe {pots or ftains become of a yellow colour, which aqua fortis afterwards has no power to take away. If the agate be calcined firlt, and afterwards rubbed over with the folution of filver, it receives fome {pots and lines of brown. ‘The cornelian lofes a great part of its rednefs by calcination, and becomes of a dufky flefh-coloured white ; and the Mocoa [tone, treated in the fame manner, lofes all its colour, and the delineations of trees difappear. There are many {tones on which the folution of filver has no effect ; of this number are all the gems, rock crytlal, and the like. ‘The dendrites of Catalonia is alfo of this kind; and of this ftone the artificers relate an odd pheno- menon, which is, that if it be fawn afunder there are very few delineations obferved in it, but if it be f{plit by a blow, it is ufually found full of them. The reafon of this is only that thefe delineations are fo many flaws and cracks, and the ftone breaks eafieft in thefe places. The effects of the folution of filver are different, as to degree of colour, on different ftones. The oriental agate receives from it a deeper and blacker tinge than the com- mon chalcedony. Some agates, naturally diftinguifhed by their yellow f{pots, receive a purple colour from it. The jade ftone, ufed by the Turks, takes only a faint tinge of brown, The common prime emerald, or root of the eme- rald, becomes blackifh with it. The oriental granite is tinged in many places with a violet colour by it; this is principally effe€ted in the white parts. The folution does not act much on the black ones, only that it takes fome of them away. The ferpentine marble receives an olive colour from it; but it is remarkable that the amianthufes, and the tales, and other foliaceous ftones, are wholly unaf- feted by it. There is another method of ftaining ftones of a colour more truly black than that which the folution of filver com- municates to moft of them, and with this farther difference, that the colour being produced by fire, has not been de- flroyed (fays Dr. Lewis) either by moderate fire or by aqua fortis. Pieces of different ftones, marbles, pebbles, flint, &c. may be wafhed over with a faturated folution of cop- per made in aqua fortis; when dry, let them be put into a crucible, and kept for a little time in a fire ju(t fufficient to make the veffel almoft red-hot. All of them will be thus ftained in the parts moiltened with the folution of a black colour, durable, and pretty deep, though it penetrated only a very little way into the fubftance of the ftones. Dr. Lewis fufpe&s, from fome experiments on the folu- tion of filver applied to different fub{tances, which he has mentioned (Phil. Com. of Arts, p. 350.) that this folution ftains ftones only in virtue of their containing a calcareous earth, or fuch an earth as the acids is capable of diflolving : if this be the cafe, there is no wonder that fome of the hard ftones fhould be ftained, aud fome of the foft unaf- feted by it. Marble being a fub{tance much fofter than agate, receives the colours with much greater eafe, and the doing of this in an accurate manner has been the fubject of the attempts of many eminent men. Kircher has given fome direétions for the ftaining of marble, which have been tranflated word for word in the Philofo- phical Tranfaétions ; but they are fo indeterminate and un- certain, that nothing can in reality be learned from them. See Colouring of Marste. Many others have written alfo on the fame fubjeét, but M. Du Fay is the only one whofe experiments are plainly and clearly laid down, and may be followed by any body. This gentleman chofe the common white marble without veins for making his experiments, for the fame reafon that he chofe the plain agates, becaufe in the veined ones there are feveral different forts of matter, all of which are not to be penetrated with equaleafe. The folution of filver pene- trates into marble to the depth of an inch, or more, and gives a tinge, reddifh or purple at firft, and afterwards brown, from which colour it never varies afterwards. It always takes off the polifh of the marble, eating away a part of its furface. ‘The folution of gold does not pene- trate fo deep into marble as that of filver, but it gives a beautiful violet colour. Both thefe operations are much affitted by expofing the marble to the fun. ‘The liquors ufually diffufe themfelves, and fpread every way in the marble, fo that it is not eafy to make any figure with them that fhall keep its outline to- lerably regular. And this imperfeCtion appears to be the lefs, according as the folution is the more faturated, fo as to dry or cryttallize the more fpeedily. An eafy method of obviating this inconvenience, fays Dr. Lewis, is fug- gelted by the praétice of the engraver; for the means, by which he confines the aqua fortis on his copper-plates to the minuteft ftrokes, would doubtlefs anfwer the fame intention here. The furface of the ftone being coated with a proper tenacious fubitance, which the acid cannot a& upon, as the compofition called efching-qwax, which confilts of refinous fubftances melted with wax, or boiled with oil toa due con- fiftence; and the drawing being made in this ground, fo that each ftroke may reach down to the ftone, it may be pre- fumed that the folution of filver, afterwards applied, will no where fpread farther than the parts thus laid bare. See Colouring of Marie. The folution of copper gives marble a beautiful green tinge, but it does not penetrate deep, and on the applica- tion of boiling water becomes black: when the furface is polifhed off afterwards, however, it becomes again of a beautiful green. Befide the powerful acid menttruums, there are many other liquors which have a power of pene- trating deep into marble. Of this nature are all the oily fluids; but the exprefled oils have this difadvantage, that they leave a fattinefs in the mavble which will not fuffer it afterwards to take a good polifh. All fubftances which can penetrate marble, can carry colours into it; but fuch are moft eligible, which having lodged the colours, evaporate, and leave them there, with- out injuring the ftone. Spirit of wine is of this number ; it isexcellently qualified for the extraCting of beautiful tine. tures, and finks them very deep. Oil of turpentine alfo has its value, but it does not take tinges fo well as the {pirit. Some have recommended lixiviums of the fixt alkaline falts, but they very rarely produce any beautiful colour. In the ufing of thefe fluids the marble is to be gently heated, and the fpirit is by that means evaporated before it is cooled, leaving its colour always behind. White wax penetrates very deep into hot marble, and conveys colours into it in a very beautiful and determinate manner. There are, however, but few bodies, which will impart their colours to wax, and therefore this valuable means is of a very limited ule. Several of the gums alone are alfo able to tinge marble very ftrongly. Dragon’s blood, and gamboge, if rubbed on hot marble, penetrate to the depth of about a twelfth of an inch: the gambogerrequires the marble to be hotter than the other, and tinges it to a very beautiful yellow ; the dragon’s blood tinges to a red in different degrees, accord- ing to the heat of the marble. If thefe gums have been ufed to polifh marble, there is no farther caution neceflary than the cleanfing kites off l2 rom, STONE. from the furface with a little fpirit of wine: but the way to make them fink deeper into the ftone, is to take off the polifh by rubbing the furface with pumice, or the like, and then the gums fink much farther, and the colours appear very beautiful when the marble is polifhed again. : Though thefe gums aé alone, yet they will fucceed much better if diffolved in fpirit of wine, and applied with a pencil; for by this means they fink deeper in, and the figures traced out will keep their determinate form and out- lines, thefe folutions fixing immediately, without fpreading any way. It is alfo remarkable, that the folution of dra- gon’s blood hardens the marble, and renders it lefs foluble in acids than before; fo that if a piece, ftained in part with this folution, be afterwards rubbed over with an acid dif- folvent, and its furface eaten away to fome depth, the parts which are coloured will all ftand out above the reft. A tinéture of Brafil wood in fpirit of wine tinges marble red; and if the heat given to the marble be greater, it be- comes purple: but both thefe colours fade a little in keep- ing. A tincture of cochineal gives a purplifh-red ; and the more the marble is heated, the farther the colour penetrates, and the deeper it 1s. In oil of turpentine, the colour of cochineal penetrates much deeper into the marble, but it has a brownifh catt. Alkanet root, by means of f{pirit of wine, gives alfo a red colour, which, if the heat be too great, changes to brown ; and this, and moft other of the like matters, tinge the marble, in tinéture with fpirit, to a flight depth ; and in oil of turpentine they fink much deeper, but then the oil leaves a greafy appearance upon the marble. If verdigris be boiled a confiderable time in white wax, it tinges marble, when rubbed hot upon it, to a beautiful green, litle inferior to that of the coarfer emeralds, and the colour f{preads itfelf very equally, and penetrates to a third of an inch deep ; if the marble be made too hot, the colour becomes that of the jade-ftone. Alkanet boiled in white wax gives a flefh colour, which penetrates very deep; and the roucou boiled in wax makes a permanent yellow, which alfo finks very deep. The beft way of heating marble for this purpofe is to lay the piece, intended to be ftained, upon a bed of fand, a fifth of an inch deep, upon an iron plate: this is to be fet over the fire, and when of a proper degree of heat, the colour 1s to be applied. The juft degree can only be found by experience, and it varies indeed in almoft every colour; but, in general, the finer colours require the marble to be of fucha heat, that the hand can juft bear to be laid upon it, and the others require a fomewhat greater degree than this. Black is, of all colours, the moft difficult to be given in this manner to marble; and perhaps, indeed, it is impoflible to impart that colour in any degree of perfection ; and that for this plain reafon, that all thefe colours only fill the inter- ftices between the granules of the marble, thofe granules themfelves remaining unaltered: thus, in the other colours, the whitenefs of the granules is only a heightening to the tinge, making it brighter, anda little paler ; but the white- nefs can never fail to appear diftinguifhably as fuch in black, and by that means dettroy that colour. Dr. Lewis obferves, that he has ftained the porous marbles, which admit water to fink into them, of a full black colour with common ink, either by applying on the warm marble an ink already made, or by the alternate ap- plication of aftringent liquors and folutions of iron; but with the more compact marbles this method did not fucceed, though they were heated fo far as to make the liquors boil upon them: however, by a folution of copper, managed as above related, and by a folution of the metallic part of co- balt in aqua regia, employed in the fame manner, the moft compact pieces were ftained black ; though the procefs re- quires too great a heat to be praétifed on marble without danger of injuring the ftone. The colour which folutions of gold communicate to marble, in its deep fhades, obtained by repeated applications of the folution, approaches very near to black. Next to black, blue feems the moft difficult, of all the colours, to be givento marble. M. Du Fay, however, hav- ing found by M. Geoffroy’s experiments, that oil of thyme, by long ftanding with {pirit of fal ammoniac, ac- quired a blue colour, tried this mixture, and found it fuc- ceed very beautifully ; but this is one of thofe colours which require the marble to have but a very {mall degree of heat, fince a greater would evaporate them before the colour had time to penetrate. When the oil of thyme is digefted with the volatile fpirit, it becomes firft yellow, then red, then violet, and at latt of a deep blue. In fix weeks’ dige(tion it had acquired a pale blue, and in this {tate gave little colour to marble: after {tanding for fix months, it was deepened almoft to a black hue, and being now applied on warm marble, gave the {tain defired. M. Du Fay alfo ftained marble of a blue colour with tinéture of archel. The tin€ture of it in water is applied on cold marble, and renewed as it evaporates, till the colour is fufficiently deep. He fays, that he faw pieces of marble thus ftained, which in two years were not fenfibly changed. The colours of the gums may be laid on when the marble is cold; and on heating it afterwards, they will fink into it. See Colouring of MARBLE. There is another very elegant fort of workmanfhip to be performed on marble, that is, the tracing of figures in relief in it; and this is done much more eafily than might be ima- gined, there being nothing more required to it, than the faving of the parts which are to be left in relief, by covering them with a varnifh, and eating away the reft by means of an acid. For this purpofe, let the defigned figures be traced in chalk upon the marble, and cover them with a bed of varnith, made by diflolving a piece of common red fealing-wax in {pirit of wine; then pour on the marble a mixture of equal parts of {pirit of {alt and diftilled vinegar, and this will eat down all the ground, and leave the figures ftanding, as if engraved with immenfe trouble. The add- ing of the colours before defcribed, to thefe marbles after- wards, in a regular manner, will give them a furprifing beauty. Mem. Acad. Par. 1728 and 1732. Lewis's Phil. Com. of Arts, p. 436, &c. Mr. Muller, in grinding fome aurum fulminans, made by diffolving gold in aqua regia, and precipitating it with falt of tartar, together with fome red glafs powdered, and a little water added, found that this mixture itained the onyx, or chalcedony, of which the mortar was made. He was rubbing this mixture together to make an enamel colour, and leaving it three or four days in this little mortar, he found, that not only where it had been rubbed againit the bottom of the mortar, but where it had accidentally fplafhed again{t the fides of it, and on the furface of the peitle, it had tinged them both very deeply to a fine red, leaving the intermediate parts of a true onyx, or chalcedony colour, wholly unaltered. ‘The polifh of the ftone was not injured in the places where it was thus ftained, nor could any art get out the colour, though it was tried with alkalies and other fharp liquors. This colour was not given to thefe parts of the {tone of the mortar in fimple blotches, but formed itfelf into regular lines, as we fee the natural colours 9 of STONE, of ftones do; but this not in the fame degree of colour, but fome of the lines were deeper, others paler. This experiment was repeated in feveral other mortars of the fame ftone, but without fuccefs; on which the ftones, of which they were compcfed, were examined with the help of glaffes, and it was found that this mortar chanced to be made of a more flaky chalcedony than any of the others, though it appeared equally folid and beautiful to the naked eye, and bore a polifh no way inferior to them. It may be worth while, on this occafion, ftri€tly to examine ftones of this chalcedony kind, and on meeting with a plate of one of them of this flaky kind, to cover it with this mix- ture, and by that means give it a feries of lineations, which muft make it a very beautiful and valuable ftone. The polifh will not be injured by this; or, if it fhould, the adding of anew polifh will not at all affeét the colours. In the fame manner the texture of ftones, intended for any other experiments in ftaining, fhould be confidered, and the choofing of proper ones may make this procefs fucceed onthem. Phil. Tranf. N° 179. ; Stone, Artificial. See Mortar and Stucco. Stone, Bolognian. See Bononian and PHospuorus. Stone, Butter of. See Burrer of Stone. Stone, Calamine. See CALAMINE. Stone, Caujflic. See Lunar Caustic. Stones, Cha/k. See CHALK. Stone, Chich. See Cicerum Lapis. Stone, Copperas. See Pyrites. Stones, Corner. See Corner. Stone, Eagle. See rites. Stonxs, Eft. See Err-Stones. Stone, Emery. See Emery. Stone, Fire. See Fire-Stone. Stone, Fiefb. See Sarcites. Stones, Free, Grind, Grit, Gypfine, and Horfham. See Free, &c. Stones, Gall. See Biriary, and Biliary CALCULUS. Stone, Horn. See Lapis Corneus. Stone, Jewifh. See Jupaicus Lapis. Stone, Infernal. See Lunar Caustic. Stone, Lime. See Lime. ' Stones, Medical, aterm ufed by fome to exprefs thofe particular ftones, which for their real or imaginary virtues have, at one time or other, been made ingredients in medi- cinal preparations. The opinions of the ancients, in regard to the virtues of ms and precious ftones, were very whimfical. They uppofed that they had certain fympathetic properties, and that the wearing of them on the finger, or carrying of them in the pocket, would cure difeafes, render the gods propitious to their prayers, or fave them from thunder. Thefe have been defervedly laughed out of the world in our more en- lightened times; but it has remained a queftion, and does fo even to this time, whether or not fome of the gems have not real medical virtues, naturally refulting from their parts, and conftituent matter. See Gem. Stone, Meteoric, in Meteorology. Meteoric ftones, or aerolites, are thofe ftones which have been obferved to fall from the atmofphere. (See Faxxin Stones.) In addition to the defcription of thefe ftones, and the particular pheno- mena attending their fall, under that article, we fhall {tate that numerous faéts of a fimilar kind have fince been noticed in various parts of the world; and the evidence of their actual defcent from the atmofphere is full and fatisfa&tory, ‘though the mode of their formation {till remains involved in much obfcurity. The opinion that thefe ftones are of atmofpheric origin, and that the elements of which they are compofed have been either held in folution in the air, of were formed there by the union of gafeous fluids, appears to us to agree better with the phenomena than any other which has yet been advanced. Though it may be difficult to explain the fudden formation of a folid mafs of ftone in the air, yet we have inftances of a formation fomewhat analogous occurring very frequently: thus, during violent thunder-ltorms, mafles of ice fall down in the hotteft months ot fummer, fometimes weighing feveral ounces, and even pounds; and were the temperature of the earth conttantly below 32° of Fahrenheit, they would remain as folid {tones on the furface of the earth. The matter of which thefe malles of ice are formed, exilted previoufly in a ftate of elaftic aqueous vapour in the atmofphere; but by what procefs it was fuddenly confolidated, during thunder-ttorms, is at prefent almoft as inexplicable as the formation of meteoric itones. The nature of our atmofphere is but imperfectly known; for though we are acquainted with the proportions of oxygen and azote which it contains, we are not certain whether they are chemically combined, or only mechanically mixed: and with refpeé to the aqueous vapour, and other fubftances which are diffufed through the different regions of the air, our knowledge is ftill more im- perfect. Thus, though we know that, in the hottett months of fummer, an immenfe quantity of water is raifed into the atmofphere from the furface of the earth and fea, yet when this evaporation has continued for feveral weeks without rain, and confequently the atmofphere is charged with water, yet if it be examined by the hygrometer, it appears in its dryeft ftate. The important agency of elec- tricity, in all atmofpheric phenomena, is univerfally ad- mitted ; but the mode of its operation is very little known. When thefe fubjeéts are better underftood, we have no doubt that the formation of meteoric ftones will receive much elucidation. From the examination of rain-water, colle&ted at a diftance from towns, it is proved that lime and other fubftances exift in the atmofphere ; and it is not improbable that the elements, of which meteoric ftones are formed, may be fublimed from volcanoes, and diffufed through the higher regions of the air, intermixed with hydrogen, or other inflammable gafes (of greater levity) at prefent unknown. When thefe explode fuddenly, large concretions may be formed; or, by flow combuttion, they may form fhowers of fulphur, or other fubftances, in a dif- fufed or lefs compaé ftate. In the Annales de Chimie, tom. Ixxxv. p. 262, many curious inftances of this kind are related, from which we fele& the following, as intimately conne¢ted with the defcent of meteoric ftones. We ought probably to rank with meteoric ftones the ignited bodies, or fire-balls, which are only diftinguifhed from them by their fubftance not being metallic. Like meteoric {tones, they generally fall in the warmeft months, and in calm weather: they burn in the fame manner; and traverfe their path with the fame velocity ; their explofions are nearly fimilar, and that of 1772 had a rotation round its centre. Thefe ignited globes have a roundifh form and gelatinous confiftence. A globe of fire which fell in the Eaft Indies, in 1218, left, after a dreadful explofion, a round large heap of gelatine, of tolerable confiftence. A fimilar mafs, but grey and fpungy, was found at Coblentz, after the explofion of a ball of fire. Journal de Phyfique de Gilbert, tom. vi. Silberfchlag relates having feen the refidue of an ignited globe, which prefented a gelatinous appearance, of a whitifh colour. The meteors called falling ftars, do not appear to differ from globes of fire; they leave behind them gelatinous mallee, STONE. mafles, falfely attributed to birds of prey, fince they con- tain nothing which announces an animal origin. If igneous globes do not always leave fimilar ‘refidues, it 1s owing to their being compafed of entirely combuttible elements, and to their being confequently diffipated before they reach the ground.. We may refer to: this kind of phenomenon, the globe of fire which, according to Geoffroy, burft in the Palace du Quefnoy on the 4th of January, 1717; that which was obferved in America in 1800, and in the county of Suffolk in 1802. . With thefe globes of fire may be clafled the fhowers of fire, which can only be diftinguifhed from them by their greater diffufion. In the fire-balls, the fame diffufed fubftance is concentrated in one mafs. A fhower of fire made great ravages in Germany in the year 823, and burnt up whole villages. Another fhower of the fame kind fell, in 1571, in the grand duchy of Hefle: after a dreadful explofion it flowed through the ftreets, but with- out caufing the deftru€tion of the houfes. A third fhower of fire took place, in 1678, at Sachfen-Haufen, and the in- flamed matter burnt half an hour in the ftreets before it was extinguifhed. Finally, that which fell over the city of Brunfwick in 1721, was fo violent, that they attempted in vain to extinguifh it by means of water. The difference remarked between fhowers of fire, and thofe of an oily fub- ftance, which have frequently occurred, appears to confitt in this,—the fubttance of the former is in a ftate of phof- phorefcence, which is not the cafe with the latter. We may place after thefe fingular fhowers, thofe of a mucila- ginous nature. As chemiltry fhews that mucilage ap- proaches to the nature of honey and fugar, we might refer the honey-dews, as they are called, to the fame phenomena, for it is difficult to confider them as excretions of plants, as fome have aflerted. One of thefe fhowers of dew took place at Ulm fo recently as 1802, and in fuch abundance, that every thing expofed to it, as well as the furface of ftagnant waters, was covered with it. It may, perhaps, be pre- fumed, that the matter of which meteoric {tones and fire- balls are formed, is fometimes precipitated, in a very minute {tate of divifion, in fhowers of fulphur or fand, aud what have been falfely called fhowers of blood. The fhower of brim{tone which fell at Copenhagen in 1646, was accompanied with heavy rain, and the air was infected with the fell of fulphur. A fhower of the fame kind alfo took place at Copenhagen in 1665, after a very violent ftorm: the fubftance precipitated, emitted a ftrong fmell of fulphur when thrown into the fire, and with fpirit of turpentine it formed a kind of balfam of ful- phur. In 1801, the rain which fell at Raitadt was fo fulphurous, that it was ufed to prepare matches. A red mineral fhower fell in Weftphalia in 1543, at Lowen in 1560, and at Embden in 1571: thedatter was fo exten- five, that over the circumference of to or 12 leagues, all bodies expofed to it were dyed red. Similar fhowers fell in Ruffia, Swabia, near the lake of Conttance, and at Lucarno, in Upper Italy, in the latter end of 1755. At Lucarno the atmofphere became quite red previoufly to the fhower. The rain was almoft as thick and heavy as fnow, and the refidue left by it was reddifh, with an earthy appearance. In Janmary 1810, a fimilar fhower fell in the mountains of Plac .tia; its firft appearance was white, but after fome claps of thunder it became red, and finally white again. In certain places it was of a flefh colour, but in others it was of a very deep red, and it always preferved its colour after having been melted. ‘There are too many teftimonies in favour of fhowers of fand having fallen, to allow us to deny the fa&. One was obferved at Bagdad in 930. (Quatre- mere Memoires fur ’ Egypt.) Long before it fell, the fky was darkened bya red cloud, from which an immenfe quan- tity of reddifh fand was precipitated, entirely different from the fands which exift in that country. A fhower of ferru- ginous rain was obferved in the Atlantic, lat. g5° and long. 32°, at a diftance of five or fix leagues from the main toned this fhower was preceded by a ttrong light ; it laited up- wards of nine hours, the air being calm during the time. Showers of fulphur appear to admit of a more eafy ex- planation than many of the above phenomena. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is conitantly emitted into the atmofphere from voleances and other fources; were this colleéted and exploded, or flowly burned, a quantity of liguid ful- phur would be precipitated. The writer in the Annales de Chimie, before referred to, has attempted to generalize the circumttances attending meteoric ftones, but he appears to want fufficient data to eitablith fome of his conclufions. «© Firft: The fall of thefe ftones,’’ he obferves, “¢is moft frequent in the months of June, July, and Auguit. Of 65 or 70 of thefe recorded fhowers of flone, nearly two-thirds have occurred in the above months; and the inftances of their occurrence in the winter months are very rare indeed. ‘© Secondly : Froma catalogue drawn up with great care it appears, that only feven initances occur of ftones falling between midnight and noon. On one occafion only, this phenomenon was obferved between 11 0’clock in the even- ing and 6 o’clock in the morning, whilft we have evidence of thirty-fix having taken place between noon and midnight, and the greater part of thefe fell between 3 o’clock in the afternoon and funfet.’? We may obferve, that the defcent of thefe ftones could not be fo frequently noticed in the night as during the day, and therefore we do not think the author’s conclufions on this head entitled to much notice. “ Thirdly: The number of thefe fhowers of itone de- creafes with the diftance from the equator. Thefe pheno- mena are more frequent in Italy, France, and Germany, than in the northern countries of Europe. “Fourthly : We know,” {ays the author above referred to, ‘of no falls of itones having taken place in cloudy weather, or during a high wind, or a heavy continued rain or {now.’’ The weather has been noticed during forty-three falls of ftones ; twenty-nine fell in warm and ferene weather, and two when the {ky prefented fome fcattered and infulated clouds ; the remaining twelve were accompanied by violent ftorms of rain and hail. Out of twenty-nine falls of {tones which took place in ferene weather, twenty feemed to iffue from a very extenfive but round cloud, black or variable in colour, ac- cording to the colour of the {tones themfelves. Thus, the cloud was white in the fall which took place at Burgos, and the {tones were alfo white. At all times the cloud feems effential to thefe meteors, for from it proceeds the noife which accompanies or precedes the fall of the ftones, as alfo the ftones themfelves. It may not be improper to remark, that the great {tone which fell on the wolds of Yorkthire, was unaccompanied with any meteor or light, and the fky was hazy. The progrefs of the great meteor in 1783, was unattended with any cloud; and though it exploded in various parts of its courfe, no defcent of ftones was noticed. The cloud which, from various authentic accounts, appears to be generally attendant on the fall of meteoric ftones, is fup- poled by fome philofophers to contain thefe elements in a vaporous ftate. ‘This cloud has fometimes been obferved to have a rapid motion round its centre. During a very con- fiderable fall of ftones in the department of the Lot and . Garonne, STONE. Garonne, in France, Sept. 5th, 1814, a {mall white round cloud, but greyifh in the centre, appeared to move with at rapidity over the diftriét where the {tones fell: ex- plofions, accompanied by lightning, immediately fucceeded : the fky in other parts was ferene: at the fame in{tant, tie cloud appeared to divide into three or four parts, and fall to the ground, leaving behind a train of rainbow-coloured light, with a red point at the top. The {tones in their fall appeared to diverge, {triking the ground obliquely 1n vari- ous direétions. They do not differ in their compofition from other meteoric ftones. We have thus endeavoured to fele& fome of the mott interelting facts that have been recently noticed in this department of meteorology ; and in the pre- fent ftate of information on the fubje&, it is of far greater importance to fciegce to collect facts, than to advance the moft elaborate fpeculations on the mode by which thefe fingular bodies are formed. It has been {tated by Mr. Bakewell, in his Introduétion to Geology, that what we already know with refpeét to the formation of ftones in the atmofphere, may elucidate, in his opinion, the appearance of new ftars, which have fhone for a few years and then difappeared. The fimpleft form of matter with which we are acquainted, is that of gas or vapour. *¢ Let us fora moment confider the elements of which all terreftrial fubftances are compofed as exilting in this fimple ftate, when the fiat of Almighty Power impreffed upon the whole the various affinities by which they coalefced, and formed a fluid or folid mafs. During their union, intenfe light and: heat would probably be evolved, prefenting to the diftant inhabitants of the univerfe the appearance of a ftar of great brilliancy, but of fhort duration. The fud- den concretion of itony maffes in the atmofphere, with the intenfe light attending their formation, may be analogous to the produ€tion of a planet.”” As we conceive, however, that the phenomena of the appearance and difappearance of flars are fatisfaétorily explained upon other principles, we fhall content ourfelves with referring to the publication above cited, and to the article Star. Stone, Moor. See Moor-Stone. Stone, Philofopher’s. See PuitosopweEr’s Stone. Stones, Portland, Pumice, Purbeck, and Roll-rich. See PortLanp, &c. Strong, Rocking or Logan, in Antiquity, a name given to a mafs of rocks, the uppermott of which, from refting on a {mail point, or pivot, was fufceptible of being moved, or rocked to and fro, with very little force. Thefe ftones appear to have been objects of curiofity, wonder, and fuper- ftition, in remote ages, and in different countries. Many of them are {till remaining in the mountainous parts of Eng- land, Wales, and Scotland, as well as on the European continent. Some of the ancient writers have noticed thefe fingular obje&ts ; and certain modern antiquaries have amufed themfelves, and trifled with their readers, in afligning to them different {upernatural properties. Pliny fays, that at Harpafa, atown of Afia, there was a rock of fuch a won- derful nature, that if touched with the finger it would fhake, but that it could not be removed from its place with the whole force of the body. Ptolemy Hepheltion men- tions a Gygonian ftone near the ocean, which might be agitated by the italk of an afphodel, but could not be re- moved by the greateft human force. Dr. Stukeley confiders the word Gygonius to be purely Celtic; and fays, that Gwingog fignifies Motitans, the rocking-ftone. Although it is very evident that mott of thefe rocking-ftones are {triGly natural in form and fituation, yet it is generally fuppofed that others are artificial, or placed in their re{pective pofitions by human art. In the parifh of St. Levin, Cornwall, on the coalt, on a promontory called Caftle Treryn, are three groups of rocks, on the top of one of which was formerly a very large ftone, fo evenly poifed, that by a very flight preffure it might be moved from one fide to another. It was popularly called the Logan-ftone, and has generally been vifited as an ebjeé& of curiofity ; but it is now immov- able. There are other rocking-ttones, which are fo peculiarly fhaped and fituated, that Dr. Borlafe, and fome other anti- quaries, confider they were erected by human {trength. Of this kind the door thinks the great Quoit, or Karn- lehau, in the parifh of Tywidnek, Cornwall, to be. It is thirty-nine feet in circumference, and four feet thick at a medium, and ftands on a fingle pedeftal. There is alfo a remarkable ftone of the fame kind on the ifland of St. Agnes, in Scilly. The under rock is ten feet fix inches high, forty-feven feet round the middle, and touches the ground with no more than half its bafe. ‘The upper rock refts on one point only, and is fo nicely balanced, that two or three men with a pole can move it. It is eight feet fix inches high, and forty-feven feet in circumference. On the top there is a bafin hollowed out, three feet eleven inches in diameter at a medium, but wider at the brim, and three feet deep. From the globular fhape of this upper ftone, the doétor thinks it highly probable that it was rounded by human art, and perhaps even placed on its pedeftal by the {trength of man. In Sithney parifh, near Hellton, in Corn- wall, ftood the famous Logan or rocking-ftone, commonly called Mén-Amber, g. d. Men-an-Bar, or the top-ftone. It was eleven feet in length, fix feet wide, and four feet deep, and fo nicely poifed on another ftone, that * a little child (as Mr. Scawen in his MS. fays) could inftantly move it, and all travellers that came this way defired to be- hold it; but in the time of Cromwell, when all monumental things became defpicable, one Shrubfall, then governor of Pendennis, by much ado, caufed it to be undermined, and thrown down, to the great grief of the country.”? Borlafe fays that it has marks of the tool on it. ‘There is a rocking- ftone in Perthfhire, near Balvaird Cattle, in the Ochil hills, Scotland, on the eftate of Mr. Murray of Conland. That thefe rocking-ftones were employed by the Druids, to furprife and deceive the credulous, is very probable ; but tradition has not informed us for what exprefs purpofe they were intended. Toland thinks « that the Druids made the people believe that ¢hey only could move them, and that by a miracle ; by which pretended miracle they condemned or acquitted the accufed, and often brought criminals to con- fefs what could in no other way be extorted from them.”? Carew, in his “ Survey of Cornwall,” 4to., thus apoftro- phifes the Logan-itone : «¢ Be thou thy mother Nature’s work, Or proof of giant’s might, Worthlefs and rugged though thou fhow, Yet art thou worth the fight. This hugy rock one finger’s force Apparently will move ; But to remove it, many ftrengths Shall all like feeble prove.” Borlafe, in his “ Antiquities, &c. of Cornwall,” folio, 1769, has devoted a chapter to this fubjeé&, and gives alfo views of different rocking-{tones. Stone, Rotten. See TrRIpott. Stone, Sanguine. See Ssneuine Stone. Stone, Serpent. See Cornu Ammonis, and AMMONITE, Stones, Shoad. See Suoap-Stones. Stone, Toad. See Buronira and Toap-Stone. 3 ; Sronz, i Dea 6 See Tovucu-Stone. Stone, Whet. See Cos and Wuet-Stone. Stones, Charaders on Tombs. See CHARACTERS. Stones, Engraving on. See ENGRAVING. Stone, Face of. See Facr. Stone, Oil of. See Ow of Stone. Srone, Sculpture in. See ScuLprure. Stones, Staining of. See Solutions, &c. of Stones, and Manrsve. Srone of Scandal. See SCANDAL. Srones, in Mythology, were objects of religious worfhip among the ancients, before ftatuary was invented. They were unhewn fhapelefs mafles, called by Sanchoniathon Betilia. (See Bzrytos.) Paufanias fpeaks of the ftatues of Hercules and of Cupid, which were merely fuch mailes of ftone. He adds, that there were feen, even in one place, 30 {quare ftones, which had the names of fo many divinities. Stones for Mills, Preparation of, the means of forming them for the purpofe of grinding. In fmall corn-mills, where only one pair of ftones is in ufe, they are, it is faid, roughed on the furface, to enable them to tear, bruife, and reduce the grain, by the ufe of a {mall hand-pick. Stones thus prepared and dreffed, ferve well for making of oatmeal, which is beft and moft relifhed when rough, and large in the grain; but they are not capable of grinding barley or peas to that finenefs of flour which is neceflary for fome ufes. It is requifite to have a feparate pair of ftones for this purpofe, which are dreffed on the furface, with a {mall chiffel, in grooves running in from the cir- cumference to the centre, as in the ftones of wheat-mills ; the edges of thefe grooves clip the grain like fciflars, and there is no interftice through which any of the grain can efcape, until it is reduced to the required finenefs of meal which is proper. Strone-Dike, in Agriculture, that fort of dike or mound which is formed with itone and earth. Thefe dikes fhould, it is faid, confift of a double face to two-thirds of their height, and the other third be of fingle ftones, built up in an open form and.manner, fo as to hang firmly on each other. They are made in the Highland fheep diftris, where this manner of forming them is much had recourfe to, five or five feet and a half high from the furface of the ground. A dike thus built, when well executed, and filled with through-bands, bids defiance, it is faid, to moft kinds of animals, none of which are fond of venturing over it; whereas a green fod on the top of a double-faced wall in- vites the fheep to attempt clearing it, which they not un- frequently do with facility. Thefe dikes are equally dur- able and cheap ; even more fo than the turf or fod covered or coped ftone-walls, while they are greatly more effetual. They are the moft proper for confining of fheep ; and on farms purely of this kind, are perhaps the belt fort of con- trivance for reftraining them of any yet known. They have different names in different fheep diftriGts. The term is fometimes written ftone-dyke. Srone-Drain. See Sprinc-Drain and Surrace-Drain. Stone- Picker. See Picker. Srone-Pickers, the name of fuch perfons as are em- ployed in picking ftones from off the ground. In order to prevent the lols of time in filling and emptying the baf- kets, and that of having recourfe to the team, the ufe of one horfe and a light cart is advifed, which attending feven or eight women, boys, and girls, may run over forty acres in about four days. It is advifed by Mr. A. Young, that conftantly in a dry feafon, an opportunity fhould be taken to ftone-pick the grafs and clover fields intended for mow- Stone, Touch. STO ing. In this work, no ftones are, he fays, however, to be taken, but fuch as would impede the {cythe. It is often the cafe, he adds, that the pickers, who generally like this work, will over-pick if they are not attended to, and propofe to pick fields which are not to be mown; but this is on no account to be permitted, if the ftones be not much wanted. It has been often remarked, and isa known faét, that too much flone-picking has done a very fenfible mifchief, in many cafes where picked by authority of par- liament for turnpike roads. And Mr. Macro, of Suffolk, afcertained it experimentally. Obfervations have been made in other places, which clearly fhew that the ftones fhould not be wholly picked off many forts of land. Stone-Roller. See Rovier. Stone Arabia, in Geography, a fettlement in Montgomery county, New York, on the N. fide of the river Mohawk, four miles from it, begun by fome Germans ; fituated on an emi- nence about 54 miles W. of Albany. ‘The foil is excellent, and the people induftrious. It has two churches, a Cal- viniftic and a Dutch Reformed. Stone Arabia is a part of the poft-townfhip called Palatine, (which fee,) 51 miles from Albany, erected from the W. part in 1808. This townfhip is well watered, and has many fine mill-feats, the land of which is under high cultivation. It was firft fettled by fome German familics in 1724. Palatine village has about 35 dwellings, fome ftores, &c. and a ftone church; 55 miles from Albany. In 1810 the population of Palatine was Ill. ; Stone Crees, ariver of Welt Florida, which runs into the Miffifippi, N. lat. 32° 8! W. long. 91° 13!. Stone Jndians, Indians of North America, fituated on the Affiniboin river. See Assin1rBoin. Srone J/land, a {mall ifland near the E. coaft of New- foundland, near Cape Broyle, and one of the three iflands which lie off Caplin bay. Srone Mountain, a mountain that lies between the ftates of Tenneflee and Virginia, N. lat. 36° go’. E. long. 81° 4ol. Stone’s River, a river of Tenneflee, which runs into the Cumberland, fix miles N.E. of Nafhville. N. lat. 36° 5’, W. long. 87° 9!. Srone’s Fort Gut, a creek on the S.W. fide of the ifland of St. Chriftopher’s, E. of Old Road bay, and between that and Bloody Point, with a fort on a point of land, on the W. fide. Stone Reef, a {mall ifland and rocks of Denmark, in the Little Belt, near the N. coaft of the ifland of Alfen. Stone River, a river of North America, which runs into lake Athapefcow. Srone, in Commerce, denotes a certain quantity or weight of fome commodities. A {tone of beef, at London, is the quantity of eight pounds; in Herefordfhire, twelve pounds; in the North, fixteen pounds. A ftone of glafs is five pounds; of wax, eight pounds. A ftone of wool (according to the ftatute of 11 Hen. VIT.) is to weigh fourteen pounds ; yet in fome places it is more, in others lefs; as in Gloucetterfhire, fifteen pounds; in Herefordfhire, twelve pounds. Among horfe-courfers, a ftone is the weight of fourteen pounds, The ftone troy, in Scotland, contains fixteen pounds, the pound being two marks, or fixteen ounces. The ftone, called fein in Germany, varies very much in different parts of the continent: at Amiterdam, a ftein or {tone is eight pounds: at Berlin, the centner or quintal weighs Se a 8 weighs five fteins or ftones, each of twenty-two pounds: at Hamburgh and Prague, a ftone of flax is twenty pounds, and a ftone of wool or feathers is ten pounds. See WeicurT. Strong, in Medicine. See Lirnotomy. Stones of Animals, in Rural Economy, the organs of eration in them, which, in all thofe that are intended ‘or this purpole, fhould be quite in a complete ftate of pro- du@tion, and not inthe rigald condition. See TrsticLEs. Stone-Fruit, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology. See RUPA. Sroxe-Mummy. See Raury Mummy. Stone-Par/ley, ii Botany. See Buzon. Stone-Parfley, Baftard. See Sison. Stone-Pho/phorus. See LirnopuospHoRus. Stone-Plant. See Lirnornyron. Stone-Sucker, in Ichthyology. See PETROMYZON. Stone-Ware. See Porrery. Strone-Blue, a preparation ufed in wafhing of linen. See Bive, Inpico, and SmMatr. Srone-Brafb, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to a loofe fhivery fort of foil or land. Tt has a furface of ater or lefs depth, moftly of a loofe, dry, friable fort of indy; lime-ftony, chalky, or loamy materials, which feem to be formed from abraded matters of thefe ftony kinds, and abounding with many fragments of them. In many dif- triéts and places, the lands of this fort are chiefly of the lime- ftone and chalk kinds. It is a fort of land that prevails much in fome counties, as in Oxfordfhire, Somerfetfhire, Bedfordfhire, and probably in fome others. It is fometimes of a fpringy, fpewy nature, refting upon deep beds of a blue yey, marly quality, under which is a vein of white marle, extremely rich in calcareous matter, and below that rock of the rough white lime-ftone kind. The blue and white matters have occafionally been fpread out over the furfaces of thefe lands, and found very beneficial. Thefe lands, in fome cafes, form excellent foils for the turnip hufbandry, and are very produGtive in wheat, efpecially where they are of the more calcareous kinds. anfwer well for inclofing too in fome inttances, in- ftead of being cultivated on the common field plan, as is {till too much the cafe in many places, notwithftanding the im- provements which hufbandry has lately undergone. A variety of different covenants are fuppofed neceflary for tenants in cultivating ftone-brafh farms, as may be feen in the Corre&ted Report of the Agriculture of the County of Oxford. See Som. Stone-Break, the name of a perennial plant of the weed-kind, common in pafture grounds. The root has a fharpifh and aromatic tafte. The ftalks are round, ftreaked, and reddifh towards the bottom. The leaves are {mooth, of a dark green, and divided twice, into long, narrow, fharp fegments. The foot{talks are membranous at the bafe. The flowers grow in loofe umbels, and are of a pale yellow co- Jour. "The feeds are oval, ftreaked and red at the top. It is 2 plant of the faxifrage kind, which has been fuppofed bene- ficial in meadow lands, as improving the qualities of the cheefe and butter which are made from the milk of the cows which are paftured upon them. Srone-Chatter, in Ornithology, the name of a {mall bird of the cenanthe, or fallow-froch kind, the motacilla rubi- cola of Linnzus, called by fome authors rubetra and mu/- sicapa, and in fome cafes the ftone/mich and the moor-titling. See Moracitra. The head, neck, and throat are black, but on both fides ‘of the latter there is a white bar; the feathers on the back fare edged with tawny ; the lower part of the back, juft Vou. XXXIV. STO above the rump, is white ; the end and exterior fide of the two outermolt feathers of the tail are of a pale ruft-colour, the reft are black; the breaft is of a deep reddifh-yellow ; the belly of a lighter hue; the quill-feathers dufky, edged with dull red; thofe next the body marked with a white {pot near their bottoms; and the coverts of the wings are adorned with another. ‘The head of the female is ferrugi- nous, {potted with black, and the colours in general lefs vivid: in both fexes the legs are black. Thefe birds are common, during fummer, on heaths and gorfy grounds, but in winter difperfe into marfhes, &c. with- out quitting the ifland: they make a very loud and often repeated noife. Pennant. Stong-Crop, in Botany. See Sepum. Stone-Crop Tree. See Cuenopopium. Stons-Curlew, in Ornithology, the Englifh name for the tedicnemus, a bird of the colour of the curlew. See Stone- CuRLEW. Srone-Smich, 2 common Englifh name for that fpe- cies of cenanthe, ®hich we more frequently call the flone- chatter. STONEHAM, in Geography, a township of Middlefex county, Maflachufetts, incorporated in 1725, and containing 467 inhabitants ; 10 miles N. of Bofton. STONEHAVEN, a fea-port town in the parifh of Dunottar, and county of Kincardine, Scotland, is 107 miles N. by E. from Edinburgh. It confitts of two large ftreets of houfes, built on feus granted by the earls marifchal, within whofe eftate, before their forfeiture, it was fituated. There is a fine harbour formed by a natural bafin, defended by ahigh rock upon the S.E., which extends into the fea, and upon the N.E. by a quay, very convenient for the un- lading of goods. A manufaGure for houfe-linen has been eftablifhed here, and the town has been improving for fome years paft. The fheriff’s court for the county was removed from Kincardine to Stonehaven in 1600, and in confequence of the gaol for the county, and county courts held here, the town is much . benefited. The public revenue of Stonehaven confitts chiefly of fhore dues, which amount to about 45/. annu- ally. A great deal of lime is brought to this part ; and from four annual fairs, the revenues of the town are aug- mented. Stonehaven is a borough of barony, of which the jurifdie- tion is by the charter vefted in magiftrates chofen by the fuperior and feuers. In 1792 the town contained 1072 in- habitants, independent of the additional {uburb.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. iv. Carlifle’s Topographical Diftionary of Scotland, 2 vols. 4to. 1813. STONEHENGE, in Antiquity, an aflemblage of up- right and proftrate {tones on Salifbury plain, England, fup- poted to be the remains of an ancient Druidical temple, which claims particular notice in this work, as being often referred to in foreign and Englifh books, and from having been very irinecttranely deferibed in moft of thofe publications. Next to the vaft and far-famed pyramids of Egypt, Stonehenge, and other remains of the fame clafs, rank among the moft curious and moft remote monuments of antiquity. ‘Thefe are all anterior to written evidence, and are confequently involved in the moft abftrufe myftery. Hence they have alfo occafioned much fpeculation; and many volumes and eflays have been written by Englifh and continental anti- quaries, with a view of explaining the origin and ufes of fuch ftru€tures. On the prefent occafion, it is intended to defcribe clearly and explicitly what Stonehenge is, and what it has been; to detail the opinions of different writers on the fubje&t, and thence endeavour to deduce a probable Mm and ‘ STONEHENGE. and rational inference refpeéting this and other fimilar monuments. Stonehenge, fituated about two miles directly weft of Amefbury, and feven north of Salifbury, in Wiltthire, is an ancieut and certainly very extraordinary monument of a remote age. From its fingularity, and the mylftery attend- ing its origin and appropriation, it has excited more furprife and curiofity than any other relic of antiquity in Great Britain. When viewed at a diftance it appears but a {mall and trifling obje&t, for its bulk and character are loft in the extenfive {pace which furrounds it; and even on a near examinatioa, it generally fails to altonifh or gratify the expetations of the ftranger, who ufually vilits it with ex- aggerated prepofleffions. To behold this ‘* wonder of the weit,”? as it has been termed, with intereft and fatisfaétion, it fhould be viewed with an artiit’s eye, and contemplated with a mind ftored with antiquarian and hiftorical know- ledge. In various parts of the united egdon and alfo in foreign ftates, feveral circular erections of upright {tones are to be found, fome of which confift of a fingle, and others of complex circles; but Stonehenge is of a diftin® and different charaCter and clafs, and is, we believe, wholly unlike any other monument now remaining in Europe. Many of the ftones in this temple have been {quared or hewn by art; and on the top of the outer circle has been raifed a continued feries of {quared ftones, attached to the uprights by mortifes and tenons, 7. e. regular cavities in the hori- zontal ftones, and projecting points on the perpendicular ones ; whereas nearly all other examples, of what is gene- rally called Druidical circles, are compofed of rough, un- hewn ftones, and are without impotts. By the plans, view, elevations, &c. in Plate Stonehenge, it is prefumed the reader will be enabled to comprehend clearly and readily the original and prefent form, arrangement, and proportions of Stonehenge. A is the ground plan of the ftones, as remaining in 1816: the darker parts fhew thofe that are ftanding, and the Jight tints the fallen ftones, or fragments ; whilit the dotted lines indicate the impotts, or ftones refting on the uprights. B is a view of the itructure from the fouth-weit, fhewing part of the ditch and vallum ; alfo two ftones attached to the vallum, and remote from the body of the temple. C is a geometrical elevation on the north-weft fide, to fhew the diftance between the temple and the vallum c, the ftone d within the ditch, and the ftone a, {till farther from the temple. Thefe two {tones, one now ftanding, a, and the other fallen, d, it is prefumed, formed part of a long avenue, fimilar to others at Avebury (fee Avesury); 4, a barrow; c, the vallum, rifing on the outfide of the facred area. D is a ground plan of the temple, as {uppofed, by Dr. Smith, to be in its original ftate. E is a perfpective elevation from the fame plan. F is a feGtion of the work on the line A B of plan D. The prefent appearance of this monument (fee view B, taken from the fouth-weit) is that of a confufed heap of erect and fallen ftones. The original arrangement of thefe (fee plan D, view E, and elevation C) may, however, be readily under- ftood ; for by the polition and fituation of the yet ftanding and proftrate members, we are enabled to judge of the number and {cite of thofe which have been removed. The whole confifted of two circular and two other curved rows, or arrangements of itones, the forms and pofitions of which are laid down in the plan, elevation, and fection, D, E, and F. (See Plate Stonehenge.) Horizontal ftones, or impotts, were laid all round, in a continued order, on the outer circle ; and five fimilar impofts on ten uprights of the third row. Ac- cording to the plan referred to, Dr. Smith reprefents two other {maller trilithons, as forming part of the third row; The whole is furrounded by a ditch and vallum of earth, con- nected with which are three other ftones. The vallum does not exceed fifteen feet in height, and is exterior to the ditch, Through this line of circumvallation there appears to have been one grand entrance from the north-eaft fide, and this is decidedly marked by two banks and ditches, called the Avenue. Approaching Stonehenge in this dire&tion, the attention is firft attra€ted by an immenfe unchiflelled ftone, called «* The Friar’s Heel;’? which is now in a leaning polition, and meafures about fixteen feet in height, C, a. Immediately within the vallum is another ftone, lying on the ground, three fides of which bear the fame marks of tools as the large uprights, and was evidently once ftanding. In length it meafures twenty-one feet two inches, of which three feet fix inches appear to have been formerly under ground when it ftood upright. Its diftance from the ftone laft-mentioned is one hundred feet ; and it is nearly the fame diltance from the outfide of the outermolt circle of the monument. Each impolt of this row has two mortifes in it, to correfpond with two tenons on the top of each ver- tical flone. The impofts were connetted together in fuck a manner, as to form a continued feries of architraves. The uprights in this circle differ from each other in their forms and fizes ; but their general height is about fourteen feet, and the meafure of their fides feven feet by three. The fpace between them alfo varies a little ; that between the entrance-{tones (fee Plan D, a) is five feet, being fome- what wider than in the others. The diameter of this circle is one hundred feet, and the number of upright ftones it originally contained, thirty ; of which feventeen are {till ftand- ing, but there are no more than fix impotts, (Plan A, g.) At the diftance of eight feet three inches from this outer circle, is an interior row, which, Dr. Stukeley remarks, con- fifted in its original ftate of forty upright ftones. Wood, in his account of Stonehenge, {tates their amount at twenty- nine only, and aflerts that they were formerly covered with impolts ; but Smith, in his “ Choir Gaur,’ {pecifies thirty. The ttones of this circle are much {maller, and more irre- gular in their fhapes, than thofe of the outermoft row, and alfo differ from them in fpecies. The number ftanding is only eight, but there are the remains of twelve others lying on the ground. A few particulars refpeéting this circle claim attention. Dr. Stukeley, in his ground plan of Stonehenge, has placed the two ftones at the entrance, (Plan D, 4, é,) a little within the range of the others, and ob- ferves, ‘ that the two {tones of the principal entrance of this circle, corre{pondent to thofe of the outer circle, are broader and taller, and fet at a greater diftance from each other, being rather more than that of the principal entrance into the outer circle. It is evident, too, that they are fet fomewhat more inward than the reft: fo as that their outward face ftands in the line that marks the inner circum- ference of the inner circle.’? A ittone lying near the above, and apparently belonging to this circle, refembles the impoft of a {mall trilithon, and moft probably gave rife to the aflertion of Wood, that all the ftones of the fmaller circles hadimpotts. See Plan A, g. : Within the circles jult defcribed are arranged two inner rows of {tones, one ef which conttitutes the grandelt portion of Stonehenge. It was formed by five diftin& trilithons, or two large upright ftones, with a third laid over them as an impoft. Dr. Smith conjectured that this arrangement confilted of feven pairs of uprights, with an impoit to each pair; whilit Dr. Stukeley gave them the name of trilithons, or three flones. The largeft trilithon was placed in the centre, oppofite theentrance, and meafured, 4 when STONEHENGE. when ftanding, exclufive of the impoft, twenty-one feet fix inches in height (Plan D, d,): thofe next it, on each fide, were about feventeen feet two inches (D, ¢,¢): but the others were not more than fixteen feet three inches (D, f,f). Thus we perceive a progreflive rife in the height of thefe trilithons. Befides, the itones are evidently more regular in their fhapes, and more carefully formed, than thoie in the outer circle. At prefent, we find that only two of thefe trilithons are perfect. (Plan A, 2, and 3.) One of the uprights is {tanding at 4; but leans inwards, and refts on 10. The next trilithon, 55, fell down in the year 1787, and it is remarkable, that this is the only alteration recorded of Stonehenge. At 6, one of the uprights is ftanding ; but its correfponding ftone and the impoit have fallen, and are broken into feveral pieces. ji The interior row of ftones which next claims attention, con- fifted, according to Stukeley, of nineteen uprights, without impotts ; but their original number is differently {tated by other authors. Thefe {tones “ incline to a pyramidical form.’ The moft perfect among them, according to the meafurement of fir Richard Hoare, is feven feet and a half high, twenty-three inches wide at the bafe, and decreafes to twelve inches at the top. Another is remarkable as having a regular groove from top to bottom, and as being « bevelled almoft to an angle on the inner fide.”? For what purpofe the groove has been formed, it is impoffible to con- jecture ; and it is equally difficult to fay whether the hollow has been formed by nature or art. (D, g; and A, Io.) The altar-flone, as it is ufually called, lies flat on the ground, and occupies the cove, or adytumof the temple. Two other ftones belonging to this monument remain to be no- ticed: they are fituated clofe to and within the vallum, one on the fouth-eaft fide, and the other on the north-weft fide; the former meafures nine feet in height, and has fallen from its bafe backwards on the vallum; but the latter is not more than four feet high; and both are rude and unhewn. Two {mall hollows likewife appear adjoining the bank, which merit particular attention in a defcription of Stone- henge. Dr. Stukeley confiders them to have been the {cites of two ftone vafes, and the cavities round them are con- jeGtured to have received the blood of victims. The fallacy of the doétor’s opinions, however, on this fubje@, is fuffi- ciently proved by the inveltigations of fir Richard Hoare, who, upon digving into them, found one to contain a fimple interment of bones. The total number of ftones of which Stonehenge was compofed, according to Dr. Smith’s plan and calculation, in its complete ftate, was one hundred and twenty-nine. Thus, the outer circle contained thirty, with thirty impoits; the fecond, or inner circle, thirty ; the third interior row four- teen, and feven impotts ; and the fourth interior row thirteen: the remainder are the altar-ftone, the three ftones adjoining the agger, and the large ftone in the avenue. Natural Quality of the Stones. — Thofe of the outer circle, and third row, with the ftone in the avenue, and thofe ad- joining the vallum, are, according to Dr. Townfon, in Traé&s and Obfervations on Natural Hiltory, &c. all ‘ of a pure, fine- grained, compaé fand-ftone, and only differ a little in their colour ; fome of them being white, and others inclining to yellow.”” Thefe ‘tones refemble precifely in their quality the grey-weathers, and numerous other detached maffes which lee on the furface of the Downs, in the vicinity of Avebury and Marlborough. The fecond circle, and the in- terior row, confilt of “a fne- rained grinftein,’’ inter{perfed with black hornblende, felfpar, quartz, and chlorite, ex- ting four in the circle; one of which is a filiceous “fehiftus, another an argillaceous {chiftus, and the others horn-{tone, with {mall fpecks of felfpar and pyrites. —The flab, or altar-ftone, is different from all thefe, being a kind of * grey cos, a very fine-grained calcareous fand-ftone,”? which itrikes fire with fteel, and contains fome minute {pangles of filver mica. Many perfons have abfurdly fuppofed that thefe ftone’ are artificial, and formed in moulds. The myltery of Stonehenge, the legendary ftories con- neéted with it, and the natural and artificial features of the {urrounding plains, are certainly calculated to make ttrong impreflions on the mind of every fpeétator. The area of the temple, as may be readily fuppofed, has excited the attention of the curious in a high degree, and, confequently, has been examined with confiderable care by different anti- quaries. Stukeley, indeed, informs us, that a fablet of tin was found there in the reign of Henry VIII., and would with it to be believed that it was a memorial of the founders, becaufe the characters engraved upon it were unintelligible to the moft learned antiquaries of the age. It is much to be regretted that this relic is loft. Mr. Cunnington in- veftigated this {fpot*and the adjoining barrows with great care, but could only find a few fragments of Roman and Bri- tifh pottery, with fome charred wood and animal bones ; fuch as were dug up in the vicinity of the Roman Britifh habita- tions on other parts of the plain. Avenue and Curfus.—But though the area of this monu- ment affords few materials of sateeelt the furrounding p/ainde- ferves particular attention. Thisiscovered witha profufion of barrows, unparalleled in any {pot of fimilar extent in Eng- land, and probably in the world. Many of thefe were opened by fir Richard Hoare and his indefatigable coadjutor, Mr. Cunnington, and were found to contain, in fome inftances, cilts filled with burnt bones, and in others entire {keletons, with various relics of Britifh art. Some other objeéts here, how- ever, befide the barrows, prefent themfelves to our notice. The principal of thefe are the Avenue and the Cur/us, the former of which has been previoufly noticed. It is a nar- row {trip of raifed ground, bounded on each fide by a flight bank of earth, and extending in a ftraight line from the entrance through the vallum of Stonehenge on the north- ealt, to the diftance of five hundred and _ninety-four yards, at which fpot it divides into two branches, one of which continues fouthward, and is feen between two rows of barrows, while the other proceeds northward, and approaches within a few yards of the curfus. The lait is a very curious and intere{ting appendage to Stonehenge, if fuch it can be properly confidered, and certainly ranks among the molt perfec veitiges of this fort that are to be found in our country. It is a flat tract of land, bounded by two parallel banks and ditches, and is fituated about half a mile N.E. of the temple; it meafures one mile five furlongs and one hundred and feventy-fix yards in length, and one hun- dred and ten yards in breadth. Its direétion is from eaft to welt, and at the former extremity is a mound of earth, re- fembling a long barrow, which {ftretches entirely acrofs it. The weltern extremity is deflitute of any mound like that at the ealtern end; but there are two barrows, irregularly placed within the area of the curfus, a part of which ap- pears alfo to be cut off by a flight bank. The original purpofe of this it is difficult to determine, for we can {carcely fuppofe that if (as would feem moft probable from the exiftence of the mound) the chariots ftarted from the eaft end, they would drive over this bank to the termination of the courfe at the weft end. We fhould therefore be in- clined to think it had been raifed at a later period for fome objeét diftin& from racing, did we not perceive that another fimilar bank is thrown acrofs a fecond and fmaller curfus, which is fituated at the diftance of nearly a mile from the Mm 2 . larger STONEHENGE. larger one. From the near refemblance of the above work to the curfus of the Romans, it feems reafonable to fuppofe, that if thefe earth-works were not formed by that people, they were made in imitation of them, and by a clafs of people familiar with their manners and cuftoms, Having thus given a full, and, it is hoped, clear account of what Stonehenge has been and is, it will be neceflary to re- view the writings of thofe antiquaries who have publifhed their opinions on the fubjeét. See Hiproprome. Writers on Stonehenge. —The earlieft account of Stonehenge occurs in the writings of Nennius, who lived in the eighth cen- tury. He narrates the {tory of the maflacre of four hundred and fixty Britifh nobles, at a conference between king Vorti- gern and Hengitt, at or near the {pot on which our monument 1s fituated, and attributes its erection to the Britons, who thereby endeavoured to perpetuate the memory of this tra- gical event. The hiltorical Triads of the Welfh alfo refer itssorigin to the fame caufe, and relate that it was con{tructed by Merlin, at the defire of Aurelius Ambrofius, the fuccef- for of Vortigern, after he had punifhed the perfidy of Hen- gift. This likewife is the account of Walter de Mapes, a Welth chronicler, who is very circumftantial in his nar- rative. Jeffery of Monmouth is another monkifh hiftorian, who gives, with fome flight variation, a fimilar account of the origin of Stonehenge. The fame ftory is alfo noticed by fome other authors about the fame era, and particularly by Giraldus Cambrenfis, who farther relates that, during his tour through Ireland, he ‘¢ faw with his own eyes’’ an im- menfe monument of {tones on the plains of Kildare, or Kil- laraus, correfponding in appearance and conftruétion with that of Stonehenge. Henry of Huntingdon calls this ftruc- ture one of the wonders of Britain; but difbelieving the fkory of Merlin, candidly confeffes that no one can devife by what means, or for what purpofe, fuch a work could have been ereéted. Camden, the great antiquary and choro- grapher, characterizes this monument as an ‘ infana fub- ftruétio,”? or a wild {tru€ture. His defcription of it is fo very erroneous and defe¢tive, that we doubt much if he ever faw the place. On the quettion of its origin and ufes he forbears to give any opinion. Such is the {canty information which certain old writers, commonly called hiftorians, furnifh relative to this curious mo- nument of ancient times. Modern authors on the fubje& have thrown afide every item of hiftorical information, and have raifed their theories concerning it folely on fpeculative foundations. Of thefe theories, that of Inigo Jones firft de- mands attention. His eflay was undertaken at the defire of king James I., who commanded the ‘ author to produce of his own practice in archite€ture, and experience in antiqui- ties abroad, what poflibly he could difcover concerning this of Stonehenge.’ Jones did not, however, live to complete the propofed work ; but his fon-in-law, John Webb, finifhed and laid it before the public in one {mall folio volume, with a portrait of the author, and feveral plates, A.D. 1655. In this work he endeavours to fhew that Stonehenge was a temple of the Romans, dedicated to Celus : but unfortunately for Jones’s theory, he has committed palpable errors in the form and arrangement of the ftones, and has thus rendered his defcriptions and aflertions untenable and untrue. Jones’s work was fucceeded, in 1663, by an anfwer and differtation from the pen of Dr. Charleton, who contends that Stonehenge was an erection of the Danes; but, unfortu- nately for his theory, the monument exilted long previous to the fettlement of any Danes in Britain. Nennius, who firft notices it, wrote anterior to the year 800, at which period that people had not entered Wilthhire. 10 Dr. Charleton’s differtation introduced a voluminous eflay in f{upport of Jones, by his editor, Mr. Webb, in folio, 1665. This volume abounds with dulnefs, fophiftry, miftatement, and prolixity. It was followed by a volume from Aylett Sammes, who, after recapitulating the former fuppofitions refpeéting Stonehenge, remarks, ‘€ why may not thefe giants (alluding to the title of Chorea gigantum given to our monument) be the Phoenicians; and the art of ereét- ing thefe ftones, inftead of the ftones themfelves, brought from the furthermoft parts of Africa, the known habitations of the Pheenicians.’? This idea, however plaufible it may feem, completely fails, from the want of evidence to prove the fettlement of thofe people in England. Bishop Gibfon, in his edition of Camden’s Britannia, 1694, after oppofing the fuppofitions of Jones and Charle- ton, concludes with obferving, that * one need make no {cruple to affirm, that it (Stonehenge) is a Britifh monu- ment, fince it does not appear that any other nation had fo much footing in this kingdom, as to be authors of fuch a rude and yet magnificent pile.” T’he learned prelate is fol- lowed in the fame opinion by moft fucceeding writers, though they differ from each other in the period of its ori- gin, and the purpofes of its ere¢tion. Dr. Stukeley, more fanciful than correét in his reafonings, publifhed a folio volume in 1740 on the fubje@, containing feveral plates. In this volume he attributes the work to the Druids; but, inftead of refting his theory upon folid Britifh ground, he takes up a large portion of his eflay with irre- levant diflertation and {peculation. Wood, an archite& of Bath, devoted much time to make plans of this ftructure, which he publifhed with an effay, in 8vo. 1741. His opinion is, that it was a temple, erefted by the Britifh Druids about a hundred years before the Chriftian era. William Cooke, M.A. in a treatiie entitled « An En- quiry into the Patriarchal and Druidical Rehgion, Tem- ples, &c.’? 1775, fuppofes Stonehenge to have been a place held facred by the Druids, and appropriated to a meeting of great aflemblies on civil or religious occafions ; and adds, ‘“‘ the world does not afford a nobler {fpot. Its fituation is upon a hill, in the midit of an extended plain in the fouthern part of the kingdom, covered with numerous herds and flocks of fheep, in which refpe&t the employment and the plain itfelf are patriarchal; where the air is perfectly falu- brious, and the yielding turf fine as the furface of a bowling-green.”” Dr. Smith, whofe work on Stonehenge, called « Choir Gaur,” appeared in 1770, after giving an account of the theories of Jones and others, with copious extracts, and a minute defcription of the monument itfelf, fays that he con- fiders it to have been of Druidical origin, and ereGted as well for the purpofes of aftronomical obfervation as of reli- gious ceremonials. . King, in his “« Munimenta Antiqua,’”’ conjectures that this monument was conftruéted in the very lateft ages of Druidifm, while that religion was ftruggling againit the overwhelming tide of Chriftianity. This gentleman, how- ever, had fuch ftrong prejudices and antipathies againft every thing pagan, that he could never mention this, or any other anti-chriftian temple, but in terms of repro- bation. Mr. Davies, the learned author of * Celtic Refearches,’’ and of the *« Mythology, &c. of the Britifh Druids,” enters more profoundly, perhaps, than any other author into the queition in the latter work refpeGting the origin and appro- priation of Stonehenge. He fuppofes that this ftructure, and Silbury-hill, (which has already been deferibed under the ar- ticles Avesury and Barrow,) are two of the three nei allude STONEHENGE. alluded to, in 2 Welth Triad, as conitituting the greatelt labours of the ifland of Britain, i. ¢ ¢ lifting the fo of Ketti ;”” “ building the work of Emrys;" and ‘ piling the mount of the aflemblies.’”? That Stonehenge is really a Druidical ftru&ture, the fame learned writer farther remarks, «is evident from the language in which it was defcribed, and the great veneration in which it was held by the primitive bards, thofe immediate defcendants and avowed difciples of the Britifh Druids. As the great fanctuary of the domi- nion, or metrupolitan temple of our heathen ancettors, fo complex in its plan, and con{truéted. upon fuch a multitude of aftronomical calculations, we find it was not exclufively dedicated to the Sun, the Moon, Saturn, or any other in- dividual obje& of fuperitition ; but it was a kind of Pan- theon, in which all the Arkite and Sabian divinities of Butith theology were fuppofed to have been prefent ; for we perceive Noe and Hu, the deified patriarch ; Elphin and Rheiddin, the Sun; Efeye, Ifis; Ked, Ceres, with the cellof her facred fire; Llywy, Proferpine; Gwydien, Hermes; Budd, Victory ; and feveral others.”” As tothe precife date of Stonehenge, Mr. Davies fays nothing defimtively, but remarks, that it was moft likely of later origin than the intro- duction of the Helio-Arkite {uperftition, which is tradition- ally faid to have been of foreign origin, and to have come into England by the way of Cornwall, and, therefore, probably from the tin-merchants. He alfo remarks, that ‘* it was a monument of venerable antiquity in the davs of Hengift ; and that its peculiar fanétity influenced the feleGtion of the {pot for the place of conference between the Britifh and Saxon princes.”” P. 385, &c. Mr. Davies farther mentions a paflage in the Greek hif- torian Diodorus Siculus, deferibing a round temple dedi- cated to Apollo, which Mr. D. concludes to have been molt likely our monument of Stonehenge. The fubftance of the Grecian author is: “ Among the writers of anti- uity, Hecateus and fome others relate, that there is an ifland in the ocean, oppofite to Celtic Gaul, and not in- ferior in fize to Sicily, lying towards the north, and in- habited by Hyperborei, who are fo called becaufe they live More remote from the north wind. The foil is excellent and fertile; and the harvett is made twice in the fame year. Tradition fays that Latona was born here, and therefore Apollo is worfhipped above any other deity ; to him is alfo dedicated a remarkable temple of a round form, &c.”’ The Rev. James Ingram, in his ‘* Inaugural Leéture on the Utility of the Saxon Literature,” has fuggeited a new idea relative to Stonehenge: he confiders it to have been deftined «as an heathen burial-place, and the curfus adjoining as the hippodrome on which the goods of the deceafed were run for at the time of the burial.”” This opinion is entitled to fome credit and confideration, from the vaft number of barrows which abound in this part of the plain. _ The late Mr. Cunnington, in the « Hiftory of Ancient Wilthhire,” folio, 1812, grounds a novel fuppofition on the difference in quality and fize between the {tones of the great circle and interior row, and thofe of the {maller ones: and thence he fuppofes, that Stonehenge wasereéted at different iods. He alfo fuppofes, that the larger ftones, with their impotts, conftituted the old, or original work ; and that the {mall ftones of the fecond circle, and thofe of the mner range, were raifed at a later period, as “* they add nothing to the ae of the temple.” T'o exemplify this opinion, fir ichard Hoare has given a bird’s-eye view of the ftruéture, thus divefted of the fmaller ftones. Unfortunately for the theoriit, this fyflem is not warranted by any example among the numerous Druidical circles of Great Britain ; but, on the contrary, it will be more confiftent with thefe, and with ° r, the practices of remote ages, to conclude, that the fecond circle of {mall, rough, unhewn ftones, with. another circle immediately within the ditch, and fome other members, now deltroyed, formed the original, priftine temple. Many argu- ments might be ufed to exemplify this opinion ; and alfo to prove that the great circle of upright chiffelled ftones, with their impolts, and the third row of trilithons, were poiterior to the former, railed by another clafs of people, and ex- ecuted at a time when their principles and arts had been confiderably changed. Contemporary with which it is con- jetured, that an avenue of {tones was raifed, extending from the temple towards the curfus to the north-eaft ; and alfo that thofe places for races and for other {ports were formed at a time when the inhabitants of Britain had in- tercourfe with the Greeks, or Romans. A learned and eloquent writer in the “ Edinburgh Re- view,” for April 1806, in noticing Barry’s account of the « Orkney Iflands,”? remarks, that * {tone circles, befides being ufed as places of worfhip, and courts of jultice, evi- dently ferved the purpofe of rude aftronomical obfervatories, by which the Druids could afcertain the rifing and fettin of the fun, moon, and ftars ; the feafons of the year ; off even the hours of the day: and where they are tolerably entire, a flight degree of attention would enable any perfon to do fo at this hour. The fun feems to have been a great objeét of veneration, as an emblem of the deity.” With the following extra& from fir Richard Hoare’s An= cient Wiltthire,?? we fhall conclude our account of Stone- henge. “Tt may be naturally expeéted, that, after quoting the various defcriptions an others refpeéting Stonehenge, I fhould give fome opinions of my own. This I thall do with diffidence, and lament that the hiftory of this cele- brated ¢ wonder of the weft’ will molt probably ever re- main unknown. I cannot for amoment hefitate in declaring it to be neither Roman, Saxon, nor Danifh. We learn from the Holy Scriptures, that the earlielt memorials were of ftone ; and we find to this day, fingle, double, and triple up- right ftones, as well as numerous circles difperfed about our dominions: we then find fome attempts at archite¢ture in the cromlech and kiftvaen, in both of which we fee immenfe {tones laid incumbent upon others that are upright : whether thefe gave the idea of the impoits at Stonehenge, or vice verfa, will be a difficult matter to determine: at all events, I confider Stonehenge of a much more modern date than Abury, where there are no impotts, and no marks of working on the {tones ; but in the former we perceive a regular plan, a great deal of fymmetry, and great knowledge in mathe- matics. We know, alfo, that many {tone monuments exitt on the continent, and in that part of it from whence our ifland probably received its earlieft population, viz. Gallia- Celtica. «© The moft remarkable of thefe monuments, and fuch as muft excite curiofity in the highelt degree, is fituated in the hamlet of Carnac, near Vannes and Auray, on the wettern coalt of Bretagne, and in the department of Morbihan, in France. M. Cambray, in his ‘ Monumens Celtiques,’ has given a very detailed and animated defcription of this intereft- ing relic of antiquity. He tells us, that {ome detached {tones ov the hillsand fand-banks announce the approach to this grand theatre, which confifts of an immenfe number of rude un- hewn ftones (amounting to four thoufand, or more), flanding: in an upright pofition, on a fandy plain, near the fea-coalt. They are ranged in eleven ftraight lines, which lines are feparated from each other by a {pace of thirty or thirty-three feet, and the diftance from one {tone to another varies from twelve to fifteen feet. The higheft of thefe ftones meafures twenty> pi © twenty-two feet out of ground; the width varies ; one of them 1s twenty-two feet high, twelve feet wide, and fix feet thick ; and many of them are moveable: thefe ftones pre- fent the moft fingular afpeét ; they ftand alone on an exten- five plain, attended only by the fand that fupports them, and the vault of heaven that furrounds them ; not an infcription to explain, nor an analogy to inform; the men whom you call, the traveller whom you interrogate, gaze at it, and either turn away their head, or recount follies. They recall to our memory thofe times which neither our calculation nor our hiftory can ever attain. ‘“‘T have before {tated my opinion, that our earlielt inha- bitants were Celts, who naturally {ntroduced with them their own buildings, cultoms, rites, and religious ceremo- nies; and to them I attribute the ereétion of Stonehenge, and the greater part of the fepulchral memorials that {till continue to render its environs fo truly interefting to the an- tiquary and hiftorian. ‘“‘ The general title of Druidical has been given to all thefe ftone monuments, and fome of my readers may be furprifed that I have not adoptedit. That the Druids exifted in our ifland at a very early period, and officiated as priefts, there can be no doubt ; but, as the learned Mr. Bryant, in his My- thology, obferves, ‘under the fan@tion of their names, we fhelter ourfelves whenever we are ignorant and bewildered.’ And Mr. Borlafe, with equal juftnefs, remarks, ¢ that the work of Stonehenge muft have been that of a great and powerful nation, not of a limited community of priefts ; the grandeur of the defign, the diftance of the materials, the tedioufnefs with which all fuch maflive works are neceflarily attended, all fhew that fuch defigns were the fruits of peace and religion.’ ”’ Befides the works already referred to, the preceding account has been chiefly derived from the Topographical Hiftory, &c. of Wiltthire, in vol. xv. of “ The Beauties of England,”’ by J. Britton, F.S.A. 1814. “ The Hiftory of Ancient Wilthhire,” folio, by fir Richard Hoare, with numerous plates of Stonehenge, the barrows on Salifbury plain, and the difcoveries made in opening them, is moft curious and interefting ; and truly honourable to the liberality and perfeverance of the worthy baronet, who has fo laudably employed his time. One of the plates in this volume is more peculiarly interefting, as difplaying a plan of the {cite of the temple, the avenue, the fituation, and extent of the great curfus: alfo a fmaller curfus, with numer- ous ditches, barrows, and encampments, in the vicinity of Stonehenge. Comte Alexander de la Borde, in an elegant work now publifhing in Paris, entitled «* Les Monumens de la France claflé chronologiquement,’’ &c. has given views and accounts of fome curious Celtic monuments in that kingdom. STONEHOUSE. See Prymoutu Dock. STONESHATTER Lanp, in Agriculture, a term ap- plied to that fort of land which is conftituted of loofe, re- duced, mixed, ftony materials, and which is of a light, dry quality, capable of being wrought at almoft anytime. It is often good turnip land with but little cultivation and ma- nure. See Soin. ‘ STONI, in Ancient Geography, a people of the Alps, ac- cording to Strabo, who join to the Lepantii and Triden- tini. According to Livy, they were fubjugated by the conful Q. Marcius. STONINGTON, in Geography, a poft-town and port of America, in New London county, Conneticut, 14 miles E. by S. from New London city, feparated from Rhode uland by the E. line of the ftate, fettled in 1658, and con- STO taining fix places of worfhip, and 3043 inhabitants, of whom nine are flaves, SroninGton, North, a town of Conneticut, in New Lon- don county, containing 2524 inhabitants, of whom two are flaves. STONO Inter, a channel on the coaft of South Caro- lina, S. of the channel of Charlefton, at the N.E. corner of John’s ifland, which is bounded by Stono river on the wett. N. lat. 38° 41!. E. long. 80° 3/. STONY Creek, a {mall ftream of Upper Canada, which runs into lake Erie, E. of Sangas creek, having a harbour for beats. Stony Hill, fituated in Baltimore county, Maryland, 5 or 6miles N.W. of Whetftone Fort, at the mouth of Balti- more harbour, and two miles S.E. of Hook’s Town, Stony Jfland, an ifland near the E. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 53° 4!. W. long. 55° 30'.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Spamith Main. N. lat. 14°20'. W. long. 82° 45!. Srony Mountains, mountains in the N.W. part of North America, extending from S. to N. in a N.W. direGtion, from N. lat. 48° to 68°. The north part of this range is called the Mountains of Bright Stones. Stony Point, a {mall peninfula in Orange county, New York, projecting from the W. bank of Hudfon’s river into Haverftraw bay, about 4o miles N. of New York city. The population of Haverftraw in 1810 was 1816, including 36 flaves. Stony River, ariver of Weft Florida, which runs into the gulf of Mexico. N. lat. 29°55’. W. long. 84° 13!. See alfo Rocue. Srony Stratford. See STrarrorp. Srony Lands, in Agriculture, fuch as are full of flints, pebbles, or {mall fragments of free-ftone. It is found that lands of this fort, in many places, yield good crops ; and the general rule is, that in ftiff and cold lands, the ftones fhould be as carefully picked out as poffible, but in light and dry grounds they fhould be left. Thefe lands fhould, however, have the large {tones removed as foon as poflible. See Crearine of Land. In fome parts of Suffex, the flinty ftones, in cafes where they have not been picked off the land, lie fo thick as effec- tually to cover the ground; and it is faid to be curious and interefting to fee how the vegetation flourifhes and gets through fuch beds of ftones. ‘The common opinion there is, that if the farmers were to put themfelyes to the trouble and expence of picking them off the land, the foil would be moit materially injured; and that fome, indeed, who have tried this experiment, are thuroughly convinced of the lofs thereby fuftained, the land having never fince produced fuch fine crops of corn as before; this, however, only applies, it is thought, to places where the ftones are very numerous and clofely befet upon the land. See Srone, in Agriculture. STONYHARD, the name of a plant of the weed kind, common in arable lands, the corn gromwell. STOOK, or Stouk, the common name of a fhock or hat- tock of corn or grain fet up in the field. See Harvocx. In fome diftriéts, a diftinétion is made in this mode of put- ting up corn in the field ; the ftook or ftouk confifting of twelve fheaves, while the hattock has only ten. STOOKING, or Srouxk1ne, the operation of fetting up the fheaves of grain into fhocks, ftouks, or hattocks, in the field, to guard them from rain. It is fometimes written Shocking. It was formerly the pra@tice: to fet one fheaf up- right, with the ears uppermoft ; and round that to place a circle of many other fheaves, in the fame dire€tion, inclining on the firft fheaf ; then to lay an horizontal circle of fheaves, with all the ears in the centre, and cover thofe eare mips ooIg STO doofe fheave or two. And thus placed, they are faid to be well protected from all wet. But a better mode is that which is pra¢tifed in Yorkfhire, as defcribed by the Rev. Mr. Comber ; ten fheaves are difpofed in two rows, each row leaning againit the other; then two fheaves are opened at the ear-ends, and flipped on the top, fo as to meet at the centre with their tails, and to flope downwards. In this mode the air has a free courfe, whether it bears againft one or other end of the ftook, or even againit either fide of it. Thus, two weighty fheaves afford a oes cover, and con- tinue fo, being hardly to be blown off by any wind, if care- fully laid on : at leatt not to be blown away but fo as foon to be replaced. And the floping pofition of the cap-fheaves meither expofes them to receive dire€tly, nor to retain or tranfmit the rain to the corn below, but to throw it off, efpecially as the tails of the fheaves, in which the ftraw is thickelft and ftrongelt, receive the moft rain, which can do them little or no harm, and efpecially if they be thruft clofely together. See Harvestine and Harrock. STOOL, Atvus, in Medicine. A thing is faid to be voided by ftool, when it is difcharged by the anus, or fun- dament. Inthe Philofophical Tranfactions, we have in- frances of fick perfons voiding factitious ftones, balls, &c. by tool. See Arvus and Desection. Stoots, Blosdy, in Medicine. ‘The {pirit of vitriol, mixed with the patient’s drink, has often been found beneficial in cures of bloody ftools. See Dysenrery and Fiux. Sroots, Refention of the firf, in infants. See Inranr. Sroor, in Mining, is ufed when the miners leave digging deeper, and work in the ends forward. The end before them is called the {tool. Srooxs, in Ship-Building, pieces of plank bolted to the quarters, for the purpofe of forming and ereéting the quar- ter-galleries, and fometimes to the fhip’s fides abaft the mafts for the backftays. Alfo ornamented blocks of wood for the poops and top-lanthorns to {land on. Stoo, Cucking. See CucKinc. Sroot, in Agriculture, aterm ufed provincially to fignify, to ramify or tiller, as grain. Sroots, in Gardening, fuch headed-down young trees and fhrubs in the nurfery-ground, or other places, as are appropriated for the produétion of an annual {fupply of lower fhoots or branches near the ground, properly fituated for layering. See Layne. Srooxs, Hop, in Rural Economy, the {mall contrivances of this kind which are made ufe of in hop-grounds, in pick- ing the produce from off the binds, in fome diftriéts. They are thought ufelefs and improper in fome hop plantations in different diftri€s, and of courfe never employed; but in others they are ftill continued, and fuppofed to be of con- fiderable utility and benefit in the execution of the above fort of work. STOOMING of Wine, aterm ufed to fignify the put- ting of bags of herbs or other ingredients into it to pre- vent fermentation. STOOP, in Commerce, a liquid meafure in Holland and Flanders. See Tab. XXXII. under Measures. » Sroopr, in Rural Economy, a pott fixed in the earth, as a te-poft, &c. and many other forts. _STOOPING, in Falconry, is when a hawk, being upon her wings at the height of her pitch, bends down violently to take the fowl. STOOR, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying to rife up in clouds, as fmoke, duft, fallen lime, and fome other matters. STOOREN, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro- vince of Drontheim ; 36 miles S.W. of Drontheim. STO STOOTER, in Coinage, a {mall Dutch filver coin, valued at 24 ftivers. STOP, in the AZanege, is a paufe, or difcontinuation of oing. In order to {top a horfe, the rider fhould, in the firit place, quicken him a little, and at the inftant when he begins to go fafter than the ufual cadence, or time of his pace, bring-to the calves of his legs, to animate the horfe, and to make him bend and play his haunches ; then flinging his fhoulders backwards, hold the bridle more and more tight, till the ftop is made; then vigoroufly extend the hams, and reft upon the itirrups, to make him form the times or motions of his ftop, in falgading with his haunches three or four times. You fhould not form the {tops of your horfe fhort and precipitate, left you {poil his hams and mouth. After ftopping, a horfe fhould be made to make two or three corvets. With a raw and young horfe very few ftops fhould be made; and when they are made, they fhould be performed by degrees, very gently, and not all at once; becaufe nothing fo much {trains and weakens the hocks of a ftiff and aukward horfe as a fudden and rude ftop. It is an univerfally agreed point, that nothing fhews fo much the vigour and obedience of a horfe, as his making a beautiful and firm ftop at the end of a fwift and violent career. The facility of itopping, however, depends upon the natural aptnefs and confent of the horfe, and alfo upon his form and the proportions which the different parts of his body bear to each other. The merit of a {top mutt, therefore, be eltimated by the ftrength and temper of the horfe, by the fteadinefs of his head and neck, and the condition of his mouth and haunches. If your horfe has not readily obeyed in making his ftop, make him go backwards, by way of punifhing his fault. IF in ftop- ing he tofles up his nofe, or forces the hand, keep your bridle-hand low and firm, and your reins quite equal; give him no liberty, prefs upon his neck with your right hand, till he has brought down his nofe, and then immediately give him all his bridle: this is the fureft method to bring him into the hand. To compel a horfe to ftop upon his haunches, nothing is fo efficacious as a little floping ground: neverthelefs you muit examine, previoufly to this kind of exercife, if his feet, reins, fhoulders, and legs, are able to, bear it; for otherwife your horfe would foon be {poiled. In this cafe the rider fhould put the ftrefs of his aids rather in his thighs and knees than in the ftirrups. One of the molt trying leflons to which a horfe can be put is to ftop him, and make him go backwards up hill; and tnerefore, on thefe occafions, you mutt eafe the fore-parts of the horfe as much as poflible, and throw your whole weight upon the hinder. As there are fome horfes which, from weaknefs in their make, can never be brought to form a juit and beauti- ful ftop, there are others which are apt to ftop too fuddenly and fhort upon their fhoulders, though otherwife too much raifed before and too light. Thefe employ all their powers in order to ttop all at once: thefe horfes fhould never be made to go backward; but, on the contrary, fhould be {topped flowly and by degrees, that they may be embol- dened; but they fhould never be forced or kept in too great a degree of fubjection. ‘The leflon of making a horfe to {top upon his haunches is admirable, if it be practifed with horfes which have been {uppled and prepared ; but it fhould never be ufed to colts or raw horfes, whofe joints are {tiff. The mott certain method, fays Mr. Berenger, to unite and aflemble together the ftrength of a horfe, in order to give him a good mouth, to fix and place his head, as well as to regulate his fhoulders, to make him light in the hand, and capable of performing all forts of airs, depends entirely upon the perfe€tion and exa¢tnefs of the ftop. The Na above i ' S$ TO above enumerated are eflential to the ftop, and the ftop muft be confidered as the effect, and not as the caufe of thefe good qualities. Berenger’s Hitt. and Art of Horfeman- fhip, vol. ii.) chap. 5. The oppofite term to /fop is parting. In former times, the flop of a horfe was called parade. See Natt. Stop, Half a,is a ftop not finifhed by a pefade; fo that the horfe, after falgading three or four times upon the haunches, refumes and continues his gallop, without making pefades or corvets ; which fee. Stop, at Sea, a word ufed by him that holds the half- minute glafs, in heaving the log; for immediately when the glafs is out, he calls flop to them that let run the line. See SToppinG. Stop, in the Pradice of Rigging, is a temporary feizing. When ufed to {top worming, it is {fnaked. This is a name given to feveral turns of {pun-yarn taken round the end of a rope, fimilar to a feizing, to faften it to another rope. — Alfo, a projection left on the upper part of top-gallant mafts, &c. to prevent the rigging from fliding down. Srop, Saturday. See SarurDAy. Stor is a floating beam, ufed to {top and detain barges at the toll-houfes, when neceflary, and during the might. Stop-Gates are fimilar to Safety-gates ; but they require to be lifted up, inftead of a€ting of themfelves. Srop- Planks are planks put into a groove, and ferving the fame purpofe with itop-gates. STOPCOCKS, in Hydraulics, are appendages to pipes conftruéted for the conveyance of fluids ; and thefe, as well as valves, differ in their form and conftruétion according to their various fituations and ufes. Stopcocks ufually confift of a cylindrical or conical part, perforated in a particular direGtion, and capable of being turned in a focket formed in the pipe, fo as to open or fhut the paflage of the fluid, and fometimes to form a communication with either of two or more veffels at pleafure. A valve is employed where the fluid is allowed to pafs in one direétion only, and not to return. See VALVE. STOPE, or Step, in Mining. When afumph or pit is funk down in a lode, they break and work it away in ftairs or fteps, which method of working is called /loping ; and the height or ftep which each man breaks, is called a ope. ae epins aterm in ufe at the military laboratory, de- rived from the French word efoupin, and fignifying a wad, lump, clew or hard of hemp, tow, rope-yarn, &c. STOPPAROLA, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the lark kind, defcribed by Aldrovandus, and fuppofed by Mr. Ray to be the fame with the /pipoletta, or the tordino of the Venetians ; but the mu/cicapa grifola of Linneus. See Fry-catcher. STOPPEL, in Geography, a town of Flanders; 5 miles N.W. of Hulit. STOPPERS, in a Ship, certain fhort pieces of rope, which are ufuaily knotted at one or both ends, according to the purpofe for which they are defigned. They are either ufed to fufpend any heavy body, or to retain a cable, fhroud, &c. in a fixed pofition, ‘Thus, the anchors, when firft hoifted up from the ground, are hung to the cat-head, bya flopper, called “‘ anchor-ftopper,” attached to the latter, which paffing through the anchor-ring, is afterwards faltened to the timber-head ; and the fame rope ferves to faften it on the bow at fea; or to fufpend it by the ring which is to be funk from the fhip to the bottom. The ftoppers of the cable have a large knot and a laniard at one end, and are faftened to a ring-bolt in the deck by the other. They are attached to the cable by the laniard, which is faftened STO fecurely round both by feveral turns paffed behind the knot, or about the neck of the ftopper; by which means the cable is reftrained from running out of the fhip, when fhe rides at anchor. Thofe that are ufed to check the cable are called « bitt- ftoppers;”” and the latter are denominated ‘ deck-ftoppers.”” “ Dog-ltoppers”’ are wfed as additional fecurities when the fhip is riding in heavy gales, or bringing up a fhip with much ftern-way, to prevent the cable reeks {napping at the bitts, and to eafe the deck-ftoppers. “* Wing-ftoppers” are ufed for the fame purpofe as dog-{toppers. The {toppers of the fhrouds, called ‘* fhroud-ftoppers,’”” have a knot and a laniard at each end. They are only ufed when the fhrouds are cut afunder in battle, or difabled by tempeftuous weather ; at which time they are lafhed, in the fame manner as thofe of the cables, to the feparated parts of the fhroud, which are thereby reunited, fo as to be fit for immediate fervice. This, however, is only a temporary: expedient. «« Fore-tack”’ and “ fheet-ftoppers”’ are ufed for fecuring the tacks and fheets, till belayed. Falconer. Sroprer-Bolts, in Ship-Building, large ring-bolts driven through the deck and beams, before the main hatchway, for the {toppers to be attached to. ‘They are carefully clenched on iron plates beneath. STOPPING, in Grammar. ATION. STopPinG, among Hor/es, the praGtice of filling the hollow of a horfe’s foot with poultice, cow-dung, or any other moift application. It has the effeét of foftening the fole, and, on fome occafions, may be advantageous, though it is frequently mifapplied, and of courfe does injury. It is not unfre- quently employed for the feet of team-horfes, efpecially thofe of the plough kind, as travelling fo much amidit the mould renders them hard, brittle, and uneafy. Sroppine a Leak, at Sea. See Lear. Sroppinc a Ship. When a fhip comes to an anchor, and the cable is veered out by degrees till the fhip is found to ride well, and then topped, it 1s called flopping the /bip. Sropprnes- Up, in Ship-Building, the poppets, timber, &c, ufed to fill up the vacancy between the upper fide of the bilgeways and the fhip’s bottom, for fupporting her when launching. STOPS, in Grammar. See Porn. Stops of an Organ. See ORGAN. Srops, or Stoups, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied to {mall well-buckets, and thofe of fome other kinds. STOR, in Geography, a lake of Sweden, in the province of Geftricia; 6 miles S.W. of Geffle. —Alfo, a lake of Norway, in the province of Aggerhnus; 40 miles N.E. of Chriftiania. —Alfo, a river of Mecklenburg, which runs from lake Schwerin to the Elde. STORA, a town of Sweden, in the government of Wafa; 20 miles S.E. of Chriftianftad. Stora. See SGIGATA. STORAX-TRrex, in Botany. See STYRAX, Srorax, Offcinal, in the Materia Medica, is the refinous drug, obtained in perfection only from thofe trees that grow in Afiatic Turkey, which iffues in a fluid itate from incifions made in the bark of the trunk, or branches, of the ftorax-tree. It is brought from Turkey, but is fo adul- terated, that it is very difficult to meet with any that is pure. It has a moft pleafing fragrant odour, and is called Syrax calamita, becaufe it 13 faid to be tranfported in hollow canes ; or, according to others, becaufe it exudated from the tender twigs and young fhoots of the tree, and ao thera See Pornr and Puncru- — - STO them over, fo as to refemble a reed or other hollow cylindric body drawn over the twigs. Two kinds of this refin have been commonly diftinguifhed in the fhops; viz. the pure and the common ttorax : the firft, or pure, is ufually obtained in irregular compact mafles, free from impurities, of a yel- lowifh or reddifh-brown appearance, and inter{perfed with whitifh tears, fomewhat hke gum ammoniac or benzoin : it is extremely fragrant, and upon the application of heat readily melts. This has been called ‘ ftorax in the lump,” *¢ red ftorax,’’ and the feparate tears, ‘ ftorax in the tear.” The common {torax is found in large mafles, very light, and bears no kind of external refemblance to the former ftorax, as it feems to be almoft wholly compofed of dirty faw-dutt, merely caked together by the refinous matter; and though much lefs efteemed than the pure kinds of {torax, yet when freed from the woody part, it is faid to poflefs more fra- rance, and to be fuperior to the other kind. Reétified pirit, the common menftruum of refins, readily diflolves the ftorax, which may be infpiflated to a folid confiftence in the manner dire&ted for the ‘ ftyracis purificatio”’ in the Lon- don Pharmacopeia, without {ultaining any confiderable lofs of its fenfible qualities. Common ftorax, infufed in water, imparts to the men- ftruum a good yellow colour, fome fhare of its {mell, and a flight balfamic tafte. It gives a confiderable impregnation to water by diltillation, and ftrongly diffufes its fragrance when heated, though it fearcely yields any eflential oil. The {pirituous folution, gently diftilled off from the filtered reddith liquor, brings over with it very little of the fragrance of the itorax ; and the remaining infufion is more fragrant than the fineft ftorax in the tear, which Dr. Lewis met with. The pure refin diftilled without addition yields, along with an empyreumatic oil, a portion of faline matter, fimilar to the flowers of benzoin; and Dr. Lewis fays, that he has alfo fometimes extra€ted from it, a fubftance of the fame nature by coétion in water. _ Among fome of the ancients, ftorax was a familiar re- medy as a refolvent, and particularly ufed in catarrhal com- plaints, coughs, afthmas, menftrual obitruGtions, &c. ; and from its affinity to the balfams, it was alfo prefcribed in ulcerations of the lungs, and other ftates of pulmonary confumption. And our Pharmacopeias formerly directed the « pilule e ftyrace’’ (fee Storax Piits) ; but this odori- ferous drug has now no place in any of the officinal com- pounds; and though it be a medicine which might feem to promife fome efficacy in nervous debilities, yet it is almoft totally difregarded by modern practitioners. Lewis’s Mat. Med. Woodville’s Med. Bot. Srorax, Liquid, is a refinous juice, obtained from a large tree, with leaves like thofe of the maple, called by Ray Siyrax aceris folio, by Linnzus ligquidambar flyracifiua, a native of Virginia and Mexico, and Geely naturalized to our own climate. The juice called liquidambar, is faid to exude from incifions made in the trunk of this tree, and the liquid ftorax to be obtained by boiling the bark or branches in water. See LiquipaAMBar. Two forts of liquid ftorax are diftinguifhed by authors : one, the purer part of the refinous matter that rifes to the furface in boiling, feparated by a ftrainer, of the confift- ence of honey, tenacious like turpentine, of a reddifh or h-brown colour, moderately tranfparent, of an acrid unétuous tafte, and a fragrant {mell, refembling that of the folid ftorax, but fomewhat difagreeable; the other, the more impure part, which remains on the ftrainer, untran!- parent, in fmell and tafte much weaker, and containing a confiderable portion of the fubftance of the bark. That which is commonly met with in the thops under this name, Vor. XXXIV. STO is of a weak {mell and a grey colour, and is f{uppofed to be an artificial compofition. Liquid ftorax has been chiefly ufed in external applications. Among us, it is at prefent almoft wholly in difufe. Lewis’s Mat. Med. Storax, White. See Balfamum Peruvianum, under Batsam. STORCICA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiev ; 24 miles S.S.W. of Bialacerkiev. STORCK, Anruony, in Biography, a medical profeflor of confiderable note at Vienna, fucceeded the celebrated Van Swieten in the office of prefident and direétor of the faculty of medicine in the univerfity of that metropolis, and was alfo honoured with the appointment of principal confulting phyfician to the emprefs Maria Therefa. He diftinguifhed himfelf chiefly by a long and affiduous courfe of experiments relative to the operation of various narcotic vegetables, and to the belt mode of preparing and adminiltering them. The vegetables of which he has treated in various tra¢ts, are the hemlock, henbane, ftramonium, aconite, meadow- faffron, and pulfatilla nigricans: and although he was dif- pofed to over-rate the efficacy of fome of thefe fubftances, and has afcribed to them virtues which fubfequent experience has not always confirmed, he had the merit of calling the attention of the medical world to a clafs of aétive remedies, which, under proper management, are productive of much. benefit, and conftitute a valuable addition to the Materia Medica. Between the years 1760 and 1771, his various tracts upon thefe fubje&is were printed at Vienna, and the have fubfequently undergone feveral editions and bas lations in other countries. He was alfo author of a collec- tion of cafes which occurred under his obfervation in the hofpital at Vienna, entitled «* Annus Medicus, quo fiftuntur Obfervationes circa Morbos acutos et chronicos,” 1759 ; of which he publifhed an “ Annus Secundus” in 1761, This work was afterwards continued by his fucceflor, Dr. Colin. In 1775, he publifhed a volume, entitled « In- ftituta Facultatis Medice Vindobonenfis.”” Eloy Di&, Hilt. de la Méd. STORDALEN, in Geography, a town of Norway ; 28 miles N.E. of Drontheim. STORE, a town of America, in North Carolina; 50 miles W. of Exeter. Store. Bill of Stores. See Bru. Stores, Naval. See NAvaAv. Srore-Hou/fe, in Agriculture, that fort of houfe or build- ing which is conftru¢ted for the purpofe of ftoring up and preferving fome fort of farm produce, which fhould be con{truéted fuitably to the particular kinds of produéts they are to contain, and to the ufes to which they are to be applied. ? Houtes of this kind are fometimes alfo employed for ftor- ing and laying up different forts of {mall tools and imple- ments, and many other things which are neceflary in farming, in order to keep them fafe and dry. They are feldom ufed for any fort of grain, efpecially for any length of time, as that requires a particular fort of building. See Granary. The ftore-houfes of a fortrefs are conitruéted for the prefervation of all kinds of artillery and ammunition ; thofe of a dock-yard, or of a maritime town, for cables, anchoray timber, and other neceflaries, to repair and furnifh fhips. And they are of different forms and fizes, according to the purpofes for which they are intended. Srore-Room, in Rural Economy, a room or place in a houfe or other building, for ftoring up different forts of farm articles. Thefe rooms fhould be as dry as poflible, and perfeétly fecure from vermin. An upper floor is the Na beft y P.O belt for the firft purpofe; but for the latter, vaults or cellars under ground are the moft fuitable. Srore-Room, in a Ship, an apartment or place of referve, of which there are feveral, to contain the provifions or ftores of a fhip, together with thofe of her officers, during a fea-voyage. ; Srorer-Keeper, an officer in the royal dock-yards, who is invefted with the charge of the principal naval ftores ; as the fails, anchors, cordage, &c. Storr-Majler, in Agriculture, a term applied to that kind of farmer who is, in a great meafure, in the live-ftock kind of farming in fome way or other, as either by means of fheep, neat cattle, or fome other fort of domeftic animals. Srore-Ship. See Store-Surp. STOREA, among the Romans, a kind of bafket made of ropes or rufhes, for gathering flowers or garden-fruits. Srorea was likewife a kind of defence, made of large cables fafhioned into a fort of netting; which was fo ftrong, that no weapon, though thrown out of an engine, could penetrate it. STORGE, ropfn, a Greek term, frequently ufed by naturalifts to fignify that parental inftin&, or natural affec- tion, which animals bear toward their young. The ftorge is an admirable principle implanted by the all-wife Creator throughout the animal world, for the pre- fervation of it; and is governed by fuch rules as make it beft contribute therto. By means of this, with what care and alacrity do animals nurfe their young? and what dangers will they brave for their fecurity ? even the moft timorous creatures, which at other times fly the face of men, dogs, &c. will, for the fake of their young, expofe themfelves. Thus hens, inttead of flying from, will affault fuch as meddle with their brood; and partridges, before their young can fly, will frequently drop down before the dogs, firft at lefs then at greater diftances, to dodge and draw them off from purfuing their young. With what concern do others lead about their young in places of fafety? and fome even admit them for fheltey into their bodies. Thus the opoflum, Dr. Tyfon obferves, has a curious bag on purpofe for fecuring and carrying about her young. The fame author adds, from Oppian, that the dog-fifh, upon any ftorm or danger, re- ceives her young into her belly, which comes out again when the fright is over. And it is faid that the fquatina _ and glaucus do the like. With what tendernefs do others feek and prepare the food for their young, teach them to fuck, cherifh, or lull them to reft, &c. like fo many nurfes, deputed by the Creator to take care of his creatures? and {till in proportion, as they grow up, and become fit to look to themfelves, this ftorge abates ; and at length, when no longer needed, be- comes extinct. Mr. Ray obferves, that young doves are fed with meat firft eat by the dam, and fodden awhile in her prolobe. And Clufius obferves, that the old female Ethio- pian takes no food but from the male, after this manner. The returns made by the young to the parent animal, when grown old, are not lefs confiderable. Pliny fays of rats, that they nourifh their aged parents with eminent iety. i St Ambrofe, and after him Olaus Magnus, obferve of the crane, that when the parents, through old age, are bereft of their feathers, and left half naked, their offspring ftand around them, and cherifh them with their own feathers ; that they feek food for them; and when nature, as it often happens, repairs their decays, and reftores them to ftrength again, they take them up, by turns, on their wings, and {I STO habituate their unpractifed limbs to their ancient art of flying. See Instincr. STORHAMNEN, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 32’, E. long. 177 13). STORHOLMEN, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 62° 33’. E. long. 17° 42!. STORING Subflances of the Corn, Genin and other Kinds, in Agriculture and Gardening, the means of adyan-~ tageoufly and properly laying them up and fecuring them for future ufe. In the {toring of grain, as there is a conftant decreafe and lofs in the weight of the corn from the moment of its being laid up, to that in which it is difpofed of, (though this 1s confiderably more at firft than afterwards,) it is obvioufly a prattice that fhould be carried to as little extent as poflible in all cafes. The common lofs in this way has been found to be from one-feventh to one-tenth of the whole in different forts of corn, according to circumttances, and the length of time it has been ftored up. The ftoring of all articles of this kind fhould always be performed at dry times, and in dry well-aired places, and not laid in too large quantities together, but fo as that they may be capable of being readily turned over, and have new furfaces frequently expofed to the a¢tion of the atmo- {phere. Corn is often not only injured, but rendered im- proper for ftoring up, by being fuffered to remain too long on moift damp floors, in barns and other places. The ftoring of fruits, vegetables, and roots, has been per- formed in various ways, which are well known already ; but lately fome better modes have been fuggefted for this purpofe. For apples and pears, it has been ftated in the «« Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society,’? that after they have been carefully gathered from the trees, and laid in heaps covered with clean cloths or mats for fweating, which is effeted in three or four days, they remaining for that length of time afterwards, they are to be wiped feparately with clean cloths; when fome glazed earthen jars are to be provided with tops and covers, and likewife a quantity of pure pit-fand, which is quite free from any mixture. ‘This is to be thoroughly dried upon a flue. Then put a layer of this fand an inch thick on the bottoms of the jars; above this a layer of fruit, a quarter of an inch free of each other ; covering the whole with fand to the depth of an inch; then a fecond courfe of fruit is to be laid in, and again covered with an inch of the fand, proceed- ing in the fame way until the whole be finifhed and com- pleted. An inch and a half in depth of fand may be laid over the lait or uppermoft layer of fruit ; when the jars are to be clofed and placed in fome dry fituation, as cool as poflible, but entirely out of the way of froft. The ufual time at which each kind of fuch fruits fhould be ready and fit for the table being known, the jars con- taining {uch fruit may, it is faid, be examined, by turning out the fand and fruit together cautioufly into a fieve. The ripe fruit may then be laid upon the fhelves of the fruit-room for ufe, and the unripe be carefully replaced in the jars as before, but with frefh dry fand. Some kinds of apples managed in this way, will, it i faid, keep a great while, as till July; and pears until April, and in fome forts till June. It is not improbable but that many other forts of fruit might be ftored and pre- ferved in fomewhat the fame way. Vegetables of the cauliflower kind have been itored and kept well through a great part of the winter, it is faid, in the fame work, by putting them, when in full head, on — = STO on a dry day, into pits about eighteen inches in depth, and much the fame breadth, in a perfe&ly dry foil, with the {talks and leaves to them, the latter being carefully doubled over and lapped round the heads, inftead of hang- ing them up in fheds or other places, as is the ufual praétice in preferving them. In oe the work, it is begun at one end of the pits, laying the heads in with the root- ftalks uppermoft, fo as that the former may incline down- wards, the roots of the one layer covering the tops or heads of the other, until the whole is completed. The pits are then to be clofely covered up with the earth into a fort of ridge, and beaten quite fmooth with the back of the {pade, in order that the rain-water may be fully thrown off. Fine cauliflowers have been thus itored and kept for the occafional fupply of the table until the middle of the fol- lowing January. For ftoring and preferving different kinds of roots for common fummer ufe, until the coming in or return of the natural crops, the following method has likewife been propofed. As the ice in ice-houfes has commonly fub- fided fome feet, as four, five, or more, by the beginning of the fpring, it is propofed to depofit in the rooms or va- cancies fo left empty, the roots that are to be preferved. As foon as any openings in the places have been well ftuffed with ftraw, and the furfaces of the ice covered with the fort of material, cafe-boxes, dry ware, cafks, bafkets, or any other fuch veflels, are to be placed upon it, which are then to be filled with the roots, fuch as turnips, carrots, bects, celery, potatoes in particular, and fome others. In cafes where there are not ice-houfes, vegetation may be greatly retarded, and the roots preferved by ftoring them in deep vaulted cellars, caves, coal-pits, mines, or in any place feated deep in the earth. Potatoes have alfo been well ftored and preferved, it is faid, by earthing them in {mall parcels, as about two bolls each, heaped up, and covered in the ufual way with ftraw and earth; which are turned over into other pits in the early {pring, firft rubbing off all the {prouts or fhoots, and having the roots well watered in {mall quantities as they afe put into the other pits, the whole earthy covering being alfo well watered and beaten together at the time with the back part of the fpade. This covering is to be made to the thicknefs of about two feet. The fame practice or procefs is to be repeated every time the potatoes are turned over, which fhould be about once in three weeks, as the ftate of the weather may be. And where the pits or heaps are not in the fhade, it 1s fometimes roper, when the feafon is very hot, to cover them with mats upported on fticks, fo as to permit a free current of air between the mats and the heaps. In this way, it is ftated that thefe roots have been pre- ferved quite plump and entire in the tafte until the end of September, or till the fucceeding crop becomes perfe&ly ripe, fo as te be ufed without lofs, as that muft always be the cafe where the roots are largely employed before they are ina ftate of mature growth. It is afferted, too, that in this manner potatoes are even capable of recovering in plumpnefs and taite, where they have been fuffered, by im- ow ad expofure to air or heat, to become deficient in thefe qualities. STORK, Ciconra, in Ornithology, a family of the Ardea or Heron clafs. See Heron. Naturalifts have been much puzzled in afligning the winter abode of ftorks. Many authors have fuppofed that they go to the Nile at this feafon in queft of food; to which urpofe Dr. Shaw obferves, that in the middie of April he = three flights of thefe birds, each of which took up STO more than three hours in pafling by him, extending itfelt more than half a mile in breadth. Thefe, he fays, were then se Egypt, where the canals and the ponds that are annually left by the Nile were become dry, and directing themfelves towards the north-eaft. He adds, that they return again a little after the autumnal equinox, when the waters of the Nile returning within the banks, leave the country in a fit fate to fupply them with nourifhment. But M. Klein controverts the opinion, that ftorks vifit Egypt in the winter in fearch of food; obferving, that if this were the cafe, they would not go in the winter, and remain till April, but in the fummer; for the inundation of the Nile begins towards the end of April, and about the month of September the waters diminifh, and about the 7th or 8th of Oober quite retire into their channel, fo that in the winter this river is extremely fmall; and he apprehends that they take up their winter-quarters under water. : It is obferved of the ftorks, fays Dr. Shaw, that for the {pace of about a fortnight before they pafs from one coun- try into another, they conftantly refort together from all the circumjacent parts in a certain plain, and there forming themfelves every day into a dou-qwanne (according to the phrafe of the people}; are faid to determine the exaG@ time of their departure, and the places of their future abodes. See Jer. chap. viii. ver. 7. The ftork is held in the higheft efteem and veneration among the Mahometans, with miei it is no lefs facred than the ibis was among the Egyptians; and no lefs profane would that perfon be deemed, who attempted to kill or moleft it. The regard paid to thefe birds, Dr. Shaw fug- gefts, may probably have arifen, not fo much from the fervice they perform to a moift fenny country, in clearing it of ufelefs reptiles and infeéts, as from the folemn gefti- culations they are obferved to make as often as they reft upon the ground, or return to their nefts. Shaw’s Travels, p- 428, fol. STORKAGAT, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Welt Bothnia; 25 miles S. of Pitea. STORKO, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 52’. E. long. 22° 39'—Alfo, an ifland in the Baltic, near the S. coat of Sweden. N. lat. 56° 5/5 8: long. 15° 34. STORKOW, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker Mark; 26 miles W.S.W. of Francfort on the Oder. N. lat. 52° 15/. E. long. 14° 55!. STORKYRO, a town of Sweden, in the government of Wafa; 17 miles E. of Wafa. STORM, in the Military drt. See Assautt. Srorm, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a fall of fnow, hail, &c. which is injurious either to animals or plants. In fome diftriés, ftorms of thefe kinds are very prevalent, and highly hurtful in different ways. In the fheep farms in the northern parts of the ifland, ftorms are often ex- tremely hurtful and deftrutive to the fheep. They are the molt fatal to thefe animals, it is faid, when the froft is keen, the wind ftrong, and the fnow light and mobile; as then the defencelefs flocks move before the blaft, into fome hollow part or place, where they find a little relief from the piercing ftorm, but are foon covered up deep with drifted fnow ; and when long confined underneath it, many of them perith, and thofe which furvive are often much reduced in condition, and fometimes have loft part of their wool, And fhould this place of retreat be near a rivulet, as often happens, and a fudden thaw come on, the melted {now brings down a torrent of water on them, and they all perifh. Nnz Smooth s TO Smooth green hills, that are deftitute of rocks, woods, or other fhelter, are, it is thought, the moft in danger for the fheep on them, from the drifting fnow. The fheep, in thefe cafes, are to be collected, and kept moving, in order to prevent their being benumbed with the cold, and over- blown by the drifting {now. Stone bields are alfo ufeful ; but the true and effectual fhelters are, it is faid, planta- tions of foreft trees, to which the fheep naturally fly on the approach of ftorms, See SHrEP. Srorm Bay, in Geography, a bay on the fouth coalt of New Holland, between South Cape and Tafman’s Head. Srorm Cape, is the northern limit of the mouth of Bay Verte, and forms the fouth-eaft corner of the province of New Brunfwick. Srorm-Fink, or Storm-Finch, in Ornithology. See Pro- CELLARIA Pelagica. STORMAR, or Srormanta, in Geography, a diftri& of the duchy of Holftein, of which Hamburgh is the capital. The Stoer, whence it derives its name, confined this diftri& on the north, and feparated it from Ditmarfia: the Suala, Trave, and Billa, determined the reft of its extent. It was formerly almoft one flimy marfh. The wet and low fituation of Stormaria and Ditmarfia exatly corre- {ponds with the Roman account of the Saxons living in inacceflible marfhes. Stormaria is fomewhat quadrangular, and its fides may be eftimated at 33 miles. Adam Bremen derives the name from /form, a metaphor expreflive of the feditions of its inhabitants; but Stoer, the river, and Marfi, the refidents in marfhes, feem to compofe a jufter etymo- logy. Adam diftinguifhes the Stormari by the epithet « nobiliores.”? Their banner, in ancient times, was a white fwan with a golden collar. Hamburgh, their metropolis, had been, before the eleventh century, ‘¢ viris et armis potens ;?? but in Adam’s time it was ‘in folitudinem re- daGta.”? Stormaria was one of the three diftriéts which anciently divided Nordalbirgia, or Eald-Saexen ; Ditmarfia and Holfatia being the two other diftrifts. Thefe were the countries in which our Saxon anceftors refided, when the Roman geographer (Ptolemy) firft noticed them; and from thefe they fpread terror throughout Europe, when their attention became directed to maritime depredations. STORMONT, a diftri& of Scotland, in Perthfhire, on the left fide of the Tay. Dunkeld is the chief town. Stormont, a county of Upper Canada, bounded eaft by the county of Glengary, fouth by the river St. Law- rence, the weft boundary of the townfhip of Ofnabruck, and weft by the late townfhip of Williamfburgh, running N. 24° 11! W., until it interfeéts the Ottawa or Grand river ; thence defcending that river, until it meets the north-weit boundary of the county of Glengary, The county of Stormont comprchends all the iflands in the river St. Law- rence near it, and the greater part of the county lies fronting the St. Lawrence. STORNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on the other fide of the Ganges, belonging to the people called Tangani, according to Ptolemy. STORNARA, La, in Geography, a town of Capi- tanata; 9 miles N.E. of Afcoli. STORNAWAY, a parochial town on the eaftern fide of the ifle of Lewis, and thire of Rofs, Scotland. It con- tains a good and well-frequented harbour. The parifh is of great extent, and ftretches about ten miles north-eatt, along the north fide of an arm of the fea, called the Broad Bay. In this, fhips of large burthen have good anchorage, and can ride with fafety, as no heavy fea can come into it. The town of Stornaway is fituated at the extremity of loch Stornaway ; and, from a {mall origin, has of late attained STO confiderable fize and opulence, by the patriotic exertions of lord Seaforth. The principal employment of the in- habitants of Stornaway is the profecution of the white and herring fifheries. It is a port of the cuftoms, and has a polt-office, and regular packet, which fails weekly with the mail and paflengers. The houfes of the town are gene- rally well built, and, in 1811, amounted to 698, with 3500 inhabitants. Here are a neat and commodious cuftom- houfe, a town-houfe, aflembly-room, and a church, alfo two free-{chools, and one inftituted and patronifed by lady Sea- forth, for the introdué¢tion and promotion of the {pinning of yarn in the ifland of Lewis. In Stornaway is alfo -fituated Seaforth Lodge, the refidence of lord Seaforth, baron Mackenzie of Kintail, and lord lieutenant of the fhire.—Carlifle’s Dictionary of Scotland, vol. ii. Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. STORO, a fmall ifland on the eaft fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63°24!. E. Tong. 22° 3/. STOROHAMN, a {mall itland on the weft fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 62°47!. E. long. 17° 58. STOROZEVOLI, a cape on the north coaft of Ruffia, in the traits of Vaigatikoi. N. lat. 69° 25'. E. long. 86°. STORSIO, a large lake of Sweden, in the province of Jamtland ; containing feveral iflands, on one of which is the town of Frofon, and on another the town of Nordfer. It has a communication with many other lakes and rivers, and by means of thefe with the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° io’. E. long. 14° rol. STORSKAR, two fmall iflands on the eaft fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 7!. E. long. 20° 32!. STORT, a river of England, which pafles by Bifhop’s Stortford, &c. and runs into the Lea, 2 miles N.E. of Hoddefdon. STORTA, La, a town of the Patrimonio, near the ruins of the ancient Veii; 6 miles N.W. of Rome. STORTFORD, Bisxor’s. See Bisuop’s Stortford. STORYNE, the name of an inftrument ufed by the an- cients for drawing blood from the nofe; but we are not perfectly informed of its fhape or ftru€ture. STOSSEN, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in Thu- ringia; 6 miles S.E. of Naumburg. STOT, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied to a fteer, or young growing bullock. STOTFIELD Heap, in Geography, a cape of Scot- land, on the coalt of Murray. N. lat. 57° 42!. W. long. wll. STOTTER Szz, a lake of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Augiburg ; 10 miles N.N.W. of Fueflen. STOTTLEDORF, a town of Auftria; 6 miles S. of Sonneberg. STOVE, in Building, a hot-houfe or room. The term ftove is alfo ufed more reftri@tedly for a place in which fire is made, and by means of which heat is communicated to a room or building. See CHimney. Stoves fhould, in propriety, be diftinguifhed from fire- places, from the fire being inclofed within the ftove, and giving out its heat through the fubitance of the ma- terials of which the ftove is compofed, to the air in the apartment; and in many ftoves there are ingenious con- trivances, to make a great quantity of air pafs in contac with the heated furface of the ftove, and be thus heated be- fore pafling off into the apartment. Fire-places, on the contrary, have the fire as open and as much expofed as pof- fible, confiftently with the carrying off of the {moke, in order that it may throw out radiant heat into the apartment. This diftin&tion is not fufficiently attended to in common language. a In STOVE. In modern fire-places, every care is taken that the air of the room may be heated; but it does not appear, from the conftru€tion of their fire-hearths, that our forefathers had any idea of warming the air of a room to fitin. All they propofed was to have a place to make a fire in, by the radiating heat of which they could warm themfelves when cold. . The ancients are fuppofed to have ufed ftoves, in which the fire was not feen ; but on inquiring into the progrefs of the art of warming apartments economically, few traces re- main of the manner in which the ancients warmed their habi- tations. It is imagined they lighted the fire in a large tube in the middle of a room, of which the roof was open, and that the other apartments were warmed by portable braziers. In Seneca’s time, they began to conitruét tubes in the walls, to convey the heat into the upper apartments; the fire-places being {till placed below. It appears, however, that this was the origin of flues for fmoke, and even of ftoves; the fituation and proportions of which have fuc- ceflively undergone an infinity of changes, according to the localities, the wants of the inhabitants, or the ftyle of the decorations. The ancients had the cuftom of heating apartments by fires placed under arches or vaults; but this was confined to palaces, and other edifices, where magnificence was augmented by prodigality ; and the veftiges that have been difcovered among ancient ruins, fufficiently point out this as their deftination. In digging, fome years ago, for foundations in the city of Autun, one of thefe ovens was difcovered under a mofaic pavement, with chimnies at each extremity. The northern Chinefe have a method of warming their ‘ound-floor, which refembles the ancient plan juft men- tioned. The floors are made of tiles a foot {quare, and two inches thick; their corners being fupported by bricks fet on end, that are a foot long, and four inches fquare: the tiles, too, join into each other, by ridges and hollows along their fides. This forms a hollow under the whole floor, which on one fide of the houfe has an opening into the air, where a fire is made; and it has a funnel rifing from the other fide to carry off the {moke. The fuel is a fulphurous pit-coal, the fmell of which in the room is thus avoided, while the floor, and of courfe the room, are well warmed. But as the under-fide of the floor muit grow foul with foot, (and a thick coat of foot prevents much of the dire appli- cation of the hot air to the tiles,) Dr. Franklin fuggelts that burning the {moke, by obliging it to defcend through the red coals, would, in this conftru€tion, be very advan- tageous ; as more heat would be given by the flame than by the {moke, and the floor, thereby being kept free from foot, would be more heated with lefs o A different kind of ftove ufed in China, and called sang, is briefly de- {cribed under that article. Francis Keflar of Frankfort, whofe work, entitled « Epargne-bois,”’ &c. (the Wood-faver, &c.), appeared, in French, in 1619, is the oldeft writer who deferves to be quoted, as har propofed any ufeful ideas on the fubject of floves. He formed eight chambers, one above another, through which the {moke was to pals before it entered the chimney. He alfo brought air dire&tly from without into the afh-pan, to feed the fire; and there was another aper- ture to draw air from the apartment for the fame purpofe. Savot, in his * Archite&@ture Frangaife des Batimens particuliers,” i.e. Architeéture of private Houfes, printed in 1625, gave fome advice relative to the beft method of conftructing chimnies, but with fcarcely any other object than to prevent their {moking. 2 M. Dalefme, in 1686, fuggefted the firft idea of a ftove without fmoke, which he called furnus acapnos. Here the {moke is forced to defcend into the fire-place, where it is confumed. Dr. Franklin, who afterwards executed a very complete {love on that principle, ftill {poke of it, in 1773, as a mere -curiofity or philofophical experiment, as it re- quired too much attention to be managed by common fervants. This machine confiited of a tube of iron-plate, fuch as is ufed for the flue of a German ftove. This tube was bent at right angles, and the part which was horizontal was about two feet in length, and joined to the reft of the tube, which afcended vertically. At the oppofite end of the horizontal tube the furnace was made: it confifted of a cylindrical tube of plate-iron ereted upon the horizontal tube near the end, and provided with a grating, upon which the fuel was placed ; and the grate prevented the fuel falling down into the horizontal tube. To light this ftove, fome clear burning charcoal was put into the large fhort tube or furnace, and fupported on the grate. As foon as the tubes grew warm, the air within them would afcend in the perpendicular tube or chimney, and go out at the top of it: frefh air muft enter into the horizontal tube through the furnace, In this courfe it muft defcend through the busing fuel, and becoming heated by the burning coals, through which it has pafled, would rife more forcibly in the longer tube, in proportion to its degree of heat, or rare- faction, and the length of that tube. Such a machine is a kind of inverted fiphon; and as the greater weight of water in the longer leg of the common fiphon, in defcending, is accompanied by an afcent of the fame fluid in the fhorter ; fo in this inverted fiphon, the greater quantity of levity of air in the longer leg, in rifing, is accompanied by the defcent of air in the fhorter. The things to be burned being laid on the hot coals contained in the furnace, the {moke muft defcend through thofe coals, and be converted into flame, which, after daieogane the offenfive {mell, comes out at the end of the longer tube, as mere heated tranfparent gas or vapour. Whoever would repeat this experiment with fuccefs, muft take care that the part of the fhort tube is quite full of burning coals, fo that no part of the {moke may defcend and pais by them, without going through them, and being converted into flame ; and that the longer tube is fo heated, that the current of afcending hot air will be eflablithed in it, before the things to be burnt are laid on the coals; other- wife there will be difappointment. It does not appear, either in the Memoirs of the Aca- demy of Sciences, or Philofophical TranfaGtions of the Englifh Royal Society, that any improvement was ever made of this ingenious experiment, by applying it to ufeful purpofes ; but there is a German book, entitled “ Vulcanus Famulans,’”’ by Joh. George Leutmann, P.D., printed at Wirtemburg in 1723, which defcribes, among a great va- riety of other itoves for warming of rooms, one which feems to have been formed on the fame principle. It was pro- bably taken from the hint thereby given, though M. Da- lefme’s experiment is not mentioned ; for the conftruétion is as nearly as poflible the fame, except in the proportion of the parts; the furnace being made in the form of a bafin or vafe, having the grate in the bottom of it. Gauger, author of “ La Méchanique du Feu,’ &c. printed at Paris in 1709, was the perfon to whom we are indebted for the firft and moft complete fyftem of experi- ments on the circulation of heat, by means of air-holes affording warm air; as alfo the manner of making one fire warm feveral rooms, and to fend off the heat in elliptic curves, STOVE. curves. We there find a defcription of a chimney, with the back, the hearth, and the jambs, of hollow iron, to heat the air that is to enter the room. But it does not ap- pear that this work produced much effect at the time: the moft important truths lie concealed in books, till fome preffing intereft awakens the attention of mankind to their utility. Dr. Franklin, in 1745, publifhed an account of the new ftcves of Pennfylvania; the advantages of which he com- pares with thofe of the ftoves of Germany and Holland, and the chimney of Gauger. A defeription and drawing of this ftove are given in our article Fire-Place. In 1785, Dr. Franklin publifhed the defcription of another ftove, which has the flame reverfed; that is, it pafles downwards through the fuel. this ftove is that of a vafe of caft-iron, with its pedeftal ; and this is mounted upon the top or lid of an air-box, itand- ing upon the hearth of the fire-place, and built clofe ina niche in the ftone-work: but the vafe being wholly de- tached from the back of the niche, has a very neat appear- ance. The top of the vafe turns back upon a hinge, fo as to open like a lid, to put in the fuel; and the opening is covered by a brafs frame, which allows the air to enter. The bottom of the vafe has in it an opening, of about two inches diameter, which leads through the ftem or foot of the vafe into a hollow iron box, forming the pedeftal. At the bottom of this pedeftal is a grating in the lid or top of the air-box, upon which the vafe ftands. The air-box is di- vided by four partitions, between which the fmoke patfles and repafles horizontally in a waving direction, until it efcapes into the chimney. Thus the fmoke and flame, immediately after it has defcended through the grate in the top of the air- box, pafles backwards towards the chimney between the two middle partitions ; but as it cannot enter into the chimney at that part, it turns round the ends of thofe partitions, and returns in two currents towards the front of the box ; then returns again round the end of other partitions, and goes back into the chimney, which is behind, or rather at the fides of the niche in which the vafe ftands. The front plate of the air-box is made to flide in a groove, in two pieces, which meet together in the front like folding-doors; and thefe pieces being flided back, expofe the {paces between the par- titions, which, as before mentioned, a as winding flues for the {moke to circulate in, and give out its heat through the metal of the air-box. In the fpace between the two middle partitions, and into which the {moke firft defcends, a drawer is fitted to receive the afhes or cinders, which may fall through the grate in the top of the air-box ;, and it can be readily withdrawn, to clear it out. There is likewife a {mall grate at the lower part of the vafe, upon which the fuel contained in the vafe will reft. When this fuel is lighted, the flame and fmoke will draw downward, and, defcending through the grate, will pafs through the hole in the bottom of the vafe into the hollow pedeital, and through the grate in the top of the air-box: it then paffes horizontally in the fpace between the two middle partitions of the air-box, and proceeds in the fame direGtion towards the back of the chimney ; there dividing, one part of it turns to the right, and pafles round the farther end of the middle partition; then coming forwards, it turns round the near end of the outfide partition; then moving backwards, it arrives at the opening into the bottom of one of the upright corner funnels behind the niche, through which it afcends into the chimney, thus heating that half of the box and that fide of the niche. The other part of the divided flame paffes to the left, round the far end of the middle partition, round the near end of the outfide partition, The appearance of and fo into and up the other corner funnel; thus heating the other half of the box, and the other fide of the niche. The vafe itfelf, and the box, will alfo be very hot ; and the air furrounding them being heated, and rifing, as it cannot get. into the chimney, it {preads in the room: colder air fucceeding, is warmed in its turn, rifes and fpreads, till by the continual circulation the whole is warmed. If there is occalion to make the fire when the chim- ney does not draw, it muit not be begun in the vafe, but in one or more of the paflages of the lower air-box ; firlt withdrawing the fliding front of the, air-box, and covering the mouth of the vafe. After the chimney has drawn fome time with the fire thus low, and begins to be a little warm, thofe paflages may be clofed, and another fire kindled in the hollow pedeftal, leaving its fliding fhutter a little open ; and when it is found that the chimney, being warmed, draws forcibly, that paflage may be fhut, and the vafe opened, to make the fire there, as above direéted. The chimney, well warmed by the firft day*s fire, will Condit to draw conftantly all winter, if the fire is made aily. In the management of this ftove, there are certain pre- cautions to be obferved, at firft with attention, till they become habitual. To avoid the inconvenience of {moke, the grate muft be cleared before beginning to light a fire. If it is found clogged with cinders and afhes, the grate muft be lifted up with the tongs, to let them fall upon the grate in the top of the air-box: the afhes will go through it into the drawer, and the cinders may be raked off through a fliding door in the pedeftal, and returned into the vafe, when they are to be burnt. Care mutt be taken that all the fliding-plates are in their places, and clofely fhut, that no air may enter the ftove but through the round opening at the top of the vafe ; and to avoid the inconvenience of dutt from the afhes, let the afh-drawer be taken out of the room to be emptied. The pailages thould be cleaned or raked out, when the draught of the air is {trong inwards; and the afhes muft be put carefully into the afh-box, whilft it remains in its place. If it is required to prevent the fire burning in the abfence of the proprietor, it may be done by removing the brafs frame from the top of the vafe, and covering the paflage or open- ing into the top of the vafe with a round tin-plate, which will prevent the entry of more air than barely fufficient to keep a few of the coals alive. When the fire is wanted, though fome hours afterwards, by taking off the tin-plate, and admitting the air, the fire will foon be recovered. The effect of this machine, well managed, is to burn not only the coals, but all the fmoke of them; fo that while the fire is burning, if the top of the chimney is obferved, no fmoke will be feen ifluing, nor any thing but clear warm air, which, as ufual, makes the bodies feen through it appear waving. But it muft not be imagined from this, that it can be a cure for bad or f{moky chimnies, much lefs that, as it burns the f{moke, it may be ufed in a room that has no chimney. It is only by the help of a good chimney, and the higher the better, that it produces its effe@t at all; and though a flue of plate-iron fufficiently high might be raifed in a very lofty room, the management to prevent all difagreeable vapour would be too nice for common praétice, and {mall errors would have unpleafing confequences. It is certain that clean iron yields no offenfive {mell, when heated: whatever {mell of that kind is perceived where there are iron ftoves, proceeds, therefore, from fome foulnefs burning or fuming on their furface ; they fhould, therefore, never be {pit upon, or greafed, nor fhould i u STOVE. duft be fuffered to lie uponthem. But as the greateft care will not always prevent thefe things, it is well once a week to wath the ftove with foap-lees and a brufh, rinfing it with clean water. The advantages of this reverfed flame in ftoves are very confiderable. ‘The chimney does not grow foul, nor ever need fweeping ; for as no {moke enters it, fo no foot can form in it. The air heated over common fires inftantly quits the room, and goes up the chimney with the fmoke; but, in the flove, it is obliged to defcend in flame, and pafs through the long winding horizontal paflages, communicating its heat to a body of iron-plate, which, having thus time to receive the heat, communicates the fame to the air of the room, and thereby warms it to a greater degree. The whole of the fuel is confumed by being turned into flame, and the benefit of its heat is obtained ; whereas, in common chimnies, a great part goes away in {moke, which may be feen as it rifes, but it affords no rays of warmth. Some idea may be formed of the quantity of fuel thus watted in fmoke, by refleGting on the mafs of foot that a few weeks’ firing will lodge againft the fides of the chimney ; and yet this is formed only of thofe particles of the column of fmoke which happen to touch the fides in its afcent. How much more mutt have pafled off in the air? And we know that this foot is ftill fuel, for it will burn and flame.as fuch ; and, when hard caked together, is indeed very like and almoft as folid as the coal from which it proceeds. The deitruGion of fuel goes on nearly in the fame quantity in {moke as in flame, but there is no comparifon in the dif- ference of heat given. When frefh coals are firft put on a fire, a confiderable body of fmoke arifes. This fmoke is, for a long time, too cold to take flame; but if a burning candle is plunged into it, the candle, inftead of inflaming the fmoke, will inftantly be itfelf extinguifhed. Smoke muft have a certain degree of heat to be inflammable. As foon as it has acquired that degree, the approach of a candle will inflame the whole body, and the difference of the heat which it gives will be very fenfible. A {till eafier experi- ment may be made with a candle itfelf. Hold your hand near the fide of its flame, and obferve the heat it gives: then blow it out, the hand remaining in the fame place, and ob- ferve what heat may be given by the fmoke that rifes from the ftill burning fnuff; you will find it very little: and yet that fmoke has in it the fubftance of fo much flame, and will inftantly produce it, if you hold another candle above it fo as to kindle it. Now the {moke from the frefh coals, Jaid on this ftove, inftead of afcending and leaving the fire, while too cold to burn, being obliged to defcend through the burning coals, receives among them that degree of heat which converts it into flame; and the heat of that flame is communicated to the air of the’ room, as above explained. The flame from the freth coals laid on in this ftove, de- fcending through the coals already ignited, preferves them long from a er and continues them in the ftate of red coals, as long as the flame continues that furrounds them, by which means the fires made in this ftove are of much longer duration than in any other, and fewer coals are therefore neceflary for the day. Thisis a very material advantage indeed. That flame fhould be a kind of pickle to preferve burning coals from confuming, may feem a paradox to many, and very unlikely to be true, as the do€tor tells us it appeared to himfelf the firft time he obferved the fa&: he therefore relates the circum{tances, and men- tions an eafy experiment, by which his reader may be in feffion of every thing neceflary to the underftanding of at. In the firft trial he made of this kind of ftove, which was conftru€ted of thin iron plate, he had, inftead of the vafe, a kind of inverted pyramid, like a mill-hopper ; and fearing at firft that the {mall grate contained in it might be clogged by cinders, and the paflage of the flame fometimes obitruéted, he ordered a little door near the grate, by means of which he could occafionally clear it ; though after the {ftove was made, and before he had tried it, he began to think this precaution fuperfluous, from an imagination that the flame, being contracted in the narrow part where the grate was placed, would be more powerful in confuming what it fhould there meet with, and that any cinders be- tween or near the bars would be prefently deftroyed and the paflage opened. After the ftove was fixed and in ation, he had a pleafure now and then in opening that door a little, to fee through the crevice how the flame defcended among the red coals, and obferving once a fingle coal lodged on the bars in the middle of the focus, he obferved bya watch in what time it would be confumed: he looked at it long without perceiving it to be at all diminifhed, which furprifed him greatly. At length it occurred to him, that he had feen the fame thing a thoufand times, in the con- verfion of the red coal formed in the fnuff of a burning candle, which, while enveloped in flame, and thereby pre- vented from the contaét of the paffing air, is long continued, and augments initead of dimimfhing, fo that we are often obliged to remove it by the fuuffers, or bend it out of the flame into the air, where it prefently confumes to afhes. He then fuppofed, that to confume a body of fire, pafling air was neceflary to receive and carry off the feparated particles of the body: and that the air pafling in the flame of the ftove, and in the flame of a candle, being already faturated with fuch particles, could not receive more, and therefore left the coal undiminifhed as long as the outward air was prevented from coming to it by the furrounding flame, which kept in a fituation fomewhat like that of charcoal in a well luted crucible, which, though long kept in a {trong fire, comes out unconfumed. This ftove of Dr. Franklin is very ingenious, and has been much ufed in France, where the management of coal-fires is but little underftood, and they are therefore induced to ufe ftoves in preference to open fires, when they burn pit- coals. Dr. Franklin completed the ftove juft defcribed in 1771, and ufed it in London during three winters. While he was in France, he contrived another grate for burning pit- coals, which has the fame property of burning the fmoke, and at the fame time the fire is expofed in a grate. The grate is a fhort cylinder, with its axis placed horizontally, and the end turned towards the apartment ; one of its cir= cular ends being made with bars, and the other is a backs plate: it is one foot (French) in diameter, and eight inches deep or long between the bars and the back: the fides and back are of plate-iron, the fides having holes of half an inch diameter, and three or four inches diftant from each other, to let in air for enlivening the fire: the back is without holes, and the fides do not meet at either the top or bottom by eight inches; and this {quare {pace is filled with grates of {mall bars, crofling from front to back to let in air be- low, and let out the {moke or flame above. The three middle bars of the front grate, that is, the circular end, are fixed ; the upper and lower may be taken out and put in at pleafure, when hot, with a pair of pincers. The whole of this cylindrical grate turns upon pivots fixed in the oppofite fides, acrofs the centre of it: the pivots are fupported by a crotchet, the {tem of which is an inverted conical tube five inches deep, which. fits as many inches upon a pin, which is fixed upright in a caft-iron plate that lies upon the hearth. In the middle of the top and bottom grates are STOVE. are fixed fmall upright pieces, about an inch high, which, as the whole is turned on its pivots, ftop it when the grate is perpendicular. By this means the grate can be inverted by turning it over upon its pivots, but as that will “prefent the back-plate to the apartment, it requires to be turned half round horizontally upon the conical pin to bring the front bars to the room. In making the firft fire in the morning with this grate, there is nothing particular to be obferved: it is made as in other grates, the coals being put into the cylindrical grate above, after taking out the upper bar, which mutt be re- placed when they are in. The round figure of the front bars filled with fire, when thoroughly kindled, is agreeable: it reprefents the great giver of warmth to our fyftem. As it burns down, it leaves a vacancy above, which mutt be filled with frefh coals, the upper bar is to be taken out, and frefh coals thrown in, the bar being afterwards replaced.. The frefh coals, while the grate continues in the fame pofition, will throw up, as ufual, a body of thick {moke ; but every one accuftomed to coal-fires in common grates mut have obferved, that pieces of frefh coal {tuck in below among the red coals, have their {moke fo heated, as that it becomes flame as fa{t as it is produced, which flame rifes among the coals, and enlivens the appearance of the fire. Here, then, is the ufe of this {wivel-grate : by a pufh with the tongs or poker, it can be turned over on its pivots till itis inverted, and the front bars face the back of the chimney ; then turn it gently round on ‘its vertical focket or axis, till it again faces the room, whereby all the frefh coals will be found under the live ones, and the greater part of the {moke arifing from the frefh coals will, in its paflage through the live ones, be heated fo as to be converted into flame. By this means much more heat is obtained from them, and the red coals are longer preferved from confuming. This conitruétion, though not fo complete a confumer of all the {moke as the vafe, is yet fitter for common ufe, and very advantageous ; it gives alfo a full fight of the fire always, a pleafing object which we have not in the other. It may with a touch be turned more or lefs from any one of the company that defires to have lefs of its heat, or prefented full to one juft come out of the cold; and when the front bars of the grate are {upported in a horizontal pofition, a tea-kettle may be boiled on them. Notwithftanding the acknowledged advantages of Dr. FrankJin’s conftru€tion of a ftove, the expence and trouble of it, and the difficulty of procuring workmen who under- Stood the manner of executing it, have prevented the general ufe of his ftoves. Mr. James Sharp, with a view of ob- viating thefe objections and difficulties, has propofed feveral improvements, for which he has obtained his majelty’s patent. According to the method which.he propofes, they are eafily accommodated to any rooms, where communica- tion can be had with the external air; both to thofe which have, and thofe which have not chimnies: fo that not only {mall rooms, but the largeft halls, libraries, or churches, may be warmed in a more effe€tual manner than had ever been done before, and the greateft degree of heat produced from a given quantity of fuel. Mr. Sharp, by adding fun- nels to the top, renders thefe ftoves fit for any chimney, and by lengthening the funnel, to any place without a chimney. By the hollow bafe with which his ftove-grates are furnifhed, he is able to apply them with much greater effeét to the external air, without any addition of brick- work ; and by the alterations in the air-box, a much greater quantity of warm air is introduced than it was poflible to introduce in their former ftate. If a ftove of this kind is I to be placed in a common fire-place, a hole muft be made through the back of the chimney, or through the hearth, to communicate with the external air; and this hole fhould be made as large as poffible, and in a defcending pofition, fo that the outward air may afcend towards the ftove. The hollow bafe of the ftove mutt be placed againit this hole, fo as to cover it completely ; and the bottom of the bafe muft be fitted fo clofe to the earth, and pointed with lime or putty, that the air may not pafs. Upon the ftove there mutt be put a few feet of iron funnel to reach above the breatt of the chimney; and the chimney inclofed by iron plates, fo con{truéted and placed in a fquare or oblong iron frame, that they may be eafily removed when the chimney wants {weeping. By this con{trution, the warm air, in- troduced by the itove, will be carried into the room. which would otherwife pafs up the chimney, and be loft. But if the {tove is to be fixed in a room where there is no chimney, it may be placed in any part of it, where communication may be had with the outward air; and nothing more is ne- ceffary than a fufficient length of funnel to carry it through the roof, or wall, or window, or into any other chimne that may be convenient. If the fire-place be too {mall for the ftove, the chimney may be clofed by the aforementioned frame and plates, and the ftove ftand before the fire-place, and the fmoke be carried off, by the help of a circular elbow, into the chimney above the mantle-piece. Many of thefe ttoves, it is faid, have been lately put up, in order to cure {moky chimnies, and have always fucceeded. For farther particulars, fee Sharp’s Account of the Air-Stove Grates, &c. The inhabitants of the northern parts of Europe have long been accuftomed to the ufe of ftoves in which the fire is fhut up, and gives out its heat to a draught or current of air, which is made to pafs through proper openings in the ftove, and when fufficiently warmed, enters into the apartment. The {moke arifing from the fuel is made to pafs through a circuitous paflage of flues, by which means the greate(t part of the heat is abforbed. Stoves on this prin- ciple are known in England, but are very feldom ufed, except for warming of halls, ftaircafes, and paflages, in grand houfes, as the Englifh are not contented to feel the air warm, unlefs they fee the fire. In Ruflia, Sweden, and other northern countries, they are indifpenfably neceflary, as with- out them, it would be impoffible to keep the rooms tolerably warm. A common fire-place has too large an opening, and if care be not taken to fupply it continually with wood, &c. the heat it produces is hardly fenfible, becaufe it follows the current of the air, and is carried off by the fmoke. Thefe ftoves, on the contrary, retain the heat a much longer time; and as their external parts, and alfo their flues, are very thin, they communicate their heat very readily, fo that with a {mall quantity of wood, they warm an apartment much more than the fire of a common fire-place would do, with fix times the quantity. For it was not fufficient that the inhabitants of thefe fevere climates fhould difcover the molt fimple means of keeping up in their houfes a comfortable degree of heat, it was alfo neceffary that this fhould be done with the lea{t poflible expence of fuel. The ftoves which they employ perfectly fulfil the above- mentioned intentions ; they are alfo fufceptible of every kind of ornament. The more furface we give to a ftove con- ftruéted in this manner, the more the heat is increafed, confequently we muft not be furprifed to find that this kind of ftove fometimes occupies the whole height of an apanmient, its width and depth being proportioned to its height. The conftruction of thefe ftoves is fimple: they Sr of our, STOVE. four, five, or more {mall chambers, built one above another : the lower one is for the fire which burns in it, and the fmoke rifing from it enters into the chamber immediately above, then into the third, and from that to the fourth. The paflages or holes through which the {moke enters into one chamber from that beneath, are, in all cafes, made at the corner of the chamber, oppofite to the paflage at which the fmoke will pafs out from the fame chamber to the next aboveit. By this means the {moke is obliged to pafs through the whole of the chamber, and has the greatelt chance of tranfmitting ite heat. A fire lighted in one of thefe ftoves early in the morning, and with a {mall quantity of fuel, retains a ftrong heat during the whole day. The door of the fire-place is only opened to put in wood, and remains afterwards conftantly fhut. The wood lies upon a grate, con- fequently it is not buried in and ftifled by the afhes. The ath-hole is {pacious, and one or two feet in height, accord- ing to the capacity of the ftove. Two doors are placed at the extremities of the afh hole, and the curreut of air is very confiderable, by which the {moke is carried up with great force, and the wood burns very brifkly. , Stoves of this kind may be advantageoufly placed in halls, at the bottom of {taircafes, and in the anti-chambers of great houfes: they may alfo, by proportioning their fize to that of the rooms for which they are intended, be made ufe of in the houfes of private perfons. To this it may perhaps be objected, that the heat produced from thefe ftoves is unwholefome, becaufe they deprive the air of its moifture; and that the air, by being made too dry, lofes its elafticity, in confequence of which, refpiration becomes difficult and laborious. Thefe objeétions would appear of great weight, if we had not the example of the Ruffians, the Swedes, the Danes, the Germans, and in fhort of all the inhabitants of the north of Europe, to fhew that thofe who are habituated to fuch ftoves, do not find them un- wholefome. If others fhould be fenfible of inconveniencies from the drynefs of the air in the apartment, it may be eafily removed by the very fimple expedient of placing upon the ftove a veflel of glafs or earthen-ware, which has a large furface, and is very fhallow: this being filled with water, will infenfibly evaporate, and reftore to the air that moifture of which the heat of the ftove has deprived it : the air will then recover its elafticity. If orange-trees are expofed to the heat of fuch a ftove, and the fire is not aos regulated, the plants grow yellow and lofe their aves, efpecially if the air is not changed, which in winter is not very conveniently done ; but if a veflel of water be placed upon the ftove, the evaporation of the water will preferve the trees. In a memoir publifhed by M. Guyton in the Annales de Chimie, he has explained the conftruétion of the ftoves employed in Sweden, and recommends the adoption of one conftruéted on the fame principle for general ufe in France. : The memoir is tranflated in the Repertory of Arts, 1 Series, vol. xvi. The conftruétion of the ftove which is there recommended may be improved, to adapt it to our ufe in England, where pit-coal is ufed: but the following principles, which the author lays down, are very ufeful as guides in making all kinds of ftoves for warming apart- ments, 1. Heat is produced only in proportion to the volume of air confumed by the fuel. 2. The quantity of heat produced is greateft, (the quan- tity and quality of the fuel being the fame,) when the com- buftion is complete. . The combutftion is the more cgmplete, in proportion Vox. XXXIV. as the fuliginous part is longer retained in channels where it may ary nie a fecond combuttion. 4- The only ufeful heat is that fent out into, and re- tained in the {pace intended to be heated. The tempera- ture of that {pace will be higher in proportion, as the cur- rent which muft be renewed from without to fupport the combuttion, is lefs enabled to take up in its paflage the heat produced. Hence the following inferences evidently arife : 1. The fire-place ought to be infulated from all bodies that are rapid conduétors of heat. All the heat that goes out of the apartment is abfolutely loft, unlefs intentionally directed into another apartment. 2. Heat being produced only by combuftion, and com- buftion being fuitaned only by a current of air, the current fhould be brought in by channels, where the needful rapidity may be preferved without being too diftant from the {pace to be warmed, fo that the heat it there depofits, may be gradually accumulated in the whole of the infulated fur- nace, in order afterwards to flow out of it flowly, accord- ing to the laws of the equilibrium of that fluid. 3. The wood being fo far confumed as to give no more f{moke, it is advantageous to clofe the mouth of thefe chan- nels, in order to retain there the heat that would other- wife be carried off through the upper flue, by the continu- ance of a current of frefh air, neceffarily of a low tem-~ perature. 4. Laltly; it follows from thefe maxims, that all things being equal, a higher temperature will be obtained, and fupported during a much longer time, by forming, in the internal parts of the ftove, or under the hearth of a chimney, and in their vicinity, tubes in which the air that comes from without may be warmed before it enters the apartment, to ferve the purpofe of combuttion, or replace that which has been confumed. Thefe have been called bouches de chaleur (mouths or apertures of heat) ; becaufe, inftead of contemplating their principal ufe and intention, it is commonly imagined that they are only made in order to give by their iflues a more rapid current to the heat produced. Nor is this idea abfolutely devoid of foundation, fince the air that iffues from them has only changed its tempera- ture, by carrying off a portion of the heat that would have remained in the interior. Thofe, however, who would profcribe them, as oppofing the moft important object, which is the retaining of the heat as long as poffible, do not confider that they may be clofed, and all communication with the external air cut off by a fimple flide, and, therefore, it is eafy to derive from them every poffible advantage with- out any inconvenience. And we may add, that in {mall apartments, or fuch as are accurately clofed, they are often indifpenfibly requifite, if we could avoid being expofed to currents of cold air. Dr. Franklin very juftly quotes a Chinefe proverb to this effect: Shun a current of air from a narrow paflage as you would the point of an arrow.’’ The Swedifh or Ruffian ftoves, which have chambers for the reception of the flame and fmoke, are little known in this country: but thofe which are in common ufe in the halls and veftibules of our great houfes are French ftoves. The differ from the others in having a very great length of {mall flues or winding paflages, through which the {moke pafles, and communicates its heat to the air, which circulates in fimilar paflages, until it becomes warmed, and makes its exit through the mouths into the apartment. This method is not fo fimple as the {mall chambers or apartments of the Roffian ftoves, nor is it fo good in the long run; becaufe the paflages are very liable Ap become clogged with foot 3 a an STOVE. and even before they are fo clogged as to intercept the patlage of the {moke, the tranfmiflion of the heat is much impaired, becaufe the interior furfaces of the flues becom- ing coated with foot, do not conduct the heat fo rapidly, and in confequence, a great part will flill pafs out into the chimney. Alfo, thefe flues with {mall paflages require a ftronger draught in the chimney, to make the air pafs through the paflages, than when chambers are ufed. The Holland iron ftove, which has a flue proceeding from the top, the fire-place and afh-pit being clofed by fmall iron doors opening into the room, comes next to be confidered. It is frequently made of iron-plate, and is mo{t commonly called a German ftove. Its conveniencies are, that it makes a room warm all over, for the chimney being wholly clofed, except the flue of the ftove, very little air is required to fupply that, and therefore not much rufhes in at crevices, or at the door when it is opened. Little fuel ferves, the heat being nearly all faved; for it radiates almott equally from the four fides, and the bottom and top, into the room, and prefently warms the air around it, which being rarefied rifes to the ceiling, and its place is fupplied by the lower air of the room, which flows gradually to- wards the ftove, and is there warmed and rifes in its turn, fo that there is a continual circulation, till all the air in the xoom is warmed. The air, too, is gradually changed by the ftove-doors being in the room, through which part of it 1s continually paffing, and that makes thefe {toves more whole- fome, or at leaft more pleafant, than the German ftoves, next to be {poken of. But they have the inconvenience that there is no fight of the fire, which is in itfelf a pleafant thing, nor can any other ufe be conveniently made of the fire but that of warming the room, When the room is warm, people not feeing the fire are apt to forget fupplying it with fuel till it is almoft out, then growing cold, a great deal of wood is put in, which foon makes it too hot. The changes of air are not carried on quick enough, fo that if any {moke or ill {mell happen in the room, t remains a long time before it is difcharged. For thefe reafons, the Holland ftoves have not been much intro- duced among the Englifh (who love the fight of the fire), unlefs in fome workfhops, where people are obliged to fit near the windows for light, and in fuch places they have been found of great ule. The real German ftove is made like a box, one fide want- ing, and that fide is built again{l the wall of the room. It is compofed of five iron-plates {crewed together, and fixed fo as that the fuel can be put into it from another room, or from the outfide of the houfe. It is a kind of oven re- verfed, its mouth being without and body within the room that is to be warmed by it. This invention certainly warms a room very {peedily and thoroughly with little fuel: no quantity of cold air comes in at any crevice, becaufe there is no dif- charge of air whichit might fupply, there being no paflage into the ftove from the room. Thefe are its conveniencie;. Its inconveniencies are, that people have not fo much fight or ufe of the fire as in the Holland {toves, and are moreover obliged to breathe the fame unchanged air continually, mixed with the breath and refpiration from one another’s bodies, which is very difagreeable to thofe who have not been ac- cultomed to it. This may be remedied by making a {mall aperture into the flue, with a regilter to draw off the air. This kind of itove is {till lefs in ufe in England than that which we have before defcribed, and which is generally called the German ftove, although it is ufed by the Dutch inftead of the Germans. Meflrs. Strutt, in their extenfive cotton-mills at Belper, 2 “a in Derbythire, have employed a kind of ftove which is found to an{wer extremely well; it confifts of what is called acockle, that is, a {quare chelt or veflel of iron-plate, rivetted together in the manner of a boiler, and fet in a furnace, fo that a fire can be made withinfide of it upon a grate, and the fmoke will pafs off through a {mall paflage into the flue which conduéts to the chimney, the pallage of which is regulated by a fliding damper. The cockle is of confiderable dimenfions, as much as four feet fquare and five feet in height, and the fire is made at the bottom of it, upon a grate of about fourteen inches by eighteen, fo that the fire does not any where touch the infide of the cockle, but the heat rifing up therein gives a confiderable and equable heat, without rendering it fo hot as to burn the air which it is intended to warm, for if that is once done the air will be rendered unpleafant. The cockle is inclofed in a cafing of brick-work, which is of the fame fhape as the cockle, and leaves a {pace all round between of a fewinches. This cafe of brick-work is again furrounded by walls of brick-work, leaving a {pace of about eighteen inches all round; and thefe walls are carried up above, to form the chimney or funnel to convey the warmed air up to the feveral apartments of the mill. ‘This chimney is divided, by thin brick partitions, into as many different flues as there are floors to be warmed; and a {mall opening is made, with a regilter, from each flue into the apartment it is intended to f{upply. This opening is made clofe to the floor ; and in order to make a change of the air, ventilators are placed high up in the apartment, fo as to be near the ceiling. This divifion of the chimney into feveral different flues is intended to equalize the fupply of air to the feyeral apart- ments, and by this means the upper apartments are equally well fupplied with warm air as thofe below. In order to make the air pafs in conta& with the furface of the heated cockle, a horizontal partition is built in the {pace between the chimney and the brick-cafing of the cockle. The level of this partition is at about one half the height of the cockle, and its effeét is to divide the brick- cafing of the cockle into two halves, one above the partition and the other below. The cold air is freely admitted into the lower part of the chimney beneath the partition, but cannot efeape into the chimney above it, without entering into the fpace between the eockle and its brick-cafing, through a number of {mall openings made in it beneath the horizontal pofition; and in thus pafling in contaé with the furface of the cockle the air becomes heated, and pafles out again, through openings in the brick-cafing, into! the chimney above the partition. In order to make the cold air ftrike more forcibly againft the heated furface of the cockle, a {mall iron tube is fitted through each of the open- ings in the lower part of the cafing, and the ends of thefe tubes approach very near to the furface of the cockle. Mr. Strutt has introduced this kind of ftove into the new Infirmary at Derby, and in feveral other fimilar in{titutions it has been adopted with great fuccefs. In 1799, Mr. James Burns of Glafgow took out a patent for an improved {ftove, or fire-grate, to burn with an open fire : his ftove has a very elegant appearance, and feveral ad- vantages. The objeét of the improvement was to prevent the heat generated by combuttion, and thrown out into the apart- ment by radiation, from being unneceflarily wafted by the draught of air for the f{upport of the fire, as is ufual in ftoves or grates of the common conftruétion ; where all the air that goes to maintain the combultion is furnifhed from the warm air in the room, the wafte of which is fupplied by the ex-_ terior cold air, which comes pouring into the room at the bottoms STOVE. bottoms of the doors, or by the fides of the windows, and thereby undoes a Uige: part of the effet that otherwife would be produced by the fire. ‘To accomplifh this inten- tion, the air that maintains the fire in the improved ftoves is brought through a tube, which 1s called the air-tube, from the outfide of the houfe, and may be made to pafs between two of the joifts, (where the floors and ceilings are clofe enough to allow this,) fo as to be brought to the bottom bars of the grate, without having any communication with the interior air of the room; while, at the fame time, the grate and parts connected with it are fo conftru&ed, that when the fire is not wifhed to be fupplied with cold air from the outfide of the houfe, the paflage may be fhut more or lefs perfectly by means of a valve, a {mall door, a cock, or any fimilar contrivance. When convenience does not ad- mit of the air-tube being carried to the outfide of the houfe, it may be carried to a cellar, larder, or ftair-cafe, and the fame end will be gained, with this farther advantage, that fuch cellar, or other apartment, will be always well venti- lated, and prevented from acquiring or retaining any un- healthy or difagreeable {mells. The sich is to fupply the fire with air from without the room or apartment, fo as to prevent the warm air of the room from being drawn to the fire-place and hurried up the chimney, while, at the fame time, all the advantages of open grates may be enjoyed. The form of Mr. Burns’ ftove is that of a vafe or urn placed in the chimney-place, which is made circular, to form a niche for its reception. The urn is open at top, and the fides are formed of open work or grating, with a grated bottom, forming a fufficient {pace to contain the fire ; but the pedettal and lower part of the vafe are made clofe, to pre- vent the entrance of air to the fire, except that which pafles up from the air-tube through the hollow pedeftal; and within this pedeftal is an air-valve, which opens and fhuts by 2 regilter, to regulate the entrance of the current from the open air. In the pedeftal of the vafe is a drawer, to receive theafhes. The niche or chimney in which the vafe is placed, has the ufual opening at top to carry off the {moke. The air for the fupport of the tire enters from the external air, through the tube or air-pipe before defcribed, and pafles into the hollow pedeftal of the vafe ; and having pafled through the hollow neck or ftem of the vafe, it finds no difficulty in pafling up through the bottom of the grate, the back or fide of the afh-drawer next which the aperture is being made low, to allow it to flowin freely. The grate and its internal cavity may be of any convenient form, but circular or ellip- tical will anfwer bett, efpecially when another improvement is applied. This is a glafs tale or iron-work fence or {creen, to prevent thofe dreadful accidents which fo frequently oc- cur of ladies’ or children’s clothes being fet on fire by {parks from the grate. Where this fafe-guard fence or {creen is wifhed to be applied, the infide of the chimney where the grate is to ftand mutt be a femi-cylinder, or nearly fo, with a lining or cover, made of metal, at fuch a diftance from the femi-cylindrical wall or niche in which the ftove is placed, as to give fufficient room for allowing the fafe-guard or fence to be flid round into it, when the fire is wifhed to be left open to introduce frefh fuel, or when the drawer with the afhes is to be removed. The fence is a frame-work of me- tal, which, when filled up with glafs, or with wire-work, forms a portion of acylinder, anfwerable to the curvature of the fpace between the back of the chimney and the hning above-mentioned, made in one or two pieces, and moving in a circular groove in the hearth, which ferves to conduct it into its place behind the grate, when the fire-place is wanted to be left open, as before-mentioned. The top of the front of the opening ¥. he chimney-piece ) projects in a circular form, or is furntfhed with an added projeétion, made of metal, and furnifhed with a circular groove on its under furface, of the fame radius as the groove in the hearth, for the purpofe of guiding the upper part of the frame of the guard. The glats with which the frame of the guard is filled may be flained or painted: complete fafety is thus obtained, and, at the fame time, the comfort ariling from the view of a cheerful fire is not prevented by the interpo- fitien of any opaque body. But for nurferies or the like, where convenience and fafety are more the objets than ele- gance or luxury, the frame-work may be filled up with wire-work, Inftead of fuch grooves at top and bottom for the fence to move in, the fence itfelf may be furnifhed with a groove at its top and one at its bottom, to receive any projecting piece of metal, or other fubitance of a proper curvature ; or its bottom groove may receive the upper edge of the fender, which, being made to a proper curve, and properly adjufted and kept in its place, will anfwer the fame end. But whichever of thefe ways be followed, or whatever other method of con{truGtion (for it may eafily be varied to anfwer circumiftances), rollers or caftors fhould be provided at the lower part of the fence, to make it move with greater eae, either to the front of the grate, or into the {pace between the back of the chimney and the lining above-mentioned. Where either the glafs or the wire-work frame, or both of them, are meant to be applied to fquare or re€tangular chimnies, without the trouble of giving them a femi-cylin~ drical form, the lining to receive the fence or fences may be introduced at the fides, or jambs, of {uch chimnies; or the fence may be made to rife, by means of pullies, into the wall above the opening, or be flid fideways into the walls at the fides of the openings. Befides the advantages already pointed out as conneéted with them, thefe ftoves poffefs alfo the following ; anyroom or apartment may be heated by their means with a much {maller quantity of fuel than by common open fires; at the fame time, the advantage of feeing the fire is net loft, as in clofe ftoves, for thefe grates have fide as well as bottom bars, which allow the radiant heat and light to be thrown out into the room, without any impediment ; and, in faét, large rooms, halls, and the like, which by the ufual methods can hardly be warmed, or made at all comfortable in cold weather, may; by means of thefe improvements, be heated as effe€tually as the {malleft apartment ; for when their full effe& is wanted to be procured, it is only neceflary to keep the fence in its recefs, that even that portion of heat which would be kept back by the interpofed glafs or wire-work, may be thrown out into the room, and perform its office. In 1804, Mr. Jofhua Jowett of London obtained a patent for a very jimilar contriyance, which he called a fire-guard ftove, which is intended to prevent accidents from {parks of fire flying out. ‘The ftove itfelf is an open fire, and is ufually made of a cylindrical form, the axis of the cylinder being ver- tical. One half of the cylinder which faces the apartment is made with bars at the lower part, to contain the fire, and an opening over them to feedit. The back part of the cylinder is made of caft-iron plate; but, inftead of the brick-work being built up clofe round the back, a {mall {pace is left to receive the guard. The weight of the ftove or grate is fup- ported upon a vertical iron bar, which is in the centre, or axis of the cylinder, which forms the ftove, and the guard {wings round upon th bar as a centre, and being a half. cylinder of wire-work, can be brought in front to inclofe Oo 2 the a STOVE. the fire, or it can be turned round behind the ftove out of fight. “The fire-guard may be fixed to any ftove which will admit of two centres or pivots being placed in a perpendicular line in the back of the ftove, to fufpend the fire-guard, and guide its motion; and the ftove muft admit of grooves on either fide, for the guard to pafs through, as the levers will dire&t. he principle of the action of the fire-guard, is that of being united to two centres or pivots, placed perpendi- cular one to the other; and it is conneéted to the two cen- tres fixed to the ftove by means of two lever-cranks, one end of which is fixed to the guard, and the other end of each to the centres or pivots, by which the guard {wings in a rotatory motion, pafling through a groove formed in the {tove on either fide, to a before the fire when re- quired, and is brought into ufe by means of a handle or nob, fattened to the front edge of the frame of the guard for that purpofe ; or, inftead of drawing it out with the hand, as before defcribed, it may be brought into ufe by means of a{pring faftened to the crank, and prefling againtt the cheek or back of the ftove, to throw the guard forward. The fame effe& may be produced by means of a balance faf- tened to any part of the fire-guard, and working with a line or chain over pullies fixed to the ftove, or by means of the combined force of the {pring and balance. Mr. Allan Pollock took out a patent, in 1807, for a ftove which is very fimilar to the Swedith ttoves, having chambers through which the {moke is fucceflively conveyed, and gives out its heat to the air of the apartment in which it is placed: in addition to this, the ftove is made to give a conf{tant cur- rent of warmed air; for this purpofe, the cold air ismade to enter and circulate through winding paflages, fituated in the back of the fire-grate, or {pace in which the fire burns, and the fame paflage is continued, by an iron tube, through the fmoke-chambers up to an air-chamber fituated in the top, from which it paffes into the apartment. Thefe ftoves are made of calt-iron; but, to prevent the air receiving any taint from pafling in contaét with the hot iron, Mr. Pollock propofed to apply a compofition to the cores of the moulds in which the pipes are to be caft, which compofition will become vitrified by the heat of the melted iron, when the fame is poured into the mould, and will form a glafly or vitrified lining to the tubes, and prevent the a€tual conta& of the atr withthe iron. Thefe ftoves anfwer very well. A very important improvement in thofe fire-places for burning of coal, which are generally called regitter-{toves, has been lately made by Mr. John Cutler of London, for which he hada patent in 1815. The ttoves conftru&ed by him are nearly fuch as are known by the name of regifter-{toves, being made of caft-iron plate to inclofe the fire-place at the back and fides, but open in front to the apartment ; leaving only a paflage for the f{moke through a regifter, at the upper part of the inclofed fpace. Mr. Cutler’s improve- ment confifts in applying to fuch grates or ftoves a cham- ber, or magazine, fituated beneath the grate (or the {pace inclofed by grating) in which the fire 1s to burn. This chamber is to contain a magazine of fuel fufficient to fupply the combuttion for a whole day, or other required {pace of time: the bottom plate of the chamber is moveable; and by means of a wheel and axle, the fuel contained in the magazine can be elevated, fo as to introduce a portion of the fuel into the grate at the lower part, or from beneath ; and thus, from time to time, replace the fuel which is spurned: without the trouble of occafionally throwing on coals. In order to make the fire burn, the flue or entrance to the chimney muft be of fuch a conftruétion, as will produce the motft efficient draught or current of air to pats through and acrofs the top of the fire. This improvement of intro- ducing a fupply of fuel into the grate from beneath, caufes the fire to burn clear and with little {moke; becaufe the {moke, or gas, which iffues from the newly introduced fuel, when it is firlt heated, mutt of neceffity afcend through the burning fuel, and be thereby confumed. Another im- provement is to reduce the fire, or extinguifh it, when it is left for the night. This is’done by lowering down the whole of the fire from the grate into the chamber, or maga- zine, beneath the grate: the fupply of air is thus inter- rupted, and the fire is completely inclofed in a deep chett, fo that it is impoffible {parks can fly out, and the fire foon becomes extinguifhed. The advantages of thefe improve- ments are by no means trifling. By burning the {moke, the whole effe&t of the fuel confumed is produced; and were this invention univerfally introduced into London, that pernicious footy atmofphere in which it is hidden would be {o improved, as to be equally pure with that of Paris, or other continental cities, where wood alone is ufed for fuel. The burning of the {moke renders the {weeping of the chimnies unneceflary, and the danger of fire from the foot contained in the flue is avoided: alfo chimnies which throw out {moke into the room will, in almoft all cafes, be cured by this improvement, becaufe the quantity of air or gas which muit pafs through the chimney is fo fmall. To avoid the trouble of throwing on coals, and to have at all times a bright and chearful fire, are matters of convenience, but are not wholly to be overlooked: and, laftly, to have the means of extinguifhing the fire, when it is left for the night, is a moft important improvement ; when it is con- fidered that, amongit the fires which happen every year in London, how many break out in the hours when the fires are left, and a great proportion are doubtlefs occafioned by fires left unextinguifhed. The machinery for raifing up the moveable bottom of Mr. Cutler’s ftove is very fimple. The magazine-chamber is compofed of iron plates {crewed together, and the move- able bottom is fitted to it, fo as to leave as {mall a {pace round the edges as poffible. A bar is fixed acrofs, beneath the bottom plate; and the ends of this bar pafs through flits, or narrow openings, in the fide plates of the chamber. To the extremities of the bar the ends of two chains are attached, and the upper ends of thefe chains are made to wind upon the ends of a horizontal axle, which extends over the top of the ftove, fo as to be within the chimney, and out of fight. The axle is turned round by a face or crown- wheel, fixed upon the extremity of it, andthe teeth thereof are engaged by the teeth of a {mall pinion, the axis of which comes through the iron work of the ftove; and the end has a {mall fquare hole in it, to receive a fquare or key upon a {mall winch handle. By means of this handle, the iron axle is turned round, and winds up the chains, fo as to elevate the bottom plate of the magazine, and thereby raife up a portion of frefh fuel into the lower part of the grate, where it is burned, as before mentioned; and the fmoke which firft iffues from the coal rifes through the fire, and is thereby confumed. Mr. Cutler has made a great number of thele ftoves, which are found to anfwer very well: they have all the fame properties as Dr. Franklin’s cylindrical grate, but in a greater degree; and the fire can be fupplied with frefh coals at the lower part, without the trouble of inverting the grate. : Sroves, American, are contrivances for warming of ToOMS STOVE. rooms, &c. by a continual introduétion and exchange of dry frefh air. Thefe ftoves are called American, becaufe the firft patterns in calt-iron upon this principle were the invention of Dr. Franklin, who then refided in Philadelphia. See Fire- Places. Stoves, Chine/e. See Kane. Sroves, Dutch and German. See Fire-Places. Srove, in Gardening, a fort of garden-building or erec- tion, con{truéted with brick-work behind and on the north, as well as partly in front, and roofed wholly with glaf{s fafhes to the fouth; being furnifhed internally with a pit, or long, wide, deep cavity, for a bark hot-bed or beds, and with flues round the infide of the walls for fire-heat : the whole calculated to produce a certain temperature at all feafons, adapted to the culture of the tendereft exotic plants, as well as for forcing various kinds, both hardy and tender, into flower and fruit, &c. at an early feafon; and which was fo named before the ufe of bark-beds, from being worked only by means of fire-heat. By their means the gardener is alfo enabled to forward many hardy plants to early perfeGtion, fuch as various forts of curious flowers, fruits, fallad-herbs, dwarf kidney-beans, ftrawberries, &c.; and likewife many forts of feeds, cut- tings, and layers of exotics are made to grow freely in the bark-bed of the ftove, that without ‘ist aid would not grow at all in this country. There are different forts of ftoves ufed occafionally for different purpofes: as the dark-ffove, for common ufe, which has both a bark-bed and flues; the dry-/love, for particular fucculent plants, &c. which is furnifhed only with flues for fire-heat, having no bark-bed; the forcing- flove, which is employed purpofely for forcing hardy fruits, flowers, &c. into early perfection, being conftruéted both with bark-bed aud flues, or orly with flues. By the uni- form, moderate, moift, growing heat in the firit fort of ftove, many kinds of {uch plants as have been mentioned are brought forward and preferved, and in which fome re- quire the bark-bed, others fucceed in any part of the houfe ; and {till others, as the fucculents, require the drieft fituation near the flues. Many of the more tender herbaceous and fhrubby plants fucceed beft when plunged in the bark-bed, though the greater part of the herbaceous and woody forts fucceed well enough in any part. The bark-bed is princi- ally allotted for the pine-apples; and moft of the {maller ucculents, particularly, may be itationed moftly over the top of the ete upon fhelves, out of the way of moilture, as being naturally very replete with humidity; and the hardy plants defigned for forcing, fuch as ftrawberries, kidney-beans, and various forts of flowers, &c. that are potted, may be placed upon fhelves, or on the parapet wall of the bark-bed ; but the nearer the glafles the better, par- ticularly ftrawberries: but good early kidney-beans may be raifed in almoft any part of the ftove. When any fort of flowers are to be forwarded, fuch as rofes, pinks, &c. or any bulbous flowers, as early as poflible, they may be plunged in the bark-bed, and fome be placed upon fhelves, &c. to fucceed them. ‘This fort of ftove is fometimes called the moif? ttove. The fecond fort of ftove, from its affording a dry heat, is intended principally for the culture of very fucculent tender exotics of parched foils, that require to be kept al- ways dry. Where there are large colleétions of this fort of plants, it is very ufeful to depofit the molt fucculent of them in feparate ftoves, for fear of the others, which per- {pire more freely, occafioning a damp air 10 winter, which may be imbibed by the fucculents, and injure them, as being impatient of much moifture, particularly in that feafon. In this kind of ftove, moveable ftands or thelves are erected above one another, on which to place the pots of plants, fuch as the tenderer forts of aloes, cereufes, euphorbiums, melon-thiftle, and other very tender fucculent plants, &c.; but moit of them may be cultivated in a com- mon ftove, with proper care. The third fort of itove is fometimes ufed principally for flowers, as is common about London, to force large quan- tities of early rofes, pinks, and numerous other flowers for market, at an early feafon; others are intended principally for fruit-trees ; arid fome ferve both for forcing flowers and fruits, and feveral forts of {mall plants, as ftrawberries, kidney-beans, &c.: fo that they confift of two kinds, which are a bark forcing-itove, furnifhed with a bark-bed and flues; and a fire forcing-ftove, having only flues for fire, without any bark-bed: the former of which is con- ftru&ed like a common bark-ftove, being furnifhed with a pit for a bark-bed to receive the pots of particular forts of plants intended for forcing, in order to forward them as early as poflible ; and with flues for fire-heat occafionally ; and fometimes it is formed capacious enough to admit of a border of earth behind the bark-bed, next the back wall, ferving for fruit-trees to be planted in the full ground, fuch as cherries, peaches, apricots, &c. for early forcing. The bark-bed is for receiving various forts of plants in pots in winter, for forcing to maturity of growth-or production in that feafon, or early in the {pring, as pots of rofes, pinks, dwarf tulips, hyacinths, narciflufes, honeyfuckles, hyperi- cums, and many other flower-plants of {mall or moderate growth, both of the fhrubby and herbaceous kinds: alfo any curious tender annual flowers, fuch as balfamines, &c. may be forwarded in it; likewife pots of ftrawberries, dwarf cherries, and other {mall fruits, plunged either in the bark-bed, or placed any where towards the glafles; alfo pots or boxes of kidney-beans, fallading, &c. But befides thefe large ttoves, it is neceflary to have what are called fucceffion {toves, and {mall pits for itriking, for- warding, and nurfing the plants in, while they are in their infant {tate of growth, efpecially where the collections of them are large, in order to prevent the large floves from being ufelefsly filled with improper or unproduétive plants, and for the purpofe of greater convenience. The pits fery- ing to ftrike the plants in, and the fucceffion ttoves for placing and continuing them in afterwards, until they be- come ready and fit for fruiting or fetting into the large ftoves. Stoves are conftruéted in various ways, and of many dif- ferent fizes and forms, fo as to fuit the forts of culture and management that are to be carried on in them ; but the moft enerally ufeful dimenfions for them are probably thofe of ee about ten to twelve or fifteen feet in height behind, with any fuitable length, and eight, ten, twelve, or more in width, having from two or three to five or fix feet of height in the front. Very lofty or capacious ftoves are but rarely wanted, The moft economical form of ftove, Mr. Loudon fup- pofes, is that of a parallelogram, placed from eaft to weft, of glafs fafhes on the fouth fide, roof, and ends; and ma- fonry toward the north: but that the moft elegant and eli- ible for the plants, is one placed north and fouth, and of glafs on all fides: however, unlefs an inner roofing be ufed in this cafe, glafs on all fides is precarious, efpecially in the northern parts of the ifland. Stoves of the dry kind are kept of a temperature, in general, between fifty-five and feventy degrees of Fahrenheit’s feale, and moilt ttoves be- tween fixty-five and ninety degrees of the fame thermome- ter. Where the plants are grown in pots, and plunged - eart STOVE. earth or bark, the pits fhould be made of confiderable depth, to admit of thofe materials, as in the ufual culture of the pine; but pits filled with earth, and managed in the man- ner propofed by the above writer for growing this fort of plants, is fo decidedly preferable, both in refpeét to beauty and economy, that few, who well under{tand the plan and think for themfelves, will reje& it for {tove-plants, though they fhould even think it unfit for raifing or growing thofe of the pine kind. See Bromeria. The different modes of conftructing houfes of this kind are now fo well underftood, that they need not be noticed in this place, efpecially as they have, in fome meafure, been pointed out under the culture of the feveral plants which are railed or managed in them, and under fome other heads. Befide, molt of the late improvements in the flues of them, which are the moft material parts, will be feen below. The fucceffion ftoves and pits are probably the beft and moft conveniently arranged and formed, either in conneétion with or contiguous to the large ftoves, fo as to admit of the plants being readily removed into them. They may be made of different fizes, in proportion to thofe of the ftoves, and be provided with fliding glafles in different ways, ac- cording to circumt{tances, but moftly in the manner of the principal ftoves, efpecially in the former. , The ftriking and nurfing pits feldom need be of any large dimenfions, but have fizes f{omewhat proportionate to thofe of the fucceflion ftoves, having flues and glafles, for the moft part, only upon the top parts of them. The feafon to begin forcing in thefe ftoves is principally from about the latter end of December to the end of Janu- ary, according as the flowers, fruits, &c. may be wanted: the plants and trees intended for forcing in pots fhould have been potted either a year before, or in the preceding {pring or autumn, and in winter fheltered from fevere froft till the forcing time: it is neceflary for the fhrub and tree kinds in particular, as if planted or potted the preceding year, or before, and they are well rooted and firmly eftablifhed in the earth, it is of effential advantage ; being all previoufly raifed in the open ground, till advanced to proper growth for flowering and fruiting ; and the fruit-trees at the fame time trained in the requifite order: thofe intended for planting in the internal border of earth behind, fhould be planted fully therein early in autumn, without being potted; fome of which, fuch as peaches, neétarines, apricots, &c. being trained as wall-trees, others as low ftandards, particularly cherries ; and vines, planted alfo again{t the front without- fide, have the {tems trained in through {mall holes, and con- ducted up under the floping glafles: but fuch plants as are to be raifed from feed, fhould not generally be {own till the time the pots are placed in the {tove for forcmg. When the plants, feeds, &c. have been properly arranged in thefe ftoves, they are foon fet in motion by the bark-bed heat, and afterwards by making moderate fires on cold nights, and on days occafionally, in very fevere weather, to fupport a conftant proper warmth to continue the plants always in moderate growth; by which means, various flowers and fruits may be obtained two or three months before their natural feafon in the open air. But thofe of the latter kind, or fuch ftoves as are worked by fire-heat only, are moftly ufed for forcing fruit-trees, hav- ing the whole or mott part of the bottom fpace within formed of good rich earth, full two feet deep, in order to plant the fruit-trees entirely in the ground to remain; an alley or walk being either formed next the back wall, or carried along the middle, allotting a raifed border along the back part for the reception of the choicer fruits to be trained as wall-trees ; and the main middle {pace for {mall ftandards of moderate growth: in thefe, the belt forts of apricots, peaches, nectarines, cherries, plums, vines, and figs; like- wife any {mall fruit-plants, as goofeberries, currants, raf{p- berries ; alfo tufts of {trawberries, which fhould all be firft trained in the open ground to a bearing ftate; may be in- troduced ; the peaches, nectarines, apricots, and figs, fhould be planted principally toward the back wall, and trained to a trellis, as wall-trees: the cherries as ftandards, both {mall- headed, moderate, full ftandards, half ftandards, and dwarfs, difpofed in the middle fpace, the talleft behind, and the lowelt forward ; with pots of itrawberries and low flowers upon fhelves near the glaffes; and the vines either within, towards the front, or wholly without, clofe againit the front wall; and the flems, or a {trong fhoot of each plant, drawn in through a {mall hole made for each, either in the wall, or in the timber of the front ere&tions; and the branches within trained up to the infide of the floping glafs upon trellis-work: in the vines planted on the outfide, it is neceflary to guard the ftems in winter, efpecially fome time previous to and during the forcing feafon, with hay-bands wrapped clofely round them, alfo to lay fome dry mulch over the roots, to protect the whole as well as poflible, that the progrefs of the fap may not be much retarded by the external cold, and to promote its flowing more freely for the advantage of the internal growth of the vines, &c. ‘ The feafon to begin forcing or making the fires in thefe {toves is January, or early in February, continuing it mode- rately every night and morning, during the cold weather in winter and {pring, to forward the different fruits to as early perfeétion as poffible. Great improvements have lately been made in the con- ftru€tion of houfes of this as well as other fimilar kinds in which fire-heat is required; and better and more effectual modes of applying it in thefe and other cafes and ufes fug- gefted. In acommunication from C. Lorimer, efq. to the Caledonian Horticultural Society, can-flues are ftrongly adviled in the conftruGtion of fuch forts of houfes. ‘The flues of this kind there employed, were, it is faid, from twenty-five to twenty-fix inches long, of a conical or taper fhape, from thirteen to thirteen and a half inches in diame- ter at the large end, and from eleven to eleven and a half inches at the {mall end, meafured from the infide. In lay- ing them for a flue, the {mall end is inferted into the large one an inch or an inch and a half, and the joinings clofed and made fecure with lime-plafter. At firlt, fire-clay was employed for this purpofe, but it cracked and fell off, and let the {moke get into the houfe ; however, fince the lime- platter has been ufed, the flue has been perteGly tight, and the houfe free from fmoke. It is thought, that per- haps it might be an improvement, if the cans were made of a cylindrical or drum fhape, all the length of the fame diameter, fo that the ends would exaétly fit one another, with about the half of the thicknefs of. them taken off on the outfides, for three-fourths of an inch from each, in order to hold the plalter. ‘This would make the flue, it is fuppofed, look much neater and better on the outfide, as the {welling at the joinings from the plafter would thereby be greatly reduced; and when the flue was cleaned, the feot would be more readily and with greater facility got out, as it would be quite fmooth in the infide from end to end. It may be urged as an objection, it is faid, that the houfes may not have fo much {team from the can-flues as from thofe of the old conftruction, but this, it is afferted, will not be found to be the cafe. As full as much fteam has been railed by fprinkling the cans by means of a fine-rofed water- ing- STOVE. ing-pan or pot, after they have been fufficiently heated, 2s could ever be done by the flues of the former conftruétion. In one intance, though the eans had been made of com- mon clay, they {tood the heat very well, and notwith{tand- ing the flue once took fire, only the can next the furnace became cracked, but thofe made of fire-clay are thought to be fafer, the ttrongett fire that has been applied not having in the leaft injured them. In confequence of the cans not being half an inch thick, it is evident, it is faid, that they muit tranfmit the heat fooner, and in much greater proportion, than flues of the old conftruétion, which are commonly three inches thick in the fides, and one in the tile-covering at the top. In laying the can-flues, the ends of them fhould reft upon a brick fet on edge, which keeps the under fides or parts of them five inches from the ground, and of courfe none of the heat is drawn off or loft in that way. It may be objected alfo, it is faid, to the can-flues, that they will cool fooner than the brick and tile ones; but fo long as any fire remains in the furnace, the can-flues will tranfmit the heat, which is not the cafe with the old form of flues, when the fire becomes weak. The invention of thefe flues is faid to belong to Mr. Bur- net, of Viewfield, near Dunbar, in Scotland, who fome time fince built a houfe for forcing vines thirty-five feet in length by thirteen feet in width, meafuring in the infide, with one furnace, which is found fully fufficient to keep up a proper temperature in the coldeft weather. This plan of flue was had recourfe to in it with complete fuccefs, as he has fince had the largeft crops of grapes that have been there known upon vines of fuch an age: lately, indeed, every part of the houfe, from the bottom to the top, has, it is faid, been loaded with a profufion of fine clutters, fo thick, that they appeared every where almolt touching each other. It has been found, that after the eyes of the grape-vines in this houfe are all fairly broken in the fpring, and the gardener is at liberty to increafe the heat in the houfe, the thermome- _ ter at eight or nine o’clock in the evening, commonly ftands at from feventy-two to feventy-five degrees. The fire is then mended for the night; and the fucceeding morning, about fix o’clock, the thermometer has kept up within two, or at molt three degrees, of what it was the night before. The furnace of the houfe is built on the plan of the late Mr. Nicol, with Rumford doors; and when the fire is mended for the night, the afh-pit door is fhut quite clofe, which prevents the heat being too much increafed, and oc- cafions a very {mall confumption of fuel ; yet from the cans being fo thin a proper degree of heat is tranfmitted, fo as to forward the growth of the vines aftomifhingly fatt. In two {mall houfes of this fort for vines, which have one of Mr. Nicol’s or Mr. Loudon’s furnaces to each, one. of which has the flue built with bricks, and tile covers in the old method; but in the other the flue was fome time fince taken down, and a can-flue put in its place, which is con- fidered to be a real improvement. In the former of thele houfes, a fire was put on the 14th of February, while in the latter there was no fire until the 3oth of March following, yet the houfe with the can-flues ripened the pes fooner than the other which commenced the fire-heat haem earlier, and with a confiderable faving in fuel. In other trials fince the above the refult has been the fame. And the can-flues have been found equally advantageous in producing large crops of grapes in other inftances, and are capable of being beneficially employed for different other forts of fruit-trees that are forced in houfes of this kind. The fuperiority in the ufe of thefe earthen-ware tubes, in the place of thofe which are formed by ftones, bricks, or tiles, is, it is faid, very great indeed. On the beft autho- rity, they are {tated to have been attended with remarkable fuccefs. Great crops, not only on thofe forts of vines which are confidered the belt bearers, but on thofe which are lefs productive, fuch as the Frontiniac, have been afforded b means of them in many different cafes and fituations ; in ail of which, the grapes were not only fine, but as well-talted as thofe in any foreign climate or country : and, it is thought, that they promife not only to be greatly fuccefsful in this fort of culture, but alfo in that of the peach and neétarine. Tn fhort, two very great advantages may, it is f{uppofed, be derived from the ufe of thefe flues; firit, that an equal de- gree of heat may be had from much lefs fuel ; and, fecondly, that the fame degree of heat may be eafily fupported, with much greater uniformity, both during the day and night. In order to procure any heat in the air of forcing-houfes, when the flues are built of brick or ftone, a {trong fire is re- quired, which is very apt to give too much. But with the can-flues, a very little fire, burning very flowly, will give out a fufficient degree of heat. Upon the whole, there- fore, there appears no doubt that the introduétion of can- flues into the forcing culture in houfes of this kind, may be confidered asa very important improvement in the horticul- tural art. The can-flues which are thus ufed are capable of being eafily made by any potter; for which, however, fire-clay inftead of common fhould be employed, as having fome ad- vantages, which have been already feen. A more improved and economical mode of conftruéting houfes of thefe forts, has alfo lately been fuggetted, and com- municated to the fame fociety, by fir G. S. Mackenzie, as the refult of careful experiment. Sir George having often been furprifed at the coft of houfes of this nature, the moft moderate of which feemed to him to put the innocent luxu- ries afforded by them out of the reach of perfons of mode- rate fortunes, he refolved to attempt to ereét one that fhould combine the leaft poffible expence, with the means of raifing more fruit in a given {pace than was done by any of the plans which are in common ufe. This bold attempt, confidering the vaft number of plans for the purpofe which are in ufe, or which have been propofed at different times, may be fup- pofed difficult, or probably impracticable. It has, how- ever, it is faid, been accomplifhed, and attended with fuch fuccefs, that the inventor is inclined to flatter himfelf it will be the means of enabling many perfons to enjoy the produc- tions of fuch houfes who never thought of poflefling them, and of adding fo much to the produce of market-gardens, as to increafe the quantity of the richer fruits brought to towns, and confequently to lower the price, as this plan of training may be applied to fuch houfes as have been already built. The firft matter that occurred to him as an objeé& in which economy might be exercifed, was the ends of fuch houfes being con{tructed with glafs. He could fee no rea- fon or neceflity for this; and it appeared plain, that a folid end of mafonry, with a porch and double door, would be more effeétual in preventing the efcape of heated air, or the rufhing in of cold, than a glafs end anda glafs door. The next objet which he had in view in this intention, and for which he defired a remedy, was the frequent occurrence of breakage, during the movement of the fafhes in giving air; and he conceived it poflible to have them always fixed, and yet to have ample means of ventilating the houfe. It was likewife confidered, that much expenfive workmanfhip might thus be avoided. Thefe are matters of fome import- ance in the bufinefs ; but the principal improvement is con- ceived to be, the method of training the plantsin the houfe. This STOVE. This and fome other purpofes are effected in the following methods. The training 1s done by means of a frame-work, which is fet up at the diftances of fix feet acrofs the houfe, and the moving of the frames, the ventilation, and regulation of the heat, by the roof being covered with a compolition, in which there are hatches fixed that may be opened by cords and pulleys, or by levers, and which fhut by their own weight. The number of thefe hatches is, of courfe, to be regulated by the fizes of the houfes, and the degree of ventilation that may be required. In the front, there are fafh-frames made to flide paft each other ; fo that in each divifion, about eight fquare feet may be opened. When the front is opened, and the hatches raifed, a current of air in- ftantly pafles through, which may be regulated at pleafure ; while all motion of the great front fafhes is avoided, and, of courfe, all rifk of breakage from that caufe prevented. A trellis is formed on the crofs frame-work, on which the branches of the vines, peaches, ne¢tarines, or other fruit-trees are trained. There are two trellifes on each frame ; and where vines are cultivated, they are planted two in each divifion, and one at every fix feet on the back wall, which in fuch houfes is fifteen feet high in that part, and two feet in height inthe front one. Each vine in the divifion is trained to its refpedtive trellis, and on half of the front fafh, fo that this method does not fuperfede, but is merely an addition to the common mode of training in fuch cafes. The houfe that the inventor built fome years ago on this plan, is, it is faid, forty-two feet long infide ; and part of it is feparated for peaches and neétarines. The plan is twenty-four feet, which, by the ordinary mode, would, it is faid, give a fur- face for training of about 1050 fquare feet. ‘The addition which is propofed nearly doubles this, by adding about g50 fquare feet. It alfo allows of a great variety of vines being planted, fo that there may be a fufficient number to choofe from when they come to the bearing ftate. In large houfes of this fort already built, by raifing vertical trellifes acrofs them, many kinds of fruit, it is faid, may be forced, for which, it would feem at prefent, there is no room, and many fine exotics be cultivated. The flue on fuch a plan may, it is fuggefted, be conducted fo as to have {paces for paffing into the divifions, which, by contracting it at different places, retard the heated air in the higher parts, the advantages of which are quite obvious. The reft of the flue is low, but which can be managed in different ways. It is aflerted from experience, that as good fruit has been had on the vertical crofs trellifes, as under the glafs, or on the back wall; and that it is this fuccefs only that could have induced the ingenious inventor to bring the plan into public notice. He has the intention, fome time hence, to conftru& a houfe of this fort with partitions of brick in- ftead of trellifes; which lait, however, look the beft. But when utility and not appearance is ftudied, he fhould be in- clined to give brick a decided preference, for many reafons ; and among others, on account of the facility with which the temperature could be regulated. There is to houfes of this fort a fmall porch, the outer door of which is always fhut before that of the houfe is opened, to prevent, when neceflary, the rufhing in of the external air. It has alfo been fuggefted by R. Stevenfon, efq. an able engineer, that the fame principle which is employed in con- ftruGting the flues for heating drying-houfes for different manufatturing purpofes, may be ufefully applied and employed in heating ftoves, vineries, and other forts of forcing-houfes in gardens. From experiments and trials made in different houfes of the drying-houfe kind, with flues built and conftru@ted in different manners, ag with the fire-place at one end, and the flue fix inches by ten, conduéted under the floor, and made with tile-brick, the flues being made to crofs feveral times under the floor, before reaching the chimney at the other end of the room; by which the fmoke and heat were detained longer in their paflage to it, and from traverfing the whole of the floor, was confidently expeéted to raife the heat or the place to 100° of Fahrenheit’s fcale ; but it was found to be different, and with difficulty a temperature of from 60° to 70’ could be raifed and kept up; but that on the flues being removed, and crofs-walls of open brick-work made for fupporting the floor, fo that the whole {pace under it formed one large flue for the fmoke and heated air, the fame quantity of fuel put into the fame fire-place as before, {peedily raifed the temperature to 150°, at which it could be maintained for any length of time, with the ordinary ex~ penditure of fuel ; and with the fire-place opened at one end of the houfe, and the flue carried to the other end, then turned and brought down the middle of the floor, and after being conduéted a fecond time to the end of the houfe oppo- fite the fire-place, communicated with a chimney which took off the {moke, the fiue meafuring three feet in height, and two feet in breadth, made its evolutions in a fpace equal to the area of the building, and four feet in depth under the fole of the door; fuch flues being confequently not only much larger than is common even in thefe cafes, but having the divifion-walls for fupporting a pavement-floor over the flues, all made of open brick-work, the whole fpace, as above, was thereby converted into one large flue, or chamber for heated air, which being made to iffue from the joints left in the ftone-floor, circulates freely to every part of the houfe; fo that with one common fire, the temperature of it, the area of which is 30 feet by 18, and 14 in height from the floor on which the flues reft, is fpeedily raifed to, and eafily kept at, from 70° to go° of the above fcale, while the wet ma- terials are hanging in it, and the fhutters in the upper part fet open. This effe€&t, which is much greater than in other cafes of fmaller flues, is, it is faid, entirely to be afcribed to the largenefs of the flues. On thefe grounds it is con- ceived, that the fimple application of as large flues as the circumftances of ftoves and other houfes of that kind will admit, would not only be attended with great advantage in point of economy, as a very {mall fire would be fufficient to maintain the temperature ufually required in fuch houfes ; but what is perhaps, it is thought, of more confequence, flues properly conftruéted upon this principle are capable of being eafily regulated, and will induce a much more uniform degree of heat. It would feem from the above trial, it is faid, that the flues in general ufe are of too {mall dimenfions; that there is not capacity in them for allowing the heated particles of air to expand ; and that the heat pafles through the narrow flues, and makes its efcape with the fmoke ina latent ftate, without being allowed to a& upon a furface large enough to rob it of its caloric. Upon this principle, large buildings and halls might, it is thought, be heated; and one fire might be made to heat a much greater range of vineries, or other houfes of the fame kind, than is the praétice at prefent. It would alfo bea great improvement in the conftru€tion of heated houfes, and even the inclofing of gardens, where they are of the wall kind, to make the walls hollow, as well on account of fuch a mode of conftru@tion inclofing a {pace for air, which is an excellent non-condutor, as af the facility with which the fire may be applied, by converting the whole, or the greateft part of the wall, into a flue or receptacle for heated air. When this is to be done, the fire-place fhould be kept as low as poffible; and after anfwering its purpofe ‘si the STO the houfe, the flue might be made to communicate with the hollow garden-wall, and the fmoke made to efeape at a chimney fituated, according to circumftances, at a greater or lefs diftance from the heated houfe. It is thought too, that an apartment heated with flues of a large conftruc- tion, is lefs incident to fudden changes of temperature than when the flues are fmall. The heat in large flues can be regulated with much precifion, and they are attended with the advantage of feldom or never requiring to be cleaned. In all chimnies for houfes of this kind, an aperture fhould, it is faid, be made in the wall, witha clofe fhutter, near the top of fuch chimnies, where a lamp or lighted candle fhould be introduced for an hour or two, iridierltately after the fire is put on, in order to create a current, and thereby bring the fmoke to iffue at the chimney-top. Theie conttitute the moft material hints and improvements which have yet been thought of for bettering the conftruc- tion of houfes of the ftove and other fimilar kinds. Stove-Plants, in Gardening, fuch tender exotics from the hot parts of the world as require the aid of the ftove to preferve them in this climate. They are very numerous, fo that our limits will not allow our reciting them. Stove or Lump-Salt, in Rural Economy, a term applied to that fort of falt which is prepared by a certain heat, as about 226°, and afterwards dried in the ftoves employed in works of this kind. See Sarr. Stoves, at Sea, are {quare boxes made of plank, and lined with brick, for burning charcoal in, to drefs the ad- miral’s victuals. STOVEN, in Rural Economy, a word that fignifies a fapling fhoot from the ftool of a fallen tree. STOUENUCK, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in Cumberland county, New Jerfey. STOVER, in Agriculture, a general name for the dif- ferent forts of fodder arifing from threfhed grain, whether it be ftraw, chaff, or the fhort ftraws, fuch as ears and rough chaffy matter, feparated by the rake or riddle from the corn in chaff, after the {traw has been removed by fhak- ing from the floor. But befides thefe forts of fhort ftrawy materials, it alfo fignifies, and is applied to, the pulls and points which are broken off in the threfhing of rape crops, and which are eaten with great greedinefs as food by dif- ferent forts of live-ftock ; the pulls being often confidered as equal to hay, and the points equal to cut wheat-ftraw, as fodder. STOUGHTON, in Geography, called by the Indians Pakemitt, or Pontipog, i. e. taken from a {pring that rifes out of the earth, atownthip in Norfolk county, Maflachu- fetts, incorporated in 1726, and containing 1600 acres of land and 1134 inhabitanis. It is bounded E. by Braintree, W. by Sharon, and lies 15 miles fouthwardly of Bofton. This townfhip contains iron-ore of excellent quality, and a rolling and flitting mill, which manufacture confiderable quantities of {teel and iron. Charcoal, bafkets, and brooms, in confiderable quantities, are fent from hence to Boflon. In the late war, a large quantity of excellent gunpowder was made in this town, for the American army, from falt-petre, the produce of the towns in its vicinity. STOVING, in Sail-making, is the heating of the bolt- ropes, fo as to make'them pliable. They fhould be ftoved in a ftove by the heat of a flue, and not ina baker’s oven or a ftove-tub ; and tarred with the beft Stockholm tar. The flexibility of them fhould be always confidered in md in gt which muft reit on the judgment of the ail- er. STOUND, ia Rural Economy, the name of a wooden veffel to put fmall beer in. Vor. XXXIV. STO STOUPEE, in Geography, a town of Lithuania; 33 miles E. of Novogrodek. STOUR, a river of England, which rifes near Haveril, in Suffolk, and pafles by Clare, Sudbury, Nayland, Ded- ham, Manningtree, &c. forming a boundary between the counties of Eflex and Suffolk, and runs into the German fea at Harwich,—Alfo, a river of England, which rifes near Wincanton, in Somerfetfhire, and runs into the Eng- lith Channel at Chriftchurch, in Hampthire.—Alfo, a river of England, in the county of Kent, which runs into the fea at Sandwich.—Alfo, a river of England, which runs into the Trent, 4 miles S. of Kiddermintter, in the county of Worcetter. Stour Head, a cape of Denmark, on the N.W. coaft of the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 55° 37/. E. long. ° 48). STOURBRIDGE, a town, the name of which is derived from a bridge built over the river Stour, in the county of Worcefter, England. Being for a confider- able period a hamlet belonging to Swinford, it had, until the time of Henry VIII., a chapel dependent on the church of that place: but having now increafed to a large and populous town, a chapel was erected of brick, in 1742, on the wettern fide of the town; which, by aé of parlia- ment, has been made parochial, and independent of the mother-church. The various clafles of Proteftant Diffenters have alfo meeting-houfes in this town. A free-fchool was founded by Edward VI.; but anterior to that reign, there appears to have been an inftitution for a fimilar purpofe: the prefent one is handfomely endowed, and is under the infpection of eight governors, The manufaétures of Stourbridge, which are aided by the vicinity of the Staffordfhire canal, are various: the principal is that of glafs, both in making and cutting of which, a great degree of elegance and ingenuity is fhewn. This art, in which the Englith now excel, was not intro- duced into England till 1557, at which period the Venetians furpafled all other nations in the produétion of cryftal looking-glafles. The other branches of manufaéture here practifed, are the procefs of making leather from fheep-fkins, iron articles and nails, and fine cloth from Britifh wools. There are alfo mines of crucible clay, which afford ample employment to the town and neighbourhood. Stourbridge has a weekly market on Friday ; two annual fairs, celebrated for cattle ; and contained, according to the report of 1811, 866 houfes and 4072 inhabitants.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv. Worcetterfhire, by Mr. Laird. STOURHOLM, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands, between Yell and Shetland. N. lat. 60° 54/. W. long. Takis STOURPORT, a town about four miles from Kid- derminiter, on the banks of the river Severn, and in the county of Worcefter, England. Its origin is chiefly owing to the Staffordfhire and Worcelterfhire canal, which entering this county at Wolverley, continues parallel with the river Stour for a diftance of nine miles, and is termi- nated by a bafon at Stourport, where it joins the Severn. The houfes of this place are commodious and neat, amount- ing to upwards of 250, with about 3000 inhabitants ; and here is alfo eftablifhed a weekly market, which in the winter months greatly abounds in hops, with two annual fairs. Over the river Stour, there was ereéted a ftone bridge at Stourport in 1773; but which having been deftroyed by a violent flood, was replaced by the prefeat one, of iron, confifting of a fingle arch of 150 feet {pan. About two miles éait is Hartlebury caltle, once defended by fortifications and‘ a moat, and for many centuries patt Pp. the STO the refidence of the bifhops of Worcetter. It was given to the diocefe by Burdred, king of Mercia, and feveral of the bifhops have {trengthened and decorated it. In the reign of Charles I. it was taken and fold by the parliament, but after the reftoration, it was re-edified by the fucceed- ing bifhops : it is a brick ftru€ture, with battlements, tur- rets, &c.+-Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv. Wor- celterfhire, by Mr. Laird. — STOUSE Heap, a cape on the eaft coalt of the ifland of South Ronaldfhay. N. lat. 58° 40’. W. long. We stow, Joun, in Biography, an indultrious antiquarian and hiitorian, was the fon of a merchant-taylor in London, and born about the year 1525. About the year 1560 he formed the defign of compofing annals of the Englifh hif- tory, and to this objeét he facrificed his trade and domettic concerns ; travelling on foot to feveral cathedrals and other public eftablifhments, in order to examine records, charters, and ancient doeuments. He alfo purchafed, as far as he was able, old books, manufcripts, parchments, &c. of which he made a large colleGtion. But wanting patrons, and prefled by neceffity, he was obliged to intermit his favourite pur- fuits, and to renew his application to bufinefs with a pro- perty that had been much leflened. Benefaétions, however, from Dr. Parker, archbifhop of Canterbury, enabled him to profecute his ftudies ; but being fufpeCted of an attachment to popery, an information again{ft him was laid before the council, in 1568, as a dangerous perfon, and as having poflef- fion of many pernicious books of fuperitition. His ftudy was fearched by order of Dr. Grindal, bifhop of London, and many popifh books were found in it; which difcovery fixed upon his character the reproach of a fufpeéted perfon; and two years after, an unnatural brother, who, having defrauded him of his goods, was defirous of taking away his life, preferred again{t him above 140 articles before the ecelefiaftical commiflion. But the infamous charafer of the witneffes who were engaged to prove the charges, caufed him to be acquitted. His firft work, undertaken at the re- queft of the powerful favourite, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicelter, had been already publifhed: and as it had been dedicated to the faid nobleman, his countenance was of fervice to him in his prefent circumftances. This was « A Summarie of Englifhe Chronicles,” firft printed in 1565, and feyeral times reprinted. This book contained an ac- count of the reign of every Englifh king from the era of the fabulous Brute, down to his own time, with a lift of all the principal magiftrates of London from the Conqueft. It was afterwards continued by Edmond Howes, who printed feveral editions, fo that the work muft have been popular. In 1575 he loft his belt patron, archbifhop Parker; but his mind was fo ardently engaged in his antiquarian ftudies, that he profecuted them with unintermitting diligence and zeal, amidft all the inconveniences and diftrefles of penury. In 1585 he prefented a petition to the lord mayor and court of aldermen, ftating, that for 25 years he had been employed in compiling and publifhing divers fummaries, recording the memorable a¢ts of famous citizens, and that he contemplated the publication of a larger fummary, and foliciting en- couragement and afliftance; and four years after he pre- fented another petition, requefting a penfion, or fome other benefaGtion ; but it does not appear whether or not he fuc- ceeded in his folicitations. To the improvement of the fecond edition of the Chro- nicles publifhed by Hollingfhed in 1587, Stow largely con- tributed ; and he alfo fupplied correétions and notes for two editions of Chaucer. His ‘‘ Survey of London, &c.”? on which he had been long employed, appeared in 1598, and a 9 STO fecond edition was prefented to the public before his death. It was feveral times reprinted, with fucceflive improvements, and has been the bafis of all the fubfequent hiftories of the metropolis. For his large Chronicle or Hiltory of Eng- land he had been for 40 years colleéting materials; but he only lived to print an abftra& of it in 1600, entitled ¢* Flores Hiltoriarum, or Annals of England,’’ gto. dedicated to archbifhop Whitgift. Edmond Howes publifhed from his papers a folio volume, entitled ‘* Stow’s Chronicle ;’’ but this does not feem to contain that ‘* far larger work,’” men- tioned by Stow, and which he left in his ftudy fairly written out for the prefs. It is faid to have come into the poflef- fion of fir Symonds Dewes, but is not found among his MSS. in the Britifh Mufeum. Stow having {pent his patri- mony, and acquired no certain income, fant into wretched penury in his old age, and was under a neceflity of applyin for public charity : and James I., ‘ by one of the aaaek aéts of his very mean reign,’’ granted a licence, authorizing him, then in his 78th year, “¢ to repair to churches, or other places, to receive the gratuities and charitable benevolence of well-difpofed people.” Of the amount of this bounty, we may form fome conjecture from the colle&ion in the parifh of St. Mary Woolnoth, which reached the fum of 7s. 6d.! The city of London was not more liberal than the fovereign of the country ; and it mult refleét no {mall degree of reproach upon it, that it could not extend its libe- rality towards its own hiftorian. Stow, opprefled by poverty and painful difeafes, obtained a releafe in the year 1605, at the age of 80 years. His afpeét is faid to have been cheer- ful, and his behaviour mild and courteous. “In his writings,’ fays one of his biographers, ‘ he difplayed a fincere love of truth, and great diligence in in- veltigating it, with the moral feelings of a worthy man. His brother antiquarians fpeak of him with refpe& ; and if he ranks, in point of ftyle and matter, with the inferior clafs of hiftorians, he may claim the praife of humble utility.” Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog. Stow, in Geography, a townfhip of Middlefex county, in the ftate of Maflachufetts, incorporated in 1683, and containing 885 inhabitants; 26 miles N.W. of Botton.— Alfo, a townfhip of Vermont, in Chittenden county, about 25 or 30 miles E. of Burlington, containing 650 inhabit- ants. Srow Creek, one of the eight townfhips into which Cum- berland county, in New Jerfey, is divided, containing 1039 inhabitants. —Alfo, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into the Delaware, N. lat. 39° 28’. W. long. 75° 26’. STOWAGE, the general arrangement of the feveral materials by which a fhip is to be laden, with regard to her figure, magnitude, and folidity, In the ftowage of different articles, as ballaft, cafks, boxes, cafes, and bales, there are feveral general rules to be obferved, according to the cireumftances or qualities of thofe materials. The iron ballaft, which is moftly ufed in king’s fhips, fhould not be ftowed too near the keelfon, but winged up from two to four feet from the fides of the keelfon, according to the make of the fhips. Cafks which contain any liquid, are, according to the fea-phrafe, to be bung-up and bilge-free, i. e. clofely wedged up in a horizontal polition, and refting on their quarters; fo that the bilges, where they are thickeft, being entirely free all round, cannot rub againft each other by the motion of the veflel. Dry goods, or fuch as may be damaged by the water, are to be carefully inclofed in cafks, cafes, bales, or wrappers; and wedged off from the bottom and fides of the fhip, matts, and pump-well. : The knowledge of ftowing a fhip’s hold with propriety requires STO requires the greateft attention of the fkilful mariner; for although it is well known that fhips in general will not carry a fufficient quantity of fail, till they are laden fo deep that the line of floatation is well with the extreme breadth amidfhips, or nearly fo, yet there is more than this general knowledge required ; for fhould the cargo confilt of very heavy materials, as lead, iron, &c., and they be unfkilfully ftowed too near the bottom, it will place the centre of gravity too low; and although this will enable her to carry a great prefs of fail, fhe will neverthelefs roll heavily, and confequently rifk the lofing of her mafts. On the other hand, fhould the cargo be light, it is very evident that, without a fufficient quantity of heavy balla(t, or other materials of like weight, ftowed low down in the veflel, fhe would be cranked, that is, the centre of gravity would be raifed too high, whereby the veflel is rendered incapable of carrying fail without being expofed to the danger of overfetting. Thus the whole art of {towing or lading a veffel, there- fore, confifts in placing the centre of gravity to correfpond with the trim and fhape of the veffel, fo as neither to be too high nor too low; neither too far forward, nor too far aft: thus it will be readily feen, that all the weightier part of the cargo fhould be placed as near the midfhips as pof- fible, ftowing the lighter part of the cargo uppermott, alfo at the fore-part of the veflel, and likewife cloie aft; hence, if the veffel be judicioufly ftowed, fhe will neither roll nor pitch heavily, and will be enabled to carry a geod fail and ply well to windward, efpecially if due regard has been paid to thefe qualities in the conftruétion of the veffel. See BALtast. SrowaGe Room, in Hop Management, the apartment or place conftructed for receiving and containing the hops, after they have been dried, until they are ready or in proper con- dition for bagging. It has a fuitable hole made in fome a of the floor, round which a frame of wood is placed, fo as to exactly fit the mouths of the bags, which are fecurely fixed all round to it, for the convenience of ftow- ing the hops into them. See Hop. STOWE, in Geography, a parifh in the county of Buck- ingham, England, three miles N.W. of the county-town, is noted for tbe magnificent feat of the marquis of Bucking- ham. Peter Temple, efq. was the firft of the family who fettled at Stowe in the year 1554, and who ereéted a manfion on the eftate; but this was taken down and rebuilt i fir Richard Temple, K. B., who died in 1697. His fon, lord Cobham, enlarged the manfion by building a new front, and adding two wings; but the late marquis of Buckingham, and his father, earl Temple, made ftill greater alterations and improvements at this place. The whole front, of re- ar and uniform architecture, now extends 916 feet, of which the centre is 454 feet. It confifts of a centre, or body, with two wings, conneéted by apartments, A flight of 31 fteps leads to the grand faloon, an oval apartment, 60 Eee by 40, furrounded by Scaliola columns, imitative of Sicilian jafper. The pannels, cornice, and dome, are all adorned with fculpture and other ornaments, to produce a {plendid effeét. A ftate drawing-room, 50 feet by 325 a ftate gallery, 70 feet by 25 ; a Jibrary ; and feveral drawing rooms, eating-rooms, &c. conftitute the principal floor, A library, fitted up to receive Saxon MSS, and old litera- ture, has recently been formed here from the defigns of John Soane, efq. Moft of the apartments are enriched with pictures, and fitted up ina {plendid ityle. The gardens or pleafure-grounds of Stowe are, however, more cele- brated than the manfion: they confift of 400 acres, and prefent a great variety of {urface, fcenery, and objeéts. In fome places they difplay bold fwells, with narrow and wind- ing vallies ; the principal of which is filled with a broad and STO pellucid lake. In one part this forms a cafcade, and over it is a palladian bridge. In different parts of thefe gardens are feveral ornamental buildings, confifting of temples, columns, arches, &c. The beauties and charaéteriftic features of this juitly noted feat have been extolled in the poetry of Welt, Pope, and Hammond; and are fully deferibed in an octavo volume, publifhed in 1797, entitled “« A Defcription of the Houfe and Gardens of Stowe,” with thirty-three plates; mott of which were drawn and engraved in a talteful {tyle a T. Midland. An account of it is alfo given in the fir volume of the Beauties of England and Wales. STOWEY, Neruer, a {mall market-town in the hun- dred of Williton and Freemanors, in the county of Somerfet, England, is fituated eight miles W.N.W. from Bridge- water, and 149 miles W. from London, at the foot of Quantock hills, on the banks of a rivulet, which paffing through Fiddington, falls into the Bridgewater river at Combwick. The town confifts of three ftreets, and was returned to parliament, in the year 1811, as containing 119 houfes, occupied by 620 perfons. A weekly market is held on Tuefdays, and an annual fair for cattle. Here is a {mall market-crofs, of an oétangular form, ftanding on eight {mall round pillars, with a clock, and a bell, which is ufually rung to proclaim the commencement of divine fer- vice, as the church ftands a quarter of a mile from the town. ‘ Stowey is a reputed borough, the inhabitants whereof anciently held their houfes and “sitds of the cattle by burgage. The cattle ftood on a hill to the weftward of the town, and near it was a church dedicated to St. Michael ; but both are now ruined, fo that no veftiges remain of either but the caftle-ditch ; the fcite of the caftle being pafture-ground.”” The prefent church, St. Mary’s, is a fubitantial edifice, having at the we{t end an embattled tower 70 feet in height, with a turret at one corner. Col- linfon’s Hiftory of Somerfetfhire, vol. iii. 4to. STOW-MARKET, a town in the hundred of Stow, and county of Suffolk, England, is feated at the junétion of three rivulets, which form the river Gipping. In 1801 it contained, according to the parliamentary report, 283 houfes, and 1761 inhabitants; and by the report of 1811, thefe appear to have increafed to 2006 perfons, and 401 houfes. Stow-Market is certainly a flourifhing town, and contains many handfome houfes, ef{pecially near the market- place. The church is a f{pacious and beautiful building, with a fquare tower, furmounted by a fteeple 120 feet high, which, though of wood, has a light and neat ap- pearance. Jn this church are interred feveral of the Tyrrel family, of Gipping-Hall, in this hundred. Here is alfo the monument of Dr. Young, once vicar of this place, and tutor to the immortal Milton. The contiguous parifh of Stow-Upland, which has neither church nor chapel, is now confolidated with Stow-Market ; but they have {till diftin& officers for each parifh. The county meetings for Suffolk are chiefly held in this town; and here is a manufaéture of facking, ropes, twine, and hempen, which has fucceeded that of ftuffs and bom- bazeens. Being well fituated for the barley trade, the market of this town is much frequented by the farmers, and much bufinefs is done in the malting line. A principal fource of the profperity of Stow-Market is the navigable canal from this place to Ip{wich, which was opened in 1793. It is fixteen miles in length, and has fifteen locks, each fixty feet long, and fourteen wide: three of thefe are built with timber, and twelve with brick and ftone. The total expence of this undertaking was 26,380/. Independently of its utility, this canal is an ornament to the town. ‘There are about 450 acres of hop-plantations in this neighbourhood. Pp2 Aa STO An old manfion-houfe, called Abbot’s-Hall, together with the manor of Stow-Market, were given by king Henry II. to the abbey of St. Ofyth, in Effex; but was granted, 38 Henry VIII., as part of the pofleffion of that mo- naltery, to Thomas Darcie. The houfe of induftry for the hundred of Stow {tands on an eminence, about a mile from the town. It has rather the appearance of a gentle- man’s feat than of a receptacle for paupers. It was erected at an expence of more than 12,000/., and was opened in 1781. Buxhall, near Stow-Market, was the birth-place of fir William Coppinger, lord mayor of London in 1512. At his death, he bequeathed half of his large property to charitable purpofes ; the other half was devifed to his rela- tions, Finfborough-Hall, in the parifh of Great Finf- borough, was built in 1795, by the prefent proprietor and lord of the manor, Roger Pettiward, efq. An embowered walk leads behind the hall to the church, which contains feveral monuments of the Wolla{ton family, formerly pro- prietors of Finfborough; and particularly one to the me- mory of William Wollafton, author of the ‘ Religion of Nature delineated,’ who refided and is interred here. He was born in 1659, at Coton Clanford, in Staffordthire, and died in 1724. The hamlet of Gipping derives its name from its fituation near the fource of one of thofe fprings that form the river Gipping. It was once the feat of the ancient family of Tyrrel, whofe refidence, Gipping-Hall, is now held by fir John Shelly, bart. Haughley was formerly a market- town, out of the ruins of which Stow feems to have rifen. Near the church ftand the remains of a very ftrong cattle, conjectured to have been built by the Saxons. The figure of the building approaches to a f{quare, fortified with a deep ditch, or moat ; and, except on the north fide, a pro- portionable rampart, {till entire. ‘Towards the north, upon a high artificial hill, of fteep afcent, and alfo furrounded with a deep moat, {tood the keep; of which the founda- tion, now remaining, is very thick, and apparently circular. On the weit fide, a large oblong-fquare {pace feems to have contained fome outwork of the caftle. The ground oc- cupied, or inclofed by all thefe works, exceeds feven acres. The manor and park of Haughley formerly belonged to Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk; from whom they de- volved by purchafe, or exchange, to the crown; and were afterwards granted to fir John Sulyard, of Wetherden. The manor is very extenfive, and the lord formerly pof- fefled a power of trying all caufes in his own court of oyer and terminer. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv. Suffolk, by F. Shoberl. STOW-ON-THE-WOLD, a market-town and parifh in the hundred of Weltmintter, and county of Gloucefter, England, is irregularly built on the fummit of a high hill, the bafe of which is about three miles in diameter. From this elevated fituation it is generally faid to want three ele- . Ments out of the four; fire, earth, and water: air it pof- fefles in plenty, and, though uncommonly fharp, it is reputed to be very healthful. Water is fearce, efpecially fince the decay of an horizontal wind-mill at the north end of the town, which formerly raifed it from a very deep well, and forced it through pipes to the houfes. The charter for the market was granted, in the fourth year of Ed- ward III., to the abbey of Evefham, by which eftablifh- ment fome part of the manor was held in the time of Edward the Confeflor ; and within a century, it had obtained pof- feflion of the remainder. The manor now belongs to Ed- mund John Chamberlayne, efq., a defcendant of a refpeCtable family of Norman extration, who fettled in the hamlet of STR Maugerfbury, on the eaft fide of Stow, in the time of queen Elizabeth; and one of whom, Edmund Chamber- layne, efg., was fheriff of this county in the 39th year of that fovereign. The church is a well-built edifice, apparently the work- manfhip of different periods during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It confilts of a nave, aifles, and chancel, with an embattled tower on the fouth fide, 81 feet in height, which, from its lofty fituation, contlitutes a prin= cipal obje& through a circumference of many miles. The arches are pointed, and fupported by cluttered pillars. At the eaft end is a rich window of quatrefoils; and at the welt end a window of ovals, with two trefoils in each. Several monuments and infcriptions, to the memory of the Chamberlaynes, are contained in this edifice; and in the mid{t of the chancel is a large altar-tomb, in remembrance of Duke Haftings Keyt, of Ebington, an officer on the part of Charles I., who died in the year 1645. His effigy in armour is engraved on the flab which covers the tomb. The principal charitable inttitutions are an alms-houfe for nine poor perfons, and a free-fchool; both fituated on the fouth fide of the church-yard. The former was founded under the will of William Cheitre, dated as early as the fixteenth of Edward IV. Ailmere, or Ethalmere, earl of Cornwall and Devon, in the tenth century, the reputed founder of the original church in this town, 1s alfo faid to have ereéted an hofpital here, which Rudder mentions as being yet charged in the Firft-fruits office with the annual fum of 13s. 4d. The population of Stow, as returned under the aét of 1811, amounted to 1188; the number of houfes to 264: the latter are moftly low, and built with ftone, and have generally a very ancient appearance. ‘The principal manufa€ture is that of fhoes. At Adleltrop, or /Edelfthorp, about three miles eaft of Stow, is the feat of James Henry Leigh, efq., a lineal defcendant of fir Thomas Leigh, to whom the manor, which had previoufly belonged to the abbey of Evefham, was granted in the year 1554. The manfion is a very an- cient building, but has been much enlarged, and otherwife improved. ‘The pleafure-grounds have been laid out by Mr. Repton. About three miles fouth of the town is an old encampment, called Income-camp.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. STOWRE, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a round of a ladder; a hedge-itake; alfo the itaves of the fides of a waggon, in which the eave-rings are faftened. It alfo fignifies a ftaff or round ftick, fuch as a tuck or rack ftaff. STOWS, in Mining, are feven pieces of wood, fet upon the furface of the earth, faftened together with pins of wood. See SPINDLE. STRABANE, in Geography, a polt-town of the county of Tyrone, Ireland, fituated on the river Mourne. It isa flourifhing town, and has a good market for many articles, efpecially linen cloth. Its canal, conneéting it with the navigable river Foyle, is a principal caufe of its profperity, which is daily increafing. Strabane, before the’union, was reprefented in parliament. It is 101 miles N.N.W. from Dublin. ‘ STRABANE, two townfhips of Pennfylvania, one in Adams’ county, the other in that of Wafhington; the latter containing 2395 inhabitants. STRABISMUS, 2reaCicjos, in Medicine. See SQuint- ING. STRABO, in Biography, a celebrated geographer, was born at Amafia, a city of Pontus, but m what year we cannot afcertain. From his acquaintance with C. Gallus, prefe& a STR prefect of Egypt, and from his having compofed his geo- phy in the fourth year of the emperor Tiberius, we may infer that he flourifhed in the century B.C.; and Blair affigns his death to the year 25 before the commencement of the Chriftian era. It appears that he ftudied grammar and rhetoric at Nyffa, and that he was inftruéted in the principles of the various feéts of philofophers in feveral of the moit celebrated {chools of Afia. He owns himfelf a Stoic, and he followed their dogmas. Of the general courfe of his life little is known; but he appears to have been a great traveller, and to have vifited mo{t of the countries which he defcribes. Befides his Geography, contained in feventeen books, which was written in his ad- vanced age, and which is highly valued, he was the author of fome hiftorical works, which have been lott. His Geo- graphy, though fince the time in which he lived it muft be imperfeét and erroneous in various particulars, is very uleful for the illuitration of the hiltory and writings of the an- cients ; more efpecially as he interfperfes many philofophical remarks, which indicate a cultivated mind, and many fhort narratives, which ferve to extend our acquaintance with the hiftory and antiquities of remote periods. Several editions of a Latin verfion of Strabo appeared before the Greek text was printed. Of the Greek and Latin editions, the firft that claims commendation for its erudition was that of If. Cafaubon, fol. Genev. 1587, and Paris, 1620. That of Janfon ab Almeloveen, cum notis variorum, Amit. 2 vols. fol. 1707, is much elteemed, though not very correét. An Oxford edition has lately appeared, under the infpeétion of Mr. Falconer. Fabr. Bibl. Grac. Gen. Biog. Strabo frequently mentions mufic, and the iiluftrious muficians of antiquity, with great refpect. He places Zeno at the head of all fcience; and {ays, that the prin- cipal invention of the poet does not confilt in teaching, but in delighting mankind. Whereas, according to the more ancient fages, poetry was a firft philofophy, which con- duéted youth through a pleafant path to prudence, mo- rality, manpers, human aflections, and focial laws; while the moderns of our times (adds Strabo) fay, that wifdom is only to be found among poets: on which account, the cities of Greece teach poetry to youth before all other things, not only for pleafure, but as a ufeful and virtuous difcipline. In the fame manner, muficians, while they are teaching to fing and play on inftruments, making this faculty a profeffion, are called mafters, and correctors of manners. And this was not only the opinion of Pytha- oras, but is manifeltly demonftrated by Ariftoxenus ; and es this reafon Homer placed a mufician over Clytemnettra. as a guardian and guide of her conduét. Ali this has been copied from Strabo by Athenzus, |. i. c. 17. But though a grave and folid writer, and a Stoic, Strabo has related a ftory in his fourteenth book, which throws a ridicule, not only on an eminent individual mufician, but on the pretended lovers of mulic. He fays that in Greece, near Bargilia, on the fea-coalt, there was a market-town ina barren country, in which the inhabitants fubfifted chiefly on fifth; and a great performer on the cithara pafling that way, wifhed to difplay his talents in public. On notice being given, the inhabitants allembled in great crowds to hear him. But foon after he had begun to perform, on hearing the fith-market bell, the audience haftened away, and left the citharadift only one folitary perfon behind, who had not heard the bell, for he was deaf. The mufician complained of his ill-treatment, but finifhed by faying to the remaining gentleman, “ Kind fir! [ thank you eG your politenefs, in ftaying after all the reft had left STR me; but I perceive that you are a man of tafte, a true lover of mufic, and did not run away in the midft of my per- formance, merely becaufe the fifh-bell rung.’?—* What do you fay? Why, has it rung?’ demands the deaf gentle- man: and the performer anfwering in the affirmative— “ Oh, then, I with you a good day, fir ;”’ and-haltened to the market as falt as he could. STRABRAGY, in Geography, a bay on the north coaft of Ireland, in the penintula of Inifhowen, and county of Donegal. It is fouth of Malin head, and the village of Malin is fituated en it. STRACAIA, a town of Walachia; 18 miles N.W. of Krajova. STRADA, Famiano, in Biography, a celebrated Ita- lian writer, born at Rome in 1572, who entered into the fociety of Jefus in 1592, and became profefior of eloquence in the Roman college, where he refided till his death m 1659. His mott famous work was a ‘ Hiltory of the Wars in the Low Countries,’”’ in Latin, confilting of two decades: the firft, compriling the events from the death of Charles V. to the year 1573, and publifhed in 1632; and the fecond, as far as 1590, publifhed in 1647. Strada’s work was criti- cifed with fome feverity by cardinal Bentivoglio; and it is allowed to have been more the produétion of a rhetorician than of an impartial and correét hiftorian. The ftyle, how- ever, is animated, and the language puré, though defeétive in the good talte of fome other modern Latinilts. It was attacked with virulence by Gafpar Scioppius, in his *¢ In- famia Famiani Strade,’’ which injured his own reputation more than that of the hiftorian. The ‘ Prolufiones Academice’’ of Strada, containing various diflertations on literary fubjeéts, is an ingenious and elegant performance, particularly admired for its imitations of the mott celebrated Latin poets. Addifon pronounces this effufion to be “ one of the moft entertaining, as well as the molt juft pieces of criticifm he had ever*read ;?? and he has made it the fubject of three papers in the Guardian. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog. STRADA, or STRADANUS, an eminent painter of a good family, was born at Bruges in the year 1536; and after ftu- dying in his own country, vilited Italy for further improve- ment. At Florence he was employed in fome confiderable works, and thence he went to Rome, where he painted at the palace of Belvidere in concert with Dan. da Volterra and Fr. Salviati. In compliance with the invitation of Don John of Auftria, he vifited Naples, and accompanied his patron to Vienna, where his pencil was employed in com- memorating that great officer’s military exploits. He after- wards fixed his refidence at Florence, where he became the head of the Florentine academy of painting ; and he died in 1604. Befides hiftory-pieces, he painted animals, huntings, and battles, in a noble ityle, with good drawing, and an agreeable tone of colouring. Although he may be confi- dered as a competitor in a variety of refpeéts with the cele- brated artifts of his time, he could never diveft himfelf wholly of the Flemifh talte which he had imbibed in his youth. Many of his pieces are engraved. Pulkington. Srrapa, Anna Marta vet Po, an opera-finger, felected and brought into England from Italy by Handel himfelf, who went thither in 1728, after the diflolution of the Royal Academy, to engage a new company of fingers, in order to fet up for himfelf againft the nobility and gentry, his oppo- nents, who had likewife formed a feparate company. The Strada, we find, was a native of Bergamo, in the Venetian {tate, who had worked her way to Naples, where, in 1725, fhe performed the part of firft woman in the ferious opera ; and in the autumn of 1729 arrived in England, where fhe was a was ansounced in Handel’s advertifement among the other fingers of his troop in the following manner: ¢* Signora Strada, who hath a very fine voice, a perfon of fingular me- rit.” This finger had many prejudices to combat on her firft arrival in this country: the enemies of Handel were of courfe unwilling to be pleafed with any part of the enter- tainment he had provided for the public; the abilities of Cuzzoni and Fauttina had taken poffeffion of the general favour ; and Strada’s perfonal charms did not affilt her much in conciliating parties, or difpofing the eye to augment the pleafures of the ear; for fhe had fo little of a Venus in her appearance, that fhe was ufually called the pig. However, by degrees fhe f{ubdued all their prejudices, and fung herfelf into favour, particularly with the friends of Handel, who ufed to fay, that by the care he took in compofing for her, and his in{tructions, from a coarfe finger with a fine voice, he rendered her equal at leaft to the firft performer in Europe. She firft appeared in the opera of “ Lotharius ;’’ and in examining the original fcore, her firft air, «* Quel cor che mi donatti,”? feems chiefly calculated to difplay her fine and brilliant fhake, for which there are more than thirty occafions gtven in the courfe of the fong. The Strada performed for Handel at Oxford, in the ora- torio of Athalia, and in his three firft oratorios that were publicly performed in London. She left England in 1741, and returned to Italy, leaving behind her great, and, we believe, well-merited fame, for the accuracy and fpirit of her performance. STRADAN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Oberland ; 3 mies N.W. of Eylau. oeHiamatsigae sa ar a town of Pruffia ; 6 miles N. of ick. STRADAUN, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 9 miles S.W. of Marggrabowa. STRADBALLY, a poft-town of Ireland, in the Queen’s county, on the mail-coach road to Cork, by way of Cafhel. There is a charter-fchool here for 50 boys, and the town is neat, and tolerably flourifhing. It is 39 miles S.S.W. from Dublin. STRADELLA, Aterssanpro, of Naples, in Biogra- pAy, was not only an excellent compofler of the feventeenth century, but a great performer on the violin, and befides thefe qualifications, he was pofleffed of a fine voice, and an exquifite manner of finging. His compofitions, which are all vocal, of which we are in poffeffion of many, and have examined a great number more in other collections, feem fu- perior to any that were produced in the laft century, except by Cariffimi; and, perhaps, if he had enjoyed equal longevity, he would have been inferior in no refpe& to that great mufician. Though it has been faid by Bourdelot, in his ‘* Hiftoire de la Mufique,” tom. i. p. 41. and by others after him, that Stradella was engaged by the republic of Venice to compofe for the opera in that city ; it does not appear by the correét and regular lift of the mufical dramas performed at Venice from the year 1637 to 1730, that an opera, or any part of an opera, of his compofition, was ever performed in that city. Nor does his name occur as a dramatic compofer for any other part of Italy, in the «* Drammaturgia’”? di Lione Allacci, augmented and continued to the year 1755. His compofitions are chiefly mifcellaneous, confifting of fingle fongs, cantatas, duets, trios, and madrigals of four and five parts, One opera, and one oratorio, include the whole of his dramatic mufic, facred and_fecular, which we have been able to find, This mufician, probably at anearly period of his life, having STR acquired great reputation at Venice by his talents, was em- ployed by a noble Venetian to teach a young lady of anoble Roman family, named Hortenfia, to fing. This lady, on whom nature had beltowed a beautiful perfon and an exquifite voice, notwithftanding her tluitrious birth, having been fe- duced from her friends, had fubmitted to live with this Ve- netian in a criminal manner. Hortenfia’s love for mufic, and admiration of the talents of her inftruétor, by frequent accefs, foon gave birth to a paflion of a different kind ; and, like Heloifa, fhe found, that though at firft Guiltlefs fhe gaz’d, and liften’d while he fung, While fcience flow’d feraphic from his tongue ; From lips like his the precepts too much move, They mufic taught—but more, alas! to love! and accordingly fhe and her matter became mutually ena- moured of each other. Before their fecret was difclofed, of which the confequences might have been equally fatal to Stradella with thofe which followed the difcovery of Abe- lard’s paffion, they agreed to quit Venice together, and fly to Naples ; and after travelling in the moft fecret manner poffible, they arrived at Rome in their way to that city. The Venetian feducer, on difcovering their flight, deter- mined to gratify his revenge by having them aflaffinated in whatever part of the world they could be found; and having engaged two defperate ruffians to purfue them, by a large fum of ready money, and a promife of a {till greater reward when the work was accomplifhed, they proceeded dire&tly to Naples, the place of Stradella’s nativity, fup- pofing that he would naturally return thither for thelter, preferably to any other part of Italy. But after feeking him in vain for fome time in that city, they were informed that he and the lady were ftill at Rome, where fhe was regarded as his wife. Of this they communicated intelligence to their em- ployer, afluring him of their determination to go through with the bufinefs they had undertaken, provided he would procure them letters of recommendation to the Venetian ambaflador at Rome, to grant them an afylum as foon as the deed fhould be perpetrated. After waiting at Naples for the neceflary letters and in- ftruGtiions, they proceeded to Rome, where, fuch was the celebrity of Stradella, they were not long before they dif- covered his refidence. But hearing that he was foon to con- dué an oratorio, of his own compolition, in the church of St. John Lateran, in which he was not only to play, but to fing the principal part ; and as this performance was to begin at five o’clock in the evening, they determined to avail them- felves of the darknefs of the night when he and his milftrefs fhould return home. On their arrival at the church, the oratorio was begun, and the excellence of the mufic, and its performance, joined to the rapture that was expreffed by the whole congregation, made an impreffion and foftened the rocky hearts even of thefe /avage beafls to fuch a degree, as to incline them to relent ; and to think that it would be a pity to take away the life of aman whofe genius and abilities were the delight of all Italy :—an inftance of the miraculous powers of mo- dern mufic, fuperior, perhaps, to any that could be well au. thenticated of the ancient. Both thefe aflaflins being equally affected by the perform- ance, alike inclined to mercy, and accofting him in the {treet when he quitted the church, after complimenting him upon his oratorio, confefled to him the bufinefs on which they had been fent by the Venetian nobleman, whofe mittrefs he had ftolen ; adding, that charmed by his mufic, they had changed their minds; and then, adyifing him and the lady to § TR to fly to fome place of fafety as foon as poffible, they de- termined to relinquifh the reft of the reward that was pro- mifed them, and tell their employer that Stradella and his miltrefs had quitted Rome the night before their arrival in that city. After this wonderful efcape, the lovers did not wait for new counfel to quit Rome, but fet out that very night for ‘Turin, as a place moft remote from their implacable enemy and his emiffaries. And the affaflins returning to Venice, told the enraged Venetian that they had traced the fugitives to Turin, a place where the laws being not only fevere, but the difficulty of efcaping fo much greater than in any other part of Italy, on account of the garrifon, they fhould de- cline any further concern in the bufinefs. This intelligence did not, however, incline the offended nobleman to relinquifh his purpofe, but rather ftimulated him to new attempts: he therefore engaged two other affaffins in his fervice, procuring for them letters of recommendation from the abbé d’ Eftrade, at that time the French ambaflador at Venice, addrefled to the marquis de Villars, ambaflador from France to Turin. The abbé d’Eftrade requefting, at the defire of the Vene- tian ambaflador, protection for two merchants, who intend- ed to refide fome time in that city, which being delivered by the new aflaflins, they paid their court regularly to the am- baffador, while they waited for a favourable opportunity to accomplifh their undertaking with fafety. The duchefs of Savoy, at this time regent, having been informed of the fudden flight of Stradella and Hortenfia from Rome, and their arrival at Turin, and knowing the danger they were in from the vindictive {pirit of their enemy, placed the lady in a convent, and retained Stradella in her alace, as her maeftro di capella. Ina fituation apparently o fecure, Stradella’s fears for his fafety began to abate ; till one day, at fix o’clock in the evening, as he was walking for the air on the ramparts of the city, he was fet upon by two ruffians, who each gave him a {tab on the breaft with a dagger, and immediately flew to the houfe of the French ambailador, as to a fanétuary. The affault having been feen by numbers of people who were walking in the fame place, occafioned fuch an uproar in the city, that the news foon reached the duchefs, who ordered the gates to be fhut, and the aflaflins to be demanded of the French ambaffador ; but he infifting on the privileges anted to men of his funétion by the law of nations, re- ufed to give them up. This tranfaétion, however, made a eat noife all over Italy, and M. de Villars wrote imme- jately to the abbé d’Ettrade, to know the reafon of the attack upon Stradella by the two men whom he had recom- mended ; and was informed by the abbé, that he had been furprifed into a recommendation of thefe affaffins by one of the moft powerful of the Venetian nobility. In the mean time, Stradella’s wounds, thoughextremely dangerous, proved not to be mortal, aud the marquis de Villars having been in- formed by the furgeons that he would recover, in order to prevent any further difpute about the privileges of the _ corps pe oratiqne, fuffered the aflaffins to efcape. But fuch was the implacability of the enraged Venetian, that never relinquifhing his purpofe, he continued to have Stradella conitantly watched by fpies, whom he maintained in Turin. A year being clapfed after the cure of his wounds, and no frefh dilturbance happening, he thought himfelf fecure from any further attempts upon his life. , The duchefs regent, interelting herfelf in the happinefs of two perfons who had fuffered fo much, and who feemed born for each other, had them married in her palace. After which ceremony, Stradella having an invitation to Genoa, to compofe an opera for that city, went thither with his wife, STR determining to return to Turin after the carnival; but the Venetian being informed of this motion, fent aflaflins after them, who watching for a favourable opportunity, rufhed into their chamber early one morning, and {tabbed them both to the heart. The murderers having fecured a bark, which lay in the port, by inftantly retreating to it, efcaped from juitice, and were never heard of more. This tragical event muft have happened confiderably later than 1670, the date that has been affigned to it by all the mufical writers who have related the ftory. For being in pofleffion of the drama which he fet for Genoa previous to his murder, which is entitled «* La Forza dell’ Amor pa- terno,’’ and dated Genoa, 1678, it appears that the de- Cication of this opera to Signora Terefa Raggi Saoli, was written by Stradella himfelf. And at the conclufion of the editor’s advertifement to the reader is the following eulogium on the compofer of the mufic: “ Battando il dirti, ke il concerto di fi perfetta melodia fia valore d’un Aleffandro, cioe del fignor Stradella riconofciuto fenza contrafto per il primo Apollo della mufica :”?—« Nothing further need be offered in defence of the work, than to fay that it had received the advantage of the perfect melody and harmony of an Alexander, that is, of fignor Stradella, indifputably ac- knowledged to be the magnus Apollo of mufic.’? His oratorio of ** San Giovanni Battifta, 4 5, con ftro- menti,’’ whichis generally believed to have faved this charm- ing compofer’s life, being minutely defcribed, andin a manner reviewed, in Burney’s Hiitory of Mufic, vol. iv. Pp- 105, we mutt refer our curious readers to that work, where a confiderable part of this oratorio is printed, together with a lift of other excellent productions by this admirable matter, preferved in different colle¢tions in our public and private libraries ; and the more we examine the produétions of this gifted mufician, the more we are convinced that Purcell made him his model ; not in detail, in order to imitate his paflages, but in his general ftyle of compofition. Purcell was extremely fond of writing upon a ground-bafe, a f{pe- cies of chaconne, which the Italians call baffa coftretto, and the French ba/f-contrainte: and in Stradella’s oratorio, it appears that more than half the airs in that admirable pro- duétion are built upon a few bars or notes of bafe perpe- tually repeated. Purcell mzy have been ftimulated to exer- cife his powers in fuch confined and difficult enterprizes as themes, by viewing the works of an author, who, accord- ing to tradition, was his greate({t favourite; but he has never made ufe of the fame ground, or feries of notes, in any of his numerous compofitions of this kind: indeed Purcell’s ground-bafes are not only new, but in general more pleafing and difficult to treat, than thofe of any other compofer of his time. STRADELLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, near the Po; 9g miles E.S.E. of Pavia. STRAFFORD, a townfhip of America, in Orange county, Vermont, containing 1805 inhabitants; 20 miles N.N.W. of Norwich. STRAFFORD, a county of New Hampfhire, watered by branches of the Pifcataqua and Merrimack, containing 41,595 inhabitants. The chief towns are Dover and Durham. STRAGNES, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ; 31 miles W. of Stockholm. STRAHER, atown of Scotland, in the county of Ar- le, fituated on Loch Fine, oppofite to Eaverary. STRAHLSTEIN, in Mineralogy, AGinolite, Jamefon ; Amphibole Adinote, Hatiy. ‘This mineral is clafled by Hauy with hornblende, on account of the identity which he {uppofes to exilt in the forms of the primitive cryttals of both : STR both: this identity is, however, denied by the count de Bournon. Werner makes a diftin@ {pecies of ftrahl{tein, which he divides into four fub-fpecies: common adtinolite, glaffy adinolite, granular aélinolite, and afbeftous adtinolite. The three former appear to differ only in their ftructure ; the latter more nearly refembles afbettus. The colour of aétinolite is principally leek-green or grafs- green, but fometimes olive-green and greenifh-white. Common adtinolite, Gemeiner flrablfiein, is never regularly cry{- tallized: it occurs in beds in rocks of gneifs, mica-flate, and talcous flate, and in {mall veins or difleminated in trap-rocks. It has a divergingly foliated, or promifcuoufly radiated ftructure, with a double cleavage, forming oblique angles. Its internal luftre is fhining; it is more or lefs tranflucent or tranfparent ; it fcratches glafs, and melts before the blow- pipe into a greyifh-green or blackifh glafs. The fpecific gravity of this mineral is about 3.4. Glaffy a&inolite, Glafartiger frahlfein, occurs maffive and cryftallized in very oblique four-fided prifms ; the edges are generally truncated. The cryftals are fmall, and moft fre- quently either divergingly aggregated, or refting on each other. In the fibrous varieties, the fibres are {ometimes pa- rallel. The luftre is vitreous, flightly inclining to pearly. The cryftals are tranflucent, and very brittle. Before the blow-pipe it melts with difficulty into an opaque, green- coloured glafs. The conttituent parts of this mineral, from Zillerthal, in the Tyrol, as given by Langier, are Silex - - 50. Magnefia - - 19.25 Alumine~ - = 0.75 Lime > = 9-75 Potath = = 0.50 Oxyd of iron - 11.00 Oxyd of manganefe - 0.50 Oxyd of chrome” - 3.00 Carbonic acid and water 5:00 Lofs - * 0.25 Granular adinolite, Korniger flrablficin, occurs maffive, in large, coarfe, and {mall granular diftinét concretions, along with precious garnet and quartz, in the Sanalpe and Tainach, in Stiria, The luftre is fhining and vitreous. The cleavage is double; the ftru€ture in the direétion of the principal joint is foliated. The crofs-fraGture is {plintery. It is hard and brittle, and faintly tranflucent. Afbeflous aGinolite, Afeefartiger flrahlflein, Werner. Ac- tinote aciculaire, Hatiy. The colour is a greenifh-grey, which pafles into fky-blue, and into olive-green, and yel- lowifh-brown and liver-brown, It occurs in diftin@ wedge- fhaped concretions, compofed of acicular cryttals, which are diverging or radiated. It is opaque, or flightly tranflu- cent on the edges. Internally the luftre is gliftening and pearly. Itis foft, rather feGtile, and breaks with difficulty. The {pecific gravity of afbeftous aétinolite is 2.8, Karften ; according to Kirwan, 2.579. It melts with difficulty into a black, or dar!s, green-coloured glafs. The confti- tuent parts, according to Vauquelin, are Silex - - 47-0 Lime - - 11.3 Magnefia - - 7.3 Oxyd of iron - 20.0 Oxyd of manganefe - 10. Lofs - - 4.4 The variety of which the analyfis is given, is compofed of thin, elaftic and flexible cryftals, and is called by Sauffure ae bat byffolite. Tt occurs in Norway, Sweden, in the Hartz, and various alpine diftri€ts, in rocks of gneifs, mica-flate, and granular lime-ftone: it occurs alfo near Maraffon, in Corn- wall. The colouring matter of cryftallized a@inolite ap- pears, from the analyfis of Langier, to be chrome: this is alfo, in all probability, the colouring matter of the other varieties. The hexahedral prifms of aétinolite are com- monly of a beautiful green, imbedded in white tale. Ac- tinolite occurs at Glenelg, in Invernefsfhire, and in the ifle of Sky, and difleminated in trap, in Shropfhire. The mineral with which aétinolite or ftrahlftein is moft likely to be confounded, is thellite or epidote. For the diftin@ive charaGters of each, fee THELLITE. STRAIGHT, Srreicut, or Strait, in Hydrography, a narrow channel or arm of the fea, fhut up between lands on either fide, and affording a paflage out of one great fea into another. There are three kinds of {treights. 1. Such as join one ocean to another. Of this kind are the ftreights of Ma- gellan and Le Maire. 2. Thofe which join the ocean to a gulf: the ftreights of Gibraltar and Babelmandel are of this kind, the Mediterranean and Red fea being only large gulfs. 3. Thofe which join one gulf to another; as the {treight of Caffa, which joins the Palus Mzotisto the Euxine, or Black fea. The paflage of ftreights is commonly dangerous, on ac- count of the rapidity and oppofite motion of currents. The mott celebrated ftreight in the world is that of Gib- raltar, which is about one hundred and thirty miles long, and twelve broad, joming the Mediterranean fea with the Atlantic ocean. The ftreights of Magellan, difcovered, in 1520, by F. Magellan, were ufed fome time as a paflage out of the North into the South fea; but fince the year 1616, that the ftreight of Le Maire has been difcovered, the former has been difufed; both becaufe of its length, which is full three hundred miles, and becaufe the navigation of it is very dangerous, from the waves of the North and South feas meeting in it and clafhing. The ftreight at the entrance of the Baltic is called the Sound ; which fee: that between England and France, Le pas de Calais, or the Channel. There are alfo the ftreights of Babelmandel, of Weigats, of Jeflo, of Anian, of Da- vis, and Hudfon, &c. : SrraiGut is alfo ufed, in Geography, for an ifthmus or neck of land between two feas ; preventing the communi- cation thereof. STRAIGHT, in the Manege. To part, or go ftraight, or right out, is to go upon a tread traced in a ftraight line. When you would pufh your horfe forwards, make him part ftraight, without traverfing, or bearing fideways. SrraiGHut Arches and Stairs. See the fubftantives. SrraicHT-Membered, called in French droit fur les jambes. See Lees. Srraicut of Breadth, in Ship-Building, that {pace be- fore and abaft dead-flatt, in which the fhip is of the fame uniform breadth, or of the fame breadth as at dead-flatt. SrraicHr Creek, in Geography, a river of America, which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 38° 38’. W. long. 84° 2! STRAIKS, in the Military Art, are ftrong plaits of iron, fix in number, fixed with large nails, called fraik-nails, on the circumference of a cannon-wheel, over the joints of the fellows, both to ftrengthen the wheel, and to fave the fellows from wearing on hard ways or {treets. STRAIN, or Sprain, a violent extenfion of the finews or tendons of fome mufcle. See SPRAIN, STRAIN; STR Srrary, among horfes and other animals, an over-dif- tention of the mufcles, proceeding from flips, blows, or from hard riding in the horfe. It may be obferved, that in all itrains, the mufcular or tendinous fibres are over-itretched, and fometimes ruptured, or broken. Tt is evident, that in all violent flrains, either of tendons or mufcles, whatever opinions may have been entertained of bathing and anointing with favourite remedies, which often fucceed in flight cafes, where perhaps bandage alone would have anfwered; the latter, with properly refting the re- laxed fibres till they have thoroughly recovered their tone, are chiefly to be depended on: and frequently fome months are neceflary for effe€ting the removal of the com- plaint. All fuch violent itrains of the ligaments which con- ne& the bones together, efpecially thofe of the thigh, re- uire time, and turning out to grafs, to perfe& a recovery. xternal applications can avail but little here, the parts affefted lying too deep, and fo furrounded with mufcles, that neither applications nor medicine can penetrate to them. The fooner, in thefe cafes, the horfe or other animal is turned out to grafs, the better, as the gentle motion in the field will prevent the ligaments from thickening, and of courfe the joint itfelf from growing {tiff; nor do we believe that firing, fo commonly praétifed with horfes in this cafe, is of half the confequence as reft, and turning out for a con- fiderable time, which is indeed always advifed at the time the horfe is fired. Where the fhoulder 1s over-ftrained, the horfe or animal does not put out the leg like the other ; but, to revent pain, fets the found foot hardly on the ground, to ave the other, even though he be turned fhort on the lame fide, which motion tries him the moft of any. When trotted or run in hand, initead of pulling the leg forward in aright line, the.animal forms a circle with the lame leg ; and when the horfe ftands in the ttable, that leg is advanced be- fore the other. The fame is the cafe with other animals. In order to remove this lamenefs, they fhould firft be bled, and the whole fhoulder be well bathed, three times a day, with verjuice, or vinegar ; but if the lamenefs continue without {welling or inflammation, after reiting two or three days, it has been recommended that the ental be well rubbed for fome time with opodeldoc, or embrocations compounded of camphor and turpentine, or vinegar, camphor and fpirit of vitriol. Where inflammation and {welling are prefent, the ufe of camphorated faturnine wafhes may frequently be bene- ficially employed two or three times in the day, cloths wet with them being applied to the parts. Strain, in Mufic, is a {eGtion or portion of an air or tune of two or more fections; as firft ftrain, fecond {train : and fometimes the term implies the whole air; as a beauti- ful, pleafing, or difagreeable ftrain. ¢ That ftrain again ;——it had a dying fall.” STRAINED Sucar. See Suear. STRAINING is the clarification of a liquor, by pafling it through a fieve, or filtre. The word is derived from the French, ¢ffreindre ; which is formed from ex, out of, and frringere, to prefs. SrraininG, in Phyfiology. See Lunas. STRAISING, in Geography, a town of Auftria; 7 miles N.W. of Pirrawarth. . STRAIT. See Srraicur. Straits of Calais, one of the twelve departments of the co or northern region of France, compofed of Artois, i d Boulonnais, lying in N. lat. 50° 30/, between the ment Du Nord and the Britifh Channel, containing in territorial extent 70424 kiliometres, or 328 {quare leagues; Vor. XXXIV. ST EK or 37 French leagues in length and 15 in breadth, or about 70 Englifh miles in length from N.W. to S.E. and 30 in breadth, and 566,061 inhabitants. It is divided into fix circles or diftriéts, 43 cantons, and 953 communes, The circles are Boulogne, containing 71,304 inhabitants ; St. Omer, with 96,765 ; Bethune, having 114,669; Arras, with 136,380; St. Pol, with 76,061 ; and Montreuil, in- cluding 70,882 inhabitants. According to Haflenfratz, the number of circles is 8, of cantons 85, and of inhabit- ants 532,789. ‘The capitalis Arras. A ridge of low hills extends from Abbeville to Boulogne. ‘The foil of this de- partment is, in general, fertile, yielding all forts of grain, flax, and pattures. STRAKES, in Ship-Building, are the regular ranges of planks on the bottom and“fides of the fhip, or the continua- tion of planks joined to the ends or butts of each other, and reaching from the {tem to thg ftern-poft : the loweit of thefe on the bottom, called the garboard-firake, is let in to the rabbet of the keel, and into the ftem and ftern-poft. The lowett ftrake infide is called the limber-ffrake, which is wrought about eleven inches from the fide of the keelfon, and has a rabbet in the upper edge to receive the ends ot the limber-boards. They fay alfo, a thip heels a Arake, that is, when fhe inclines to one fide the quantity of a whole plank’s breadth. , Srrakes, or Streks, in Mining, are frames of boards fixed on or in the ground, where they wafh and drefs the {mall ore in a little ttream of water, hence called fraked ore. STRAKONITZ, in Geography, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Prachatitz; 54 miles S. of Prague. N. lat. exry!, . Es long.13° 50's STRALECH, atown of the duchy of Stiria; 5 miles N. of Pettau. STRALECK, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 9 miles W. of Hardeberg. STRALEN, a town of France, in the department of the Roer ; 6 miles S.W. of Gueldres. STRALENBURG, Puuitir-Joun, in Biography, born at Stralfund in 1676, entered at an early age into the Swedifh army, and in 1707 was appointed a captain in the regiment of Sudermania. Having often diftinguifhed him- felf in the Polifh war, and more efpecially at the fiege of Pofen, and the battle of Frauftadt, and having been prefent, in 1709, at the unfortunate and bloody battle of Pultaway he was taken prifoner, after he had made his efcape, by re- turning in order to fave his brother, and carried firit to Mofco, and afterwards to Siberia. Here he remained 13 years, employing himfelf in travelling through the country, and making a geometrical furvey of it, which he tranfmitted to amerchant at Mofco. Upon the death of this merchant, the map was found, and prefented to the czar, who ordered that when the owner enquired for it, he fhould be brought before his imperial majefty. Having completed his travels, he was prefented to the emperor at Peterfburg, but declining to accept the office and falary which were offered to him, he returned to Sweden with an impaired conftitution, and in low circumftances ; and was promoted, in 1723, to the rank of lieutenant-colonel; but withthe fame pay which he received as captain eighteen years before. He afterwards obtained permiflion to go to Lubec, where he publifhed, at his own expence, in 4to. “ Hiltorifch, &c.’? i. ¢. ¢ Hiftorical Geo- graphical Defcription of the North-Ealt Part of Europe and Afia.”” In 1740 he was appointed commandant of the fortrefs of Carlfham, where he remained till bis death, in 1747. He was, fays his biographer, a brave as well as a ikilful officer ; and befides a knowledge of mathematics, and Q4q parti- STR particularly geometry and fortification, he was well verfed in various other branches of fcience. Gen. Biog. STRALSUND,, in Geography, a city of Germany, and ca- pital of Swedith Pomerania, fituated in a ftrait which pafles be- tween the continent of Pomerania and the ifland of Rugen, founded, in 1209, by Jaro Mar, the firft prince of Rugen, for the fecurity of his territory on the continent, but foon after- wards deftroyed by the dukes of Pomerania. It is a very ftrong place, being furrounded by the fea fo as to be ac- ceffible only by bridges,.and well fortified. It is the refidence of the king’s governor-general, of the regency, and war- office ; and the place where the itates of Swedifh Pomerania hold their meetings. Its magiftracy was ennobled, in 1714, by Charles XII. king of Sweden; and in 1720, king Fre- derick I. extended the like honour even to the members of the council. It was formerly one of the principal Hanfe towns. It has undergone, feveral revolutions; and in Au- guft 1807, it was taken by the French; 113 miles N. of Berlin. N. lat. 54°20!. E. long. 13° 8!. STRAMBERG, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Prerau ; 30 miles E. of Prerau. N. lat. 49° 32!. E. long. 18° 11". STRAMMEHL, or Srramen, a town of Hinder Pomerania ; 36 miles W. of New Stettin. N. lat. 53°42!. E. long. 15° 32’. STRAMONIUM, in Botany, fuppofed to be a corrup- tion of TeUKIOMCVKOY, OF mad-night/bade. See Datura. SrramoniuM, in the Materia Medica. See Datura Stramonium. Under the article now referred to, it has been obferved that this plant has been known as a powerful narcotic poifon ; its congener, the D. mete/, 1s thought to be Ereuxv0> wowsxos (ftrychnus manicus) of Theophraftus and Diofcorides, and is therefore the {pecies received by Linnzus into the ma- teria medica. In its recent ftate, the ftramonium has a bit- terifh tafte, and a {mell fomewhat refembling that of poppies, or, as Bergius fays, narcotic, efpecially if the leaves be rubbed betwixt the fingers. By holding the plant to the nofe for fome time, or fleeping in a bed where the leaves are {trewed, giddinefs of the head and {tupor are {aid to have been pro- duced. The deleterious effe&ts of this plant, and more efpe- cially of the feeds, have been manifetted in various in- ftances : and thofe of the feeds have, in fome cafes actually upon record, been fatal. Their foporiferous efficacy has been fhamefully applied to purpofes the moft licentious and difhonourable. The effeéts of the ftramonium as a medi- cine, are to be referred, fays Dr. Woodville, to no other power than that of a narcctic. The extra&, he fays, has been the preparation ufually employed, and from 1 to 10 grains, and upwards, a day ; but the powdered leaves, after the manner of thofe directed by hemlock, would feem, he thinks, to be a preparation more certain and convenient. Externally, the leaves of {tramonium have been ufed as an application to inflammatory tumours and burns. Some have thought they have derived benefit from fmoking ftra- monium in althma and fhortnefs of breath. STRAND, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Warme- land; 56 miles N.W. of Carlltadt.—Alfo, a town of Nor- way, in the province of Bergen ; 20 miles S.W. of Romf- dal.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland; 20 miles N.W. of Carlftadt.—Alfo, a lake of Norway, in the pro- wince of Aggerhuus 3 75 miles N.W. of Chriltiania. Srranp, North, a ttrait of the North fea, between the Wand of Benbecula and North Uitt. Srranp, South, a ftrait of the North fea, between the ifand of Benbecula and South Uitt. STR S7Tranp; in Sea Language, denotes one of the twifts or di- vifions of which a rope is compofed. See Rope. A rope is faid to be ftranded, when one or more of its {trands are fo damaged as to be cut through, or nearly fo. Srranp alfo implies the fea-beach: hence a fhip is faid to be ftranded, when, by tempett or bad fteerage, fhe is run on fhore. ‘This is oftener the cafe than need be, if proper afliftance was given, or one of the following methods were practifed for the fafe removal of fhips driven on fhore. For this purpofe, empty cafks are ufually employed, by being lafhed round her under her bottom, to float off the vetlel ; or a temporary cafing built round her outfide, of {tanchions and deals caulked, efpecially if the is {mall, and at the fame time near the port to which it is propofed to con- duct her. In other cafes, the following method, adopted by Mr. Barnard, will anfwer. (See Philofophical Tranfaétions, vol. Ixx., part 1.) ‘ On January 1, 1779, (fays Mr. Bar- nard,) in a mott dreadful ftorm, the York Eaft Indiaman, of 800 tons, homeward bound with a pepper cargo, parted her cables in Margate roads, and was driven on fhore within one hundred feet of the head and thirty feet of the fide of Margate pier, then drawing twenty-two feet fix inches water, the flow of a good {pring-tide being only fourteen feet at that place. : “ On the 3d of the fame month I went down to affift get- ting off the {hip. I found her perfe&tly upright, and her fheer (or fide appearance) the fame as when firft built, but funk to the twelve-feet water-mark fore and aft, in a bed of chalk mixed with a ftiff blue clay, exaétly the fhape of her body below that draught of water ; and from the rud- der being torn off as fhe ftruck coming on fhore, and the violent agitation of the fea after her being there, her ftern was fo greatly injured as to admit free accefs thereto, which filled her four days equal to the flow of the tide. Having fully informed myfelf of her fituation and the flow of fpring- tides, and being clearly of opinion fhe might be again got off, I recommended, as the firft neceflary {tep, the immediate difcharge of the cargo; and in the progrefs of that bufinefs, I found the tide always flowed to the fame height on the fhip ; and when the cargo was half difcharged, and I knew the remaining part fhould not make her draw more than eighteen feet water, and while I was obferving the water at twenty-two feet fix inches by the fhip’s marks, fhe in- ftantly lifted to feventeen feet eight inches ; the water and air being before excluded by her preffure on the clay, and the atmofphere acting upon her upper part equal to fix hun- dred tons, which is the weight of water difplaced at the difference of thefe two draughts of water. «© The moment the fhip lifted, I difcovered fhe had re- ceived more damage than was at firft apprehended, her leaks being fuch as filled her from four to eighteen feet water in an hour and a half. As nothing effectual was to be expected from pumping; feveral fcuttles or holes in the fhip’s fides were made, and valves fixed thereto, to draw off the water at the loweft ebb of the tide, to facilitate the difcharge of the remaining part of the cargo ; and, after many attempts, I fucceeded in an external application of fheep-fkins fewed on a fail, and thruft under the bottom, to ftop the body of water from rufhing fo furioufly into the fhip. This bufinefs being effected, moderate pumping enabled us to keep the fhip to about fix feet water at low water, and by a vigorous effort we could bring the fhip fo light, as (when the cargo fhould be all difcharged) to be eafily removed into deeper water. But as the external application might be dilturbed by fo doing, or totally removed by the agitation of the thip, it was abfolutely neceflary to provide fome permanent fe- eurity STR curity for the lives of thofe who were to navigate her to the river Thames. I then recommended, as the cheapeft, quick- eft, and molt effectual plan, to lay a deck in the hold, as low as the water could be pumped to, framed fo folidly and fecurely, and caulked fo tight, as to fwim the fhip indepen- dent of her own leaky bottom. « Beams of fir-timber twelve inches {quare were placed in the hold, under every lower-deck beam in the fhip, as low as the water would permit: thefe were in two pieces, for the conveniency of getting them down, as alfo for the better fixing them of an exact length, and well bolted together when in their places. Over thefe were laid long Dantzic deals of two inches and a half thick, well nailed and caulked. Againit the fhip’s fides, all fore and aft, was well nailed a piece of fir, twelve inches broad and fix inches thick on the lower, and three inches on the upper edge, to prevent the deck from rifing at the fide. Over the deck, at every beam, was laid a ete pies of fir-timber, fix inches deep and twelve inches broad, reaching from the pillar of the hold to the fhip’s fide, on which the fhores were to be placed to refift the preflure of the water beneath. On each of thefe, and againit the lower-deck beams, at equal diftances from the file and middle of the fhip, was placed an upright fhore, fix inches by twelve, the lower end let two inches into the crofs-piece. From the foot of this fhore, to the fhip’s fide, under the end of every lower-deck beam, was placed a dia- gonal fhore, fix inches by twelve, to eafe the fhip’s deck of part of the ftrain, by throwing it on the fide. An upright fhore of three inches by twelve was placed from the end of every crofs-piece to the lower-deck beams at the fide, and one of three inches by twelve on the midfhip’s end of every crofs-piece tothe lower-deck beam, and nailed to the pil- lars in the hold. Two firm tight bulkheads, or partitions, were made as near the extremes of the fhip as poffible. The ceiling or infide plank of the fhip was fecurely caulked up to the lower deck, and the whole formed a complete fhip, with a flat bottom withinfide, to fwim the outfide leaky one ; and that bottom being depreffed fix feet below the external water, refifted the fhip’s weight above it equal to five hun- dred and eighty-one tons, and fafely conveyed her to the dry-dock at Deptford.” As to the manner in which ftranding affe&ts matters of in- furance, fee Risk. Where a veffel is ftranded, juftices of the peace fhall com- mand conftables near the fea-coa{t to call affiftance for the prefervation of the fhip ; and officers of men of war are to be aiding and affifting. 12 Anne, cap. 18. Srranp and Stream, in Ancient Cufloms, a freedom from all impofitions upon goods or veflels by land or water. STRANDSSOGEN, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Bergen; 8 miles E.N.E. of Stavanger. STRANDT, Nortn, one of the three iflands which were inhabited by the Saxons in the days of Ptolemy ; the other two being Bufen, N. of the mouth of the Elbe, W. of Ditmarfia, looking towards Meldorp, above two miles broad and nearly three in length, and Pere three or four parifhes, with as many villages; and Heilig ifland, i.e. facred ifland, the moft celebrated and the moft fre- quented of the Saxon iflands, fituated in the German ocean, not 40 miles diftant from Eideritadt, and rather farther from the mouth of the Elbe, divided into Klif and Duknen or Downs, which two parts are feparated from each other by a channel deep enough for veflels of a moderate bulk, and about three-fourths of a mile broad, annexed to the crown of Denmark in 1714. North Strandt was formerly torn from South Jutiand by the violence of the waves. It is fituated oppofite to Hefum and above Eiderftade, from both which wD R it is feparated by intervals of fea. This ifland was formerly about twenty mileslong, and in moft parts feven miles broad ; it contained twenty-two parifhes, and was noted for its agri- cultural produce as well as its fifh; but fince the time of the Saxons it has fuffered much from inundations of the fea, and there is now remaining of Nordftrand only the fmall parifh of Pelworm, which owes its fafety to the height of its fituation. See NorpstrRanp. STRANGALIDES, in Surgery, hard tumours in the breaft from milk. STRANGE, Sir Rozert, in Biography, an eminent Englith engraver, was born m one of the iktey iflands in 1721, and placed at a proper age with a painter in Edinburgh. When the Pretender landed in Scotland, he entered into the rebel army, and after the battle of Culloden, he concealed himfelf for fome time in the Highlands. Returning to Edin- burgh, he pafled over to France, and fettled at Rouen, where he acquired reputation by the produétions of his pencil. At Paris, whither he removed, he placed himfelf under the in- {truétion of Le Bas, who excelled in engraving with what is called among artifts the “ dry needle.” In 1751 he fettled in London, and acquired the reputation of being the father of hiftorical engraving in this country. He vifited Italy in 1760, and by his admirable drawings of the capital pictures in that city, recommended himfelf to thofe who were capable of duly appreciating his talents and per- formances to fuch a degree, that he was admitted a member of all the principal Italian academies, and alfo of that of painting in Paris. The ftains of his early political errors and mifcondu& having been effaced, he was patronized at the Englifh court, and in 1787 received the honour of knight- hood. After a courfe of the moft indefatigable labour in the practice of his art, he died in 1792. Befides a number of other works, he left fifty capital plates from pitures of the mott celebrated matters of the Italian {chools. Seleéting, as he was accuftomed to do, eighty copies of the beft im- preffions of every plate which he engraved, he colle&ted them into as many volumes, and prefixed to each two plates of himfelf, one an etching, the other a finifhed proof, froma drawing by I. Bapt. Greufe ; together with an introduétion on the progrefs of engraving, and critical remarks on the pictures from which the engravings were taken. The force and clearnefs of his burin were perhaps fcarcely ever fur- paffed, and gave a permanent value to his works. The mo- ral character and manners of fir R. Strange are fpoken of by his biographer in the warmeft terms Be applaufe. His property, acquired by honourable induftry, was confider- able, and bequeathed to his family. Mem. of Sir Robert Strange. STRANGER, in Law, denotes a perfon who is not privy, or party, to an act. Thus, a ftranger to a judgment, is he to whom a judgment does not belong ; in which fenfe the word ftands dire@ly oppofed to party or privy. STRANGERS’ Key, in Geography, a {mall ifland among the Bahamas. N. lat. 26° 43'. W. long. 78° 4o’. STRANGFORD, a poft-town of the county of Down, Ireland, on the welt fide of the flrait conneéting the lough of Strangford with the Irifh fea. On the oppofite fide of the {trait is Portaferry, a flourifhing town; but Strangford is properly the fea-port, being the place in which is the cuftom- houfe, and where revenue officers attend. In the reign of queen Elizabeth, a caftle was maintained here for fecuring the quiet of the county. A ferry-boat maintains the communi- cation between the town, which is in the barony of Lecale, and Portaferry, which is in the diftri& called The Ardes. Strangford is 80 miles N.N.E. from Dublin. Qq2 STRANG- mm Srrancrorp Lough, formerly called Lough-Conn, in the county of Down, Ireland, is the largeft falt-water lake in Ireland, covering upwards of twenty-five thoufand acres. The tide flows direétly up to Newtown-Ardes, at the ex- tremity of it, and there are feveral pleafant and ufeful creeks at both fides. In fome parts the water is fufficiently deep for any fhip, but the entrance is along ftrait, through which the tide rufhes with great rapidity ; and in it are fome rocks, efpecially that fhoal called the Bar, near the entrance, which renders it dangerous to fail into it without a favourable wind and tide. In the lough there are a great number of little iflands, which maintain large herds of cattle, and great num- bers of horfes, and upon which immenfe quantities of fowl are raifed. The towns of Newtown-Ardes, Killaleagh, and Cumber, on its fhores, have linen markets. There is aher- ring-tifhery on the lake, but the herrings taken in it are faid to be inferior, with refpe& to fatnefs and flavour, to thofe taken at fea. The fifhery along the neighbouring coatft employs above four hundred boats. The inhabitants of the fhores of the lough derive confiderable emolument from making kelp, which is efteemed better than that made on the fea-fhore. So induftrious are they, that they draw {tones from the fields and {pread them on the fhores, 1n order to make the wrack grow ; a good crop being obtained from rocks and ftones. ‘The name Strangford, or Strengford, is faid to have been derived from the rapidity with which the fea runs into the lake, which renders the paflage from Strang- ford to Portaferry fomewhat difficult. Young’s our. ‘Campbell’s Polit. Surv. &c. STRANGLES, in the Manege, is a colle€tion of foul humours formed in the body of a young colt, which are voided by the noitrils, or by a fuppuration of fome glands or knots that lie between the bones of the lower jaw, and are crowded with impurities. The fa/fe ftrangles tappen in old horfes that have not well cait the ftrangles. See GLANDERS. STRANGULATED Hernia, in Surgery, a rupture, or hernia, in which the protruded vifcera fuffer fuch a de- gree of preflure, that very urgent and dangerous fymptoms are excited. See Hernia. STRANGULATIO, a word ufed to exprefs that kind of fuffocation which is common to women in hytteric diforders, and for the itraightening of the inteftines in hernias. STRANGULATORIA, in the Materia Medica, a name by which Avicenna, and fome other authors, have called the doronicum, or leopard’s bane. STRANGURY, in Surgery, a difficulty and pain in making water. See Urine, Retention of. STRANKOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Prachatitz ; 4 miles S. of Wodnany. STRANRAER, a royal borough in the dittri& of the Rhyns, and fhire of Wigton, Scotland, is fituate at the eaftern extremity of the bay of Loch-Ryan, and has an excellent natural harbour, called the Road, where fhips of large burthen can anchor in fafety. The town is divided, nearly in the centre, by a little rivulet, over which there are feveral ftone-bridges. Many good houfes have lately been erected here, alfo a handfome town-houfe, anda prifon. It is a port of the cuftoms, of which all the maritime parifhes of the Rhyns are members. Here is alfo a polt- office ; and a church was ereéted for the parifh in 1785. In the town are ruins of a caftle, now uninhabited, but which has been of confiderable height and fubftance. The employment of the maritime inhabitants of Stranraer is chiefly the coafting-trade; but fome veffels are engaged in fifhing. At one period, a coarfe cloth, called Galloway II STR plaiding, was much manufaétured in this neighbourhood ; but the American war greatly injured it. Since that event, the fame perfons have engaged in the linen manufaéture. Coal is imported hither from Ayr, or Irvine, by fea, and is ufed by the higher claffes; but the chief fuel is turf or peat, brought from a diftance of three or four miles. Stran- raer is endowed with a market, and three annual fairs; and, in conjunction with the boroughs of New Galloway, White- horn, and Wigton, fends one member to parliament: it has alfo feparate jurifdiétion, and its municipal government is conduéted by a provolt, two baillies, a dean of guild; and fifteen counfellors. The population of this place, in the report of 1811, was eltimated at 1923 inhabitants, who occupied 387 houfes.—Carlifle’s Topographical Dictionary of Scotland, vol. ii.. Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. STRAP, among Surgeons, a fort of band ufed to ftretch out limbs in the fetting of broken or disjointed bones. BANDAGE. Srrap, or Strop, in Rigging, a wreath of rope fpliced round blocks, or uted to encircle a yard, or any large rope, by which tackles, &c. may be conneéted to them. Srrap, 1a Rope-making, is compofed of a number of yarns platted together with an eye at one end, to put a ftick through: it is bound round the end of the tails, to twift them tight when the rope is to be laid hard. Some have a hook at the other end, to hook the ftrandsin laying : others are made of the fame fized rope as the pendants, with an eye {pliced in each end. Srraps, inthe Manege. The ftraps of a faddle are {mall leather ttraps, nailed to the bows of the faddle, with which we make the girths faft to the faddle. STRAPADO, or Srrappano, a kind of military pu- nifhment, in which the criminal’s hands being tied behind him, he is hoitted up with a rope to the top of a long piece of wood, and let fall again almoft to the ground ; fo that, by the weight of his body in the fhock, his arms are diflocated. Sometimes he is to undergo three ftrapados, or more. The word is formed from the French efrapade, which fignifies the fame, and which is fuppofed to come from the old verb efreper, to break, extirpate; or from the Italian Jftrappata, of the verb firappare, to wrett by force. STRAPAZINO, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the wheat-ear kind, with a white rump and tail, and of a brownifh-yellow on the head and back ; its wings are varie- gated with black and yellow, and its beak is longer, and of a brownifh-yellow colour; throat, brealt, and belly, of a yellowifh-white. It is common in Italy, and is frequently brought to market among the {mall birds. Bellonius de Avibus. STRAPPING Posts, are pofts placed near the locks, round which the boatmen wind their rope, and check the velocity of the boat’s motion before it enters the lock, and thus prevent damage. STRASALDO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 2 miles E. of Palma la Nuova. \ STRASBERG, a town and lordfhip of Germany, be- longing to the abbey of Buchau; 19 miles W. of Buchau. STRASBURG, a city of France, and capital of the department of the Lower Rhine. The place, according to fome ftatements, contains 49,056, and the canton 49,056 inhabitants, on a territory of 70 kilometres, in one com- mune; but others fay it has 4000 houfes, and 60,000 inhabitants. This city is fituated at the confluence of the Ill and the Brufch, about a mile from the left bank of the Rhine. Before the revolution it was the capital of Alface, and the fee of a bifhop, who was a prince of the empire. Its name, which it received about the fixth century, = t See ’ STR the “ town of the ftreet,”? becaufe it lay on the high road from France to Germany. It \s well fortified with a citadel by Vayban, the outworks of which reach almoit to the Rhine. It has fix gates, and 200 {treets, moltly narrow ; eight bridges acrofs the Ill, and one of wood, 3900 feet in length, over the Rhine, fupported by an ifland in the middle, on which is a ftrong cattle. A canal is made from the Brufch to the Rhise, and by means of a fluice the country may be inundated to the diltance of 1500 toifes. The cathedral is a beautiful Gothic ftru€ture, founded in the year 1015, and finifhed in 1275; the iteeple, built 165 rs after the cathedral, ig 115 feet high, wrought in the ‘orm of a pyramid, combining folidity with delicacy. The clock, conttructed on the plan of a celebrated mathematician, named Dafypodius, but now decayed, exhibits the motions of the planets, as well as the hours of the day. This city was formerly imperial ; but in the year 1682, it was taken by Louis XIV., and yielded to him by the peace of Ryfwick ; who, however, granted to the inhabitants all their privileges and immunities, among which, one was that they were to pay nothing to the king, but all the imports were to be expended in the fupport of the city. Strafburg has an univerfity, governed by twenty profeffors, who are Lutherans, and another of Roman Catholics. The public magazines are filled every year, and the poor are carefully fupplied by the magiltrates. The military hofpital is a handfome building, and the city infirmary will receive 800 patients of both fexes, without diftin‘tion of religious opinions ; befides which, there are two houfes of orphans, a foundling hofpital, and a hofpital for venereal complaints, a lazaretto for epidemical difeafes, a houfe of charity for mendicants, an anatomical hall and cabinet, a botanical garden, a public library, a military fchool, &c. Before its union with France, the Lutherans only exercifed public employments; after that the Catholics were admitted to a fhare. From its fituation, Strafburg is a place of confider- able commerce ; bere are manufactures of tobacco, china, fteel, lace. carpets, cloth, leather, &c. The revenues are faid to amount annually to the fum of a million of livres ; and in the year 1767, a plan was formed to embellifh the city, correét the irregularities of {treets, and build the houfes in a {tate of nniformity. The Lutherans have feven churches, in one of which a moft beautiful maufoleum of white marble was erected to the memory of the great marfhal Saxe, in the year 1777. The chapter of the cathe- dral was founded in the year to19, to be compofed of 24 nobles of the rank of counts. ‘The epifcopal territory beyond the Rhine was, in 1801, given to the marggrave of Baden; 75 polts E. of Paris. N. lat. 48° 35’. E. long. 7 49). -SrRaAspurG, a town of Polifh Pruffia, in the territory of Cuim, on the right fide of the Drabnitz; 30 miles N.E. of Thorn.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Carinthia, on the Gurck ; 12 miles N. of Clagenfurt.—Alfo, a town of the Ucker Mark of Brandenburg; 12 miles N. of Prenziow. N. lat. 53° 32’. E. long. 13° 44'—Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflau; 12 miles N.N.W. of Jung-Buntzel.— Alfo, a town of Weftphalia, in the county of Stolberg ; 4 miles E.N.E. of Stoiberg. SrrasBurG, a polt-town of Virginia, in Shenandoah county, on the N.W. branch of the north fork of Shenandoah river, containing a handfome German Lu- theran church, and 60 or 70 houfes; 77 miles N.E. by N. of Staunton.—Alfo, a townthip of Lancalter couaty, Penn- fylvania, fituated on an eminence, in the centre of a fertile and well cultivated country, containing 2710 inhabitants ; S.T.R 8 miles E. of Lancafter.—Alfo, a fettlement of Kentucky, near the Bullit Lick. STRASCHNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boléflau ; 2 miles N. of Melnik. STRASE Unrnrar, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 11 miles N. of Marburg. STRASITES, Svrastres, or Staxites, a ftone de- {eribed by the writers of the middle ages, and famed for its imaginary virtue of promoting venery, aflilting digeltion, and the like, and that whether taken inwardly, or out- wardly applied. It is not eafy, from the accounts they have left us, to guefs what {tone they mean. STRASKO, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in. the circle of Brann ; 24 miles N.W. of Brunn. STRASNITZ, ‘a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hradifch ; 14 miles §.S.E. of Hadrifch. STRASS, atown of Auftria; 2 miles N.E. of Meiffau. STRASSWALD, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz- burg; 19 miles N.N.E. of Salzburg. STRATA, in Ancient Geography, a coustry of Afia, in Syria, north of Palmyra, and near it. STRATA, in Geology, plural, (fing. fratum, Latin), A itratum properly denotes a bed or layer of ftone, or mineral matter, the length and breadth of which greatly exceed the thicknefs. Geologifts at prefent commonly ufe the plural term, {trata, in a more limited fenfe when defcrib- ing the {tru€ture of a rock or mountain: if it be formed of very thick matfles of different kinds of ftone, as lime-ftone, flate, &c. it is faid to be compofed of beds; and if any of thefe beds are divided into {maller layers, by feams running parallel with their upper and lower furface, the fmaller layers are called ftrata, and the bed is faid to be ftratified. This diftin€@tion is merely made for the convenience of de- fcription, as we could not, with propriety, fay a ftratum was ttratified. : Where a feries of layers, or beds of different fub{tances, as coal, fand-{tone, and fhale, cover each other, if the beds do not exceed a few yards in thicknefs, they are called ftrata; and the hill or mountain compofed of fuch layers, is alfo faid to have a /rratified flrudture. The German geologifts would reftriét the latter term to homogeneous beds of rock which are fubdivided into parallel layers ; but for this limitation there does not appear any fufficient reafon. hofe hills or mountains which are compofed of alternate parallel layers, or {trata of different fub{tances, are as truly {tratified, as thofe which contain {trata of one kind of ttone only. The ftrudture of the globe, as far as we are acquainted with it from the interfeétions made by rivers, by the a¢tion of the fea upon the coalt, and by mining operations, confilts of a fucceflion of beds of different kinds of ftone, which generally increafe in thicknefs as we defcend deeper. The upper beds are commonly diftinétly ftratified ; but in the lowett beds, all traces of {tratification are gene- rally loit : indeed their thicknefs is often fo great, as to prevent our feeing the upper and under furface in any one place ; and the feams or partings run in fuch various direc- tions, as to preclude us from obtaining a knowledge of their ftructure. In various parts of the world, the lower beds appear to have been elevated and pufhed through the upper ftrata, forming lofty mountains and chains of mountains, on the declivities of which the upper {trata lie in an inclined pofition. And even at a confiderable diitance from large ranges of mountains, the {trata rife in the direction towards them. On the eaftern fide of England the {trata rife to- wards the mountains on the fouth-welt, as we fhall again have occafion to notice in deferibing the ftrata of = x STRATA. By the rife or inclination of the ftrata, and by the inequa- lities of the earth’s furface, we obtain a knowledge of the nature and fucceffion of the different beds to a far greater depth than it is poffible to reach by finking mines. Let us fuppofe a feries of {trata covering each other to the depth of two miles; if their pofition were horizontal, the Jower ftrata would be inacceflible to our refearch, as few mines have been funk to one-fourth of that depth: but if the whole feries rife in one direétion, the lower ftrata will come to the furface fomewhere in that direftion. See Plate 11. Geology, fig. i, where the letters a, 5, c, d, e, repre- fent different {trata covering each other in an inclined pofition, and rifing to the furface in fucceffion, the lower {tratum, e, forming the moft elevated part of the feries at f. Stratification, in its fimpleft form, may be eafily con- eeived, by placing a clofed book with the back refting upon the table, and raifing the oppofite edges a little; the book may reprefent a thick mineral bed, and the leaves a feries of ftrata. A line drawn from the upper edges to the back will be the dip of the ftrata, and its angle with the table the angle of inclination. Another line, drawn any where parallel to the back, and at right angles with the dip, will reprefent what is called the line of bearing, or level of a ftratum. As every {tratum rifes to fome part of the horizon, and dips to the oppofite part, it is evident that the edge of each ftratum, if unbroken, will come to the furface fomewhere, and will be vifible, if not hid by foil or loofe materials {ubfequently thrown over it. (See Plute II. Geo- logy, fig. 1, a,b,c, de.) The part of a ftratum which rifes to the furface, is called by miners its out-crop, or bafet ; and this baffet or edge of a ftratum, may not unfrequently be traced over a conliderable diftri&. Though ftratification, in its more fimple forms, may be eafily conceived, yet in nature we frequently find the {trata much broken, and thrown out of the original pofition by large fiffures, filled with mineral matter of a different nature from the rocks which they in- terfe&. Thefe fiffures, called dykes or faults, throw down the ftrata on one fide feveral hundred feet, or, what is the fame thing, elevate them on the other fide; and in fuch inftances, a whole feries of ftrata that may exilt on one fide of the fault, will be entirely wanting on the other fide, and yet no trace of this difturbance may be vifible on the fur- face. When a diftri@ is thus broken by faults, and inter- fe&ted by vallies cutting the {trata in different dire€tions, it becomes exceedingly difficult to trace their true pofition, or to form a diftin@ notion of their arrangement from what appears on the furface. We fhall explain fome of the diffi- culties which oppofe our knowledge of the true pofition of the ftrata. Let us fuppofe a fe@ion to be made by a water-courfe, or any other caufe, in a ftratified mountain { Plate Il. Geology, fig. 2-); if the feQion run parallel with the line of bearing of the ftrata, and no other part of the feries be expofed to view at the ttation a, the ftrata will appear to be perfectly horizontal, and would be defcribed as fuch by a fuperficial obferver. Another feion, made at right angles with the line of bearing, would fhew to the {peétator placed at 4, the true dip or angle of inclination which the {trata make with the horizontal level. Any intermediate fe@tion formed between the lines G and E, would give an inaccurate view of the true inclination of the ftrata; and as it can very rarely occur that the feétion is in the exaét line of the dip, all defcriptions of the inclin- ation of ftrata, which have not been correéted by a feries of obfervations, are liable to much error. When the ftrata are bent or broken by faults, and an excavation is made by a river laying bare the baflet edges, the fame ftratum may be brought to the {urface in variows parts of its courfe, and with various apparent angles of inclination. Mr. Farey, in the 1{t vol. of his Report of Derbythire, has given a feries of diagrams, reprefenting a great variety of forms in which the ftrata may prefent themfelves to the furface when interfeéted by faults. Thefe the ftudent of mineral geography would do well to confult, but they do not admit of abridgment. Even where the {trata are unbroken, and rife regularly, the inexperienced obferver may not unfrequently mittake their true pofition. See Plate II. fig. 6. which reprefents the baffet edges or out-crops of the lower ftrata, rifing from under the upper ftrata at eee, and forming elevated ridges. If the furface is covered with foil or vegetation, and the rock be only vifible in a few places, as at the quarry a below, and at the fummit of the hill near f; if the ftra- tum at a be of fand-ftone, for inftance, and the rock at f granite, he may miftake the true pofition, and defcribe the granite as being incumbent on the fand-{tone. This is one of the errors which young geologifts, as Sauflure obferves, moft frequently commit. The inclination of {trata is feldom perfeétly conformable to the curvature of the furface formed by hills and vallies, but is often in an oppofite direétion. (See Plate IL. fig. 5.) In this fe&tion, it may be obferved that the ftratum a forms the bottom of the hill on one fide of the valley, and forms alfo the fummit of the hill on the oppofite fide. Inftances of this kind not unfrequently occur. The ftrata fometimes take a waving courfe, rifing with the furface of the hills on one fide, and declining with them on the other. See Plate II. fig. 3. Befide the regular rife of the ftrata in one particular di- rection, they have often {mall undulations and inequalities, owing to fome caufe which operated in their original form. ation. If they were now laid in an horizontal pofition, they would not be perfeétly flat, but would prefent an undulating furface when viewed on a large {cale. Sometimes, inftead of rifing towards the fummit of a hill, the ftrata are deprefled towards the centre, forming a feries of bafin-fhaped concavities, placed one within the other, as reprefented in Plate Il. fig. 4, each ftratum having the form of a fhallow inverted cone or trough, the edges of which may be traced all round the mountain. The ftrata in the hill of St. Gilles, near Liege, are inclined in this po- fition: the height of the hill is three thoufand two hundred feet ; it contains fixty-one beds of coal, alternating with other ftrata. The coal {trata in various parts of England take a fimilar form. In fome fituations, we find a feries of ftrata lying ina po- fition nearly horizontal, and covering beds or {trata of a lower rock, which are confiderably inclined, or which pre- fent great inequalities of furface, as reprefented in Plate Il. fig. 7. The ftrata round Paris, which are fuppofed to be of frefh-water formation, reit in this manner upon the chalk. The latter rock, in various fituations, is feen rifing through the upper ftrata, as reprefented at 4. Where a feries of {trata reft horizontally on other {trata that are more inclined, the upper are evidently of later formation, as the lower beds muft have acquired their prefent angle of elevation before they were covered by horizontal ftrata. Where a feries of ftrata are nearly horizontal, and extend over a confiderable diftri& interfected by deep vallies, the fame {tratum will make its appearance at nearly the fame level in diftant mountains. There is a ftriking inftance of this in the vicinity of Pittfourgh, in Pennfylvania: a thick ftratum of coal, we are informed, may be traced through many Bt the STRATA. the hills, at the fame height above the vallies. (See Plate ll. fig. 3-) aaa reprefent the pofition of the coal ftratum; in this fituation, coal may be worked round the hills on all fides, by levels open to the day, and procured with little trouble. Owing to the horizontal pofition of the coal, it forms the bed of a river-courfe for feveral miles. Though thefe ftrata are nearly horizontal, they decline a little to the centre of the hills, as reprefented in Plate II. fig. 4. Hills in which the original continuity of the ftrata may be fo dif- tinGily traced, by obferving their identity on the oppofite fides of vallies on the fame level, ferve as monuments to mark the progrefs of difintegration caufed by rivers and torrents; for there can be no doubt that thefe vallies have been excavated by the water-courfes that flow through them. Where the ftrata on oppofite fides of a valley incline in dif- ferent directions, fome fudden difruption has in all proba- bility opened a paflage for the water, and affifted in the original formation of vallies. n fituations where regular parallel ftrata rife at a confi- derable angle of elevation, refting on unftratified elevated rocks (fee Plate Il. fig. 6.), it is reafonable to believe that the lower rock, c, has been forced up after the ftrata a, 4, c were depofited, and that they were elevated with it. The diflocations occafioned by faults appear to be of two kinds, the one in which the ftrata have been raifed in a ver- tical dire€tion, the other in which this vertical motion has been combined with a lateral motion, whereby they have been crufhed, and in fome inftances folded over each other. The molt common of thefe diflocations is the vertical one, as reprefented at fig.8. Where a feries of ttrata on one fide of the fault have been elevated, or, what is the fame, where the ftrata on the other fide have been depreffed ; the corre{pond- ing ftrata on each fide will fhew the extent of the elevation or depreflion. Where the angle of inclination of the ftrata is greatly changed by a fault (as reprefented at fig. g.), either a lateral motion has been combined with the vertical one, or the preffure has been confined to particular parts of the ftrata. In fome initances, a whole feries of {trata have been heaved out of their original pofition, and overturned, where- by the uppermoft ftrata now occupy the loweft part of the feries. Inftances occur of ftrata being raifed up vertically, and declining to oppofite parts of the horizon, their pofition nearly refembling that of the fticks of a fan fpread open. A remarkable inftance of this kind, in the Ifle of Wight, will be fubfequently noticed. Similar appearances have been noticed in the fchiftofe mountains of Switzerland; but in thefe mountains, it may perhaps he regarded as the efle& of ahemeeac on a grand fcale, rather than an arrangement ftrata, as thefe rocks are not regularly ftratified. Where the ftrata fuddenly take a vertical pofition, or where they are broken in a zigzag form, as reprefented in Plate Il. fig. 9. a, 6, c, d, we may infer that they have been comprefled by a force aéting in a horizontal direétion, or ly. In fome of our coal mines, this zigzag pofition of the ftrata occafionally occurs; and at Anzin, near Valen- ciennes, there is a remarkable inftance of this derangement of the coal ftrata, nearly fimilar to fiz. 9, in which the fame letters reprefent the fame {trata as bent upwards or down- wards. The whole are covered with horizontal ftrata of chalk, marle, and clay, depofited at a fubfequent period, #5 0 ee That confiderable portions of the earth’s furface have not only been raifed or depreffed, but alfo moved in a hori- zontal dire€tion, is made {till more evident by the horizontal ae of metallic and mineral veins. (See Veins, Me- and Mineral.) Fig. to. reprefents the ground plan of a vein, 2, running from weft to eait, until its continuity is broken by a eave, or crofs courfe, which has thrown the vein feveral fathoms northward. Now it is obvious that the ground on one or both fides of the crofs courfe mutt have been carried north or fouth along with the vein. Nor are inftances of fuch a lateral motion of the earth unfre- quent durifg violent earthquakes. The Extent of Strata.—That many of the ftrata extend over large traéts of country, is a faét fufficiently eftablifhed by obfervation ; but it appears to have been known but very recently. Among the miners in the coal diftriéts it had in- deed been obferved, that the fame beds of coal might fre- quently be traced to a confiderable diftance, until they came to the furface, or, in the miners’ language, cropped out: but with refpeét to other {trata of fand-ftone and lime-itone, &c, though a confiderable fimilarity might be obferved between the itone of diftant diftri€s, it was not generally fufpected that they were parts of one continuous ftratum. The method of identifying a ftratum by the foflils it contains, and by its conneétion with the upper and lower ftrata, is a difcovery of the prefent age. If each ftratum preferved the fame level where it rifes to the furface, there would be no difficulty in tracing it in dif- ferent diftriéts ; but from the curvatures and faults already explained, it frequently happens that a ftratum, after its dif- appearance, may be completely covered for many miles, and by fome fudden break be brought to the furface again, at a much greater elevation, or may be found in finking fhafts in mines at a confiderable depth. - Before the means of identi- fying {trata had been afcertained, it was impoflible to obtain a knowledge of the mineral geography of an extenfive dif- tri€t. Even with our prefent knowledge, it is frequently difficult to afcertain with precifion the identity of {trata in diftant countries, except thofe which are well chara¢terized by foffile remains, or by fome remarkable peculiarity of ftruc- ture or compofition. The extent of ftrata is more jimited in the line of their inclination, or dip, than“in what is called the line of bearing, and would be ftill more contra¢ted in that direGtion, were they not frequently thrown down by faults. We can make this more intelligible by referring to Plate III. fig. 2, which reprefents a fe¢tion of the great {tratum of argillaceous lime- ftone called as, which rifes from the level of the fea, near Bridport, in Dorfetthire, and extends by Lyme to the river Ax, where it terminates: « reprefents this bed rifing from the fea, covered with a bed of green and yellow fand 4, From the angle which it makes where it firlt rifes, it would form very lofty mountains, and terminate before it reaches the town of Lyme; but it is thrown down on the weiftern fide by a great number of {mall faults or interfeétions of the {trata, and is thus continued in a direction weltward feveral miles beyond Lyme. The fame bed, the moft remarkable and belt characterized of any in England, extends in its line of bearing, with little interruption, through Dorfet- fhire, Somerfetfhire, and Gloucefterthire. It may even be traced into Yorkfhire and Durham. It is faid, that a fimi- lar bed may be traced through France to the Pyrenées ; but thongh the compofition and externai charaéter be nearly the fame, it may be proper to obferve, that there is a confider- able difference in the foffils of the Englifh and French lias. When the ftrata de{cend in the line of their dip or inclina- tion, to what extent they may ftretch under the furface ig that direction is unknown, but in all probability they do not continue to defcend very far at the fame angle, but are bent in an oppofite direGtion, and terminate at a diftance more or leis remote. The coal ttrata, as before defcribed, often pre- fent this curvature ; after defcending to a certain depth, ea 10 si STRATA. , rife to the oppofite point of the horizon, forming bafin- fhaped concavities, as reprefented in Plate II. fig. 4. The upper {trata above the coal formation are arranged in a fimilar manner in numerous in{tances ; but as they are never excavated by mines, like the coal ftrata, their pofition has been little attended to, after their difappearance below the furface. It is frequently obferved, that im a feries of contiguous ftrata, there is often that general refemblance and connec- tion, which implies a natural relation ; hence fuch {trata are clafled together, and are defcribed as one formation. ‘“* We may conceive one flab of ftone to be compofed of different lamin, which, though not exaétly of the fame nature, either with refpe& to colour, confiftence, or fubitance, yet all contribute to the formation of the fame ftone; the indivi- dual chara&ters of which are eafily recognized by their united aflemblage.’’ Geological Eflay by Dr. Kidd. Thus we may conceive the chalk formation to include beds that are not chalk, but which generally accompany it: and the fame with refpect to the formations of lias, fand- ftone, flate, &c. The German geologifts aflert, that the principal rock formations are univerfal, meaning that they were fpread over the whole of the earth’s furface, encircling it like the coats of an onion, and this univerfality they contend for, both in the lower unttratified, as well as the upper {tratified rocks. This opinion does not appear warranted by facts ; for though the lower beds of rock, fuch as granite, flate, &c. have a confiderable fimilarity in different countries, yet there is often a great diverfity both in their naturetand the order of their fucceffion. And with refpeé&t to the upper ftratified rocks, we believe that in no two diftant parts of the world which have yet been examined, do the fame feries regularly occur. According to the obfervations of Hum- boldt, chalk and roe-ftone, which occupy a confiderable {pace on the weitern fide of Europe, are no where to be found in America. It is now admitted, that fome feries of ftrata are local formations, becaufe no fimilar feries have yet been found. On the fame grounds, we might regard moft of our upper ftratified rocks, as local formations of greater or lefs extent. All geologifts are agreed, that our prefent continents were once covered with water. This is proved by the remains of marine animals imbedded in the {trata which lie on the fum- mits of the higheft mountains. From thefe remains it is alfo evident, that the upper ftratified rocks were depofited under water. Now whether the ocean retired, or the continents were raifed from beneath, it is obvious that the fea muft have filled the prefent vallies and lower parts of the conti- nent, forming numerous lakes or inland feas; and we con- ceive it to be more probable, that different feries of ftrata were depofited in each of thefe lakes, conttituting what may be called local formations ; and this will explain why we generally find different feries of {trata on the oppofite fides of a chain of mountains. The order of fuccefflion of the different {trata which are mofl nearly allied, and which may be regarded as conitituting one formation, as well as the order of fucceffion of the greater beds themfelves, pre- fents confiderable diverfity in different diftrifts, though we no where find the lower beds covering the upper formations. Thi will be better underftood, by fuppofing a feries of ftrata, 1, 25 3, 45.55 6, 7; 8, &c. arranged as they are here numerically placed, N° i being the uppermoft. We fre- quently find the ftrata 1 or 2, refting immediately upon the {trata 7 or 8, and all the intervening ftrata, 3, 4, 5, 6, to be wanting ; but we never find the lower ftrata, 7 or 8, refting upon 1 or 2, except in fituations where the ftrata have been thrown down and overturned. Where any feries of iirata are wanting, a queltion naturally arifes, have they been carried away by fome fudden inundation, before the upper {trata were depolited, or have they never extended to that place? In fome inftances, we are certain that the itrata have been carried away from particular fituations, as in fome of the excavations which have formed vallies, in which the ftrata that terminate on one fide of the valley may be difcovered again in the hills on the oppofite fide ; but it is exceediugly diflicult to fuppofe, with fome geologifts, that the {trata, which now cover but a {mall portion of the earth’s furface, were once {pread over it univerfally. ,We might aflk, where have the materials been éarried to and depofited ? This difficulty will be removed, if we admit that each {tratum has been formed in bafins or lakes of limited extent, though thefe bafins, in fome iniftances perhaps, may not be iefs than the bafin of the prefent Mediterranean fea. The fubftances of which the ftrata are principally com- pofed, are argillaceous, calcareous, or filiceous earth, which are generally more or lefs intermixed or combined; but the calcareous and filiceous {trata often contain the earths nearly pure. Siliceous earth is more abundant in the lower than in the upper ftrata. Argillaceous {trata are often combined with faline and inflammable matter, and give rife to mineral {prings. Carbonaceous or bituminous matter is more fre- quently combined with alumine or clay than with the other earths. Moft of the foft argillaceous {trata contain iron pyrites, from the decompofition ef which, the waters {pringing from them are generally rendered more or lefs impure. To this decompofition, and the heat which is evolved, fome geologifts attribute the increafed temperature of warm fprings. (See Temperature of the Earth and of Springs.) Others fuppofe volcanic fires to owe their ongin to the fame fource. (See Voxtcano.) We confider this caufe as inadequate to the explanation of thefe awiul pheno- mena; but it cannot be denied that we have numerous in- ftances of pyritous {trata taking fire when expofed to the air and moiiture. ,The cliffs near Charmouth, in Dorfet- fhire, compofed of beds of pyritous clay, took fire fponta- neoufly Auguft 1751, after a very heavy rain in a hot dry feafon: they continued to emit flame at intervals for feveral years. Watfon’s Chemical Eflays, vol. i. p. 197- A pyritous clay or fhale near Whitby, of a fimilar com- ofition, fometimes takes fire {pontaneoufly, when maiffes which fali from the cliff get moiftened with fea-water. To the partial decompofition of pyritous ftrata, which takes place when they are penetrated by mines and have ac- cefs to air, we may afcribe the generation of carburetted hydrogen gas, that frequently occafions fuch tremendous explofions. See VENTILATION of Mines 5 where we pro- pofe to give an account of the various methods that have lately been devifed to prevent the fatal accidents from im- pure air. ; : Strata of clay being water-tight give rife to fprings, as they arreft the water that percolates through porous itrata, and convey it to other fituations. The inclinations of che {trata before defcribed, with the breaks and inequalities, render the globe habitable, by diftributing the waters over the furface; and a knowledge of ftratification is abfolutely neceflary to condué& the operations of draining or watering extenfive diftridés with fuccefs, and in the eafieft manner. Hence Mr. Elkington gained fuch merited peleprily as a drainer. As the different ftrata which rife to the furface decompofe, they form the materials of the foil, and accord- ing to the nature of the earths of which the {trata are com- pofed, the foils are more er lefs fruitful or fterile. Thus, a knowledge of the ftrata might frequently be of great ufe ig the STRATA. the agriculturalift, and enable him to combine the earth of one ftratum with that of another in its vicinity, to ameli- orate his foil, and enfure its permanent improvement. In the feleétion of {tone for architecture, a knowledge of the compofition of {trata would alfo be of the greatett fervice. See Stone for Archite@ure. Organic Remains in Strata—We have before had occafion to notice, that the {trata are to a great depth yenerally cha- racterifed by the remains of animals or vegetables, in what is called a petrified ftate, the organic {tructure being dif- tinGly vifible, although the animal or vegetable matter is almott entirely removed, and its place generally fupplied by calcareous or filiceous earth. Since the attention of geolo- ifts and naturalifts has been direGted to the invettigation of Sele organic remains, it has been difcovered that few, if any, are perfeétly fimilar to thofe {pecies of animals or vege- tables that refemble them the moft; and numerous fpecies, and even genera of animals, are difcovered in fome of the ftrata, which no longer exift upon our planet. The important difcovery, that certain animal or vege- table remains are confined to particular beds, above or be- low which they are rarely if ever to be found, was firft, we believe, made by Mr. William Smith of Mitford, near Bath, and has fince been confirmed by the obfervations of Cuvier and other naturalifts and geologifts. Thefe organic remains are more abundant in the upper than-the lower ftrata; and in the loweft beds of rock which have yet been explored, no traces of organic exiltence have been found. Hence fuch beds of rock are fuppofed to have been formed prior to the exiltence of organifed beings, and have received the name of primary. We may however obferve, that between thofe ftrata which abound in organic remains, other ftrata are frequently interpofed, in which no fuch remains occur: hence we may infer, with fome proba- bility, that the procefs, by which fome of the ftrata were confolidated, has obliterated all traces of organic exiftence: and the mere abfence of vegetable or animal remains in a ftratum is not fufficient to prove, that they did not exift at the period when it was depofited. It is, however, remark- able, that the organic remains that occur in the loweft ftrata in which they have been obferved, are thofe of fhell- fith and zoophytes ; and it is only in the upper ftrata that we meet with the remains of animals pofleffing a more com- plex organifation ; nor do we find the remains of viviparous land quadrupeds, except in the very uppermott ftrata. Thefe organic remains, intombed at various depths, in- form us that the ftrata were depofited over each other at diftant intervals of time; and likewife that each ftratum in which they occur, or under which they are found, was once the uppermott ftratum of the globe: for it is obvious that the different animals, whofe remains are imbedded in any ftratum, muft have had time to grow and perifh, before another ftratum was depofited upon it. The exiltence of diftin& {pecies in particular itrata, proves that the materials of fuch itrata were not brought there by any fudden inunda- tion: for this would have mixed together indifcriminately the remains of vegetables or animals. It has been well re- marked by Cuvier, that the exiltence of thefe organic remains is the only proof we have that the ftrata were formed in fucceffion ; for, without them, we have not the leaft evi- dence that they were not contemporaneous formations. By thefe organic remains in the different itrata, we are alfo made acquainted with the great changes which muft have taken place in the condition of our planet in remote ages. The uppermoft ftratum in England, and various parts of Europe, is formed of alluvial foil. In this foil the zemains of quadrupeds of vaft fize, fuch as the elephant, the — Vor. XXXIV. rhinoceros, the tapir, the maftodon, the elk, &c. are fre- quently found. Many of thefe are different from any ex- iltinge fpecies. Thefe remains prove that dry land exifted in the vicinity, and that Europe was then inhabited by {pecies of animals at prefent unknown, Remains of vepe- tables are alfo found in alluvial foil; but in the calcareous rocks, on which the alluvial foil refts, we difcover no re- mains of land animals or vegetables, but abundance of marine organic remains. At a ftill greater depth, in an argillaceous lime-ftone called /ias, and in the beds of clay which accompany it, we meet with the bones of amphibious oviparous quadrupeds, fuch as the alligator, and with remains of unknown marine animals, diftiné from thofe in the upper ftrata; and alfo with a few vegetable remains. Under this itratum a feries of {trata occur, compofed of fand-{tone, coal, &c. not lefs in fome parts than one thoufand yards in thicknefs ; and throughout the whole of this feriea in Eng~ land, not a veftige of animal exiftence can be traced, except one thin ftratum containing mufcle-fhells ; the remains in the other part of the feries being exclufively vegetable. Below this feries of flrata we mect with thick beds of lime-ftone, in which no trace whatever of vegetable exift- ence occurs; but we find again the remains of marine animals exclufively. ‘Chefe remains are generally lefs nu- merous as we defcend lower; and in the loweit, beds of cryftalline lime-ftone are no longer difcernible. That great and fucceflive changes muft have taken place in the condi- tion of our planet, is proved by the fucceflion of land ani- mals, marine animals, and vegetables, at great depths under each other. The fagacious phyfiologift Cuvier, whofe re- fearches in comparative anatomy eminently qualified him for the inveltigation of thefe foffile remains, has given the fol- lowing interefting {tatement of the general sleocates to be _drawn from them, relative to the former ftate of the world. «© The level parts of the earth, when penetrated to a very great depth, exhibit horizontal ftrata, compofed of various fubftances, generally containing innumerable marine productions. Similar ftrata, with the fame organic remains, form the ftratified hills to a great height. Sometimes the fhells are fo numerous, as to conftitute the entire mafs of the ftratum: they are moft frequently in fuch a perfeé& {tate of prefervation, that even the {malleft retain their moft delicate parts, their fharpeft ridges, and their fineft and tendereft proceffes. They are found in elevations far above the level of the ocean, and in places where the fea could not be conveyed by any exilting caufe. They are not only included in loofe fand, but are often imbedded in the hardeft ftones. Every country, every continent, every ifland of any fize, exhibits the fame phenomenon. We are, there- fore, forcibly led to believe that the fea has, at one period, covered the prefent land: it muft alfo have remained there for a long time, and been in a ftate of tranquillity ; which circumftance was neceflary for the formation of depofits fo extenfive, fo thick, and containing exuvie fo perfeétly pre- ferved. An accurate comparifon of their contexture, and frequently even of their compofition, cannot deteét the flighteft difference between the fubftance of thefe fhells and the fhells which ftill exift in the fea: they have, therefore, once lived in the fea, and been depofited by it. Hence it is evident that the bafin, or refervoir, containing the fea, has undergone fome change, either in extent or in fituation, or in both. The traces of revolutions become ftill more apparent and decifive, when we approach nearer to the great chains of mountains. Many beds of fhells are ftill found ; fome of thefe are even larger, and more folid. The hells are numerous, and perfeétly preferved ; but they are not of the fame fpecies with thofe which are found in the upper Rr {trata. STRATA. trata. The lower ftrata, containing thefe organic remains, “have various degrees of inclination, and are fometimes fitu- ated vertically. They form the ridges of fecondary moun- tains, and do not re{t wpon the horizontal {trata of the hills at their bafe, but, on the contrary, dip underneath them. When we dig through the horizontal ftrata, in the neizh- bourhood of the inclined ftrata, the latter are invariably found below. Sometimes, when the inclined ftrata are not too much elevated, they are furmounted by horizontal {trata: the inclined {trata are, therefore, more ancient than the horizontal, and, in many inftances, appear to have been raifed into their inclined pofition before the horizontal {trata were placed upon them. If we inititute a more de- tailed comparifon between the various ftrata, and thofe remains of animals which they contain, we fhall foon dif- cover {till more numerous differences among them, indicating a proportional number of changes in their condition. The fea has not always depofited mineral {trata of the fame kind. It has obferved a regular fucceflion as to the nature of its depofits: the more ancient {trata are more uniform and extenfive ; and the more recent are more limited, and more yariation is obferved in them at fmall diftances. Thus the great cataltrophes, which have produced revolutions in the bafin of the fea, were preceded, accompanied, and followed, by changes in the nature of the fluid, and of the fub{tances which it held in folution; and when the furface of the feas came to be divided by iflands and projecting ridges, dif- ferent changes took place in every feparate bafin. Amidit thefe changes, it muft have been almo{t impoflible for the fame kind of animals to continue to live: nor did they do fo, in fa. The fpecies, and even their genera, change with the ftrata; and although the fame fpecies occafionally recur at {mall diftances, the fhells in the lower {trata have forms peculiar to themfelves : they gradually difappear, and are not feen at all in the upper ftrata, {till lefs in the exifting feas. In our prefent feas, indeed, we never difcover their correfponding {pecies, and even feveral of their genera are not to be found. On the contrary, the fhells of the upper or more recent ftrata refemble, as it refpefts the genus, thofe which {till exift in the fea; and in the laft formed and loofeft of thefe ‘trata, there are fome fpecies which the eye of the moft expert naturalift cannot diftinguifh from thofe which at prefent inhabit the ocean. ¢ Tf we examine with greater care, we fhall difcover among the more recent {trata, or thofe which are nearett the fur- face, fome in which land animals are buried under heaps of marine productions. Thus, the various cataftrophes of our planet have not only caufed the different parts of our con- tinent to rife by degrees from the bafin of the fea; but it has alfo frequently happened, that lands which had been laid dry have been again covered by water; either in confe- fluence of thefe lands finking down below the level of the fea, or of the fea being raifed above the level of the land. The particular portions of the earth alfo, which the fea has abandoned by its laft retreat, had been laid dry once before, and had fupported quadrupeds, birds, plants, and all kinds of terreftrial produétions ; it had fubfequently been inundated by the fea, which has fince retired, and left the land to be occupied by its prefent inhabitants. The changes which have taken place in the production of the fhelly ftrata, have not, therefore, been entirely owing to a gradual and general retreat of the waters; but to fucceflive irruptions and re- treats, the final refult of which however has been an univerfal depreffion of the level of the fea. Thefe irruptions and re- treats of the fea have neither been flow nor gradual: moft of the cataftrophes which have occafioned them have been fudden: this is proved with regard to the laft of them, the traces of which are moft confpicuous. In the northera regions it has left the careafes of fome large quadrupeds, which the ice had arrelted, and which are preferved to the prefent day, with their fkin, their hair, and their flefh, If they had not been frozen as foon as killed, they would quickly have been decompofed by putrefaétion. The break- ing to pieces and oyerturnings of the ftrata, which hap- pened in former cataltrophes, fhew plainly that they were fudden and violent, like the la{t; and the heaps of debris which are found in various places among folid ftrata, de- monttrate the vaft agitation excited in the mafs of waters. Life, therefore, has often been difturbed on the earth by dreadful-cataftrophes,—cataltrophes which, in the commence- ment, have perhaps moved to a great depth the entire crult of the globe, but which have fince aéted lefs generally, and to a {maller depth. Numberlefs hying beings were the victims of thefe cataftrophes ; fome have been deftroyed by fudden inundations, others have been laid dry in confequence of the bottom of the fea being initantaneoufly elevated: their races have even become extinét. The {trata in every part of the globe bear the imprefs of thefe great and terrible events fo diitinétly, that they are vifible to all who are qua- lified to read their hiltory in the monuments they have left behind.’”” In one part of the work from which we have made the above extract, Cuvier {peaks of « animal and vegetable pro- duétions which belong to the land and to frefh water,” as be- ing found « in the midit of the moft ancient fecondary ftrata.”? This may be true with refpeét to vegetable re- mains, which are occafionally found in fome kind of flate ; but we do not recolleé an inftance; either cited by Cuvier himfelf, or by any geologift of reputation, nor has any in- ftance come within our own obfervation, of the remains of land animals imbedded in the ‘“ moft ancient ftrata,”” though they are fometimes found in caverns. ‘The remains of am- phibious animals occur in itrata below the chalk, as the lias, which may be confidered as very ancient, compared with the ttrata covering chalk ; but we have never heard of remains of land animals in the ftrata fubjacent to the lias, either in the fand-ftone of the coal formation, or in the alpine lime-{tone. Animal remains in the caverns of the alpine lime-ftone may be of very recent date, as thefe caverns are fometimes clofed by the depofition of ftalaGtites. See STALACTITE. It is a fa& particularly deferving of notice, that no human bones or works of art have been difcovered in any of the ftrata, or even in the uppermoft alluvial ground, containing the remains of quadrupeds moft nearly refembling exilting {pecies. It is true that human bones and implements of in- duftry have occafionally been met with at great depths in mining operations ; but under circumftances which fatisfac- torily prove, that they had been left there when mines were formerly worked in the fame fituation. The abfence of human remains appears to indicate, that man was one of the lateit inhabitants of the globe, and agrees with the order of crea- tion defcribed by Mofes in the book of Genefis. Public curiofity was recently excited by a foffile human fkeleton brought to this country from Guadaloupe. — It is imbedded in a block of calcareous {tone, compofed of {mooth particles of fhells and coral; but on enquiry, it is found that the rock, in which this {keleton with other human bones occur, is fituated on the fea-coaft, below the prefent high-water mark, and immediately under the volcano called the Souf- friere. The bones contain a part of their animal matter, and all their phofphate of lime. On the fhores of the Mediter- ranean, and particularly in the gulf of Meflina, heaps of loofe fand become confolidated in a few years. We are not to be furprifed, therefore, that in a volcanic ifland like Guadaloupe, STRATA. Guadaloupe, fubjeé to violent convulfions from earthquakes and impetuous hurricanes, that human bodies fhould occa- fionally be difcovered which have been covered by fand, that has fubfequently become indurated. It is not a little remarkable, that a recent formation of minute fhelly fand-itone, exactly fimilar to that of Guada- loupe, has fince been difcovered on the coaft of Cornwall. From St. Ives to near Paditow, the country has been overwhelmed with fand confilting of comminuted fhells : in many places it is drifted into hills of 60 feet elevation. Among the Arundel papers, there is mention of an extenfive parifh being partly buried under driving fands in the twelfth century. It is alfo known by oral tradition, that whole farms have been overwhelmed at a period not very remote ; and at this very day, upon the fhifting of the fands, the tops of houfes may be occafionally feen. This loofe fand, on various parts of the coaft, is becoming indurated, and afling into a compa& rock. At New Haye its hardnefs is fo confiderable, that it requires a great force to break it ; and it is generally employed for building and other ufe- ful purpofes. According to a paper of Dr. Paris on this fubje&, read before the Royal Geological Society of Corn- wall, ‘¢ the folidification is caufed by the infiltration of water impregnated with the various materials of the decom- pofing flate through which it flows. «* Where a ftream of water pafles through the fand-ftone, there the procefs of induration is more rapid. Although the iron forms but a {mall portion of the different foreign fubitances which analyfis deteéts in the compofition of the fand-itone, it is probably the principal caufe of its in- re a very {mall quantity being fufficient for the pur- ofe.”” The Cornilh fand-ftone contains fragments of flate; but where thefe are wanting, it bears fo ftriking a fimilarity to the fand-ftone at Guadaloupe, in which human fkeletons are found, that even with a lens no difference can be per- ceived. Srrata, Formation of, or Stratification. The defcription of the {trata we have here given, refers to thofe rocks deno- minated /econdary. All gcologit are agreed, that thefe are generally diftinély ftratified; but with refpe& to the ftratifi- cation of the lower rocks, denominated primary, much diver- fity of opinion has prevailed. Some geologiits have afferted, that granite, fienite, porphyry, &c. are frequently itratified, and others deny the fa&t. The difference is, we believe, rather founded on theory, than on an accurate obfervation of nature. Thofe geologiits who contend for the occafional ftratification of granite, fuppofe that ftratification neceffarily implies the aqueous formation of the rocks in which it occurs; and as this mode of formation conititutes a leading charaéter of the Neptunian fyftem, (fee System of Geology,) wherever they have found granite or other rocks interfe&ted by feams nearly parallel, they have defcribed them as ftratified. Parallel feams alone are no decifive proof of the aqueous mode of formation, as rocks of undoubted volcanic origin are fometimes interfe&ted by fuch feams. Globular balls of granite and bafalt are alfo interfeGted by concentric parallel feams, which cannot be called ftrati- fication, if we mean the term to imply a fucceffion of de- polits {pread over each other by water. In all probability, thefe feams are formed either by horizontal preflure, or by an internal arrangement of the particles analogous to cryftal- lization. Some geologitts, defirous of extending the pro- cefs of ttratification to the lower rocks, have confidently af- ferted, that all rocks, of what is called primitive or clay-flate, are diftinGily ftratified, and that the flaty cleavage is always in the direétion of the {trata. From an extenfive examination of thefe rocks in various diftriéts, we have no hefitation in afferting that the reverfe of this is the faét, not a fingle in- {tance having come under our obfervation, where the flaty laminz of true roof-flate were parallel with the direétion of the bed of flate itfelf, but Seah make with it an angle of 50 or 60 degrees. We have feen flate-rocks, which for feveral iniles prefented the appearance of {trata ; tabular malles of confiderable thicknefs, rifing at an angle of 80°, which might have been defcribed as regular ftrata; but on purfuing thefe farther, we obferved the vertical tables reft- ing upon a bed of lime-{tone not more than 20 yards in thicknefs, and inclined at an angle of about 30° upona lower bed of hern-ttone. The lime-{tone was diftin@ly {tratified, and contained the remains of encrinites in the middle ftratum. See Plate III. Geology, fiz. 4. What were fuppofed to be ftrata, were here evidently the vertical feams in a very thick bed of flate, refting upon the lime-ftone at a moderate angle of elevation, It not unfre- quently happens, that vertical lamine of roof-flate reft upon a flab of flate nearly horizontal; and under the horizontal flab, the laminz of the flate will be nearly vertical, the fame as in the upper flate: but in all ftratified rocks, the upper and lower part mu{t have the fame inclination in the fame place ; and where the feams run in a different direGtion to that of the beds, we are certain that they are not what have been called {trata feams, or regular partings of the ftrata, but rents or fiflures, either the refult of cryftallization or of mechanical feparation. The remarkable convolutions which fome of the flate-rocks in Devonfhire and in Scotland pre- fent, are not the bendings of regular ftrata; for if fo, the upper and lower beds would have nearly the fame form, whereas we often find thefe bendings only in one part of the rock. To what caufe this waved itrn€ture in rocks may be owing, whether to a cryitalline arrangement, or to preflure during the original formation, or whether produced by the aCtion of moifture and change of temperature, is uncertain. We know that rocks and ttones, after expofure to the wea- ther, often prefent marks of internal configuration, that were not difcernible when they were firft expofed. It may not, however, be improper to tate, that we have feen a piece of the Devonfhire flate, which as a fragment had no appearance of any ftru€ture whatever; but after it had been fubmitted to intenfe heat in a furnace, it acquired a regular {chiltofe ftruéture, and the laminz aflumed the waved form fo commonly feen in the flate-rocks of Devonhhire. The German geologifts have denominated the parallel ftratified rocks flatz rocks (fee Rock); and though in nature there may frequently be obferved a gradation from regularly itratified to unftratified rocks, yet the {tru€ture of the upper rocks differs fo much from that of the lower, that we con- ceive it would be better to reftri&t the term {ftratification to the former, or the flcetz rocks, as it is only in them that we can trace regular parallel feams or partings to any confider- able extent. The partings in granite and the lower rocks, though they may be regular for a {mall diftance, Roy jaterfoet each other in different dire€tions, or entirely difap- pear in the body of the rock. P In what manner the ftrata were formed and confolidated is a fubje€t of inquiry involved in much uncertainty, as we can obferve no procefs precifely oak at the prefent time. The data which we may fafely aflume to guide us in our refearches are but few. The {trata are not arranged over each other according to the fpecific gravity of the fub- {tances of which they are compofed, a ftratum of heavy {tone being frequently placed above one that is much lighter. Hence we may infer, that the materials of the ttrata were der not STR not mechanically fufpended in the fame fluid, if fo, the hea- vieft would have funk the firtt, and we fhould find the trata arranged in the order of their ref{peétive denfity or weight. Neither can any regular gradation be traced in the cryttal- line texture of the ftrata; though viewed on a large feale, the lower {trata may be defcribed as being more cryitalline than the upper; yet we may frequently ebferve a itratum, perfectly cryttallized, placed both over and below other dtrata, in which no trace of cryttallization is perceptible ; hence we may alfo infer, that the materials of the ttrata were not all in a ftate of chemical folution at the fame time. From the appearance of different organic remains over each other, we may further infer, that the {trata were formed in fucceffion at diftant intervals of time. Thefe are the principal data that we can at prefent fafely affume. The difciples of Werner contend, that we are war- ranted by exifting phenomena in concluding that the mate- rials of rocks and {trata were held in folution in a fluid which once covered the higheft parts of the globe; that the lower beds of rock were chemically depofited in a cryftal- line ftate; that as the water retired it became agitated, and contained an intermixture of the fragments of pre-exilting rocks, and thus the fucceeding beds were formed partly of chemical and partly of mechanical depofits; that at this period the lower orders of marine animals were firlt created. As the waters retired {till lower, they became more turbid, and contained a larger portion of fragments mechanically fufpended, and thus the upper ftrata were principally me- chanical depofitions. Againit this hypothefis, the objections which may be urged appear unan{werable. We know of no fluid which could hold all the different materials in folution of which rocks and {lrata are formed ; and if {uch a fluid could be fuppofed to exilt, it muft have covered the earth to an incalculable depth, and it may be afled where has it retired to? Nor can we conceive that a fluid holding fuch an immenfe quantity of heterogeneous materials in folution, could at the fame time {upport animal life. Other geologifts fuppofe, with Dr. Hutton, that our prefent rocks and ftrata have been formed from a pre-exilt- ing world. By the decompofing effects of the elements, and the agency of floods and torrents, the materials of former mountains and continents have been broken down and car- ried into the fea, where they fubfide, forming different beds and ftrata. Thefe have been fubfequently confolidated by the operation of a central fire, which they fuppofe to exift conitantly in the earth, and to have periods of greater or lefler a€tivity, determined by caufes with which we are un- acquainted. By the operation of this fire, the lower beds were fufed under great compreffion, and fubfequently cryftal- lized ; and by its expanfive power, thefe beds were in many parts railed from the depths of the ocean, piercing through the upper ftrata, and forming the moft elevated mountains of our prefent continents. According as the ftrata were more or lefs diflant from the central fire, they were more or lefs acted upon, and hence we find in general that the upper ftrata are lefs cryftalline than the lower. They further fuppofe that a fimilar procefs is taking place at prefent, and that the hardelt rocks are conitantly wearing down, though their diminution be lefs perceptible than that of fofter and lefs elevated flrata; and that thefe fragments, in the form of fand, mud, or loofe ftones, are carried down by rivers and floods, and {pread over the bot- tom of the fea, forming the materials of future ftrata, to replace the prefent, which are fuppofed to be ina {late of con{tant decay. Xt is difficult to conceive how the different fub{tances of 2 ATTA, which the ftrata are compofed, could by this procefs be fo diltinétly feparated as we frequently find them, particularly beds of coal, fand-ftone, clay, and fhale. In the coal ftrata, we find many delicate vegetable produétions, with the form perfectly preferved ; and in the upper calcareous ftrata, we frequently meet with fhells, having the mot delicate {pines, in a perfe& ftate, which could {carcely be the cafe, had the {trata been originally the fragments of rocks, carried by rivers and floods into the ocean. It has before been ob- ferved, that the ftrata are not arranged according to the {pecilic gravity of their component parts; the heavieft flones are not the loweft; nor in a feries of {trata do we find the upper always lefs perfectly cryftalline than the lower. That fome of the lower rock formations have been fufed and cryttallized by the agency of fire, and that the fame caufe has broken the cruft of the globe, and deranged or removed the upper ftrata by which they were covered, is rendered probable by prefent appearances in various parts of the world; but we think that the latter theory does not ex- plain in a fatisfaétory manner the formation of the upper ftratified rocks, A celebrated modern mineralogift, M. Patrin, has at- tempted to revive the notions of Kepler, that the globe is a living body, and contains 2 circulating vital fluid. He goes {till further, and afferts that a procefs of affimilation is carried on in it, the fame as in animated bodies. It poffeffes infling and yolition even to the moft elementary molecules, which attraé& and repel each other, according to fympathies and antipathies. Each kind of mineral fubftance is capable of converting immenfe mafles of matter into its own peculiar nature. The mountains are the refpiratory organs of the globe, and the {chifts its organs of fecretion. By the latter, it decompofes the water of the fea to pro- duce volcanic eruptions. The veins in ftrata are caries or abfcefles in the mineral kingdom. M. Patrin has fupported this fingular theory with much ingenuity, in various articles in the ‘¢ Nouveau Dictionnaire d’ Hiftoire Naturelle.”? That part which relates to the vi- tality of the earth will probably gain but few profelytes ; yet we do not confider it irrational to fuppofe that the earth may be the great laboratory in which the minerals on its fur- face were prepared. That the internal parts of our planet are not inert, is proved by the numerous active and extiné& volcanoes, many of which appear to have been connected. See VOLCANO. The variation of the magnetic needle may probably be owing to procefles that take place within the earth. Mr. Bakewell, in the fecond edition of his Introduétion to Geology, fuppofes that the materials which form moft of the ftrata, were originally diflolved or fufpended in a fluid which has been thrown out of the numerous extinét volca- noes feattered over the globe. ‘¢ Their mouths or craters are of immenfe fize; the crater of the ancient volcano of Teneriffe occupies ten {quare leagues ; and the obfervations of numerous travellers confirm the aflertion of Humboldt, that there is no aétive volcanic crater at all to be compared in fize with thofe that are extinét; it cannot be doubted that the quantity of matter eje&ted was proportionate to the mighty openings through which it was thrown out. The only inftances we have of a€tual rock formations, are vol- canic; beds and {trata more than thirty miles in length, and of confiderable breadth and thicknefs, have been {pread over the furface of the globe in our own times; and according to M. Humboldt, the farther back we trace thefe eruptions, the greater is the fimilarity between the mafles of lava, eve thole : ; ; | | : STRATA. thofe rocks which are confidered by geologifts as the mott ancient. ‘¢ The enormous ancient volcanoes whofe craters are many leagues in extent, had doubtlefs an important office to per- form in nature; and is it unreafonable to believe, that the earth itfelf is the great laboratory and ftorehoufe, where the materials that form its furface were prepared, and from whence they are thrown out in an igneous, aqueous, or gafeous itate, either as melted lava, or in folution, or me- chanically mixed with water in the form of mud, or in the comminuted ftate of powder or fand. The largett aétive volcanoes in South America, throw out earth intermixed with water in the itate of mud, which hardens and forms ftrata. The vatt fiflures or rents that interfe& the different rocks, may alfo have {é@rved for the paflage of fubterranean matter rifing to the furface. Thefe are generally filled with filex, which earth conititutes two-thirds of the cruft of the globe. Calcareous or cretaceous matter has alfo been ejected during aqueous eruptions in Sicily. Beds of lime-ftone may have been formed by fimilar erup- tions. Nor is it neceflary to fuppofe that thefe aqueous eruptions were always fudden, and attended with violent convulfions ; for when a paflage was once opened, they may have rifen lowly, and been diffufed in a tranquil ftate; and by gradual condenfation, may have enveloped the moit delicate animals or vegetables, without injuring their ex- ternal forms. Long intervals of repofe between thefe great eruptions may have allowed time for the growth and decay of animals, whofe remains are found in different ftrata; whilft the formation of other {trata may have taken place under circum{tances incompatible with organic exiltence. The fucceflion of aqueous and igneous eruptions, would account for the alternation of volcanic rocks with {trata of aquatic formation ; and thus the two theories of Werner and Hutton may both be true to a certain extent, and agree with exilting faéts. However vait thefe operations may appear, they fink into infignificance, when compared with the bulk of our planet itfelf. If a three-feet globe were to contain within it a fluid capable of acquiring confiftence by expofure to the air, and were this fluid from time to time to exude through minute cracks or punctures, and form over different parts of the furface fucceflive coats of varnifh, whofe aggregate thicknefs was lefs than that of a wafer, this a be a greater change with refpe to the artificial globe, than the csi of all the rocks and itrata with refpe&t to the earth; and the numerous diflocations and fractures, by fubfidence or other caufes, are no more, in com- parifon to the magnitude of the earth, than the cracks or inequalities of this fuperficial varnifh would be to a globe of that diameter.” That various agents have operated in the formation of ftrata and the lower rocks, is, we think, proved by the ap- pearances they prefent. This is now acknowledged by fome of the leading fupporters of the Wernerian fchool of geology, who formerly contended for the aqueous formation of rocks. Profeffor Jamefon, in a paper publifhed in the fecond volume of Tranfactions of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, confiders ftratification as the refult of a cryftalline procefs, and the ftrata as forming the natural cleavage or folia of the globe, which he fuppofes may be a large polygonal cryftal; and the angles of inclination which the {trata make on a great fcale, may form the planes or fides of the cryftal. According to this theory, the {trata are contemporaneous. The organic remains of different fpecies of animals over each other prove, however, as has been before obferved, that fuch ftrata were formed in fuc- eeffion at diftant intervals of time; and every theory which excludes time as one of its elements, mult be obvioufly de- fective. That the ftructure of the lower rocks is the refult of cryttallization, and that they may have had a contempo- raneous formation, has been maintained by other geologiits. Though the ftrata containing organic remains mult have been placed over each other in fucceffion, yet their prefent {tate of confolidation may, according to the theory of Dr. Hutton, have been produced by the agency of central fire at a fubfequent period, previoufly to which, they might form beds of fand, marle, or mud. The confolidation, both of the upper and lower ftrata, may thus have been contemporaneous. See System of Geology. The effects of great and long continued preflure have not, we think, been fufficiently attended to in the {peculations of geologilts ; perhaps, alfo, many inexplicable procefles in the mineral kingdom may be effected by the eleGtro-chemical action of the different ftrata themfelyes forming an immenfe natural voltaic pile. Srrata of England. Little was known of the ftrata of England betore the prefent century, nor will this appear furprifing, when we confider how recently geology has been cultivated as a {cience. Some knowledge of ttratification was eflential to guide mining operations, particularly in the coal diftriéts; and much local information exifted among practical miners in different parts of England, but it was intermixed with many abfurd or erroneous opinions; and whatever might be its value, it was generally loft with its pofleflor. So early as the year 1684, an ineffeCtual attempt was made by Mr. Litter to dire& the attention of the public to this fubject, and he fuggelted the plan of a coloured map of England, reprefenting, by different colours, the charaéter of the foils. ‘I am of opinion, (he fays,) that certain upper foils, if natural, infallibly produce certain under mine- rals, and for the mott part in a certain order.’? Phil. Tranf. 1684. This was an important ftep in the fcience of geology, had it been properly followed; for it is now afcertained, that the nature of the foil depends upon the quality of the itrata which rife neareit the furface in each diftriét. Another gentleman, of the name of Mitchell, in a paper of the Phil. Tranf. 1722, in deferibing the fand-beds near Woburn, in Bedfordfhire, in which the fuller’s-earth is dug, exprefles his belief that the fame beds extend into Bucking- hamfhire and Oxfordfhire, from appearances which he no- tices in the different counties. ‘‘ This,’? he adds, “ confirms what has been faid of the regular difpofition of the earth into itrata, or layers of matter, commonly through vaft tracts, and from whence I make a quettion, whether fuller’s- earth may not probably be found in other parts of the fame ridge of f{and-hills, among other like matter.”? Here we have the fuggeftion of a valuable fact, fince fully confirmed, —that certain minerals are peculiar to certain {trata, — and where we difcover the fame ftratum in a diftant diftrid, there is rational ground for expeéting the recurrence of the fame minerals which it was known to contain elfewhere. In a practical view, this is the moft valuable part of the {cience of geology: it does not appear, however, that the fuggeltion of Mr. Mitchell was attended to at the time. About forty years afterwards, the Rev. J. Mitchell, of Thornhill, near Waketield in Yorkfhire, publifhed a valu- able paper on earthquakes in the Phil. Tranf. 1759, from which it appears that he had a correét notion of the general ftruéture of the earth’s furface, (fo far as relates to the upper {tratified rocks,) derived probably from the ob- fervations of the coal-miners in his vicinity ; bat he made no attempt to elucidate’ the geology of England from his own obfervations. vi k Pe STRATA. Mr. J. Whitehurft was the firft perfon in England who defcribed the geology of an extenfive diftri€t from aétual examination. His ‘ Inquiry into the original State and Formation of the Earth,’? contains a valuable account of the ftratification of Derbythire, from the coal ftrata to the lower mountain lime-{tone, illuftrated by numerous feétions. Whatever may be thought of his {peculative opinions, the work will remain a monument of the author’s induftry and ability. He had the merit of firft pointing out the manner in which geological examinations fhould be conducted, be- fore the name of Werner was known either in this country, or on the continent. Mr. J. Williams, a native of Wales, and a prattical miner, publifhed a work, entitled ‘«* The Natural Hiltory of the Mineral Kingdom,” about the year 1780. ‘The treatife contains confiderable information refpeéting the coal ftrata, at that time little known. Some fhort account of the geology and mineralogy of particular counties has fince appeared, particularly Mr. Keir’s defcription of the coal diftri&s in Staffordfhire, pub- lifhed in Dr. Plott’s Staffordfhire, and Dr. Townfon’s account of Shropfhire. Some mineralogical fa&ts occafionally occur in the Re- ports of the Agricultural Society ; but, in general, the mine- ralogy of the Englifh counties, as given in thefe Reports, is exceedingly imperfeét, and {carcely any notice is taken of the geology. From this remark there are fome ftriking ex- ceptions, particularly the report of Derbyfhire, by Mr. J. Farey, and that of Chefhire, by Dr. Holland. The latter gives an excellent defcription of the falt diftriét. Mr. Farey has taken a wider range, and befides adding much information to what Mr. Whitehurlt had given on the geology of Derbyfhire, has extended his obfervations into the neighbouring counties, accompanied with an original and valuable geological map of the county of Derby, and the parts adjacent. Some papers on the geology of particular parts of England, have appeared in the Tranfaétions of the Geolo- gical Society of London. The firlt map containing an outline of the geology of England, was, we believe, pub- lifhed by Mr. Bakewell in 1813, accompanied with a de- {cription of the more important features of the mineral geography of South Britain. He divides England and Wales into three diftri€s; the alpine diftri@ ranging along the weftern fide, the low di(tri& on the eaftern fide, and the middle diftriG& lying between the alpine and the low diltri@s. As the rocks and minerals in each of thefe diftriéts, when viewed on a large fcale, differ fufficiently to warrant this divifion, we fhall, for the fake of perfpicuity, adopt it in our defcription of the ftrata of England. The low diftri& of England is marked on the map by a line which extends from the fouth-weft of Dorfetfhire in a waving dire€tion to near Bath, and from thence a little eaft of Leicetter and Nottingham, towards Doncafter and T'adcatter, and pafling north of York, terminates near Scarborough. All that part of England to the eaftward of this line is par- ticularly chara€terifed by the abfence of any regular beds of coal, or metallic veins. This diftrit is principally covered by thick beds of fand, clay, and gravel, chalk, roe-f{tone, ealeareous fand-ftone, and argillaceous or magnefian lime- itone. Few of the hills rife more than feven hundred feet above the level of the fea. Chalk may be confidered as the prevailing rock, particularly on the eaftern fide of this diftri&. The {tratification is more regular on the eaftern than on the weftern fide, and the general rife of the {trata is to the fouth-welt, at a {mall angle of elevation. : The beds in this diltriét may be claffed under four prin- cipal formations. 1. Beds covering chalk, confilting of alluvial foil, gravel, fand, and clay. 2. Chalk; confifting of foft chalk, hard chalk, and chalk-marle. 3. Green and red fand-beds, with roe-ftone or oolite. 4- An argillaceous lime-{tone, called lias. In the northern counties, magnefian lime-ttone occupies the place of lias. The three latter are feparated in many places by beds of clay or fand of confiderable thicknefs, and by occafional ftrata of lime-ftone. The alluvial foil, gravel, fand, and clay that cover the chalk ftrata, are the uppermoft in the feries of Enghith ftrata, but they do not occur regularly: fome of them are confidered as local frefh-water formations. The beds of gravel are frequently of confiderable extent and depth, and confilt of rounded filiceous pebbles, principally flint and chert, but fometimes containing alfo pebbles of jafper, cornelian, imperfeét agate, and chalcedony. The flint and chert pebbles have, in all probability, been derived from the chalk formation ; and thofe who have obferved the tranfition of flint and chert into perfe&t chalcedony, in the green {and covering the hills near Sidmouth, in Devonfhire, will not think it neceflary to feek for another origin for the chalcedony or agates found in the gravel-beds on the eaftern fide of England. The procefs of filiceous infiltration appears to be going on at the prefent day, though we are unacquainted with the means by which it is effeGted. Inthe mafles of gravel are found aggregated congeries of filiceous nodules in a filiceous patte, forming a pudding-ftone of fo compat a texture, that a fraéture will often take place with as much eafe through the nodule, as through the fubftance in which it is enveloped. Some of the flint pebbles in the gravel are marked with impreflions of marine animals, and are f{uppofed to be cafts. Petrified bones and large fhells are fometimes found in the gravel, but generally in a mutilated {tate ; they belong principally to the chalk and under ftrata, out of which they have probably been wafhed. Thin beds of gravel, intermixed with fandy loam and cal. careous marle, form'the upper covering in fome parts of this diftri&, particularly in the vale of Thames. They are re- markable for containing the remains of large quadrupeds, as the elk, the ftag, the hippopotamus, and elephant. A\ large collection of thefe bones was recently difcovered in the grounds of Mr. Trimmer at New Brentford. The foil confifted firft of fandy loam, in which were no foffils ; fee condly, fandy gravel, containing fnail-fhells, and a few muti- lated bones of land animals; thirdly, calcareous loam, in which were found the horns and bones of the ox and deer, with river-fhells ; fourthly, patches of peat earth, which con- tained the bones and teeth of elephants, refembling thofe both of the African and Afiatic elephant, with bones of the ox and teeth of the hippopotamus ; fifthly, a watery gravel, re(ting on London clay. ‘The latter contained wood pene- trated by the teredo, with nautili and other foflils, exclufively of marine origin. Phil. Tranf. 1813. See PerrrractTions. The beds immediately covering the London clay, though of recent date compared with the lower ftrata, were depo- fited under a very different condition of the pie from the prefent, when England and the continent of Europe were inhabited by animals no longer exifting in thefe latitudes, and of which fome of the fpecies are every where extinét. The London clay, fometimes called the blue clay, is the bed on which the city of London ftands: it is of yery con- fiderable thicknefs, varying from three to five hundred feet. Tt confilts of tough blue and reddifh clay, intermixed with fandy clay and fand, It abounds with beautiful foffils in As ticular _ deemed deferving of notice. STRATA. ticular parts of the bed: among thefe, the moft remark- able are nautili in high prefervation, foffile crabs, with teeth and bones of fifhes; but it does not contain ammonites, encrinites, or belemnites. Iron pyrites, felenite, fulphate of iron, and phofphate of iron, are contained in the London clay ; and alfo radiated fulphate of barytes, and fulphate of magnefia. The Highgate archway was cut through this bed. The feptaria or balls of which Parker’s cement is made, are found in various parts of the London clay, and were fup- ofed to be peculiar to it ; but fimilar balls of argillaceous ime-{lone, divided by feams of calcareous {par, occur alfo in other (trata, and are equally ufeful for the preparation of cement. Many wells have been funk in this bed of clay to a great depth. The water in the upper part of the bed is invariably impure, but on arriving at the fand under the blue clay, it commonly {prings up in great abundance, and is extremely foft and pure. In many of the manufactories in the metropolis this water is now ufed, being purer than the Thames water. Since the difcovery, at Paris, of a local formation of ma- rine ftrata, alternating with other ftrata f{uppofed to be formed under freth water, the foflils in the London clay have been examined with more attention, and are found to refemble thofe of the lower marine {trata round Paris. The bafin in which the London clay is depofited over the chalk, ex- tends from the vale of Thames to the north-eaft, over the counties of Middlefex, Effex, Suffolk, and alfo Yarmouth. A fimilar bed of clay covers the chalk in the Ifle of Wight, and on the fouth coaft from near Pool in Dorfetfhire, to Brighthelmitone in Suffex, extendiny feveral miles inland. In parts of the Ifle of Wight, this clay is covered with aregular feries of ftrata, of limited extent, which do not Occur in any part of England, but which nearly refemble the remarkable {trata round Paris. We thall give a concife defcription of thefe at the clofe of this article, before the account of the Paris ftrata. A bed of fand, of very variable thicknefs, is generally inter- pofed between the London clay and the chalk. A ftratum of filiceous fand-itone, called grey weathers, frequently occurs in this fand. The beds here defcribed have but lately at- traGied the attention of geologilts ; being clafled with alluvial foils, they were fuppofed to be of very recent origin. In the Wernerian fyftem, chalk is defcribed as the moit recent formation of lime-ftone, and every thing over it was {carcely Even of the chalk ftrata, and the various beds which occur between chalk and the fand- ftone formation, covering coal, very little was generally known before Mr. John Farey gave a fhort defcription of the upper feries of the Britifh itrata, in the firtt volume of his Agricultural Report of Derbyshire. Mr. Farey ftated, that he had derived much information from Mr. William Smith of Mitford, near Bath, where a map of the {trata of England has recently beén publifhed. We hall fubjoin Mr. Farey’s defcription, beginning with the chalk on which the London clay and fand ret; to which we fhall add fome obfervations, to elucidate more fully the arrangement of the ftrata on the ealtern fide of England. Thofe who are defirous of tracing the courfe and extent of the flrata minutely, we recommend to con- fult Mr. Smith’s map before referred to. That part of it which comprifes the eaftern and midland counties is more particularly deferving a careful examination. “ The upper or flinty chalk isa thick ftratum of foft or free chalk, with numerous layers of flint nodules, and great va- riety of echini and other organifed remains. ‘The extremi- ties of this ftratum are to be found with us in the Ifle of 3 Wight, in Hamphhire, and at Flamborough-Head, in York- fhire. “ The lower or hard chalk is without flints ; its beds in- creafe in hardnefs until near the bottom, where a white free- {tone 1s dug, as at Totternhoe in Bedfordthire, and nume- rous other places: that brought from near Ryegate, and elfewhere on this {tratum fouth of London, is ufed as a fire- ftone. “ The chalk-marle next {ueceeds, which varies much in its appearance, fometimes refembling chalk when firft expofed, in other places appearing as a blue clay. “ The Aylefbury lime-ftone frata, with green fand-beds, are remarkable for their large cornua ammonis, numerous horfe- head mufcles, entrochi, and other fhells, gloffopetre, &c. Sand ttrata fucceed, and feveral clays, which have no very decided character, except one of them, which contains athin bed of dark-coloured lime-{tone, almoft entirely compofed of {mall turbinated fhells, called Suffex marble, of which the flender pillars in Weltminiter Abbey, and moft of our ca- thedrals, are made. «¢ The next charateriftic {tratum, owing to its forming a ridge through the country, is the Woburn fand, a thick ferruginous {tratum, which below its middie contains a {tra- tum of fuller’s-earth: this is the thickelt and moft pure in Afpley and at Hogitye End, ten miles north-weft of Wo- burn. The upper parts of this fand are frequently cemented by the oxydated iron into car-{tone, and the lower parts con- tain fragments of filicified wood. The clunch-clay fuc- ceeds. Itis generally blue, inclining to black, and is of great thicknefs. It has towards its top feveral beds of clunch, a foft chalk-like ftone in appearance, whence the name. Numerous large gryphites, and {mall pointed be- lemnites, cornua ammonis, &c. are found above the clunch. The lower part frequently contains beds of bitumi- nous fhale or clay. The vaie of Bedford, the fens.of Cam- bridgefhire, Lincolnfhire, and Yorkshire, are almoft entirely fituated upon the great plains formed by the gradual end- ings or feathering-out of this ftratum. The Bedfordfhire lime-ftone fucceeds ; it has blue clay-beds interpofed, and abounds with {mall gryphites, and other fhells. Buckingham, Stony-Stratford, Newport-Pagnel, aud Bedford, iftand upon this ftratum. «A thick clay fucceeds, and then the rag-{tone of Bar- nack, compofed: almott entirely of minute fhells. It is fo called, becaufe ftones were dug from thence for many of the moft ancient and beft preferved churches and buildings in the eaftern counties. “The lime-ttone and grey flate ftrata of Stonesfield, Colly-Wetton, and numerous other places, next fucceed : they abound with glotlopetrz, and other organic remains. Below is a ttratum of fand. «The Bath free-ltone ftrata form a moft charaéteriftic range through England, from Dorfetthire to the Humber in Yorkfhire. Stamford, Anca(fler, and Lincoln, are upon this ftratum. The upper part is generally a white or light grey lime-ttone ; then the oviformed lime-{ftone, or oolite of Bath, Ketton, &c. fucceeds, below which is a great thick- nefs of light yellow free-ttone, which abounds with curious fhells and foffils. Below this, fand with beds of clay occurs ; and then the free-ftone of fo many hues of yellow and red, which is dug near Northampton, and numerous other places in this range. : « A great number of beds of fand and clay fucceed, which admit of no precife defcription in a general account. -* Lias, clay, and lime-ftone. This bed is of confiderable thicknefs, forming generally a light-yellow tenacious fur- face ; cold, and much difpofed to ant-hills, when laid down : in STRATA. in pafture. Thin {trata of lime-ftone, called blue lias, occur with the clay : fome of thefe make a lime which ts fuperior to any other that is known for fluices, locks, and other water-works, on account of its property of fetting almott immediately, even under fea-water, and continuing to harden. «« Watchet and Aberfhaw, on oppofite fides of the Briftol channel, Southam in Warwickfhire, and Barrow on Soar in Leicelterfhire, are particularly famed for this lime. The blue lias is remarkable, owing to the pentacrinus, the bones, {ealy fifh, and other foflile remains it produces through- out its whole extent. It has perhaps the beft marked and moft important geological characters of any ftratum in the Britith feries. ° “«¢ In the lower part of the lias, a {ucceffion of other lime- ftone ftrata often occur, called white has. The lias does not exift in one continuous range north of the Humber, though detached portions of it occafionally occur.”’ The lias in many of the fouthern counties refts upon red marle or fand-{tone. We are not to conclude that all the different beds de- {cribed by Mr. Farey, con{tantly occur under each other on the eaftern fide of England. In fome places, many of the beds are entirely wanting; thus, in fome parts of Dorfet- fhire, the green fand which forms the under ftratum to chalk, refts immediately upon the lias, asin the vicinity of Lyme ; and all the different beds of roe-{tone, and the minor ftrata, are wanting. Further welt in Devonfhire, the fame fand, with its various foflils, may be feen refting on the red marle. This will be better underftood by referring to Plate IL. Geology, fig. 1, and Plate 1Il. fig. 2. In Plate II. fig. 1- a is {uppofed to reprefent the chalk, 6 the green fand, c the oolite, d the lias, and ¢ the red marle, arranged in the order in which they occur over each other, where all thefe formations exit; but in fome fituations, the ftratum, 4, of green fand extends beyond the {tratum ¢, and covers a part of dande. In Plate II]. fig. 2. we have reprefented the arrangement of the ftrata, as they occur from the eaft of Bridport in Dorfetfhire, to near Sidmouth in Devonhhire. The green fand, 4, may be feen rifing from the fea; eaft of Bridport it is foon fucceeded by the dark clay, and lias ddd, on which it retts. This ftratum extends beyond Lyme to the mouth of the river Ax, where it terminates at M. A little to the weft of Lyme, L, the green fand is covered by chalk-rocks of limited extent, c, at Penhay. The lias which rifes to the fouth-welt is broken by numerous {mall faults, and is thus continued along the coatt for feveral miles. Beyond the river Ax, at M, the ftrata appear to have been thrown down contiderably, and another mafs of chalk is brought to the level of the fea at Beer, aa, where it forms fantaltic cliffs, perforated with caverns, Welt of the villaze of Beer, the green fand covers the hills of red marle, without the intervention of the lias. Patches of the fame bed of {and are feen refting upon the fummits of fome of the hills welt of Exeter, covering the fame red marle, particularly on the fummit of Haldon-hill: thus a forma- tion nearly allied to the chalk is brought almoft in contaét with the granite of Dartmoor. The thicknefs of the different formations varies confider- ably in different parts of their extent. The Rev, J. Townfend, in a work entitled «* The Charaéter of Mofes vindicated as an MHittorian,’? has given the refult of his inquiries re{pecting the thicknefs of the {trata from the chalk on the fouth coa{ft to the coal diltricts of Somerfetfhire. The difficulty of meeting with good fections of the ftrata uncoyered, and the varying thick- nels of each, make fuch calculations uncertain. They may, however, deferve notice as approximations to truth, The following is a condenfed ftatement of his admeafure- ments. Soil and Alluvial Grounds of various thichne/s. Feet. Chalk more than - (ele) - - = 4 Three beds of green, grey, and red fand, with fand- {tone ~ 5 vi é Pn 2 : ~} 300 Clay in one fituation - - - - 200 Upper, middle, and lower oolites, with interpofed beds t 500 79 of other calcareous ftrata, fand, and clay - Blue clay - + = = < = Lias - - - - - - 609 Red marle : - - - - 180 On this ftatement, Mr. Bakewell, in his Introduction to Geology, obferves, that “ the chalk in fome fituations is nearly one thoufand feet in thicknefs, and the ftrata which cover it ia the [fle of Wight more than fourteen hundred feet. If, therefore, we add one thoufand feet to the above eftimate for the London clay-chalk, and minor ftrata which have been omitted, this would make the depth of the ftrata in the vale of Thames to the ftrata containing coal, about one thoufand yards. If we fuppofe the lower {trata ac- companying coal to extend regularly under calcareous {and- {tone and chalk-rocks, it would be an interefting inquiry to determine the accuracy of this {tatement ; and when the coal fields in the north are exhaulted, it may become an obje& of public concern. Nor would the expence for various complete trials in different fituations exceed that of the prefent national expenditure for one week.” In the fucceffion of ftrata, the lower formations rife weft of each other, and it is only where they are uncoyered by the upper formations that they are vifible. The {trata of the low diltriét appear to have been formed fubfequently to mo{t of the great convulfions that have broken the lower ftrata, and we no where meet with thofe dykes or veins of bafalt which interfeét and difturb the ftrata of the coal formation. There is, however, one inftance of a difturbance of the ftrata above and below the chalk, as remarkable as any which occur in the lower {tratified rocks. It may be feen at Alum bay, in the Ifle of Wight, and has been defcribed by Mr. Webtter in the fecond volume of ‘ Tranfaétions of the Geological Society of London.” The chalk and the clay incumbent upon it pafs under the channel, called the Solent, from Hampfhire, and rife in the middle of the ifland, forming a range of hills, which extends from Culver Cliffs on the ealt, to the Needles on the welt, The chalk {trata are here nine hundred and eighty-feven feet in thicknefs, the ftrata above the chalk fourteen hundred and eighty-one feet; thefe, with about fix hundred feet of lower ftrata, are all thrown out of their original pofition, which was nearly horizontal, and are now almoft vertical. That they were once nearly horizontal, may be proved by their occurring in that pofition a little further fouth, but itill more fatisfa€torily by the flints found in one of the vertical beds of loofe fand, of which there are feveral layers extending from the bottom to the top of the cliff. ‘The flints have been rounded by attrition, are from an inch to eight inches in diameter, and appear to belong to the chalk. ‘* Now it is incanceivable (fays Mr. Webiter) that thefe flints could have been originally depofited in their prefent pofition; they diftin@ly poit out the former horizontal direGtion of the feries ; there are no figns of par- ticular difturbance in thefe beds : the whole feries appears, therefore, to have been moved together.’? The enormous force required to upheave fuch a mafs of ftrata not only through the [fle of Wight, but in Dorfetfhwe, muift have been STRATA. Been fufficient to change the furface of the country, to form or deftroy extenfive lakes, and perhaps to feparate Eng. land from the continent. The effeéts of this convulfion may be traced beyond Lulworth in Dorfet. This fingular difplacement of the upper {trata is reprefented in Péate III. Geology, fig- 3, and will be further defcribed at the clofe of the prefent article. he diftri& defcribed as the middle diftri&, containing, in various parts, rock-falt, iron-ftone, and coal, extends from the line above defcribed, to the mountains on the weftern fide of England, called by Mr. Bakewell the Alpine diftri&, which ranges from Cumberland to Devon- i The weltern boundary of the middle diftri@ cannot be fo well defined as that of the low diftriét, owing to the numerous branches from the mountains on the welt, which in fome parts extend into it. The ftrata in the middle diftri& are principally compofed of argillaceous fand-{tone, filiceous fand-ftone, and fhale, with beds of coal and iron-ftone. In the northern and midland counties, the loweft ftratum of this diftri¢t is a coarfe quartzofe fand-ftone, fometimes refting on a thick bed of argillaceous fand-ftone. Few metallic veins occur in any of thefe itrata: none of the hills rife higher than 1500 feet above the level of the fea, the higheft part being the eaitern moorlands of Yorkshire, formed of beds of aluminous fchiftus, covered by a coarfe fand-ftone. The fucceffion of ftrata in the middle diftri€ is more various than in the low diftri@. The lias in the fouthern counties, and the magnefian lime-ftone in the northern, form the ° eaftern boundary. The metalliferous or mountain lime-ftone forms the under ftratum on the weft from Northumberland to South Wales and Somerfetfhire. In Devonfhire, almoft all the itrata of the middle diftriét are wanting, and the red marle or fand-ftone fills up the fpace from the lias to the clay-{tate, which refts immediately on granite. The red marle is in many parts of that county covered with the green fand of the chalk formation, very near to the granite, as at Haldon, weit of Exeter. The ftrata of the middle diftri& are in fome parts broken by the lower rocks of the alpine diftri& which rife through them, as at Charnwood Foreft, in Leicefterfhire, where a range of hills, compofed of flate, fienite, and porphyry, extends for about ten miles in a fouth-eaft and north-weft direétion, and is bounded on the eaftern fide by the lias formation at Barrow on Soar, and on the welt and north- weit by coal ftrata, and beds of breccia and gravel. The Charnwood Forett hills reprefent thofe of North Wales and Cumberland in miniature. Rocks of a fimilar formation range to the weftward, through Warwickfhire into Shrop- fhire and Wales, though they fearcely appear above the furface. In rocks of this formation near Atherftone, beds of manganefe have recently been difcovered. The mountain lime-ftone of the alpine diftri& forms hills of confiderable elevation in the north of Derbythire. [t is intermixed with beds of a bafaltic amygdaloid, provincially called toad-ftone. The latter are by many geologifts fup- pofed to be of volcanic origin, and have a confiderable re- femblance to lava. In other parts of the middle diftrict, the ftrata may be traced rifing regularly to the fouth-wett, from the lias or magnefian lime-itone to the alpine diftriét. An eftimate of their total thicknefs has been taken in ythire, from the magnefian lime-ftone on the eaft, to the fourth bed of mountain lime-ftone, from which it ap- pears, that the total depth taken on a level line is 1310 yards. In whole of this range there are 30 different beds of coal, varying in thicknefs from 6 inches to 11 feet, the total thicknefs oF the coal being 26 yards. Vo. XXXIV. A fimilar admeafurement had been taken of the coal ftrata of Northumberland and Durham, from the magne- fian lime-{tone on the eaftern fide of the latter county, to the mountain lime-itone on the weft, by Mr. Wettyarth Fortter. This admeafurement comprehends the beds of mountain lime-ftone, “which are there intermixed with beds of quartz- ofe fand-ftone and argillaceous fhale, to the red fand-{tone of Cumberland, which refts wpon the flate of the alpine diftrict. The {trata interpofed between the beds of coal are various kinds of coarfe or fine-grained filiceous fand-ftone, argillaceous fand-{tone, and fhale. The latter is provin- cially called plate, and the fand-{tones are called fof. We fhall give from this admeafurement the thicknefs of each bed of coal, and its depth from the upper ftratum, fuppofing them to lie horizontally. Yds. Ft. In, Soil and ftrata : - e 240 0 1ft. Coal = = = = o- 0'C"G6 Sand-ftone and fhale e 4 I0 0 O 2d. Coal = = = = oo 8 Sand-{tone and fhale = = Ly camo linet) 3d. Coal : = - “ oo G6 Sand-{tone and fhale = C ¥6- 0°"0 4th. Coal = = = = (Syeleribe se) Sand-ftone and fhale : “ oye) sth. Coal - = = i oo G6 Shale - = < =) s° OO 6th. Coal = = u = o o 8 Sand-{tone and fhale - - 7 Ol 7th. Coal = . < 2 (oh. fel: Sand.ftone and fhale z > 18 0 Oo 8th. Coal = = - o 10 Sand-ftone and fhale - 20 0 0 gth. Coal, or High main coal - z o 6 Oo Sand-{tone and fhale = = 10° © SO roth. Coal = = - = o -Yity Shale - - - - 9°20 11th. Coal aeneaea f : 7 BB+ Leds Sand-ftone and fhale = = 20 0 0 12th. Coal on Tyne - - - OF 3u10 on Wear = . < 0 60 Sand-ftone and fhale - - OS 13th. Coal - - - - o 06 Sand-ftone and fhale - . 18 0 Oo 14th. Coal - - - - 040 Sand-ftone and fhale s + 26 0 6 15th. Coal ot, es - - o 6 8 Sand-ftone and fhale & = 10 00 16th. Coal - - - ~ SoBe thay 5 Shale = . - - 200 17th. Coal - - . 00 9g Sand-ftone and fhale : - 12 00 18th. Low main coal on Tyne - - o0 6 6 ———_——- on Wear - - og @ Shale - - - - 28 00 19th. Coal - - - - o 1 8 Shale - - - - 14 0 0 zoth. Coal - = - - oo 6 Shale 2 5 - - 8 0 9 2ift. Coal - - - - 9 0 9 Shale - - - - 10 0 0 22d. Coal - - - - 0 o 6 Shale = - - - 14 0 9 23d. Coal - - - - oMeTTe Shale " . - - 10 0 06 24th. Coal - - - - o 30 Sf Various STRATA. Yds. Fe. In. Various ftrata of fand-ftone, fhale, and iron-ltone, with a few feams of fulphureous coal, and a thin 28 feam of imperfect lime-ftone called battard lime-ftone 2 | aft. Or little lime-ftone - - HiKO MNO Shale, fulphureous coal; * and fand-ftone - 3 ae gd. Lime-ftone - = - 2Tsieno Sand-ftone and fhale - - ML OKO 3d. Lime-{tone = ~ = Xi 6)sio Sand-ftone and fhale < - 221% QO 4th. Lime-ftone - - - 8 “ol 0 Sand-{tone and fhale = = 16 0 0 sth. Lime-itone - - - Searwvo Sand-ftone and fhale - - 20)'On10 6th. Lime-itone - - - Ey (olin (e) Sand-ftone and {hale - - IG} 16) 0 yth. Lime-ftone = - ~ LO}! ONO Shale, fand-ftone, and a feam of fulphureous coal —- ’ vey) Saal? 8th. Lime-ftone, called cockle- . fhell lime-ftone = Fr Ayn Sy? Sand-ftone and fhaje - - Apron 10 oth, Lime-ftone - - - sy a0 Sand-ftone and fhale - - 13 0 Oo roth, Lime-ftone called Tyne Bolton - 9 2° oO Whin-ftone or bafalt, thicknefs vari- ous, in fome parts So yards - i hae tg Sand-ftone and fhale - - 2301'0. 40 rith. Lime-ftone - = - TO) GiA0 Sand-ftone and fhale 4 - 9 SOKO x2th. Lime-ftone - - - 7) \Gio0 Sand-{tone and fhale = - 30 0 0 agth. Lime-ftone - - - II 9 0 Siliceous fand-ftone - - Ae MOO 14th. Lime-ftone - - - 9 0 0 Sand-ftone and fhale + - 7, Oo 0 i5th. Lime-ftone - - - 9 0 0 Sand-ftone and fhale - - ay (deo a6th. Lime-{tone - - - Seowo Sand-{tone and fhale > - Ay 10/50 17th. Or great lime-itone - - 42 0 0 Sand-ftone and fhale - - 8 0-0 18th. Lime-ttone - - - 5) (Oye Sand-itone and fhale - - 58 0 Oo rgth. Lime-{tone - = - a Oho Sand-ttone and fhale - - 68 o Oo Siliceous fand-{tone - - 30 0 0 Black and red fhale - - 16 00 Red fand-{tone not funk through. The tetal thicknefs of the ftrata in this eftimate is about 1300 yards, including the beds of mountain lime-ttone. The total thicknefs of the 24 beds of coal may be taken on the average at 48 feet, of which eight beds are of fuf- ficient thicknefs to be worked. ‘There are 20 beds of lime-ftone and one of imperfeét lime-ftone, making a total thicknefs of about 180 yards. The great whin ftratum, or fil, as it is called, is fuppofed not to be a regular ftratum. It is exceedingly various in its thicknefs. Where it is feen on the banks of the river Tees, near Tees Force, it forms rude bafaltic columns of confiderable fize. As the ftrata rife to the fouth-weft, the different beds of coal make their appearance on the furface on the weitern fide of Northum- berland and Durham, but they are thrown down by faults, which have confiderably difturbed their regularity. The arrangement and fucceflion of the {trata in this part of our ifland may be feen in Plate 111. fig. 1, which reprefents a feGtion of England taken by Mr. Bakewell, and copied from the fecond edition of his Introduétion to Geology. It commences from the German ocean, where the magnefian lime-ftone of the low diltriét, A, is feen rifing above the level of the fea, LL. Proceeding welt, we come upon the coal ftrata BB; before we reach Durham, they con- tinue acrofs the country to near Walfingham, rifing in fuc- ceflion to the welt or fouth-weft, but are much broken by faults. Here various beds of coarfe fand-ftone or grit, finer cryftalline fand-ttone, and indurated fhale, fucceed in the fame direétion: they contain a few feams of coal. Metalliferous lime-ftone {oon makes its appearance farther weit, CC; but no where forms thole immenfe cliffs, more than 80 or 100 yards in height, which we meet with in Craven, in Yorkshire, and in Derbyfhire. Nearly the loweit bed of lime-ftone is 42 yards in thicknefs: it extends from Melmerby Scar into Weltmoreland, ‘The whole of the ftrata, CC, is interfeted by veins of lead and zinc, which are very produétive in the great lime-ftone, but pro- duce lefs as they pafs through the fand-ftone ftrata, and rarely produce any ore in the fhale. The highett point of the metalliferous lime-ftone diftri& is Crofs Fell, a mountain on the weftern fide of Durham, about three thoufand feet above the level of the fea. It is compofed of various beds of lime-ftone, alternating with fand-{tone and fhale, and is covered near the fummit with the lower feries of {trata of the coal formation. It is inter- feted by a great vein of lead-ore running eaft and weft. A great fault, called the Burtruford Dyke, filled with whin- ftone or bafalt, runs north and fouth, and throws down the {trata on the welt fide of it, to the amazing depth of one hundred and fixty yards. (See X.) The ftrata, as they ap- proach it, rife at an angle of about twenty-five degrees. Defcending the weltern declivity of Crofs Fell, we come to the red fand-ftone rock, the loweft of the beds in Mr. Forfter’s admeafurement, before given. It is marked D in the fe€tion, and extends beyond Penrith. The red fand- rock bounds the alpine diftriét of Cumberland, marked E E. The mountains of this diftri& furrounding the lakes of Cumberland and of Weftmoreland are not ttratified: they are compofed of flate, horn-ftone, porphyry, greywacke, green-{tone, fienite, and granite. Beyond thefe mountains, on the weft, we meet with ftratified hills containing coal, ex- tending to the Irifh channel, marked F. The mountains in the vicinity of the lakes contain me- tallic veins, and beds of copper, manganefe, and lead. The ftrata on the weflern fide dip towards the fea, and coals have been worked for more than a mile under the fea at White- haven. The pit was filled by a very high tide, which rofe above the fhaft, and buried the workmen and the works. The alpine diftri@ of England is compofed of thofe rocks, which by the German geologifts are called primary and tranfition rocks. (See Rocx.) In thefe, few traces of regular ftratification can be obferved, though they are fre- quently divided into tabular mafles, which have been mif- taken for ftrata. ‘Thefe rocks form the foundation on which the {tratified rocks of the middle and low diftriéts are laid. They are compofed of greywacke, lime-ftone, flate or clay-flate, granite, porphyry, fienite, and green-ftone. Many of them appear to be compofed of an intermixture of the above rocks, and have no well-defined charaéter. The alpine dittri& is compofed of groups of hills and mountains, which, viewed on a grand fcale, may be con- fidered as forming one chain, extending on the weftern fide of England and Wales from Cornwall to rer eetggs ak rom STRATA. from thence to the northern extremity of Scotland. It is broken into three parts by the intervention of the Briftol Channel, and the low grounds of Lancafhire and Chefhire. They are denominated by Mr. Bakewell the Northern, the Cambrian, and the Devonian range. The northern range enters Cumberland from Scotland, and pafling through that county and Wettmoreland, ex- tends its branches into Northumberland and Durham. It continues along the weftern fide of Yorkthire and Derby- fhire, and into Staffordfhire. The loftieft mountains of the Cambrian range extend through Caernarvonfhire and Merionethfhire ; they decline in height as they pafs through South Wales, and on the borders of the Briftol Channel are covered with regular ftra- tified rocks of the coal formation, comprifing an extenfive coal field one hundred miles in length, and from five to twenty in breadth, ranging from Pembrokefhire into Monmouth- re. The Devonian range commences in Somerfetthire, and paffes through Devonfhire into Cornwall. The higheft point of this range is formed by the granitic rocks of Dartmoor. Granitic rocks of lefs elevation range through Cornwall to the Land’s-End, but they are covered in many parts with flate, provincially called fi//as in Cornwall, and billet in Devonfhire. The flate, or fhillet, in Devonfhire, is covered on its eaftern fide by red fand-ftone : in many parts a red ba- faltic amygdaloid is interpofed between the red fand-ftone and the flate, and may be feen rifing through the former in the vicinity of Exeter. From tradition, and from prefent appearances, it is rendered probable, that a large extent of country on the weftern fide of Cornwall has been wafhed away by the fury of the Atlantic ocean, which is impelled with impetuous violence on the coaft. 1f the granitic rocks were ever covered by {trata fimilar to thofe on the eaftern fide of England, they were too foft to refift the ravages of the ocean. The granite of Cornwall forms a barrier which proteéts the fouthern fhores of England from the rapid en- croachments of the fea, by breaking the violence of the weftern tides ; yet the land 1s gradually and conftantly dimi- nifhing along the line of coaft from Cornwall to Kent. In the fhort period of a fingle life, this diminution is fcarcely noticed, except by thofe whofe eftates adjoin the fea; but in the lapfe of centuries, the outline of the country is changed, and its furface fenfibly reduced. Of this, we might cite nu- merous inftances, both on the fouthern and ailven coatts. Whitby abbey, in Yorkhhire, offers a ftriking proof: it was built, on an elevated plain, in the year 656, at which time it was more than a mile from the fea; at prefent it is very near the edge of a perpendicular cliff, which is continually falling down as the fea excavates the bafe. Frefb-water Strata,—We have before mentioned, that a feries of ftrata occur in the Ifle of Wight, refembling the ftrata in the vicinity of Paris, but which do not occur in any of the Englifh counties. Thefe ftrata lie in a horizon- tal pofition on the northern fide of the ifland, and are dif- tinétly vifible in a hill called Headon, adjoining the vertical ftrata of chalk before defcribed. The hill is about four hun- dred feet in height. The lower bed I (fee Plate III. Geology, Jag: 3-) is of beautiful white fand, about thirty feet in thick- nefs, over which is laid a bed of dark-clay, K, and upon this a feries of beds of fandy calcareous and argillaceous marles, L. Some of them, according to Mr. Webtter, confift almoit wholly of the fragments of frefh-water fhells, as the limneus, planorbis, cycloftoma, and others refembling helices and my- tuli. This he denominates the lower frefh-water formation. In this formation in the Paris bafin, the gypfum beds are fituated. Over the lower frefh-water occurs a ftratum con- fitting of clay and marle, M, which contains a great number of fhells; wholly marine. Ten of the fpecies agree with thofe in the London clay. Most of them appear to have undergone but little change; and fome of the fpecies can fearcely be diftinguifhed from recent fhells. Some of the thells are very delicate, but in a high {tate of prefervation, thus fhewing that they muft have lived near to the {pote where they are now found. In other parts of this ftratum are banks of large foffile oytter-fhells, the greater part of which are locked into each other in the way in which they ufually live, and many have their valves united. It is therefore evident, that thefe oyiters have not been removed from a diftance to their prefent fituation. The foffils are nearly allied to thofe in the upper marine formation in the Paris ftrata. The upper frefh-water formation refts immediately on the latter, and is the moft remarkable one in the feries. It oc- curs about half way up the hill at N, and is about forty feet in thicknefs. It is a calcareous bed, every part of which contains frefh-water {hells in great abundance, with- out any admixture of marine exuvie. Many of the fhells are in high prefervation, and the animals appear to have lived near the places where they are found, as the fhells are fo friable, that they could not have been removed from their native fituation without being broken. This ftratum appears to have extended over the whole northern part of the Ifle.of Wight, but it has not yet been difcovered on this fide the water. The fhells, like thofe in the lower frefh-water formation, confift of feveral kinds of lymnei, helices, and planorbi. Part of the ftone of this formation is extremely hard, and has long been ufed for building-ftone. It may be confi- dered as the uppermoft or lateft formation of rock we are acquainted with in England, and has a near refemblance, in many of its mineralogical charaGters, with the frefh-water lime-ftone, in the fame formation, in the Paris bafin, called calcaire d’eau douce. The external charaéters of the ftone in both countries are fufficiently different from any known rock, to render them diftinguifhable even without the hells. Over this ftratum is another bed of clay, eleven feet in thick- nefs, containing numerous fragments of a {mall nondefcript bivalve hell. Other calcareous {trata, containing a few frefh- water hells, fucceed. The whole is furmounted by a bed of alluvium, O, forming the fummit of the hill. There is one remarkable difference between the frefh- water {trata over chalk, in the vicinity of Paris and in the. Ifle of Wight. In the latter, there is a total abfence of filiceous formations, fo abundant in the former. The lime- ftone impregnated with filex, and containing a burr-ftone, covers half the bottom of the Paris bafin. (Tranfa€tions of the Geological Society, vol.ii.) Though the fhells in thefe {trata are confidered by Mr. Webiter and other naturalifts as undoubted frefh-water fhells, yet as they differ more or lefs from thofe of exifting fpecies, it may be afked, are we certain that animals which bear a clofe refemblance to frefh- water fhells, might not formerly have been inhabitants of the ocean? Or might not thefe animals have been brought in a living ftate to their prefent fituations by rivers or inun- dations which emptied themfelves into bays of falt-water. If we admit that they are really frefh-water fhells, and the beds which cover them contain exclufively marine thells, we mult alfo admit that the places where they are found have been fucceffively covered with feas or lakes of falt and freth water, after the formation of the London clay. To ex- plain this, it is not neceflary to fuppofe a general rifing of the ocean, or an alternate fubfidence and elevation of the land. Lakes in the vicinity of the fea might have their bar- Sf2 riers STRATA. riers broken down by earthquakes, and clofed again by de- pofitions of fand and gravel, by which the nature of the waters would be changed. If the {trata in the hill of Headon were once the bottom of a lake, one great revolution, at leait in the {tate of this part of the globe, mutt fince have taken place, by which the level of the fea has been changed, and the furface of the land cut down and excavated, leaving no external trace of its original outline. Strata round Paris. The geology of the country round Paris refembles, in a confiderable degree, that in the vicinity of London. ‘The capitals of both empires are fituated over the fame fub{tratum of chalk, covered by a depofition of more recent ftrata: thus the geologift may regard the inha- bitants of each as children of the fame foil; and it were furely more wife to urge this as a plea for mutual amity, than to make the geographical pofition of the two countries a motive for eternal hatred, and exclaim with a late Britith fenator «© Littora littoribus contraria, flu@ibus undas, Imprecor arma armis pugnent ipfique nepotes.”” ZEN. 4. * Our cliffs, our coatts, our waves oppofed to theirs, May the fame hate defcend to all their heirs.” Dryden. The bafin in which the upper ftrata round Paris are depo- fited is of confiderable extent. The total thicknefs of the beds over chalk is about s00 feet. A very interefting ac- count of thefe beds, and the extraordinary foflils they con- tain, has been publifhed by Cuvier and Brongniart, in the ‘* Geographie Mineralogique des Environs de Paris,’’ from which we fhall extract the particulars moft deferving notice. The country in which Paris is fituated is perhaps the moft remarkable that has yet been obferved, both from the fuc- ceflion of different beds, and from the extraordinary orga- nic remains they contain ; millions of marine fhells, that alter- nate regularly with frefh-water fhells, compofe the principal mafs. Bones of land animals, of which the genera are en- tirely unknown, are found in certain parts ; other bones, re- markable for their large fize, and of which fimilar genera exift only in diftant countries, are found in the upper beds. No country can afford more inftruétion refpeéting the laft re- volutions that terminated the formation of the prefent con- tinents. Though chalk is the foundation, it rifes to the fur- face, only a few fituations being covered with other beds, in the following order : 1. Chalk with flint. 2. Plaltic clay and lower fand. 3. Coarfe marine lime-ftone, or calcaire groffiere. The place of this is fometimes occupied with the lower fand- ftone, N° 4. 4. Lower marine fand-{tone. 5 & 6. Lower frefh-water ftrata, gypfeous clay and gyp- fum, containing bones of quadrupeds, and a bed of oytters. 7. Sand and fand-itone, without fhells. 8. Upper marine fand-ftone. 9. Mill-ftone, without fhells and argillaceous fand. ‘10. Upper frefh-water formation, with mill-ftone. 11. Alluvial foil, ancient and modern, including gravel, pudding-ftone, black earth (les marnes argilleufes noires ) and peat. 1. Chalk.—This chalk agrees in external characters with that found in other countries.. It occurs in indiftin& hori- zontal {trata ; in which we obferve either interrupted layers, or tuberofe-fhaped mafles of flint, which pafs into the chalk at their line of junétion, or kidnies of hard chalk, having the fame fhape and pofition with the flint. This formation ig well charaéterifed by the petrifactions it contains, which differ not only in the fpecies, but fometimes alfo in the genus, from thofe that occur in the coarfe lime-{tone. Two {pecies of belemnites occur in the chalk, and thefe appear to be different from thofe found in the lime-{tone, and are confi- dered to charaéterife it. The chalk forms the bottom of the bafin, in which are depofited the different formations that occur around Paris. Its furface mutt have prefented numerous inequalities before the prefent {trata were depofited over it, becaufe we obferve promontories and iflands of chalk rifing through the newer formations. In Plate II. Geology, fig. 7. we have given a fection of a fimilar arrangement of the ftrata, a reprefenting the chalk, 4, 4, d, the newer f{trata. 2. Plaflic Clay—A\l| around Paris we find the chalk co- vered with a depofit of plaftic or potter’s clay, which is dug and ufed in the manufacture of different kinds of pottery. This clay varies in colour, being white, grey, yellow, red, and black; fometimes it contains a layer of fand, and very rarely a few organic remains, {uch as cytherea, turritelle, and bituminous wood ; they fometimes occur in the purer clay; and in fome places fragments of chalk have been obferved in it. It is neither intermixed with the chalk at its line of juntion with it ; nor is it more calcareous, where in conta&t with that mineral, than at a diftance from it ; hence Cuvier conjeétures that it has been depofited after the chalk, and is therefore a feparate formation. 3. Coarfe marine Lime-fione, with marine Sand-flone.— This formation prefents much greater variety than the chalk. Several different ftrata, or feries of ftrata, fuch as lime-ftone, clay-marle, lime-ftone-marle, and flate-clay, occur init. Thefe are arranged in a determinate order, and the {trata of lime-ftone are well charaterifed by the petrifaGtions they contain; the fame fyftem of {trata always pollefling the fame {pecies of petrifaGions. The loweft or firft feries of flrataof the coarfe lime-ftone formation is very fandy, and fometimes contains a fubitance refembling green earth; it is ftill better characterifed by containing a great variety of well preferved fhels, many of which {till retain a pearly luftre, and differ more from the prefent exilting {pecies than thofe in the upper ftrata of this formation. The following are the petrifactions enumerated by Cuvier and Brongniart, as occurring in it. Nummulites levigata, fcabia, and numifmalis. Thefe are always found in the loweit part of the bed. Madrepora, at leait three fpecies.. Aftrea, three {pecies. Carophyllia, three fimple and one branched fpecies. Fungites. Ceri- thium giganteum.. Lucinalamellofa. Cardium perulofum, Voluta cithara. Craffatella lamellofa. Turritella multiful- cata. Oftrea flabellula. Oftrea cymbula. The fecond feries of ftrata is ftill very rich in fhells; nearly all the bivalves found by M. Defrance at Grignon be- long to it. It alfo contains a few impreffions of leaves and ftems. The moft chara€ieriftic petrifaétions of this feries of ftrata are the following. Cardita avicularia. Orbito- lites plana. Turritellaimbricata. Terebellum convolutum. Calyptrea trochiformis. PeGtunculus pulvinatus. Cithe- rea nitidula. Citherezaelegans. Miliolites, very abundant. Cerithium ; probably feveral fpecies ; but neither the lapi- dum and petricolum, nor cin@um and plicatum, which latter belong to the fecond marine formation that covers the ypium. The third feries of {trata is lefs abundant in petrifaGtions, and contains fewer f{pecies than the two preceding. The following have been obferved- Miliolites, very rare. 8 Cardium STRATA. Cardium lima. Cardium obliquum. = Lucina faxorum. Ampullaria fpirata. Cerithium tuberculatum. Cerithium mutabile. Cerithium lapidum. Cerithium petricolum. Corbula anatina. Corbula itriata. Alfo impreflions of the leaves of a fucus. The ftrata of the fecond and third feries fometimes con- tain beds of fand-{tone or mafles of horn-{tone, filled with marine fhells. In fome cafes the fand-itone takes the place of the lime-ftone. Land-fhells and frefh-water fhells (limnea et eycloftomz) have been obferved in this fand-{tone, but only where it lies immediately under the frefh-water lime-{tone. The fand-ftone and horn-itone containing marine fhells, reit either immediately on the marine lime-{tone, or are con- tained in it. The following lift contains the names of thofe {pecies of petrifactions which occur moit frequently in the fand-ftone. Calyptrea trochiformis. Oliva daumontiana. Ancilla canalifera. Voluta harpula. Fufis bulbiformis. Cerithium ferratum. Cerithium tuberculofum. Cerithium coronatum. Cerithium lapidum. Cerithium mutabile. Ampoullaria acuta or {pirati. Ampullaria patula. Nucula deltoidea. Cardium lima. Venericardia imbricata. Cy- therea_ nitidula. Cytherea elegars. Cytherea tellinaria. Venus callofa. Lucina circinaria. Lucina faxorum. Two {pecies of oylter, {till undetermined ; the one appears allied to ofirea deltoidea, the other to offrea cymbula. The fourth feries of ftrata confifts of hard calcareous marle, foft calcareous marle, clayey marle, and calcareous fand, which is fometimes agglutinated, and contains hori- zontal layers of horn-ftone, cryftals of quartz, and rhom- boidal cryitals of calcareous {par, and {mall cubical cryita!s of fluor fpar. Petrifactions occur very rarely. 4. Siliceous Lime-flene, without Shells—This formation occurs with the coarfe marine lime-{tone, on the fame level with it, and in no inftance is either above or belowit. It reits immediately on the plattic clay. It confilts of {trata, not only of a white lime-itone, but alfo of a grey, compatt, or fine granular lime-ftone, which is penetrated in all direc- tions with filex, and its numerous cavities are lined with fili- ceous ftalaGtites, or quartz cryftals. A charaéteriltic mark of this rock is its wanting petrifactions of every kind, both of frefh water and falt water. A fpecies of mill-{ftone fome- times occurs in it, which appears to be filiceous lime-{ftone, ' deprived of its calcareous ingredient by fome agent unknown tous. This mill-ftone ae not be confounded with that which occurs in the upper beds. 5 & 6. Gypfum of the firft frefh-water Formaticn.—The freth-water formation is not entirely of gypfum, but con- tains alfo beds of clay-marle and calcareous marle. Thefe are arranged in a determinate order, when they all occur to- gether, which is not always the cafe. They lie over the coarfe marine lime-ftone: and the gypfum, which is the principal mafs of the formation, does not occur in wide ex- tended tables, like the lime-{tone, but in fingle conical, or long maffes, which are fometimes of confiderable cxtent, but always fharply bounded. Montmartre prefents the belt example of the whole feries of the formation, and thefe three beds of gypfum are to be obferved fuperimpofed on each other. The firft bed confifts of alternate layers of gypfum, folid calcareous marle, and of thin flaty argillaceous marle, or ad- hetive flate. The layers of gypfum are thin, and full of cryftals of felenite ; and in the clay-marle, or adhefive flate, imbedded menilite occurs. Wherever this bed refts imme- diately on the fand of the marine fand-ftone containing the fhells, it contains fea-fhells. The former bottom of the fea, however, appears to have been frequently covered with a bed of white marle, on which the lower beds of gypfum re{t; and this bed is filled with frefh-water fhells. The fecond bed refembles the firft, and only differs from it in being thicker, and containing fewer beds of marle. The only petrifactions it contains are thofe of fifhes. In the lower part.of this bed, we for the frit time meet with fingle kidnies of celeltine, or fulphate of ftrontian. The third or upper bed of gypfum is by far the greateft ; in feveral places it 1s more than fixty feet thick. It contains few beds of marle, and at {ome places, as at Montmorency, it lies almoft immediately under the foil. The lower ftrata of this upper gypfum contains flint, which appears to be intermixed with it, and to pals into it by imperceptible gradations, faéts which fhew their contemporaneous formation. ‘The middle {trata of this bed fplit naturally into prifmatic concretions, with many fides. ‘The uppermoft {trata, of which five ge- nerally occur, and extend to a great diftance, are thinner than the others, and are intermixed with marle, and alfo alternate with beds of it. Numerous quarries are fituated in this upper gypfum, which daily afford fkeletons or fingle bones of unknown quadrupeds. To the north of Paris they are found in the gypium itfelf, where they are hard, and fimply covered with marle; and to the fouth of Paris, fimilar remains, but in a friable itate, are met with in the marle which feparates the beds of gypfum. Bones of tortoifes and fkeletons of fifh are found in the fame bed, and fome frefh-water (hells. The occurrence of fkeletons of quadrupeds particularly charaéterifes the upper bed of gypfum, remains of the fame nature not having been found in the middle or lower beds of gypfum. Beds of calcareous and clayey marle reft immediately over the gypfum. Wood-ttone, or petrified wood of a kind of palm-tree, occurs in a white friable marle; and in quarries which are worked in thefe beds, remains of fifhes and of fhells, of the genera lymnzus and planorbis, are met with. The two latter do not differ very much from thofe found in the marfhes of France; a faét which feems to fhew that this marle, as well as the fubjacent gypfum, have been depofited from frefh water. In the numerous and thick beds of clayey and calcareous marle which reft upon this white friable marle, petrifa¢tions are fo rare, that we can- not form any fatisfactory opinion as to their formation. It is in the white friable marle that the frefh-water fhells, which principally chara¢terife this formation, are found. The firft frefh-water formation neither contains mill-ftone nor flint, only menilite and wood-flone. Over the beds of clayey and calcareous marle there refts a bed of yellowifh flaty marle, three feet three inches thick. Kidnies of earthy celeftine, or ftrontian, occur in the lower part of it ; higher up we meet with a bed of {mall bivalve fhells, which are referred to the genus citherea; and between the up- permoft layers of the marle, other fpecies of citherea, with cerites, {pirobites, and bones of fifh, occur. This bed is not only remarkable on account of its great extent, (having been traced ten leagues in one direction, and four leagues in another, and throughout the whole being of the fame degree of thicknefs,) but alfo becaufe it marks the upper boundary of the frefh-water formation, and the beginning of a new marine formation. All the fhells that occur in the marle above this bed belong to the ocean. A great bed of greenifh clayey marle, without petrifac- tions, re{ts immediately over the yellowifh marle, and con- tains geodes, kidnies, and clayey calcareous marle, and alfo celeftine. Immediately over thefe follows a bed of eyoW clay- STRATA. clay-marle, which abounds in fragments of marine bivalve fhells, cerites, trochites, machites, cardites, venites, &c. ; and fragments of the tail of two fpecies of ray have alfo been found in it. The beds of marle which reft over thefe contain foflile marine fhells, but only bivalves; and in the uppermoft bed of calcareous marle, immediately under the clayey fand, there occur two diftiné beds of oyfters; of which the un- dermoft contains large and thick oyfters, and the upper (which is fometimes feparated from the under by a thin bed of white marle without fhells) contains numerous {mall thin and brown oytter-thells. This latter bed of oytfters is very thick, is divided into many layers, and is {carcely ever wanting in the hills of gypfum. Thefe oyfters appear to have lived on the fame {pot where we at prefent find them, becaufe they are arranged as we find them in oyfter-banks in the ocean; and the greater number of them are whole, and with both valves. The formations fometimes terminate with a bed of clayey fand, in which no petrifa¢tions occur. Such are the beds which, in general, conftitute the gypfum formation. In the following table are enumerated the petrifa@tions that belong to the gypfum, and to the marine marle which refts upon it. Fofile Quadrupeds in Gypfum. Genus 1. Paleotherium, or ancient wild beaft. This animal is arranged, according to Cuvier, Clafs MAMMALIA. Ordo Pachydermata. Pone tapirum et ante rhinocerotem et equum ponen- dum.—To be placed in the natural fyftem after the tapir, and before the rhinoceros and horfe. The five f{pecies difcoyered in the gypfum quarries are I. Magnum, the fize of a horfe. . Medium, the fize of a ot in the Gopin'o€ . Craflum, the fize of a hog, the feet. . . Curtum, the fize of a hog, 5. Minus, the fize of a fheep. It may be proper to obferve, that remains of five other {fpecies of this animal have been found in different parts of France, of which one equals in fize the rhinoceros. Genus 2. Anoplotherium, or bea{t without weapons. Inter rhinocerotem aut equum ab una et hippopotamum, {uem, et camelum, ab altera parte ponendum.—To be placed between the rhinoceros and horfe, on one fide; and the hippopotamus, hog, and camel, on the other. 1. Commune, fize of a {mall horfe. 2. Secundarium, fize of a hog. 3. Medium, fize of an antelope. 4. Minus, fize of a hare. 5- Minimum, very {mall, the jaw only difcovered. A pachydermatous animal, allied to the hog. Canis Parifienfis. Diadelphis Parifienfis. Viverra Parifienfis. Birds, three or four f{pecies. Reptiles. ‘T'rionix Parifienfis, and another tortoife, with a {pecies of faurius, which appears to be a crocodile. Three or four fpecies of fifh. Mollufcous animals. Cycloftoma mummia; In the upper white marle are palms, fragments of fifhes, limneus, and planorbes. -bO WN Marine Formation. Cytherée bombée. Spirobes. Bones of fifhes. Cerithium plicatum. Cytherée planes. Bones of fifh. No fifa. Slaty yellow marle - - Green marle 5 fees Parts of the ray. Ampullaria patula ? Cerithium plicatum. Cerithium cinétum, Cytherea elegans. Cytherea femifulata. Cardium obliquum. Nacula margaritacea. brown flaty marle -~ - Yellow marle, mixed with | l A bed of oytters. Calcareous marle, containing large oyfters - - - Oftrea longiroftris, Oltrea canalis. Oftrea cochlearia. Oftrea cyathula. Oftrea {patulata. Oftrea linguatula. Ballanites. Shells of crabs, Calcareous marle, containing Oftrea hippopus. Oftrea pfeudochama. | {mall oyfters - - - \e a) , The fhells of thefe petrifaGions are generally in a powdery ftate, or we have only their mould or im- | preflion. 7 | Almoft all thefe fhells are broken, and difficult to i afcertain. The two fpecies of cerites of the marine formation, which cover the gypfum, do not appear | to occur any where elfe. J other by {nails without fhells; and although we can- not fay, with any certainty, whether or not the par- ticular fpecies here enumerated are fhells that belong more to the one bed than the other; yet it cannot be * doubted that the oyiters of this marle do not occur in the coarfe lime-ftone, and that they are more nearly allied to the {pecies at prefent living in our feas, than | The two beds of oyfters are often feparated from each | to thofe found in the lime-ftone. 7. Sand === === HT mm STRATA. 7. Sand and Sand-flone without Shells. —The ftrata are often of confiderable thicknefs, and are intermixed with beds of fand of the fame nature; and both are often fo fine, that they are ufed in manufactures. , 8. Superior marine Sand-flone and Sand.—This varies in colour, compa¢tnefs, and even in compofition, being fome- times a pure friable fand-ftone, fometimes intermixed with clay, and its place is occafionally occupied by a thin bed of calcareous bind filled with fhells. This fand-ftone con- tains marine fhells, which approach moft nearly to thofe fpecies met with in the calcareous marle over the gypfum. 9- Mill-lone without Shells and argillaceous Sand.—This formation confifts of iron-fhot, clayey fand, with greenifh, reddifh, and whitifh clay, marle, and mill-ftone. This mill-ftone is quartz, containing a multitude of irre- ular cavities, which are traverfed by filiceous fibres, dif- pofed fomewhat like the reticular texture in bones. Thefe cavities are fometimes lined or filled with red ochre, clay, marle, or clayey fand; and they have no communication with each other. Mott of the mill-flones found near Paris have a red or yellowifh tint, but the rarer and moft efteemed varieties have a blueifh fhade of colour. The blueifh variety is moft highly prized, becaufe it affords the whiteft coloured flour ; ail a mill-ftone of this kind, fix feet and a half in diameter, fells at 1200 francs. We never obferve in its cavities any filiceous ftalaCtites or cryftallized quartz ; and this character enables us to diftinguifh in hard fpecimens this mill-ftone from that found in the filiceous lime-ftone. It is fometimes compat. It has been analyfed by Hecht, (fee the Journal des Mines, N° 22. p. 333.) and appears to be almoft entirely compofed of filica. Another character of the mill-ftone, properly fo called, is the abfence of all foffile, animal, and vegetable produétions, whether of frefh or falt-water origin. Mill-ftones are formed by cutting pieces of thefe ftones, and joining them together, and con- fining the whole with an iron hoop. They are called burr- ftones. All the beft mill-ftones ufed in England are formed of the Lag ftones. 10. The u, rcfh-water formation is compofed of filex and tint trond, diner tances fd tac occur independently of each other; in other inftances, they are intimately mixed together. The nearly pure frefh-water lime-{tone is the moft common; the next in frequency is the mixtures of filex and lime-ftone; the large mafles of frefh-water filiceous ftone are the rareft. The filex is fome- times a nearly pure flint ; fometimes approaches to pitch- ftone, or to jafper; and, laftly, it has a corroded ftate, when it has all the chara&ters of true mill-{tone, but is in eneral more compaét than the mill-ftones without hells. he lime-ftone of this formation is white or yellowifh-grey ; fometimes nearly friable, like marle or chalk; fometimes compaét and folid, with a fine grain, and a conchoidal “fra&ture. The conchoidal varieties are rather hard, but eafily broken into fharp-edged fragments, fomewhat like flint, fo that it cannot be cut. Thefe charafers apply only to the lime-ftone near Paris; for at a confiderable dif- tance, the lime-ftone occurs very compatt, of a greyith- brown colour, which readily cuts and polifhes. The lime- ftone of Mont Abufar, near Orleans, which contains bones of the palzotherium, belongs to this formation. Even the deft varieties of this lime-ftone, after expofure to the air a time, foftens; and hence it is ufed as a marle for Manuring the ground. All the varieties, both hard and foft, are traverfed by empty vermicular cavities, whofe walls are fometimes of a pale green colour. Where the filiceous minerals and the lime-ftone are intermixed, the latter is always corroded, full of cavities, and its irregular cells are filled with calcareous marle. The effential cha- raCter of this formation is, that it contains frefh-water and land fhells, nearly all of which belong to genera that now live in our morafles; but it contains no marine fhells, at leaft in fuch places as are diftant from the fubjacent marine formation.» Of the fhells, the potamides, helicites, and limneus corneus, are the petrifaétions that moft frequently charaéterife this fecond frefh-water formation: the cyclof- toma mummia has never been found in it. There are alfo the following vegetable and other remains: dicotyledonous wood petrified with filica, {tems of arundo or tipha, arti- culated ftems refembling the thorn, pediculated ovoidal grains, canaliculated cylindrical grains, olive-fhaped bodies with an irregular ftreaked furface. The firft or lowett frefh-water formation, on the contrary, has its chara¢teriftic petrifa@tions, but never contains potamides or helicites. The fecond frefh-water formation extends for thirty leagues to the fouth of Paris; and a fimilar formation has been met with in the departments of Cher, Allier, Nievre, Cantal, Puy-de-Dome, Tarn, Lot, and Garonne, in the fouth-eatt of France; and, more lately, the fame interefting forma- tion has been difcovered in the Roman ftates in Tufcany, and in the vicinity of Ulm, Mayence, Silefia, and in fome parts of Spain. 11. Alluvial Soil—This appears alfo to be a depofit from frefh water: it confifts of varioufly coloured fand, marle, and clay, and of intermixtures of the three, coloured brown and black, with carbonaceous matter; alfo of relled mafles of different kinds. What particularly charatterifes this alluvial foil is the occurrence of large organic remains, as trunks of trees, with bones of elephants, oxen, deer, and other large mammalia. Although this formation is new, in comparifon with thofe we have juft defcribed, yet it is of high antiquity with regard to man, as its formation extends to a period not far removed from the earlieft date of our hiftory, when the earth fupported vegetables and animals different from thofe that at prefent live in thefe or other countries of the globe. The alluvial fubftances around Paris occur in two different fituations: they either cover the bottom of vallies, and confift of fand, loam, or peat ; or they form wide extended plains of gravel and fand, which lie high above the prefent river-courfe. It is difficult to diftinguith the alluvial mud, fituated at a diftance from the vallies, from the frefh-water formation ; and it even, in fome places, feems to pafs into it. It appears, however, to be older than that of the vallies. Strata, in many refpedts fimilar to thofe of the Paris and London bafins, alfo occur in other parts of Europe, but have not been accurately examined. Nor have we any correct account of the upper {trata bordering the A ppenines in Italy: thefe are known to contain, in great abundance, the foffile bones of elephants, rhinocerofes, hippopotami, whales, chacalots, and dolphins. A calcareous breccia occurs in many of the ftratified lime-ftone rocks that border the Mediterranean fea: it is not ftratified, but fiils up fiflures and chafms. The breccia confifts of fragments of lime-ftone (not water-worn or rounded), intermixed with the bones of ruminating animals and land-fhells, cemented together by an ochry calcareous fubftance. Mott, but not all, of the bones belong to {pecies of quadrupeds now exilting in the vicinity. Ac- cording to Cuvier, the bones and fragments of rock fell into the rents of the rocks fucceffively, and became united together by the accumulation of {parry matter. The formation of thefe breccias is probably recent, compared with that of the upper ftratified rocks, or even the alluvial foil that contains remains of unknown animals; but it may 9 ftill Dar {ull be regarded as of ancient date, fince nothing fhews that fimilar breccias are formed at the prefent day: and thofe of Corfica contain alfo remains of unknown animals. In fele@ting foffile remains to chara¢terife ftrata, we mu{t moft carefully diftinguifh thofe which are imbedded in the original rock from thofe which occur in fiflures, or cavities, that have been fubfequently clofed or filled up, as the latter may fometimes be of very recent date. Srrata Seams. Thofe partings or divifions that run parallel with the {trata are fo called by fome geologitts, to diftinguifh them from the oblique or perpendicular rents by which a itratum of ftone is generally divided. The per- pendicular rents that run in the direGtion of the dip of a ftratum, are provincially called /lines ; and the crofs rents, cutters. See Coat and STRATA. STRAT AGEM, TPATNY NLM formed from SPUTNYEW, I lead, or command an army, a military wile, or a device in war, furprifing or deceiving an enemy. Stratagems, or delufions practifed towards an enemy, free from perfidy either in words or a€tions, or {nares laid for him confiftent with the rights of war, have always been acknowledged lawful, and have had often a great fhare in the glory of celebrated commanders ; though arti- fices of this kind have in various inftances proved untfuccefs- ful. In the ufe of itratagems, however, we fhould regard not only the faith due to'an enemy, but alfo the rights of humanity, and avoid doing things, the introduétion of which would be pernicious to mankind. Some nations, even the Romans, for a long time profefled to defpife every kind of artifice, furprife, or ftratagem, in war; and others have proceeded fo far as to give notice of the time and place for giving battle. This was the practice of the ancient Gauls. (See Livy.) It is faid of Achilles, that he was for fight- ing openly, and not of a temper to have made one of thofe who were fhut up in the famous wooden horfe, which proved fatal to the Trojans. €¢ Tile non inclufus equo, Minerve Sacra mentito, mali feriatos Troas, et letam Priami choreis Fellerat Aulam : Sed palam captis gravis, &c.’’ Hor. lib. iv. Odyif. vi. In this condué&t there was more generofity than difcretion. It would indeed be very laudable, if, as in the frenzy of duels, the only bufinefs was to difplay perfonal courage ; but a war is made to defend our country, to profecute by force what is unjuttly denied us; and the fure means are alfo the moft commendable, provided they be not unlawful and odious. (Virg. /En. ii. v. 390.) The contempt of artifice, {tratagem, and furprife, proceeds often, as in the cafe of Achilles, from a noble confidence in perfonal valour and ftrength; and it muft be owned, that when an enemy may be defeated with open force, in a pitched battle, there are greater hopes of having quelled and reduced him to fue for peace, than if the advantage was owing to furprife ; as Livy (lib. xlu. cap. 47.) makes thofe generous fenators fay, who did not approve of the manner of proceeding apne Perfeus, as not altogether fincere. Therefore, when plain and open courage may fecure a victory, there are occafions when it is preferable to artifice, becaufe the advan- tages gained to the ftate are more folid and permanent. Vattel’s Law of Nations, &c. b. iii. The ancients dealt very much in flratagems ; the moderns wage war more openly, and on the fquare. Frontinus has made a collection of the ancient {tratagems of war. ATRATARITHMOMETRY, formed from spaz0s, par © army, «S03, number, and jerpov, meafure, in War, the art of drawing up an army, or any part of it, in any given geo- metrical figure; and of exprefling the number bs men con- tained in fuch a figure, as they ftand in array, either near at hand, or at any diltance affigned. STRATEGUS, spareyos, in Antiquity, an officer among the Athenians, of which there were two chofen yearly, to command the troops of the {tate. Plutarch fays, there was one chofen from out of each tribe ; but Pollux feems to fay, they were chofen indif- ferently out of the people. The people themfelyes made the choice; and that on the laft day of the year, in a place called Pnyx. The two ftrategi did not command together, but took their turns day by day: as we find from Hero- dotus and Cornelius Nepos. Sometimes, indeed, as when a perfon was found of merit vaftly fuperior, and exceed- ingly famed in war, the command was given to him alone : but it was ever a rule, not to put any perfon in the office but whofe eftate was in Attica, and who had children, that there might be fome hoftages and fecurities for his conduét and fidelity. ‘ Conftantine the Great, befides many other privileges granted to the city of Athens, honoured its chief magiftrate with the title of Meas EreaInlo:, Magnus Dux. STRATFORD, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in Coos county, New Hamphhire, on the E. bank of Con- necticut river, incorporated in 1773, and containing 339 inhabitants ; 58 miles above Hanover.—Alfo, a pleafant poft-town of Conne€ticut, in Fairfield county, on the W. fide of Stratford river, containing two places for public worfhip, and 2895 inhabitants; 14 miles S.W. of New Haven. This townfhip, the “ Cupheag” of the Indians, was fettled in 1638, principally from Maflachufetts.—Alfo, a river formed by the jun@ion of the Houfatonick and Naugatuc. See HousaTonick. STRATEFORD-upon-Avon, a town of Warwickfhire, Eng- land, is noted, in the literary annals of Great Britain, as the birth-place of the ineftimable Shak{peare ; and is alfo pofleffed of confiderable intereft, from its local hiftory and fituation. It is a large, populous, and refpeétable town ; but though in a manufacturing diltria@, is neither annoyed nor benefited by manufaGtories of any defcription. The town occupies a confiderable {pace, and is difpofed in twelve principal ftreets, on the weftern bank of the river Avon ; over which is a long bridge of fourteen arches. The great road from London to Birmingham pafles through the northern fide of the town: other turnpike-roads branch off towards Warwick, Coventry, and Alcetter; and to dif- ferent parts of Northamptonfhire, Oxfordfhire, Worcetter- fhire, and Gloucefterfhire.—In 1811, according to the population report, the town and parifh of Stratford con- tained 563 houfes, and 2842 inhabitants. The exiftence of this town may be traced to a period as remote as three centuries anterior to the Norman con- ueft ; at which time, a monattery exifted here in the pof- feflion of AEthelard, a viceroy of the Wiccians ; fuppofed to have been founded foon after the converfion of the Saxons to the Chriftian faith. In the commencement of the eighth century, this convent was annexed to the bifhopric of Wor- cefter ; when the manor of Stratford obtained fome degree of confequence, and was rated in the Norman furvey at the fum of 25/. In the reign of Richard I., a charter was granted for a weekly market on Thurfdays, which is {till continued: this was followed by feveral other grants for fairs, of which there are now three annually. In the time of queen Elizabeth, this town was greatly dilapidated by fire, and in the fucceeding reign, was again in imminent danger STR danger of undergoing the fame fate. Thefe ravages, at a period when its ep aye were chiefly conitructed of wood, mutt have been in the highett degree fearful and alarming. The civil war of the 17th century, was an important period in the hiltory of all the principal towns in Warwickhhire. In 1642-3, a party of the royalifts was ftationed at Strat- ford, but were driven from the town by the fuperior force of the parliament’s army ; who deftroyed one arch of the great bridge, to prevent the returning incurfions of their op- ponents. This precaution, however, failed; the loyalitts again approached Stratford, and it afterwards became the refidence of the queen, Henrietta Maria, till fhe departed to meet Charles I. near Edgehill. The principal buildings in this town are, the great bridge, already noticed; the church; the chapel of the Holy Crofts; the town-hall; and a feat of lord Middleton. The church, which is collegiate, though the college buildings are now deftroyed, is a f{pacious and venerable {tru€ture, dedicated to the holy Trinity; of a cruciform defcription, with a fquare tower at the interfection of the tranfept, of curious and early archite&ture, upon which is raifed a ftone fpire. The interior confifts of a nave, two aifles, a tranfept, and a chancel ; and contains fome curious and interetting relics of {culptural antiquity. On the north wall of the chancel, are the monument and butt of the great poet, a particular de- {cription of which, with his life, are inferted in a previous art of this work, under the article SHAKsPEARE. Several ge monuments of the families of Combe, Clopton, &c. are alfo preferved in this church. Againtt the north wall of the Lady’s chapel, is one adorned with armorial enfigns, con- fitting of two figures in alabafter, of William Clopton, efq. in armour, and Anne, daughter of fir George Griffeth, his con- fort; bearing on the flab, the dates of 1592 and 1596. — Another monument of the fame family, with alabafter figures, coloured to refemble life, is ereGted againft the eaft wall of the fame chapel, to the memory of George, earl of ‘Totnefs, and baron of Clopton, with his countefs, bearing the dates of 1629 and 1636. The chancel contains a monu- mental effigy of Mr. John Combe, who is traditionally faid to have been fatirized by Shakfpeare, in an epitaph written upon him in his life-time. From the fituation of this church, on the margin of the Avon, it is fuppofed by Leland, that it is built on the fcite of the monaftery of Streeteford : and Dugdale thinks that, with the exception of the fouth aifle, it was ere€ted about the time of William I. The guild of the Holy Crofs, a fraternity partly civil, and partly religious, was eftablifhed here as a public inftitution in the year 1269, by Giffard, bifhop of Wor- cefter, under the name of “ The Hofpital of the Holy Crofs in Stratford.” This fraternity had alfo particular municipal privileges granted them. The chapel of thefe brethren, excepting the chancel, was rebuilt in the latter part of the reign of Henry VII. by fir Hugh Clopton ; at is a handfome {tru€ture, in the ornamented {tile of the age, and contains feveral curious paintings in frefco on its walls. Drawings have been made of thele, and etchings publifhed by Mr. Fifher, coloured after the originals. Attached to this building are a hall for the brethren of the guild, alms- houfes for twenty-four poor perfons of both fexes, and a free grammar-[chool for children, natives of the borough. The -guild and fraternity were diffolved at the general fuppreffion of religious houfes; but the {chool and alms-houfes are yet continued, and the guildhall is ufed for the meetings of the corporation. New-Place, at one period a principal building in the town, wae originally ereéted by fir Hugh Clopton, in the time of Henry VI{.; and after pafling through the family of Vor. XXXIV. STR Underhill, was, in 1597, bought by Shak{peare, who firtt gave it the name of New-Place, which it retained till its demolition in 1759, foon after the deftruétion of the famous mulberry-tree. The town-hall, firft erected in 1633, was a lofty edifice, built on femi-cireular arches, and {upported by round columns, with a cupola on the top. Above was a room, ufed as a magazine for arms and ammunition ; which being in the year 1642 much damaged by the ex- plofion of a barrel of gunpowder, was partly taken down in 1767, and the prefent building ere&ted in the year follow- ing. This, from the circumftance of its being dedicated at Garrick’s jubilee, in 1769, to the memory of Shakfpeare, was then denominated Shakfpeare Hall. The building is of the Tufcan order, containing a room of 60 feet in length, decorated with large paintings, particularly two, by Wilfon and Gainfborough, of the inimitable poet, and of Garrick, by whom they were prefented in 1769. The outfide of the hall is alfo ornamented with a ftatue of the ** Warwick- fhire Bard,” likewife given by the fame celebrated cha- racter. Below the great room are the kitchens, and two dungeons, or places of confinement. The houfe in which the great poet was born, is partly {tanding in Henley-ftreet. It is now converted into two, although originally but one tenement ; and otherwife altered by modern repairs. Strat- ford-upon-Avon is in the parifh and divifion of Old Strat- ford, and hundred of Barlichway, having feparate jurifdic- tion, and is governed by a mayor, recorder, high fteward, twelve aldermen, twelve capital burgefles, a town-clerk, and other officers. Stratford-upon-Avon is pofleffed of many local advan- tages, and from its fituation upon the great road leading from London to Holyhead, from the numerous other roads which meet at this place, and from its having a navigable river from the Severn, and a lately completed canal from hence to that ef the Worcelter and Birmingham, which thus opens a communication by water with the northern part of the kingdom, it may be naturally expected that Stratford will become a flourifhing town, Independently of Shakfpeare, and others of not mean, though far inferior note, we find feveral highly refpeétable charaéters, to whom this town has given birth and name ; viz. John de Stratford, archbifhop of Canterbury, lord chancellor of England, and regent of the kingdom, in the reign of Edward III.; Robert de Stratford, his brother, alfo lord chancellor of England, and bifhop of Chichefter, which fee he filled twenty-five years; and Ralph de Strat- ford, nephew of the above prelates, and bifhop of London in the fame memorable reign; men who feverally make a very confpicuous figure in the hiftory of that eventful eriod. r It remains to be noticed, that in this town was celebrated Garrick’s jubilee to the honour of Shak{peare in the year 1769, a performance which very much abforbed the public attention. It continued three days, though the inceffant rains confiderably obftru€ted the intended ceremonies, as well as thofe which were exhibited. Mr. Garrick was peculiarly eminent in his recital of the “* Ode,”’ which gave unbounded fatisfaGtion.—Hiftory and Antiquities of Strat- ford-upon-Avon, by R. B. Wheler, 8vo. 1806. Eight en- gravings. Guide to Stratford-upon-Avon, by R. B. Wheler, 8vo. 1814, with a plan of the town. Srratrorp, Fenny. See Fenny Stratford. Srratrorp, Stony, a market-town in the hundred and deanery of Newport, in the county of Buckingham, Eng- land, is fituated on the Roman road called Watling-ftreet, 52 miles diftant from London, in the great road to Chetter and Liverpool. The houfes, mo are of free-ftone, ea t j ten STR tend about a mile on each fide of the road. ‘Till of late years, the eaft fide of the town was in the parifh of Wolver- ton, and the welt fide in that of Calverton. They are now two diftin& parifhes, denominated St. Mary Magdalen, or the eaft fide of Stony Stratford, and St. Giles, or the weft fide. A market was originally granted for this town to the Veres in 1460, and in 1663, Simon Bennett, lord of the manor of Calverton, procured a charter for a market (which is {till held on Friday), and four fairs: there are now only three. ‘I'he town has twice fuftained much injury by fire ; firft in the year 1736, when 53 houfes were burnt down; fecond in 1742, which confumed 113 houfes, and the body of the church of St. Mary Magdalen, which has never been rebuilt. The tower, whichefcaped the flames, is yet ftanding. The damage was eltimated at 10,000/., towards which, 4293/. were collected by a brief, and nearly 3000/. by fub- {cription. The church of St. Giles was originally built as a chantry chapel in 1451, and was endowed in 1482. ‘This church (except the tower) was rebuilt in 1776, by Mr. Hiorne of Warwick. Near this ftruéture is a neat market- place. According to the returns under the population act of 1811, the Eatt fide parifh contained 113 houfes, 520 in- habitants ; the Weft fide parifh 211 houfes, 968 inhabitants ; making a total of 1488 perfons, occupying 324 houfes. The chief fupport of the town is derived from the number of travellers who are continually pafling through it: the principal employment of the women is lace-making. The inhabitants are divided into feveral religious deno- minations: the greater number are Baptifts, who have a meeting-houfe in the town: the Independents have a place of worthip at Potter’s Perry, a neighbouring village. A guild was founded in the town, in 1481, by John Edy and others. Here are feveral charitable eftablifhments, parti- eularly one of 70/. per annum for apprenticing poor children. In 1786, two Sunday-{fchools were opened, in which up- wards of 300 children receive the rudiments of education, under the fuperintendance of the minilter, churchwardens, and a committee of fubfcribers. At the lower end of the town formerly ttood a crofs, in memory of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., but it was deftroyed in the civil wars. At this town Richard III., then duke of Gloucefter, took pof- feffion of the perfon of the unfortunate young monarch Edward V., who was then with his attendants at an inn. An aét for paving and lighting Stony Stratford paft in 1801. — Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol.i. Beauties of England and Wales, vol.i. by John Britton and E. W. Brayley. StratFoRD-/- Bow, a parifh in the hundred of Offulfton, and county of Middlefex, England, was formerly a part of the parifh of Stepney, but feparated from it in 1720. The name of Stratford is derived, in common with other places fo entitled, from the courfe of an ancient ford, on a Roman highway. Its diftinétion ef Bow, according to Leland, was given on account of a bridge ‘ arched like unto a bowe,’”’ which was built acrofs the river Lea at a re- mote period. This parifh extends along the eaftern banks of the above river, whilft Hackney, Bethnal-Green, Step- ney, and Bromley, bound it on the other fide. It contains about 456 acres of land; of which 218 are arable, and the remainder is occupied by paftures, marfhes, and nurfe- ries. The foil confifts almoit entirely of loam, fand, and gravel. The principal manufacture of the parifh is calico- printing; which, like that of dyeing fcarlet for the Eaft India company, was once in a very flourifhing ftate. Strat- ford was alfo at one period celebrated for its number of bakers, and fora manufaCtory of china, which was on the eaftern fide of the river. The parifh church, dedicated te ST St. Mary, was built, as a chapel of eafe to Stepney, in the early part of the 14th century, by king Edward III., ona piece of ground formerly belonging to the highway. The original itruéture of flint and ftones, yet remaining, con- fifts of a nave, chancel, and two aifles, feparated from the nave by o¢tagonal pillars and pointed arches: there is alfo a plain {quare tower of ftone. ‘This chapel was confecrated as a parifh-church in March 1719. ‘The parifh of Strat- ford-le-Bow, in 1811, contained 384 houfes, and 2259 in- habitants. Within its precinéts, at a place denominated Old-ford, are the remains of an ancient manfion, ufually called king John’s palace, of which only one gateway, of brick, is now ftanding, with the bafes of the arches under the gate, adorned with figures of angels holding fhields. At Old-ford are now ereéted the grand and extenfive build- ings belonging to the Eaft London water-works, for the purpofe of better fupplying the inhabitants of the adjacent parifhes and hamlets. —Lyfons’s Environs of London, vol. ii. 1795, and Supplement, 4to. 1811. STRATH, a term ufed in Scotland, and generally figni- fying a valley broader than a dale or glen, and receiving this appellation from a river pafling through it, as Stratl- bogie, &c. or fome diltinguifhing chara@teriltic, as Strath- more, the great valley, &c. Srratu, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of Skye; 10 miles S. of Torrimore Head. N. lat, °14!, W. long. 5° 54!. STRATHAM, a townfhip of America, in Rocking- ham county, New Hampfhire, incorporated in 1693, and containing 874 inhabitants: fituated on the road from Fortfmouth to Exeter; 10 miles W. of the former, and 4 miles E. of the latter. STRATH-AVON, a town in the middle ward and fhire of Lanark, Scotland, was formerly denominated Evan- dale and Avondale. It is fituated on the banks of a rivulet called Pomilion, which falls into the Avon about a mile be- low the town. In the year 1450 it was createda burgh of barony, with the ufual privileges, and endowed with an extenfive commonty, all of which have for a confiderable period become private property. Here are a general pott- office and a parochial fchool; but having no public funds, Strath-Avon has no other government than a baillie, ap- pointed by the duke of Hamilton: here are alfo a weekly market, and five annual fairs. The number of the in- habitants of the town of Strath-Avon, in 1811, was com- puted to be 2439, who were principally employed in the manufaéture of cotton. The church was rebuilt in 1772. At one end of the town was formerly a cattle, raifed on a rocky eminence, and furrounded by a itrong wall, with turrets at certain diftances. Its entrance was fecured by a bridge. This, and the cattle of Arran, were al- ternately the refidences of Anne, duchefs of Hamilton, during the proteCtorfhip of Oliver Cromwell. After her aeceate which took place in 1716, the cattle of Evandale being negle&ted, is now become a mafs of ruins. The parifh and barony of Avondale is about twelve miles in length, and from five to fix in breadth: the foil confiits chiefly of clay and loam, whilft mofs, black-moor, and heath abound in the hilly parts. No account of this parifh is found previous to 1333, when it was laid wafte by the Englifh army, after a battle near Loudon-hill. On the fouth fide of the river Avon, a Roman road may be traced for feveral miles. Here are alfo fome chapels dedicated to different faints.—Carlifle’s Topographical Diétionary of Scotland, vol. ii. gto. 1813. Beauties of Scotland, vol. iii. STRATHBEG, a river of Scotland, in the county of Sutherland, which runs into loch Eribol. STRATH- | STR STRATHBOGIE. See Honttey. STRATH-BRAND, a valley of Scotland, in thie county of Perth, W. of Dunkeld. : STRATHMORE, a river of Scotland, in the county of Sutherland, which runs into loch Hope. STRATHNAVER, a diftri& of Scotland, in the N.E. part of Sutherland. STRATHY, a river of Scotland, in the county of Sutherland, which runs into the North fea; 3 miles S.S.E. of Strathy Head. Srratuy Head, a cape of Scotland, on the N. coaft of the county of Sutherland ; 31 miles E. of Cape Wrath. N. lat. 58° 33’. W. long. 3° 50’. STRATIFICATION, in Chemifiry, an operation by which bodies are placed in a condition to a& mutually upon each other, by being arranged layer by layer, ttratum fuper ftratum, as is practifed by metallurgifts, and marked in books of chemiftry with SSS. STRATIFICATION, in Geology, the arrangement of mineral matter in parallel layers or beds. See SrRarTa. STRATIOTES, in Botany, fuppofed to be derived from spelo:, an army; the water spatiwrns of Diofcorides, which appears to be our Englith {pecies, called Frefh-water Soldier, having rigid {word-like leaves, and forming, as it were, an mare phalanx on the furface of the water. Diof- corides fays it floats on the water, living without roots ; he not having obferved the long thread-like ftalk, by which each tuft of leaves is fixed to the root at the bottom. He well compares the foliage to that of Houfeleek, though fomewhat larger.—Linn. Gen. 277. Schreb. 698. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 820. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 579. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 27. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 402. Jufl. 67. Lamarck Di&. v. 7. 464. Iiluftr. t. 489. Gartn. t.14. (Damafonium; Schreb. 242. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 276. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 331.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria Hexagynia. Nat. Ord. Palme, Linn. Hydrocharides, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. Sheath inferior, of one leaf more or lefs divided, varioufly ribbed or keeled, permanent. Pe- rianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular at the bafe ; its limb in three deep, equal, ereét fegments, deciduous. Cor. Petals three, roundifh, rather fpreading, twice as long as the perianth. Stam. Filaments from fix to twenty, in- ferted into the receptacle of the flower, fhort, awl-thaped ; anthers vertical, linear, fimple. Pj. Germen inferior ; elliptic-oblong ; ftyles fix, deeply cloven, as long as the ftamens; ftigmas fimple. eric. Berry coated, oval, of from fix to ten cells, and as many angles, tapering at each end. Szeds numerous, obovate, in two rows. Eff. Ch. Sheath cloven. Perianth fuperior, in three deep fegments. Petals three. Berry with fix, or more, cells. Obf. The anthers are occefionally imperfe& in fome flowers, the ftigmas in others. The parts of the flower differ widely, with refpe& to number, in different {pecies. Damafonium of Schreber, Willdenow, &c. has a lefs deeply, though more numeroufly, divided fheath, with a correfpond- ing number of angles and fegments, its {tamens moreover being but fix or eight, while the cells of the fruit are more numerous than in the original Stratiotes. All things con- fidered, we prefer keeping this genus entire, as well as leav- ing it in the clafs where Linnzus, after repeatedly con- fidering the fubjeét, had determined to let it remain. This genus is very nearly allied to Hydrocharis. See that article. 1. S. aloides. Water Aloe, or Common Water Soldier. Linn. Sp. Pl. 754. Willd. n. 1. Fi. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 379. Mill. Illuftr. t. 50, Fl. Dan. t. 337. (Mili- STR taris aizoides; Ger. Em. 825. Lob. Ic. v. 1. 395.)— Leaves {word-fhaped, channelled, with a prominent rib, and fringed with fharp prickles.—Native of ditches, ponds, and flow ftreams in the north of Europe. Abundant in the fenny parts of England: flowering in July, and fometimes entirely occupying the furface of the water, excluding all other plants. This Aerh is truly ftoloniferous and perennial, though each root flowers but once. The parent plant, rooted in the mud after flowering, fends out buds of leavesy at the ends of long runners. ‘Thefe rife to the furface, form long fibrous dependent roots, bloffom, and then fink to the bottom, where they implant themfelves in the mud, fometimes ripen feeds, and always become the parents of another race of young offsets. The /eaves are all radical, forming a ftar-like tuft, as in Aloe, Sedum, Saxifraga, &c. They are fmooth, brittle, vafcular, and pellucid, about a {pan long, with very fharp faw-like teeth. Flower—flalke feveral, fhort, compreffed, {mooth, each bearing one erect white fower, an inch in diameter, from a deeply divided, or tayo-leaved, compretled fheath. Stamens twenty, con- neted at their bafe. Styles fix. 2. S. acoroides. Indian Water Soldier. Linn. Suppl. 268. Willd. n.2. (Acorus marinus; Rumph. Amboin. vy. 6. 191. t. 75. f. 2.) Leaves {word-fhaped, flat ; lightly ferrated at the end. Sheath bearded,—Native of the iflands of the Indian ocean, wherever the fhore is flat and fandy. The root is perennial, fomewhat tuberous and jointed, like that of an Acorus. Leaves radical, four feet long, crowded, linear, thick-edged, very {mooth, entire, rounded at the end, and fomewhat ferrated thereabouts. Sta/é fimple, fingle-flowered, {mooth, three or four feet high. Sheath of two leaves; their keels bearded with fibres towards the top. Petals flaccid, white, tinged with red. Filaments {carcely any. Anthers twelve, linear, acute, compreffed. Berry ovate, compretled, hairy, as big as a hen’s egg, of from four to fix cells. Seeds fourteen or more. There ap- pears no reafon to think, with Willdenow, that the anthers above defcribed are ne@aries. 3. S. nympheoides. Shield-bearing Water Soldier “ Humboldt and Bonpland MSS.” Willd. n. 3. — « Leaves roundifh, peltate, floating as well as the ftem.’? —Found in waters at the Caraccas. Root perennial. Sten round, floating. Leaves entire. Sheaths axillary, of two leaves, with one or two flowers, which are twice the fize of §. alvides. 4. S. alifmoides. Broad-leaved Water Soldier. Linn. Sp. Pl. 754. Mant. 405. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 27. (Damafonium indicum; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 276. - 331- Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. 45. t. 185. Curt. Mag. t.1z01. Ottel ambel; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. II. 95. t. 46.)—Leaves broad-ovate, entire. Sheath flightly divided, with feveral dilated ribs. —Native of ponds in the Eaft Indies. Dr. Roxburgh fent it to the late lady Amelia Hume, in whofe ftove it flowered in the autumn of 1804. The root is tuberous, perennial, with many long fimple fibres. Stem none. Leaves on long radical foot- flalks, almoft heart-fhaped, bluntifh, entire, many-ribbed, {mooth. Flower-flalks fimple, angular, almoft as long as the leaves, each bearing a folitary white flower, of very fhort duration, not unlike a Trillium in fize and general afpeét, The heath, an inch or more in length, is clofely attached to the germen, cloven at the top into two or three larger fegments, with fome {mall intermediate ones. Its fides are dilated into two or three longitudinal wings: we could fcarcely find more, though colonel Hardwicke’s In- dian drawings reprefent from five to feven or eight. Sta- mens eight, with vertical, linear, orange anthers. Styles Tit 2 eight, STR eight, with cloven, linear, yellow fligmas. Berry cylindri- cal, winged by the fheath, having eight cells, and numerous elliptical /eeds. This {pecies being fo very variable as to number, in the parts of fructification, and two of the foregoing ones dif- fering fo much from each other in that particular, prove the charaéters derived from hence, in this genus, to be of no value. S. aloides moreover, in itfelf, overthrows whatever depends on fexual diftinG@tions. ‘The only mark by which Damafonium could be kept feparate, is the /heath being of one leaf, very flightly divided. The number of its lobes and angles is too uncertain to be depended upon. STRATO, in Biography, a philofopher of Lampfacus, who fucceeded 'Theophratius in the Peripatetic fchool, and took charge of it in the 3d year of the 123d Olympiad, B.C. 286, and prefided in it 18 years, with a high degree of reputation for learning and eloquence ; and from his attach- ment to natural philofophy, he obtained the appellation of « Phyficus.”? Ptolemy Philadelphus chofe him for his pre- ceptor, and recompen{ed his fervices with a prefent of 80 talents. None of his works have reached our time. His contlitution was feeble, and it is faid that he loft the powers of perception before his death, which happened about the end of the 127th Olympiad. In his opinion concerning matter, Strato departed effentially from the fyf- tem both of Plato and Ariftotle, and he 1s faid to have nearly approached that fyltem of atheifm, which excludes the Deity from the formation of the world. From Cicero (De Nat. Deor. 1. i. c. 13.) we learn, that he conceived all divine power to be feated in nature, which poflefles the caufes of produétion, increafe, and diminution, but is wholly deftitute of fenfation and figure: and the fame author, in his Tufcul. Quztt., informs us, that he had no- thing in common with the atomic principles of Democritus, but afcribes every thing to certain natural motions and libra- tions. Brucker gives the following abftraét of his opi- nions: that there is inherent in nature a principle of motion, or force, without intelligence, which is the only caufe of the produGtion and diflolution of bodies: that the world has neither been formed by the agency of a deity, diftiné from matter, nor by an intelligent animating principle, but has arifen from a force innate to matter, originally excited by accident, and fince continuing to a&, according to the peculiar qualities of natural bodies. It does not appear, that he exprefsly either denied or allerted the exiftence of a divine nature; but in excluding all idea of deity from the formation of the world, it cannot be doubted, that he in- dire@ly excluded from his fyitem the dotrine of the ex- iftence.of a Supreme Being. Strato alfo taught, that the feat of the foul is in the middle of the brain, and. that it only a&ts by means of the fenfes. Brucker ‘by Enfield, vol. i. STRATONICEA, in Ancient Geography, a. town of Afia Minor, in the mountains of Caria; in which was a theatre. It was founded by the Macedonians, and derived its name from Stratonice, the wife of Antiochus Soter. It preferved its liberty for a long time under the Romans, and the emperor Adrian partly rebuilt it. It was encom- pafled by ramifications of mount Taurus. Jupiter Chry- faoerus had a temple near this city, where deputies of the inhabitants of the towns of Caria annually aflembled to offer facrifices, and to tranfact the affairs of their federative republic. STRATONICIA, or Srraronicra, a town of Afia Minor, near mount Taurus; called Stratonicia ad Taurum by pea in order to diftinguifh it from the Stratonicea of arla. STR STRATONICUS, in Ancient Mufic and Biograph; ’ a famous mufician in the fervice of Ptolemy Auletes, the twelfth king of Egypt, who, in a difpute with this monarch on the fubjeét of mufic, had the courage to tell his majefty, who contemned all playing but his own, that “ to wield as {ceptre and perform well on the flute, were very different things. It is faid that he gave leffons to Telephanes, and that Niocles, king of Cyprus, had him put to death by poifon, in punifhment for the numerous epigrams which he had written againft him, Phanias, the Peripatician, in his account of the poets, {peaks of Stratonicus as the greateft performer on the lyre of his time. In Athenzus, 1. viii. c. 11, from Phanias the Peripatician, we are aflured, that Stratonicus the Athenian had confider- ably increafed the number of ftrings on the lyre, and in- vented new founds, (not chords, as M. Laborde tells us,) as well as their notation. This muft have been a different mufician from the difputant with Ptolemy. Athenzus does not inform us when he lived; but it was probably {ubfequent to the great muficians of antiquity, as he is mentioned no where elfe. STRATONIS Insuta, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated near the entrance of the Arabic gulf. Strabo. STRATONISI, ir Geography, three {mall iflands in the Grecian Archipelago; 10 miles S. of Specia. N. lat. 37° 16’. E. long. 23° 25). STRATOR, among the Romans, an officer who took care ef the horfes furnifhed by the provincials for the public fervice. Srrator is alfo ufed for an officer in the army, whofe bufinefs it was to take care there was nothing in the roads to hinder or incommode the army in its march. For which purpofe, he ordered banks and {teep eminences to be levelled ; laid bridges, cut down woods, and affilted the quarter-matter to find out places proper for tranfporting the army over rivers. Srraror is alfo ufed for an equerry, who held the bridle: of the prince’s horfe, and affifted him in mounting. This officer was by the Greeks called anaboleus. Srraror likewife denotes a furveyor of the highways. STRATOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in the higher part of Acarnania, on the river Achelous. Thucydides.—Alfo, a river of Afia, in Hyrcania, which had its fource in mount Caucafus.—Alfo, a town of Pelo- ponnefus, in Achaia. STRATTI, or Acror-Srrarti, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Grecian Archipelago. N. lat. 39°35’. E. long. 25° 12!. : STRATTON, a fmall market-town in the hundred of the fame name, and deanery of Trigg-Major, in the county of Cornwall, England, is fituated 18 miles from Launcefton, and 223 miles weft from London. The road into the county, by way of Stratton, was much frequented before the making the Cameiford turnpike-road, about the year 1760. A weekly market, which appears to have been held by prefcription, is kept on Tuefdays for corn and provifions ; and here are three cattle-fairs. The population return in 1811 was 219 houfes, occupied by 1094 perfons. Camden mentions this parifh as being celebrated for gardens and garlick ; there are now no gardens but fuch as are culti- vated for private ufe ; nor is it remarkable for the culture of garlick, though that artiele is occationally offered for fale in the market. The principal village in the parifh is the {mall fea-port of Bude, containing a few cottages, where families who vifit the coaft in fummer for fea-air and bathing STR bathing are accommodated with lodgings. There has of late years been a confiderable increafe in the trade of this place: the chief exports are timber, bark, and oats; the imports, coal and lime-ftone from Wales, and grocery, &c. from Briftol. The harbour, on account of its fands, 1s beft fuited to veffels from 50 to 60 tons ; but fome of from 80 to go tons occafionally enter it: one of upwards of go tons was built here in 1813. Great quantities of fea-fand are carried from Bude for manure, not only into the neighbouring arifhes, but to feveral places in the north of Devon. tratton derived fome degree of hittorical importance from the great victory obtained in its immediate vicinity, in the early part of the civil war, by the forces of Charles I., commanded by fir Ralph Hopton, over thofe of the par- liament, under the earl of Stamford. The latter was en- camped on a fteep hill, with thirteen pieces of cannon, and 5400 men; and early on the 16th of May, 1642, was attacked, with a very inferior force, by the royaliits, who afcended the hill in four places at once, and after a defperate confli&, met together on the fummit about 3 o’clock in the afternoon, having entirely cleared the hill of the enemy, and taken their camp, baggage, ammunition, and cannon. Sir Ralph, in confideration of his eminent fervices in this battle, which are fpecified in his patent, was created lord Hopton of Stratton. After his death, Charles 1I. (then in exile) in 1658 created fir John Berkeley, to whofe courage and good condu& the vittory has been chiefly attributed, baron Berkeley of Stratton: this title became extin& in 1773. In 1797, lord De Dunttanville was created baron Baflet of Stratton, with remainder to his daughter and her iffue male. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. ii. SrRaTTON, a townfhip of America, in Windham county, Vermont, about 15 miles N.E. of Bennington, containing 265 inhabitants. STRATUSCH, a river of Walachia, which runs into the Siret at Adzud. STRAVADIUM, in Botany, a moft barbarous name, taken from the Sam/travadi of the Hortus Malabaricus, and ufed by Juffieu, Gen. 326, to defignate a genus feparated by him from the Linnzan Eugenia, chiefly becaufe of its racemofe inflorefcence and angular drupa. It confilts of Eugenia racemofa and acutangula, with Butonica alba of Rumph. Amboin. v. 3, which, though quoted for the former by Linnzus, appears in Juflieu’s opinion to be diftin&. STRAVAGANZA, Ital. a word exalted into a mu- fical term by Vivaldi in the early part of the laft century. Vivaldi, a Venetian, and a mufician of the Lombard fchool, with much rapidity of bow and finger, was a voluminous compofer, not only of folos, fonatas, and concertos, for his own inftruments, but operas for the theatre and maffes for the church. In our younger days, the fifth concerto of Vivaldi, compofed of rattling paflages in perpetual femi- quavers, was the making of every player on the violin, who could mount into the clouds, and imitate not only the flight, but the whittling notes of birds. His lalt fet of twelve concertos are, with due propriety, ftiled his Stra- vaganze; being ftill fomewhat more extravagant, capri- cious, and eccentric than the reft. But this rapidity and difficulty are only comparative with the fober {trains of Corelli, Albinoni, Alberti, and Teffarini; it was all plain failing, at the rate of ten knots an hour; there was no difficulty of foftenuto, expreffion, or modulation to en- counter. See VivaLpr. STRAUBING, in Geography, a town, with a caftle, of Bavaria, fituated on the Danube, and containing a collegiate church,,and four convents, and having alfo a church without Sic the town; 43 miles N.W. of Paflau. E. long. 12° 3o!. STRAUBLICH, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 13 miles N.N.E. of Bamberg. STRAUCH GIDIUS, in Biography, a German ma- thematician,and Lutheran divine, was born at Wittenberg in 1632, and after a courfe of education in his native place, he removed to Leipfic, where he continued two years, taking, on his return, the degree of mafter of arts. In 1653 he became adjuné& of the philofophical faculty, difputing on the occafion ** De Periodo Juliano,’’? and on other chronological fubjeé&ts. In 1659 he was made pro- feflor of mathematics, and having obtained the degree of doétor in divinity, he was appeinted, in 1664, to be pro- feflor of hiftory. In 1669, having declined other invitations, he accepted the invitation of the fenate at Dantzic, to be profeflor of theology, and paftor of the church of the Holy Trinity, and removed thither ; but as he experienced much N. lat. 48° 44. _oppofition from the Catholic and Calviniftic inhabitants, he accepted, in 1675, a call to Hamburgh. In his voyage thither, he was captured and carried to Colberg. As foon as he recovered his liberty, he made an attempt to go to Hamburgh by land, but was arrefted at Stargard, by order of Frederic-William, ele€tor of Brandenburg, becaufe he had preached too violently againft the Calvinifts. On this occaiion he was thrown into prifon, where he remained three years, never during that time fhaving his beard ; and he might have been doomed to a longer confinement, if the people of Dantzic, and even the Calvinifts themfelves, had not interceded for him, and obtained his releafe in 1678. He then returned to Dantzic, regained his former employ- ments, and there died of the jaundice in 1682. At the requeft of the theological faculty at Wittenberg he wrote in defence of the Lutheran dotrine, for which he was a ftrenuous advocate. His mathematical works are, “* Geo- graphia Mathematica ;”’ “ DoGrina Aftrorum Mathema- tica ;”” “* Tabule per Univerfam Mathefin fummopere neceflariz ;””? ‘* Tabulz Sinuum et Tangentium et Loga- rithmorum.”” His other produétions’confift chiefly of dif- fertations relating to chronology and fcriptural fubjecs. Gen. Biog. STRAUERSDORFF, in Geography, a townof Auttria; g miles W. of St. Polten. STRAVIKO, a town of European Turkey, in Bul- garia, on the Black fea; 40 miles S.E. of Ifmail. STRAUSBERG, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark ; 33 miles W. of Cuftrin. N. lat. 52° 38/. E, long. 13° 53/.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county of Schwartzburg Rudolftadt; 6 miles W. of Sonderf- haufen. F, STRAUSFURTH, a town of Saxony, in Thuringia ; 4 miles S. of Weiflenfee. STRAUSSBERG, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark; 13 miles S.E. of Bernau. N. lat. 52° 37!. E. long. 13° 55!. STRAUSSENECK, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 12 miles S. of Windifch Gratz. STRAW, in Agriculture, the common name of the ftalk or ftem on which grain grows, and from which it is threfhed, or of any other fimilar material. The firft is an article of cattle food, which requires fome management in order to confume it to the greateft advantage, and with the moft economy. In employing it for ftore-cattle, or other ftock, it fhould conftantly be made ufe of when firft threfhed out ; as by keeping it gets mufly, and is not by any means eaten fo well or completely by cattle: in this view, the threfhing out large quantities at a time by the threfhing pa 4 an STRAW. and ftacking, or putting it up in other ways, is unfavourable to the perfeé& confumption of the fodder, and the thriving of the farm-ftock. There is likewife another point necef- fary to be regarded in refpeét to this article as fodder, which is, that the inferior forts fhould be firlt had recourfe to, and afterwards thofe of the better kind. And in giving it, too much fhould not be placed before the animals at once. It has been obferved by Mr. Marfhall, in his ** Rural Economy of Yorkthire,’’ that ftraw, of every kind, is there bound upon the threfhing floor. This, when ftraw is not ufed at the time of threfhing, would, he thinks, in any country, be good economy. Straw in truffles is much better to move, lies in lefs room, and retains its flavour longer than loofe ftraw does. {na country where cattle in winter are univerfally kept in the houfe, and foddered at ftated meal-times, the binding of {traw becomes, he thinks, effential to good management. Each trufs, provincially s¢ fold,’’ contains an armful, as much as the arms can con- veniently ‘¢ fold ;’’ and this is the ufual meal for a pair of cattle. Thus the bufinefs of ‘ foddering’’ is facilitated, and a walte of ttraw avoided. And further, it has been remarked by Mr. Young, that if the cattle are fed with ftraw, it fhould be done with attention. The belt farmers in Norfolk are generally agreed, he fays, that cattle fhould eat no ftraw, unlefs it be cut into chaff mixed with hay ; but, on the contrary, that they fhould be fed with fomething better, and have the ftraw thrown under them, to be trodden into dung: and he is much inclined to believe, that in mott, if not in all cafes, this maxim will prove a jut one. ‘The common cafes of ftraw-feeding are, of cows, young cattle, or black cattle juft brought in, and not yet put to fatting. With regard to cows, the food is certainly, he thinks, infufficient, and lets them down fo much in flefh, that when they calve, and are expected to yield produétively, they lofe a confiderable time, and that perhaps the molt valuable, in getting again into flefh, before they give their ufual quantity of milk; but if they have been well and fufficiently wintered, they are half fummered, and yield at once adequately. And that for young cattle, it is ftill worfe management ; for their growth is ftunted, and they never recover it. It is his opinion, that black cattle from poor mountains had better be put to ftraw than any other ftock; but here, again, care muft be taken that the fyftem be not deranged by it. If well fed, and the beafts be not large, they may be cleared off between harveft and the end of November ; but if they are wintered on {traw, this may not be effected, and the farmer may be forced to put himfelf to the expence of corn or oil-cake, to feed beafts not of a fize to pay well enough for thofe articles. The evil is lefs if he has plenty of turnips or cabbage; but for thefe he may have other applications. In fo far as regards the quality of the farm- yard dung, all this reafoning becomes {till more forcible ; for from ftraw-fed cattle, the farmer will, at the end of winter, find perhaps a large heap, of fo poor a quality, that ‘it will go but a little way in maturing his fields ; whereas, one load of dung made by fat or well-fed cattle, will be equal to two or three of fuch as have been fed poorly. But cut chaff, one half hay and the other half ftraw, anfwers very well, efpecially with fome fort of fucculent food. And it has been ftated by the author of the ‘ Synopfis of Hufbandry,”’ that bean-ftraw, if well harvelted, forms a very hearty and nutritious diet for cattle in the winter- time, and both oxen and horfes, when not worked, will thrive upon it: fheep alfo are very fond of browfing upon the pods, and the chaff is a very nutritious manger- meat. Mr. Young alfp fuggelts the great importance of putting beans in fufficiently early, and the reaping foom enough, as the {traw, well harvetted, is worth from 2/. to 3i. per acre; and that Mr. Arbuthnot’s teams, which were always hard-worked, never had a trufs of hay while the bean-{ftraw lafted. Pea-ftraw, or haulm, when well got in, is likewife, in a great meafure, equally nutritious, if cut into chaff, and given in that way as a fodder. However, it has been ftated by Mr. Marbhall, that he met with an idea that cattle may be fatiated with ftraw ; or, in other words, may be ferved with it in too great plenty. It has been obferved, that after a dry fummer, when ftraw is {carce, and the cattle have it dealt out to them regularly, in not too large quantities, they do better than when, after a plentiful year, it is thrown before them in profufion from the threfhing floor, not through the fuperior quality of the ftraw in a {carce year; as thefe effeGts have been obferved to be produced from the fame ftraw. This fubje& is by no means uninterefting to thofe who winter large quantities of cattle: he has obferved in Yorkfhire, where cattle are tied up, and of courfe are regularly fed, that they in general do better at itraw, than cattle in the fouth of England, where they go loofe among a much greater plenty ; but whether it proceed from the warmth, from their re(ting better, from the breed of cattle, or from their being regularly fed and eating with an appetite, he will not pretend to decide. But where this fort of fodder can be wholly confumed by the ftore-ftock, it is probably a better method to make ufe of it in that way, than by littering the yards with it, as the manure is without doubt much fuperior, and other articles, {uch as fern, &c. may, in many cafes, be provided as litter. And the quantity of manure, where an abundance of ftraw is at command, that may be raifed by littering animals that are feeding and fattening in the ftalls or yards, efpecially where much green food is ufed, is very great, and often of vaft importance to the farmer, as has been {tated in con- fidering the means of ftall-fattening animals. Therefore, the ufe of ftraw, both as the food of cattle and for litter in the yards, mu{t be of very great importance to the farmer in a great many inftances. See STaLu-Feeding. The fale of the wheat-ftraw, which is often permitted, is not unfrequently a matter of great confideration in dif- ferent fituations. The ufe of the cut ftraw, or haulm, of pulfe crops, has lately, too, been found very great in the feeding out or fattening different forts of cattle and other animals, It has been lately itated, by fir Humplirey Davy, that dry firaw of wheat, oats, barley, beans, and peas, and fpoiled hay, or any other fimilar kind of dry vegetable matter, is, in all cafes, ufeful manure. That, in general, fuch fubftances are made to ferment before they are em- ployed, though it may be doubted whether the practice fhould be indifcriminately adopted. In examining this material chemically, from four hundred grains of that of the dry barley kind, he obtained eight grains of matter foluble in water, which had a brown colour, and tafted like mucilage. And from the fame quantity of wheat-itraw he gained five grains of a fimilar fubftance. It is thought that there can be no donbt that the ftraw of different crops immediately ploughed into the ground, affords nourifhment to plants; but that there is an objec- tion to this method of ufing ftraw, from the difficulty of inclofing and completely burying fuch as is long, and from its rendering the hufbandry foul, or in a littery ftate. Where ftraw is made to ferment, it becomes a more I manageable oT R wnanageable manure ; but there is likewife, on the whole, a- at lofs of nutritive matter. More manure is perhaps, at is thought, fupplied for a fingle crop ; but the land is lefs improved than it would be, fuppofing the whole of the vegetable matter could be finely divided and mixed with the foil. It is ufual, it is faid, to carry ftraw that can be employed for no other purpofe to the dunghill, to ferment and decom- ofe ; but that it is worth experiment to afcertain, whether it may not be more economically applied when chopped {mall by a proper machine for the purpofe, and kept dry until it is ploughed in for the ule of acrop. In this cafe, though it would decompofe much more flowly, and produce lefs effe€t at firlt, yet its influence, it is thought, would be much mere lafting, and perhaps ultimately more beneficial. Srraw, Fea, Hacking of, the cutting up and reaping of the pea crop, in the haulm, in the field, when fown by the drill or hand, in the ftrewed manner, It is performed by means of two hooks of the reaping kind, by one of which the ftraw or haulm is held up from the ground, while it is cut off by the other in a fort of hacking mode, and then laid into imall heaps, or, as they are often termed, wads, Srraw and Hay Ropes for proteding and preferving Fruit- tree Bloffoms and other Crops, in Gardening, the means of guarding and fecuring them, by fuch materials, from the effets of fevere frofts, and other caufes of mifchief, injury, and deitruétion, to which they are liable and expofed. This is a method which is itated to have been pra€tifed with great fuccefs in the more northern parts of the ifland, in different papers inferted in the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticul- tural Society. It is to be effected, as foon as the buds of the trees hegin to have a turgid and {welled-out appearance, by placing and fixing up poles before the walls, about a foot from them, at from four to fix feet diftance from each other ; the lower ends being funk a little into the ground, and the upper ones rifing fo as juft to reach below the cop- ings of them; fecuring the tops of thofe at each end of the particular {paces or diltances, by means of a ftrong nail or hold-faft, to either the walls or copings, in order that the xopes may be kept tight and firm. Then, having the necef- fary quantity of itraw or hay ropes ready prepared, the work is begun by fixing one of them near the top to one,of the outfide poles, proceeding horizontally to the other, pafling the rope on from pole to pole, and taking a turn of it round each, until it is reached, where it is made fecure. When at eighteen or twenty inches lower down, another line of rope is begun again, and carried acrofs in exaély the fame manner; and fo on until within from eighteen inches to three feet, as may be requifite, of the ground is reached, when the work is completed. The method is faid to be both cheap, and, fo far as experience has gone, extremely efficacious. Befides, as the covering does not much inter- cept the rays of light or of the fun, it may be applied early, and be let remain, although the fruit be fet, until the wea- ther becomes fettled, towards the middle or end of the month of May. In the firft trial of this method, a peach- tree had been covered, on a wall where there were many others. A heavy fall of {now took place afterwards in the beginning of the above month, and on the morning after this fall, about five o’clock, the thermometer was at two degrees and a half below the freezing point: the confe- uence was the lofs of the whole uncovered crop, except a w fruit which were proteted by the foliage of the trees ; while the tree that was covered and protected produced a fine crop of fruit. As the writer is of opinion that the parts of fructifica- tion are not unfrequently hurt before the flower is expanded, STR he advifes that the ropes be put on at a fufficiently early period. Where poles are fearce, the ropes, it is faid, may be fixed in a perpendicular manner, the upper ends being faf- tened bya proper nail to the wall, and the lower or bottom ones by a peg firmly driven into the ground. But in this way, the ropes are very apt to beat off the flower-buds in times of high winds. The branches of different evergreens, as well as old fifh- nets, as thofe of the herring and other kinds, have been employed for the purpofe of protecting fruit-tree bloffoms, but nothing that has yet been tried has been found to an- {wer the end fo well as thefe kinds of ropes. Befides, they are cheap, and to be obtained in almott any fituation. How- ever, woollen nets, which are much recommended for this ufe by fome, the writer has never had the opportunity of trying. Such nets are probably too expenfive for common practice in thefe cafes. It has alfo been found, that thefe forts of ropes are very ufeful in protecting and preferving other early garden crope from the effects of the cutting frofty winds and fevere frofta which often prevail in the early {pring feafon; fuch, for inftance, as early peas, beans, potatoes, kidney-beans, and fome others ; which is done fimply by fixing them along the fides of the different rows, by means of pegs or pins driven firmly inte the ground. It is probable that this cheap and ready method of pro- te&ting and preferving fruit-blofloms, and crops of other kinds, may be praétifed and had recourfe to in preference to thofe ef a more expenfive nature ; as nets of feveral forts, canvas, and fome others, that are in pretty common ufe, in many fituations and circumftances, efpecially in the more northern parts of the kingdom. Srraw-Collar, in Rural Economy, a fort of collar ftuffed or formed wholly of this material, inftead of that of the hair kind, which is the moft fuitable and proper for the purpofe. It is a fort ftill much employed in fome backward diftriés. In Cornwall, the draught-harnefs for horfes and other ani- mals in the ploughs, as well as the harrows, often confifts, it is faid, of a ftraw-collar, called there a hame, with wooden collar-trees, to which are faftened rope-traces. Srraw- Cutter, in Agriculture, a name fometimes applied either to the perfon or implement by which {ftraw is cut into chaff. See Cuarr-Cutter. In order to fave labour as much as poffible, the power of water and {team has lately been much applied in the cutting of ftraw for chaff. Srraw-Drains, a term applied to thofe forts of furface- drains which are filled with ftraw in fome way or other. See SurFACcE-Drain. Srraw-Houfe, a name applied to the place for pilin up ftraw. Thefe contrivances are very convenient in oe fituations. Srraw-Ricks, a term ufed for fuch as are formed of ftraw of different kinds. See Srack. Straw-Jwifling Machine, the name of an engine or con- trivance for twilting ftraw into”ropes, for the purpofe of filling the drains in fome cafes of furface under-draining. See Surrace-Draining. Srraw-Yard, that fort of yard about farm-houfes which is deftined for the reception of the ftraw after the grain has been threfhed out of it. It alfo fometimes fignifies the yard which is prepared and littered with ftraw for the ufe of neat cattle and other animals, as well as the yards into which faddle and other horfes are taken during the winter feafon, to be fed on ftraw and other fimilar matters, in a cheap man- ner, STR ner, efpecially near the metropolis, and other large cities © and towns. STRAWBERRY, in Botany and Gardening. See Fra- Garta. See alfo Summer Fruit. Sir Jofeph Banks, in a paper inferted in the firft volume of the Tranfactions. of the Horticultural Society of Lon- don, in {peaking of the revival of the old neglected mode of managing ftrawberries, remarks, that the cuftom of lay- ing {traw under plants of this kind, when their fruit begins to fwell, is probably very old in this country: the name of the fruit, it is thought, bears teftimony in favour of this fuppofition, for the plant has no relation to ftraw in any other.way, and no other European language applies the idea of ftraw in any fhape or manner to the name of the berry, or to the plant that bears it. Confequently, that the name ftrawberry perhaps originated in the ufe of this praCtice in its management. In refpeé to this cuftom or practice, it is noticed by the writer, that when he came to Spring-Grove, his country re- fidence, in the year 1779, he found this practice in the ca there. John Smith, the gardener, who was well nown among his brethren as a man of more than ordinary abilities in the profeffion, had ufed it at that place many years; he had learned it, it is faid, foon after he came to London from Scotland ; probably at the neat-houfes, where he firft wrought among the market-gardeners ; it is there- fore thought to be clearly an old praétice, though now almoft obfolete. However, its ufe in preferving crops of this fort of fruit is {tated and recommended as very extenfive: it fhades the roots from the fun; prevents the wafte of moifture by eva- poration ; aud confequently in dry times, when water is {carce, and watering neceflary, makes a lefs quantity of it fuffice than would be ufed if the fun could a& immediately on the furface of the mould; befides, it keeps, it is faid, the leaning fruit from refting on the earth, and gives the whole an air of neatnefs, as well as an efle&t of real cleanli- nefs, which fhould never be wanting in this fort of culture, or in a gentleman’s garden. It is further ftated, that the ftrawberry-beds in the above garden, which have been meafured, for the purpofe of afcer- taining the expence incurred by this method of manage- ment, are about feventy-five feet long, and five feet wide, each containing three rows of plants, and, of courfe, re- quiring four rows of ftraw to be laid under them. The whole confifts of fix hundred feet of beds, or one thoufand eight hundred feet of ttrawberry plants, of different forts, in rows. The quantity of ftraw for ftrawing thefe beds, which was confumed in the year 1806, was, it is faid, the Jong ftraw of twenty-fix trufles, for the fhort flraw, being as good for the purpofes of litter as the long, but lefs ap- plicable to this ufe, is taken out; if then on the original twenty-fix truffes, fix be allowed for the fhort ftraw taken out and applied to other ufes, twenty truffes will, it is faid, remain, which coft this year ten-pence a trufs, or fixteen fhillings and eight-pence, which is one penny for every nine feet of ftrawberries in rows. And from this original ex- penditure, the value of the manure made by the ftraw when taken from the beds mu{t be dedu&ed, as the whole of it goes undiminifhed to the dunghill as foon as the crop is over. The coit of this praCiice cannot, therefore, it is fup- pofed, be confidered as heavy ; in the above year, not a fingle fhower fell, it is faid, at the above place, from the time the firaw was laid down, until the crop of fcarlets was nearly finifhed, at the end of June. The expence of ftrawing was therefore, it is noticed, many times repaid by the faving made in the labour of watering, and the profit of this fav- STR ing was immediately, it is faid, brought to account in the increafe of other crops, by the ufe of the water {pared from the ftrawberries, and befides, the berries themfelves were, under this management, it is obferved, as fair and nearly as large as in ordinary years, but that the complaint of the gardeners this feafon was commonly, that the fearlets did not reach half their natural fize, and of courfe required twice as many to fill a pottle as would do it in a good ear. ; It is noticed, that in wet feafons or years, the f{traw is of lefs importance in this point of view, but that in years moe derately wet, the ufe of flrawing fometimes makes watering wholly unneceffary, when gardeners who do not ftraw are under the neceflity of reforting to it, and that it is well known, if watering be once begun, it cannot be left off until rain enough has fallen to give the ground a thorough foak- ing. Even in wet feafons or years the ftraw is faid to do confiderable fervice, as heavy rains never fail to dafh up abundance of mould, and fix it upon the berries, which 18 entirely prevented by it, as well as the.dirtinefs of thofe ber- ries that lean down upon the earth; fo that the whole crop is kept pure and clean: no earthy tafte will be obferved in eating the fruit that has been ftrawed, and the cream, which is fometimes foiled when mixed with ftrawberries, by the dirt that adheres to them, efpecially in the early part of the feafon, will retain to the laft drop, it is faid, that unfullied red and white, which gives almott as much fatisfac= tion to the eye while we are eating it, as the tafte of that mott excellent mixture does to the palate. It is not improbable that this old practice might be ufe~ fully and advantageoufly revived, and the material applied in the manner of large ropes, fuch as are employed for pro- teCting and preferving the bloffoms of fruit-trees and dif. ferent common garden crops, or larger, as in that cafe fhort ftraw might be made ufe of as well as that which is long and more expentfive. It has alfo been remarked, in another paper in the fame TranfaGtions, by Mr. M. Keens, that, in confequence of having noticed the deterioration of feveral kinds of frnit, when propagated in the ufual modes of flips, buds, cut- tings, {cions, or divifions of the parent root, he has for a confiderable time employed himfelf in raifing new varieties from feed, which has not only afforded him amufement, but confiderable profit. About the year 1806, he raifed, as ufual, a great many ftrawberries from feed ; and the feed he few at that time was that of the large white Chili flrawberry. The produce of plants thus obtained, was, it is faid, in ge- neral white, and in no way fine-flavoured ; one, however, among them attracted his notice, as very different from, and far fuperior to all the reft; and in the following year it fully juftified the preference he had given it. The growth of the plant was free and vigorous, the ftalk ere&, ftronger and more able to fuftain the fruit than that of any other kind known, which alone, it is thought, would give it a decided fuperiority over others in wet weather. The fhape of the fruit is round, like its parent, the CAi/i ftrawberry ; and its colour, being of a very fine deep crimfon, gives a richnefs to its appearance, far above that of any other ftraw- berry yet known. The feeds proje& confiderably and de- fend it from bruifes, which preferves the fine bloom upon the fruit, and renders it by far the moft portable, as it is the moft beautiful, fruit of its kind that has been hitherto cultivated. It is, however, remarked by the Society, that the flavour of it is not high, but there is a probability of its being ufeful in the markets of the metropolis and perhaps others. The raifing of ftrawberries in this way would, nis ale eem, STR feem to be deferving of more attention than has yet been beftowed upon it. Srrawserry, Barren and wild eatable, are common. in pattures, heaths, and hedge-banks. The latter is the parent of the cultivated kinds, and which has a moft delicious fruit. See FraGania. Srrawserny-Bilite. See Buirum. SrRAWBERRY-Cinguefoil. See PoreNTILLA. StRAwBERRY-Spinach. See Brirum. Srrawserry-/ree. See ARBUTUS. Srrawserry-Zrefoil. See Treroit. Srrawserry Bay, in Geography, a bay which is neither large nor deep, on the coaft of a {mall ifland in the gulf of Georgia. N. lat. 48°36’. E. long. 237° 34'. STRAWBERRY Gap, a mountainous pafs in Pennfylvania, 42 miles W. of Philadelphia, on the road to Lancatter. Srrawserry River, a river of North America, fo called from the great quantities of ftrawberries that grow on its banks; which runs into lake Superior to the W. of God- dard’s river, N. lat. 46° go! W. long. g1° 44/. STRAWT, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying the dock of a horfe without the hair; alfo the tail of flaugh- tered cattle or fheep, where the fkin is removed. STRAY, in Geography. See YENLADE. Stray. -See Estray. STREAK-Fatrowrne, in Hufbandry, a particular fort of tillage. The way of doing it is to plough one furrow, and leave one, fo that but half the land is ploughed, each furrow that is fo lying on that which is not; when this is ilirred, it is then clean-ploughed, and laid fo {mooth, that it will come at fowing time to be as plain as before. This is done when lean or poor lands are not fwardy enough to bear clean tillage, nor light enough to lie to get {ward. e intent of this tillage is to keep the fun from {corching them too much; but in many places they think this wears the land too faft, and therefore are not fond of having re- courfe to it. STREAKY Cuezsg, in Rural Economy, that fort which is of a freaky nature or kind, in confequence of being made from a mixture of old and new curd, or of two forts, which have different proportions of colouring matter in them, that gives them a ftreaky appearance. The practice of mixing curds of different kinds and qualities fhould be carefully avoided in cheefe-making. See Darryine. STREAM Ancuor. See Ancuor. Stream Cable. See Casre. Stream-7in, in Mineralogy. Particles or mafles of tin-ore found beneath the furface of alluvial ground in low fituations, or in vallies, are called fream-tin in Cornwall and Devonfhire, from the proccfs ufed to feparate the earthy matter from it, which confifts in pafling a {tream of water over it. The particles of {tream-tin are generally rounded by attrition. The ore is of the beft qnality, and is fome- times intermixed with particles of native gold. See the fol- lowing articles, and T1v. StreaM-Works. ‘The alluvial repofitories of tin-ore are called ftream-works. (See the preceding article.) They cenfift of beds or ftrata of particles, and rounded pieces of tin-ftone, covered by alluvial depofits of {and or gravel. The formation of thefe repofitories in Cornwall is owing to the foft decompofing ftate of the rocks, which are interfeéted by metallic veins. 'in-ftone or tin-ore pofleffes great hard- nefs and {pecific gravity, and when carried down by rivers or floods, is feparated from its matrix by the ation and re-aGtion of the water, and {pread into layers, which are afterwards covered by beds of, fand, clay, or gravel, over which an- other layer of ftream-tin is fometimes found covered with an Vout. XXXIV. Ss TR upper depofit of alluvial matter. That ftream-tin has beea carried down to the fituations in which it now occurs, is proved from another circumftance,—fragments and mafles of rock are found with it, which, in many inftances, ferve to identify the rock from whence it came, being different from the rocks in the vicinity, and often poflefling fome charac- teriftic appearance by which it can be immediately known to the miners of the country. Almoft all the rocks of Cornwall are in a ftate of rapid difintegration, and have evidently been much higher than at prefent at fome former period. Many of the {tream-works or repofitories are of very ancient date, as they occur confiderably below the pre- fent level of the rivers. Human flulls, and the horns of the elk, or ftag, have been found in the beds of fand which cover them. In the ftream-works near St. Auttle, pieces of native gold, from the fize of a bean to that of an hazel-nut, were occafionally found ; and a piece of a vein of quartz from the fame place, about one-third of an inch thick, containing imbedded globules of native gold, the fize of large fhot, is in the pofleflion of Mr. Hennah, of Plymouth : the latter is important, as proving that gold once exifted in regular veins. In St. Blazey Moor there is a depth of twenty feet of alluvial foil. The firft {tratum next the fur- face is compofed of gravel refting upon mud ; the fucceediug ftratum is gravel, containing a little tin-ore: this lies upon a bed of dark combuttible peat-earth. Immediately under this lies a bed of ftream-tin, about five feet thick. Great part of this ftream-tin had been wrought out at a very remote period, and before iron inftruments were in ufe; for feveral wooden pick-axes, made of oak, holm, and box, were difcovered in ita few years fince. Stream-works fome- times extend under the fea on the coaft of Cornwall. One of the moft remarkable of thefe works is in a branch of Fal- mouth harbour. ‘That variety of tin-ore called wood-tin is found in ftream-works, but is not at prefent met with in regular tin-veins, In fome parts of the mining diftri&ts of Derbyfhire, lead- ore is met with in alluvial depofitions. Mr. Farey, in his Der- byfhire Report, p. 373, mentions a mafs of lead-ore, 25lbs. weight, being taken out of a gravel at the top of a hill in the village of Wyanton, which proves that mafles of lead- ore have in former times been carried far from their native fituations ; and the reafon why they are not more frequently found, arifes from their being fofter and more perifhable than tin-ore. Many of the alluvial repofitories of gold have a fimilar origin to the ftream-works of Cornwall. The gold, being heavy and imperifhable, has remained, while the ma- fate in which it was imbedded have been wafhed away. See VEIN. STREAMING, or Stream-Works, denotes the ma- nagement of the ftream-tin. The firft part of this bufinefs, after fecuring the ground which contains it, is to fink a hatch, or fhaft, three, five, or feven fathoms deep, to the rocky fhelf or clay on which the tin is ftratified. If, upom trying a fhovel of it, it be worth working, the operator digs an open trench in the loweft part of the valley, which he calls a /eve/; and this feryes to drain off all water from the workings. Thofe places that are rich in ore are called beu- heyle, or living-ftreams, The {treamer next carries off what he calls the over-burden, 7. ¢. the loofe earth, rubble, or {tone which covers the ftream ; and the ftream-tin is dug up and wafhed at the fame time, by cafting every fhovel of it as it rifes into a tye, which is an inclined plane of boards for the water to run off, about four feet wide, four high, and nine feet long: in which, with fhoyels, they turn it over and over again, under a cafcade of water which wafhes through it, and feparates the watte from the tin, tillit becomes one half Uu tin. STR tin. The beft of the tin is collected by its fuperior gravity, in the head of the tye, under the cafcade ; and the refufe and foil are calt into the beds of adjacent rivers, or buried under the gravel and {tones that form the interior ftrata. ‘Chis kind of tin is drefled by wafhing it again in a {maller tye, called a gounce, with a lefs current of water, and greater eare. The richer part is put into large vats, and the waite is drefled again, till what remains becomes refufe ; the tin is then fifted through wood or wire fieves, which feparate the greater and {maller particles: the {malleft tin is put into an- other firmly weaved horfe-hair fieve, called a diluter, by which it is made faleable. Some of the nodules of tin are {melted as they come out of thetye; but thofe which are mixed with water, as well as the refufe of the poor tin, which were in the tails of the tyeand gounce, are triturated and pulverized in the {ttamping- mill, fo that all walte may be cleared from the tin by feveral ablutions, as in the drefling of mine-tin. See Drefing of OREs. Befide thefe flream-works, there is another fort, occa- fioned by the refufe from the ftamping-mills, &c. which are carried by the rivers into the lower grounds, and after lying fome years and colle€ting there, yield fome money to the laborious dreffers, called /appiors, probably from the Cornifh word /appior, or dancer, from the method of moving up and down with naked feet in the buddles, to fe- parate the tin from the refufe. Stream-tin is then carried to the blaft-furnace, called the blowing-houfe, in which a fire is made with charcoal, excited by two large bellows, which are worked by a water-wheel. The tin and char- coal are laid in a furnace, made by moor-ftones and clay, well cemented and cramped together with iron, called the caltle, {tratum fuper ftratum, in {uch quantities, that from 8 to 12 cwt. of tin, by the con{umption of from 18 to 24 fixty- gallon packs of charcoal, may be {melted in a tide, or twelve hours’ time. The tin is forced out by the blait of the bel- lows, through a hole at the bottom of the earth, into a moor-{tone trough, called the float; whence it is laded into lefs troughs or moulds, each of which contains about 3 cwt. of metal, called flabs, blocks, or pieces of tin, in which fize and form it is fold in every market in Europe. This, on account of its fuperior quality, is knowa by the name of grain-tin, w ich formerly fetched a price of 7s., and of late is advanced to 10s. or 12s. more per cwt. than mine-tin is fold for, becaufe it is {melted from a pure mineral by a char- coal fire; whereas mine-tin is ufually corrupted with fome portion of mundic, or other minerals, and is always {melted with a bituminous fire, which communicates a harfh fulphureous quality to the metal. | Pryce’s Mineral. p: 136, &c. STREAMERS, in a Ship, the fame with pendants ; which fee, STREAMS, Made, in Agriculture, fach as are formed for the ufe of land, live-ttock, or other rural purpofes, by means of art. Much improvement of this fort remains to be accom- plifhed, it is thought, in all mountain-fkirt fituations, on the lower ftages and parts of hills, and, in fat, wherever water can be fully commanded, which may often be readily done, by making courfes or paflages for {treams, and diverting the natural ones into them, leading them to unwatered grounds, for the various intentions and purpofes of fupplying water to villages, farmiteads, and lands in the ftate of grafs, as well as in fome cafes to lands under the plough. pon a . large entire domain, fituated in this manner, a proprietor may, it is faid, operate at will, and accommodate the whole STR of his different farms in the manner that may be the moft conducive to the general intereft of the whole property. In the cafe where a river or brook of water is capable of being {pread over an extent of country, in which properties are much divided and intermixed, the aid of parliament and commiffioners, it is thought, may be neceflary, in order to direét and appoint the branching out of the common ftream in fuch a manner, as may be molt proper and equitable, as well as to fee that the whole be completely performed and fulfilled, and for fettling difputes, and regulating what time and experience may render further neceflary. In cireum- ftances where the proprietors are few and unanimous, com- miffioners and truftees alone may only be neceflary for the purpofe, and trouble and expence be thereby faved, It is remarked by the writer of “ Rural Economies of different Diftri&ts,”’ that not uplands only are fufceptible of this fort of improvement, but even low-lying vale lands, marfhes, and rich feeding grounds, are not unfrequently def- titute of good water for pafturing of ftock; efpecially in the fummer feafon, when it is moft wanted. The methods of conduéting improvements in this inten- tion are, in fome meafure, diferent according to circum- ftances, and the nature and fituation of the grounds ; but it is feldom neceffary that each homeftead, and each pafture or other ground, fhould be fupplied with a con{lant itream. Where the quantity of water is fmall, in comparifon to the demand for it, it may be diltributed by turns among the farms and the fields, as their feveral occafions may require. The drinking places are likewife to be rendered proper and fuitable to the fupply, or the manner in which it is diftri- buted. Where there are continual ftreams, the animals may drink at dilations of their channels, or at troughs or other contrivances placed acrofs or put along the fides of them. But where the fupply 1s only occafional, large receptacles or receiving places, as ponds and refervoirs, become neceflary, which are to be replenifhed from time to time, as may be requifite. StreAmMs, Mill, in Rural Economy, a term commonly ap- plied to the leads or runs of water which conttitute the moving powers of this fort of machinery, and which are moftly formed by means of art. In moft of the mountain diftri¢ts, whether in Scotland, in Wales, or in the weft of England, where the mills are, for the moft part, of the over-/bot kind, itreams of this fort, commonly of the artificial kind, are almoft every where to be met with, fome of which are of very confiderable length, and the antiquity of which cannot now be afcertained. Jn flat dif. tri¢ts, too, where under-/hot mills moftly prevail, thefe forts of ftreams are not unfrequently to be found, as conducting the water whichis to put them in motion. Wherever cuts for flreams or leads of this nature are to be formed, it fhould conttantly be done in a fecure and fafe manner, fo as that no water may in any way be waited or loft. STREATHAM, in Geography, is a parifh in the eaft half hundred of Brixton, and county of Surrey, England, which derives its name from its fituation near the great Ro- man road from Arundel to London ; the word, in Saxon, fignifying a dwelling on the highway. The manor of Tooting-Bec, in this parifh, was in the feyenteenth century in the pofleffion of the family of Howland ; but fince, it has paffed by marriage to that of Ruflel, and is now the pro- perty of the duke of Bedford, who bears the title of baron Howland of Streatham. The ancient manor-houfe was a few years fince pulled down, and the green-houfe and part of the offices converted into a refidence. On the fide of the common, between Streatham and Tooting, is Sprahoe park, STR ark, the property of Mrs. Piozzi, relict of the late Henry hrale, efq. The grounds comprehend about 100 acres, and are furrounded by a gravel-walk and fhrubbery, nearly two miles in circumference. Inthe church are two monu- ments, with infcriptions by Dr. Johnfon, to the memory of Mr. Thrale and Mrs. Salufbury, mother of Mrs. Piozzi. Mr. Lyfons, in his Environs of London, vol. i. notices a man pg ated ol chara&ter, who was buried in this place in 1772, named Rutfel, and who had paffed for a female: from this difguife, his age could not be precifely afcertained, but ac- cording to his own account he was 108. : On Time Common, in Streatham parifh, in 1660, a {pring was difcovered of a mild cathartic quality ; the water from which was fent in large quantities to fome of the hofpitals in London. This parifh was, in 1811, computed to contain 440 houfes, and 2729 inhabitants.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv Surrey, by F. Shoberl. STREBERNICH, a town of European Turkey, in the fangiacat of Bofnia, anciently called « Argentina,” from the filver-mines found in its vicinity; 70 miles W. of Belgrade. “STREBLUS, in Botany, sec8ros, twifled or zigzag, in allufion to the diltorted branches.—Loureir. Cochinch. 614. Clafs andorder, Dioecia Tetrandria. Nat. Ord... Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of four ovate, concave, fpreading leaves. Cor. none. Stam. Filament four, zig- zag, longer than the calyx; anthers roundifh, of two cells. : Female, on a feparate plant, Ca/. as in the male, per- manent. Cor. none. if. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle long, deeply divided into two branches; ftigmas fimple. Peric. Berry roundifh, two-lobed, of two cells, Seeds ovate, folitary. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of four leaves. Stamens longer than the calyx. Female, Calyx of four leaves, inferior. Corolla none. Style deeply cloven. Berry of two cells. Seeds folitary. Obf, Loureiro calls the berry itfelf mono/perma. Perhaps one of the cells is always abortive. 1. S. afper. Cay Deo dudi of the Cochinchinefe.—Leaves ovate, entire, rough.—Native of mountainous woods in Cochinchina. A large tree, with remarkably twifted, {pread- ing branches, the ultimate ones very fhort. Leaves alternate. Male flowers in numerous, {cattered, fmall, ftalked heads ; female ones folitary, {cattered, on fimple ftalks. 2. S. cordatus. Tfong Xu of the Chinefe.—Leaves heart- fhaped, ferrated, ribbed.—Found ‘about Canton, in China. A middle-fized tree, with {preading branches. Leaves alter- nate, acute. Male tree with numerous, {mall, fimple, coni- cal, lateral clufers. Filaments flattifh. Anthers {piral. Fe- male tree not obferved by the author. We have no know- of this genus, but from the above defcription. STREET and Road Dung, in Agriculture, the mixture of anima! and vegetable matters, {craped and fweeped up from the ftreets of large towns, and the roads in different laces, which 1s found to be excellent as a manure. See ANURE. Srreer Soil, the mixture of earthy {crapings collected from ftreets and employed as manure. In the Correéted Ac- count of the Agriculture of Gloucefterfhire, this is faid to be a moft valuable manure, and now as eagerly fought for there, for the purpofes of the farm, as it was formerly ne- gle&ed. : This fort of fubftance, as manure, may often be moft be- neficially made ufe of for grain-crops, efpecially when inti- mately blended with good rich matters of the mould kind, in addition to thofe already contained. Corolla none. STR STREHAJA, in Geography, a town of Walachia; 18 miles E. of Czernitz. STREHLA, a town of Saxony, in the marggravate of Meiflen, on the Elbe ; 14 miles N.W. of Meiflen. STREHLEN, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Brieg ; 16 miles W.S.W. of Brieg. STREIDORFF, a town of Auftria; 5 miles S.S.W. of Ehrnfprunn. STREIGHT. See Srraieur. STREIN, or Srrinius, in Biography, an Auftrian baron, with the title Von Schwartzenau, was born about the year 1538. The firlt objeé& of his attention was jurifpru- dence; but afterwards, under the care of Francis Hotman, he profecuted the itudy of Roman antiquities with fuch afli- duity and fuccefs, that in the twentieth year of his age he compofed a work “ De Gentibus et Familiis Romano- rum,” which was publifhed at Paris in 1599, fol. by Henry Stephens ; and « Stemmata Gentium et Romanarum Fami- liarum,”’ inferted in the 7th volume of ** Grevii Thefaurus Rom. Ant.”? He alfo wrote « Commentarius de Rob. Bel« larmini Scriptis atque Libris,’? and publifhed, without his name, ‘‘ A Defence of the Freedom of the States of Hol- land.” He died at Vienna, according to De Thou, in 1601, but, as Baillet fays, in 1600. He was a decided and fteady friend to the Proteftant communion. Gen. Biog. STREITBERG, in Geography, atown of Auftria; 12 miles S.S.W. of Ebenfurth.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principality of Culmbach, infulated in Bamberg ; 30 miles S.W. of Bareuth. N. lat. 49° 49/. E. long. Diep to's STREITDORF, a town of Anttria ; 8 miles N. of Korn Neuburg. STREITFORT, a town of Tranfilvania; 13 miles N.N.E. of Fogaras. STRELEN, a town of Saxony, in the marggravate of Meiffen ; 15 miles N. of Meiffen. STRELITZ, Great Strelitz, or Weilko Strzleze, a town of Silefia, and capital of a circle, in the principality of Op- peln ; 14 miles S.E.ofOppeln. N. lat. 50°27’. E. long. T7505! SrrBLitz, or Old Strelitz, a town of the duchy of Meck- lenburg, fituated in a marfhy diftri& ; founded by Otho and Ulrich, counts of Furftenberg, in the year 1329, and en- tirely deftroyed by fire in 1575 and 1676. Duke Adolphus Frederick refided here, but when his palace was burnt down, in 1712, he built another in the vicinity, at a place called “ Glienke,” and in 1733 founded a town adjoining to it, under the name of “ New Strelitz,’? fuppofing that in time it would be fo enlarged, that Old and New Strelitz would become one place. Strelitz gives name to one branch of the houfe of Mecklenburg, called Mecklenburg-Stre- litz ; 50 miles W. of Stettin. N. lat. 53°22/. Ez. long. 13° 18!. SrreELItTz, Liitle, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Oppeln; 14 miles S. of Oppeln. STRELITZ, a town of Scotland, in the county of Perth, built in 1763, for foldiers difcharged after the German war ; 10 miles N. of Perth. STRELITZIA, in Botany, was fo named by fir Jofeph Banks and the late Mr. Aiton, as ajuft tribute of refpeat to the botanical zeal and knowledge of the prefent queen of Great Britain, a princefs of the houfe of Meckienburg-Stre- litz. Few perfonages of fo elevated a rank have ever loved the ftudy of nature more, or cultivated it fo deeply. See the conclufion of the article Licurroor.—Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. 1. 285. ed. 2. v. 2.54. Schreb. Gen. 796. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1189. Mart. Mill. Diét. v. 4..° Thunb. Uuz Prodr. Se R Prodr. 45.—Clats and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Ord. Mufe, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. Common Sheath inferior, of one leaf, channelled, pointed, widely fpreading, many-flowered ; par- tial ones lanceolate, fhorter than the flowers. Perianth none. Cor. fuperior, irregular, of three lanceolate, acute petals; the lowermott boat-fhaped ; two upper ones bluntly keeled. Nettary of three leaves; the two longeft equal, rather fhorter than the petals, broad at the bafe, then tapering, with a folded wavy border, embracing the ftamens and ftyle, half arrow-fhaped towards the top, with a thick dorfal ap- pendage; the third leaf much fhorter, ovate, comprefled, keeled. Stam. Filaments five, inferted into the receptacle, thread-fhaped, three of them embraced by one leaf of the nectary, two by the others ; anthers terminal, linear, erect, parallel, about as long as their filaments, concealed in the neGtary. Pi. Germen below the corolla, oblong, bluntly triangular ; {tyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigmas three, awl-fhaped, rifing above the neétary, ere¢t, glued together in an early ftate. Peric. Capfule wocdy, oblong, flightly triangular, obtufe, of three cells and three valves, the partitions from the centre of each valve. Seeds numerous, nearly globofe, hairy, ranged in two rows along each partition. Eff. Ch. Sheaths general and partial. Petals three. mens and piltil. feeds. 1. S. angufla. Great White Strelitzia. Thunb. Prodr. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 1. (Heliconia alba; Linn. Suppl. 157.)—Flower-ftalk half the length of the foot- ftalks, which are {carcely twice the length of the oblong ere&t leaves.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence it was brought to Kew by Mr. Maffon in 1791. Nat. Perianth none. Neétary of three leaves, enfolding the tta- Captule inferior, of three cells, with many It flowers in the ftove, from February to May. The root is perennial, with long and thick fibres. Leaves radical, about fix feet long, refembling thofe of a Mufa. Flowers white, bearing but a {mall proportion to the magnificent foliage. Though this is what the younger Linnzus meant by He- liconia alba, his {pecific chara€ter is erroneous, and the fy- nonym of Rumphius belongs to a fpecies of Heliconia, not well afcertained. 2. S. Regine. Canna-leaved Strelitzia. t.2. ed.2.n.2. Willd. n. 1. Redout. Liliac. t. 77, 78. Curt. Mag. t. 119, 120. Andr. Repof. t. 432. (S. ova- ta; Ait. n. 3. Heliconia Bihai; J. Mill. Ic. t. 5, 6.)— Leaves ovate, not one-third the length of their footftalks, which are nearly as long as the flower-{talk. 8. S. anguftifolia; Ait. n. 5.—Flower-{talk, as well as the footftalks, feven times as long as the lanceolate leaves. y. S. parvifolia; Ait. n. 6.—Flower-ftalk, as well as the footitalks, twenty times as long as the linear-lanceolate leaves. Native of the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in our ftoves in the fpring. Sir Jofeph Banks, who has for nearly fifty years been indefatigable in enriching the gardens of this country, is recorded as having introduced this fuperb flower in 1773. Its habit refembles a Mufa or Ganna, except in the want of a flem. The /eaves are {mooth, rigid, and cori- aceous, ere&t, on long, ftraight, ftout, nearly cylindrical, {mooth, radical footflalks, fheathing at the bafe. The form of the deaf itfelf is ufually ovate, acute, entire ; wavy or crifped at the bafe, efpecially on one fide; furnifhed with a ftrong mid-rib, which fends off feveral fimple, oblique, pa- rallel, tranfverfe veins. Sheaths one or two, at the top of the cylindrical, fimple flower-a/k, nearly horizontal, thick Ait. ed. 1.n.1. STR and rigid, purplifh and thin at the edges, acute, four or five inches long, each containing many flowers, which expand in fucceffion. The orange-coloured petals, three or four inches long, are ftrikingly contrafted with the blueifh-purple nec- tary, both together compofing one of the mott brilliantly coloured flowers in nature. We prefume to think the S. ovata of Hort. Kew. does not deferve to be marked as even a variety, nor do the figures quoted anfwer to the chara@ter. The angus olia, recorded as having been cultivated by the marquis of Rockingham in 1778, we can aver to be a mere variety of the Regine. If we miftake not, it was given to the marquis by Mr. Bamber Gafcoyne. Of this we are certain, that offsets of the ori- ginal root, in the ftoves of the late marchionefs, where for many fucceflive years we have obferved them, gradually di- minifhing in the fize and breadth of their /eaves, became firlt S. anguflifolia, and then parvifolia, of Hort. Kew. Similar varieties may indeed have been frefh imported from the Cape, but this does not prove their f{pecific difference. In fome {pecimens the /eaf dwindles to a mere point. 3. S. farinofa. Meally-ftalked Strelitzia. Ait. n. 4.— «« Stalk rather longer than the footitalks, which are half as long again as the oblong leaves, unequal at the bafe.”,—Na- tive of the Cape. Flowering in the ftoves at Kew in Febru- ary and March. — It was introduced by fir Jofeph Banks in 1795. With this we are unacquainted, and therefore cannet prefume to judge how far it is {pecifically diftin@ from the foregoing. SrReLiTziA, in Gardening, affords a plant of the herba- ceous, exotic, perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is the Canna-leaved ftrelitzia (S. reginz.) Method of Culture.—Theife plants are raifed from feeds brought from their native fituation, and fown in pots of good fine mould, being plunged in a hot-bed to get them up: the plants, when of fome growth, fhould be removed into fepa- rate pots, and be replunged in the tan-pit of the ftove ; afterwards, when the plants are large, they fhould have plenty of mould, that the roots may be extended into the rotten tan, and in that way render them more ftrong for blowing their flowers: it may likewife fometimes be raifed from the roots, when they are fuffered to ftrike in the above manner: it is faid to fucceed beft in the dry ftove and confervatory departments. This is highly ornamental among {tove-plants. STREME, in Geography, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into the Havel, 4 miles S. of Rathenow. STRENA, in Antiquity, new-years’ gifts ; prefents made out of refpect on new-year’s day, as an happy augury for the enfuing year. ‘The ancient lawyers derive the word hence, that thefe prefents were only given viris ffrenuis : Symmachus adds, that the ufe of them was firft introduced by king Tatius, Ro- mulus’s colleague, who received branches of vervain gathered in the facred grove of the goddefs Strenua, as a happy pre- fage of the beginning year. Anciently, a pound of gold was given to the emperors every new-year’s day, by way of frena. Du-Cange ob- ferves, that rina, or /rrinna, denoted a kind of tribute which the people of Dalmatia or Croatia paid to the Venetians, or to the kings of Hungary, whom they obeyed voluntarily. STRENBERG, in Geography, a town of Auftria; 10 miles E.S.E. of Ens. ; STRENG, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into the Havel at Brandenburg. STRENGNAS, or StreNGENAS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sudermanland, fituated on the Meler lake ; it is the fee of a bifhop, and has a celebrated gymna- fium, Sr Rh fium, or feminary, founded in the year 1626, by Guttavus Adolphus ; 32 miles W. of Stockholm. N. lat. 59° 20!. E. long. 16° 55’. STRENGTH, vis, force, or power. It has been faid that the ftrengths of different animals of the fame fpecies, or of the fame animal at different times, are in a triplicate proportion of the quantities of the mafs of their blood; the whole ftrength of an animal being the force of all the mufcles taken together ; therefore, what- ever increafes ftrength, increafes the force of all the mufcles, and of thot: ferving digeftion, as well as others. See Muscte. Yet, though the truth of this obfervation be allowed, the quantity of blood may be increafed in fuch circumi{tances as to abate the ftrength. The equilibrium between the blood and veflels being deitroyed, wonderfully leffens the ftrength. The fudden fuppreffion of perfpiration, though it increafes the quantity of the blood, as it mutt confiderably do fo, by Sanétorius’s calculation, yet it leifens the ftrength; be- caufe the retained matter, being what ought to be evacu- ated, fo alters the texture of the blood, as to make it unfit for mufcular motion. Suppofe the increafe of quantity to be conne&ted with an extraordinary vifcidity, the quantity of {mall feparable parts decreafing as the vilcidity increafes, the quantity of animal fpirits feparated in the brain will be lefs ; and the tenfion of the fibres being in proportion to the animal fpirits forced into them, they will not be able to counterpoife the great weight of the blood, and fo the ftrength will be diminiihed, Bellini proves, that if the blood be fo vitiated as to in- creafe or diminifh ftrength, it amounts to the fame as if the blood were in a natural ftate, but its quantity increafed or diminifhed in the fame proportion: fo that the blood, when Vitiated, may fo impair the ftrength of the mufcles, as even to fpoil digeftion; and yet, in fome cafes, it may be fo vitiated as to help digeftion, and increafe ftrength. M. dela Hire, in a calculation of the ftrength of a man in drawing and bearing, fhews, that the ftrength of an or- dinary man walking in an horizontal direGtion, and with his body inclining Piaits is only equal to twenty-feven pounds; which is much lefs than one would have ima- ined. He adds, that this force would be much greater, if the man were to walk backwards ; and that it is for this reafon, that watermen fetch their oars from before backwards ; and though, he obferves, the gondoliers of Venice fetch them the contrary way, yet this is, becaufe they choofe to lofe the advantage of ftrength, to have that of feeing the place they are going to, in the numerous turns and canals they there meet with. It is known by experience, that a horfe draws, horizon- tally, as much as feven men ; confequently, his ftrength will be 189 pounds. A horfe, as to pufhing forwards, has a great advantage over a man, both in the ttrength of its mufcles, and the difpofition of the whole body ; but the man has the advantage over the horfe in afcending. M. de la Hire fhews, that three men, laden with 100 pounds a-piece, will afcend a pretty fteep hill with more eafe and expedition than a horfe laden with 300 pounds. Hakewell, in his Apology, p. 238, furnifhes us with abundance of inftances of extraordinary ftrength. STRENGTH of a Sentence, in Grammar and Rhetoric, denotes fuch a difpofition or arrangement of the feveral words or members, as fhall bring out the fenfe to the beft advantage, render the impreflion which the period is de- figned to make moft full and complete, and give every word and every member their due weight and force. A fentence, > TR as Dr. Blair obferves, may be fufficiently clear, and poffefs the requifite compaétnefs or unity ; and yet, by fome un- favourable circumftance in its ftru€ture, it may fail in that {trength or livelinefs of impreffion, which would have been produced by a more happy arrangement. The firf rule, which this writer gives, for promoting the ftrength of a fentence, is to diveft it of all redundant words and meme bers. The /econd rule is to attend particularly to the ufe of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles employed for tranfition and conneétion. The ¢hird rule is to difpofe of the capital word or words in that part of the fentence in which they will make the fulleft impreffion. The fourth rule is to make the members of fentences go on rifing and odes in their importance above one another; which ind of arrangement is called a climax (which fee): in other words, a weaker aflertion or propofition fhould never come after a ftronger one; and when a fentence confifts of two members, the longeft fhould, generally, be the concludin one. The fifth rule is to avoid concluding fentences with an adverb, a prepofition, or any inconfiderable word ; be- caufe fuch conclufions are always enfeebling and degrading. Befides particles and pronouns, any phrafe, which exprefles a circumftance only, always brings up the rear of a fentence with a bad grace. Another rule, relating to the ftrength of a fentence, is this: that, in the members of a fentence, when two things are compared or contrafted to each other, where either a refemblance or an oppofition is intended to be exprefled, fome refemblance in the language and con- ftruétion fhould be preferved; for when the things them- felves correfpond to each other, we naturally expeét to find the words correfponding too. We might here add, that the found, harmony, and eafy flow of the words and mem- bers of fentences, contribute to promote their flrength and effect. This rule comprehends the choice of words, and their arrangement ; the order and difpofition of the mem- bers, the cadence or clofe of fentences, and the found of words as adapted to their fignification. For the illuftration and application of thefe rules, we refer to Blair’s LeGtures, vol. i. and Murray’s Grammar, vol.i. See Sryte and Numsers. SrrenetuH and Strefs of Materials, in Mechanics, is a fubjeé&t of very confiderable importance, and one which, of all the branches of this ufeful fcience, is the leaft under- flood. We have, indeed, two or three diftin& theories by different authors, for eftimating the ftrength of beams, and other materials, according as chey are placed in this or that pofition; but it unfortunately happens that we owe all thefe theories to men who have not themfelves made any experiments, and have, therefore, no better foundation than mere hypothefis, and confequently are not only difcordant amongit each other, but totally at variance with prac- tical refults. The authors to whom we more parti- cularly allude in this place, are Galileo, James Bernoulli, Leibnitz, Euler, and Lagrange; names certainly of the firft eminence as philofophical mathematicians, and whofe refpeCtive inveftigations, while we only contemplate the analytical procefles of them, are highly honourable to the genius and talents of their authors: but when we confider them with reference to their praétical application, we are obliged to admit that they are almoft entirely ufelefs. Had the materials the properties thefe authors fuppofe, viz. were they perfeétly elaftic in one cafe, or perfectly rigid and incompreffible in another, then we fhould doubtlefs find the refults fuch as have been deduced; but we know that, practically, none of thefe properties are found to have lace. We know of no bodies either perfectly hard, or perfectly elaitic; we know of no bodies that are either wholly STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. wholly mcompreffible, or inextenfible ; and, confequently, of none to which thefe theories will apply: being each founded upon fome hypothelis, which neceflarily involves one or other of thefe principles as their bafes. There is, however, another clafs of men to whom we are indebted for many varied experiments ; but not one of them, we believe, has ever attempted to eftablifh any theory, as founded upon the facts which thefe experiments have elta- blifhed. Of the latter clafs are more particularly to be dif- tinguifhed Mariotte, Parent, Belidor, Mufchenbroeck, and Buffon, particularly the latter, who, with Du Hamel, was employed by the French government in making experiments on a very confiderable fcale; but unfortunately M. Buffon conduéted. them rather as a natural philofopher than as a mathematician, and, therefore, did not deduce from them thofe ufeful) practical refults, which might a@ priori have been expeéted. .Our countryman, Emerfon, alfo made fome experiments on the ftrength of various materials ; but little confidence is, we believe, to be placed on his deter- minations.. ‘They appear to have been made in too grofs a manner to, be at all depended upon, to form the ground- work of any calculations; as, in fome cafes, they nearly double the ftrength which has been found by other and more accurate experiments; while, in fome, they make it not more than half. Thus, Emerfon fays, that a piece of oak, a yard long and an inch {quare, when fupported at its two ends, bore, before breaking, 330 pounds; whereas Belidor makes the ftrength only 187 pounds; and we have repeated the experiments on feveral pieces of oak of the fame dimenfion, and have found a very accurate agreement between them, and the mean given by the latter author, viz. 187 pounds. The direét {trength of cohefion of the different woods given by Mufchenbroeck and Emerfon are alfo much at variance with each other; and though we ought not perhaps, in fuch a cafe, to give our entire con- fidence to either, yet the care Mufchenbroeck appears to have taken, and the minutenefs with which he defcribes the procefles he employed, cannot but incline us to adopt his refults, in preference to Emerfon’s, till fome farther experiments have been made, that, from their number and accuracy, may infpire us with greater confidence. Sucha courfe of experiments is now carrying on at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, by Mr. Barlow of that inflitution ; and as nothing will doubtlefs there be wanting to render the courfe complete, either with regard to the feleGtion of proper woods, or the accuracy of the work- manfhip that may be required, the publication of them will doubtlefs be very interefting, as the means of fupply- ing a great defideratum aasepil the {cientilic engineers of this country. “ This fubje&,’? fays Dr. Robifon, < is of fo much importance, that in a nation fo eminent as this for invention and ingenuity in every f{pecies of manufactures, and in particular fo diftinguifhed for its improvements in machinery of every kind, it is fomewhat fingular that no writer has treated of it in the detail, which its importance and difficulty demand. The man of fcience, who vifits our great manufactories, is delighted with the ingenuity which he obferves in every part, the innumerable inventions which come even from the individual artifans, and the deter- mined purpofe of improvement and refinement which he fees in every work-fhop. Every cotton-mill appears an aca- demy of mechanical f{cience; and mechanical invention is {preading from thefe fountains over the whole kingdom. But the philofopher is mortified to fee this ardent f{pirit fo erainped by ignorance ‘of principles, and many of thefe ori- ginal and brilliant thoughts obfcured and clogged with needlefs and even hurtful additions, and a complication of 3 machinery which checks improvement, even by its appear- ance of ingenuity. There is nothing in which this want of {cientific education, this ignorance of principle, is fo fre- quently obferved, as in the injudicious proportion of the parts of machines, and other mechanical ftruGtures ; pro- portions and forms of parts, in which the ftrength and pofi- tion are in no wife regulated by the ftrains to which they are expofed, and where repeated failures have been the only leffons.”’ Without entering here upon the fubje& of corpufcular attraction, and the law of cohefion which the particles of bodies obferve, according to their different arrangements, a topic that would carry us far beyond the limits we can affign to this article, and on which, after all, fo little fatif- factory information is to be expected, we fhall proceed to examine the different ftrains to which a body may be ex- pofed, and its tendency to relilt fracture, according to its magnitude, form, and pofition. A piece of folid matter may be expofed to four different kinds of ftrain, viz. 1. It may be torn afunder by fome force applied in the direGtion of its length; as in the cafe of ropes, ftretchers, king-pofts, tie-beams, &c. 2. It may alfo be crufhed by a force applied in the direc- tion of its length; as in the cafe of pillars, pofts, and trufs-beams. P i 3. It may he broken acrofs by a force ating perpendi- cularly to its length; as in joilts, levers, &c. 4. It may be wrenched or twifted by a force a€ting in a kind of circular direGtion at the extremity of a lever, or otherwife ; as in the cafe of the axle of a wheel, the nail of a prefs, &c. On the dire® Cohefion of Bodies.—The firtt of thefe ftrains is by far the moft fimple, as to its phyfical operation ; though it is that of all others, perhaps, that comes leaft under the confideration of a mechanic or engineer: and when it is the fubje&t of contemplation, if any former ex- periment can be had recourfe to, it is fufficient for his pur- pofe; as no poffible caufe can be affigned, nor any reafon offered, for fuppofing but that, in fuch cafes, the ftrength varies direGly as the area of the fection of fracture, and is totally independent of the length or pofition ; except, in- deed, fo far as the former may increafe the weight or force, when the body is fufpended in a vertical direétion, or in any other pofition where the weight of the body itfelf increafes the force applied. Abftraéting from this, every part is equally liable to fraéture, being throughout ftretched by the fame force. But this fuppofes a perfect uniformity of corpufcular aGtion, or of the attra¢tion of cohefion, which is probably not the cafe in any body in nature; and, there- fore, as the longeft body, may be fuppofed to offer the greateft diverfity in this refpeét: it may hence happen that the longeft body is the weakeft, and it is probably to this circumftance we muft attribute the popular notion of our mechanics, that a long rope is eafier broken than a fhorter one of equal quality and thicknefs. It is a fact perhaps drawn from experience, but it is one which cannot be intra- duced into the fcience of mechanics; for wesmuft there fuppofe the body of uniform texture, and draw all our in- ferences from that fource; and this obvioufly leads us to the above conclufion, viz. the firength of bodies, expofed to Jirains in the diredtion of their length, is direly proportionate to their tranfverfe area, whatever may be their figure, length, or pofition. As to the irregularities to which we have above -alluded, they doubtlefs arife from a thoufand circumftances, with which we are wholly unacquainted ; in metals, it depends upon STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. upon their purity, the heat at which they are melted, the moulds in which they are caft, the manner in which they are left to cool, and many others, which totally efcape our ob- fervation, fince they produce different degrees of cohefion between particles, which, as far as our obfervation can ex- tend, are circum‘tanced in every refpeé in the fame manner, being all blended in one mafs, and undiltinguifhable the one from the other. It has been afcertained from experiment, that by forging a metal, or by frequently drawing it through a {mall hole in a fteel-plate, its cohefion is confiderably increafed ; a fact which, though it feems to have excited fome aftonifhment, appears to us to be perfectly reconcileable with what might & priori have been expected from the increafed denfity which this operation is known to produce. Admitting the particles to be placed at equal diltances from each other, after wire- drawing or forging, as we {uppofe them to be before, their lateral diftances will decreafe as the cube root of their den- fities, and confequently the number that are brought in con- ta& in equal feétions, are as the 2d power of the denfity ; the ftrength, therefore, ought to vary in the fame ratio: as to the diftances iu the diretion of the length, we do not con- ceive that it increafes the ftrength ; it may render the fub- ftance lefs liable to rupture in the firit inftance ; but if, as in all probability is the cafe, the particles are ultimately re- moved to a greater diftance before the fraéture takes place, the fame ultrmate force will be requifite to feparate the parts, however clofe the conta& might be in the original ftate of the body ; thatis, when fir‘t tubmitted to the experiment. Weare unacquainted with the real increafe of denfity that may be obtained by the procefles above alluded to; and more particularly with the lateral approach of the particles, which may be greater than would arife from a uniform dif- tribution of them; and are therefore unable to fay how far the increafed ltrength agrees with what we have hinted may arife from the increafed contiguity of the particles. Lead, which is faid to become rarer by wire-drawing, has its co- hefion tripled ; gold, filver, and brafs, have a!(o their cohefion nearly tripled ; and copper and iron have theirs more than doubled. How far thefe facts can be fatisfaétorily explained by the greater contiguity of the particles /aterally, we cannot pretend to fay, but it certainly will account for a confi- derable part of the increafed itrength. Experiments on the dire&t cohefion of all bodies, and par- ticularly metals, are attended with confiderable difficulty, in confequence of the enormous weights that are requifite for producing feparation in bars of any confiderable dimenfion : we have, however, a few refults of this kindy which we owe to Mufchenbroeck, and other experimentalifts, the principal of which are contained in the annexed table, all reduced to the feétion of a {quare inch. Metals, Lbs. Gold caft aot) pean } ee 24,000 Silver caft - - - - a - Tocco 43,000 ( Japan - - - - 19,500 | Barbary Sw acini Te ies 22,000 Copper caft ¢ Hungary arhet ac rer o)88'F 7 goog Anglefea - - - - 34,000 Sweden aris - - 37,000 Tron caft 0 2 Shi eaigieatine 4s | nt : 59,000 Ordinary - - - - 65,000 Stirian - - - - 78,000 Tron-bar Beft Swedihh and Ruffian - 84,000 Horfe-nails = - - 71,000 Lys. Steel-bar { pele ds E ‘ je ee iesaid azor-tempered = - - 150,000 { Malacca - - - - 3,100 Banca, .< - - = = 3,600 Tin caft | Block - - - - - 3,800 | Englith block - - - - 5;200 LEnglifh grain - - - - 6,500 Lead caft - “ = - - - = 860 Regulus of antimony - - - oe - 1,000 Zinc - - - - - * « - 2,600 Biumuth = - = - - - » , 2,900 It is very remarkable, that almoft all mixtures of metals are ftronger, or more tenacious, than the metals themfelves, much depending upon the proportion of the ingredients, and thefe proportions are different in different metals. Che fol- lowing are fome of thofe which Mufchenbroeck afferts to produce the greatett itrength. Lbs. Two parts of gold with one of filver = - = 28,000 Five parts of gold with one of copper - - 50,000 Five parts of filver with one of copper - - 48,500 Four parts of filver with one of tin - - - 41,000 Six parts of copper with one of tin - - 41,000 Five parts of Japan copper with one of Banca tin 57,000 Six parts of Chili copper with one of Malaccatin 60,000 Six parts of Swedifh copper with one of Malacca tin 64,000 Brats confifling of an unknown proportion of zinc ke : 51,000 anc coppel - = = oe a = Three parts of block-tin with one of lead - 10,200 Eight parts of block-tin with one of zinc - 10,000 Pour parts of Malacca tin with one of regulus of ) é antimony - = 2 - 3 “ Eight parts of lead with one of zinc - - Four parts of tin with one of lead, and one of Zinc = - - 3 phy 2 2,000 45500 13,000 Thefe refults are very ufeful, provided they could be fe- curely depended upon ; but we could wifh to fee fimilar ex- periments repeated by other philofophers : not that we wifh to undervalue the labours of Mufchenbroeck, to whom the arts are much indebted for many valuable deductions, but fo much irregularity takes place in experiments of this kind, that it is only in a multiplicity of them, complete accuracy, or even an approach towards it, is to be obtained. The gun-founder might derive confiderable information from a well-direéted courfe of experiments of this kind, as well as the plumber and engineer : it appears from the above, that a mixture of copper, whofe ‘trength does not exceed 37,000 lbs., with tin, whofe ftrength is 6000 lbs., a mixture is produced, whofe ftrengthis from 60,000lbs. to 64,000 lbs., at the fame time that it is harder, and eafier wrought : and as to the objection that has been advanced againtt it, of being more fufible, we fufpeé it is nothing more than a falfe idea arifing out of avery common error, that field-ordnance is liable to become fufible with rapid firing : we have been informed by very experienced artillery officers, that nothing of this kind ever happened, the damage which the piece fultains at the muzzle being merely due to the rubbing and knocking of the ball in its paflage out of the gun. Having faid thus much with regard to the direét cohefion of metals, we mutt now attend to another very important fubje& ; viz. the itrength of timber. The cohefion here is probably of a very different kind, and fubje& even to more inequalities than that of metals ; much depends upon the foil where the tree grows, and a confider- able difference is found between different parts of the fame tree; STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. tree; viz. whether it comes from near the root, or the top, or from the middle or fides ; and even whether it grew on the north or fouth fide. 1. The wood immediately furrounding the pith or heart of a tree, is faid by fome to be the weakett, particularly if the tree is old; others, efpecially Buffon, aflert the contrary ; the fat probably is, that up to a certain age it is ftrongett at the heart, but that afterwards thefe parts become weaker, or begin firft to feel that decay which ultimately pervades the whole. In many experiments which we have made, we have always obferved that the heavielt pieces (and there is a very confiderable difference in this re{peét in different parts of the fame tree) are the ftrongeft; and, generally fpeaking, the part neareft the centre and towards the root has the greatett {pecific gravity. 2. The wood of the north fide of all trees in our climates is faid to be weaker than that of the fouth, and the fouth- eaft fide the ftrongeft : we are, however, much inclined to doubt the fa&, as it relates to foreft-trees. In trees parti- cularly fituated, with regard to expofure on one part more than another, fomething of the kind may have place; but trees in a fore{t, which experience very little difference in this refpeét, we are inclined to think, from fome obfervations, have but little difference of ftrength depending upon their northern or fouthern direftion. It is true, generally, that that wood is the ftronge{t whofe annual plates are thickett, the ligneous fibres being {tronger than the trachea, or air-veflels ; and, therefore, the more of the fibrous parts there are con- tained in any given dimenfion, the greater is the ftrength : but this is much more obvious in fome woods than in others, and moit of all, perhaps, in afh, in which we have feen a very remarkable difference in this refpe@. In very clofe- grained wood it is fcarcely perceptible. The only author who has enabled us to judge of the accu- racy of his experiments is Mufchenbroeck, who has defcribed very minutely his apparatus, and his method of performing the experiments. The pieces he employed for this purpofe were parallelepipedons, cut down in the middle to 3th of an inch {quare, or ,',th of an inch feGtion. Thefe refults, re- duced to the fe€tion of a {quare inch, are as follow : Lbs. Locuft-tree - = - : 20,100 Jujeb- - = - - 18,500 Beech oak == - - = 17,300 Orange c < = Mu 15,500 Alder - A = £ a 13,900 Elm - - - - = 13,;2CO Mulberry - - 2 = 12,500 Willow - - - - - 12,500 Ath - = - - - 12,000 Plum - = < e3 = 11,800 Elder - = O = - 10,000 Pomegranate - - - - 93750 Lemon - - - - - 93250 Tamarind - - - - 8,750 Fir - - - - - 8,330 Walnut - s E s = 8,130 Pitch-pine - - = < 7,650 Quince - - - - = 6,750 Cyprefs - - - - - 6,000 Poplar - - = = a 5,500 Cedar - - = = = 4,880 Emerfon, in his Mechanics, gives us alfoa feries of refults, but they are unlike the former, as they do not exhibit the utmoft {trength, but what may be fafely fufpended on a fquare inch; yet as we may prefume that each of thofe I weights are in the fame proportion to the greateft ftrengthy they ought to enable us, in fome meafure, to compare the re- lative ftrengths of the different woods given by thefe two authors. Emerfon’s table is as follows; viz. Lys. Oak, box, yew, plum-tree - - - - 850 Elm, ath, eer ‘ 2 5 = - - = ae Walnut, plum = = - = 5 = 5360 Red fir, holly, elder, plane, crab - - - 5000 Cherry, hazel : = L = e 2 4762 Alder, ath, birch, willow « - - - 4290 With regard to the abfolute refults in thefe two tables, we do not, in courfe, look for uniformity ; the one exhibiting the ultimate ftrength, and the other the weight which a rod of an inch fquare may fupport with fafety : but in the rela- tive ftrength of the different woods, fome coincidence might have been expected ; we find, however, confiderable dif- ference in this refpeét. The latter author gives us no particu- lars, and we are therefore rather inclined to give the preference to the former, who has been very minute in his defcription, as well as careful in making the experiments ; yet fome fubfe- quent experimentalifts have not been able to find equal ftrength: thus M. Petit fays, on the authority of his own experiments, and thofe of M. Parent, that the utmoft {trength of a{quare inch of oak does not exceed 8640 lbs. ; whereas Mufchenbroeck makes it 17,300lbs. ; and we mutt add, in confirmation of the former, that in the experiments fo which we have before adverted, as at this time in progrefs at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, the ftrength of oak has been found but little exceeding gooo lbs. ; the f{pecific gravity of it being 774. We have not this datum in either of the above cafes; yet we conceive it to be a very import- ant one, as we have always found the itrength of wood of the fame kind, to depend a great deal upon its weight or {pecific gravity. The fame experiments give for the ftrength of afh 17,000 lbs., and fir from 10,000 lbs, to 13,000 lbs., both confiderably different from Mufchenbroeck’s tabular refultse The pieces from which thefe weights were found were cylin- drical, very accurately turned to one-third and one-fourth of an inch in diameter ; but to avoid any errors that might have place in gauging the diameters, their circumferences were taken by winding a fine filk thread ten times round them, and then dividing the length of it by ro for the circum; ference. On the Refiflance af Bodies, when preffed longitudially.— It is sete a eos when able by a fuffi- cient force, may be crufhed and deftroyed ; and this may take place, either by a total feparation of the matter of which it is compofed, or by bending it, whereby it is broke acrofs: if the length or height of the body is very inconfi- derable with regard to its other dimenfions, the former is the _ almoft certain refult ; but if its length be much more than its breadth and thicknefs, it generally bends before breaking, and in this cafe the operation is not very different from what takes place in beams fupported at each end, and loaded in the middle ; a fubjeét which will be treated of in a fubfe~ quent part of this article. We have fome very intricate analytical inveftigations on this fubje&t by Euler and La- grange. Thefe authors have both treated the problem on the principles firit promulgated by James Bernoulli, in his inveltigation of the properties of the elaftic curve ; but as we doubt very much whether they can be applied to any ufeful praétical operations, we mult beg to pais them over in this place, by merely referring fuch of our readers who are defirous of confulting the inveftigations of thefe twa very able mathematicians, to the original works. Euler’s firft memoir will be found in the appendix to his “* Methodus inveniendi inveniendi lineas curvas maximi et minimi, &c.’’ 1744. A fecond memoir is publifhed in the Berlin TranfaGtions for 1757, and a third in the Acta Petro. 1778. Lagrange’s papers are given in the Turin Memoirs for 1770-1, and in the Memoirs of Berlin for 1769. As to the experiments that have been made on this kind of ftrain, there are few from which much practical informa- tion can be obtained. M. Petit fays, that his experiments, and thofe of M. Parent, fhew that the force neceflary for ecrufhing a body is nearly equal to that which will tear it afunder. He fays that it requires fomething more than 6olbe. on every {quare line of found oak to crufh it. But experi- ments made on fuch {mall pieces cannot be depended upon ; and wher they are made on pieces of greater dimenfions, the weights become fo enormous, as to render them nearly im- practicable; it is therefore fortunate that we have little oc- cafion for yery accurate informatign on this head: what it is more defirable to be acquainted with is, the refiftance which a pillar or poft will offer to compreffion before bending, the length being taken into confideration ; for it is obvious, both from theory, as well as from a practical view of the fubje&, that the length of the beam mutt be an important datum in this kind of ftrain, although it isnot in the former, viz. in oppofing being drawn afunder ; it is therefore very defective to ftate the requifite forces in both cafes to be equal, or in- deed to ftate any proportion whatever between them. M. Girard, in his ‘¢ Traité Analytique de la Réfiftance des Solides,’’ Paris, 1798, details a great variety of expe- riments made on beams of fir and oak of confiderable di- menfions, by means of acertain machine conftruéted for the purpofe. Butas thefe experiments were not made fo much with a view of breaking the pieces {ubmitted to the preflure, as to meafuring their defleGtions, and eftimating what the author calls, after Euler, their abfolute and relative elaf- ticity ; they do not furnifh us with the kind of refults above alluded to, as having been attempted by MM. Petit and Parent. Through the whole courfe of M. Girard’s experiments, much irregularity was obferved, fo much, indeed, as to ren- der it very doubtful whether any number of experiments could furnifh us with certain and conclufive refults ; and if experiments fail in this refpe&, it is wholly ufelefs to look to any afliltance from long and laborious analytical inveltiga- tions. The following table contains many of the moft im- portant experiments of this author on oak-beams ; the firft column regilters the number of the experiments ; the fecond, third, and fourth, the length, depth, thicknefs, and weight of the beams ; the fifth and fixth the diftance of the greatett deflection from the bottom or foot of the beam ; the former in the direétion of the greateft thicknefs or depth; and the latter in the direétion of the lefs thicknefs or breadth ; the feventh and eighth columns contain the meafure of the greateft _ deflection, or verfed fine of the curve ; the former of the depth, and the latter of the breadth ; the ninth column exhibits the weights under which the feveral defleGtions were obferved, and the tenth and laft column the time between the firft weight being applied and the obfervation. It fhould be ob- ferved, that M. Girard has given feveral more meafures of defieGions, weights, &c. than we have copied ; we have, in all cafes, taken his firft two and laft two, and omitted the intermediate ones. The experiments marked with the * broke under the laft regiftered weight ; the others did not, and moft of the latter Vox. XXXIV. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. nearly recovered their original form after being unloaded for fome hours. The defle&tions marked + and — are thofe in which the beam took a double curvature. The other experiments of this author (the details of which occupy nearly 50 quarto pages) were made on the tranf- verfe ttrain, or rather on the defleétion caufed in beams by loading them in the centre with different weights, their ex- tremities being fupported on two props. The oak-beams were the fame which had been fubmitted to the longitudinal preflure, as exhibited in the following table, and which were not broken in thofe experiments ; the third table contains the refults of fimilar experiments on fir-beams of larger dimenfions; and the two fubfequent tables, fimilar ones on what the French workmen call dose de brin, that is, pieces which have been fimply f{quared from the branches, or trunk, correfponding with what our work. men ¢all /pars. In all thefe cafes, the deflection was found to follow very nearly the ratio of the weights with which they were loaded, multiplied by the fquare of the length of the piece, and to be inverfely as the {quare of the depth into the breadth. The fir-beams gave much more uniform refults than thofe of oak, which is accounted for from the more regular and uniform organization of the former wood. M. Girard endeavours to conneé& the refults with thofe on the longitudinal preflure, for which purpofe he gives us the following formule, viz. let f denote half the length of a beam, fupported at each end and loaded in the middle, and let half that weight be denoted by P, and 4 the quantity of the beam’s deflection; alfo « the femi-circumference of a circle, whofe diameter is 1. then the 3 abfolute elafticity ERR = =F and the weight Q, under which the fame beam will begin to curve, when prefled endwife, will be exprefled by r* EL Mets! or, by fubftituting for E £4, we have x Tel bof oo 12s We cannot, however, fay how far this formula will ap- ply, it being very difficult to afcertain the commencement of defleétion in the a¢tual experiment. M. Girard gives us alfo two other formulz, for eftimating the deflection of oak and fir beams, when loaded in the mid- dle by a weight, and {upported at each end, viz. Ge Cobras) (7 ee) geo, for oak ae ne 3 for fir =f = (8161128) ah; where P is half the weight, f half the length, 4 the deflec- tion, 4 the depth of the beam, and a its breadth. Thefe apply only to reftangular beams; and, in order to render them general, the author ufes the principles of Leibnitz, whereby the errors of the latter are connected with them in fuch a manner as to render the formule entirely ufelefs for praétical cafes. Xx Girard’. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Girard’s Experiments on Oak-beams, preffed in the Direétion of their Length. Height of Defle&tion from Verfed Sine of greateft y in NV E »étion. 5 ihe mrs Length Depth Breadth Weight Mieteg tin abe Defleétion Weight Time in in in in ie ; aia as j er F in in Metres. Metres. Metres. | Kilograms. Ta the Direc- In the Direc- In the Diree- In the Direc- Kilograms. Havre? tion of its tien of its tion of its tion of its Breadth. Depth. Breadth. "SUSUITL -adxq jo ‘oy 0.0068 - - 17,320 0.0090 0.0068 29,691 0.0090 0.0090 37.429 0.0113 0.0090 42,418 . 0.0056 0.0045 11,993 ; 0.0068 0.0079 25,664 44.0231 |. 4010068 ? : —0.0068 §} 0735 25 IA 2.5979 s —0.0017 pre? —0.0113 28,575 — 0.0282 315339 +0.0023 i 42.0665 -2989 0.0113 0.0079 11,993 2.5979 34-2402 . .2989 0.0180 0.0124 17,341 .2989 ©.0479 0.0124 223939 1.1366 0.0169 0.0068 11,996 33-2620 : 0.9742 0.0372 0.0113 175341 defleGtions not obferved. na 1.1366 0.0023 0.0045 28,619 | 1.1366 - - 0.0028 22,939 1.2989 0.0023 0.0034 39,630 12 DDD defle€tions not obferved. 342279 ke S Saat Sets Wieoua 0.9742 0.0040 0.0040 22,934 2989 0.0169 0.0045 47,047 -2989 0.0186 0.0090 47:032 45-9747 2989 0.0062 0.0034 17,320 -2989 | 0.0096 0.0034 22,936 +2959 0.0181 0.0045 28,616 defleGions not obferved. SeLigrea 1.2989 0.0068 0.9068 17,321 | 1.1366 0.0124 0.0045 22,940 28,626 33-7511 defleGions not obferved. 1.1366 0.0079 0.0062 11,999 0.9742 0.0079 0.0062 15,025 0.9742 0.0113 0.0062 17,320 0.9742 0.0135 0.0068 20,326 2.2731 30.3271 _ STRENGTH-OF MATERIALS. TABLE—continued. Height of Deflection from Verfed Sine of greateft a S a aes 3 z. Length Depth Breadth Weight the Foot in Metres. Deflection. Weight Time 23 “ 5 é é an Sie Sa | os : ! s nn mu nm mn ; a ‘ in m ST Metres. Metres. | Metres, | Kilograms, In the Direc- In the Diree- | In the Direc-| In the Direc- Kilograms. Hours. yQ . tion of its tion of its tion of its tion of its ; Depth. Breadth. Depth. Breadth. =f |) ee Le ee —— (eae 0.9742 |—0.0045 0.c079 17,321 7.08 0.9742 0.9742 |—0.0045 0.0090 22,940 10.00 } 0.9742 0.9742 0.0034 0.0090 28,622 19.16 (0.9742 0.9742 0.0051 O.O10L 33,105 26.66 0.1556 | 0.1330 | 44.5122 0.9742 0.9742 0.0079 0.0130 22,040 20.00 37-6642 |2 2-9742 0.9742 0.0079 0.0130 | 33,123 25.00 £6 -2068 Aes 0.0146 | AS 0.0146 | 39,637 pie 0.1579 | 0.1308 0.6495 0.6495 6.0045 0.0056 17,321 2.08 leas 0.6495 0.0062 0.0068 22,939 gaa .0068 } 0.6495 0.6495 ||P eeeesf | Ote8 | 3m456 | 33-33 0.1579 | 0.1015 | 30.8362 1.4613 0.9742 0.0045 0.0040 11,973 10.00 1.4613 0.9742 0.0045 0.0045 17,274 27-50 1.6237 1.2989 0.0113 0.0090 28,509 37-50 Ota nes SINE ye 32,996 50-41 *14 | 1.9484 | 0.1601 | c.1015 | 32.7728 0.6495 0.0056 0.0045 17,294 10.00 1.2989 0.6495 0.6051 0.0045 22,899 28.33 0.9742 1.6237 +0.0068 0.3247 1.4342 | Lips 58 0.0118 46,952 86.66 ee 0.9742 0.0045 0.0056 11,998 18.33 15 | 1.9484 | 0.1330 | 0.1060 | 28.3705 0.9742 0.9742 0.0056 0.0079 175317 20.00 0.1285 | 0.1082 | 26.9030 ayes 0.6742 | Toot t| @-0135 | 37273 |. 9350 16 | 1.9484 —O.O0I! 0.6495 -9742 |—0.0029 0.0028 11,998 10.00 - - -6495 pbc 0.0034 17,320 20.00 1.6237 +9742 0.0056 0.0045 33,120 52-50 1.4613 9742 0.0113 0.0051 39,630 57-50 17 | 2.2731 | 0.1579 | 0.1082 | 35.7076 0.9742 1.2989 0.0051 0.0034. 11,999 10.00 0.9742 1.2989 0.0068 0.0056 17,321 20.00 1.9484 1.2989 |—0.0079 0.0079 33,120 47-91 1.2989 |—0.0146 0.0079 372305 50.83 jae - - 0.0023 - - el 10.00 17531 0-1579 | 0.1353 | 50.8712 *18 | 2.5979 1.2989 -- 0.0034 Ses 20.00 23207 f|—0.0023 0.9742 ee 28 eet 0.0056 625513 110.0 19 | 2.5979 | 0.1872 | 0.1579 | 72.8827 1.2989 - - 0.0023 - - 11,998 10.00 - - 0.0023 - - 175321 22.91 0.3247 1.6237 |+0.0056 0.0101 62,534 | 122.0 1.9484 1.6237 |—0.0226 0.0135 62,468 | 212.0 20 | 2.5979 0.1894 | 0.1579 | 65-5456 ux 2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. The reader will perceive confiderable irregularity in many of the above experiments, both with regard to the height at which the defleStion begins, the quantity of it, and its dire&tion ; being fometimes in the line of the greateft thick- nefs, and fometimes in that of the leaft, but more com- monly in both. It will alfo be obferved, that fome of the beams broke under lefs preffures than others, of the fame or lefs dimenfions, bore without any apparent injury. We cannot enter here into a farther explanation of the experiments, nox fhall we attempt to illuftrate the theory which the author feems defirous of eftablifhing, both be- caufe it would carry us beyond our limits, and that, at the fame time, we are very doubtful of its accuracy. When the only deduétion is a mean drawn from a great variety of very irregular refults, it is of little ufe to the practical en- gineer. He had much better be furnifhed with the feveral experiments, and thence form his own judgment of what dimenfions will beft {uit his purpofe, according to the par- ticular objet he may have in view ; and in this refpeét, viz. in the detail of the experiments, rather than in theory de- duced from them, we ought to eftimate the Value of this author’s labours, which have been very great, and are de- ferving of high commendation. The only experiments, befides the above, that appear entitled to any notice, are thofe of M. Ganthey, in the fourth volume of Rozier’s Journal de Phyfique. This engineer expofed to great preflures fmall retangular parallelepipeds, cut from a great variety of ftones, and noted the weights which crufhed them. The following table exhibits the medium refults of many trials, on two very uniform kinds of free-[tone, one of them among the hardeft, and the other among the fofteft, ufed in building. The firft column contains the length, the fecond the breadth, and the third the area, of the fe€tion, in lines, or twelfths of inches; the fourth is the weight in ounces which crufhed them; and the fifth the whole numbers, which nearly exprefles the number of ounces borne by each fquare line. Lines. Lines. Sq. lines. Oz. 8 8 54 736 12 Hard ftone. 8 12 96 2625 24 8 16 128 4496 36 9 6 144 560 4 9 18 162 848 4k Soft ftone. | 18 Sh owecen Ai 9 18 24 432 5296 12 Very little can be deduced from thefe experiments. The firft compared with the third, and the fifth with the fixth, fhould furnifh fimilar refults; for the firft and fifth are refpectively half of the third ard fixth, but the third is three times ftronger ‘than the firft, while the fixth is only double the ftrength of the fifth. It appears, however, that the ftrength increafes fafter than the area of the fection, and that a fquare line can carry more and more weight, as it is a part of a larger furface; but in the experiments on the foft ftone, the ftrength feems to increafe more nearly in proportion to the furface. Thefe experiments are doubtlefs upon too fmall a fcale to be of any effential fervice to the praCtical engineer: the pieces of ftone ought certainly to have had a fquare inch of furface at leait, and the weight which would have been ne- ceflary to crufh them would not have been fo enormous, but that fome very fimple mechanical apparatus might have been made fufficient for the purpofe; and if any tolerable uni- rt formizy were obferved in pieces of that fize, fome ufeful conclufions might poflibly be drawn from the experiments. But we think little confidence can be placed in thofe made on pieces of fuch fmall dimenfions. According to M. Ganthey’s deduétions, a pillar of hard ftone of Givry, whofe feétion is a fquare foot, will bear with perfec fafety 664,000 pounds; and its extreme ftrength is 871,000 pounds ; and the leaft, as obferved in his experi- ments, 460,000 pounds. The foft bed of Giyry ftone had for its lealt ftrength, on the fame furface, 187,000 pounds ; for its greateft, 311,000 pounds; and for its fafe load, 249,000 pounds. Good brick will carry with fafety 320,000 pounds, on a {quare foot ; and chalk, gooo pounds. Befides the above experiments on the force neceflary for crufhing ftone pillars, M. Ganthey made others on their ftrength of dire€t cohefion, as well as on the tranfverfe {train. He found that a prifm of hard Givry ftone, of a foot fection, was torn afunder by a weight of 4600 pounds ; and that, when firmly fixed in a horizontal wall, it will be broken by a weight of 56,o00 pounds, fufpended at the diftance of twelve inches from its infertion; and if it refts on two props, a foot diftant from each other, it requires 206,000 pounds laid on its centre to produce the fra¢ture. We thall merely obferve, that thefe refults are very incon- gruous with each other; and that fome miftake, or fonie very unaccountable irregularity, muft have taken place in the experiments, that it fhould require fo much more weight, acting at the diftance of a foot, to produce the feparation, than when the force a€ted at no mechanical advantage what- ever, as in the cafe of dire& cohefion. Very different to the above have been the refults of fuch experiments as we have performed on different kinds of wood. An oak rod of an inch furface requires a weight of about gooo pounds to produce the fracture; while the fame, or a fimilar rod, fixed in a wall, and acted upon at the diftance of a foot, is broken with a weight of 132 pounds; and fir, which will bear 13,000 pounds on a fquare inch, fufpended vertically, is broke with a weight of 136 pounds. We are aware that, in different materials, a different law may be obferved between the ftrength of direét cohefion and the refiftance of the fame body to a tran{verfe ftrain; but it is abfolutely impoffible to have the difference ftated by M. Ganthey. A good courfe of experiments is, therefore, much wanted on materials of this kind. We ought perhaps to obferve, that we have not had an opportunity of confulting the work in which M. Ganthey’s experiments were originally given. Our numbers are drawn from Dr. Robifon’s account of them, in the work to which we have before referred. On the tranfverfe Strain and Strength of Beams, c.—The moft ufual ftrain, and, therefore, the one with which it is moft important for us to be well informed, is that by which a body is broken acrofs, from the a¢tion of a weight acting perpendicularly or obliquely to its length, while the beam itfelf is fupported at its two extremities, or by one end being firmly fixed in a wall, or other folid and im- moveable body. Galileo, to whom the phyfical fciences are fo much indebted, was the firft who conneéted this fub- ject with mathematical principles, and endeavoured to trace the law of ftrength which different bodies poffefled, in pro- portion to their length, breadth, depth, form, and pofition. It appears that this philofopher was led to thefe inveftiga- tions, in confequence of a vifit that he made to the arfenal of Venice, and the refults of which were publifhed in his Dialogues in 1633. Galileo fuppofed folid bodies to be compofed "1 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. compofed of {mall fibres applied parallel to each other, and fought, or aflumed, at firit, the force with which they re- fifted the action of a power to feparate them, applied parallel to their length; and thence readily deduced that their refiltance, in this direGtion, was directly as the area of the tranfverfe perpendicular fection, that is, to the num- ber of fibres which compofe the body. He then confidered in what manner the fame fibres would oppofe a force ap- plied perpendicular to their length; and concluded, that when a beam is fixed horizontally in a wall, the refiltance of the integrant fibres is proportional to their fum, mul- tiplied into the arm of a lever, which is always a certain part of the vertical dimenfion of the folid in its plane or area of fracture. This general principle is, in fact, adopted by moft writers on this fubje&t; but that which is peculiar to Galileo is, that he fuppofed the refiftance of each fibre te be the fame, and, therefore, as wholly independent of their quantity of extenfion at the moment of rupture. Supported on the refult of thefe reafonings, and guided by the genius for obfervation, which he poffeffed in an eminent degree, he illuftrated many of the proceedings of nature, _ which the more ancient philofophers had left unnoticed ; as well as certain anomalies, or which then appeared as fuch, in the works of art. To fome of his obfervations on this fubje& we may have occafion to advert, in a fubfequent part of this article; but at prefent we fhall confine ourfelves to the illuftration of his particular theory. It will be pro- per, however, firlt to detine a few of the terms which more commonly occur in the courfe of our inveftigations. We have already explained what is to be underftood by’ the abfolute ftrength of a body, or its ftrength of direé& cohefion; viz. the number of pounds weight neceflary to produce a fra@ture of its parts, when applied in a direction parallel to its length. And as to the words frength, firefs or firain, they are ufed, the former to denote the force or power with which any mafs or body refifts a breach or change in its ftate, which a preflure or ftroke upon it has a tendency to pro- duce ; and the latter are ufed indifcriminately to exprefs the force which is exerted on any fuch mals, and tending to break it. Thus, every part of a pillar is equally /lrained by the load which it fupports; and hence it is evident that we cannot make any ftructure fit for its purpofe, unlefs the Jfirength, in every part, be at leait equal to the fre/ laid on, or the /frain exerted in that part; and hence the ne- ceffity of an acquaintance with the nature of the refiftance of bodies, in order that we may not have our ftruGture deficient in ftrength, nor over-burdened with ufelefs materials ; which latter, carried to excefs, may be the caufe of producing the mifchief they were intended to prevent. Tn order to illuftrate the theory of refiftances of bodies, when expofed to a tranfverfe ftrain, according to the hy- pothefis of Galileo, let RST V, (Plate XXXIX. Me- chanics, fig. 1.) reprefent a folid wall, or other immoveable mafs, into which the beam, CG, is inferted; and let W reprefent a weight fufpended from its other extre- mity. Then fuppofing the beam to be infuperably ftrong in every part, except in the vertical fe@ion ABCD, the fra&ture muft neceflarily take place in this feétion only, and, ecorene to the hypothefis of this author, it will turn about the line CD, whereby the fracture, com- mencing in the line A B, will terminate in the former, C D. Galileo alfo further fuppofes, that the fibres, forming the feveral horizontal plates or lamina from CD to AB, a& with an equal force in refifting the fracture, and, therefore, differ in their energy only as they a& at a greater or leds diftance from the fulerum CD. Now, from the known principles of the lever, it is obvious that the equal forces ating at the feveral diftances 0a, 06, oc, od, &c. of the lever oe, will offer refiftances proportional to their refpective diftances; and, therefore, that the fum of all thefe re- filances, that is, of the conftant force, f, of each particle into its refpeétive diftance, is the force which mutt be over- come by the weight W, aéting at the dittance o K. This will, perhaps, be better under{tood by referring to Jig» 2, where A C1F reprefent a fe&tion of the beam C G, and r, r', r', &c. are fo many {mall equal weights aéting at the feveral diftances Cm, Cm!, Cm!', &c.; then denoting each of thefe weights by the conftant quantity f, the fum of all their energies or refiftances will be exprefled by AC «f+ Cmf +-Cm'f + Cm'f + &. =f x (AC + Cm + Cm! + Cm! + &c.) This, however, fuppofes the feétion ACD B (fg. 1.) to be reGtangular, or that the number of fibres in each horizontal lamina are equal in number. When the beam is triangular, cylindrical, or having any other than a re¢tangular feétion, the feveral {mall weights muft be proportional to the breadth of the fe&ion at the point where it is fuppofed to act: the illuf- tration, in this cafe, however, is equally obvious. Since then the whole refiltance to fraéture is made up of the {um of the refiltences of every particle or fibre aGting at different diftances on the lever C A, which is fuppofed to turn upon C as a fulcrum, there mutt neceflarily be fome point in that lever, in which, if all the feveral forces were united, their re-a¢tion to the weight W would be exaly the fame as in the aétual operation, and this point is the centre of gravity of the fection, as is readily demonftrated as follows. Let ABC (jig. 3.) reprefent the feétion of any beam whatever, F H any variable ab{cifs = x, and D E the cor- refponding double ordinate = y; then, by what is ftated above, the energy, or force, of all the particles in the line DE, will be as DE x HF, or as xy, and confequently the fluxion of that force will be yw, and therefore the fum of them = /y~x x, or fluent of yxx; alfo /y% = area ABC; whence, afluming G to be the centre of energy fought, we muft have FG x /yx = /yxx, whence FQ = MENS, Sy which is the well-known formula for the centre of gravity. Hence refults the following very fimple theory for the ftrength of beams placed firmly in a folid wall, or other immovable body ; viz. that “ the weight neceflary to pro- duce the fragture, is to the direct force of cohefion of all the fibres in the fection, as the diltance of the centre of gravity of that fection from the point where the fra&ture terminates, to the length of the beam, or diltance of the weight from the fame point.” Nothing more fimple can be defired as a general theory, but unfortunately it is founded on hypothefes which have nothing equivalent to them in nature ; in the firft place, it afflumes the beam to be inflexible, and infuperably ftrong, except at the fection of fraéture ; fecondly, that the fibres are inextenfible and incompreffible ; and thirdly, that the beam turns about its loweft point, when fixed at one end, or its upper, when fupported at both; and, confequently, that every fibre in the feétion is exerting its force in refilling extenfion ; and, laftly, (if this be not implied in our fecond objeétion,) that every fibre aéts with equal energy, what- ever may be its quantity of extenfion. Now, with regard to the firft of thefe fuppofitions, it is obvious that no beam of timber, nor any other body, is perfectly inflexible ; nor any STRENGTH OF any (and more particularly timber) whofe fibres are not both extenfible and compreffible ; and, confequently, a beam of fuch matter will not turn about its lowelt point as a ful- erum; and, laftly, the fuppofition of every fibre exerting a conftant refiftance, independently of its quantity of ex- tenfion, if it be not incorre&t, is of that nature which ought not to be aflumed, without firft being verified by experiment. Such being the inaccuracy of Galileo’s hypothefis, it neceflarily happened; as foon as it was attempted to com- pare it with experiments, (which the author himfelf had never done,) that it was found defective. The firft, we believe, who did this was Mariotte, a member of the French Academy in 1680; and what he publifhed on the fubje& engaged the attention of many celebrated mathematicians of that day, particularly Leibnitz ; who, after exammming the theory of Galileo, publifhed his own thoughts on the fubje&. He had frequently remarked that the rupture of a body, whatever it may be, is always preceded by a certain degree of infleGtion, from which he concluded, contrary to the former opinion, that every body was compofed of ex- tenfible fibres, and affuming the principle firft laid down by Dr. Hooke, viz. © ut tenfio fic vis,’ he concluded that every fibre, inftead of a&ting with aa equal force, exerted a power proportional to its quantity of extenfion, or, which 1s the fame, proportional to its diltance from the line about which the beam was fuppofed to turn; but he {till confidered the fibres to be incompreffible, and confequently that the beam turned about its loweft point. Thus, to ufe a fimilar illuftration in this cafe that we have done in the former; inftead of the fracture being oppofed by the action of the equal weights at r, r', rl’, r'", &c. as in fig. 2, the re-agtion was fuppofed to be equal to the feveral equally decreafing weights r, r!, r", 7", &c. fig. 4. ‘Vhe only alteration which this new fuppofition introduced into the final refults was, the removal! of the centre of energy, G, to a point nearer or farther from the centre of motion, according to the figure of the body ; and this new point is found fo be diftant from that axis, by a quantity equal to the produd of the diflances of the centre of gravity, and centre of ofcillation of the area of Sradure, from the axis of moticn, divided by the depth of the Section. For let A BC ( fig. 3.) reprefent the fection of fra&ture on any beam; FH = x, any variable abfcifs; and DE = y, the correfponding double ordinate: alfo make CF = d, and let f reprefent the abfolute and ultimate force of a fibre at C, in the moment of rupture; then, fince the force of each fibre is fuppofed to vary as its extenfion, or as its Vf —- = the force of a d particle at H; and the number of particles aGting at this fey diftance from F, we have d: x::f: diftance being y, we fhall have for the fum of the forces of all the fibres in the line DE; but this force, acting upon the lever at the diftance H F, its refiftance will fey be d 3 and hence the fum of all the refiftances of every fibre in the fe&tion will be Se now this is to be equal to the dire&t cohefion of all the fibres ating at fome required diftance FI; that is, FI x fyi x f= & x 2 MATERIALS. Spates A) fy exatly equivalent to the general expreffion Syx?s, or FI = : an expreffion which is WE a x for the yr x Jie® the centre of ofcillation of a body, multiplied by general expreffion for the centre of gravity, divided by d. Hence, as thefe centres are known in moft bodies which come under our confideration in the prefent fubje&, it will be ufeful to avail curfelves of them in determining what may properly be called the centre of energy, or centre of tenfion. This being the cafe, both theories gave the fame refults, fo far as related to the comparifon of the ftrength of fimilar beams, but of different dimenfions ; thus, from both, it was fhewn, that beams of the fame depth and breadth were to each other, in point of ftrength, inverfely as the length ; that when the length and depth were the {ame, the {trength varied as the breadth ; when the breadth and length were the fame, the ftrength was dire¢tly as the fquare of the depths ; deduétions which have been found to agree very nearly with experiment. There were, however, fome exe. preflions arifing out of thefe two hypothefes which were totally irreconcileable with each other. In the firft place, although the proportions were the fame, the abfolute ftrength in the one cafe, was to that in the other as 2 to 3, in retangular beams ; and in triangular beams, the difagree- ment was ftill more ftriking: alfo, according to Galileo, the ftrength of a triangular beam, with its edge upwards, was to the fame with its bafe upwards, as 1 to 2; and, ac- cording to Leibnitz, as 1 to 3: whereas, as we have found from numerous experiments, it is ftronger in the former polition than in the latter, at lealt in woods of fome kinds, and probably in all. Thefe anomalies led James Bernoulli to inveftigate the queftion de xovo. This philofopher obferved, that at the inftant a body is broken acrofs by a tran{verfe ftrain, fuch as we have all along fuppofed, a part of the fibres is in a ftate of extenfion, as aflumed by Leibnitz, and a part ina {tate of compreffion, a circumftance which had not before been introduced into the confideration of the queftion: he moreover doubted of the propriety of the principle, ut tenfio Jjic vis, employed by Letbnitz, and made fome experiments, whereby he proved that this is not, at leaft, a general prin- ciple; but the only effect of his obfervations and experi- ments went no farther than proving that Leibnitz’s theory was inadmiffible, for he fubftituted no other in its place, except fo far as his theory of the elaftic curve (a problem which grew out of the prefent queftion) may be confidered as applicable to this fubje&t; had he purfued the idea he feems firlt to have promulgated, of a part of the fibres being comprefled, and a part in a {tate of tenfion, and con- fequently that the line about which the beam turns is fome- where within the area of the fection of fracture, we might have expected, from his extraordinary talents, a complete folution of this very interefting problem ; inftead of which, he contented himfelf with {tating a few general obfervations, and pointing out the difficulty of the determmation of the neutral axis, or of that line which fuffers neither compreffion nor extenfion, which is the principal defideratum for efta- blifhing a correct theory; and in that flate he left the quettion, and in that {tate it has ever fince remained. The only other attempt, that we know of, at eltablifhing a new theory, is that given by Dr. Robifon, under thg article Strength, in the Encyclopedia Britannica. This author STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. author has taken into his confideration the areas of com- preffion and of extenfion; but for want of experiments, is unable to affign the pofition of the neutral axis: we fufpeét, alfo, an important error in the principle which he has laid down, viz. that notwithitanding the beam really turns about what he properly calls a neutral axis, yet that in our invelti- gation, we muft compute the effect of the rotation, as if it was made about the centre of compreffion. We were much ftruck with the fingularity of this affertion, and have, we believed, proved its fallacy in various experiments. There is no doubt, from various experiments, and par- ticularly from thofe of Du Hamel, when a piece of tim- ber is {ubmitted to the tran{verfe {train we are confider- ing, that only a part, and probably but a {mall part, of the whole number of fibres, has a tendency to refift the fracture by means of their tenfion, while the reft of the fibres act merely from their refiftance to compreffion. Du Hamel was, we believe, the firft author who demonttrated the fa& by experiment. He took fixteen bars of willow, two feet long, and half an inch fquare, and fupporting them by props under their ends, he broke them by weights hung on their middle. Four of them broke with the weights 40, 41, 475 and 52 pounds, the mean of whichis 45. He then cut four others of them through one-third of their depth on the upper fide, and filled up the cut with a thin flip of harder | wood, ftuck in pretty tight. Thefe were broken with : weights of 48, 54, 52, and 50 pounds, the mean of which is 51. He then cut four others half through, and thefe required 47, 49, 50, and 46 pounds to break them, the mean of which is 48 ; the remaining four were cut to two- thirds of their depth, and their mean itrength was 42 pounds. ; In another fet of his experiments we have the following J refults, viz. . Six bars of willow 36 inches long, and 14 inch fquare, were broken at a medium with 525 lbs. Six bars cut one-third through, and the faw-cut filled up with a flip of hard wood, and ftuck in tight, broke with 551 lbs. at a medium. Six bars cut half through, and the cut filled up in the fame manner, bore 542 lbs. before the fracture ; and Six others cut three-fourths through, broke with 530 lbs. A batten cut fimilarly to the latter, that is to fay, three- fourths through, when nearly broken, being unloaded, and a thicker flip put into the cut, in order to fill up the part which had been compreffed, fo as to bring the batten flraight again, but without ftraining it, bore afterwards Ibs. a will be remarked, that in thefe experiments the bars appear to have been ftronger after being cut one-third through, than when whole ; and even when cut half through, they fil bore more than when they were entire. This feems to have arifen from the faw-cut being filled up with a harder wood, which rendered the beam ftiffer than when m its natural ftate, by oppofing a greater refiftance to compref- fion ; and this may account for his beams being nearly as ftrong when cut three-fourths through, as when whole, as we have reafon to believe, that there are very few woods, if any, in which the neutral line lay fo near as within one- fourth of the bottom. We have made fimilar experiments on fir, and fome other kinds of wood ; and found that three beams of fir, 30 inches long, 2 inches deep, and 1 inch thick, broke with 882 lbs. 871 lbs. 852 lbs. refpeétively, the mean being 864 1bs. We then cut three other fimilar beams five-eighths through, and having filled up the cut with flips of pear-tree, found their {trengths equal to 808 lbs. | ; i i 846 Ibs. and 835 Ibs, of which the mean is 830 lbs.: thefe proved that the neutral line was nearer the bottom than three-eighths, becaufe the pear-tree wedges, being fofter than the fir, the defleGtion of the beams was throughout greater, which fhew that they had loft in ftiffnefs by the cutting ; whereas Du Hamel’s beams had gained {tiffnefs from the circumftance of being filled up with wood harder than themfelves: after all, however, this kind of experiment is not the beft calculated for deteéting the pofition of the neutral axis. From what has now been ftated, it is very obvious, that the theories both of Galileo and Leibnitz muft be ex- tremely defeétive, fo far at lealt as they propofe them to be employed in afcertaining the abfolute ftrain that a beam will bear, when aéted upon tranfverfely by any weight, whether as fupported at its ends, or by having one end fixed in a wall, as we have hitherto fuppofed. And as to the theory which Dr. Robifon has advanced in the place above referred to, although it doubtlefs approaches much nearer to the truth, it is ftill, we conceive, incomplete ; firft, for want of experiments, from which alone the neutral axis can be determined ; fecondly, becaufe he has not afligned the law of compreffion and tenfion, which is neceffary for determining thofe centres in the feGion of fraGture; and thirdly, becaufe (as we have before ftated) he fuppofes the rotation to be made about the centre cf compreffion, in- ftead of its being made about the neutral axis, and affigning the whole refiftance to fraéture to the extended fibres, inftead of confidering one half of it as due to compreffion and tenfion ref{pectively. It is true that this may make no difference in the refults, while we confine our invettigation to rectangular beams, but it makes an important difference in triangular and other formed beams; in which cales, al- though it agrees better with experiment than the theories of either Galileo or Leibnitz, it is {till very defective, ag it gives greater ftrength to beams of a certain form, and in certain pofitions, where experiment fhews them to be the weakett. We cannot fubmit any of the formule of this author to computation, as they are merely general fymbols, in which the indeterminate letters are to be fupplied by numbers drawn from experiments; but in the two former, the ex- preflions are determinate, and they may therefore be fub- mitted to calculation, and the refults compared with thofe that have been drawn from aétual experiment ; but before we proceed to this comparifon, it will be proper to confider the relative ftrains that a beam is fubjeét to, according to the manner in which it is fupported; a confideration that is independent of any particular theory of refiftances, and one in which different authors have come to very contradictory conclufions. 1. A beam having one end firmly fixed in a folid wall, will bear the fame weight at its extreme end, as if the beam pafled through the wall to the fame length, and was loaded by an equal weight at its other end ; its bearing in the wall being in the latter cafe fuppofed to be reduced theoretically to a line, and praétically to fuch a bearing as will not damage the beam by cutting it., Fig. 6. This will be evident to fuch of our readers who are con- verfant with the laws of motion, and who are familiar with the idea, that “‘ a€tion and re-a¢tion are equal and contrary ;’” but to others it may not be amifs to offer a few obfervations, by way of illuftratios. Let A PC, and A! P!C’, ( fig. 7.) be two detached levera, f{upported on the props P, P’; and let us fuppofe their ends at C, C’, to be held towards each other by a rope or eae STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. CCl. Now if we fuppofe the lever A! PC! to be fixed by any means to the pofition fhewn in the figure, while the other lever, A PC, is loaded with the weight W, and free to turn about P, the cord or fibre C C! will be ftretched exaétly in the {ame manner as the fibre at C (jig. 6.), when the beam is fattened folidly in the wall; and if, inftead of fuppofing the firft lever, A’P!C!, to be fixed, we now fuppofe it loaded with a weight W! = W, and free to turn about P/; then the fibre C C! will be in all refpects circumftanced like the fibre at C (fs: 6.), when the beam is f{uppofed to pafs through the wall, and a weight W!/= W, acting in the direction A‘'T = ATI. But it is obvious that in fig. 7. the tenfion of the cord or fibre is the fame in both cafes; the only difference being, that the re-aétion of the fixed lever A! P!C’, in the firft inftance, (and which is exa&tly equivalent to the force or energy of the weight W,,) is, in the fecond, fupplied by the aétion of an equal weight ating at an equal diftance P! A'; and, confequently, whatever weight ating at the extremity is found fufficient to break a beam when firmly fixed in a wall, it will require an equal weight hung on at each end of a fimilar beam of double length, when refting on a prop in the middle, to produce the fracture. 2. And hence again it follows, that whatever weight will be juft fufficient to break a beam when fixed folidly in-a wall, a double weight will be required ating in the middle point, of a fimilar beam, of double length, fupported on two props, as in fig. §: for it will be exa@tly the fame as to the mechanical aétion, whether we confider the weight as acting at E, and the beam turning about P and P!, or whe- ther we fuppofe a fulcrum at E, and the beam turning about that point by means of weights W!, W",’pafling over the pullies Q', Q, and each equal to half the centre-weight W, and the latter is evidently the fame as the action of the weights W, W’, fig.6, only that they are acting in an oppofite direCtion. 3. When a beam is loaded on any other point than its centre, and having its extremities reiting on props, the ftrain upon it will be as the reGtangle of the two unequal parts, and therefore the ftrain will be the greateft, or the ftrength of the beam the leaft, when the weight aéts at its centre. For let the weight W prefs upon the beam at C (fig. 9-) then is the weight equal to the preflures upon A and B; Wex BC AB and the preffure upon A = , while the preflure WxAC aA Bid fupport is equal to the preflure upon it, and this may be confidered as a force ating at the point C, as upon the arm of a lever ; fo that the ftrefs at C, is as the preflure at either point of fupport into its diftance from C, that is, the preflure Wx BC WxAC AB AB manifeltly equal the one to the other; but as W, and A B, are given, the ftrefs varies as the rectangle ; or if we {uppofe the ultimate firength of fibre the fame, then W will vary inverfely as the re€tangle; and as the rectangle is the greateit when the parts are equal, therefore in the fame cafe the ftrength of the beam will be the leaft. The fame thing will obtain, if the weight be equally diffufed through the whole of the beam; for in this cafe, asin the former, the fum of the preffures upon A and B upon B= 3 but the re-ation of either point of x BC, which are ts as x AC, or as will be equal to the whole weight ; and if w be the weight wx i BC Seppe” wxt BC AB x AC for the ftrefs, which therefore varies as the reGtangle BC x AC, as before. 4. When a beam is firmly fixed at both ends, as in two walls, or otherwife, the weight neceffary to break it will be double of that which would produce the fraéture if the ends were only fupported. Let A BCD (fg. to.) reprefent a beam firmly fixed at each end, which is to be broke by a weight hanging upon its centre-point, as at E. Now, fir{t let us fuppofe the beam cut through at E, fo as to offer no refiftance, and fuppofe the weight to be hung on fo as to a& equally upon the arms DE, C E, then W mvtt be equal to double that which would break one part, as is obvious; and this is the fame as would break the whole beam, when only fupported at its ends by one prop, confequently when the beam is whole in the feétion E F, befides the weight W, which we have feen is neceflary to overcome the refiltances at D and C, an equal weight, W, muft be added to overcome the equal refiftance in the fection EF; therefore the whole weight is equal to double that which would break the beam when only loofely fupported at its two ends. 5. When a beam is fixed with one end in a wall, at any ‘given oblique angle, the weight neceflary to produce the rupture, is to the weight which would break the beam, if fixed horizontally, as radius to the cofine of the angle. Let ABCD (jg. 11.) reprefent a beam fixed in a wall at the angle fhewn in the figure; let DI be the yer- tical direétion of the weight, and let this weight be repre- fented by the line D I, and refolve this into the two forces D B and BI, the former perpendicular, and the other parallel: to the beam A B; then it is obvious, that D B only will denote that part of the weight which is, effective in producing the fra€ture, and that a weight which is to W, as DB is to DI, would break the beam when placed horizontally ; therefore converfely, the weight neceflary to break the beam in this pofition, is to that which would break it when fixed horizontally, as DI to DB; or as radius to the cofine of the angle of inclination of the beam to the horizon, Moft authors, indeed all we have ever read, make the {trength in this cafe as the {quare of the radius to the {quare of the cofine ; becaufe the area of fra€ture is greater in the proportion of radius to cofine, which blended with the mechanical effeét of the lever, gives rad.?; cof.*; but the refult of experiment by no means juitifies fuch an hypothefis, nor does a phyfical confideration of the fubjeét render it neceflary, the number of fibres being the fame in both cafes. . We may now bring under one point of view: the deduc- tions drawn from the preceding propofitions ; viz, r. The ftrength of a beam fixed with one endin a wall, and loaded at the other end, is to the {trength of a beam of the fame length, fupported on two props, and loaded in the middle, as r to 43 or to a beam of double the length, loaded in the middle, as1'to 2. f 2. The itrefs upon a beam, arifing from the fame weight placed at different points, is as the reCtangle of the two parts ; and, therefore, the ftrength of the beam, or its refiit. ance to fracture, will be inverfely as the fame re€tangle; and, J con- of the part BC, its preffure upon A will be and this referred back to the point C, will give STRENGTH OF confequently, the ftrefs is the greateit, or the ftrength the leaft, when the load is placed in the centre. 3. The refiftance to fraéture in a beam /upported only at its extremes, is to the refiftance of the fame when fixed at both ends, as 1 to 2. 4. The ftrefs upon a beam, arifing from any oblique aGtion upon it, is as that force into the cofine of the angle ; or the refiftance will be in this cafe as radius to the cofine. Thefe refults are all independent of any particular theory of refiftance, or rather, they form a part of every one ; but they require certain modifications when applied to the determination of the abfolute ftrength of beams. While they are merely ufed for afcertaining the proportional ftrengths, for the purpofes of building, machinery, &c. they may be properly employed in the forms above given ; it will be proper, however, to point out a few of the modi- fications to which we have alluded, as it will tend to clear up fome apparent anomalies which have arifen in the experi- ments of M. Buffon, Belidor, Parent, Petit, &c. In the firft place, then, it will have been obferved, that all our deductions have been made upon the fuppofition, that the beam preferves its rectilinear form and original pofition ; and no account whatever has been taken of the deflection which it experiences from the horizontal or oblique line in which it is firft fuppofed to be placed ; nor is it neceflary to attend to this circumftance while our views are carried no farther than determining the proper dimenfions.of timbers, in buildings, mechanical conftru€tions, &c. becaufe thefe are never febmiteed to ftrains that caufe any important de- fleGtions ; but when we attempt to reconcile theory with the refult of experiments in which the beams are abfolutely frac- tured, we muft no longer omit the introduction of thefe par- ticulars into our inveltigations. Inftead, therefore, of fuppofing a beam fixed at one end ina wall, and loaded at the other, to retain its horizontal pofition, as in fg. 6, we mult confider it as being very con- liderably defleéted out of that pofition, as in fig. 12; and if we here, for the fake of perfpicuity, reprefent the refiftance of the fibres to fracture by a weight P, it will be obvious that, in order that P and W may bein equilibrio, the weight W mutt be to the weight P, not fimply in the inverfe ratio of the arms A I, AC, but as thefe diftances into the fines of their refpective angles of dire€tions; that is, as AI x ALC